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diff --git a/.gitattributes b/.gitattributes new file mode 100644 index 0000000..6833f05 --- /dev/null +++ b/.gitattributes @@ -0,0 +1,3 @@ +* text=auto +*.txt text +*.md text diff --git a/39747-8.txt b/39747-8.txt new file mode 100644 index 0000000..45b2aa8 --- /dev/null +++ b/39747-8.txt @@ -0,0 +1,17234 @@ +The Project Gutenberg eBook, A Manual of Ancient History, by A. H. L. +(Arnold Hermann Ludwig) Heeren + + +This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with +almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or +re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included +with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org + + + + + +Title: A Manual of Ancient History + Particularly with Regard to the Constitutions, the Commerce, and the Colonies, of the States of Antiquity + + +Author: A. H. L. (Arnold Hermann Ludwig) Heeren + + + +Release Date: May 21, 2012 [eBook #39747] + +Language: English + +Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1 + + +***START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK A MANUAL OF ANCIENT HISTORY*** + + +E-text prepared by Adrian Mastronardi and the Online Distributed +Proofreading Team (http://www.pgdp.net) from page images generously made +available by Internet Archive/American Libraries +(http://archive.org/details/americana) + + + +Note: Images of the original pages are available through + Internet Archive/American Libraries. See + http://archive.org/details/manualofancienth00heeriala + + + + + +A MANUAL OF ANCIENT HISTORY, + +Particularly with Regard to the Constitutions, the Commerce, +and the Colonies, of the States of Antiquity. + +by + +A. H. L. HEEREN; + +Knight of the North Star and Guelphic Order; Aulic Counsellor +and Professor of History in the University of Goettingen; and +Member of Several Other Learned Societies. + +Translated from the German. + +THE SECOND EDITION, CORRECTED AND IMPROVED. + + + + + + + +Oxford: +Published By D. A. Talboys. +M DCCC XXXIII. + +Oxford: Printed by Talboys and Browne. + + + + +TRANSLATOR'S PREFACE + +TO THIS EDITION. + + +It is to the patient industry of the historians of Germany, that we are +indebted for the first production of Manuals of history, and for those +synchronistic tables which have so much facilitated the systematic study +of ancient history; and among the various and profound treatises of this +class which enrich and adorn their literature, the works of Heeren are +distinguished by their extended range of enquiry, as well as by the +minute accuracy of their details. + +The work before us embodies the result of his laborious researches +during the long period in which he has been engaged as public lecturer +and professor of history in the university of Goettingen; and if it be +any recommendation of a work to know that its writer has had ample time, +ability, and opportunity to collect and elaborate his materials, it may +be asserted, without fear of contradiction, that the author of the +present work possessed all these advantages in an eminent degree. He has +spent the greater portion of his life in lecturing upon the subjects of +which it treats, and has in every case gone for his information +immediately to the fountain head. It forms, too, an important feature of +his work, that a list of the original sources, whence his own knowledge +has been drawn, is placed at the head of each section; another is added +of the principal writers who have touched upon or illustrated the +particular portion of history under notice; both being generally +accompanied with a few words of judicious criticism, in which the value +of the writer's authority is estimated, and his sources, circumstances, +and prejudices, briefly, but fairly set forth. Besides this advantage, +the work possesses the merit of combining the convenience of the Manuals +with the synchronistic method of instruction; as the geography, +chronology, and biography of the countries and states of the ancient +world are brought at once under the eye of the reader; and so lucid is +the arrangement, that the darkest and most entangled portions of history +are seen in a clear and perspicuous light. Professor Heeren seems, +moreover, to possess in a more eminent degree than any other writer, the +power of forcing, by a very few words, the attention of the reader upon +the most important facts of history; and of conjuring up in his thoughts +a train of reflections calculated at once to instruct and enlarge the +mind. His work is not only admirably adapted to become a text-book in +the study of history, but will be found equally serviceable as a book of +reference--it will guide the student in his untried and intricate +course, and enable the more advanced scholar to methodize his collected +stores. Perhaps in no work has so much important information been +condensed into so small a compass. + +The estimation in which this Manual is held on the continent, may be +gathered from the fact of its having passed through six large editions +in German, and two in French, and from its having been translated into +almost every language of Europe. + +The rapidity with which the first edition, as well as the other writings +of professor Heeren, have sold in this country, is a proof that they +only required to be known here in order to be appreciated. The favour +with which these translations have been received, both by the venerable +author himself and by the British public, has been a source of the +highest gratification to the publisher. The encouragement, so kindly +bestowed, has urged him to new exertions, the fruits of which, he +trusts, will be observable in the present volume. The Manual has not +only been revised and corrected throughout, but has also been diligently +compared with the German, and has received such ameliorations as the +original text or the English style seemed to demand. When it is added to +this that a very numerous body of corrections and improvements have been +sent to the publisher by professor Heeren himself, who has patiently +examined the translation expressly for this edition, he trusts that the +public will be satisfied that it is as faithful a copy of the original +work as the nature of things will allow. + +In the preface to the last edition of this Manual the publisher +announced his intention, should it be favourably received, of following +it up by the publication of another elaborate work of the same author, +viz. A Manual of the History of the States of Modern Europe and their +Colonies, as forming one political System. This work will now very +shortly appear. As an apology for the delay which has taken place, he +begs to call to their notice another equally important work by the same +author, which he has published in the mean time; the Historical +Researches into the Politics, Intercourse, and Trade of the +Carthaginians, Ethiopians, and Egyptians, with a general introduction; +the remainder of this work, containing the Historical Researches into +the Politics, Intercourse, and Trade of the Ancient Asiatic Nations--the +Persians, Phoenicians, Babylonians, Scythians, and Hindoos, will +appear in a few weeks. + +To add to the usefulness of the work, an analysis of the contents, with +dates, has been given in the margin. The # prefixed to some of the books +denote that they are written in German. + + OXFORD, + _March, 1833_. + + + + +PROFESSOR HEEREN'S WORKS. + + +The following catalogue of the historical works of Professor Heeren, has +been sent to the Publisher by the Professor himself. They are uniformly +printed in German, in 15 vols. 8vo. and may always be had together or +separate of the publisher of this volume. + + + VOL. I. II. III. Vermischte historische Schriften. (Miscellaneous + Historical Pieces). + + VOL. I. Einleitung. Biographische Nachrichten über den Verfasser. + (Biographical Sketch of Heeren's Life, by himself.) + + 1. Entwickelung der politischen Folgen der Reformation für Europa. + (Development of the Consequences of the Reformation to the Politics + of Europe). + + 2. * Versuch einer Entwickelung des Ursprungs und Fortganges der + britischen Continental-interesse. (Essay on the Rise and Progress + of the British Continental interests). A translation of this Essay + will be appended to the Manual of the History of Modern Europe, + see vol. viii. ix. below. + + 3. Ueber den Einfluss der politischen Theorien auf Europa. (Of the + Influence of Political Theories on Europe). + + VOL. II. 1. Ueber die Erhaltung der Nationalität besiegter Völker. + (On the Method of Preserving the Nationality of Conquered States.) + Written in 1810, and suppressed by the French. + + 2. Entwickelung der Folgen der Kreuzzüge für Europa. (Development of + the Effects of the Crusades upon Europe: An essay which obtained the + prize of the French Institute in 1808). + + 3. Ueber den Einfluss der Normannen auf die französische Sprache und + Poësie. (On the Influence of the Normans on the French Language and + Poetry). + + 4. Ueber die Colonisation von Ægypten, und ihre Folgen für Europa. + (On the Colonisation of Egypt, and its Probable Consequences to + Europe). + + 5. Der deutsche Bund in seinen Verhaltnisse zu Europa. (The + Influence of the German Federation upon Europe). + + VOL. III. 1. Ueber den historischen Werth der Biographien Plutarch's. + (On the Historical Value of Plutarch's Lives). + + 2. Geschichte der bürgerlichen Unruhen der Gracchen. (History of the + Civil Commotions under the Gracchi). + + 3. Fünf archæologische und antiquarische Aufsätze. (Five + Archæological and Antiquarian Tracts). + + VOL. IV. V. Geschichte der classischen Litteratur im Mittelalter. + (History of Classical Literature During the Middle Ages). + + VOL. VI. Biographische und litterarische Denkschriften. (Biographical + and Literary Memoirs). + + 1. Christian Gottlob. Hëyne, biographisch dargestellt. (Biographical + Memoir of Heyne), the father-in-law of Heeren. + + 2. Andenken an deutsche Historiker. (Memoirs of German Historians.) + + VOL. VII. * Handbuch der Geschichte der Staaten des Alterthums. + (Manual of Ancient History, of which this volume is the second + edition of the English translation). + + VOL. VIII. IX. * Handbuch der Geschichte der europäische + Staaten-systems und seiner Colonien. (Manual of the + History of the European States-system and their Colonies). + + VOL. X. * Ideen ueber die Politik, den Verkehr und den Handel + des vornehmsten Staaten der alten Welt. (Researches into the + Politics, Intercourse, and Trade of the Principal States of + Antiquity,--Asiatic Nations). 1. General Introduction; + 2. Persians. + + VOL. XI. * Ideen, etc. (Asiatic Nations). 1. Phoenicians; + 2. Babylonians; 3. Scythians. + + VOL. XII. * Ideen, etc. (Asiatic Nations). Indians. + + VOL. XIII. * Ideen, etc. (African Nations). 1. Carthaginians; + 2. Ethiopians. + + VOL. XIV. * Ideen, etc. (African Nations). Egyptians. + + VOL. XV. * Ideen, etc. (European Nations). Greeks. + + +Those with a * prefixed are translated into English, and are either now +published or will very shortly be so. + + + + +PREFACE + +TO THE FIRST EDITION. + + +In adding to the number of Manuals on Ancient History already published, +I feel myself bound to give an account of the plan on which the present +has been executed. + +It was at first designed to be used in my public lectures, and from them +it has grown up to what it now is. In them I did not consider it +necessary to state all we know or think we know of ancient history. Many +facts highly interesting to the learned historian are not adapted for +public lectures. It was therefore my great object to make choice of such +incidents as ought to be known by my pupils in order to the effectual +prosecution of their historical studies. Consequently I have not +extended my labours so far as to give an historical account of every +nation, but have limited myself to those most remarkable for their +general civilization and political eminence. + +The subjects to which I have particularly directed my attention are, the +formation of states, the changes in their constitution, the routes by +which commerce was carried on, the share which the different nations +respectively took in its pursuit, and, as immediately connected with +that department, their extension severally by means of colonies. + +The favourable reception which my larger work, executed after a +different plan, has met with, would lead me to hope for a like +indulgence in this new attempt, even if the spirit of the age did not so +loudly call upon every historian to direct his chief attention to these +subjects. And for this reason I could not rest satisfied with a mere +detail of isolated facts, but have made it my study to follow the course +of events, linking them into one connected chain; so as to represent +them in a condensed form by continually and carefully forcing together +the main circumstances which contributed to the development of the +whole. + +Without this, history in general would be but a lifeless study, more +especially that of republics, which were so numerous in ancient times, +and which, from their constitution being made up of political parties, +everywhere present the most difficult problems for the historian's +solution. Of all the larger divisions of my work, the arrangement of the +Greek history I have found most troublesome, on account of the number of +little states into which it is sub-divided. Historians, indeed, lighten +this labour by confining themselves merely to Athens and Sparta; but by +so doing they give us a very imperfect knowledge of the subject. I have +endeavoured to surmount the difficulty by throwing the account of the +smaller states and their colonies into the second period; by which means +I have been able in the third and most important portion, the interest +of which depends entirely upon the principal states, to carry on my +history, as a whole without interruption. But in case others, who wish +to make this Manual the groundwork of their lectures, should dislike +this arrangement, they may very easily attach these notices to the +introductory geographical survey; a plan I very often adopt in my own +lectures. Upon the arrangement of the other parts, I am not aware of the +necessity of making any observations. The sources from which I have +drawn my materials are specified in every section. Particular references +do not come within my plan; and if I have referred several times in the +first two sections to my larger work, it is only on particular points, +explanations of which may be sought for in vain elsewhere. + +Some knowledge of ancient geography and the use of maps[a], if it has +not been previously acquired by the student, should, I am convinced, +always be connected with lectures on ancient history. That this need not +extend to detailed explanations of ancient geography, but that it should +be restricted to what is merely useful in the study of history, I have +observed in the body of my work. The geographical chapters which are +interspersed having been written with this intent, will, I hope, be +judged of accordingly. I have taken care to arrange them so as to +include the whole of the ancient world; it depends, therefore, only upon +the teacher to form a more or less extensive course upon them. + + [a] I have made use of D'Anville. + +With regard to chronology, I have followed throughout the same uniform +plan of computing time, viz. to and from the birth of Christ. By +preferring this method, so convenient and certain, to the inconvenient +and uncertain one of reckoning from the year of the world, I hope I have +deserved the thanks of my readers. I relinquish, on the other hand, all +claim to merit on the score of having more accurately defined the +chronology of events which occur before the time of Cyrus. I have, on +the contrary, in this part of my labour, often stated round numbers, +where, in many modern publications, precise dates may be found. Exact +determinations of time are only necessary, in my opinion, where a +continuous development of circumstances takes place; not where +unconnected facts are recorded. + +The transactions of our own times have thrown a light upon ancient +history, and given it an interest which it could not formerly possess. A +knowledge of history, if not the only, is at least the most certain +means of obtaining a clear and unprejudiced view of the great drama now +performing around us. All direct comparisons, notwithstanding the many +opportunities which have tempted me, I considered as foreign to my plan; +but if, notwithstanding in some chapters of my work, particularly in the +history of the Roman republic, I may be thought to make a reference to +the transactions of the ten years during which this work has been +published, I do not consider it necessary to offer any excuse for so +doing. Of what use is the study of history if it do not make us wiser +and better? unless the knowledge of the past teach us to judge more +correctly of the present? Should I have contributed in any measure to +promote this object, and should I be so fortunate as to lead the minds +of my young friends to a deeper study of a science which can only in +this way reward its admirers, I shall esteem it the most delightful +recompense my labour can receive. + +GOETTINGEN, Sept. 23, 1799. + + + + +PREFACE + +TO THE SECOND AND FOLLOWING EDITIONS. + + +The call for a second edition of my Manual imposes upon me an obligation +to supply the deficiencies of my former work. Corrections have been +carefully made, and many parts completely re-written. A select list of +books which treat of the respective departments of my subject is now +first added; the former edition containing only references to the +sources from which my facts were derived. This, I trust, will be +considered an essential service to the friends of historical science, +more especially the young, for whom and not for the learned these +additions have been made. Their use in this place is particularly +obvious, where it is in every one's power to procure the books referred +to[b]. The short criticisms subjoined, where it seemed necessary, will +serve as guides for their use. In the author's department of the work +but little has been changed, while its form and appearance have been +improved by the use of different types, by more accurate running titles, +and by ranging the dates in the margin. By the adoption of the latter +method the increase in the number of pages is rendered inconsiderable, +notwithstanding the numerous additions which have been made to the +matter. In its arrangement, this work is the same as my Manual of the +History of the European States and their Colonies. Beyond this, however, +these works have no relation to each other, but have been executed upon +quite different principles; the present as a history of the _separate_ +states of the ancient world, and the other as a general history of +modern states and their colonies, as forming altogether one political +system. Each, however, forms a complete work in itself, and it is by no +means my intention to fill up the gulf which time has placed between +them. + + [b] [The author alludes to the public library at Goettingen. TR.] + +I regret that the acute researches of M. Volney[c], upon the chronology +of Herodotus before the time of Cyrus, came too late into my hands to be +made use of in its proper place in my second edition. In the third this +has been done. I lay claim, at the same time, to the thanks of the +reader for giving, in an Appendix, the results of these researches, +together with references to the passages by which they are supported; +leaving out, however, all extraneous matter, and everything that cannot +be proved by the positive assertions of the father of history. + + [c] Chronologie d'Herodote, conforme à son Texte par C. F. Volney. + Paris, 1809, 3 vols. See the _Gött. Gel. Anz._ for 1810 and 1816. + +I cannot close this preface without again recurring to the advantage of +the mode now becoming more and more general, of computing time in +ancient history according to the number of years before Christ. The fact +of its being certain and convenient has often been remarked; but besides +this it possesses the great advantage of giving us at once a clear and +precise notion of the interval that separates us from the incidents +recorded; which it is impossible to obtain by the use of any other era, +whether the year of the world, the olympiads, or the year of Rome, etc. +And yet this peculiar advantage, so great in the eyes of the teacher, +has not, to the best of my knowledge, been hitherto made the subject of +remark. Even for the science of history itself, this circumstance is of +greater moment than might be at first supposed. Should an enquirer arise +who would closely examine all ancient history according to this +era--setting out from the generally received year of the birth of Christ +as from a fixed point, to which the labours of M. Volney are a good +beginning--the whole science would thereby acquire a firmer consistency. +For by this method all dates would not appear equally certain and +equally uncertain, as they do in the eras which are computed from the +year of the world; but it would be shown what is chronologically +certain, what only probable, and what completely uncertain, according as +we should recede from the clearer into the more obscure regions of +history. The old manner of reckoning from the year of the world, in +which congruity was impossible, because there was no agreement upon the +point to start from, would certainly be thrown aside; but where is the +harm if something better and more certain be substituted in its place? + +In the third, fourth, fifth, and sixth editions, though the increase in +the number of pages is small, yet all those additions and corrections +which I deemed necessary, and which the progress of knowledge and +discovery, as in the case of Egypt and other countries, enabled me to +effect, have been most carefully and fully made. The importance of these +will be best seen by comparison. + +_Goettingen_, 1828. + + + + +CONTENTS. + + + Page + INTRODUCTION 1 + + + Book I. Asiatic and African states previous to Cyrus 15 + + General geographical outline of Asia ib. + + Preliminary and General Observations upon the History and + Constitution of the great Asiatic Empires 22 + + History of the ancient Asiatic kingdoms before the reign of + Cyrus 25 + + I. Assyrian monarchy ib. + + II. Median monarchy 26 + + III. Babylonian monarchy 27 + + IV. States in Asia Minor 29 + 1. Trojan empire ib. + 2. Phrygian empire ib. + 3. Lydian empire ib. + + V. Phoenicia 30 + + VI. Syrians 33 + + VII. Jews 34 + 1. Period of the Nomad state from Abraham till the conquest + of Palestine 35 + 2. Period of the federative republic 36 + 3. Period of the monarchy from B. C. 1100-600 38 + The Jewish state as one single kingdom ib. + The Jewish state as a divided kingdom 40 + + African Nations 45 + + General geographical outline of Ancient Africa ib. + + I. Egyptians 47 + + 1st Period. From the earliest times down to the Sesostridæ, + about B. C. 1500 51 + + 2nd Period. From the Sesostridæ till the sole dominion + of Psammetichus, B. C. 1500-650 62 + + 3rd Period. From the reign of Psammetichus to the + Persian conquest of Egypt by Cambyses, B. C. 650-525 69 + + II. Carthaginians 73 + + 1st Period. From the foundation of Carthage to the + wars with Syracuse, B. C. 880-480 74 + + 2nd Period. From the breaking out of the wars with + Syracuse to the commencement of those with Rome, + B. C. 480-264 80 + + 3rd Period. From the beginning of the wars with + Rome to the downfal of Carthage, B. C. 264-146 82 + + + Book II. History of the Persian empire from B. C. 560-330 90 + + + Book III. History of the Grecian states 112 + + Geographical outline of Greece ib. + + 1st Period. Traditional history down to the Trojan war, + about B. C. 1200 118 + + 2nd Period. From the Trojan war to the breaking out + of the Persian war, B. C. 1200-500 127 + + History of the Hellenic states within Greece ib. + General history ib. + Sparta 131 + Athens 136 + + Principal data for the history of the smaller states: + + I. Within the Peloponnesus: + _a._ Arcadia 142 + _b._ Argos ib. + _c._ Corinth 143 + _d._ Sicyon 144 + _e._ Achaia ib. + _f._ Elis 145 + + II. Central Greece, or Hellas: + _a._ Megaris 146 + _b._ Boeotia 147 + _c._ Phocis 148 + _d._ Locris ib. + _e._ Ætolia ib. + _f._ Acarnania 149 + + III. Northern Greece: + _a._ Thessaly 149 + _b._ Epirus 150 + + IV. Grecian Islands: + _a._ Corcyra 151 + _b._ Ægina ib. + _c._ Euboea 152 + _d._ The Cyclades ib. + _e._ Crete ib. + _f._ Cyprus 154 + + History of the Grecian colonies 155 + + General observations ib. + + Colonies on the Western coast of Asia Minor: 157 + 1. Æolian colonies 158 + 2. Ionian colonies 159 + 3. Dorian colonies 161 + + Colonies on the coast of the Propontis and the Black sea 162 + + Colonies on the coasts of Thrace and Macedonia 163 + + Colonies on the western coast of Greece 164 + + Grecian settlements in Lower Italy: + _a._ Tarentum 165 + _b._ Croton 166 + _c._ Sybaris ib. + _d._ Thurii 167 + _e._ Locri Epizephyrii ib. + _f._ Rhegium 168 + _g._ Cumæ ib. + + Grecian settlements in Sicily: + _a._ Syracuse 169 + _b._ Agrigentum 174 + _c._ The smaller Sicilian cities 175 + + Colonies in Sardinia and Corsica ib. + + Colonies in Gaul;--Massilia 176 + + Colonies in Spain;--Saguntum ib. + + Colonies in Africa;--Cyrene ib. + + Period III. From the breaking out of the Persian wars to + Alexander the Great, B. C. 500-336 178 + + + Book IV. History of the Macedonian Monarchy: + + Period I. From its origin to the death of Alexander the + Great, B. C. 800-323 206 + + Period II. History of the Macedonian monarchy, from the death + of Alexander the Great to the battle of Ipsus, B. C. 323-301 222 + + Period III. History of the separate kingdoms and states + which arose out of the dismemberment of the Macedonian + monarchy, after the battle of Ipsus 232 + + I. History of the Syrian empire under the Seleucidæ + B. C. 312-64 232 + + II. History of the Egyptian kingdom under the Ptolemies, + B. C. 323-30 247 + + III. History of Macedonia itself and of Greece, from the + death of Alexander to the Roman conquest, B. C. 323-146 268 + + Achæan league 280 + Ætolian league 279 + + IV. History of some smaller or more distant kingdoms + and states formed out of the Macedonian monarchy 290 + + The kingdom of Pergamus 291 + Bithynia 293 + Paphlagonia 294 + Pontus 295 + Cappadocia 297 + Armenia 298 + The kingdom of Parthia 299 + The kingdom of Bactria 305 + The restored kingdom of the Jews 306 + 1. Under the Persians 307 + 2. Under the Ptolemies and Seleucidæ 308 + 3. Under the Maccabees 309 + 4. Under the family of Herod 311 + + + Book V. History of the Roman state: + + Introductory remarks on the Geography of Ancient Italy 314 + + Period I. From the foundation of Rome to the conquest of + Italy, and the commencement of the wars with Carthage, + B. C. 754-264, or A. U. C. 1-490 321 + + Period II. From the commencement of the war with Carthage + to the rise of the civil broils under the Gracchi, + B. C. 264-134, or A. U. C. 490-620 339 + + Period III. From the beginning of the civil broils under + the Gracchi to the fall of the republic, B. C. 134-30, + or A. U. C. 620-724 362 + + Period IV. History of the Roman state as a monarchy till the + overthrow of the western empire, B. C. 30-A. C. 476 402 + + Geographical outline. View of the Roman empire and provinces, + and other countries connected with it by war or commerce ib. + + 1st Section. From Augustus Cæsar to the death of + Commodus, B. C. 30-A. C. 193 411 + + 2nd Section. From the death of Commodus to Diocletian, + A. C. 193-284 437 + + 3rd Section. From Diocletian to the overthrow of the + Roman empire in the west, A. C. 284-476 454 + + + Appendix. Chronology of Herodotus from the time of Cyrus, + according to Volney 475 + + + Genealogical Table of the reigning houses of Macedon 481 + + -------------------------------------------- the Seleucidæ 482 + + -------------------------------------------- the Ptolemies 483 + + -------------------------------------------- the Jews 484 + + -------------------------------------------- the Cæsars 485 + + -------------------------------------------- Constantine 486 + + + * * * * * + + +OXFORD: PRINTED BY TALBOYS AND BROWNE. + + + * * * * * + + + +MANUAL + +OF + +ANCIENT HISTORY. + + + + + * * * * * + + + + +INTRODUCTION. + + + I. The sources of ancient history may be ranged under two heads; + the ancient writers, and the monuments still extant. The various + writers will be mentioned in their proper places, at the different + divisions of this work. A general view of the ancient monuments, so + far as they are sources of history, will be found in: + + OBERLIN, _Orbis antiqui monumentis suis illustrati primæ lineæ_. + Argentorati, 1790. Extremely defective, as many discoveries have + been made since it was published. + + II. GENERAL TREATISES ON ANCIENT HISTORY. + + 1. _The more voluminous works_ on the subject. These may be divided + in two classes: _a._ The part appropriated to ancient history, in + the general treatises on universal history; _b._ Works exclusively + devoted to ancient history. + + _a._ To the first class belong: + + _The Universal History, ancient and modern; with maps and + additions._ Lond. 1736, 26 vols. folio. Reprinted in 8vo. in 67 + vols. and again in 60 vols. with omissions and additions. + + This work, compiled by a society of British scholars, has been + translated into German, and illustrated with remarks, by SIEGM. + JAC. BAUMGARTEN. Halle, 1746, 4to. The Germans frequently designate + it by the name of the Halle Universal History of the World: the + first eighteen vols. comprise the ancient part. + + WILL. GUTHRIE, JOHN GRAY, _etc._ _General History of the World, + from the creation to the present time._ London, 1764-1767, 12 vols. + 8vo. This work, of no estimation in the original, is rendered + valuable and useful by the labours of the German translator, C. G. + HEYNE, (_Leip._ 1766, 8vo.) who has corrected the errors, inserted + the dates, and added his own observations. + + _b._ To the second class belong: + + ROLLIN, _Histoire ancienne des Egyptiens, des Carthaginois, des + Assyriens, des Mèdes el des Perses, des Macédoniens, des Grecs._ + Paris, 1824, 12 vols. 8vo.; revue par LETRONNE: the last and best + edition. This work, which greatly promoted the study of ancient + history in France, still maintains its well-earned reputation. [It + was translated into English, 1768: best edition, 7 vols. 8vo.: + frequently reprinted.] The above is generally accompanied by the + _Histoire Romaine_ of the same author. See below, book v. first + period, _Sources_. + + JAC. BEN. BOSSUET, _Discours sur l'Histoire Universelle_. Paris, + 1680, 3 vols. Frequently reprinted, being considered by the French + one of their classics. + + [English translation, by RICH. SPENCER. London, 1730, 8vo.] + + MILLOT, _Elémens de l'Histoire Générale_. Paris, 1772, sq. + [Translated into English, 1778, 2 vols. 8vo.: and again, an + improved edition, with additions.] Edinb. 1823, 6 vols. 8vo. The + ancient history is contained in the first two volumes. + + # JOH. MATTH. SCHROECKH, _General History of the World_, for the + use of children. Leipzic, 1779, sq. 6 vols. + + # J. G. EICHHORN, _History of the Ancient World_, 1799, third + edition, 1817. (First part of the History of the World.) + + # DAN. G. J. HUEBLER, _Sketch of the General History of the Nations + of Antiquity, from the birth of states to the end of the Roman + commonwealth_. Freyberg, 1798-1802. Five parts; and a continuation: + _History of the Romans under the Emperors, and of the contemporary + Nations, until the great migration_, 1803; three parts. A work + rendered extremely useful, by the judicious advantage taken by the + author of the labours of other writers. + + # H. LUDEN, _General History of Nations_. 1814; three parts. + + # L. VON DRESCH, _General Political History_. 1815; three parts. In + each of the above works the first part contains the ancient + history, and exhibits the more modern views of the subject. + + [The following is added, as well deserving the attention of the + English student: RALEGH (Sir WALTER) _History of the World, Part I. + extending to the end of the Macedonian Empire; with his Life and + Trial, by Mr. Oldys_. Lond. 1736, 2 vols. folio. Formerly the best + edition; but a new and improved one has been printed at the + Clarendon press. Oxford, 1829, 8 vols. 8vo.] + + # F. VON RAUMER, _Lectures on Ancient History_, parts 1, 2. Berlin, + 1821. + + Works furnishing illustrations of the progressive civilization, + government, and commerce of early nations, although, strictly + speaking, not treatises on ancient history, are nevertheless very + closely connected with the subject. Among these may be mentioned: + + GOGUET, _De l'Origine des Lois, des Arts, et des Sciences, et de + leurs progrès chèz les anciens peuples; nouv. édit_. Paris, 1778. + [Translated by Dr. DUNN and Mr. SPEERMAN. Edinb. 1761-1775, 3 vols. + 8vo.] + + # A. H. L. HEEREN, _Reflections on the Politics, Intercourse, and + Trade of the most eminent Nations in the Ancient World_. Third + edition, with many additions. Gottingen, 1815, 8vo.; the third + part, 1821. Fourth edition. Gottingen, 1824. [This edition, the + last, contains many improvements and additions, suggested by the + great discoveries of modern travellers. Part I, Asiatic Nations, in + 3 vols. Persians, Phoenicians, Babylonians, Scythians, Indians. An + English translation of which is at this moment in the press. Part + II, African Nations, 2 vols. Carthaginians, Ethiopians, Egyptians. + Part III, European Nations; of which only 1 volume, Greeks, has + been published.] + + 2. _Manuals_, or epitomes. + + The Germans are entitled to the merit of having first produced + manuals of ancient history, all of them useful, some excellent, in + their kind: they are a result of the progress made in this science + at the universities. + + # J. CHR. GATTERER, _Attempt at an Universal History of the World + to the discovery of America_. Gottingen, 1792. He who possesses + this, the last and ripest fruit of Gatterer's studies, may dispense + with the earlier manuals published by that author. + + # CHR. DAN. BECK, _A Short Introduction to the Knowledge of the + Universal History of the World and of Nature_. Leipzic, 1798. The + first part connected with our subject extends to A. D. 843. This + volume is enriched with such a copious and critical account of + books relating to ancient history, that it may supply the place of + a particular work on the subject. + + # J. A. REMER, _Manual of the more Ancient History, from the + creation of the world to the great migration_. Fourth edition. + Brunswick, 1832. + + # J. M. SCHROECKH, _Manual of Universal History_. 1774: latest + edition, 1795. + + # G. S. BREDOW, _Manual of Ancient History, with a sketch of the + chronology of the ancients_. Altona, 1799, 8vo. [Translated into + English. Lond. 1828, 12mo. In English we have: + + _The Outlines of History_, in 1 vol. (forming part of Lardner's + Cabinet Cyclopædia) by Mr. KEIGHTLY, author of a learned and + highly useful work on Grecian Mythology, is a convenient + abridgement. TYTLER'S _Elements of General History_, improved and + continued by Dr. NARES. Lond. 1825, best edition; owes its + reputation and success to the want of a better work on the + subject.] + + 3. _Helps._ + + Among the works subservient to the study of ancient history, the + first rank is justly due to the synchronistic tables. + + # D. G. J. HUEBLER, _Synchronistic Tables of the History of + Nations_; arranged principally according to GATTERER'S _History of + the World_. In two numbers. Second edit. 1799 and 1804. + +1. The object of POLITICAL HISTORY is to recount the destinies of +nations, both in respect to their foreign relations and internal +affairs. In regard to domestic concerns, one of its most important +objects is the _history of governments_: in respect to external affairs, +it comprises not only an account of the wars, but likewise of the +friendly relations and intercourse with other states. + + Observe here the difference between universal history, or general + history of the human race, and the history of nations; the latter + forms part of the former. Observe also the difference between + political history and that of civilization, or of man as a human + being: the latter is merely the history of man, as man, without + regard to political circumstances. + +2. Universal political history is usually divided into three parts: +_ancient history_, that of the _middle ages_, and _modern history_. The +first extends to the fall of the Roman empire in the west, which took +place towards the close of the fifth century of the christian era; the +second extends to the discovery of America, and of a passage by sea to +the East Indies, about the end of the fifteenth century; the third +extends from the commencement of the sixteenth century to the present +time. + + The propriety of the above division is evinced by the nature of the + events which form these epochs. The student will easily perceive that + the division of history, into that before and after the birth of + Christ, is not judicious. + +3. From the definition just given, it follows, that political history +does not commence till after the first formation of states. Whatever is +known, therefore, of the period previous to this, or may be gathered +from traditions, respecting individuals or tribes, or their migrations, +affinities, or discoveries, forms no part of political history, but must +be referred to the general history of man. + + It is well known that a great deal of information has been preserved + in the sacred writings concerning the early fortunes of the human + race. From these materials have been compiled what has been called + an _Historia Antediluviana_, sometimes considered as forming a + separate division of history. What has been said above will + satisfactorily account for the omission of this portion of history + in the present work; although none can deny the high importance of + such traditions in the investigation of the origin, dispersion, and + civilization of the human race. + +4. The sources of history may be ranged under sources of two general +heads; _oral traditions_, and _written documents_ of various kinds. The +history of every nation usually commences with oral tradition, which +remains the only source, until the art of writing becomes known, and in +some degree adopted by the people. + +5. Under the name of _traditional history_ or _mythology_, is +comprehended all the general collection of oral traditions preserved by +a nation; and some such traditional history or mythology is to be found +among every people in the first stage of their existence as a community. +This mythology, however, is by no means confined to events strictly +historical, but embraces every branch of information which may appear to +a nation in its infancy, of sufficient importance to be preserved and +handed down to posterity. + + Hence the mythology of a people is invariably composed of very + heterogeneous materials; it not only preserves the remembrance of + various kinds of historical facts, but likewise the pervading ideas + of the people with respect to the nature and worship of their + deities; as well as the notions they had formed from observations + and experience respecting astronomy, morals, the arts, etc. All + these are handed down in the form of historical narrative; because + man, as yet unpractised in abstract thinking, necessarily + represents every thing to his mind under the figure of some + physical object. It is just as useless, therefore, to attempt to + mould the mythology of any people into a consistent and connected + whole, or indeed into any scientific system whatsoever, as it is + difficult to draw a strict line between what belongs to mythology, + and what to pure history. It follows, therefore, that mythology + should be employed by the historian with great caution; and not + without judicious criticism, and an accurate knowledge of + antiquity. + + These correct views of mythology,--the key to the whole of earlier + antiquity,--were first set forth and illustrated by Heyne, in his + commentaries upon Virgil and other poets, in his edition of + Apollodorus, and in various essays published in the Transactions of + the Gottingen Scientific Society. It is principally to the aid of + these that the Germans owe their superiority over other nations in + the science of antiquity. + +6. The place of writing among such nations, is generally supplied, in a +great measure, by poetry; which being in its origin nothing more than +imagery expressed in figurative language, must spontaneously arise among +men, as yet wont to represent every thing to their minds under the form +of images. Hence the subject matter of the poetry of every nation, while +in a state of rudeness, is and can be nothing else but its mythology; +and the great variety in the materials of which this is composed very +naturally gave rise, at the same early period, to various kinds of +poetry; as the lyric, the didactic, the epic. The last of these, +inasmuch as it contains the historic songs and the epopee, claims in a +more especial manner the attention of the historian. + + The mythi (or fables of which this mythology was composed) were in + later times frequently collected from the works of the poets, and + committed to writing by grammarians; such as Apollodorus and + others. This, however, can have had no effect on their original + character. + +7. The second source of history, much more copious and important than +the former, are the various kinds of written monuments. These may be +arranged according to the order of time at which they were brought into +use, into three classes; 1st. Inscriptions on public monuments, under +which head are included the coins of later date; 2nd. Chronological +records of events, under the form of annals and chronicles; 3rd. Real +philosophical works on history. + +8. Inscriptions on public monuments erected to preserve the remembrance +of certain events, though perhaps no more than a stone set upright, or +even a bare rock, was used for that purpose, were undoubtedly the most +ancient written memorials. These rude monuments became fashioned by art +into columns, obelisks, and pyramids, as the taste of the nation became +formed; and assumed that definite character which local circumstances +and the natural features of the country led it to adopt, as architecture +arose and attained to perfection among them. The very object, indeed, +for which they were erected--the commemoration of remarkable +events,--must have suggested the practice of inscribing upon them some +particulars of the facts they were intended to perpetuate. Of this +nature, no doubt, were the oldest monuments, and more particularly those +of Egypt. Their use was much more general among nations of a later +period, especially Greece and Rome, than among the moderns; yet of the +great mass of inscriptions still extant, but few comparatively are of +any importance as regards history. + + The characters engraved on these monuments were either symbolical + (hieroglyphics; see below under Egypt,) or alphabetical. The + invention and transmission of alphabetical writing are commonly + ascribed to the Phoenicians; although, if we may judge by the shape + of the arrow-headed character, it was made, without communication + with them, in the interior of Asia. + + The general collections of inscriptions are: + + LUD. ANT. MURATORI, _Novus Thesaurus veterum Inscriptionum_. + Mediolani, 1739, sq. 4 vols. fol. Together with SEB. DONATI, + _Supplementa_. Luccæ, 1764. JAN. GRUTERI, _Inscriptiones antiquæ + totius orbis Romani, cura_ J. G. GRÆVII. Amstel. 1707, 2 vols. fol. + + C. A. BOEKHIUS, _Corpus Inscriptionum Græcarum, auctoritate et + impensis Academiæ literarum Borussicæ_, vol. 1. 1827, folio. + + Among the separate monuments, the most important for ancient + history is the Parian or Oxford Inscription, _Marmora Oxoniensia, + Arundeliana_, edited by SELDEN, 1629; by PRIDEAUX, 1677. The best + edition is by RICH. CHANDLER, Oxf. 1763, fol. A useful and portable + edition has been published by FR. CH. WAGNER, _containing the Greek + text, with a German translation and notes_. Gottingen, 1790, 8vo. + +9. Coins may likewise be regarded as a source of ancient history, as by +the light they throw upon genealogy and chronology, the events known +from other authorities may be better arranged and understood. The +importance of coins, therefore, becomes most sensible in those portions +of history where our information, in consequence of the loss of the +works of the original historians, is reduced to a few insulated facts +and fragments. + + EZ. SPANHEMII, _Dissertatio de Usu et Præstantia Numismatum_. + Londini, 1707 et 1709, 2 vols. fol. The capital work, however, on + this subject, and which embraces the whole numismatic science of + antiquity is: + + ECKHEL, _De Doctrina Nummorum Veterum_. Viennæ, 1792-1798, 8 vols. + 4to. And the epitome: + + # ECKHEL, _Brief Elements of Ancient Numismatics_. Vienna, 1707, + 8vo. Another very useful work is: + + J. C. RASCHE, _Lexicon Universæ Rei Nummariæ Veterum_. 1785, sq. 5 + vols. 8vo. + +10. Chronicles or annals form the second great division of written +historical monuments. These presuppose the invention of letters, and the +use of materials for writing upon; consequently they are of a later date +than mere inscriptions. They occur, nevertheless, in the earlier periods +of nations; and from such annals, indited by public authority (state +chronicles,) subsequent historians have generally drawn materials for +their works. In many nations, and in nearly all the eastern ones, +history has not even yet advanced beyond the composition of such +chronicles. + +11. The third great division of historical writings is formed of works +composed on philosophical principles, which differ from mere annals by +their containing not only a chronological narration of events, but also +a development of their connection with one another, their causes and +effects. + + But few nations among the moderns, and we know of none among the + ancients, except the Greeks and Romans, that had any acquaintance + with this sort of history. A fact which may be attributed,--1st. To + the government; for the more completely the affairs of a nation are + under the control of arbitrary power and caprice, whether of one or + more individuals, so much the less apparent is a rational internal + connection of events. Hence philosophical history flourishes most + under free governments; and has not even a shadow of existence + under pure despotic constitutions. 2nd. To the degree of + civilization to which the nation may have attained: for the + observing and unravelling of the political connection of events + presupposes a considerable progress in philosophical culture. + +12. Since all events are considered in reference to the time and place +in which they occur, it follows that geography and chronology are +indispensable as auxiliary sciences in the study of history, especially +the ancient. These sciences, however, need not, for this purpose, be +considered in their full extent and detail, but only so far as they are +of use in determining and arranging events according to time and place. +A fixed mode of computing time is therefore necessary in ancient +history, as well as a continuous geographical description of the +countries which were the theatres of the principal events. + +13. No method of computing time was adopted generally in antiquity. Each +nation, each state, had its own era: yet, in the explication of ancient +history, there is an evident necessity that some common era should be +fixed upon, by which a synchronistic view of the various events may be +obtained. For this purpose, the years may be computed either from the +creation of the world, or before and after Christ. The latter method has +the advantage not only of greater certainty, but also of greater +convenience. + + Of the various modes of computing time, the best known are those of + the Greeks and the Romans; the former by olympiads, the latter by + years from the foundation of Rome. The era of the olympiads + commences at B. C. 776; that of the foundation of Rome commences at + B. C. 753, according to Varro; at B. C. 752, according to + Cato.--The era of the Seleucidæ, in the Syrian empire, commences + with B. C. 312.--Various other eras, such as that of Nabonnassar, + commencing with B. C. 747, are founded on observations preserved by + Ptolemy, and made known by SCALIGER, in his _Doctrina Temporum_. + + Chronology constitutes a distinct science: the best introduction to + which will be found in: + + # J. C. GATTERER, _Epitome of Chronology_. Gottingen, 1777. A most + excellent criticism on the ancient eras has lately been + communicated to the public by: + + # L. IDELER, _Historic Researches into the Astronomical + Observations of the Ancients_. Berlin, 1806. + + # D. H. HEGEWISCH, _Introduction to Historical Chronology_; 1811. A + very useful and portable work. + + [In English we have the laborious work of Dr. Hales: + + HALES (WILLM.) _New Analysis of Chronology, explaining the History + and Antiquities of the primitive Nations of the World, etc._ Lond. + 1809-12, 4 vols. 4to. New edition, corrected and improved, 1830, 4 + vols. 8vo. + + BLAIR'S _Chronology and History of the World, from the Creation to + the present Time_. Lond. 1803, folio. + + And for the brilliant period of Greece and Rome the satisfactory + volumes: + + H. F. CLYNTON'S _Fasti Hellenici. The civil and literary Chronology + of Greece, from the fifty-fifth to the hundred and twenty-fourth + Olympiad_. Second edition, with additions. Oxford, 1827, 4to. And + the continuation of the same work to the death of Augustus, Oxford, + 1830, 4to. In this valuable work, much light is also thrown upon + the chronology of the times anterior to the period with which the + first volume is principally occupied.] + +14. In ancient geography there is much care required to distinguish the +fabulous from the true. With regard to true geography, as an auxiliary +science to history, all that can be expected is some general information +respecting the nature and peculiarities of the countries, respecting +their political divisions, and finally, respecting the principal +cities:--Long lists of the names of places would be quite superfluous. + + Fabulous geography constitutes a part of the mythology of every + nation, and differs in each, because the ideas formed by every + early nation respecting the form and nature of the earth are + peculiar to itself. True geography gradually comes to light as + civilization increases, and discovery widens its + horizon.--Necessity of treating it historically, on account of the + manifold changes to which the division and the face of the + countries of the ancient world have been at various periods + subjected. + + CHRISTOPH. CELLARII _Notitia Orbis Antiqui_. Lips. 1701-1706, 2 + vols. 4to. _cum observat._ J. C. SCHWARZII. Lips. 1771, et iterum + 1773. This work was for a long time the only, and is still an + indispensable, treatise on ancient geography. + + # H. MANNERT, _Geography of the Greeks and Romans_. Nuremberg, + 1788-1802. This work, now completed in 15 volumes, may be justly + designated classical, from the historical and critical learning + which the author has everywhere displayed. Vol. I, contains Spain; + II, Gallia et Britain; III, Germania, Rhætia, Noricum; IV, The + Northern parts of the World, from the Wessel to China; V, India and + the Persian Empire to the Euphrates, 2 parts; VI, Asia Minor, 3 + parts; VII, Thrace, Illyria, Macedonia, Thessaly, Epirus; VIII, + Northern Greece, Peloponnesus, and the Archipelago; IX, Italy and + Sicily, Sardinia, etc. 2 parts; X, Africa, 2 parts. + + # F. A. UKERT, _Geography of the Greeks and Romans, from the + earliest periods to the time of Ptolemy_: first part, first + division, contains the historical, the second contains the + mathematical sections. Weimar, 1816; with maps. + + GOSSELIN, _Géographie des Grecs analysée_. Paris, 1790, 4to. A + development of the system of mathematical geography among the + Greeks. Partly continued in + + GOSSELIN, _Recherches sur la Géographie des Anciens_. Paris, an. + vi. vol. 1-4. + + J. RENNEL, _Geographical System of Herodotus_. Lond. 1800, 4to. + + [Reprinted in 2 vols. 8vo. Lond. 1830, revised. Here, too, for the + benefit of the English reader may be mentioned: + + RENNEL'S _Treatise on the Comparative Geography of Western Asia, + with an atlas_. London, 1831, 2 vols. 8vo.; published since the + author's death. And the learned and valuable volumes of Dr. CRAMER, + principal of New Inn Hall, and public orator of the University of + Oxford; they are, + + _Geographical and Historical Description of Ancient Greece, with a + map, and plan of Athens._ Oxford, 1826, 3 vols. 8vo. + + _Geographical and Historical Description of Ancient Italy, with a + map._ Oxford, 1826, 2 vols. 8vo. + + _Geographical and Historical Description of Asia Minor, with a + map._ Oxford, 1832, 2 vols. 8vo. + + The maps which accompany these works approach very nearly to + perfection. + + As useful compendiums, there are: + + _An Introduction to Ancient Geography, with copious indexes of + Ancient and Modern Names_, by PETER ED. LAURENT, teacher in the + Royal Naval Academy at Portsmouth. Oxford, 1813, 8vo. + + _A Compendium of Ancient and Modern Geography, for the use of Eton + School; illustrating the most interesting points in History, + Poetry, and Fable; preceded by an Introduction to the study of + Astronomy, and containing plans of Athens, Rome, Syracuse, and + numerous diagrams explanatory of the motions of the heavenly + bodies_, by AARON ARROWSMITH, Hydrographer to the King, 1 vol. + 8vo., with or without a copious index. London, 1830. + + BUTLER'S (Dr. SAM.) _Sketch of Ancient and Modern Geography_. + Seventh edition, 8vo. Also his _Atlas of Ancient Geography_, + consisting of twenty-one coloured maps, with a complete accentuated + index. 8vo.] + + We are indebted to d'Anville for the best charts of ancient + geography: _Atlas Orbis antiqui_, twelve leaves, fol. + + [The Eton Comparative Atlas of Ancient and Modern Geography, with + the index, published in several sizes; and the Maps published by + the Society for the Promotion of Useful Knowledge, are very useful + and correct.] + +15. Ancient history may be treated either ethnographically, that is, +according to separate nations and states; or synchronistically, that is, +according to certain general epochs. Each of these methods has its +advantages and its disadvantages. The two, however, may be combined, and +formed into one system; and as this seems the most convenient, it has +been adopted in the present work, which is accordingly divided as +follows: + +FIRST BOOK.--History of the ancient Asiatic and African states and +kingdoms anterior to Cyrus, or to the rise of the Persian monarchy, +about the year B. C. 560: comprising little more than insulated +fragments. + +SECOND BOOK.--History of the Persian monarchy, from B. C. 560 to 330. + +THIRD BOOK.--History of the Grecian states, both in Greece and other +parts, to the time of Alexander, B. C. 336. + +FOURTH BOOK.--History of the Macedonian monarchy, and of the kingdoms +which arose out of its division, until they merged into the Roman +empire. + +FIFTH BOOK.--History of the Roman state, both as a commonwealth and a +monarchy, until the fall of the western empire, A. D. 476. + + + * * * * * + + + + +MANUAL OF ANCIENT HISTORY. + + + + + * * * * * + + + + +THE FIRST BOOK. + + + HISTORICAL FRAGMENTS OF THE EARLIER ASIATIC AND AFRICAN KINGDOMS AND + STATES, PREVIOUS TO CYRUS, OR THE RISE OF THE PERSIAN MONARCHY. + + + + +I.--ASIATIC NATIONS. + + + + +_General Preliminary Remarks on the Geography of Asia._ + + + See the Introduction to Heeren's Researches into the Politics and + Commerce of the Nations of Antiquity, prefixed to vol. 1 of the + African Nations. Oxford, 1831. + +1. Asia is the largest and the most favourably situated of the great +divisions of the globe. Its superficial contents are 11,200,000 square +geogr. miles; while those of Africa do not exceed 4,780,000; and those +of Europe are not more than 2,560,000. As to situation, it comprises the +greatest portion of the northern temperate zone. + + Compare it, in this point of view, with the other quarters of the + globe, especially Africa.--Advantages over the latter, in + consequence of the convenience of its indented shores--of its + surrounding fruitful islands--of its deep gulfs and large + streams--the few sandy deserts in its interior. + +2. Natural features, and consequent division of the land, according to +the course of the larger mountain chains and of the principal rivers. + + Two great mountain chains run from west to east; in the north, the + Altai, (nameless in antiquity): in the south, Taurus.--Branches of + both: the Caucasus, between the Black and Caspian seas: Imaus + extending along the golden desert (desert of Cobi): the Paropamisus, + on the north of India: the Ural (nameless in antiquity).--Of the + rivers remarkable in ancient history, there are four flowing from + north to south, namely, the Euphrates and Tigris, which fall into the + Persian gulf; the Indus and Ganges, which fall into the Indian sea: + two which run from east to west, and discharged their waters into the + Caspian sea, (but now into the sea of Aral,) namely, the Oxus (or + Jihon) and the Jaxartes (or Sirr). + +3. This quarter of the globe is accordingly divided into Northern Asia, +comprising the regions north of Altai; Central Asia, or the countries +between the Altai and Taurus; and Southern Asia, or the lands south of +Taurus. + +4. Northern Asia, between the 76th and 50th parallels of north latitude, +(Asiatic Russia and Siberia,) was almost, though not entirely, unknown +in antiquity.--Some obscure hints, though partly true, respecting it, +are found in Herodotus, the father of history. + +5. Central Asia, the regions extending between the 50th and 40th degrees +of north latitude, Scythia and Sarmatia Asiatica, (Great Tartary and +Mongol;) for the most part a boundless, barren table land, devoid of +arable fields or forests; and consequently a mere country of +pasture.--The inhabitants pastors, (nomads,) without cities or fixed +abodes; recognizing no other political association than patriarchal +government. + + Peculiar mode of life and character of nomad nations; powerful + influence which they have exercised, as conquerors, on political + history.--Whether we have a right to expect that the civilization of + the human race will for ever continue to advance, when we consider + that perhaps one half of it has from time immemorial remained, and + from its physical situation must for ever remain, in a nomad state. + +6. Southern Asia, or the regions from the 40th degree of N. lat. to +about the equator.--Its natural features altogether different from those +of central Asia. The great advantages of these regions compared with all +other parts of the earth, in possessing a soil and climate highly +favourable for agriculture; and an abundance of various costly +productions. To these circumstances may be attributed, 1st. The adoption +of fixed habitations and political associations in these countries, from +the earliest times. 2ndly. Their becoming the principal seat of trade, +from the infancy of civilization to the discovery of America. + + Reflections upon the rise of political associations.--Whether, + according to the general opinion, they were produced solely by + agriculture and the possession of land; or, whether religion, by + which I mean the common worship of one divinity as the national god, + (communia sacra,) was not the main bond which united the earliest + states of antiquity?--How shall we account for the very remarkable + fact, that in the earliest civil societies in the world, the + priesthood is generally found to be a ruling caste.--Reflections on + early trade, particularly that of the east, before it was changed, by + the discovery of America and the new passage to India, from a land + trade to a sea trade.--Observations upon ancient commercial routes + across Asia.--The banks of the large rivers destined by nature to + become the seats of commerce for the interior; on the Oxus, Bactra + and Maracanda, (Samarcand;) on the Euphrates and Tigris, + Babylon.--The sea shores on the western coast of Asia Minor and + Phoenicia, pointed out also by nature as places of commerce;--line + of Grecian and Phoenician factories. + +7. Division of southern Asia. 1st. South-western Asia, from the +Mediterranean to the Indus; 2nd. South-eastern Asia, from the Indus to +the eastern ocean. + +A. South-western Asia is again subdivided into the countries--1st. on +this side the Euphrates--2ndly. between the Euphrates and Tigris--3rdly. +between the Tigris and the Indus. + +1. _Countries on this side the Euphrates._ + +(_a_) The peninsula of Asia Minor (Natolia). Principal rivers: the Halys +and Sangarius. Countries: three towards the west, Mysia, Lydia, Caria. +Along the shore, the Greek seaports of Phocæa, Ephesus, Miletus, Smyrna, +Halicarnassus, etc. Inland, the cities of Sardes in Lydia, of Pergamus +in Mysia. + +Three towards the south, Lycia, Pamphylia, and Cilicia, with its capital +Tarsus. + +Three towards the north, Bithynia, Paphlagonia, Pontus; with the Greek +ports of Heraclea, Amisus, and Sinope. Two inland, Phrygia, together +with Galatia and the capital cities of Gordium and Celænæ; Cappadocia, +with the city of Mazaca. + +(_b_) Islands along the coast of Asia Minor: Lesbos, with the city of +Mitylene; Chios, Samos, Cos, Rhodes, with cities of the same name. + +(_c_) Syria, together with Phoenicia and Palestine. 1st. Syria, +properly so called. Cities: Damascus, Emessa, Heliopolis, (Baalbec). In +the desert, Palmyra. 2nd. Phoenicia, a mountainous tract, extending +along the shore. Mountains: Libanus and Antilibanus. Cities: Tyre, on an +island opposite the ancient Tyre, which was situate upon the mainland; +Sidon, Byblus, Berytus, Tripolis, Aradus. 3rd. Palestine. Mountains: +Carmel, Tabor. River: Jordan, which discharges its waters into the Dead +sea. Division of Palestine; first, according to the twelve tribes; +afterwards into the provinces, of Judæa, capital Jerusalem: of Samaria; +cities, Samaria, Sichem: and of Galilee. + +(_d_) Peninsula of Arabia, abounding in vast sandy deserts, and almost +entirely occupied by nomad tribes. Its southern and eastern coasts +render it, nevertheless, a most important seat of trade. In the north, +Arabia Petræa, so called from the town of Petra. Inland, Arabia Deserta. +In the south, Arabia Felix; rich, both in natural productions, being the +native land of almost every kind of perfume, particularly frankincense; +and also as being the ancient staple for the merchandise of India. +Cities: Mariaba, Aden, etc. In the east, the trading town of Gerra, and +the islands near the shore, Tylos and Aradus, (Bahrein,) both likewise +marts for Arabian and Indian wares, particularly cinnamon from Taprobane +(Ceylon). + +2. _Countries between the Euphrates and Tigris._ + +(_a_) Mesopotamia; in the interior a sterile table land, entirely +occupied by nomad hordes. Cities on the Euphrates: Thapsacus, Circesium, +Cunaxa; in the north, Zoba or Nisibis. + +(_b_) Armenia, north of the foregoing. Very mountainous; for a long time +without cities, but at last it had Tigranocerta. Rivers: the Cyrus and +Araxes, falling into the Caspian; and the Phasis, falling into the Black +sea. + +(_c_) Babylonia, the southern part of Mesopotamia, from which it was +separated by the Median wall. A level plain, remarkable for the richness +of its soil; formerly, by its high cultivation, its canals and lakes, +and the erection of dams, the most fruitful, and, from its situation, +the most opulent staple of inner Asia. Cities: Babylon on the Euphrates, +Borsippa. + + Whether the account given by Herodotus, as an eyewitness, of the size + and splendour of Babylon is not exaggerated?--Manner in which the + great Asiatic cities arose out of the royal encampments of the nomad + conquerors. + +3. _Countries between the Tigris and the Indus._ + +(_a_) Assyria, or the province of Adiabene; a table land. Cities: +Nineveh, (Ninus,) Arbela. + + The name of Assyria is also frequently taken by the Greeks in a wider + acceptation, as comprising both Mesopotamia and Babylonia; it is + sometimes even confounded with Syria. + +(_b_) Susiana, a fruitful district, with the city Susa on the river +Choaspes, or Eulæus (Ulai), one of the residences of the Persian +monarchs. + +(_c_) Persis, rugged and mountainous towards the north; level and +fruitful in the centre; sandy towards the south. Rivers: the Cyrus and +Araxes. Cities: Persepolis or Pasargada, the national palace and +cemetery of the kings of Persia. + + The name of Persis was, in ancient as well as in modern geography, + taken in a more extensive sense, as comprising all the countries + between the Tigris and Indus, with the exception of Assyria. + In this sense, it contains three countries towards the + south--Persis, properly so called; Carmania, Gedrosia: three + central countries--Media, Aria, Arachosia: and three countries + towards the north--Parthia and Hyrcania, Bactria, Sogdiana. + +(_d_) Carmania, an extensive country, for the most part desert, ranging +along the Persian gulf and Indian sea. Cities: Carmana, Harmozia. + +(_e_) Gedrosia, tract of land running along the coast between Carmania +and India, and washed by the Indian sea. A mere sandy desert; towards +the north, mountainous. Town, Pura. + +(_f_) Media, above Persis; an extensive and very fruitful country; +mountainous towards the north. Rivers: Araxes, Cyrus, and Mardus. +Cities: Ecbatana, Rages. The northern district was likewise known by the +name of Atropatene (Azerbeijan), or Lesser Media. + +(_g_) Aria, a smooth table land, with a lake and river, Arius: and one +city, Aria or Artacoana. + +(_h_) Arachosia; a rich and fertile country on the frontiers of India; +bounded towards the north by the Paropamisus chain. Cities: Arachotus +and Prophthasia. The neighbouring highlands, occupied by a numerous +population, (now Cabul and Kandahar,) are often regarded, in consequence +of their being subject to the Persian dominion, as forming part of +Persia. They are known by the name of Paropamisus. + +(_i_) Parthia and Hyrcania, rugged mountainous districts to the north of +Media; but abounding in magnificent and fertile vales. Before and during +the predominance of Persia, but little known and little valued; and +without cities. It was at a considerably later period that the +inhabitants of Parthia became a dominant nation. + +(_k_) Bactria, the country on the south bank of the Oxus; rich in +natural productions, and one of the most ancient marts of Asia. River: +Oxus. Cities: Bactra and Zariaspa. + + Bactria lies on the frontier of India, Little Thibet, Bukharia, (the + north India of Herodotus and Ctesias,) and the desert of Cobi, + (Herodotus's golden desert): the road to China runs through this + country. Nature, by the geographical situation in which she has + placed Bactria, seems to have destined it to be the great emporium + for the wares of south-eastern Asia; and in proportion as we + penetrate into early history, we become convinced that Bactria, like + Babylon, must have been one of the earliest seats of international + commerce, and consequently, if not the birthplace, one of the cradles + of infant civilization. + +(_l_) Sogdiana, the territory between the upper Oxus and upper Jaxartes, +the latter dividing it from central Asia. (A part of Great Bukharia.) +Its peculiarities and advantages similar to those of the neighbouring +Bactria. Capital: Maracanda (Samarcand). + +B. South-eastern Asia, or Asia beyond the Indus, offers nothing +remarkable for history till a later period. See Book v, Period iv. + + + + +_General Preliminary Observations upon the History and Constitution of +the great Asiatic Empires._ + + +1. Asia contained in ancient times, as it does at present, empires of +immense extent, differing materially both in this respect and in their +constitution from the civilized nations of Europe. Changes were +frequent; but the form of government continued nearly always the same. +Some deeply rooted and active principles therefore must have been in +constant operation, to have given so repeatedly, in these various +revolutions, the same organization to the kingdoms of Asia. + +2. The great revolutions of Asia, with the exception of that caused by +Alexander, were effected by the numerous and powerful nomad races which +inhabited a large portion of that continent. Pressed by necessity or +circumstances, they forsook their own seats, founded new kingdoms, and +carried war and conquest into the fruitful and cultivated lands of +southern Asia, until, enervated by luxury, the consequence of the change +in their mode of life, they were in their turn, and in a similar manner, +subjugated. + +3. This origin, common to all Asiatic kingdoms, accounts for their +immense extent, their rapid establishment, and their generally brief +duration. + +4. The internal organization must, for the same reasons, have been +nearly alike in all; and the constant reappearance of despotism is +accounted for, partly by the rights of conquest, partly by the vast +extent of the subdued countries, which obliged the rulers to have +recourse to satrap-government. + +5. To this, it must moreover be added, that among all the considerable +nations of inner Asia, the paternal government of every household was +corrupted by polygamy: where that custom exists, a good political +constitution is impossible; fathers being converted into domestic +despots, are ready to pay the same abject obedience to their sovereign +that they exact from their family and dependants in their domestic +economy. + + To avoid confusion, it will be necessary to define the terms + despotism and despotic government. In theory, we must admit THREE + essentially different kinds of government. 1st. The _despotic_, in + which the members of the state are not secured in the possession of + their rights as men, (personal freedom and security of property,) + nor of their rights as citizens, (active participation in the + legislative power). Such a constitution exists only by force, and + can never be lawful. 2nd. The _autocratic_, in which the members of + the state are in full possession of their rights as men, but not of + their rights as citizens. This government, therefore, arises from + the union of the legislative and executive powers in the person of + the ruler. In form, it is either monarchical or aristocratical (a + pure monarchy, or a pure aristocracy). This kind of government is + most likely to be established by usurpation; it may, nevertheless, + be acquired by succession, or even adopted by common consent: it may + therefore be lawful. 3rd. The _republican_, in which the members of + the state are in possession of their rights, both as men and as + citizens. This government necessarily presupposes a separation of + the legislative and executive powers; and with regard to its form, + may be either monarchical or aristocratical, (a moderate monarchy, + or a moderate aristocracy).--How far can a pure democracy be called + a government, and comprised under any of the foregoing + heads?--Explanation of the despotism in the Asiatic kingdoms, and + the attempts made to limit it by religion and religious + institutions. + +6. General features in the gradual internal development of all empires +formed by nomad conquerors. (_a_) At first the mere occupation of rich +territories, and levying of tribute. (_b_) Hence the constitutions +already established among the conquered or tributary nations generally +suffered to remain. (_c_) Gradual progress towards the adoption of a +fixed abode and the building of cities, together with the assumption of +the customs and civilization of the conquered. (_d_) Division into +provinces, and, as a necessary consequence, the establishment of +satrap-government. (_e_) Insurrections of the satraps, and the internal +ruin of the state prepared thereby. (_f_) The influence of the seraglio +on the government has the same effect, for its unavoidable consequences +are--effeminacy and indolence in the rulers. (_g_) Hence the dissolution +of the empire, or its total annihilation by some violent attack from +without. + + + + +_Fragments of the History of the ancient Asiatic Kingdoms previous to +Cyrus._ + + + Sources, and their critical examination: 1. Jewish writings, + particularly the books of Kings, Chroniclers, and the Prophets; + together with the Mosaic records. 2. Greek writers, Herodotus, + Ctesias, and Diodorus: later chroniclers, Syncellus, Eusebius, + Ptolemy. 3. Native writer, Berosus. Futility of all endeavours to + arrange into one work the accounts of authors so entirely different + by birth and the times in which they flourished: a task attempted by + the French writers, SEVIN, FRERET, and DEBROSSE, in their papers + contained in the Mém. de l'Acad. des Inscript. + + VOLNEY, _Recherches nouvelles sur l'Histoire ancienne_. 1808-1814: + very important and authentic, so far as regards the system of + Herodotus's chronology. + + + +I. _Assyrian monarchy._ + + +1. With the Greeks, Assyrian is generally a common name applied to the +ruling nations about the Euphrates and Tigris before the time of Cyrus. +With the Jews, on the contrary, it signifies a distinct nation of +conquerors, and the founders of an empire. Hence a necessary discrepancy +between the Grecian and Hebrew statements. + +2. Assyrian history, according to Grecian authorities, particularly +Ctesias and Diodorus, is nothing more than mere traditions of +ancient heroes and heroines, who at some early period founded a +large kingdom in the countries about the Euphrates and Tigris; +traditions without any chronological data, and in the style of the +east. Ninus--Semiramis--Ninyas--Sardanapalus. + + According to Herodotus, an Assyrian empire of 520 years' duration, + 1237-717. Lists of Assyrian kings in the chronicles of Syncellus + and Eusebius. + +3. Assyrian history, according to Jewish authorities. Chronological +history of an Assyrian empire between B. C. 800 and 700.--Seat of the +nation in Assyria, properly so called.--Capital: Nineveh on the +Tigris.--Extension of their dominion as far as Syria and Phoenicia. + + Line of Assyrian kings: 1. Pul, about 773. Invasion of Syria. + 2. Tiglath-Pileser, about 740. He overthrows the kingdom of Damascus. + 3. Shalmaneser, about 720. He destroys the kingdom of Samaria. + Transplantation of the inhabitants into inner Asia. 4. Sennacherib, + about 714. Mighty expedition against Egypt, frustrated by a + pestilence. 5. Esarhaddon. + + _Contemporary_: Jews, the divided kingdoms of Israel and + Judah.--Greeks, decennial archons at Athens.--Romans, rise + of the state and the two first kings. + + + +II. _Median monarchy._ + + +1. The name of Medes is undoubtedly often used by the Greeks to +designate one nation; it is, however, frequently made use of as a common +appellation of the ruling nations in eastern Asia, from the Tigris to +the Indus, (or Persia, in the more extensive sense of that word,) before +Cyrus.--With the Jews: nothing more than general hints of the Medes as a +conquering nation. + +2. Although the statements of the Grecian writers, as well as of the +Zendavesta, sufficiently prove that long before the rise of the Persian +power mighty kingdoms existed in these regions; and particularly in the +eastern part, or Bactria; yet we have no consistent or chronological +history of these states: nothing but a few fragments, probably of +dynasties which ruled in Media, properly so called, immediately previous +to the Persians. + + _a._ _Herodotus's History of the Medes._ Herodotus's Medes are + unquestionably the inhabitants of Media, properly so called. + Division into six tribes: among these, that of the Magi.--Ruling + nation after the overthrow of the Assyrians.--Capital of their + empire, Ecbatana.--Boundaries: west, the Tigris and Halys; east, + unknown.--Internal organization: graduated subjection of the + various nations to one another, according to their distance from + the seat of empire; rigid despotism; and imposition of tribute. + Line of kings between B. C. 717-560. Deioces, 53 _y._ the founder + of Ecbatana, _d._ 657.--Phraortes, 22 _y._ down to 635. He conquers + Persia. Cyaxares I. 40 _y._ down to 595. He establishes military + discipline among the Medes. Wages war with the Lydians, the + Assyrians.--Irruption of the Scythians and Cimmerians, 625.--He + takes Nineveh, 597. Astyages, 38 _y._ down to 560, when he was + dethroned by Cyrus. According to Xenophon, Astyages was followed by + another Median prince, Cyaxares II. _b. Ctesias's History of the + Medes_, deduced from Persian archives, and contained in Diodorus. + Probably a different dynasty in eastern Asia. Line of kings, + between B. C. 800 and 560. Arbaces, conqueror of the Assyrians, 18 + _y._ Mandaucus, 50 _y._ Sosarmes, 30 _y._ Artias, 50 _y._ Arbanes, + 22 _y._ Artæus, 40 _y._ and Artynes, 22 _y._ Sanguinary wars with + the nomad races of the east, the Sacæ, and Cadusii. Artibarnas, 14 + _y._ Astyages, the last king. + + _Contemporary_: Jews, kingdom of Judah alone.--Greeks, yearly + archons, Draco, Solon.--Romans, kings from Tullus Hostilius to + Servius Tullius. + + + +III. _Babylonian monarchy._ + + +Periods: 1st. Previous to the Chaldæan conquest, which occurred about +630. 2nd. From the Chaldæan conquest to the Persian, 630-538. + +1. Babylon was not only spoken of in the most remote antiquity, but is +mentioned in the Jewish traditions as the earliest scene of political +treaties, and as the most ancient seat of intercourse for the nations of +Asia. Traditions concerning Nimrod--and the erection of the tower of +Babel.--Comparison of those traditions with the Babylonian mythology in +Berosus.--Scanty historical notices of this period in the later Jewish +writers; and probable subjection of Babylon to the Assyrian empire. + +2. In the second period, 630-538, the Babylonians were the ruling nation +of western Asia.--The Chaldæans take possession of Babylon, there +establish themselves, and ultimately extend their empire, by conquest, +to the Mediterranean. + + Origin of the Chaldæans: whether that name was applied to a + distinct nation, or to the northern nomads in general?--Line of + Chaldæan kings. In the enumeration of these rulers, as given by + Ptolemy, this line begins with Nabonassar, and the era bearing the + name of that sovereign, which commences in the year B. C. 747: + (probably because, under the reign of that prince, the adoption of + the Egyptian solar year first introduced among the Chaldæans an + exact method of reckoning time). Neither Nabonassar himself, nor + his twelve immediate successors, are remarkable in history: the + six last alone deserve notice. 1. Nabopolassar, 627-604. + Settlement in Babylon; and complete establishment of the + Chaldæo-Babylonian dominion, by his victory over Pharaoh-Nechoh, + near Circesium, in 604. 2. Nebuchadnezzar, 604-561. Brilliant + period of the Chaldæo-Babylonian empire. He conquers Phoenicia and + Old Tyre about 586: Jerusalem in 587; probable irruptions into + Egypt. Construction of immense buildings and canals in and about + Babylon. Rapid decline of the empire after his death, under--3. + Evil-Merodach, 561-559. 4. Neriglissar, (probably the contemporary + of Herodotus's Nitocris;)--555. Labosoarchad murdered, after a few + months' reign. Nabonadius, (Herodotus's Labynetus; and probably + the Chaldæan Belshazzar;) 555-538. attacked and conquered by + Cyrus. Sack of Babylon by the Persians, 538. + + See the section concerning the Babylonians in A. H. L. HEEREN'S + _Historical Researches_, vol. i, part. 2. + + _Contemporary_: Jews, last sovereigns of the kingdom of + Judah.--Greeks, Solon, Pisistratus.--Romans, Tarquinius Priscus + and Servius Tullius. + + + +IV. _States and kingdoms in Asia Minor._ + + +The number and variety of the inhabitants of this peninsula, was +probably the reason why they never became united into one empire. The +most important nations among them, were the Carians in the west; the +Phrygians in the centre, reaching as far as the Halys; the +Syro-Cappadocians beyond the Halys; and the Thracians in Bithynia. +Nevertheless we find here but three kingdoms deserving notice--the +Trojan, the Phrygian, and the Lydian. + + +1. The Trojan empire comprised western Mysia: its history consists of +mere traditions contained in poets, with very uncertain chronological +data. + + Kings: Teucer, about 1400.--Dardanus--Erichthonius--Tros + (Troja)--Ilus (Ilium)--Laomedon--Priam. The destruction of Troy, + after a ten years' war, occurred, it is probable, B. C. 1190. + + _Contemporary_: Jews, time of the Judges: before the foundation of + Rome, 450 years. + + +2. The Phrygian empire.--Almost all the kings were named Midas and +Gordius; their succession cannot be accurately determined. After the +death of the last, called Midas V., Phrygia became a province of the +Lydian empire, about 560. + + +3. The Lydian empire.--The Lydians (Mæonians) were a branch of the +Carian tribe. According to Herodotus, three dynasties ruled in Lydia; +the Atyadæ down to 1232; the Heraclidæ down to 727; and the Mermnadæ +down to 557: the two first are almost wholly fabulous, and the proper +history of Lydia may be said to commence with the last dynasty. + + Kings: Gyges, down to 689. From this period followed almost + uninterrupted wars with the Greek settlements on the seacoast. + Gyges takes Colophon. Ardys down to 640. He takes Priene. Under + his reign, an irruption of the Cimmerians. Sadyattes down to 628. + Alyattes down to 571. Expulsion of the Cimmerians. Capture of + Smyrna. Croesus down to 557. He takes Ephesus, and subjugates Asia + Minor as far as the Halys. Under his reign, the first rise of a + Lydian empire, which however is overthrown by Cyrus. Asia Minor + becomes a province of the Persian empire. + + _Contemporary_ with which, in Asia, were the Medic and Babylonian + empires.--Among the Jews, the last period of the kingdom of + Judah.--Among the Greeks, the yearly archons at Athens.--With the + Romans, the kings. + + + +V. _Phoenicia._ + + +The Phoenicians may be regarded as one of the most remarkable nations of +Asia during this period; yet we have no complete, or even connected +history of this people. But though a few scattered fragments are all we +possess, we may from these trace out a general outline. + + The peculiar sources of Phoenician history.--How far Sanchoniathon + deserves to be mentioned here?--Hebrew writers, particularly + Ezekiel; Greek writers; Josephus--Eusebius, etc. and the fragments + which he has preserved of Menander of Ephesus, and Dius, + historians of Tyre. + + MIGNOT, _Mémoires sur les Phéniciens_; inserted in _Mém. de + l'Acad. des Inscript._ t. xxxiv-xlii. A series of twenty-four + papers. + + The section concerning the Phoenicians in A. H. L. HEEREN'S + _Researches on the Politics, etc._ + +1. Observations on the internal state of Phoenicia. It did not +constitute one state, or, at least, one single empire; but consisted of +several, and their territories. Alliances, however, were naturally +formed between them, and hence a kind of supremacy of the more powerful, +particularly of Tyre. + +2. But though Tyre stood at the head, and claimed a certain degree of +superiority, each separate state still possessed its own particular +government. In all of them we meet with kings, who appear to have +possessed but a limited authority, as we always find magistrates +associated with them in power. Among a mercantile and colonizing people, +it was impossible that absolute despotism should endure for any length +of time. Of the separate states, Tyre is the only one of which we +possess a series of kings; and even that series is not complete. + + This line of kings, which we derive from Menander through + Josephus, commences with Abical, the contemporary of David, about + B. C. 1050. The most remarkable among them are: Hiram, the + successor of Abical;--Ethbaal I. about 920;--Pygmalion, Dido's + brother, about 900;--Ethbaal II. in whose reign Tyre was sacked by + Nebuchadnezzar, 586.--Foundation of New Tyre--republican + constitution under suffetes: tributary kings under the Persian + rule;--conquest of New Tyre by Alexander, 332. The flourishing + period of Phoenicia in general, and of Tyre in particular, falls + therefore between 1000-332. + + _Contemporary_ in inner Asia: monarchies of the Assyrians, Medes, + and the Babylonians. Jews: period of the kings after David. + Greeks: from Homer to Solon. Romans: period of their kings in the + last two centuries. + +3. During this period the Phoenicians spread themselves by the +establishment of colonies; some of which, particularly Carthage, became +as powerful as the mother states. + + General ideas concerning colonization.--1. Colonies are absolutely + necessary to every seafaring and commercial people, whenever + their trade extends to distant countries. 2. They have likewise + been established for the purpose of providing for the excessive + increase of the poor. 3. And they have sometimes arisen from + political commotion, when the malcontents, either from free will, + or force, have forsaken their country, and sought new settlements + in distant regions. + +4. Geographical sketch of the Phoenician colonies. They possessed, at a +very early period, most of the islands of the Archipelago; from which, +however, they were subsequently expelled by the Greeks. The principal +countries in which they had settlements were the south of Spain +(Tartessus, Gades, Carteia); the north coast of Africa, west of the +Lesser Syrtis (Utica, Carthage, Adrumetum); and the north-western coast +of Sicily (Panormus, Lilybæum). It is likewise highly probable that they +formed settlements towards the east in the Persian gulf, on the islands +of Tylos and Aradus (Bahrein). + +5. This sketch of the Phoenician colonies will give us some idea of the +extent of their sea trade and navigation; which, however, extended much +farther than their colonies. Among them, as among other nations, +commerce took its rise in piracy; even as late as the time of Homer, the +Phoenicians appear to have been freebooters. The principal objects of +their commerce were (_a_) the settlements in north Africa and Spain; the +latter more particularly, on account of its rich silver mines. (_b_) +Beyond the Pillars of Hercules, the west-coast of Africa; Britain and +the Scilly islands, for the purpose of procuring tin, and, very +probably, amber. (_c_) From Elath and Ezion-Gebar, ports situate at the +northern extremity of the Arabian gulph, they undertook, in connection +with the Jews, voyages to Ophir, that is to say, to the rich lands of +the south, particularly Arabia Felix and Ethiopia. (_d_) From the +Persian gulf, they extended their commerce to the western peninsula of +India and the island of Ceylon. Finally, (_e_) they made several +extensive voyages of discovery, among which, the most remarkable was the +circumnavigation of Africa. + +6. Of no less importance was the land trade, mostly carried on by +caravans. The principal branches of it were: (_a_) The Arabian caravan +trade for spices and incense, imported from Arabia Felix, Gerra, and the +Persian gulf. (_b_) The trade through Palmyra with Babylon, which opened +them an indirect communication by way of Persia, with lesser Bukharia +and little Thibet, probably even with China itself. (_c_) The trade with +Armenia and the neighbouring countries in slaves, horses, copper +utensils, etc. + +7. To all this must be added their own manufactures, particularly their +stuffs and dyes; (the purple, made of the juice of a marine shellfish;) +their manufactures of glass and toys, which, in their commerce with +uncivilized nations, generally carried on by barter, were turned to good +account. Many other important discoveries, among which the invention of +letters holds the first rank, are attributed to the Phoenicians. + + + +VI. _Syrians._ + + +1. The inhabitants of Syria dwelt in cities as early as B. C. 2000, when +Abraham wandered over their country. This country did not form one +single state, but consisted of several cities, each of which had its +separate territory, and its chief or king; of these cities, Damascus, +Hamath, etc. are mentioned in the most remote antiquity. + +2. The Syrians were, however, often subjected by foreign conquerors; and +their country was certainly, at least in the time of David, a Jewish +province. It shook off the yoke, however, in the time of Solomon; when +Rezon, who had formerly been a slave, obtained possession of Damascus. + +3. After this, there arose the kingdom of Damascus, which comprised the +greatest portion of Syria, the kings in the other cities becoming +tributary to Damascus. The boundaries of the empire, too, were extended, +and particularly at the expense of the divided kingdoms of Judah and +Israel. + + The kings, whose names are taken from the books of Chronicles, + were: Rezon, about 980. Benhadad I. about 900. Hazael, about 850. + Benhadad II. about 830. Rezin. Under this last, the kingdom of + Damascus was overthrown by the Assyrian conqueror Tiglath-Pileser, + about 740. + + _Contemporary_ in Inner Asia: Assyrian kingdom. Jews: kingdoms + of Israel and Judah. Greeks: settlement of the Asiatic + colonies.--Lycurgus. + + + +VII. _Jews._ + + +The history of the Jewish people, begins with Abraham the father of +their race; that of the Jewish state does not commence till after the +conquest of Palestine. It is divided into three periods. I. History of +the Jews, as a nomad horde, from Abraham till their settlement in +Palestine, B. C. 2000-1500. II. History of the Jewish state as a +federative republic under the high priests and judges, from B. C. +1500-1100. III. History of the Jewish state under a monarchical +government, from B. C. 1100-600, first in one kingdom,--975; afterwards +as two separate kingdoms, Israel and Judah, until the downfall of the +latter, 588. + + Sources of the Jewish history.--Their annals:--Books of Judges, + Samuel, Chronicles, Kings. How those books were composed, and + whether their authors may be considered as contemporary with the + events they relate? How far the Hebrew poets, the prophets in + particular, may be considered as historical authority?--JOSEPHUS, + as an antiquarian in his _Archæologia_, and as a contemporary + historian in his _Historia Belli Romani_. + + Unfortunately there is not at present any satisfactory treatise on + the Jewish history previous to the Babylonian captivity; nor one + written in an impartial spirit, without credulity or scepticism. + The work of BERRUYER, _Histoire du Peuple de Dieu, depuis son + origine jusqu'à la Naissance de J. C._ Paris, 1742, 10 vols. 8vo.; + and the continuation, _depuis la Naissance de J. C._ 10 vols.; and + others of the same kind do not answer this description. RELANDI + _Antiquit. Sacr. Heb._ The writings of J. D. MICHAELIS, particularly + his # Remarks on the Translation of the Old Testament, and his + # _Mosaic Law_; together with # HERDER, _On the Spirit of Hebrew + Poesy_, furnish many excellent materials. + + +I. _Period of the nomad state from Abraham to the conquest of +Palestine._--Under Abraham, Isaac, and Jacob, nothing more at first than +a single nomad family; which, however, during its sojourn in Lower +Egypt, where, during four hundred and thirty, or, according to others, +two hundred and fifty years, it roved about in subjection to the +Egyptian Pharaohs,--increased to a nomad nation, divided into twelve +tribes. The nation, however, becoming formidable from the great increase +of its numbers, the Pharaohs, following the usual policy of the +Egyptians, wished to compel the Jews to build and inhabit cities. +Unaccustomed to restraint, they fled from Egypt under the conduct of +Moses; and conquered, under him and his successor Joshua, Palestine, +the land of promise. + + Moses and his legislation.--What he borrowed and what he did not + borrow from the Egyptians?--The worship of Jehovah in the national + sanctuary, and by national festivals, celebrated with ceremonies + rigidly prescribed, the point of union for the whole nation, and + the political bond which held the tribes together.--The caste of + Levites, compared with the Egyptian caste of priests. + + J. D. MICHAELIS, _Mosaic Law_. Gottingen, 1778, etc. 6 vols. 8vo.; + translated into English by Dr. ALEXANDER SMITH. Lond. 1814, 4 + vols. 8vo. The commentator frequently sees more than the lawgiver. + + +II. _Period of the federative republic._ From the occupation of +Palestine to the establishment of monarchy, 1500-1100. + +1. General character of this period as the heroic age of the nation, +which, after the gradual adoption of fixed dwellings and agriculture, +was engaged in constant feuds with its neighbours, the vagrant Arabs, +the Philistines, and the Edomites. Impossibility of exterminating +entirely the ancient inhabitants according to the intention of +Moses.--Hence the worship of Jehovah was never the _only_ religion in +the land. + +2. Political organization. In consequence of the division of land, +according to tribes, and their separation from one another, the +government long remained patriarchal. Each tribe preserved its patriarch +or elder, as in the nomad state. All, however, had, in the worship of +Jehovah, one common bond, uniting them into one federate state. +Magistrates were likewise appointed in the cities, to whom scribes are +conjoined out of the Levite caste. + +3. The permanent union of the nation, and preservation of the Mosaic +law, were likewise promoted by the distribution of the Levite caste into +forty-eight separate towns, situated in various parts of the country, +and by making the high priesthood hereditary in Aaron's family. + +4. But when at the death of Joshua the people were left without a common +ruler, the tie of religion became insufficient to hold them together; +especially as the weaker tribes became jealous of the more powerful. At +this time the high priests appear to have had but little political +influence; and the national bond was only prevented from being dissolved +by the dread of a foreign yoke. + +5. The Jews were sometimes independent, at other times tributary. In +seasons of oppression and distress heroes arose, jealous for the worship +of Jehovah, to deliver them from bondage. They acted as chief +magistrates and rulers of a part, or even the whole of the nation, and +as champions of the worship of the true God. The judges, particularly +Othniel, Deborah, and Sampson.--Concerning the marvellous in their +history. + +6. Reestablishment of the worship of Jehovah by Samuel. He becomes +judge, and rules as Jehovah's minister.--His scheme of making the office +of judge hereditary in his own family is defeated by the conduct of his +sons. The nation demands a king, whom Samuel, as minister of Jehovah, is +called upon to appoint. His crafty policy in the election, which he +cannot impede. He chooses Saul, politically speaking, the most +insignificant man of the nation; but the tallest and most stately. A +formal constitutional act, according to the Mosaic command, is drawn up +and deposited in the national sanctuary. + + Causes which led the nation to demand a king.--Earlier attempts + made, particularly by _Abimelech_, to obtain regal power. + + +III. _Period of the monarchy from 1100-600._ + + +I. _The Jewish state as one single kingdom from 1100(1095)-975._ + +1. _Saul_, the new king, strengthened himself on the throne by a victory +over the Ammonites; and a general assembly of the nation, in which +Samuel laid down his office as judge, unanimously acknowledged his +sovereignty. But Saul, no sooner became a conqueror than he threw off +the tutelage of Samuel, and ventured himself to consult Jehovah. This +was the occasion of a feud between them. Samuel, offended, privately +anointed another young man, David the son of Jesse, as king. David +acquires fame and popularity by his heroic conduct; but has much +difficulty in escaping the jealousy of Saul.--Saul sustains himself amid +constant wars with the neighbouring nations; but at last defeated, he +and all his sons, except one, lose their lives. + +2. State of the nation and constitution under Saul.--The king little +more than a military leader under the direction of Jehovah; without +either court or fixed residence.--The people still a mere agricultural +and pastoral race, without wealth or luxury; but gradually assuming the +character of a warlike nation. + +3. Saul was succeeded by David; but not without opposition. Eleven +tribes declare for Ish-bosheth, the remaining son of Saul; and David is +only acknowledged by his own tribe, Judah. It is not till seven years +later, and the murder of Ish-bosheth by his own people, that David is +recognized as king by the whole nation. + +4. Complete formation of the nation, and a change of constitution during +the reign of David over the united kingdom, which lasted thirty-three +years. Jerusalem is made the seat of government and of the national +sanctuary. Rigid observance of the worship of Jehovah, the exclusive +religion of the nation, considered in respect to its political +consequence. + +5. Vast aggrandizement of the Jewish state by conquest. A war with +Hadadezer opens the way to the conquest of Syria and Idumæa. Extent of +the kingdom from the Euphrates to the Mediterranean; from Phoenicia to +the Red sea. Gradual decline towards despotism and seraglio government; +the political consequences of which become apparent about the end of +David's reign, in the rebellion of his sons. + +6. Reign of Solomon. The brilliant government of a despot from the +interior of his seraglio; unwarlike, but civilized, and fond of parade. +New organization of the kingdom for the support of the court. +Connections formed with the neighbouring states, particularly with Tyre; +hence a participation in the southern trade carried on from the ports of +the Red sea, conquered by David; but only as a monopoly of the court. + +7. The capital enriched by the splendour of the court; but the country +oppressed and impoverished, particularly the distant tribes. Gradual +internal decay hastened by the admixture of the worship of foreign gods +with that of Jehovah; although Solomon, by the erection of the temple +according to the plan of his father, seems to have wished to make the +worship of the true God the only religion of the country. An +unsuccessful attempt at rebellion made by Jeroboam; and by the Edomites, +who remain tributary under their own kings: actual secession, even +during the reign of Solomon, of the conquered province of Syria by the +foundation of the kingdom of Damascus. + +8. Solomon is succeeded by his son Rehoboam, who has scarcely ascended +the throne, before the malcontents, increased in number by his +imprudence, break into open rebellion. Jeroboam is recalled from Egypt, +and ten tribes acknowledge him as their king. Only two tribes, Judah and +Benjamin, remain faithful to Rehoboam. + + +II. _The Jewish state as a divided kingdom, 975-588._ + +1. Reciprocal relations between the two kingdoms of Judah and Israel. +Although Israel was more extensive and populous than Judah, yet was +Judah, in consequence of possessing the capital, richest of the two; +thus their power was nearly balanced; and hence the struggle between +them was the more obstinate. + +2. The kings of Israel seek to confirm the political division of the +nation, by establishing a new form of worship within their dominions, in +order to restrain their subjects from visiting the ancient seat of the +national worship at Jerusalem; hence they were considered as the enemies +of Jehovah. Several kings, however, even of Judah were so impolitic as +to mingle the worship of other gods with that of Jehovah. But oppression +itself serves to sustain the worship of Jehovah; the number and +political influence of the prophets increase in proportion as men feel, +amid the turbulence of the times, need of the counsels of the true God; +the idea of some future happier period under a mighty king--the idea of +the Messiah and of his kingdom--is more fully developed by the lively +recollection of the splendid reign of David.--Schools of the prophets. + +3. The rivalry and wars between those two states not only continue with +slight interruption, but become more and more fraught with danger, in +consequence of the alliances entered into with foreign princes, +particularly with the kings of Damascus and Egypt. An end is at length +put to these feeble kingdoms by the rise of vast empires in Inner Asia. + + Most important events in the history of the two kingdoms. + + 1. KINGDOM OF ISRAEL, 975-722; under 19 kings, from different + families, who succeeded to the throne amid violent revolutions. 1. + Jeroboam, _d._ 954. Settlement of the royal residence at Shechem; + of the sanctuaries at Bethel and Dan, and appointment of priests, + not belonging to the tribe of Levi. Constant wars with the kings of + Judah. 2. Nadab, Jeroboam's son, murdered in 953 by 3. Baasha, _d._ + 930. This prince, by his alliance with the kings of Damascus, + brought the kingdom of Judah into great danger. 4. Elah murdered in + 929 by one of his generals. 5. Zimri, in whose place the army + immediately elected 6. Omri: this prince, at the beginning of his + reign, had a rival to the throne in Tibni, _d._ 925. Omri founded + the new capital, Samaria, _d._ 918. He was succeeded by his son 7. + Ahab: strong connections by marriage with the kings of Sidon; + introduction of the Phoenician worship of Baal. Wars with + Damascus, in which Ahab at last perishes, 897. Under Ahab a league + formed with the king of Judah. He is succeeded by his sons, 8. + Ahaziah, _d._ 896, and 9. Jehoram. The league with Judah continues. + Jehoram is murdered by Jehu, 883. 10. Jehu: this king destroys the + house of Ahab, which had given 4 kings to Israel, and does away + with the worship of Baal. The kings of Damascus wrest from the + kingdom of Israel the lands beyond Jordan. Jehu, _d._ 856. He is + succeeded by his son 11. Jehoahaz, _d._ 840. The wars with Damascus + continue unsuccessful to Israel. 12. Jehoash, _d._ 825. He defeats + the kings of Damascus and Judah. 13. Jeroboam II. _d._ 784. He + restores the kingdom of Israel to its ancient extent. After a + turbulent interregnum of 12 years, he is succeeded by his son 14. + Zechariah, 773; who was assassinated the same year, being the last + remnant of the house of Jehu, which had given 5 kings to Israel. + His murderer, 15. Shallum, after a reign of one month, is, in his + turn, assassinated by 16. Menahem, _d._ 761: under his reign the + first expedition of the Assyrians, headed by Pul, whom he buys off + by tribute. 17. His son Pekahiah murdered in 759 by 18. Pekah, + under whose reign falls the expedition of Tiglath-Pileser the + Assyrian, and destruction of Damascus. Pekah is assassinated in 740 + by 19. Hoshea, who, after an anarchy of eight years, obtains + possession of the throne. Hoshea endeavours, by an alliance with + Egypt, to shake off the Assyrian yoke; but Shalmaneser, king of + Assyria, wages war against him, conquers Samaria, and puts an end + to the kingdom of Israel, whose inhabitants he transplants to Media + in Inner Asia, 722. + + 2. KINGDOM OF JUDAH under 20 kings of the house of David, 975-598. + The regular line of hereditary succession is generally followed + without dispute, and is only twice interrupted by Athaliah's + usurpation, and the intervention of foreign conquerors. 1. + Rehoboam, _d._ 958. Jerusalem is still the seat of government; but + even during this reign the worship of Jehovah begins to fall into + neglect, in consequence of the introduction of foreign gods. + Besides the war with Israel, Jerusalem is attacked and plundered by + Shishak, king of Egypt. 2. Abijah, _d._ 955. 3. Asa. This prince + was attacked by the combined kings of Israel and Damascus, and, no + doubt, would have sunk in the conflict, had he not succeeded in + breaking their alliance; _d._ 914. 4. Jehoshaphat, the restorer of + the worship of Jehovah and framer of a league with the kingdom of + Israel. His attempt to reestablish the trade to Ophir, on the Red + sea, is unsuccessful, _d._ 891. 5. Jehoram. The union with Israel + is confirmed by the marriage of this prince with Ahab's daughter, + Athaliah; but Idumæa, under his reign, secedes wholly from the + kingdom of Judah, _d._ 884. 6. His son Ahaziah is, in the next + year, 883, assassinated by Jehu, the murderer and successor of + Jehoram king of Israel. 7. His mother, Athaliah, takes possession + of the throne; murders the whole royal family; only one son of + Ahaziah, 8, Joash, is, in consequence of his youth, rescued from + the carnage, secretly educated in the temple, and after seven years + forcibly placed upon the throne, by means of a revolution wrought + by the high priest, Jehoiada; and Athaliah is slaughtered, 877. + Joash rules under the tutelage of the priests, which leads to the + reestablishment of Jehovah's worship. This prince is menaced by + Hazael king of Damascus, and compelled to pay him tribute. Slain + 838. 9. Amaziah: he defeats the Edomites, and is in his turn + defeated by Jehoash king of Israel, by whom Jerusalem itself is + sacked. He is slain in 811, and succeeded 10. by his son Azariah, + (or Uzziah.) This prince was leprous, and _d._ 759. His son 11. + Jotham, _d._ 743, became regent during the life of his father. The + wars with Israel and Damascus recommence. 12. Ahaz, _d._ 728. The + league between the kings of Damascus and Israel induces Ahaz to + call to his assistance Tiglath-Pileser king of Assyria, who + overthrows the kingdom of Damascus, and subjects Israel and Judah + to tribute. 13. Hezekiah, _d._ 699. He shakes off the Assyrian + yoke: under his reign Shalmaneser destroys Samaria, 722: and + Shalmaneser's successor, Sennacherib, undertakes his expedition + against Egypt, 714. Jerusalem is again besieged, but fortunately + relieved by the total failure of the expedition. Isaiah prophecies + during the reign of this prince. 14. Manasseh, _d._ 644. During his + 55 years' reign, the worship of the Phoenician god, Baal, becomes + general; that of Jehovah falls into contempt, and the Mosaic law + into disuse. 15. Amon, murdered as early as 642. 16. Josiah + restorer of the temple, and of the worship of Jehovah. The book of + the Law, which had been cast aside and neglected, is once more + found, and a complete reform instituted according to its + principles. Palestine however is the first country attacked by + Necos, king of Egypt; and Josiah falls in battle, 611. His son, 17. + Jehoahaz, is, after a reign of three months, dethroned by + Pharaoh-Nechoh, and his brother 18. Jehoiakim placed as a tributary + prince on the throne. But in consequence of the rise of the + Chaldæo-Babylonian empire, Pharaoh-Nechoh is deprived of his + Asiatic conquests by the loss of the battle of Circesium, 606; and + Jehoiakim becomes tributary to Nebuchadnezzar, _d._ 599. The + prophet Jeremiah flourishes. 19. Jehoiachin, son of the former + king, after three months' reign, is, together with the greater part + of the nation, transplanted into Inner Asia by Nebuchadnezzar, + after a second expedition, (commencement of the Babylonian + captivity,) and, 20. Zedekiah, brother on the father's side to + Jehoiachin, is seated on the throne as a tributary prince. Forming, + however, a league with Egypt, in order to throw off the Babylonian + yoke, Nebuchadnezzar marches a third time against Jerusalem, + conquers it, 588, and delivers it up to pillage and destruction. + Zedekiah, after being deprived of his eye-sight, and losing all his + children by the hands of the executioner, is, together with the + remaining portion of the nation, led in captivity to Babylon. + + S. BERNHARDI _Commentatio de causis quibus affectum sit ut regnum + Judæ diutius persisteret quam regnum Israel; cum tabula + geographica_, Lovanii, 1825, 4to. A prize essay, containing also + several valuable enquiries into the monarchical period of the + Jewish state. + + # BAUER, _Manual of the History of the Hebrew Nation_, vol. i-iii, + 1800. The best introduction hitherto published, not only to the + history, but also to the antiquities of the nation, from the rise + to the fall of the state. + + + + +II. AFRICAN NATIONS. + + + + +_General Geographical Outline of Ancient Africa._ + + + See A. H. L. HEEREN'S _Historical Researches_, etc. African Nations. + 2 vols. 8vo. Oxford, 1831. + +1. Although the Phoenicians had circumnavigated Africa, the northern +part only of that quarter of the globe was known to antiquity. + +With that part, however, the ancients were better acquainted than we are +at the present day, the coast being then occupied by civilized and +commercial nations, who pushed their excursions far inland. This was the +case in early times with the Carthaginians and the Egyptians; still more +so with the Macedonian Greeks, under the Ptolemies, and under the +Romans. War, hunting, and commerce, were, generally speaking, the +objects which gave rise to those excursions. + +2. Considered as a whole, Africa is very different from Asia, both in +situation and form. Asia lies almost entirely within the temperate, +while Africa is almost wholly under the torrid zone. Asia abounds in +deep gulfs and large rivers; Africa constitutes a regular triangle, and +in its northern half possesses but two large rivers, the Nile and the +Niger. No wonder, then, that this portion of our globe should form, as +it were, a world in itself, distinguished by its productions and its +inhabitants. + +3. Physically considered, Northern Africa may be divided into three +regions, distinguished in early antiquity by separate names. The +maritime country along the Mediterranean, with the exception of +Tripolis, or the Regio-Syrtica, consists principally of very fertile +districts, and was consequently, at all times, very thickly inhabited: +hence in Herodotus it bears the name of the _inhabited Africa_; it is +now called Barbary. Above this, and under the 30th parallel of N. lat., +succeeds a mountainous tract, across which stretches the Atlas chain of +mountains; abounding in wild beasts and dates: hence Herodotus calls it +the _wild beast Africa_: among the Arabs it is called the land of dates, +(_Biledulgerid_.) Beyond this, and between the 30th and 20th degrees of +N. lat. the sandy region extends right across Africa and Arabia: this +part of Africa is therefore known, both among the ancients and moderns, +under the name of Africa Deserta, or the Sandy Desert, (Sahara). The +fruitful lands beyond the desert, stretching along the banks of the +Niger, were almost wholly unknown to the Greeks: by them these parts +were comprehended under the common name of Ethiopia, although that name +applied more peculiarly to the districts above Egypt. The Greeks were, +however, acquainted with some of the fruitful spots in the desert, the +Oases; such as Augila, Ammonium, and the Oases, properly so called, in +Egypt. + +4. There exists no political division which comprises the whole of +Africa. The north coast alone was inhabited by civilized nations: +Egyptians, Cyrenæans, and Carthaginians; of which the first only were +aboriginals. The rest of the inhabitants either roved about as nomad +hordes, or formed insignificant states, of whose existence we have +heard some account, though we possess no history of them. Along the +shore, reckoning from the Plinthinetic gulf, Egypt is succeeded by: 1st. +Marmarica, a tract without cities, consisting principally of sandy +deserts, occupied by nomad hordes: this country extends from the 40-47° +E. long. from Ferro. 2nd. The fertile territory occupied by the Greek +colonies, called Cyrenaïca, extended to the Greater Syrtis, 37-40° E. +long. Cities: Cyrene, Barca. 3rd. The territory of Carthage, extending +from the Greater Syrtis to the Fair Promontory, 25-40° E. long. This +territory comprised (_a_) the country between the Greater and Lesser +Syrtis, (Regio Syrtica,) which constitutes the modern kingdom of +Tripoli; a sandy tract, almost wholly occupied by nomads. (_b_) the +territory of Carthage, properly so called, (kingdom of Tunis). A very +fruitful country; the southern part, called Byzacena, the northern part +Zeugitana. Cities: Carthage, Utica, etc. 4th. Numidia and Mauritania; +occupied during the Carthaginian age by nomad races. Along the shore +some Carthaginian settlements. + + + +EGYPTIANS. + + +Preliminary remarks. Egypt in its superficial contents is equal to about +two-thirds of Germany, and may therefore justly be ranked among the more +extensive countries of the globe; it greatly varies, however, in its +physical properties. The soil is only sufficiently fertile for tillage +on the banks of the Nile, and as far as the floods of that river extend; +beyond that, on the west, is a sandy desert, on the east a chain of +rocky mountains. From its entrance into Egypt at Syene, the Nile flows +in one undivided stream to the city of Cercasorus, 60 geogr. miles above +its mouth, directing its source from south to north through a valley +from 8 to 16 geogr. miles broad, bounded on the west by deserts of sand, +and on the east by mountains of granite. At Cercasorus the stream first +divides itself into two main branches, which formerly discharged their +waters into the Mediterranean, the eastern near the city of Pelusium, +the western near the city of Canopus (_ostium Pelusiacum et Canopicum_;) +from these two diverged several intermediate branches; so that in the +time of Herodotus there existed seven mouths of the Nile, but the number +has not always remained the same. The tract between the two extreme arms +of the Nile bears, in consequence of its triangular form, the name of +the Delta; it was covered with cities, and highly cultivated. The +fertile part of Egypt, inhabited by civilized men, was therefore +confined to the Delta and the valley of the Nile, on the two banks of +the stream from Syene to Cercasorus; to which must be added some well +watered spots in the centre of the western desert, known under the name +of the Oases. In consequence of the perpetual absence of rain, +particularly in Upper Egypt, the fertility of the Delta and the valley +of the Nile depends on the overflowing of the river, which happens at +stated periods. This commences at the beginning of August and continues +to the end of October; so that during three whole months the +above-mentioned parts of the country are under water. + +Egypt is divided into Upper, extending from Syene to the city of +Chemmis, (capital, Thebes, or Diospolis); Central from Chemmis to +Cercasorus, (capital, Memphis,) and Lower Egypt, which comprises the +Delta, and the land on both sides: it was full of cities, among which +the most remarkable was Sais. + +Next above Egypt lies Ethiopia, (_Æthiopia supra Ægyptum_); which, from +the earliest times, principally through commerce, appears to have been +closely connected with the former country. The regions immediately above +Egypt, usually called Nubia, are little more than deserts of sand, still +inhabited by roving hordes of nomad robbers. The rocky mountain chain, +which forms the eastern boundary of Egypt, stretches along the Red sea, +and was formerly of great importance to Nubia, from its containing, just +above the Egyptian frontier, productive gold mines. The Nile, in this +country, makes a wide curve to the west, and becomes so full of shallows +as to render navigation difficult. The lands adjoining the river, +however, are fertile and well inhabited; and contain numerous ancient +monuments. Still higher up, reckoning from 16° N. lat. the appearance of +the country changes; the region of fertility commences, and its costly +productions, its gold and its perfumes, gave rise to a profitable +commerce. Among these countries, Meroe, with its capital of the same +name, was celebrated in the days of Herodotus. By Meroe is understood a +tract of land bounded by two rivers, the Nile on the west, and the +Astaboras, (Tacazze,) which falls into the Nile, on the east; for this +reason it is frequently, although improperly, called an island. This +country extended towards the sources of the Nile, or the modern province +of Gojam, where, under the reign of Psammetichus, the Egyptian caste of +warriors, having for the most part deserted, established themselves. +Meroe itself, like the Egyptian states, was sacerdotal, with a king at +its head.--The city of Axum, or Auxume, is not indeed mentioned at so +early a period; but if we may judge by the ruins that still remain, it +was of equally high antiquity with the old Egyptian towns and with +Meroe. The same observations apply to Adule, the harbour on the Arabian +gulf. + +The Egyptian history is divided into three periods of unequal duration; +the _first_ of which extends from the earliest time down to the +Sesostridæ, that is to say, to about B.C. 1500: the _second_ comprises +the reigns of the Sesostridæ, or the brilliant period of Egypt, down to +Psammetichus, 1500-650: the _third_ brings us from Psammetichus down to +the Persian conquest, 650-525. + + +FIRST PERIOD. + +_From the earliest times down to the Sesostridæ, about B. C. 1500._ + + Sources: 1. Jewish writers. _Moses._ His records contain, no doubt, + a faithful picture of the Egyptian state in his day; but no + continuous history can be deduced from them.--From Moses down to + Solomon (B.C. 1500-1000.) total silence, with respect to Egypt, of + the Hebrew writers. From Solomon down to Cyrus, (B.C. 1000-550.) a + few scanty fragments.--Importance and superiority of the Jewish + accounts, so far as they are _purely historical_. 2. Greek writers. + (_a_) _Herodotus._ The first who published a History of the + Egyptians. About seventy years after the destruction of the throne + of the Pharaohs by the Persian conquerors, this author collected, + in Egypt itself, the earliest accounts of the history of the + country; he received his information from the most capable persons, + the priests; and wrote down faithfully that information, such as he + heard it. If, therefore, we would estimate at their proper worth + the accounts given by Herodotus, it is necessary to enquire, what + did the priests themselves know of their earlier national history? + And this question cannot be answered until we have ascertained in + what manner the historical records of the earlier periods were + preserved among the Egyptians. + + The earliest history of the Egyptians, like that of all other + nations, was traditional. They adopted, however, before any other + nations, a sort of writing, hieroglyphics, or allegorical picture + writing; in which the signs borrowed from natural objects served, + as modern discoveries have proved, partly to represent sounds, + (_hiéroglyphes phonétiques_,) and partly to express ideas; in the + latter case they were either representative or allegorical. This + mode of writing, by its nature, is not so complete as the purely + alphabetical; since, 1. It can express only a narrow circle of + ideas, and these separately, without connection or grammatical + inflection, at least with very few exceptions. 2. As it is not so + well adapted to writing as to painting or engraving, it is not so + useful for books as for public monuments. 3. Being emblematic, it + is not intelligible without the help of a key, which could only be + preserved in some tradition connected with the monument, and which + was exclusively possessed by the priests; this key, therefore, + could hardly be preserved many centuries without falsification. 4. + The same image seems frequently to have been used to express very + different objects.--It follows, that the Egyptian history, as + deduced from the lips of the priests, can hardly have been any + thing more than records connected with, and depending upon, public + monuments: consisting, therefore, of mere fragments, and reducible + to no consistent chronology, it ultimately admitted only of + allegorical translation, and consequently was very liable to be + misinterpreted. Besides their hieroglyphics, the Egyptians + certainly had two other species of writing: the _hieratic_, + confined to the priests, and the _demotic_, used in common life. + Both, however, seem to have been nothing more than running hands + derived from the hieroglyphic system; and we have no instance of + the employment of either the one or the other in public monuments + of the time of the Pharaohs. That the use of papyrus, a material on + which all the above kinds of writing were employed, had its origin + in the highest antiquity, or at least in the more brilliant period + of the Pharaohs, we now know for certain, written documents + belonging to those times having been obtained from the tombs. + + CHAMPOLLION LE JEUNE, _Précis du Système Hiéroglyphique des anciens + Egyptiens_. Paris, 1824. The main work on this subject, of which + the _Lettre à M. Dacier_, 1822, is but the precursor, and the two + _Lettres à M. le duc de Blacas_ the continuation. The new method of + deciphering has received its principal confirmation from the work + of the British consul in Egypt, SALT, _Essay on the Phonetic System + of Hieroglyphics_, 1825, on the authority of a comparison with the + Egyptian monuments themselves. Hitherto, however, little more has + been made out than the names and titles of the kings, distinguished + by being always enclosed within a border. + + These preliminary remarks on the earlier Egyptian history, will + derive abundant support from a perusal of the account given by + Herodotus (ii, 99-150), of the Egyptian kings previous to + Psammetichus. The study of that author proves beyond all doubt, + that: I. The whole history is throughout founded on public + monuments, and on monuments too, either in or near _Memphis_. We + may even restrict ourselves to one single monument at Memphis, to + the temple of Vulcan, or Phtha, the chief temple of that city. The + history commences with Menes, the founder of that edifice, (c. + 99.), and we are informed, respecting each of his successors, what + was done towards the augmentation and embellishment of the + building: those who made no addition to that temple, but left other + monuments, (as the builders of the pyramids,) are denominated + oppressors of the people, and contemners of the gods: of those + princes who left no monuments at all, the priests could give no + other information than a catalogue of names. II. Hence this line of + kings, although the priests gave it to Herodotus as such, is not + without interruptions, but, as is clearly proved by a comparison + with Diodorus, contains many wide chasms: therefore no + chronological system can be erected upon such a basis. III. The + whole history is interwoven with narrations derived from + hieroglyphic representations, and for that very reason allegorical, + the meaning of which it is no longer possible to unravel, the + priests themselves being either unable or unwilling to explain it, + and even inclining, it appears, to introduce false interpretations. + To this class of narrations belongs, for instance, that of the + robbery of Rhampsinitus's treasury; that of his journey into hell, + where he played at dice with Ceres, (c. 121, 122); that concerning + the daughter of Cheops, (c. 127.); concerning the blindness of + Pheron, and the manner in which he was cured, etc. (c. 111.) To + prove that this charge is not without foundation, it will suffice + to adduce two examples; one from c. 131, where Herodotus himself + observes that such was the case; the other from c. 141, the true + meaning of which we gather from other sources. Even in the time of + Herodotus, it was customary with the priests to endeavour to + conciliate the Greek and Egyptian authorities; a fact in proof of + which there are many arguments which cannot escape the critic: + such, for instance, as the completely _Græcised_ history of king + Proteus, c. 112-115.--The general result of the above observations + on Herodotus's Egyptian history is, that it is nothing more than a + narration connected with public monuments. To this inference but + one objection can possibly be made, namely, that the Egyptian + priests possessed, besides their hieroglyphics, an alphabetical + mode of writing; consequently, that, over and above the public + monuments, they might likewise refer to written annals; but this + objection is overthrown by Herodotus himself. All the information + the priests could give him beyond what has been above alluded to, + consisted in the names of 330 kings subsequent to Menes; these + they read from a papyrus roll, but knew nothing more of the kings + who bore them, because _those sovereigns had left no monuments + behind them_, (c. 100.) + + (_b_) Besides Herodotus, _Diodorus_ (lib. i.) likewise furnishes us + with the names of some Egyptian kings. This author, who wrote 400 + years subsequently to Herodotus, visited Egypt, and collected his + history, partly from the oral and written documents of the priests + of _Thebes_, partly from the more ancient Greek writers, and + particularly Hecatæus. If we consider Herodotus's line of kings as + not continuous or uninterrupted, all appearance of contradiction + between the two historians vanishes. Diodorus, like Herodotus, did + not intend to give a complete enumeration of the Egyptian kings; + but only of the most remarkable; indicating the interruptions by + the number of generations which they contained. + + (_c_) Finally, different from both the above is the Egyptian + _Manetho_, high priest at _Heliopolis_, who flourished under the + reign of Ptolemy Philadelphus, about B. C. 260. He wrote the + _Ægyptiaca_, of which, besides several fragments in Josephus, the + enumeration of the kings has been preserved in the chronicles of + Eusebius and Syncellus. This catalogue is divided into three + sections, (tomos,) each of which contains several dynasties, in all + 31, enumerated according to the different cities of Egypt. In each + dynasty the number of kings belonging to it and the years of their + reigns are marked. The authenticity of Manetho is now completely + established; since the names of the Pharaohs mentioned by him have + been deciphered on the Egyptian monuments. To this period belong + the first seventeen dynasties; in the eighteenth begins the second + and brilliant period, to which the yet remaining monuments of Upper + Egypt, bearing the names of the founders, are to be ascribed. It is + worthy of observation, that in Herodotus we have the documents of + the priests of Memphis, in Diodorus those of the priests of Thebes, + in Manetho those of the priests of Heliopolis--the three principal + seats of sacerdotal learning:--perfect consistency cannot, + therefore, be expected in the accounts of those historians. + + The modern writers on Egyptian antiquities, from KIRCHER, _Oedipus + Ægyptiacus_, 1670, to DE PAUW, _Recherches sur les Egyptiens et sur + les Chinois_, 1772, have too often substituted their own dreams and + hypotheses for truth. The principal attempts at a chronological + arrangement of the dynasties have been made by MARSHAM, in his + _Canon Chronicus_; and by GATTERER, in his # _Synchronistic History + of the World_.--Among the principal works on this subject may be + reckoned: + + JABLONSKI _Pantheon Mythicum Ægyptiacum_, 1750, 8vo. + + GATTERER, _Commentationes de Theogonia Ægypt_. in _Commentat. + Societ. Gotting._ t. vii. + + _De Origine et Usu Obeliscorum, auctore_ G. ZOEGA; Romæ, 1797. + + _L'Egypte sous les Pharaons, ou Recherches sur la Géographie, la + Religion, la Langue, les Ecritures, et l'Histoire de l'Egypte avant + l'invasion de Cambyse, par_ CHAMPOLLION LE JEUNE, t. i, ii. 1814. + These two volumes, dedicated to the geography, contain the + restoration of the ancient Egyptian names of provinces and cities + deduced from Coptic authorities. + + _Commentationes Herodoteæ, scribebat_ FRID. CREUZER. _Ægyptica et + Hellenica, pars 1._ Lips. 1819. A series of most acute and learned + illustrations of different points in Egyptian antiquity, introduced + by different passages of Herodotus. + + The volume in HEEREN'S _Historical Researches_, etc. 1831, vol. ii, + concerning the Egyptians; and particularly the introduction on + hieroglyphic writing. For the best representations of the Egyptian + monuments, we are indebted to the French expedition. Those of Denon + in his _Voyage en Egypte_, are far superior to those of Pococke and + Norden; but Denon's, in their turn, have been greatly surpassed in + the magnificent work: + + _Description de l'Egypte, Antiquités_, P. i, ii, iii. P. i, + contains the monuments of Upper Egypt, from the frontiers of Nubia + to Thebes; P. ii, iii, contain the monuments of Thebes alone. + + BELZONI, _Researches in Egypt_, London, 1824, with an atlas. + + # MINUTOLI, _Journey to the Temple of Jupiter Ammon, and Egypt_, 1824. + + L. BURCKHARDT, _Travels in Nubia_, London, 1819. + + F. C. GAU, _Antiquités de la Nubie_, Paris, 1824. A worthy + continuation of the great French work on Egypt. + + FR. CAILLAUD, _Voyage à Méroé et au Fleuve Blanc_, Paris, 1825, + contains the description of the monuments of Meroe. + +1. Political civilization commenced in Egypt at a much earlier period +than that to which history reaches; for even in the days of Abraham, +and still more so in those of Moses, the government seems to have been +so well organized, that a long period must necessarily have elapsed in +order to raise the nation to that degree of civilization which we see it +had then attained. It may, therefore, be safely asserted, that Egypt +ranks among the most ancient countries of our globe in which political +associations existed; although we cannot determine with equal certainty +whether they did not exist still earlier in India. + +2. The causes which contributed to render Egypt thus early a civilized +state, may be found in the natural features of the country, and its +favourable situation, when compared with the rest of Africa. It is the +only tract in all northern Africa situated on a large uninterrupted +navigable stream: had it not been for this, it would, like the other +parts of Africa under the same parallel, have been a mere desert. To +this must be added two extraordinary circumstances: on the one hand, the +overflowing of the river so perfectly prepares the soil, that to scatter +the seed is almost the only labour of the husbandman; and yet, on the +other hand, so many obstacles impede the progress of agriculture, (by +the necessity of canals, dams, etc.) that the invention of man must +necessarily have been awakened. When agriculture, and the kind of +knowledge requisite for its ulterior development had introduced a +certain degree of civilization into Egypt, the situation of that +country, between Asia and Africa, and in the neighbourhood of the rich +land of gold and spices, must have been highly favourable to the +purposes of international commerce; hence Egypt appears in all ages to +have been one of the chief seats of the inland or caravan trade. + +3. It is obvious, therefore, that in the fertile valley of the Nile, the +course of things must have been very different from what it was in the +desert of Libya. Several small states appear to have been formed in this +valley long before the existence of any great Egyptian kingdom. Their +origin, as might naturally be supposed, is enveloped in an obscurity, +which history can no longer entirely penetrate. It may still, however, +be gathered from monuments and records, that Upper Egypt was first the +seat of civilization; which, originating in the south, spread by the +settlement of colonies towards the north. It is probable that this took +place in consequence of the migration of some tribe, differing from the +negroes, as is proved by the representations, both in sculpture and in +painting, found on the yet remaining monuments of Egypt. + +4. The records of the high antiquity of political civilization, not only +in India, but likewise in Arabia Felix and Ethiopia, particularly in +Meroe, and the evident vestiges of ancient intercourse between the +southern nations of our globe, prove with sufficient evidence the truth +of such migrations, although they cannot be chronologically determined. +It is certain, however, that religion had no small share in producing +them. The national bond of union in Egypt not only continued in later +times, entirely dependent upon religion, but was originally grounded +upon it. Thus every step in political civilization must have depended, +if not solely, at least principally, on the caste of priests and on +their extension. + + General development of the idea of division into castes. Originating + at first in the variety of tribes settled in one and the same + country, and their different modes of life.--Its further progress + in despotic and in theocratic kingdoms.--Application to Egypt and + to the Egyptian caste of priests, as an original, civilized tribe. + +5. The peculiarity of this caste was the worship of certain deities, the +principal of which were Ammon, Osiris, and Phtha, confounded by the +Greeks with their Jupiter, Bacchus, and Vulcan. The spread of this +worship, which was always connected with temples, affords, therefore, +the most evident vestiges of the spread of the caste itself; and those +vestiges combined with the records of the Egyptians, lead us to conclude +that this caste was a tribe which migrated from the south, from beyond +Meroe in Ethiopia, and by the establishment of inland colonies around +the temples founded by them, gradually extended and made the worship of +their gods the dominant religion in Egypt. + + Proof of the accuracy of the above theory deduced from monuments and + express testimonies concerning the origin of Thebes and Ammon from + Meroe; it might have been inferred from the preservation of the + worship of Ammon in the latter place. Memphis, again, and other + cities in the valley of the Nile, are commonly supposed to have been + founded by detachments from Thebes. + +6. This conjecture, which agrees with the usual progress of population, +is corroborated by the very ancient division of the country into +districts, or nomes. This division was intimately connected with the +chief temples, each of which represented a separate colony of the caste +of priests; so that the inhabitants of every home belonged to the chief +temple, and joined in the religious worship there performed. + +7. To the gradual extension of this civilized tribe, which comprised, +not only the caste of the priests, but certainly also that of the +warriors, and perhaps some others, may be attributed the formation of +several small states along the banks of the Nile; the central point of +each being always such a colony as we have just now described; although +each state consisted both of the aboriginal tribes of the neighbourhood, +and of those that had migrated into the country. The bond which united +every separate state was, therefore, as in most of those formed in the +infancy of mankind, a common worship, in which all the members +participated. But what, by reason of the peculiarities of soil and +climate, could not take place in southern Africa, took place in Egypt: +agriculture, and its progressive improvement, became the great support +of civilization; and, as being the true foundation of states, formed the +principal political object of the ruling caste. + + Refutation of the idea, that the Egyptian priests were in possession + of great speculative knowledge; since their knowledge rather had + constant reference to practical life, and, therefore, was in their + hands the _instrumentum dominationis_ over the people, by which they + rendered themselves indispensable, and kept the former in a state of + dependence.--Explanation of the close reference which their gods, + their astronomical and mathematical sciences bore to agriculture. + +8. According to Manetho's catalogues, these separate Egyptian states +existed first in Upper and Middle Egypt; in the former were Thebes, +Elephantine, This, and Heraclea; in the latter, Memphis. It is only in +the last division of his work that we meet with states in Lower Egypt, +such as Tanis, Mendes, Bubastis, and Sebennytus. + + To these states, therefore, no doubt, belong the 330 kings after + Menes, whose names the priests read to Herodotus; as also those whom + Diodorus mentions as reigning previous to Sesostris, among whom are + remarked Busiris II. founder of Thebes, and Uchoreus, the founder of + Memphis. Eusebius and Syncellus have preserved from Manetho the names + of several of those kings, which Marsham has endeavoured to compare + and arrange. + +9. In the absence of a certain and continuous chronology, it is +impossible to determine accurately which of these states were +contemporary, and which succeeded the others. There can be no question +that Thebes was one of the earliest, if not indeed the most ancient of +them all; certainly prior to Memphis, which was founded by it. According +to the natural order of things, some of these states became wealthy and +mighty, and swallowed up the others. Even at this early period, Thebes +and Memphis had obtained a superiority over the rest. + + This and Elephantine appear to have been united to Thebes; as were the + states of Lower Egypt to Memphis. + +10. The Mosaic records prove, that even in Joseph's time the state of +Memphis (the real place, it appears, of his residence, not On, or +Heliopolis,) comprised Middle and Lower Egypt. It possessed a numerous +and brilliant court; castes of priests and warriors. Its agriculture +flourished, and several of its institutions indicated a deeply-rooted +civilization. But after the establishment of vassalage in this state by +Joseph, when the class of free proprietors was destroyed, by making the +king the only landholder except the priests, the troubles which already +threatened the kingdom must have assumed a more dangerous and alarming +aspect. + +11. These troubles came from abroad. Egypt, surrounded on all sides by +nomad tribes, had often suffered from their irruptions, which sometimes +poured in from the south, sometimes from the east. But never were these +invasions so frequent and durable as in the period which immediately +followed the administration of Joseph. Lower Egypt was overrun by the +Bedouin Arabs, whose chieftains, called by the Egyptians _Hyksos_, +settled in the country, fortified Avaris, or Pelusium, and extended +their dominion to Memphis, which they made probably the seat of their +government. They are depicted as the oppressors of religion, and of the +caste of priests; but when we consider that Moses flourished in their +time, we are led to infer that, like the Mongols in China, they must +have gradually adopted Egyptian manners and civilization. They do not +appear to have gained possession of Thebes in Upper Egypt; and it seems +highly probable, that the long struggle against them was never, or at +least but for a short time, suspended. + + The dominion of the Arabian Hyksos falls between B. C. 1800-1600; and + consequently was contemporary with Moses and the exodus of the Jews. + Josephus gives 500 years to their dominion, in which he probably + comprises the long periods of earlier wars. + +12. Defeat, and final expulsion of the Hyksos from Upper Egypt by +Thutmosis king of Thebes. The consequence of this event was not only +the restoration of freedom and independence to Egypt, but also the +union of the different states into one kingdom; as the rulers of Thebes +now became monarchs over all Egypt. This expulsion of the Hyksos, which +in itself cannot be considered otherwise than as a vast national effort, +must have been the more deeply impressed on the memory of the people, as +it laid the foundation of the splendid period which immediately +followed. + + The expulsion of the Hyksos appears to have been one of the chief + subjects on which the Egyptian artists exercised their talents: it + is supposed to have been represented upon one of the large temples + in Thebes. Denon, plate cxxxiii. + + +SECOND PERIOD. + +_From the Sesostridæ until the sole dominion of Psammetichus. +B. C. 1500-650._ + + The sources for this period are the same as for the foregoing; and + the history still preserves the character of records handed down by + hieroglyphics. To this period belongs the line of kings subsequent + to Sesostris, given both by Herodotus and Diodorus. Those two + historians nearly agree, if we regard Herodotus's line of kings, + not as uninterrupted, but as the fragments of a series deduced + solely from public monuments: this will be demonstrated by the + following table, in which the predecessors of Sesostris have + likewise been indicated. + + HERODOTUS. DIODORUS. + + _Menes._ _Menes._ + + He was followed by three Followed by fifty-two successors, + hundred and thirty kings ranging over a period of more + belonging to the previous than 1400 years. + period, concerning which our + information is very incomplete: _Busiris I._ and eight successors; + among those sovereigns were the last of whom was + eighteen Ethiopians, and one + queen named Nitocris. _Busiris II._ the founder of + Thebes. + + _Osymandyas_ and eight successors; + the last of whom was + + _Uchoreus_, founder of Memphis. + + _Ægyptus_, grandson of the + foregoing. After the lapse + of twelve generations, + + _Moeris._ _Moeris._ + + Seven generations. + + _Sesostris._ _Sesostris_ or _Sesoosis_. + + _Pheron_, son of Sesostris. _Sesostris II._ son of the + foregoing: he assumed his + father's name. + + Interval comprising several + generations. + + _Amasis_, and the Ethiopian, + + _Actisanus._ + + _Mendes_ or _Manes_, builder + of the labyrinth. + + Anarchy which lasted five + generations. + + _Proteus_, in the time of the _Proteus_ or _Cetes_, in the time + Trojan war. of the Trojan war. + + _Rhampsinitus._ _Remphis_, son of the foregoing. + + Seven generations, in the course + of which flourished _Nileus_, + from whom the Nile derives + its name. + + _Cheops_, builder of the great _Chemmis_ or _Chembes_, from + pyramid. Memphis, builder of the great + pyramid. + + _Chephres_, brother to the _Cephren_, brother to the + foregoing, builder of a pyramid. foregoing, builder of a pyramid. + + _Mycerinus_, son of Cheops, _Mycerinus_, son of Chemmis, + builder of a pyramid. builder of a pyramid. + + _Asychis_ the legislator. _Bochoris_ the legislator. + + _Anysis_, who was blind. Interval of several generations. + + _Sabaco_, the Ethiopian. _Sabaco_, the Ethiopian + + _Anysis_, king for the second + time. + + _Sethos_, a priest of Vulcan. + + Dodecarchy. Dodecarchy. + + _Psammetichus_ of Sais, sole _Psammetichus_ of Sais, sole + ruler. ruler. + + This comparative table demonstrates evidently, not only that + Herodotus's line is often interrupted, but likewise that it is + impossible to establish any continuous chronology, since Diodorus, + more than once leaves the number of generations undetermined. Great + importance, nevertheless, attaches to the date fixed by Herodotus, + ii, 13, where he declares that king Moeris flourished 900 years + before his own visit to Egypt: consequently between B.C. 1500 and + 1450. And if, as seems highly probable, the age of Sesostris was + the 15th century B.C. (see ZOEGA, _de Obeliscis_), it cannot be + denied but that we have some general epochs; and with these we must + remain content until more satisfactory information can be + discovered on the monuments. It should likewise be observed, that + the discrepancy between the names of the kings mentioned by + Herodotus and Diodorus, and those furnished by Manetho, may be + accounted for by the fact, that the sovereigns were distinguished + by different names on the monuments and in common life. + + Of the dynasties of Manetho, the 18th, 19th, 20th, and 22nd, belong + to this period; more especially the two first, which contain the + most important of the Pharaohs. + +1. The following period, nearly to its termination, was the brilliant +age of Egypt, during which it formed but one empire; the kings being +represented as sovereign lords of the whole country. And, indeed, it was +natural that the expulsion of the invaders should be followed by a +period in which the military force and ardour of the nation would be +developed, and directed to external conquest. The capital of the empire +was, no doubt, Thebes, the great monuments of which were erected in this +period; that honour, however, seems to have alternately belonged to +Memphis, Herodotus's line of kings being deduced from the monuments of +that city, and more especially from the temple of Phtha. + + The more powerful of the Pharaohs of this period, and the founders + of the most important monuments of Upper Egypt, on which their + names are found, are the following: belonging to the 18th dynasty, + somewhere about 1600-1500. + + _Amenophis I._ His name is likewise found beyond Egypt on the + temple of Amada, in Nubia. + + _Thutmosis I._ Commencement of the expulsion of the Hyksos. + + _Amenophis II._ The Memnon of the Greeks. Complete expulsion of the + Hyksos, and commencement of several of the great edifices. His name + is also found on the monuments of Thebes, Elephantine, and even in + Nubia, on the distant temple of Soleb. Builder of the palace of + Luxor. + + _Thutmosis II._ His name found in Carnac, and on the obelisk at the + Lateran. + + _Ramesses I._ Supposed to be the Danaus of the Greeks. Expelled by + his brother: + + _Ramesses II._ Miamun. Builder of the palace of Medinet-Abu in + Thebes. One of the royal graves that have been opened belongs to + this king. + + _Amenophis III._ Renewed invasion of the Hyksos; he flees before + them into Ethiopia; but returns victorious with his son Ramesses. + + Belonging to the 19th dynasty, between 1500 and 1400. + + _Ramesses III._, called the Great, and sometimes _Sesostris_; + founder of the dynasty, liberator of Egypt, and a great conqueror. + His name and titles, his wars and triumphs, are found on the + temples and palaces of Luxor and Carnac, in Thebes and Nubia. His + son and follower: + + _Ramesses IV._ Pheron, rules long in peace. His name is found in + the great pillared hall of the palace of Carnac, and on many other + buildings. + + Among his successors but few names have been preserved until we + come to Scheschonk or Sisac, of the 22nd dynasty, between 970 and + 950; he took Jerusalem under the reign of Rehoboam, and therefore + furnishes a fixed date. + + # R. V. L. (RUEHLE VON LILIENSTERN), _Graphic Illustrations of the + most ancient History and Geography of Egypt and Ethiopia, with an + atlas, 1827_. A work containing every thing necessary for + understanding the discoveries hitherto made in this department of + history. + +2. For this splendour, the empire was principally indebted to Sesostris, +son of Amenophis. This prince is justly entitled to the surname of +Great, which was given him by the Egyptians. No one will, to the letter, +credit the narrative of his deeds, exaggerated as they were by the +traditions of the priests, or represented, as they still appear, on the +buildings of Thebes; but who can doubt the existence of a monarch of +whom so many and such various monuments within and without Egypt bear +witness? + + Critical examination of the accounts of the nine years' campaign, and + conquests of Sesostris. His arms were principally directed against + wealthy commercial countries; probably by land against Ethiopia, Asia + Minor, and part of Thrace; by sea against Arabia Felix, perhaps even + the Indian peninsula. Can the performance of these exploits be deemed + improbable, in an age when western Asia did not contain a single + great empire? The vast undertakings attributed to Sesostris in the + interior of his dominions; extensive buildings, canals, division of + the land, and imposition of taxes, according to a regular survey, + prove that he must have been the sovereign of all Egypt. + +3. Notwithstanding the great changes that were made, the constitution +still bore the same general character, that of a sacerdotal aristocracy +combined with a monarchy. Although the Egyptian kings, like the Indian +princes, were distinct from the priests, yet their power was limited in +various ways by that caste. The high priest shared the royal authority; +the king was shackled by religious ceremonies, both in public and +private life; he was obliged to evince his veneration for the +established worship by the erection of public monuments; and all the +high offices of state were in the hands of the priests. It cannot be +denied that on the personal character of the king depended much of his +power; but how strong must have been this aristocracy, when even +successful conquerors were obliged to conciliate its approbation! + +4. It was probably about this time that the domestic relations of the +people, the division into castes, was completed. The sacerdotal caste +being in exclusive possession of all scientific knowledge, remained for +that reason in possession of the offices of state. The caste of warriors +could hardly have assumed its complete form before the country was +united into one empire: in like manner that of the navigators could not +have been completely established before the canals were excavated; +although the origin of all may have been of a much earlier date. + + Comparison of the accounts given by Herodotus and Diodorus of the + division into castes. Not only precedence in time, but likewise the + discrepancies between the two, declare in favour of Herodotus. + +5. It appears, therefore, that the most prosperous period of the kingdom +of the Pharaohs must be placed somewhere between B. C. 1500-900: +although, according to Diodorus, even this period was interrupted by a +long anarchy. The splendour of the empire was obscured towards the end. +Sabaco, a foreign conqueror from Ethiopia, (probably from Meroe,) +subjugated Egypt; after his departure from the country, Sethos, a +priest of Phtha, contrary to all precedent, seated himself upon the +throne. He was, consequently, considered an usurper; he offended the +caste of warriors, and could not have escaped the dangers of an +irruption threatened by the Assyrian, Sennacherib, had not a pestilence +compelled the invader and his host to retreat. + + The dynasty of Sabaco, Seuechus, and Tarhaco in Meroe, who as + conquerors subjected Upper Egypt, is comprised between B. C. 800-700. + Their names likewise have been already discovered on monuments; some + at Abydos in Egypt, others in Nubia. + +6. The Egyptian monarchy, however, at length fell, and was replaced by +an oligarchy; (or perhaps a return was only made to the division of the +earlier kingdoms;) twelve princes sharing among themselves the sovereign +power. A certain degree of unity seems to have existed at first in this +government; but quarrels soon sprung up among the princes, and they +compelled one of their number, Psammetichus of Sais, to take flight. The +exiled prince, supported by Greek and Carian mercenaries, contrived to +avenge his wrongs; he drove away his rivals, and became the sole ruler. + + +THIRD PERIOD. + +_From the reign of Psammetichus as sole monarch to the Persian conquest +of Egypt by Cambyses. B. C. 650-525._ + + Herodotus, (l. ii, c. 125, etc.) is still the principal authority + for this portion of history. His statements, however, are no longer + derived from hieroglyphics: they are purely historical. During the + reign of Psammetichus, the Greeks who had migrated into Egypt gave + rise to the caste of interpreters, [Greek: hermêneis], who acted + both as ciceroni for strangers, and as brokers between the + Egyptians and Greeks: these people were enabled to give information + respecting the history of the country. It is not, therefore, + surprising that Herodotus should assure us, that from this time the + history was authentic.--The names of the succeeding Pharaohs are + likewise found on the monuments; in the erection of which they + rivaled their predecessors. + + _Contemporary_: Asia: rise and fall of the Chaldæo-Babylonian + empire; rise of the Persian monarchy.--Rome: kings from Numa + Pompilius to Servius Tullius.--Athens: Draco; Solon; + Pisistratus.--Jews: the last period and fall of the kingdom of + Judah; Babylonish captivity. + +1. From this epoch Egypt remained uninterruptedly one kingdom, the +capital of which was Memphis, although Sais, in Lower Egypt, was the +general residence of the royal family. Strangers, and more particularly +Greeks, admitted into Egypt; partly as mercenaries, partly as merchants. +Influence of this innovation upon the national character, and upon the +political system in particular. A spirit of conquest gradually inherited +by the Egyptian kings, is directed principally against Asia: hence the +formation of a navy, and wars with the great rising monarchies of Asia. +Continued, but declining influence of the sacerdotal caste, and proofs +of the veneration of the kings for the priesthood deduced from the +erection and embellishment of temples, particularly of that consecrated +to Phtha in Memphis. + +2. _Psammetichus._ He obtains sole power through the assistance of Greek +and Carian mercenaries, who are continued as a standing army in the +country. The caste of Egyptian warriors, taking umbrage in consequence, +emigrate for the most part to Ethiopia, where they settle. The southern +portico of the temple of Phtha is erected, and projects of conquest are +formed against Asia. + +3. _Neco_, son and successor of Psammetichus. His extensive plans of +conquest. First formation of a naval power; and unsuccessful attempt to +unite by a canal the Mediterranean with the Red sea. Conquests in Asia +as far as the Euphrates; but quick secession of the conquered, in +consequence of the loss of the battle of Circesium. Circumnavigation of +Africa undertaken at his command by the Phoenicians, and successfully +performed. + +4. _Psammis his son and successor._ Expedition against Ethiopia, and +conquests in the interior of Africa. + +5. Reign of _Apries_, (the Pharaoh-hophra of the Hebrews). Plans of +conquest against Asia;--siege of Sidon, and naval battle with the +Tyrians;--expedition against Cyrene in Africa; its fatal result. A +revolution caused thereby in Egypt, the inhabitants of which were averse +to foreign wars, carried on mostly by mercenary aliens: the revolution +headed by Amasis. In the civil war which Apries now wages with his +mercenaries against the Egyptians commanded by Amasis, he loses both his +throne and life; and with him ends the family of Psammetichus, which had +reigned to this time. + +6. The usurper _Amasis_ took possession of the sovereign power; and +although he had to contend with a strong party, who despised him on +account of his low origin, he contrived by popular measures, and by the +respect he showed to the sacerdotal caste, to establish himself upon the +throne.--His monuments, both at Sais and Memphis.--The Egyptians and +Greeks become better acquainted and more closely connected with each +other, partly in consequence of the marriage of the king with a Greek +woman; but principally owing to the mouths of the Nile being opened to +the Greek merchants, and the cession of Naucratis as a factory for their +merchandise. Great and beneficial consequences to Egypt, which, under +the long reign of Amasis, reaches its highest pitch of prosperity. This +prince had already been engaged in disputes with the Persian conqueror, +Cyrus, whose son and successor, Cambyses, led an expedition against +Egypt, which Amasis, however, luckily for himself, escaped by a +seasonable death. + +7. His son Psammenitus, the last of the Egyptian Pharaohs, is attacked +by Cambyses in the very first year of his reign. After a single battle, +fought at Pelusium, and a short siege of Memphis, the empire of the +Pharaohs is overthrown, and Egypt merges into a Persian province. The +powerful caste of the priests suffered most from the hatred of the +conqueror; but the persecution to which they were subjected must be +attributed rather to policy than fanaticism. + +8. Condition and fate of Egypt as a Persian province. After the death of +Cambyses, the country received a Persian governor, and consequently +became a satrapy. Immediately after the first tempest of war had blown +over, Egypt was treated with mildness by the Persians. The country paid +a moderate tribute, together with some royal gifts, among others the +produce of the fisheries in lake Moeris; nevertheless, repeated revolts +occurred, which may be principally attributed to the hatred and +influence of the sacerdotal caste. The first took place under Darius +Hystaspes, and was quelled by Xerxes. An increase of tribute was the +consequence. The second, under king Inarus, fomented and supported by +the Athenians, happened during the reign of Artaxerxes I.; it was +quelled by Megabyzus. The third occurred under Darius II. and in +consequence of the support which the Egyptians received from the Greeks, +was of longer duration than either of the former, the throne of the +Pharaoh's being in some measure restored. + + This third secession of the Egyptians lasted till 354. During + this period various kings were appointed; Amyrtæus, _d._ 408; + Psammetichus, about 400; Nephreus, about 397; Pausiris, _d._ 375; + Nectanebus I. _d._ 365; Tachos, _d._ 363; Nectanebus II. conquered + by Artaxerxes III. 354. + + + +CARTHAGINIANS. + + + Sources. The first great republic which ancient records mention as + applying both to trade and war, is undoubtedly a phenomenon well + deserving the attention of the historical enquirer. Our knowledge, + however, of Carthaginian history is unfortunately very deficient, + as we possess no author who has made it the principal object of his + attention. The immediate subject of the Greek and Roman writers was + the history of their own country, and they only allude to that of + Carthage in so far as it is connected with their main topic. This + observation applies as well to Polybius and Diodorus, as to Livy + and Appian. Even the information given by Justin, the only author + who says any thing concerning the early state of Carthage, is + miserably defective, although taken from Theopompus. (Cf. _Comment. + de fontibus_ JUSTINI _in Commentat. Soc. Gotting._ vol. xv.) + Moreover, as Herodotus here fails us, we have not the writings of + any author whatever who witnessed Carthage in the days of her + prosperity: Polybius did not see that country till after the + decline of its power; the other historians, wrote long afterwards. + But although an uninterrupted history of Carthage does not exist, + we are yet able to trace the main outlines of the picture of that + state.--The modern writers on Carthage are: + + HENDRICH, _de Republica Carthaginiensium_, 1664. A useful + compilation. + + # _History of the Republic of Carthage_, 2 vols. Franckfort, 1781. + A mere history of the wars. + + DAMPMARTIN, _Histoire de la Rivalité de Carthage et de Rome_, tom. + i, ii. Very superficial. + + # W. BOETTICHER, _History of Carthage_, part i. Berlin, 1827. + The best work on the subject; in which use has been made of modern + researches. + + Concerning the Carthaginians, see HEEREN'S _African Nations_, + 2 vols. 8vo. Oxford, 1831. + +The history of Carthage is most conveniently divided into three periods: +I. From the foundation of the city to the commencement of the wars with +Syracuse, B. C. 880-480. II. From the commencement of the wars with +Syracuse to those with Rome, 480-264. III. From the commencement of the +wars with Rome to the destruction of Carthage, 264-146. + + +FIRST PERIOD. + +_From the foundation of Carthage to the wars with Syracuse, B. C. +880-480._ + + _Contemporary_: Inner Asia: kingdoms of the Assyrians, Babylonians, + and first half of the Persian monarchy. Greeks: period from + Lycurgus to Themistocles. Romans: period of the kings, and of the + commonwealth until the establishment of the tribunes of the people. + +1. The foundation and primitive history of Carthage, like all very early +and important events in national history, have, by long tradition, been +wrapt in the veil of romance. The account given of Dido, the supposed +founder of the city, cannot be reduced to the standard of pure +historical truth, though it appears to justify the inference that some +political commotions in the mother city, Tyre, induced a party of +emigrants to proceed to the northern shores of Africa; where other +Phoenician establishments had already taken place: here, by engaging to +pay a yearly tribute, they purchased from the natives permission to +found a city, the site of which was so happily chosen, that it only +depended upon the inhabitants to raise it to that greatness which it +afterwards attained. + +2. It is probable that Carthage advanced at first by slow steps; yet +even at the end of this first period she had reached to such a height of +power, that she was mistress of a large territory in Africa, and of +foreign possessions still more extensive. Establishment of the +Carthaginian dominion in Africa by the subjection of the neighbouring +aboriginal tribes, and the foundation of Carthaginian settlements within +their territories; the natives, Liby-Phoenicians, gradually mingled with +the inhabitants of those colonies, and imbibed from them a love of +agriculture and fixed abodes. The inhabitants of the fertile territory +extending southward as far as the lake Triton, were, without exception, +Carthaginian subjects. + +3. Her connection, however, with the ancient Phoenician towns along the +coast, particularly Utica, was of a different nature. For although +possessed a certain authority over them, she did not claim absolute +dominion, but rather stood at the head of a federation; thus affording a +protection which must frequently have degenerated into oppression. + +4. In consequence of a treaty with the neighbouring republic of Cyrene, +the whole territory extending between the two Syrtes was also ceded to +the Carthaginians. The Lotophagi and Nasamones, inhabitants of this +district, preserved their nomad mode of life; they must, however, from +their trade with the interior parts of Africa, have been of the highest +importance to Carthage. + +5. System of colonization, and, as a necessary result, that of conquest +without Africa. It was evidently the aim of the Carthaginians to settle +on islands, and to subject them to their dominion. Those lying in the +western part of the Mediterranean occupied the first place in their plan +of conquest, which was completely executed in Sardinia, the Baleares, +and other small islands; perhaps in Corsica; in Sicily, however, they +could never succeed to the full extent of their wishes. There is also +every probability that the Canary islands and Madeira were entirely in +their possession. On the other hand, the Carthaginians, previous to +their wars with Rome, were in the practice of establishing separate +settlements on the main land, partly in Spain, and partly on the western +shore of Africa. In the latter, they adopted the policy of their +ancestors, the Phoenicians, making the settlements so small, and +confining them within such narrow bounds, that the mother country might +always ensure their dependence. + +6. The glory of extending the territory of Carthage, by important +conquests, belongs principally to the family of Mago, who, together with +his two sons and six grandsons, established the dominion of the republic +in Sicily, Sardinia, and Africa. This occurred about the same time that +Cyrus, Cambyses, and Darius were laying the foundation of the Persian +monarchy, with which Carthage even then entered into connection. The +Carthaginians, therefore, made their first appearance, as extensive +conquerors, in the fourth century from the foundation of their +commonwealth; and it is at this period that mention is made of their +first naval engagement, in which the Phocæans were their adversaries. In +the same period may be dated the establishment of their colonies beyond +the Pillars of Hercules by Hanno and Himilco--both probably sons of +Mago;--by the former on the coast of Africa, by the latter on that of +Spain. To the same period likewise is referred the first commercial +treaty between the Carthaginians and Romans, in which the former appear +as already masters of Sardinia, Africa, and a portion of Sicily. + +7. To complete these conquests, and to preserve them when completed, the +formation and support of vast fleets and armies were indispensably +necessary. According to the usual practice of those nations who apply +both to trade and to war, the Carthaginian armies were composed for the +most part of mercenaries. No nation, however, followed this plan so +extensively as the Carthaginians, for to them half Africa and Europe +furnished warriors.--Description of a Carthaginian army; development of +the advantages and disadvantages of its organization.--Organization of +their navy. The state supported very numerous fleets of war-ships, with +a multitude of slaves who laboured at the oar, and were it seems public +property. + +8. The political constitution of Carthage, like that of all wealthy +trading states, was an aristocracy composed of the noble and the +opulent, though at all times combined with a certain admixture of +democracy. The affairs of the state were confided to the hands of the +two suffetes or kings,--who, in all probability, held their office for +life--and to those of the senate ([Greek: Boulê]) which contained within +itself a more select council (the [Greek: gerousia]). The privilege of +electing the magistrates resided with the people at large, who also +shared the legislative power with the suffetes. Civil and military power +was usually divided: the offices of general and magistrate not being +always, as at Rome, united in the same individual,--although such an +instance might not be of impossible occurrence:--to each military chief, +on the contrary, was appointed a committee from the senate, on which he +was more or less dependent. + +9. The high state tribunal of the HUNDRED was instituted as a barrier to +the constitution against the attempts of the more powerful aristocrats, +particularly the military leaders; indeed the brilliancy of Mago's +conquests seemed to threaten the republic with a military government; +and immediately previous to his time one of the generals, Malchus, had +actually made an attempt to enslave Carthage. The object of the +institution was no doubt attained; but in later times the council +assumed to itself a power which increased to absolute despotism. It is +not improbable that this court likewise constituted the select committee +(the [Greek: gerousia]) of the senate. + +10. Our information respecting the financial system of the Carthaginians +is extremely meagre. The following seem to have been the principal +sources of the public revenue. 1. The tribute drawn from the federate +cities, and their African subjects. The former paid in money, the latter +for the most part in kind; this tribute was imposed at the will of the +government, so that in pressing cases the taxed nations were obliged to +give one half of their income. 2. The case was the same with their +external provinces, particularly with Sardinia. 3. The tribute +furnished by the nomad hordes, partly by those in the Regio-Syrtica, and +occasionally also by those on the western side. 4. The customs, which +were levied with extreme rigour, not only in Carthage, but likewise in +all the colonies. 5. The products of their rich mines, particularly +those of Spain. In considering the financial system of the +Carthaginians, it should not be forgotten that many of the nations with +whom they traded, or who served in their armies, were unacquainted with +the use of money. + +11. System and extent of their commerce. Their object was to secure a +monopoly of the western trade; hence the practice of restricting the +growth of their colonies, and of removing as much as possible all +strangers from their commercial marts. Their trade was carried on partly +by sea, and partly by land. Their sea trade, arising from the colonies, +extended beyond the Mediterranean, certainly as far as the coasts of +Britain and Guinea. Their land trade was carried on by caravans, +consisting principally of the nomad tribes resident between the Syrtes: +the caravans travelled eastward to Ammonium and Upper Egypt, southward +to the land of the Garamantes, (Fezzan,) and even still further into the +interior of Africa. + + +SECOND PERIOD. + +_From the breaking out of the wars with Syracuse, to the commencement of +those with Rome, B. C. 480-264._ + +1. The great object of Carthaginian policy during the whole of the above +period, was to subdue Sicily; this object the nation pursued with +extraordinary pertinacity, often approximating to, but never obtaining, +complete success. The growing power of Syracuse, which likewise aimed at +the sole possession of the island, laid the foundation of that national +hatred which now arose between the Sicilian Greeks and the +Carthaginians. + +2. First attempt, arising out of the league formed with Xerxes I. upon +his irruption into Greece. Gelon of Syracuse, in a victory more decisive +even than that gained by Themistocles over the Persians at Salamis, +routs the Carthaginians near Himera, and compels them to accede to a +disgraceful peace. + +3. This defeat was followed by a period of tranquillity lasting seventy +years, during which we know little about Carthage. All that we can say +with any probability is, that in the mean time the struggle for +territory between Cyrene and Carthage commenced and terminated to the +advantage of the latter state, whose dominion was generally extended and +confirmed in Africa by wars with the aboriginal tribes. + +4. But the accession of Dionysius I. to the throne of Syracuse, and the +ambitious project formed by him and his successors, of subjecting to +their rule all Sicily and Magna-Grecia, rekindled once more the embers +of war, which had only smouldered for a short time, to burst forth with +additional violence. + + Repeated and bloody wars with Dionysius I. between the years + 410-368. Neither party able to expel the other: terms of the last + peace; that each party should remain in possession of what he then + occupied. Second commercial treaty with Rome. + + Crafty advantage taken by the Carthaginians of the internal + commotions at Syracuse during and subsequent to the reign of + Dionysius II: they endeavour to obtain their end; but are thwarted + by the heroism of Timoleon, 345-340. + + A new and frightful war with Agathocles, the seat of which is + transferred from Sicily into Africa itself; it at last terminates + in favour of Carthage, 311-307. + + The war with Pyrrhus, 277-275, whose ambition gave rise to an + alliance between Carthage and Rome, contributed likewise to + increase the preponderance of the Carthaginians in Sicily; and + probably the perseverance of that people, and their skill in + profiting by circumstances, would at last have enabled them to + attain their object, had not the seeds of war been thereby + scattered between Carthage and Rome. + +5. What effect these Sicilian wars had upon the state we are not +informed. They were probably regarded in Carthage as a beneficial +channel for carrying off the popular fermentation;--nevertheless, two +attempts, both unsuccessful, were made by some of the aristocratical +party, to overthrow the constitution; first by Hanno, 340, and +afterwards by Bomilcar, 308.--At the breaking out, however, of the war +with Rome, the commonwealth was so formidable and mighty, that even the +finances of the state do not appear to have been at all affected; a +circumstance of the highest importance. What consequence was it to +Carthage whether 100,000 barbarians more or less existed in the world, +so long as there remained plenty of men willing to suffer themselves to +be sold, and she possessed money to purchase them? + + +THIRD PERIOD. + +_From the beginning of the wars with Rome, to the downfal of Carthage, +B. C. 264-146._ + +1. The wars between Carthage and Rome were the necessary consequences of +a desire of aggrandizement in two conquering nations; any one might have +foreseen the struggle between the two rivals as soon as their conquests +should once begin to clash. It is, therefore, a question of little +importance, to enquire which was the aggressor; and although Rome may +not be entirely cleared of that charge, we cannot help observing that, +according to the principles of sound policy, the security of Italy was +hardly compatible with the sole dominion of the Carthaginians over the +island of Sicily. + + First war with Rome, 264-241, (twenty-three years,) waged for the + possession of Sicily, and decided almost at its commencement by + Hiero's passing over to the Roman side. (For the history of it, + see below, in the Roman history, Book V. Period ii, parag. 2 sq.) + +2. This war cost the republic, Sicily and the sovereignty of the +Mediterranean, by which the fate of its other external possessions was +already predetermined. But that which appeared at the first view to +threaten the greatest danger, was the total exhaustion of its finances; +a circumstance which will no longer surprise us, when we consider how +many fleets had been destroyed and replaced, how many armies had been +annihilated and renewed. Carthage had never before been engaged in such +an obstinate struggle as this; and the immediate consequences were more +terrific even than the war itself. + +3. The impossibility of paying the mercenaries produced a mutiny among +the troops, which rapidly grew into a rebellion of the subject nations, +who had been most cruelly oppressed during the war. The consequence was +a civil war of three years and a half, which probably would have spared +the Romans the trouble of destroying Carthage, had not the state been +snatched from ruin by the heroism of Hamilcar. + + This war, which lasted from 240 to 237, produced lasting consequences + to the state; it gave rise to the feud between Hamilcar and Hanno the + Great, which compelled Hamilcar to seek for support against the senate + by becoming the leader of a democratic faction. + +4. The revolt spread abroad; it reached Sardinia and caused the loss of +that most important island, of which the Romans, flushed with power, +took possession, in spite of the terms of the peace. + +5. The influence of the family of the Barcas, supported in their +disputes with the senate by the popular party, now got the upper hand +in Carthage; and the first fruit of their power was the new and gigantic +project of repairing the loss of Sicily and Sardinia by the conquest of +Spain; a country where the Carthaginians already had some possessions +and commercial connections. The immediate object of the Barcas was the +support of their family and party; but the Spanish silver mines soon +furnished the republic with the means of renewing the contest with Rome +also. + +6. During the nine years in which Hamilcar commanded, and in the +following eight in which Hasdrubal, his son-in-law and successor, was at +the head of the army, the whole of the south of Spain, as far as the +Iberus, was brought under subjection to Carthage, either by negotiation +or force of arms. The further progress of the Carthaginians was only +arrested by a treaty with the Romans, in which the Iberus was fixed upon +as a frontier line, and the freedom of Saguntum acknowledged by both +powers. Hasdrubal crowned his victories as a general and as a statesman +by the foundation of New Carthage, (Carthagena,) which was to be the +future seat of Carthaginian power in the newly-conquered country. +Hasdrubal having fallen by the hand of an assassin in the year 221, the +party of the Barcas succeeded in appointing Hamilcar's son, Hannibal, a +young man of one-and-twenty, for his successor. Hannibal found every +thing already prepared in Spain for the furtherance of the hereditary +project of his family, which was a renewal of the contest with Rome; and +the vigour with which this project was pursued, clearly proves how great +must have been the preponderance of the Barcine influence, at that +time, in Carthage. Had the commonwealth attended to the marine with the +same ardour as their great general did to the land service, the fate of +Rome would perhaps have been very different. + + Second war with Rome, 218-201, (seventeen years,) first in Italy + and Spain, afterwards, from 203, in Africa itself. (See the + history of this war below, in the Roman history, Book V, Period + ii, parag. 6 sqq.) + +7. Until Africa became the scene of action, the second war cost the +republic much less than the first; the expenses being principally +defrayed by Spain and Italy. Hanno, however, was at the head of a +powerful party at home, who were clamorous for peace, and who can say +they were wrong? As might be expected, the family of the Barcas were for +war, and their influence carried the day. That general who, with hardly +any support from Carthage, was yet able to maintain a footing in the +country of his powerful foes for no less than fifteen years, and that, +too, as much by policy as by force of arms, must extort our admiration. +It cannot, however, be denied, that during the struggle one favourable +opportunity, at least, was let slip of making peace; a fatal omission, +for which the hero of Cannæ paid dearly enough, by the failure of his +darling project. + +8. By the second peace with Rome, Carthage was deprived of all her +possessions out of Africa, and her fleet was delivered into the hands of +the Romans. She was now to be a mere trading city under the tutelage of +Rome. But Carthage found by this peace her most formidable enemy on the +soil of Africa itself. Massinissa had been elevated to the dignity of +king of Numidia; and his endeavours to form his nomads into an +agricultural people, and to collect them into cities, must have changed +the military system that Carthage had hitherto followed. Roman policy, +moreover, had taken care that the article inserted in his favour in the +last treaty of peace, should be so ambiguously worded, as to leave +abundant openings for dispute. + +9. Even after this disgraceful peace, the family of the Barcas still +preserved their influence, and Hannibal was placed as supreme magistrate +at the head of the republic. He attempts to reform the constitution and +the finances, by destroying the oligarchy of the hundred, by whom the +finances had been thrown into confusion. Complete as was the success of +the first blow, it soon became apparent that aristocratic factions are +not so readily annihilated as armies. + + The democratic faction to which even the Barcas owed their first + elevation, was the cause of the degeneracy of the Carthaginian + constitution. By that faction the legislative authority of the + senate and magistrates was withdrawn and transferred to the _ordo + judicum_--probably the same as the high state tribunal of the + hundred--which now assumed the character of an omnipotent national + inquisition; and the members being chosen for life exercised + oppressive despotism. This tribunal was formed of those who had + served the office of ministers of finance, with whom it shared + unblushingly the revenues of the state. Hannibal destroyed this + oligarchy by a law, enacting that the members should hold their + office but for one year; whereas before they held it for life. In + the reform wrought by this law in the finances it was seen, that + after all wars and losses, the revenues of the republic were still + sufficient, not only for the usual expenditure and the payment of + tribute to Rome, but also for leaving a surplus in the public + treasury. Ten years had hardly elapsed before Carthage was enabled + to pay down at once the whole of the tribute which she had engaged + to furnish by instalments. + +10. The defeated party, whose interests were now the same with those of +Rome, joined the Romans, to whom they discovered Hannibal's plan of +renewing the war in conjunction with Antiochus the Great, king of Syria. +A Roman embassy was sent over to Africa, under some other pretext, to +demand that Hannibal should be given up. The Carthaginian general +secretly fled to king Antiochus, at whose court he became the chief +fomenter of the war against Rome; although unsuccessful in his endeavour +to implicate the Carthaginian republic in the struggle. + + See hereafter the history of Syria, Book IV, Period iii, separate + kingdoms. I. Seleucidæ, parag. 18; and Book V, Period ii, parag. + 10 sq. + +11. In consequence of the absence of Hannibal, Carthage fell once more +under the dominion of the Romans, who contrived, by taking a crafty +advantage of the state of parties, to give a show of generosity to the +exercise of their power. Even the patriotic faction, if we may judge by +the violent steps which they took more than once against Massinissa and +his partisans, seem to have been but a tool in the hands of Rome. + +12. Disputes with Massinissa, which led to the gradual partition of the +Carthaginian territory in Africa. The manner in which this territory had +been acquired, facilitated the discovery of claims upon each of the +component parts; and the interference of Rome, sometimes disinterested, +but oftener swayed by party feeling, ensured the possession of the +territory to the Numidian. + + Even in 199, a disadvantageous treaty framed with Massinissa for + fifty years: nevertheless the rich province of Emporia is lost in + 193.--Loss of another province unnamed, to which Massinissa + inherited some claims from his father.--Seizure of the province of + Tysca, with fifty cities, about 174. Probable date of Cato's + embassy, who returned in disgust, because his decision had been + rejected, and became the fomenter of a project to destroy + Carthage.--New disputes about 152.--Massinissa's party is expelled + Carthage.--War breaks out in consequence, during which the king in + his ninetieth year personally defeats the Carthaginians; and what + with famine and the sword, Hasdrubal's army, which had been + surrounded by the enemy, was nearly exterminated; in the mean while + the Roman ambassadors, who had come to act as mediators, obeying + their private instructions, looked on with quiet indifference. + +13. Though it is evident that the party spirit raging between Cato and +Scipio Nasica had a considerable influence in hastening the destruction +of Carthage; and though it is equally clear that Massinissa's late +victory paved the way for the immediate execution of that project; yet +it is difficult to unravel the web, by which, long before the +declaration of war now about to follow, treachery prepared the final +scene of this great tragedy. Was the account that Cato at his return +gave of the resuscitated power of Carthage consonant to truth? Was not +the sudden secession of Ariobarzanes, the grandson of Syphax, who was to +have led a Numidian army to defend Carthage against Massinissa, +previously arranged with Rome? Was not the turbulent Gisgo, who first +incited the populace to insult the Roman ambassadors, and then +opportunely rescued them from the fury of the mob, in the pay of Rome? +These questions give rise to suspicions, although they cannot +satisfactorily be answered. At any rate, it may be said, that the +conduct of Rome, after war had broken out, corroborates the suspicion. +The whole history of the last period sufficiently proves, that it was +not so much the debased character of the nation, as party spirit, and +the avarice of the great, which produced the fall of Carthage. Advantage +was taken of that party spirit and avarice by Roman policy, which, +although acting according to the dictates of blind passion, knew how to +profit by dark and base intrigue. + + Third war with Rome and destruction of Carthage, 150-146. See + hereafter the Roman history, Book V, Period ii, parag. 19 sq. + + + * * * * * + + + + +SECOND BOOK. + + + + +_History of the Persian Empire, from B. C. 560-330._ + + + Sources. Preservation of historic records among the Persians + themselves under the form of royal annals; origin and nature of + those annals. As these have been destroyed, we are obliged to + deduce the history from foreign writers, some of whom, however, + availed themselves of the Persian annals. 1. _Greeks_: their + authority as writers, contemporary, but not always sufficiently + acquainted with the east. (_a_) CTESIAS. His court history compiled + from Persian annals, would be the principal work did we possess the + whole; we have, however, only an extract from it preserved by + Photius. (_b_) HERODOTUS: who probably availed himself of similar + sources in some portion of his work. (_c_) XENOPHON. To this period + of history belong, not only his Anabasis and Hellenica, but also + his Cyropædia, or portraiture of a happy empire and an accomplished + ruler, according to eastern ideas, exhibited in the example of + Cyrus: of use so far as pure historic records are interwoven with + the narrative. (_d_) DIODORUS, etc. 2. _Jewish writers._ The books + of ESDRAS and NEHEMIAH; and more particularly that of ESTHER, as + containing a faithful representation of the Persian court and its + manners. 3. The accounts of the later _Persian chroniclers_, + MIRKHOND in particular, who flourished in the thirteenth century of + the christian era, can have no weight in the scale of criticism; + they are nevertheless interesting, inasmuch as they make us + acquainted with the ideas that the inhabitants of the east form of + their early history. + + The modern authors on Persian history are principally those who + have written on ancient history in general: see p. 2. A treatise on + Persian history, deduced from eastern sources, will be found in the + _Ancient Universal History_, vol. iv. + + BRISSONIUS, _de Regno Persarum_, 1591, 8vo. A very laborious + compilation. + + The section concerning the Persians in # HEEREN, _Ideas_, etc. + vol. i, part 1. + + [MALCOLM, SIR JOHN, _History of Persia_, from the earliest ages to + the present times. Lond. 1816, 4to. 2 vols. "A valuable work."] + +1. State of the Persian nation previous to Cyrus; a highland people, +subject to the Medes, dwelling in the mountainous parts of the province +of Persis, and leading wholly, or for the most part, a nomad life. +Division into ten clans, among which that of the _Pasargadæ_, the +noblest and ruling horde, is particularly remarkable on account of the +figure it makes in subsequent history.--The result of this division was +a patriarchal government, the vestiges of which remain visible in the +whole of the following history of the Persians. Permanent distinction +between the tribes in reference to their mode of life, observable even +during the most flourishing period of the Persian state: three of the +nobles or warriors, three of the husbandmen, and four of the shepherds. +Argument thence deduced, that the history of the Persians as a dominant +nation, _is that of the nobler clans alone, and of the_ PASARGADÆ _more +especially_. + +2. The personal history of Cyrus, the founder of the Persian monarchy, +was, even in the time of Herodotus, so obscured under the veil of +romance, that it was no longer possible to detect the real truth. It is, +however, evident, that the course of the revolution wrought by him was, +on the whole, the same as was followed in all similar empires founded in +Asia. Gengis-khan, in a later age, was placed at the head of all the +Mogol hordes; in the same manner was Cyrus elected chief of all the +Persian tribes, by whose assistance he became a mighty conqueror, at the +time that the Babylonian and Median kingdoms of Inner Asia were on the +decline, and before the Lydian empire, under Croesus, had been firmly +established. + + Descent of Cyrus from the family of Achæmenes, (Jamshid?). That + family belonged to the Pasargadæ tribe, and therefore remained the + ruling house. + +3. Rise of the Persian dominion, in consequence of the overthrow of the +Medo-Bactrian empire, after the defeat of Astyages at Pasargada. Rapid +extension by further conquest. Subjection of Asia Minor after the +victory won by Cyrus in person over Croesus, and capture of the Greek +colonies by the generals of the Persian monarch. Conquest of Babylon and +all the Babylonian provinces. The Phoenician cities submit themselves of +their own accord. Even in Cyrus's time, therefore, the frontiers of the +Persian empire had been extended in southern Asia to the Mediterranean, +to the Oxus, and to the Indus; but the campaign against the nomad races, +inhabiting the steppes of Central Asia, was unsuccessful; and Cyrus +himself fell in the contest. + + It cannot be denied but that in the narration of the separate wars + waged by Cyrus, discrepancies are found in Herodotus and Ctesias; + those two authors, however, agree in the main facts: and, indeed, + the differences which exist between them cannot be considered always + as direct contradictions. + +4. Immediate consequences of this great revolution in respect both of +the conquerors and the conquered. Among the former, even in the time of +Cyrus, the civilization and luxury of the Medes, their legislation and +national religion, and the sacerdotal caste of the magi, who were +guardians of that religion, had been introduced, and the whole system of +the Persian court had been remodelled upon that of the Medes. + + Description of Zoroaster's legislation, and of the magian national + religion, according to the Zend-avesta. How far the dogmas of + Zoroaster can be considered as dominant among the Persians?--Proof + that they were adopted only by the nobler tribes, more particularly + the Pasargadæ. Their great and beneficial influence on agriculture. + + ANQUETIL DU PERRON, _Zend-avesta, ouvrage de_ ZOROASTRE, _traduit + en François sur l'original Zend_. Paris, 1771. 4to. This work has + been much improved by the critical discussions added to the German + translation by J. L. KLEUKER. Compare the dissertations on + Zoroaster by MEINERS and TYCHSEN, in _Comment. Soc. Gotting._ and + HEEREN, _Ideas_, etc. vol. i. + + HYDE, _De Religione veterum Persarum_; Oxon. 1700, 4to. Replete + with learned research, and the first work that excited enquiry on + the subject. + + # J. S. RHODE, _Sacred Traditions of the East_; Breslau, 1821. An + excellent work for the study of the Zend-avesta, the magian religion, + and the antiquities of the Medes and Persians. + +5. First political constitution of the Persian empire under Cyrus. No +general new organization; but for the most part the original +institutions are preserved among the conquered, who are compelled to pay +tribute. Royal officers, appointed to collect the tribute, are +associated with the generals, who with numerous armies keep in +subjection the inhabitants of the conquered countries. For the support +of the empire large standing armies are kept in pay, besides which, +recourse is frequently had to the transplanting of whole nations; while, +as was the case with the Jews, some who had been formerly transplanted +are restored to their country. With the same view injunctions are +issued, as in the case of the Lydians, to effect the enervation of +warlike races by a luxurious and effeminate system of education. + +6. Cyrus leaves two sons, the elder of whom, Cambyses, succeeds as +king; the younger, Smerdis, (the _Tanyoxarces_ of Ctesias,) becomes +independent lord of Bactria and the eastern territories; but is soon +after murdered by the command of his elder brother. + +7. Under Cambyses the conquering arms of the Persians are directed +against Africa. Egypt becomes a Persian province, and the neighbouring +Libya, together with Cyrene, assume the yoke of their own accord. But +the twofold expedition against the opulent commercial establishments, +Ammonium in the west, and Meroe in the south, is wholly unsuccessful; +that against Carthage is arrested in its commencement by the refusal of +the Tyrians to join the naval armament. A colony of six thousand +Egyptians is transplanted into Susiana. + +8. The cruelty with which Cambyses is accused of treating the Egyptians +was directed rather against the powerful caste of the priests, than +against the whole nation; and originated more in political than in +religious motives. It must be observed, however, that we ought to be +particularly on our guard against all the evil that is related of +Cambyses, inasmuch as our information respecting that prince is derived +entirely from his enemies, the Egyptian priests. + +9. The usurpation of the Pseudo-Smerdis, (or _Tanyoxarces_,) was an +attempt of the magi to replace a Median dynasty on the throne, by means +of a plot hatched within the seraglio. It was the occasion of an +accident which cost Cambyses his life, after a reign of seven years and +a half: (or, according to Ctesias, of eighteen.) + +10. The Pseudo-Smerdis kept his seat on the throne eight months, during +which he attempted to bring over the conquered nations to his interest +by a remission of all tribute for three years; but the discovery of his +cheat gave rise to a conspiracy of seven of the chief Persians, who +could not brook the rule of a Mede, and the usurper lost his life. + +11. It could not be expected that the political organization of the +kingdom should advance to completion during the reign of Cambyses, who +was almost always absent in the prosecution of war; or during the brief +rule of the Pseudo-Smerdis. It remained, therefore, in the same state as +under Cyrus. But the introduction of the Median court-ceremonial among +the ruling tribe of the Persians, and the adoption of fixed dwellings by +that tribe, rendered it necessary that royal residences should be +erected for the reception of the king's court; among these Persepolis, +(see above, p. 20,) probably commenced by Cyrus, was completed under +Darius and Xerxes. + + The best drawings of the monuments of Persepolis, remarkable alike + for their architecture, their sculpture, and their inscriptions in + the arrow-headed character, are to be found in the Travels of + CHARDIN and NIEBUHR. Illustrations: + + # HERDER'S _Persepolis_, in the collection of his works, vol. i. + + # HEEREN, _Ideas_, etc. Part I. vol. i. Great assistance in + studying the inscriptions, is furnished by + + DE SACY, _Mémoires sur diverses Antiquités de la Perse_; Paris, + 1793, 4to. It must be observed, however, that this work is confined + to the illustration of the later monuments, belonging to the + _Sassanidæ_. The most successful attempt at deciphering the + arrow-headed inscriptions of the old Persic, since TYCHSEN, + MUENTER, and LICHTENSTEIN, will be found in + + # GROTEFEND, _On the Interpretation of the Arrow-headed Characters, + particularly of the Inscriptions at Persepolis_, contained in the + appendix to HEEREN, _Ideas_, etc. vol. ii. with an accompanying Zend + alphabet. + +12. After a very remarkable debate held by the seven conspirators, +concerning the form of of government which should be established, +Darius, the son of Hystaspes, one of the family of the Achæmenides, was +raised to the throne by an oracle; this king endeavoured to strengthen +his right to the sceptre by marrying two of Cyrus's daughters. + +13. The reign of Darius I. which lasted thirty-six years, (according to +Ctesias 31,) is remarkable for the improvements made both in the +external and internal administration of the Persian empire. In the +former, by the great expeditions and conquests, which extended the +Persian realm to its utmost limits; in the latter, by several important +institutions, established for the internal organization of the state. + +14. The expeditions of the Persians under Cyrus were directed against +the countries of Asia; those of Cambyses against Africa. But those +undertaken by Darius I. were directed against Europe, though the Persian +territory was at the same time extended in the two other quarters of the +world. In the reign of this king likewise commenced those wars with the +Greeks, so fatal to the Persians; constantly fomented and supported by +emigrant or exile Greeks, who found an asylum in the Persian court, and +there contrived to raise a party.--First example of the kind exhibited +shortly after the accession of Darius, in the case of Syloson, brother +to Polycrates, who had been tyrant of Samos: at his request the island +was taken possession of by the Persians, and delivered up to him after +the almost total destruction of the male population. + +15. Great revolt in Babylon, which would not submit tamely to a foreign +yoke. After a siege of twenty-one months, Darius by stratagem regains +possession of the city. The power of Babylon and the importance of its +situation increased the jealousy with which it was guarded by the +Persian kings; so much so, that they were wont to reside there a certain +portion of the year. + +16. First great expedition of Darius undertaken against the Scythians +inhabiting the lands north of the Black sea: the former irruption of the +Scythians into Asia afforded a pretext for the war, which, therefore, +was considered as a general national undertaking. Unsuccessful as the +Persian arms were in this vast expedition against the Scythians, and +disgraceful as was the retreat from the barren steppes of the Ukrain, +yet the power of Darius was established in Thrace and Macedonia, and the +Persians obtained firm footing in Europe. + + Concerning the peculiar character of the Persian national wars, + or great campaigns, in which all the conquered nations were + obliged to participate, contrasted with the other wars waged by + Persian troops alone. + +17. The next expedition made by Darius was more successful. It was +carried on along the banks of the Indus, down which river Scylax, a +Greek, had previously sailed on a voyage of discovery. The highlands +north of the Indus were then subjected to the Persian dominion, and the +Indus became the boundary of the kingdom. About the same time that +Darius was engaged on the Danube and the Indus, Aryandes, his viceroy in +Egypt, led an expedition against Barca, to avenge the murder of king +Arcesilaus; a war which terminated in the destruction of the city, and +the transplantation of its inhabitants into Asia. + +18. However trifling the first occurrence which gave rise to the revolt +of the Asiatic Greeks, it was much more important in its consequences. +It was set on foot by Aristagoras, lieutenant-governor of Miletus, who +was secretly supported by his relation, the offended Histiæus, then +resident at the Persian court. The share taken by the Athenians in this +rebellion, which led to the burning of Sardes, was the origin of the +national hatred between Persia and European Greece, and of the long +series of wars that ensued. The confederates were this time defeated; +but the naval battle off the island of Lada, could hardly have had such +a fatal result, had not the league been previously corrupted by the +craft and gold of Persia. Be that as it may, this war ended in the +reduction of the Ionians, and the destruction of Miletus, their +flourishing capital; a city which in those days, together with Tyre and +Carthage, engrossed the trade of the world. + +19. First attack upon Greece, particularly Athens. Darius, already +enraged against the Athenians by the firing of Sardes, is still further +instigated by the suggestions of the banished tyrant of Athens, Hippias, +the son of Pisistratus. This prince, who had fled to the Persian court, +was evidently the animating spirit of the whole undertaking. Although +the first attempt, made under the command of Mardonius, was thwarted by +a tempest, yet the mighty expedition which afterwards followed, was +undertaken with so much more prudence, and conducted with so much +knowledge of the country, that no one can fail to recognize the guiding +hand of Hippias. Even the battle of Marathon, which seems to have been +but a diversion on the side of the Persians, would not have decided the +war, had not the activity of Miltiades defeated the principal design of +the enemy upon Athens. + +20. It may be said that Darius, by these foreign wars, debilitated the +kingdom which he endeavoured to extend; this circumstance, however, it +cannot be denied, increases the merit which he has of perfecting the +internal organization of the empire. His reign constitutes precisely +that period which must enter into the history of every nomad race that +has attained to power, and is advancing towards political civilization; +a period at which it becomes visible that the nation is endeavouring to +obtain a constitution, however gradual the progress towards it. + +21. Division of the empire into twenty _satrapies_, and the imposition +of a regular tribute on each. This division at first depended solely on +that of the various tributary races, but from it gradually arose a +geographic division, in which the ancient distinction of countries was +for the most part preserved. + + Proofs that the division into satrapies was originally a mere + arrangement for the civil government and collection of taxes, + distinct from military power. Duties of the satraps. The attention + they were to pay to the cultivation and improvement of the land; to + the collection of the imposts; to the execution of the royal + commands relating to provincial affairs. An abuse of this + institution, at a later period, placed in the hands of these + satraps the command also of the troops.--Various means of keeping + the satraps in a state of dependence: royal secretaries appointed + for each, who were to be the first to receive the king's + commands.--Periodical visits paid to the provinces by commissioners + under the direct appointment of the king, or by the king himself + accompanied with an army.--Establishment of couriers in every part + of the empire, for the purpose of securing a safe and rapid + communication with the provinces, as was the case also in the + Mongol countries; (not a regular post, however, the institution + here alluded to being intended only for the court.) + +22. The Persian finance continues to preserve those peculiarities which +naturally result from the formation of an empire by a nomad race of +conquerors, desirous of living at the expense of the conquered, and +under a despotic form of government. + + Collection of tribute, mostly in kind, for the support of the court + and the armies; and in precious metals, not coined, but in their + raw state. Application of the treasure thus collected towards + constituting a private chest for the king. Various other royal + imposts.--Mode of providing for the public expenditure by + assignments on the revenues of one or several places. + +23. Organization of the military system, conformably to the primitive +state of the nation, and the necessity now felt of keeping the conquered +countries in subjection by means of standing armies. + + Military organization of the Persian nations, by means of a decimal + division pervading the whole.--Royal troops cantoned in the open + field, according to a certain division of the empire, or stationed + as garrisons in the cities, and distinct from the + encampments.--Manner in which the troops were supported at the cost + and by the taxes of the provinces.--Introduction of mercenaries + and Greeks, more particularly among the Persians, and fatal + consequences of that measure. Military household of the satraps and + grandees.--Institution of a general conscription in national wars. + Formation of the Persian navy, consisting of the Phoenician, and + not unfrequently of the Asiatic Greek fleets. + +24. From the time of Darius, the court of the kings of Persia attained +its complete form, and the government soon after was wholly concentrated +in the seraglio. Yet the mode of life which the kings led, surrounded by +a court, taken principally if not wholly from the tribe of the +Pasargadæ, and changing their residence according to the revolutions of +the seasons, still preserved the traces of nomad origin. + + Babylon, Susa, and Ecbatana, the usual residences; Persepolis now + used as a royal cemetery. The court supported by the most costly + productions of each province; hence arose the rigid ceremonial + observed at the royal table.--Internal organization of the + seraglio.--Influence of the eunuchs and queen-mothers on the + government. + +25. Already had Darius commenced preparations to wreak his vengeance on +Athens, when a revolution broke out in Egypt, and hindered him from +prosecuting his design. He died after nominating for his successor +Xerxes I. grandson of Cyrus, and his eldest son by a second wife, +Atossa, whose influence over her husband was boundless. + +26. Xerxes I. A prince educated in the seraglio, who knew nothing beyond +the art of representing the pomp of royalty. Subjection of Egypt, and +severe treatment of that country under the satrap Achæmenes, brother to +Xerxes. + +27. Xerxes' famous expedition against Greece was again the result of +the cabals and intrigues of the Greek exiles, the Pisistratidæ, the +soothsayer Onomacritus, the Thessalian princes or Aleuadæ, who +contrived to exert their influence on the king's mind, and to raise a +party in their favour among the grandees. But the progress of the +campaign showed that no Hippias was at the head of the invading army, +although the Persian king did certainly succeed in his avowed object, +the capture and destruction of Athens. + + Critique on the detailed account given by Herodotus of this + expedition, as a national undertaking in which all the subjugated + nations were obliged to take a share.--Preparations which last for + three years in the Persian empire; league framed with Carthage for + the subjection of the Sicilian Greeks, 483-481. The expedition + itself in 480; over Asia Minor and the Hellespont, through Thrace + and Macedonia.--Muster of the army and division of the troops + according to nations at Doriscus; the detailed description of which + found in Herodotus, was most probably borrowed from some Persian + document.--The pass of Thermopylæ taken by treachery; on the same + day a naval engagement off Artemisium.--Athens captured and burnt. + Battle of Salamis, Sept. 23, 480. Retreat of Xerxes; an army of + picked men left behind, under the command of Mardonius.--Fruitless + negotiations with the Athenians.--Second campaign of Mardonius: he + is routed at Platææ, Sept. 25, 479; and that event puts an end for + ever to the Persian irruptions into Greece: on the same day the + Persian army is defeated, and their fleet burnt at Mycale in Asia + Minor. + +28. The consequences of these repeated and unsuccessful expeditions, in +which almost the whole population was engaged, must be self-evident. The +empire was weakened and depopulated. The defensive war which the +Persians for thirty years were obliged to maintain against the Greeks, +who aimed at establishing the independence of their Asiatic countrymen, +completely destroyed the balance of their power, by compelling them to +transfer their forces to Asia Minor, the most distant western province +of the empire. + +29. Little as the Greeks had to fear from the Persian arms, the danger +with which they were now threatened was much more formidable, when the +enemy began to adopt the system of bribing the chieftains of Greece; a +system which succeeded beyond expectation in the first trial made of it +with Pausanias, and perhaps was not wholly unsuccessful with +Themistocles himself.--But the Persians soon found in Cimon an adversary +who deprived them of the sovereignty of the sea; who in one day +destroyed both their fleet and their army on the Eurymedon; and by the +conquest of the Thracian Chersonese, wrested from them the key of +Europe. + +30. What little we know further concerning the reign of Xerxes, consists +in the intrigues of the seraglio, which now, through the machinations of +queen Amestris, became the theatre of all those horrors which are wont +to be exhibited in such places, and to which Xerxes himself at last fell +a victim, in consequence of the conspiracy of Artabanes and the eunuch +Spamitres. + + Was Xerxes the Ahasuerus of the Jews?--On the difference between the + names of the Persian kings in Persian and Chaldee; not to be + wondered at when we consider that they were mere titles or surnames, + assumed by the sovereigns after their accession. + +31. Artaxerxes I. surnamed Longimanus. In consequence of the murder of +his father and his elder brother, in the conspiracy of Artabanes, this +prince ascended the throne, but was unable to keep possession of the +sceptre without assassinating, in his turn, Artabanes. His reign, which +lasted forty years, exhibits the first symptoms of the decline of the +empire, which this king, although possessed of many good qualities, had +not the talent or spirit to arrest. + +32. At the very commencement of his reign rebellions are excited in the +provinces; in the mean while the war with Athens continues. Two battles +are required to repress the insurrection of his brother Hystaspes in +Bactria. + +33. Second revolt of Egypt, excited by the Libyan king, Inarus of Marea, +in conjunction with the Egyptian, Amyrtæus, and supported by an Athenian +fleet. Although the confederates did not make themselves masters of +Memphis, they defeated the Persian army, commanded by the king's +brother, Achæmenes, who lost his life in the battle; they were at last +overpowered by Megabyzus, satrap of Syria, and shut up together with +Inarus in the town of Byblus. Inarus and his party were admitted to +capitulation; but Amyrtæus, having taken refuge in the morasses, +continued to make head against the Persians. + +34. The Grecian war takes, once more, an unfavourable turn for the +Persians: Cimon defeats the enemy's fleet and army near Cyprus. The fear +of losing the whole of the island accordingly compels Artaxerxes I. to +sign a treaty of peace with Athens, in which he recognizes the +independence of the Asiatic Greeks, and agrees that his fleet shall not +navigate the Ægæan sea, nor his troops approach within three days' march +of the coast. + +35. But the haughty and powerful Megabyzus, enraged at the execution of +Inarus, in violation of the promise made by him to that prince, excites +a rebellion in Syria; repeatedly defeats the royal armies, and +prescribes himself the conditions upon which he will be reconciled to +his sovereign. This was the first great example of a successful +insurrection excited by one of the Persian satraps; and chequered as +were the subsequent fortunes of Megabyzus, his party continued to +subsist after his death in the persons of his sons. He possessed in the +centre of the court a support in the dowager queen Amestris, and the +reigning queen Amytis; (both notorious for their excesses;) who kept +Artaxerxes I. in a constant state of tutelage to the hour of his death. + +36. Revolutions in the government now succeed each other with rapidity +and violence. Xerxes II. the only legitimate son and successor of +Artaxerxes, is slain, after forty-five days' reign, by his bastard +brother Sogdianus; the latter, in his turn, after a reign of six months, +is deposed by another bastard brother, Ochus, who ascends the throne, +and assumes the name of Darius II. + +37. Darius II. surnamed the Bastard, or Nothus. He reigns nineteen years +under the tutelage of his wife, Parysatis, and of three eunuchs, one of +whom, Artoxares, even attempts to open a way to the throne, but is put +to death. In this period the decline of the state advances with hurried +steps; partly by reason of the extinction of the legitimate royal line, +partly by the increased practice of placing more than one province, +together with the military command, in the hands of the same satrap. +Although the repeated insurrections of the satraps are repressed, the +court, by the breach of faith to which it is obliged to have recourse, +in order to succeed in its measures, exhibits to the world a convincing +proof of its infirmity. The revolt of Arsites, one of the king's +brothers, who was supported by a son of Megabyzus, and that of +Pisuthnes, satrap of Lydia, are quelled only by obtaining treacherous +possession of their persons. + +38. In consequence of the weak state of the empire, the fire, which had +hitherto been smouldering under the ashes, burst forth in Egypt. +Amyrtæus, who had remained till now in the morasses, issued forth, +supported by the Egyptians; and the Persians were again expelled the +land. Obscure as the subsequent history may be, we see that the Persians +were obliged to acknowledge, not only Amyrtæus, but his successors. [See +page 72]. + +39. The Persians must have regarded it as a happy event, that the +Peloponnesian war, kindled in Greece during the reign of Artaxerxes, and +protracted through the whole of that of Darius II. had prevented the +Greeks from unitedly falling upon Persia. It now became, and +henceforward continued to be, the chief policy of the Persians to foment +quarrels and wars between the Grecian republics, by siding at various +times with various parties; and the mutual hatred of the Greeks rendered +this game so easy, that Greece could hardly have escaped total +destruction, had the Persian plans been always as wisely laid as they +were by Tissaphernes; and had not the caprice and jealousy of the +satraps in Asia Minor generally had more effect than the commands of +the court. + + Alliance of the Persians with Sparta, framed by Tissaphernes, 441; + but in consequence of the policy of Alcibiades, and the artful + principles of Tissaphernes, followed by no important results, until + the younger Cyrus, satrap of all Asia Minor, was by Lysander, 407, + brought over to the Spartan interest. (See below, the Grecian + history, III. Period, parag. 23.) + +40. Artaxerxes II. surnamed Mnemon. Although this prince was the eldest +son of Darius, his right to the throne might, according to the Persian +ideas of succession, have appeared dubious, since his younger brother, +Cyrus, had the advantage over him of being the first born subsequent to +the accession of his father. Relying on the support of his mother +Parysatis, Cyrus, even without this claim to the throne, would, no +doubt, have asserted his pretence to the sovereign power. It would have +been, in all probability, a fortunate event for the Persian empire, had +the fate of battle, in the ensuing war between the two brothers, +assigned the throne to him whom nature seems to have pointed out as the +fittest person. + + History of this war according to Xenophon. Battle of Cunaxa, + in which Cyrus falls, 401. Retreat of the ten thousand Greek + mercenaries in the service of Cyrus, under the guidance of Xenophon. + +41. During the whole of this reign, Artaxerxes, now firmly seated on the +throne, remained under the tutelage of his mother, Parysatis, whose +inveterate hatred against his wife, Statira, and against all who had any +share in the death of her darling son, Cyrus, converted the seraglio +into a theatre of bloody deeds, such as can be conceived and committed +only in similar places. + +42. The insurrection and rout of Cyrus produced a corresponding change +in the political relations between the Persian court and Sparta: which, +however, were now determined, not so much by the will of the monarch +himself, as by the satraps of Asia Minor, Tissaphernes and Pharnabazus, +of whose jealousy Sparta knew how to take advantage. The former, by his +severity towards the Asiatic Greeks, who had supported the cause of +Cyrus, excited a war with Sparta, in which he himself fell a victim. The +death of the satrap is not, however, succeeded by tranquillity; for +Agesilaus commands in Asia, and threatens to overthrow the Persian +throne itself. The policy of the Persians is shown by the war which they +foment in Greece against Sparta: Conon is placed at the head of their +fleet, and extricates Persia from her difficulties better than could +have been done by her own generals; in the peace of Antalcidas she +herself dictates the terms, by which the Grecian colonies of Asia Minor, +together with Cyprus and Clazomenæ, are again delivered into her +possession. The rising power of Thebes under Epaminondas and Pelopidas, +with whom Persia keeps up a friendly connection, ensures her from any +future blow at the hands of the Spartans.--War for the possession of +Cyprus with Evagoras, who, however, by the subsequent peace retains the +sovereignty of Salamis. + +43. The war against the Cadusii in the mountains of Caucasus, proves +that Artaxerxes II. was not fitted for military command; and his attempt +to recover Egypt from king Nectanebus I. which was defeated by the feud +between Iphicrates and Artabazus, evinces that the most numerous +Persian host could achieve nothing without the assistance of Grecian +troops and Grecian generals.--It could hardly be expected that an empire +should endure much longer, when in the court all was ruled by the desire +of revenge in the women; when the political organization was already so +corrupt, that the satraps waged war against each other; and when those +generals who gave any proof of talent received no better reward than +that of Datames. + +44. In fact, it seemed not unlikely that the Persian empire would fall +asunder a little before the death of Artaxerxes Mnemon. A quarrel about +the succession arose in the court between the three legitimate sons of +the king, the eldest of whom, Darius, was put to death: the standard of +rebellion was erected in the western half of the empire, and joined by +all the governors of Asia Minor and Syria, supported by Tachos, king of +Egypt, to whose assistance the Spartans had sent Agesilaus. The +insurrection, however, was quelled in consequence of the treachery of +the chief leader, Orontes, who was bribed over to the court. + +45. In the midst of these commotions died Artaxerxes II.: his youngest +son, Ochus, took possession of the throne, and assumed the name of +Artaxerxes III. This king conceived that he could not establish his +power but by the total destruction of the royal family, numerous as it +was. He was contemporary with Philip of Macedon, in whom he soon found a +more formidable rival than any he could have met with in his own family. + +46. The new insurrection fomented by Artabazus in Asia Minor, was +accompanied with success so long as it was backed by the Thebans; but +the reception which Artabazus met with at the hands of Philip soon +betrayed the secret intentions of the Macedonian king. + +47. But the extensive rebellion of the Phoenicians and Cyprians, in +conjunction with Egypt, compelled the king to undertake another +expedition, which succeeded almost beyond expectation; although in this +case the object was again attained principally by treachery and by +Grecian auxiliaries. + + Treachery of Mentor, the leader of the confederates: the consequent + capture and destruction of Sidon, followed by the subjection of + Phoenicia, 356. Capture of Cyprus by Grecian troops, under the + command of Phocion and the younger Evagoras, 354. Expedition of the + king in person against Egypt: victory of Pelusium, won over king + Nectanebus II. with the help of Grecian mercenaries. Egypt becomes, + once more, a Persian province. + +48. This restoration of the empire to its former limits was followed by +a period of tranquillity, the result of force, as Mentor and the eunuch +Bagoas, holding the king in complete dependence, divided the kingdom, as +it were, between themselves; until Bagoas was pleased, by poison, to +remove Artaxerxes out of his way. + +49. After the assassination of the royal family, Bagoas placed on the +throne the king's youngest and only surviving son, Arces. Bagoas was +desirous of reigning in the name of that prince; but after the lapse of +two years, he found it necessary to depose him, and to substitute in his +place a distant relation of the reigning family, Darius Codomannus, who +commenced his reign by putting to death the wretch himself. + +50. Darius III. Codomannus, not having been educated, like his +predecessors, in the seraglio, gave proof of virtues which entitled +him to a better fate. Attacked in the second year of his reign by +Macedon, against which Persia had hitherto made no preparation for +resistance,--unless, perhaps, the dagger which pierced Philip was +pointed by Persian hands,--Darius was unable at once to reestablish a +kingdom which of itself was mouldering away. And yet, had not death +defeated the invasion of Macedonia by his general, Memnon, it might have +been matter of doubt, whether Alexander would ever have shone as the +conqueror of Asia.--After the loss of two battles, in which he fought in +person, Darius III. fell a victim to the treachery of Bessus, and the +burning of Persepolis made known to Asia that the realm of Persia was +destroyed, and that the east must acknowledge a new lord and master. + + For the history of the war, see below: the history of Macedon. + + + * * * * * + + + + +THIRD BOOK. + +HISTORY OF THE GRECIAN STATES. + + + + +_Geographical Outline._ + + +_Greece_ is bounded on the north by the Cambunian mountains, which +separate it from Macedonia; on the south and east by the Ægæan, on the +west by the Ionian sea. Greatest length from south to north = 220 geog. +miles, greatest breadth from west to east, = 140 geog. miles. +Superficial contents, = 29,600 square miles.--Principal rivers: the +Peneus, which discharges its waters into the Ægæan, and the Achelous, +which flows into the Ionian sea. Advantages in respect to fertility, +resulting from the mildness of the climate, between 37-40° N. lat.; from +the number of small streams; from the qualities and variety of the soil, +in which this country has been so much more blessed by nature than any +other of similar extent, that every branch of cultivation may be +prosecuted equally and in conjunction.--Advantages in reference to +navigation and commerce: situated in the vicinity of the three quarters +of the world, on three sides washed by the sea, and by reason of its +irregular, indented coast, abounding with commodious ports and havens. + +It may be divided into Northern Greece, from the north boundary to the +chain of Oeta and Pindus, between the Ambracian gulf west, and the +Maliac east. Central Greece, or Hellas, down to the isthmus of Corinth: +and the southern peninsula, or Peloponnesus. + +Northern Greece comprises two countries; Thessaly east, Epirus west. + +1. Thessaly, the largest and one of the most fruitful of the Grecian +countries. Length from north to south 60 geog. miles; breadth from west +to east 64 geog. miles. Rivers: the Peneus, Apidanus, and several +smaller streams. Mountains: Olympus, residence of the fabulous gods, and +Ossa in the north; the chain of Oeta, Othrys, and Pindus in the south. +Division into five provinces: 1. Estiæotis; cities: Gomphi, Azorus: 2. +Pelasgiotis; cities: Larissa, Gonni, the vale of Tempe: 3. Thessaliotis; +cities: Pharsalus, etc. 4. Phthiotis; cities: Pheræ, etc. 5. The +foreland of Magnesia, with a city of the same name. Other territories, +such as Perrhæbia, etc. for instance, derived their names from the +non-Greek races who inhabited them. + +2. Epirus. Next to Thessaly, the largest, although one of the least +cultivated countries of Greece: 48-60 geog. miles long, and the same in +breadth. Divisions: Molossis; city, Ambracia: Thesprotia; city, +Buthrotum; in the interior, Dodona. + +Central Greece, or Hellas, comprises nine countries. + +1. Attica, a foreland, extending towards the south-east, and gradually +diminishing. Length, 60 geog. miles; greatest breadth, 24 geog. miles. +Rivers: Ilissus, Cephissus. Mountains: Hymettus, Pentelicus, and the +headland of Sunium. City: Athens, with the harbours Piræus, Phalereus, +and Munychius; in the other parts no towns, but hamlets, [Greek: dêmoi], +such as Marathon, Eleusis, Decelea, etc. + +2. Megaris, close to the isthmus of Corinth. The smallest of the Grecian +countries; 16 geog. miles long, and from 4-8 broad. City, Megara. + +3. Boeotia, a mountainous and marshy country, 52 geog. miles long, and +from 28-32 broad. Rivers: Asopus, Ismenus, and several smaller streams. +Mountains: Helicon, Cythæron, etc. Lake: Copais.--Boeotia was, of all +the Grecian countries, that which contained the greatest number of +cities, each having its own separate territory. Among these, the first +in importance, and frequently mistress of the rest, was Thebes on the +Ismenus. The others, Platææ, Tanagra, Thespiæ, Chæronea, Lebadea, +Leuctra, and Orchomenus, are all celebrated in Grecian history. + +4. Phocis, smaller than Attica; 48 geog. miles long, from 4-20 broad. +River: Cephissus. Mountain: Parnassus. Cities: Delphi, on Parnassus, +with the celebrated oracle of Apollo. Crissa, with the harbour of +Cirrha, and up the country Elatea. The other cities are insignificant. + +5, 6. The two countries called Locris. The eastern on the Euripus, +territory of the Locri Opuntii and Epicnemidii is the lesser of the two; +being but little larger than Megaris. City: Opus; pass, Thermopylæ. The +western Locris on the Corinthian gulf, station of the Locri Ozolæ, is +from 20-24 geog. miles long, and from 16-20 broad. Cities: Naupactus on +the sea, Amphissa up the country. + +7. The small country of Doris, or the Tetrapolis Dorica, on the south +side of mount Oeta, from 8-12 geog. miles long, and the same in breadth. + +8. Ætolia, somewhat larger than Boeotia; from 40-52 geog. miles long, +and from 28-32 broad; but the least cultivated country of all. Rivers: +Achelous, which skirts Acarnania, and the Evenus. Cities: Calydon, +Thermus. + +9. Acarnania, the most western country of Hellas, 32 geog. miles long, +from 16-24 broad. River: Achelous. Cities: Argos Amphilochicum, and +Stratus. + +The peninsula of Peloponnesus contains eight countries. + +1. Arcadia, a mountainous country, abounding in pastures, and situate in +the centre of the peninsula; greatest length, 48 geog. miles; greatest +breadth, 36 geog. miles. Mountains: Cyllene, Erymanthus, etc. Rivers: +Alpheus, Erymanthus, and several smaller streams. Lake: Styx. Cities: +Mantinea, Tegea, Orchomenus, Heræa, Psophis; subsequently Megalopolis, +as a common capital. + +2. Laconia, likewise mountainous. Greatest length, 66 geog. miles; +greatest breadth, 36 geog. miles. River: Eurotas. Mountains: Taygetus, +and the headlands Malea and Tenarium. Cities: Sparta on the Eurotas; +other places: Amyclæ, Sellasia, and others of little importance. + +3. Messenia, west of Laconia; a more level and extremely fertile +country, subject to the Spartans from B. C. 668. Greatest length, 28 +geog. miles: greatest breadth, 36 geog. miles. City: Messene. Frontier +places, Ithome and Ira: of the other places, Pylus (Navarino) and +Methone are the most celebrated. + +4. Elis, with the small territory of Triphylia, on the west of the +Peloponnesus. Length, 60 geog. miles: greatest breadth, 28 geog. miles. +Rivers: Alpheus, Peneus, Sellis, and several smaller streams. Cities: in +the north, Elis, Cyllene, and Pylus. On the Alpheus, Pisa and the +neighbouring town of Olympia. In Triphylia, a third Pylus. + +5. Argolis, on the east side of the peninsula; a foreland opposite to +Attica, with which it forms the Sinus Saronicus. Length, 64 geog. miles: +breadth, from 8-28 geog. miles. Cities: Argos, Mycenæ, Epidaurus. +Smaller but remarkable places; Nemea, Cynuria, Troezen. + +6. Achaia, originally Ionia, called likewise Ægialus, comprises the +north coast. Length, 56 geog. miles: breadth, from 12-24. It contains +twelve cities, of which Dyme, Patræ, and Pellene are the most important. + +7. The little country of Sicyonia, 16 geog. miles long, 8 broad, with +the cities of Sicyon and Phlius. + +8. The small territory of Corinth, of the same extent as the foregoing, +adjoining the isthmus which connects Peloponnesus with the main land. +City: Corinth, originally Ephyra, with the ports of Lechæum and +Cenchreæ; the former on the Corinthian, the latter on the Saronic gulf. + +The Greek islands may be divided into three classes; those which lie +immediately off the coasts, those which are collected in groups, and +those which lie separate in the open sea. + +1. Islands off the coasts. Off the west coast in the Ionian sea: +Corcyra, opposite Epirus, 32 geog. miles long, from 8-16 broad. City: +Corcyra. A Corinthian colony. Opposite Acarnania; Leucadia, with the +city and headland of Leucas.--Cephalonia or Same, originally Scheria, +with the cities of Same and Cephalonia. In the neighbourhood lies the +small island of Ithaca.--Opposite Elis: Zacynthus. Off the south coast: +Cythera, with a town of the same name. Off the east coast, in the +Saronic gulf: Ægina and Salamis. Opposite Boeotia, from which it is +separated by the strait named Euripus, Euboea, the most extensive of +all; 76 geog. miles long, from 12-16 geog. miles broad. Cities: Oreus, +with the headland of Artemisium on the north, in the centre Chalcis, +Eretria. Off Thessaly, Scyathus and Halonesus. Farther north, Thasus, +Imbrus, Samothrace, and Lemnos. + +2. Clusters of islands in the Ægæan sea: the Cyclades and Sporades; the +former of which comprise the western, the latter the eastern islands of +the Archipelago. The most important among them are, Andros, Delos, +Paros, Naxos, Melos, all with cities of the same names. + +3. The more extensive separate islands: 1. Crete, 140 geog. miles long, +from 24-40 broad. Mountain: Ida. Cities: Cydonia, Gortyna, Cnossus. 2. +Cyprus, 120 geog. miles long, from 20-80 broad. Cities: Salamis, Paphos, +Citium, and several smaller places. + + Concerning the principal Greek islands off the coast of Asia + Minor, see above, p. 18. + + # FR. CARL. HERM. KRUSE, _Geographico-Antiquarian delineation + of ancient Greece and its colonies, with reference to modern + discoveries_. Illustrated with maps and plates: first part, 1825. + General Geography: second part, first division, 1826. Second + division, 1827. Special Geography of Central Greece. A most minute + and careful description of Greece, founded on modern discoveries. + + + + +FIRST PERIOD. + +_The most ancient traditional history, down to the Trojan war, +about B. C. 1200._ + + + Sources: On the formation and progress of history among the Greeks. + Preliminary enquiry into the peculiarities of Grecian mythology in + a historical point of view, as comprising the most ancient history + of the national tribes and heroes. A history rich in itself, on + account of the number of tribes and their leaders; but embellished + and altered in various ways by the poets, particularly the great + early epic writers, and afterwards by the tragedians.--First + advance of history from tradition, wrought by the logographi, + especially those of the Ionian cities, Hecatæus, Pherecydes, etc. + until HERODOTUS, so justly called the Father of History, raised it + at once to such a lofty pitch of eminence. (Compare # _The + historical Art of the Greeks considered in its Rise and Progress, + by_ G. F. CREUZER; 1803.) Nevertheless, in Herodotus, and even + later writers, history continued to savour of its origin; and so + far as the realm of tradition extended, even Theopompus and Ephorus + felt no disinclination to borrow their materials from mythologists + or poets. It need scarcely be observed, that in this first period + the history is merely traditional. + + Among the moderns, the English have most successfully treated the + subject of Grecian history: the principal works are: + + JOHN GILLIES, _The History of Ancient Greece, its colonies and + conquests, from the earliest accounts till the division of the + Macedonian empire in the east, including the history of literature, + philosophy, and the fine arts_. London, 1786, 2 vols. 4to. and + + WILLIAM MITFORD, _The History of Greece_. London, 1784, 4 vols. + 4to. Several new editions have since appeared. Translated into + German, Jena, 1800, sqq. by _H. L. Eichstädt_. Mitford is perhaps + superior in learning, copiousness, and solidity, but he certainly + is greatly surpassed by Gillies in genius and taste, and more + especially in a proper conception of the spirit of antiquity. [Few + English critics will here coincide with our author.] + + DE PAUW, _Recherches sur les Grecs_, 1701, 2 vols. 8vo. Replete + with partial views and hypotheses. + + # HEEREN, _Researches into the politics, intercourse, and trade of + the most celebrated nations of antiquity_: 3 vols. 1st part, 4th + edit. 1826. [Translated into English, Oxford, 1830, 8vo.] + + Many important enquiries on various portions of Grecian history and + antiquities will be found in the great collection: + + GRONOVII, _Thesaurus Antiquitatum Græcarum_, 12 vols. folio. + + Others are contained in the transactions of different learned + societies; particularly in + + _Mémoires de l'Académie des Inscriptions et des Belles Lettres_, + Paris, 1709, sqq. 49 vols. 4to. + + _Commentarii_, (4 vols.) _Commentarii novi_, (8 vols.) + _Commentationes_, (16 vols.) and _Commentationes recentiores + Societatis Scientiarum Gotting._ (5 vols.) + +1. Although Greece was originally inhabited by several insignificant +races, two principal tribes claim our attention, the _Pelasgi_ and the +_Hellenes_. Both probably were of Asiatic origin; but the difference of +their language characterized them as different tribes. The Pelasgi were +the first that extended their dominion in Greece. + + First seat of the Pelasgians in the Peloponnesus, under Inachus, + about B. C. 1800. According to their own traditions, they made + their first appearance in this quarter as uncultivated savages; + they must, however, at an early period, have made some progress + towards civilization, since the most ancient states, Argos and + Sicyon, owed their origin to them; and to them, perhaps, with + great probability, are attributed the remains of those most + ancient monuments generally termed _cyclopian_.--Extension of this + tribe towards the north, particularly over Attica; settlement in + Thessaly under their leaders Achæus, Phthius, and Pelasgus; here + they learned to apply themselves to agriculture, and remained for + a hundred and fifty successive years; about 1700-1500. + +2. The Hellenes,--subsequently so called from Hellen, one of their +chieftains,--originally the weaker of the two tribes, make their first +appearance in Phocis, near Parnassus, under king Deucalion; from whence +they are driven by a flood. They migrate into Thessaly, and drive out +the Pelasgi from that territory.--The Hellenes soon after this become +the most powerful race; and spreading over Greece, expel the Pelasgi +from almost every part. The latter tribe maintain their ground only in +Arcadia, and the land of Dodona; some of them migrate to Italy, others +to Crete, and various islands. + +3. The Hellenic tribe is subdivided into four principal branches, the +_Æolians_, _Ionians_, _Dorians_, and _Achæans_, which continue +afterwards to be distinguished and separated by many peculiarities of +speech, customs, and political government. These four tribes, although +they must not be considered as comprising all the slender ramifications +of the nation, are derived by tradition from Deucalion's immediate +posterity; with whose personal history, therefore, the history of the +tribes themselves and their migrations is interwoven. + + This derivation of the tribes will be better understood by an + inspection of the following genealogical table: + + DEUCALION. + | + HELLEN. + |--------------------|--------------------| + DORUS. XUTHUS. ÆOLUS. + | |---------|-------------| | + DORIANS. | | ÆOLIANS. + ACHÆUS. ION. + | | + ACHÆANS. IONIANS. + +4. The gradual spread of the various branches of the Hellenic tribe over +Greece was effected by several migrations, between B. C. 1500-1300; +after which they preserved the settlements they had already obtained +until the later migration of the Dorians and Heraclidæ, about 1100. + + _Principal data for the history of the separate tribes in this + period._ + + 1. ÆOLUS follows his father Hellen into Phthiotis, which + consequently remains the seat of the Æolians; they spread from + thence over western Greece, Acarnania, Ætolia, Phocis, Locris, Elis + in the Peloponnesus, and likewise over the western islands. + + 2. DORUS follows his father into Estiæotis, the most ancient seat + of the Dorians. They are driven from thence after the death of + Dorus by the Perrhæbi; spread over Macedonia and Crete; part of the + tribe return, cross mount Oeta, and settle in the Tetrapolis + Dorica, afterwards called Doris, where they remain until they + migrate into Peloponnesus, under the guidance of the Heraclidæ; + about 1100. (See below, p. 127). + + 3. XUTHUS, expelled by his brothers, migrates to Athens, where he + marries Creusa, daughter of Erectheus, by whom he has sons, Ion and + Achæus. Ion and his tribe, driven out of Athens, settle in that + part of Peloponnesus called Ægialus, a name which by them was + converted into Ionia, and in later times exchanged for Achaia. The + Achæans preserve their footing in Laconia and Argos, until the time + of the Dorian migration. + + # L. D. HUELLMAN, _Early Grecian History_, 1814. Rich in original + views and conjectures, beyond which the early history of nations + seldom extends. + + # D. C. OTFRIED MUELLER, _History of the Hellenic Tribes and + Cities_, 1820, vol. 1. containing, _Orchomenus and the Minyæ_; + vols. 2, 3, containing the _Dorians_, 1825. + +5. Besides these original inhabitants, colonies at the same early period +came into Greece from civilized countries, from Egypt, Phoenicia, and +Mysia. The settlements of these strangers occurred probably between B. +C. 1600-1400. + + Establishment in Attica of the colony of Cecrops, from Sais in Egypt, + about 1550; in Argos, of the colony of Danaus, likewise from Egypt, + about 1500.--The colony of Cadmus, from Phoenicia, settles in Boeotia + about 1550.--The colony of Pelops, from Mysia, settles in Argos about + 1400. + +6. The mythology of the Hellenes proves beyond a doubt, that they were +at first savages, like the Pelasgi since they had to learn even the use +of fire from Prometheus; yet it is equally clear that they must, even in +the earliest period, particularly from 1300-1200, when they had ceased +to migrate, have made the first important steps towards the attainment +of a certain degree of civilization. About the time of the Trojan war +they appear to have been still barbarians, though no longer savages. + +7. The origin and progress of this national organization, and the +influence wrought upon it by settlers from foreign countries, are +difficult subjects to determine. If we allow that Cecrops was the first +who introduced marriage in Attica, and that agriculture and the +cultivation of the olive were discovered in that country, it +unquestionably follows, that the Hellenes were indebted to strangers for +the foundation of domestic civilization. And when we consider that the +families which subsequently held sway were descended directly from the +most powerful of these strangers, their lasting influence can hardly be +a matter of doubt. It must, however, be observed, that what the Greeks +borrowed from foreigners they previously stamped with their own peculiar +character, so that it became, as it were, the original property of the +nation. The question, therefore, is deprived of much of the importance +which it assumes at the first glance. + +8. The case was the same with regard to all branches of intellectual +civilization, particularly religion. That many deities and religious +rites were introduced into Greece from Egypt, Asia, and Thrace, and +generally through Crete, hardly admits of a doubt; but they did not +therefore remain Egyptian, Asiatic, or Thracian; they became Grecian +gods. Hence it appears that the investigation of those relations can +hardly lead to any important conclusion. It is a fact, however, of the +highest importance, that whatever gods the Greeks adopted, no separate +order of priesthood was established among them, still less any caste +laying claim to the exclusive possession of knowledge. Several traces, +nevertheless, make it probable, that many of the most ancient +sanctuaries were settlements of Egyptian, Phoenician, or Cretan priests, +who imported with them their own peculiar forms of worship. And +notwithstanding this worship consisted merely of outward ceremonies, +many ideas and institutions which were attached to it, became, in this +manner, the common property of the nation. + +9. It was principally, therefore, by religion, that the rude mind became +in some degree polished. But it was the ancient minstrels, ([Greek: +aoidoì],) Orpheus, Linus, etc., who, by disseminating religious +principles, contributed so much towards abolishing revenge, and with it +the perpetual state of warfare which had hitherto distracted the +country. These it was who in their mysteries contrived in some measure +to impress the narrow circle of the initiated with the advantages +resulting from a civilized life. + + SAINTE-CROIX, _Recherches sur les Mystères du Paganisme_, Paris, 1765. + Translated into German, with valuable observations, by C. G. LENZ; + Gotha, 1790. + +10. The influence of religion, through the medium of oracles, especially +those of Dodona and Delphi, was not less powerful. The two latter, with +that of Olympia, were perhaps, originally ancient settlements of +priests, such as have been already alluded to. The necessity of +consulting these sanctuaries naturally led men to regard the oracles as +the common property of the nation, to which every one should have +access; it followed therefore as an inevitable consequence, that the +direction of affairs in which all were engaged, depended principally on +those oracles. + + A. VAN DALEN, _De Oraculis veterum Ethnicorum Dissertationes_ 6. + Amstel. 1700. A very valuable work. A comprehensive dissertation on + the subject, however, is still wanting: a portion of it is treated + of in + + J. GRODDEK, _De Oraculorum veterum, quæ in Herodoti libris + continentur, natura, commentatio_; Gotting. 1786. + +11. It happened with Greece as with other countries; the tender plant +of civilization grew up under the shelter of the sanctuary. There the +festivals were celebrated, and there the people assembled; and there +various tribes, who had hitherto been strangers to one another, met +in peace, and conversed on their common interests. Hence arose +spontaneously the first idea of a law of nations, and those connections +which led to its development. Among these connections, that of the +Amphictyons at Delphi was the most important, and continued the longest: +it is probable that it did not assume its complete form till a later +period; yet it appears in early times to have adopted the principle, +that none of the cities belonging to the league should be destroyed by +the others. + + # FR. WILH. TITTMANN, _Upon the Amphictyonic League_; 1812. A + dissertation which gained the prize of the Academy of Sciences at + Berlin. + +12. To religion must likewise be added navigation, and the consequent +intercourse which brought the nation into contact with strangers, and +prepared it to receive civilization. It cannot be denied that the +navigators continued long to be mere pirates; but as Minos of Crete +cleared the sea of freebooters, the want of another state of things must +have been felt long before. + +13. In the mean time the chivalrous spirit of the nation was gradually +aroused; and developed the first bloom of its youthful vigour in the +heroic ages. An affection for extraordinary undertakings was excited; +and conducted the chieftains, not only individually, but also in +confederate bodies, beyond the limits of their father-land. These +undertakings were not only important in themselves, but their advantages +were increased by their being preserved in the songs of their bards by +means of a national poesy, such as no other people possessed, and such +as contributed to the further development of the national genius. + + Expedition of the Argonauts to Colchis, somewhere about B. C. 1250; + war of the seven confederate princes against Thebes about 1225; the + town, however, was not taken until the second attempt made by the sons + of the chiefs (Epigoni) in 1215. + +14. Thus every thing was now ripe for some great national undertaking of +all the combined Hellenic nations; and that object was attained in the +war against Troy. The most important result of that expedition was the +kindling of one common national spirit,--a spirit which in spite of +dissensions and feuds, was never wholly extinguished, and which must +almost necessarily have arisen from an expedition carried on in so +distant a field, which lasted ten years, in which all were joined, and +which was crowned with such signal success. From the time of the Trojan +war downwards the Hellenes always looked upon themselves as but one +people. + + General view of the political state of Greece about the time of the + Trojan war.--Division into several small states, the most powerful + of which were Argos and Mycenæ.--All those states were governed by + hereditary chieftains or princes from a certain _family_ (kings, + [Greek: basileis],) who combined the offices of leaders in war and + judges in peace. Their authority being more or less extended in + proportion to the qualities they possessed, and particularly to + their valour in battle.--Manner of life among the people: a nation + dwelling in cities, but at the same time cultivating the land and + tending cattle; applying also to war, and already somewhat advanced + in the art of navigation. + + A. W. SCHLEGEL, _De Geographia Homeri Commentatio_. Hannov. 1788. A + review of the political geography of Greece at this period.--On the + topography of Troy: + + LECHEVALIER, _Description de la Plaine de Troie_. Translated and + accompanied with notes by HEYNE, Leipzig, 1794. Compare CLARKE, + _Travels_, vol. i, c. 4-6, who has thrown doubts on the system of + Lechevalier, which has, however, been again confirmed by LEAKE, + _Travels in Asia Minor_. + + + + +SECOND PERIOD. + +_From the Trojan war to the breaking out of the Persian war, B. C. +1200-500._ + + Sources. On no portion of the Grecian history is our information + so scanty as upon this long period, in which we can be hardly said + to have more than a general knowledge of many of the most + important events. As in the foregoing period, its commencement is + but a traditional and poetical history. It was not till towards + the end of it that the use of writing became common among the + Greeks; add to which the period itself was not rife in great + national undertakings, such as might afford appropriate materials + for the poet or historian. Besides the scattered information which + may be gathered from Herodotus, Plutarch, Strabo, and above all + from the introduction to Thucydides's history, Pausanias must not + be forgotten; who, in his description of Greece, has preserved an + abundance of most valuable documents relating to the separate + histories of the minor states. The Books of Diodorus belonging to + this period are lost. + + # FR. WILHELM TITTMANN, _Delineation of the Grecian Forms of + Government_, 1822. An industrious collection of all the + information we possess respecting this subject. + + # W. WACHSMUTH, _Grecian Antiquities with regard to Politics_, 4 + vols. An excellent work. + + +1. _History of the Hellenic states within Greece._ + +1. The Trojan war was followed by a very stormy period, in consequence +of the many disorders prevalent in the ruling families, especially in +that of Pelops. But more violent commotions soon arose, caused by the +attempts of the rude tribes of the north, particularly of the Dorians +combined with the Ætolians, who, under the guidance of the descendants +of Hercules, exiled from Argos, strove to obtain possession of +Peloponnesus. Those commotions shook Greece during a whole century, and +as the seats of most of the Hellenic tribes were then changed, the +consequences were lasting and important. + + First unsuccessful attempt under Hyllus, son of Hercules, about + 1180.--Repeated attempts, until at last the claims of the Heraclidæ + are made good by the grandsons of Hyllus, viz. Telephus and + Cresphontes, together with Eurysthenes and Procles, sons of their + brother Aristodemus, 1100. + +2. Consequences resulting to the Peloponnesus from this migration. The +territories of Argos, Sparta, Messene, and Corinth, wrested from the +Achæans who had hitherto inhabited them, become the property of the +Dorians; Elis falls to the share of the Ætolians, who had accompanied +the former. The Achæans expelled, in their turn expel the Ionians and +settle in the country since called Achaia; the fugitive Ionians are +received by their ancient kinsmen the Athenians.--But among the +consequences of this migration of the Hellenic races must be reckoned +likewise the establishment of Greek colonies in Asia Minor; an +occurrence of the highest importance to the ulterior development of the +nation. This colonization was commenced by the Æolian Hellenes, whose +example was soon after followed by the Ionians, and even by the Dorians. + + For the history of these colonies, see the following section. + +3. Although the effect of these migrations and wars, in which the ruder +tribes oppressed the more civilized, must inevitably have been, not only +to interrupt the progress of civilization, but even almost entirely to +annihilate it, yet in this universal movement the foundation was laid +of that constitution of things which afterwards existed in Greece. The +tribes which had migrated, as well as those which had been expelled, +remained at first under the dominion of their hereditary princes, some +for a longer, others for a shorter time. In the two centuries, however, +immediately subsequent to the migrations, B. C. 1100-900, republican +constitutions took the place of hereditary clanship in all the Grecian +countries, the distant Epirus excepted. These republics continued to +exist amid the various revolutions which happened; and the love of +political freedom, deeply impressed on the minds of the people, +constituted from this time the principal feature in the national +character. + +4. The sequel proves, that the principal cause of this change so +important for Greece,--this change, by which her future internal policy +was for ever determined, originated in the progress made by the newly +come tribes towards civic life, and consequently at the same time +towards national civilization. In this newly constituted order of +things, each city, with the territory around it, formed a separate +state, and framed its own constitution; hence there arose as many free +states as cities. + + The notion that Greece contained the same number of states as + countries is completely false, although it cannot be denied that + the mode of expression in most writings upon Greek history seems to + authorize the assertion. It is true that some of those countries, + such as Attica, Megaris, Laconia, may be each regarded as a + separate state, because each constituted the territory of one city. + The others, however, such as Arcadia, Boeotia, etc. did not each + form one state, but comprised as many separate states as there were + free and independent cities, each of which, with its territory, + formed one. Still, however, it must be observed, (_a_) that the + natural ties of kindred subsisted; Arcadians, Boeotians, etc. spoke + of one another as countrymen. (_b_) Voluntary connections were + entered into between different cities, and sometimes all the cities + of a country, as, for instance, in Achaia, so that the whole formed + one confederation; each individual city nevertheless still + preserved its own system of laws and government. Again, (_c_) in + consequence of a greater share of power, one city assumed a sort of + dominion over the other; as, for instance, that of Thebes over the + Boeotian cities. This dominion, however, was always precarious, and + depended upon the state of affairs. (_d_) It must likewise be + observed, that the constitution of each separate city underwent + many changes, wrought generally by influential citizens, (tyrants,) + who not only possessed themselves of the supreme power, but also + contrived frequently to make it for some time hereditary in their + families. Every one will easily discern that the above are the + fundamental principles of Greek history, which cannot be too + clearly conceived, or too correctly defined; since it is + self-evident what a wide field was by such a constitution of things + thrown open to practical politics. The more improbable the + attainment of fixed constitutions in the separate cities was, the + more frequent must have been the political attempts; (attempts + facilitated by the narrow extent of the state;) and the more + frequently those attempts failed, the more extensive in this + intellectual people became the mass of political ideas; the results + of which in later times were the legislative codes of Solon and + others. + +5. Although Greece was thus parcelled out into a number of small states, +united by no common political bond, yet there existed a certain unity of +the Hellenic race, a certain national spirit: this was produced in part +by national festivals and games, occurring at stated periods, among +which those in honour of Jupiter at Olympia were the chief. The nation +at these appeared in all its splendour; and all Hellenes, but no others, +were allowed to join in them. This union, too, was promoted by the +extension of the Amphictyonic council: and the reason why this last +institution was not followed by all the consequences which might have +been expected from it, may perhaps be found in what naturally takes +place in every great confederation whenever any of the component states +become too powerful. + + The Amphictyonic council was certainly not a states-general, in + which all national affairs were discussed. Its immediate office was + to attend to the temples and the oracles of Delphi. But then it + must be observed, 1st, that from this council originated the + Grecian ideas of the law of nations; over the preservation of which + the Amphictyons watched. 2. In consequence of its political + influence on the oracle, this council, in certain cases, was + enabled to take a share in the affairs of different states. 3. The + Amphictyons always formed a national institution, since none but + Hellenes were admitted. + + ST. CROIX, _Des anciens gouvernemens fédératifs, et de la + législation de Crète_, Paris, 1796. One of the most invaluable + inquiries, not only into the institutions of the Amphictyons, but + also into other matters of Grecian history connected with them. + +6. Among the different states of Greece, Sparta and Athens, even at this +period, became celebrated, not only for their greater power, but also +for their superior constitutions and their laws: and though it may not +perhaps be strictly true, that the history of the rest of Greece is +connected with that of these two cities, yet they certainly possess the +highest claim to our attention. + +7. History of Sparta. The Achæans at first were governed by princes of +the house of Perseus, but after Menelaus's accession to the throne in +virtue of his wife, by princes of the house of Pelops. When the latter +had been expelled by the Dorians, Laconia fell by lot to the sons of +Aristodemus, Procles and Eurysthenes, between whose families the royal +power was divided, so that two kings constantly reigned in common, one +from each family. + + Families of the Proclidæ and Ægidæ; the latter so called from Agis, + the son and successor of Eurysthenes. + + # J. C. F. MANSO, _An Essay on the History and Constitution of + Sparta_, Leipzig, 1800 sqq. 3 vols. The most important work upon + this subject, and which likewise contains much information upon + various points of Grecian history connected with it. + + CRAGIUS, _De Republica Lacedæmoniorum_, 1642. + + MEURSIUS, _De regno Laconico_; and _Miscellanea Laconica_. Both + laborious compilations. + +8. The Dorians now gradually conquered, and established themselves in +many cities of the peninsula; forming, if not the whole population, at +least the only part of it that enjoyed any power, as the Achæans that +remained were reduced to slavery. No long time, however, elapsed ere the +city of Sparta usurped an authority over the whole country, which it +ever afterwards preserved; the other towns, formerly considerable, +becoming unfortified, defenceless, and insignificant. + + Relation between the Spartan citizens of the capital as a ruling + body, and the Lacedæmonians, or [Greek: perioikoi], inhabitants of + the country, as subjects who paid tribute and military service. Even + in the time of Agis, the successor of Eurysthenes, this subjection + was effected by force; the inhabitants of Helos were made slaves, as + a punishment for their opposition; while the others, by the + sacrifice of their political freedom, preserved their personal + liberty, however confined it might be. + +9. The history of the two following centuries, to the time of Lycurgus, +exhibits nothing but the repeated wars of the Spartans with their +neighbours the Argives; their domestic broils, occasioned by the too +unequal division of property, by the feuds, and the diminished power of +the kings, and which lasted until Lycurgus, the uncle and guardian of +the minor king, Charilaus, about the year 880, gave to Sparta that +constitution to which she was principally indebted for her subsequent +splendour. + + _Illustration of the principal features in the Spartan constitution._ + Some preliminary observations are necessary. (_a_) As the legislation + of Lycurgus occurred at so early a period, and as his laws were not + written, but conveyed in apophthegms, ([Greek: rhêtrai],) which + were confirmed by the oracle of Delphi, many things of later origin + have been attributed to Lycurgus. (_b_) Much that is rightly + attributed to him was not original, but deduced from ancient Dorian + institutions, which being now upon the decline, were reestablished + by force of law. Hence it follows, that the legislation of Lycurgus + must naturally have had many points of resemblance with that of the + Cretans, likewise of Dorian origin, although much, as we are told, + was directly borrowed from them. (_c_) The principal object of the + laws of Lycurgus was to ensure the existence of Sparta by creating + and supporting a vigorous and uncorrupted race of men. Hence those + laws had a more peculiar reference to private life and physical + education, than to the constitution of the state, in which the + legislator appears to have introduced but few alterations. + + In reference to the constitution: 1. The relation which had + hitherto existed between the Spartans as a dominant people, and the + Lacedæmonians as subjects, was preserved. 2. The two kings, from + the two ruling families, were likewise continued, as leaders in war + and first magistrates in peace. On the other hand, 3. to Lycurgus + is attributed the institution of a senate, ([Greek: gerousia],) + consisting of twenty-eight members, none of whom could be less than + sixty years old, who were to be chosen by the people for life, and + were to constitute the king's council in public affairs. 4. Whether + the college of the five Ephori annually chosen, was originally + instituted by Lycurgus, or at some later period, is a question + impossible to decide, but of little importance, since the great + power of this college, to which every thing was finally referred as + the highest tribunal of the state, was certainly assumed after the + time of Lycurgus. 5. Besides the above, there were likewise the + popular assemblies, convened according to the division into + [Greek: phylas] and [Greek: ôbas], at which none but Spartans could + assist: their privileges extended no further than to approve or + reject the measures proposed to them by the kings and the senate. + + In the laws relating to private life, Lycurgus aimed at making the + Spartans a society of citizens, equal as far as possible with + respect to their property and mode of life, and each deeply + impressed with the conviction that he was the property of his + country, to which he was bound to yield an unconditional obedience. + Hence, 1. The new division of land, 9000 portions to the Spartans, + and 30,000 to the Lacedæmonians; permission being given to dispose + of those portions by entail or gift, but not by sale. 2. The + removal as far as possible of every species of luxury, particularly + by means of the daily public tables ([Greek: syssitia]) of all the + citizens, according to their divisions, in which the commons were + settled by law. 3. The complete organization of domestic society in + relation both to husband and wife, parents and children, which was + so framed as to further, even at the cost of morality, the grand + political object, the production of vigorous and healthy citizens. + 4. Hence, finally, the condition of the slaves, comprehended under + the general name of helots, who, although they may be regarded + nearly as serfs, were likewise the property of the state, which had + the right of claiming their services in war.--Easy, however, as it + is to enumerate thus generally the principal heads of the Spartan + constitution, the want of sufficient documents renders it difficult + and oftentimes impossible to answer a crowd of questions, which + present themselves on our penetrating more deeply into the subject. + Still, however, its long duration, (nearly four hundred years,) + without any observable change, is more remarkable even than the + constitution itself. More remarkable, inasmuch as the Spartans soon + after this time appear as conquerors. Indeed, it could no longer be + expected that any durable peace should exist in Greece, while the + centre of the country was occupied by a military commonwealth, + whose citizens must have been, by the restlessness common to man, + impelled to war, since all the occupations of household life and of + agriculture were left to the care of slaves. + + Besides the works mentioned above, p. 119. + + HEYNE, _De Spartanorum republica Judicium_; inserted in _Commentat. + Soc. Gotting._ vol. ix. Intended to correct the partial opinions of + DE PAUW. + +10. Soon after the time of Lycurgus commenced the war of the Spartans +with their neighbours, the Argives, the Arcadians, but more particularly +the Messenians. The wars with these last appear to have originated in an +old grudge on the part of the Dorian tribe, proceeding from the unequal +division of lands at the occupation of Peloponnesus: it is nevertheless +evident, that the quarrel between the two nations was mainly fostered by +the ambition of the Spartan kings, who wrought upon a superstitious +multitude by oracular responses and interpretations. + + Unimportant wars with Tegea and Argos; and disputes with Messene, + 783-745. + + First Messenian war, 742-722, terminated by the capture of the + frontier fortress Ithome, after the voluntary death of the + Messenian king, Aristodemus.--The Messenians become tributary to + the Spartans, and are obliged to give up one half of the revenues + of their lands.--Occurrences during this war: 1. Institution, + according to some authorities, of the college of Ephori as + vicegerents of the kings in their absence, and arbitrators in the + quarrels which might arise between the kings and the senate. 2. The + power of the people so far limited as to restrain the popular + assemblies from making alterations in the resolutions proposed to + them by the senate or the kings, and confining them merely to a + vote of approval or rejection. 3. Insurrection of the Parthenii and + Helots becomes the motive for sending out colonies; a measure to + which Sparta had more than once resorted for the purpose of + maintaining domestic tranquillity. + + Second Messenian war, 682-668, waged by the Messenians under the + command of their hero Aristomenes, by the Spartans under that of + Tyrtæus, who fanned the flame of war until the contest was + terminated by the capture of the strong town Ira. The Messenian + territory is divided among the conquerors, and the conquered + inhabitants become, like the helots, agricultural slaves. + +11. Although the territory of the Spartans was greatly increased by +these Messenian wars, the nation seems to have been a long time before +it recovered from the struggle, and to have raised itself by slow steps +to the first rank among the Dorian states, extending its boundaries at +the expense of the Argives and Arcadians. + + Wars with Tegea for the most part unsuccessful; and with Argos, for + the possession of Thyrea and the island of Cythera; by the accession + of which the Spartan territory received an important augmentation, + about 550. + +12. These wars within Peloponnesus were not of such a nature as to give +rise to any remarkable changes in the Spartan constitution, and for a +long time the nation refused to take any share in foreign affairs. But +no sooner did king Cleomenes, who in the end procured the deposition of +his colleague, Demaratus, interfere in the affairs of the Athenians, +than the seeds of strife were sown between these two republics. The +Persian war next ensued, in which Sparta was obliged to bear a part, +although Cleomenes had refused to participate in the insurrection of +Aristagoras: that struggle, together with the idea of supremacy in +Greece which now took its rise, introduced a series of political +relations before unknown. + +13. The history of Athens during this period is rendered important +rather by domestic revolutions, which gradually tended to convert the +state into a republic, than by external aggrandizement. The situation +and peculiarities of Attica, which rendered it less exposed than other +parts of Greece to the attacks and forays of wandering hordes, favoured +the gradual and tranquil growth of national prosperity; the traces of +which are incontestable, though it would be difficult for the most +profound research to point out the whole course of its progress so +perspicuously as the historian might wish. + + The history of Athens, of course, constitutes a main part of the + works mentioned above, p. 119. Besides which: + + W. YOUNG, _The history of Athens politically and philosophically + considered_. London, 1796. 4to. Argumentation rather than history. + + CORSINI, _Fasti Attici_. Florent. 1747. 4 vols. 4to. A most careful + chronological essay. + + 1. Period of kingly government down to 1068. The history of Athens + as a state begins properly with Theseus, who succeeded his father + Ægeus, about B. C. 1300. Although certain institutions, such as + that of the areopagus, the division of the people into nobles, + ([Greek: eupatridai],) husbandmen, ([Greek: geôrgoi],) and + mechanics: ([Greek: dêmiourgoi;]) a division which recals to our + memory the Egyptian institution of castes, are perhaps of an + earlier date, and may be ascribed to the colony of Cecrops. Theseus + was, however, in some measure the founder of the state, since, + instead of the four districts, ([Greek: dêmoi],) hitherto + independent of one another, he constituted the city of Athens as + the only seat of government. Among his successors the attention of + the student is directed to Mnestheus, who fell before Troy; and the + last king, Codrus, who by a voluntary sacrifice of his life rescued + Attica from the inroads of the Dorians, 1068. + + 2. Period of archons for life, taken from the family of Codrus, + thirteen of whom ruled; 1068-752. The first was Medon, the last, + Alcmæon. These archons succeeded, like the kings, by inheritance, + but were accountable for their administration, ([Greek: + hypeuthynoi].)--At the commencement of this period occur the + migrations of the Ionians from Attica to Asia Minor, 1044. See + below. + + 3. Period of the decennial archons, seven of whom succeeded between + 752-682. These likewise were taken from the family of Codrus. This + period is devoid of any remarkable occurrences. + + 4. Period extending to Solon, 682-594. that of nine archons yearly + chosen, but so arranged that the prerogatives of the former kings, + and the preceding archons, were divided among the three first of + the nine. With respect to this, as well as to the other changes + above mentioned, we know little of the causes which produced them, + or of the manner in which they were brought about. Rise of an + oppressive aristocracy, (like that of the patricians at Rome, + immediately after the expulsion of the kings,) both the archons and + the members of the areopagus being elected only from noble + families. First attempt at legislation by Draco, 622, which appears + only to have consisted in a criminal code, rendered unavailing by + its severity.--The insurrection of Cylon, 598, in consequence of + the manner in which it was quelled, turned out most injurious to + the aristocratical party, inasmuch as the nobles drew upon + themselves the pollution of blood, which, even after the + purification of Epimenides, 593, was long used as a pretext for + commotion. The political factions of the Pediæi, of the Diacrii, + and of the Parhali, produced an anarchy at Athens, during which the + neighbouring Megarians took possession of the island of Salamis; a + conquest which, however, was subsequently wrested from them by + Solon. + +14. From this state of anarchy Athens was rescued by Solon; a man to +whom not only Athens, but the whole human race, are deeply indebted. He +was chosen archon, and at the same time commissioned to remodel the +constitution of Athens: and the successful manner in which he executed +this task, laid the foundation of the happiness of his native country. + + _Review of the prominent features in Solon's legislation._ Its main + object was to abolish the oppressive aristocracy, without however + introducing a pure democracy. 1. Provisional laws: abolition of the + statutes of Draco, those against murder excepted: law enacted for + the relief of debtors, ([Greek: seisachtheia], novæ tabulæ,) not so + much by cancelling the debts as by diminishing their amount by a + rise in the value of money; and likewise by ensuring the personal + liberty of the debtor. 2. Fundamental laws, both in reference to + the constitution and in reference to private life and private + rights.--Constitution of the state. (_a_) Organization of the + people by means of divisions: according to property into four + classes; the Pentacosimedimni, or those who had a yearly income of + 500 medimni; the Equites, ([Greek: hippeis],) who had 400; the + Zeugitæ, who had 300; and the Thetes, (capite censi,) whose yearly + revenue did not amount to so much.--The ancient divisions according + to heads, into wards, ([Greek: phylai],) of which there were four, + and according to residence into demi, (hundreds,) of which a + hundred and seventy are enumerated, were preserved. (_b_) None but + citizens of the three first classes could fill all the offices of + state; but all were admitted to the popular assemblies, and had a + right of voting in the courts of judicature. (_c_) The nine archons + annually chosen, who acted as supreme magistrates, although not + permitted to assume military office at the same time, remained at + the head of the state; the first bearing the name of [Greek: + epônumos], the second of [Greek: basileus], the third of [Greek: + polemarchos], the remaining six that of [Greek: thesmothetai]. + Combined with the archons was (_d_) The council, ([Greek: boulê],) + which consisted of a body of four hundred persons annually taken + from the three first classes of citizens; (a hundred from each + ward;) these were chosen by lot, but were obliged to submit to a + rigid examination ([Greek: dokimasia]) before they entered upon + office. The archons were obliged to consult the four hundred on + every occurrence; and nothing could be carried down to the commons + until it had been previously debated in this council. (_e_) To the + people, consisting of the whole four classes, was reserved the + right in its assemblies ([Greek: ekklêsiai]) of confirming the + laws, of electing the magistrates, of debating all public affairs + referred to them by the council, and likewise the public + distribution of justice. (_f_) The areopagus was, according to + Solon's plan, to be the main buttress of the constitution; that + tribunal had hitherto been a mere tool in the hands of the + aristocracy. It was composed of retired archons, and remained not + only the supreme tribunal in capital cases, but likewise was + charged with the superintendence of morals, with the censorship + upon the conduct of the archons who went out of office, and had the + prerogative of amending or rescinding the measures that had been + approved of by the commons. The power of this court, which might + easily have become equal to the college of Ephori at Sparta, might + at first have been supposed too extensive, had not experience shown + the fatal consequences of the reduction of that power by Pericles. + This alloy of aristocracy and democracy certainly gives proof of a + deep insight into the nature of republican constitutions; but Solon + is not less entitled to praise for his endeavours to place the helm + of government in the hands only of the most enlightened and prudent + citizens. It must likewise be observed, that the code for private + life given by Solon exhibits the genius of a man who regarded + polity as subordinate to morals, and not, like Lycurgus, morals as + subordinate to polity. + + SAM. PETITUS, _De Legibus Atticis_, 1635. fol. The best compilation + and illustration of the fragments remaining of the Attic law. + + CHR. BUNSEN, _De jure Atheniensium hereditario, ex Isæo cæterisque + oratoribus Græcis ducto_, Goett. 1812. The law of inheritance was a + principal feature in Solon's legislation; the explanation of it + requires a profound acquaintance with the constitution, so far as + it was connected with government by clans or families. + + An explanation of the Athenian constitution will be likewise found + in the above-mentioned works of Tittmann, Kruse, and Wachsmuth. + +15. The legislation of Solon, like all other state reforms, was not +followed by the total extinction of party spirit. It was natural that +the commons, now free, should wish to try their strength with the +aristocratical party, and that, after the defeat of the latter, +Pisistratus, who headed the commons, should grasp the rudder of the +state without, therefore, necessarily abrogating the constitution of +Solon. Modern history has proved with sufficient evidence, that the +frame-work of a republic may easily subsist under the rule of an +usurper. And would that no republics might fall into the hands of a +worse tyrant than Pisistratus! + + First exaltation of Pisistratus, 561, procured by his obtaining a + body guard; flight of the Alcmæonidæ under Megacles. Pisistratus + expelled, 560. Second exaltation of Pisistratus procured by his + matrimonial connection with the family of Megacles, 556-552.--His + second expulsion by Megacles, 552-538.--His third exaltation; + obtains the power by force of arms, and preserves it to the day of + his death, 538-528. Flight of the Alcmæonidæ into Macedonia, where + they attach the malcontents to their party. Pisistratus is + succeeded by his sons Hipparchus and Hippias, who rule conjointly + until 514, when the elder is murdered by Harmodius and Aristogiton. + The exiled Alcmæonidæ, having bribed the Delphian oracle, gain over + the Spartans to their interest: backed by a Spartan army, they + take possession of Athens in 510; Hippias is deposed, and flies + over to the Persians. + +16. This return of the Alcmæonidæ was followed by a change in the +constitution of Solon. Clisthenes, the son of Megacles, with a view of +quenching party spirit by a new combination of the citizens, increased +the number of wards to ten, and that of the members of the council to +five hundred.--But the Athenians had to purchase the continuance of +their freedom by a struggle with Sparta, who, united with the Boeotians +and Chalcidians, and aided by Ægina, sought to reestablish monarchy in +Attica; first in the person of Isagoras, the rival of Clisthenes, and +afterwards in that of the exiled Hippias. But the glorious success of +the republic in this first struggle in the cause of liberty, gave an +additional impulse to the national spirit. Impelled by that spirit, +Athens suffered herself to be induced to share in the war of freedom +carried on by the Asiatic Greeks under Aristagoras; and the audacity +which led to the firing of Sardis, drew upon Attica the vengeance of the +Persians, without which, doubtless, neither Athens or Greece would ever +have risen to that degree of eminence which they ultimately attained. + +17. Of the history of the other states of Greece we have at best but few +data, and even these in most instances are very scanty. Towards the end +of this period Sparta and Athens had, undoubtedly, exalted themselves +above the rest, and were recognized, one as the first among the Dorian, +the latter as the first among the Ionian states; yet did Sparta more +than once meet with rivals in Messene, Argos, and Tegea: while Athens +had to contend with Megara and Ægina. Sparta and Athens had, +nevertheless, not only the best constitutions, but possessed also a more +extended territory than any other of the great cities. + + +_Principal data for the history of the smaller states._ + +I. _Within the Peloponnesus._ + + _a._ Arcadia. The Arcadian traditions enumerate a line of kings or + hereditary princes, said to have ruled over the whole of Arcadia; + the line commences with Arcas and his son Lycaon, whose successors + kept possession of the supreme power, and shared more or less in + the ancient feuds of the Hellenic princes. Upon the conquest of + Peloponnesus by the Dorians, Arcadia was the only land that did not + suffer by the irruption: an advantage for which it was probably + indebted more to its mountains, than to the skill of Cypselus its + king. The successors of that prince took a part in the wars between + the Messenians and Spartans, siding with the former: but in the + second Messenian war, the last Arcadian king, Aristocrates II. + having betrayed his allies, was in consequence stoned to death by + his subjects, and the regal dignity was abolished in 668. Arcadia + now became divided into as many small states as it contained cities + with their respective districts; among these Tegea and Mantinea + were the chief, and probably held the others in a certain state of + control, without, however, depriving them wholly of their + independence. As might have been expected in a pastoral nation, the + constitution was democratical. In Mantinea there were wardens of + the people, ([Greek: dêmiourgoi],) and a senate, ([Greek: boulê].) + The wars of separate cities are frequently mentioned, but no + general confederation united them. + + # See A. VON BREITENBAUCH, _History of Arcadia_, 1791. + + _b._ Argos. Even previously to the Dorian migration, the country of + Argolis was parcelled out into several small kingdoms, such as + those of Argos, Mycenæ, and Tiryns. In Argos, the oldest Grecian + state next to Sicyon, ruled the forefathers of Perseus, who + exchanged the kingdom of his ancestors for Tiryns: here his + successors continued to reign till the time of Hercules, whose + sons, expelled by Eurystheus, sought an asylum among the + Dorians.--In Mycenæ, said to have been built by Perseus, the throne + was occupied by the family of Pelops: and at the period of the + Trojan war, this little state, to which Corinth and Sicyon then + belonged, was the most powerful in Greece, and governed by + Agamemnon. The migration into this country by Pelops from Asia + Minor, must have been attended with important consequences, since + it has given a name to the whole peninsula: the object of Pelops, + as we may infer from the riches he brought with him, was probably + to establish a trading settlement.--At the Dorian conquest Argos + fell to the share of Temenus, the Achæans were expelled, and the + country was peopled by Dorians. As early as the reign of Cisus, son + of Temenus, the royal power was so limited, that the successors of + that prince hardly preserved any thing but the mere name: about 984 + the regal dignity was wholly abrogated, and its place supplied by a + republican constitution, concerning the domestic organization of + which we know nothing more than that at Argos the government was in + the hands of a senate, ([Greek: boulê],) of a college of eighty + citizens, ([Greek: hoi ogdoêkonta],) and of magistrates, who bore + the name of [Greek: artynoi]: in Epidaurus, however, there was a + body of one hundred and eighty citizens who chose from among + themselves the senate, the members of which were called [Greek: + artynoi]. As in the other states of Greece so in Argolis, there + were as many independent states as there were cities; in the north + Argos, Mycenæ, and Tiryns; in the south Epidaurus and Troezen. The + two last preserved their independence; but Mycenæ was destroyed by + the Argives in 425, and the inhabitants of Tiryns were forcibly + transplanted to Argos. The district of Argos, therefore, comprised + the northern portion of the country called Argolis; but not the + southern portion, which belonged to the towns situated therein. + + _c._ Corinth. In this place, previous to the time of the Dorian + migration, the house of Sisyphus held the royal power; and even at + that early period Corinth is extolled by Homer for its wealth. The + Dorians drove out the original inhabitants; and Aletes, belonging + to the race of Hercules, became king about 1089; the posterity of + that prince held the sceptre down to the fifth generation. After + the death of the last king, Telessus, 777, the family of the + Bacchiadæ, likewise a branch of the family of Hercules, took + possession of the government and introduced an oligarchy, electing + annually from among themselves a Prytane. At last, in 657, Cypselus + got the upper hand; he was succeeded, 627, by his son Periander; + both father and son were equally conspicuous for their avarice and + cruelty. Periander (_d._ 587) was succeeded by his nephew + Psammetichus, who reigned till 584, when the Corinthians asserted + their freedom. With regard to the internal organization of the + republic, little more is known than that there were at Corinth + assemblies of the commons and a senate, ([Greek: gerousia]): the + government appears to have been the aristocracy of a trading state; + for even the Bacchiadæ, at least some of them, were merchants.--The + Corinthian commerce consisted chiefly in the exchange of Asiatic + and Italian goods, and therefore was mostly carried on by sea: for + such a trade the city of Corinth offered many advantages, + particularly if we consider the state of navigation in those times; + but the sea trade of Corinth, however profitable to the citizens, + and even to the state, in consequence of the customs, cannot be + considered as very extensive.--The colonies of Corinth in the west + were principally Corcyra, Epidamnus, Leucas, Syracuse; in the east + Potidæa: these colonies would fain have asserted a sort of + independence, but never succeeded for any length of time in so + doing. + + From the possession of these colonies, and from the necessity of + protecting the trader from pirates, Corinth grew to be a naval + power; she invented triremes, and at the early date of 664 gave + battle to the Corcyræans at sea. On the other hand, her wars by + land were generally waged with the assistance of foreign + subsidiaries; and from the facility with which she was enabled to + pay her mercenary troops, she was the more ready to interfere in + the domestic wars of Greece. + + _d._ Sicyon. Tradition represents this state, together with Argos, + as the most ancient in Greece; the catalogues of early kings and + princes, who are said to have reigned at this place, make it + probable that in early antiquity some settlements of priests were + made in this quarter. In the times previous to the migration of the + Dorians, Sicyon was first inhabited by the Ionians; at the Trojan + war, however, it made part of Agamemnon's kingdom. At the Dorian + irruption, Phalces, son of Temenus, took possession of Sicyon, + which then became a Dorian city. After the abrogation of the + kingship, the date of which is not precisely known, the + constitution assumed the form of an uncurbed democracy, which, as + usual, paved the way for the usurpation of one individual. + Orthagoras and his posterity, the last and most celebrated of whom + was Clisthenes, ruled over Sicyon during a whole century; 700-600. + After the restoration of her freedom, Sicyon frequently suffered + from revolutions; and the period of her highest splendour was + during the latter days of Greece, when she became a member of the + Achæan league. + + _e._ Achaia. During the spread of the Hellenes, this country, which + till then had borne the name of Ægialus, was taken possession of by + Ion, who had been expelled from Athens, and his tribe, who from + their leader took the name of Ionians: the country remained in the + hands of the Ionians until the Dorian migration, when the Achæans, + driven out of Argos and Laconia, pressed into the northern parts of + Peloponnesus under Tisamenus, son of Orestes: they settled in the + land of the Ionians, and the power of the chieftain descended to + his posterity, until the tyranny of the last sovereign of that + race, Gyges, (of date undetermined,) produced the abolition of + monarchy. Achaia thereupon was parcelled into twelve small + republics, or so many cities with their respective districts, each + of which comprised seven or eight cantons. All these republics had + democratic constitutions, and were mutually united by a league, + founded on the most perfect equality, and which nothing but the + policy of the Macedonian kings could dissolve; and even this + dissolution gave rise to the _Achæan_ league, of such high + importance in subsequent times. The Achæans lived in peace and + happiness, inasmuch as they had not the vanity, before the + Peloponnesian war, to interfere in the affairs of foreign states: + their constitutions were so renowned, that they were adopted by + several other Grecian cities. + + _f._ Elis. The inhabitants in earlier times bore the name of + Epeans, which, like that of Eleans, was traced to one of their + ancient kings. The names of their most ancient hereditary princes, + Endymion, Epeus, Eleus, Augias, are celebrated by the poets. It + appears that this country was divided into several small kingdoms, + since, at the period of the Trojan war it contained four, to which + however must be added Pylus in Triphylia, a territory usually + reckoned as belonging to Elis. At the epoch of the Dorian migration + the Ætolians, who had accompanied the Dorians, headed by their + chieftain Oxylus, settled in Elis; but permitted the ancient + inhabitants to remain in the country. Among the successors of + Oxylus was Iphitus the contemporary of Lycurgus, and celebrated as + the restorer of the Olympian games, to the celebration of which + Elis was indebted for the tranquil splendour that distinguished her + from this time: her territory being regarded as sacred, although + she had occasional disputes with her neighbours, the Arcadians, for + precedence at the games. After the abolition of the royal power + supreme magistrates were chosen, to whose office was added the + charge of superintending the games: (Hellanodicæ). These + magistrates were at first two; they were afterwards increased to + ten, one from each tribe, although their number frequently changed + with that of the tribes themselves. There must likewise have been a + senate, consisting of ninety persons, who held their places for + life, since Aristotle makes mention of that branch of the Elean + constitution. The city of Elis was first built in 477, before which + time the Eleans resided in several small hamlets. + +II. _Central Greece, or Hellas._ + + _a._ Megaris. Until the epoch of the Dorian migration, this state + generally formed part of the domain of the Attic kings; or at + least was governed by princes of that house. Immediately previous + to that event, the Megarians, after the assassination of their + last sovereign, Hyperion, placed the government in the hands of + magistrates elected for stated periods. At the time of the Dorian + irruption, under the reign of Codrus, Megara was occupied by + Dorians, more especially those of Corinth, who consequently + reckoned the city among their colonies, and during the sway of the + Bacchiadæ endeavoured to keep it in a state of dependency; a + circumstance which gave rise to several wars. Nevertheless Megara + supported her rank as a separate state, both in those and many + subsequent wars among the Greeks, in which she took a share both + by sea and land. About the year 600, Theagenes, step-father of the + Athenian Cylon, had possessed himself of the supreme power: after + the expulsion of that tyrant, the republican constitution was once + more restored, but soon after merged into the lowest species of + democracy. Megara, however, even at the period of the Persian war, + in which it took a glorious share, appears to have recovered the + character of a well-ordered state, although we have no information + respecting its internal organization. + + _b._ Boeotia. History mentions several very early races in + Boeotia, such as the Aones, Hyantes, etc.; with these were mingled + Phoenician emigrants, who had come into the country under the + guidance of Cadmus. The stock of Cadmus became the ruling family, + and remained so for a long time: the history of his descendants, + who were kings of Thebes, and comprised under their dominion the + greatest part of Boeotia, constitutes a main branch of Grecian + mythology: among them were Oedipus, Laïus, Eteocles, and + Polynices. After the capture of Thebes by the Epigoni, 1215, the + Boeotians were expelled by Thracian hordes, and settled at Arne in + Thessaly; at the time of the Dorian migration they returned to the + land of their forefathers, and mingled with the Æolians of those + quarters. Not long after, upon the death of Xuthus, royalty was + abolished, 1126. Boeotia was now divided into as many small states + as it contained cities; of these, next to Thebes, the most eminent + were the towns of Platææ, Thespiæ, Tanagra, and Chæronea, each of + which had its own separate district and peculiar form of + government; but all those constitutions appear to have been + commuted into oligarchies about the time of the Persian war. Such + had been the case even with Thebes, although she had received as a + legislator, Philolaus from Corinth; but the code given by this + individual cannot have been attended with the desired effect, as + the government was continually fluctuating between a licentious + democracy and an overbearing oligarchy. The Boeotian cities were, + however, mutually united by a league, at the head of which stood + Thebes, who gradually converted her right of precedence into a + right of power, although her ambitious attempts were resisted to + the last extremity by the separate cities, and by Platææ in + particular: hence sprung many wars. The general affairs were + decided upon in four assemblies, ([Greek: boulai],) held in the + four districts into which Boeotia was divided; these assemblies in + conjunction elected eleven Boeotarchs, who stood at the head of + the federation as supreme magistrates and field marshals. The + great extent and population of their territory might have enabled + the Boeotians to act the first part on the theatre of Greece, had + they not been impeded by their pernicious form of government, by + the envy felt against Thebes, and by the want of union which + naturally ensued. Yet in subsequent times the example of + Epaminondas and Pelopidas gave proof that the genius of two men + was sufficient to surmount all these obstacles. + + _c._ Phocis was originally ruled by kings descended, it is said, + from Phocus, the leader of a colony from Corinth. The sovereign + power was abolished about the time of the Dorian migration; but + the form of the republican constitution which succeeded remains + undetermined; and of the undertakings of the Phocians previous to + the Persian invasion, we know nothing more than that they waged + war with the Thessalians, and were successful. As history never + mentions the Phocians but in the aggregate, the whole territory + must have formed but one independent state. To that state, + however, the city of Delphi, which had its own constitution, did + not belong: the city of Crissa with its fertile district, and the + harbour of Cirrha, constituted a separate state, which became + opulent by practising extortions upon the pilgrims to Delphi: this + state lasted till 600, when, in consequence of the insults of the + Crissæans to the Delphian oracle, a war was proclaimed against + them by the Amphictyons, which ended in 590 with the rasing of + Crissa; the land of which was thenceforward added to the sacred + glebe of Delphi. + + _d._ Locris. Although we learn from early history that the + Locrians also had their kings,--among whom Ajax, the son of + Oileus, is renowned in the Trojan war,--and that they likewise in + subsequent times adopted a republican form of government; yet the + date of that revolution, and the manner in which it was brought + about, are not known. The three tribes of Locrians remained + politically distinct. The Locri Ozolæ, west of Phocis, possessed + the most extensive territory; each city of which stood + independent, though Amphissa is mentioned as the capital. The + country of the Locri Opuntii, eastward, consisted of the district + appertaining to the city of Opus; of their domestic organization, + as well as that of their neighbours, the Locri Epicnemidii, we + know nothing. + + _e._ Ætolia. The Ætolians remained the most rude and uncivilized + of all the Hellenic races; they were little more than a band of + freebooters, and carried on their predatory excursions both by sea + and land. Renowned as are the names of their earliest heroes, + Ætolus, Peneus, Meleager, Diomede, the nation has no place in the + history of the flourishing times of Greece. Nor did they acquire + any celebrity until the Macedo-Roman period, when the various + insignificant tribes of which they were composed gathered + themselves together and chose one common leader, for the purpose + of carrying on a war with the Achæans. The earlier period of + their history seems, however, to afford no previous example of + such an union; their political constitution in those times is + wholly unknown. + + _f._ Acarnania. This country derived its name from Acarnan, son of + Alcmæon, both of whom are adduced as its earliest kings. In the + Trojan age it appears beyond a doubt, that some part at least of + this country was subject to the governors of the island of Ithaca. + When and how a republican government was introduced among the + Acarnanians, and what were the peculiarities of that government we + know not. All that can be distinguished through the veil of time + is, that here likewise the different cities, the most important of + which was Stratus, had each its own form of government. Those + cities upon particular emergencies were wont to combine; and out + of that practice in later times, during the Macedonian period, + grew up a permanent confederation. The city and district of Argos + Amphilochicum constituted a separate state, which endured a long + time, and flourished greatly; it derived its name from + Amphilochus, the founder. The inhabitants, however, being driven + out by the Ambracians, whom they had themselves called in, sought + assistance at the hands of the Acarnanians, who with the help of + Athens, replaced the exiles in possession of their city, which + thenceforward was inhabited in common by Amphilochians and + Acarnanians, and was almost constantly engaged in war with + Ambracia. + +III. _Northern Greece._ + + _a._ The importance of Thessaly in the earliest history of Greece, + may be gathered from the principal data enumerated above for the + history of the Pelasgi and the Hellenes. From this country it was + that the Hellenes proceeded and spread over Greece; and here + likewise they maintained their original seat. In the Trojan age + Thessaly contained ten small kingdoms, governed by hereditary + princes, several of whom, such as Achilles and Philoctetes, were + among the most renowned heroes of the time. In the period + subsequent to the Trojan war and the Dorian migration, Thessaly + must have experienced political revolutions similar to those of + the other Grecian countries; but neither the time nor the manner + in which those revolutions occurred can be ascertained. All that + can be deduced from the subsequent history is, that if the + Thessalian cities ever did recover their political freedom, they + were unable to maintain it; for in the two most eminent cities, + Pheræ and Larissa, with whose history that of the whole country is + closely connected, the supreme power had fallen into the hands of + arbitrary individuals, who appear to have kept possession of it + almost without interruption. Even before the breaking out of the + Persian war, Larissa was under the rule of the Aleuadæ; a family + who claimed descent from Hercules, and are specially denominated + by Herodotus kings of the Thessalians. They preserved their power + until the Macedonian period.--In Pheræ there arose about the year + 380, a tyrant, by the name of Jason, who extended his dominion not + only over Thessaly, but likewise over several of the neighbouring + barbarous tribes. The sceptre of Jason passed rapidly and + successively into the hands of his three brothers, Polydorus, + Polyphron, and Alexander. The last was first driven out of Larissa + by the Aleuadæ, assisted by the Macedonians; was afterwards + worsted in war by Pelopidas; and finally, at the instigation of + his wife Thebe, was murdered, 356, by her brothers, Lycophron and + Tisiphonus. The two murderers then assumed the supreme power, but + were, in compliance with the request of the Aleuadæ, deposed by + Philip of Macedon.--Some other such tyrants are met with at + intervals in the rest of the Thessalian cities, such as + _Pharsalus_, etc. + + _b._ Epirus. This country was occupied by several tribes, partly + Greek and partly barbarian. The most powerful of these was that of + the Molossi, who were governed by kings of the house of the + Æacidæ, descendants of Pyrrhus, the son of Achilles. This Greek + family was the only one that held the kingly power for a + permanency; it must be observed, however, that previous to the + Macedonian period, those sovereigns were by no means lords of the + whole of Epirus; for the other non-Hellenic races, such as the + Thesprotii, Orestii, etc. had their own separate kings. Moreover + the Corinthian colony of Ambracia constituted a distinct state, + generally governed as a republic, although sometimes subject to + the rule of tyrants. But, in consequence of an alliance framed + with the Macedonian kings, the whole of Epirus, and even Ambracia + itself, was placed under the sceptre of the Molossian kings; and + some of those princes, Pyrrhus II. more especially, rose to be + mighty conquerors. See below. + +IV. _Grecian Islands._ + + Both the islands off the coast of Greece, and those of the + Archipelago, all underwent the same political revolutions as + occurred in the states on the main land. But those events did not + take place till after the more ancient non-Hellenic inhabitants, + such as the Phoenicians, Carians, etc. had been driven out, and + the land had been taken possession of by the Hellenes. In the more + extensive islands, which contained several cities, there generally + arose as many small republics as there were towns, and those + little states were wont to enter into mutual alliances. The + smaller islands, containing but one city, formed each one small + independent state, the territory of which comprised the whole + island. The respective independence of these islands ceased to + exist at the period of the Trojan war; for after the Athenians had + by their success placed themselves at the head of confederate + Greece, and possessed themselves of the sovereignty of the sea, + these smaller states, although called confederates, were treated + little better than subjects, except that their political + constitutions were not changed.--Among the islands of the Grecian + coast, the most remarkable in history are the following: + + _a._ Corcyra, a colony of Corinth, important for its naval power + and trade, in which it rivalled the mother state itself: a rivalry + which occasioned many feuds and wars, and was even one of the + principal motives that led to the Peloponnesian war. About the + time this struggle began Corcyra had attained the height of her + power, being able, without foreign aid, to man a fleet of 120 + galleys. The constitution appears, as at Corinth, to have been + aristocratic, or oligarchical: but after the Persian war a + democratic faction arose, which produced the most violent internal + commotions, and ended in the total ruin of Corcyra. + + _b._ Ægina. This small island was, after the Dorian migration, + occupied by colonists from Epidaurus; it however soon shook off + the yoke of the mother city, and rapidly grew by commerce and + navigation, to be one of the first Grecian states. Ægina was for a + long time the rival of Athens; over whom her naval power enabled + her to maintain a superiority until the time of the Persian war. + Humbled, however, by Themistocles, 485, she could no longer + support herself against the preponderating influence of Athens; + and although subsequently she made another stand for independence, + 458, the consequences were but an increase of oppression. Neither + must it be forgotten, that Ægina suffered much, even before the + Persian war, from internal broils, caused by the bitterness of + party spirit engendered between the aristocratic and democratic + factions. + + C. O. MUELLER, _Ægineticorum liber_, 1817. This treatise contains + not only the political history, but likewise that of trade and + arts. + + _c._ Euboea. The different cities of this island, Chalcis and + Eretria in particular, had each its separate domestic + constitution: in the two towns above mentioned the constitution + was aristocratic, since the government was in the hands of the + opulent, (Hippobatæ;) nevertheless we hear of tyrants in Chalcis. + After the Persian war Euboea became dependent upon Athens, which + drew from that island a portion of her supplies and provisions. + The oppression of the Athenians stirred up the minds of the + Euboeans to rebellion, and the islanders were in the sequel ever + ready to throw up their allegiance when a suitable opportunity + presented itself; such an opportunity was seized in 446, when the + island was recovered by Pericles; and the attempt was renewed in + the Peloponnesian war. + + _d._ The Cyclades were first colonized by Crete, during the reign + of Minos. The Carian race had in earlier times spread over these + islands, but were gradually driven out by Hellenic invaders, + belonging principally to the Ionian and Dorian families. The most + important was Delos, chief seat of the Ionians. Sheltered under + the protection of Apollo, this place became the centre of an + extensive trade, and during the Persian war, 479, was selected for + the treasury of Greece. Next was Paros, famed for its marble, and + for the stand it made against Miltiades, 489, although it + afterwards shared the fate of the other islands, and passed under + the dominion of the Athenians. We know little of the constitution + of the other smaller islands; each of them contained one city of + the same name as the island which constituted its territory. + + _e._ Crete. The inhabitants of Crete were not pure Hellenes, but + of alloyed origin, such as Curetes, Pelasgi, etc. mingled with + whom were Hellenes, of the Dorian and Æolían stock. In the earlier + periods, Crete had her kings, the most celebrated of whom were + Minos, about 1300, probably first sovereign of the whole island; + his brother Rhadamanthus, Idomeneus, Meriones, who followed + Idomeneus to the Trojan war, and succeeded him upon the throne: + the last king Etearchus, about 800, after whose death a republican + form of government was introduced. Under these kings Crete was + powerful on sea: to Minos is ascribed the honour of having by his + fleets purged the Ægæan of pirates, occupied the islands, and + ensured security to the mariner. To him likewise is attributed the + Cretan legislation, the model, it is said, of that given to Sparta + by Lycurgus. But the uncertainty as to what does and what does not + belong to Minos, is in this case even greater than in that of + Lycurgus; many of the laws referred to Minos are probably nothing + more than ancient Dorian institutions. The insular situation which + in some measure ensured Crete from foreign inroads, and the + proximity of Egypt and Phoenicia must indubitably have contributed + to expand the germ of political civilization. The abolition of the + kingly office seems to have been the effect of internal + commotions, to which Crete continued to be frequently exposed, + even under a republican form of government. Those commotions + originated in the jealousy between the two largest cities, Gortina + and Cnossus, which, when united, ruled the rest; but when at war, + shook the whole island, until the city of Cydonia, passing over to + one of the sides, gave a turn to the balance. The laws instituted + by Minos respecting private life were enforced in all the cities + of the island; but declined at an earlier period than in the + country. Each city had its own constitution; each possessed it + senate, ([Greek: gerousia],) at the head of which were ten + censors, ([Greek: kosmoi],) chosen from certain families: these + cosmi were not only prime magistrates, but likewise invested with + the command in war, not often, it is true, waged by the Cretans + against other nations, but, for that reason, more frequently with + one another; a circumstance which must have necessarily + contributed to corrupt, not only their constitution, but likewise + their national character. + + MEURSII _Creta, Rhodus, Cyprus_, 1675, 4to. Very laborious + compilations. New light, however, has been thrown upon the subject + by the inscriptions published in + + CHISHULL'S _Antiq. Asiaticæ_; 1728, folio. A work which has been + made use of by + + ST. CROIX, _Des anciens gouvernemens_, etc. (See above, p. 131.) + The principal work upon Crete. + + # C. HOECK, Crete. An attempt to explain the mythology, history, + etc. of this island, 1823. + + _f._ Cyprus. This island, like Crete, was inhabited by a race of + mixed origin, who, even in the time of Herodotus, traced their + descent from Phoenicians, Africans, (Ethiopians,) from Greeks out + of Arcadia, Attica, and the island of Salamis; of which last the + city of Salamis, founded by Teucer about 1160, was a colony. There + can be no doubt, that in earlier times the Phoenicians were for a + long period the dominant race in the island; since in the + flourishing days of Tyre the Cyprians rebelled against their + oppressors, at the same time that Psalmanezer led an expedition + against the former city, about 720: moreover, even in the present + day, Phoenician monuments are still found in the island. From that + time to the Persian period, there appears to have been a close + connection between this island and the Phoenicians, although the + Cyprians preserved their independence. Several smaller kingdoms + afterwards arose in various cities of the island; the number of + which in subsequent times amounted to nine, and under Amasis, + about 550, were tributary to the Egyptians; and under Cambyses, + 525, to the Persians: notwithstanding this species of subjection, + the various states preserved their own kings. During the Persian + dominion, the Cyprians more than once joined in the insurrections + against the Persians; more particularly the kings of Salamis, now + become the most powerful. So early as the year 500, Onesilus + joined the Ionian rebels, but was defeated. In the wars which + afterwards ensued between the Persians and Greeks, Cyprus was + frequently attacked by the combined Grecian fleets; as in 470 by + Pausanias, and during the reign of Evagoras I. 449, by Cimon, who + died at the siege of Citium; yet the Persians were not driven out, + but appear to have kept their footing even after the peace of 449. + Among the subsequent kings of Salamis was Evagoras II. (400-390,) + who was master of the greatest portion of the island; but as in + the peace of Antalcidas Cyprus was ceded to the Persians, he was + obliged to wage a hot war against them, in which he lost every + thing but Salamis. Finally, the Cyprians, in 356, took a part in + the insurrection of the Phoenicians and Egyptians: thereupon the + Persians sent an army against them, under the command of a younger + Evagoras, (who had been banished by his uncle Protagoras,) and + under that of the Athenian Phocion Salamis was besieged, but + matters were made up by a negotiation. The nine small kingdoms of + the island continued to exist till the time of Alexander, whom + they voluntarily joined during the siege of Tyre, 332, and + thenceforward Cyprus constituted a part of the Macedonian + monarchy. + + +2. _History of the Grecian Colonies._ + + To assist the student in obtaining a general view of the events + connected with the Greek colonies, the history of them will be + here carried on through the subsequent period. + + RAOUL ROCHETTE, _Histoire critique de l'établissement des Colonies + Grecques_, Paris, 1815, 4 vols. The most comprehensive treatise on + the subject: it comprises the earlier Pelasgian and the later + Macedonian colonies, as well as those of the Hellenes. There is + much erudition displayed in this work, but sufficient attention is + not paid to the value of the authorities made use of. + + # D. H. HEGEWISCH, _Geographic and Historic Documents relative to + the Colonies of the Greeks_, Altona, 1808, 8vo. A brief review of + the subject. + + ST. CROIX, _De l'état et du sort des Colonies des anciens + peuples_, Paris, 1786. A series of valuable and important + enquiries. + +1. No nation of antiquity ever founded so many colonies as the Greeks: +these colonies became so important in various respects, that an +acquaintance with them is indispensably requisite towards understanding +the more early history of the world. Not only is the history of the +civilization of the mother country and that of early trade intimately +connected with these settlements, but some of them grew to such power as +to have the greatest influence on political history. + +2. The Grecian colonies, to which the following observations apply, are +those founded by the Hellenes in the time which elapsed between the +Dorian migration and the Macedonian period. It appears certain that +before the date of that migration some Pelasgian, and perhaps even some +Hellenic settlers passed over into Italy. The history of these colonies +however is not only involved in obscurity, but it is besides known that +they ceased after a time to be Greek. The later settlements of the +Macedonians were of a quite different nature from those of the Hellenes, +to which we now allude. + +3. The Hellenic race spread alike to the east and to the west of Greece, +their settlements, however, were confined to the shores of the +Mediterranean and Black sea. The countries in which their principal +colonies were established, were Asia Minor and Thrace in the east; the +coasts of Lower Italy and Sicily in the west. Nevertheless particular +settlements were to be found scattered here and there on the shores of +most other countries. + +4. The Grecian colonies had their origin either in political motives, +being generally made in accordance with the express command or advice of +an oracle, (for the propagation of the religion of the parent state was +always connected therewith,) or, in commercial speculations; the former +was the case, almost without exception, with the settlements made by the +mother country herself; the latter, with those which had branched out of +such colonies as had already exalted themselves by their commerce. In +fact, almost all the Grecian colonies applied more or less to trade, +even when that was not the sole object of their foundation. + +5. The connection existing between the colonies and the mother cities +was generally determined by the same causes that led to their +foundation. In those cases where a city had been founded by malcontent +or banished emigrants, all dependence on the mother country was +naturally out of the question; and even in the colonies established for +the purposes of trade, that dependence was but feeble and brief; the +mother cities failing in power, if not in will, to enforce it. The very +independence of so many colonies, made (almost without exception) in +countries preeminently favoured by nature in productions and climate, +and so situated as to oblige the inhabitants to navigation and commerce, +must have given a great impulse to the civilization of the Hellenic +race, and may be regarded as the main cause of its rapid progress and +wide extension; wider indeed than that of any other nation of the +ancient world. What a variety of political ideas must have been formed +among a people whose settlements, more than a hundred in number, had +each its own peculiar form of government. + +6. Of the Greek colonies, the most ancient, and in many respects the +most important, were those along the western coast of Asia Minor, +extending from the Hellespont to the boundary of Cilicia. Here, ever +since the Trojan war, which first made these countries generally known, +Hellenes of the three great families, Æolians, Ionians, and Dorians had +planted settlements. These were the most important for trade; and here +likewise in the native country of Homer, the father of Grecian +civilization, of Alcæus, and of Sappho, poesy, both epic and lyric, +expanded her first and fairest blossoms; and hence too, the mother +country herself received the first impulse of moral and cultivated +taste. + + 1. The Æolian colonies. Their original foundation dates about 1124: + they appear to have been a consequence of the Dorian migration, + having been established during that great movement in Greece. The + Pelopidæ, who had been driven out of Peloponnesus, Orestes, his son + Penthilus, his grandson Archelaus, and his great grandson Grais, + successively headed the emigrants, who proceeded slowly by land, + divided, it appears, into several companies, with which some + Boeotians and others gradually coalesced. In Asia they occupied the + coasts of Mysia and Caria; a strip of land which from thence + derived the appellation of Æolis. They moreover possessed the + islands of Lesbos, Tenedos, and the Hecatonnesi. On the main land, + in the quarter named from them Æolis, they erected twelve cities, + the most eminent of which were Cyme and Smyrna; the latter, + however, afterwards fell into the hands of the Ionians. But their + chief settlements were on the island of Lesbos; here they inhabited + five cities, at the head of which, and likewise of all their other + colonies, stood Mitylene. They had likewise spread inland as far as + mount Ida. All these towns were independent of one another, and + possessed their own peculiar forms of government: our information, + however, respecting these constitutions extends no further than to + enable us to ascertain that they were subject to many disorders, + which it was often attempted to quell by nominating rulers of + unlimited power, under the title of Æsymnetæ. These were elected + sometimes for a stipulated period, at others for life; the most + celebrated of the number was Pittacus of Mitylene, who flourished + about 600, and was the contemporary of Sappho and Alcæus. The + Æolians maintained their independence till the time of Cyrus, with + the exception of Smyrna, which as early as 600, was captured and + destroyed by the Lydians, and not rebuilt till four hundred years + afterwards, when it was restored by Antigonus, and entered upon its + flourishing period. The cities of the main land were compelled to + acknowledge the supremacy of the Persian conqueror; but not the + islands. The Æolian cities were not leagued together by any + permanent bond; it was only in peculiar cases that they debated in + common. Mitylene, which they all regarded as their capital, was + the only one of their colonies that became rich by trade, and + formidable by its naval power. Yet in 470 it was tributary to + Athens; having seceded in 428, at the time of the Peloponnesian + war, it was recaptured and almost levelled to the earth by the + Athenians. + + 2. The Ionian colonies. These were, no doubt, founded at a later + period than those of the Æolians; like them, however, they were a + consequence of the Dorian migration. The Ionians, driven out of + Peloponnesus by the Achæans, had withdrawn to Athens, from whence, + sixty years afterwards, that is to say about 1044, they proceeded + by sea to Asia, headed by Neleus and others of the sons of Codrus. + They were joined, however, by some Thebans, Phocians, Euboean + Abantes, and various other Greeks. In Asia they settled on the + southern coast of Lydia and the northern shore of Caria; which, + together with the islands of Samos and Chios, took from them the + name of Ionia. Here they built twelve cities on the main land; + namely, reckoning from north to south, Phocæa, Erythræ, Clazomene, + Teos, Lebedus, Colophon, Ephesus, Priene, Myus, Miletus, and in the + islands, Samos and Chios. They possessed in common one sanctuary, + the Panionium temple of Neptune, built on the headland of Mycale. + Here they celebrated their festivals, and assembled to deliberate + upon matters affecting the general interest, although it must still + be remembered that each city was in itself independent. This + independence was maintained until the time of the Lydian dynasty of + the Mermnadæ, and that of Cyrus, under whose reign they were + compelled to submit to the Persian yoke. Still, under the Persian + rule, they for the most part preserved their own form of + government, and were subject only so much as they had to pay + tribute. Nevertheless they seized every opportunity of delivering + themselves from this species of thraldom; and hence their history + in the following period is closely interwoven with that of Greece. + The political constitution was, no doubt, at an early period + republican in all; but these colonies likewise were oppressed by + continual factions, and frequently by tyrants. Among the towns + situate on the continent, the most remarkable were Miletus, + Ephesus, and Phocæa. Miletus was the principal seat of trade. It + had been founded by the Carians before the arrival of the Ionians; + but was by the latter raised to opulence and power. The most + flourishing period of its existence was between 700-500: in the + latter year it was implicated in the insurrection of Aristagoras + against the Persians, in consequence of which it was destroyed in + 496. From that time Miletus never recovered its ancient splendour. + Nevertheless, in the days of her prosperity Miletus was, next to + Tyre and Carthage, the first emporium of the world. Her sea trade + was chiefly carried on in the Euxine, and the Palus Mæotis, whose + shores, on all sides, were occupied by her colonies, amounting, + according to some authorities, to more than a hundred. By means of + these settlements she monopolized the whole of the northern trade + in pulse, dry fish, slaves, and furs. Her land trade was carried on + by the great _military_ road, constructed by the Persians, far into + the interior of Asia. Four harbours admitted her vessels; and her + naval power was so great, that she had been known, more than once, + to fit out, unaided, fleets of from eighty to a hundred + sail.--Phocæa. The flourishing period of this establishment was + contemporary with that of Miletus; but ended at the rise of the + Persian dominion, 540, when the Phocæans, rather than submit to the + Persian yoke, chose to forsake the city of their fathers and + migrate to Corsica, although one half of the inhabitants repented + of their resolution and returned. Phocæa had the most extensive + trade by sea of all the Grecian cities; they were to the west what + the Milesians were to the north. Their navigation extended as far + as Gades; and they not only visited the coasts of Italy, Gaul, and + Corsica, but even founded colonies in these countries; as for + instance, Aleria in Corsica, Elea in Italy, and, above all, + Massilea, (Marseilles,) on the coast of Gaul.--Ephesus. This city + was likewise originally founded by the Carians, but subsequently + occupied by the Ionians. Its independence was maintained until the + time of Croesus, who annexed it to his other conquests about 560. + The constitution was aristocratic; the government being in the + hands of a senate, ([Greek: gerousia],) combined with the + magistrates, ([Greek: epiklêtoi]): and the family which had once + possessed the throne preserved certain prerogatives. Ephesus was + not so important in a commercial point of view as Phocæa and + Miletus; but was much celebrated for its temple of Diana, which in + 355 was fired by Erostratus, and afterwards rebuilt with more + sumptuous splendour. The flourishing period of Ephesus appears to + have commenced at this time, long after that of Miletus and Phocæa + had terminated; for both in the Macedonian and Roman ages Ephesus + was regarded as the first city of Asia Minor.--Of the cities on + the islands, Samos was the most important, for its trade, and for + its naval power. The period of its splendour was under the reign of + the tyrant Polycrates, 540-523, whose sway extended over the sea + and islets of the neighbourhood. Syloson, brother to the tyrant, + having by the assistance of the Persians, 517, obtained possession + of Samos, the island was almost depopulated. Soon afterwards Samos + became dependent upon the Athenians, who in 440 introduced a + democratic form of government, and made it the rendezvous for her + troops and fleets during the war with Sparta.--Chios was scarcely + inferior to Samos, either in power or wealth. It submitted to the + Persian yoke with the rest of the Ionian colonies; but was so + powerful, that in 500, at the insurrection of Aristagoras, + ninety-eight sail of the combined fleet belonged to Chios. After + the defeat of Xerxes, 469, it entered into the Athenian league, + from which it endeavoured to secede in the Peloponnesian war, 412. + The naval power of the Chians was still considerable; and those + islanders had the high honour of not suffering prosperity to + inflate them with overweening ambition. + + F. G. RAMBACH, _De Mileto ejusque coloniis_, 1790, 4to. + + 3. The Dorian colonies. These were situated in Asia Minor, upon the + southern coast of Caria, and in the islands of Cos and Rhodes, but + were all planted at a later period than the Ionian colonies, and, + no doubt, were the result of successive migrations. The Dorians + appear to have gradually spread beyond Peloponnesus, over the + islands of the Archipelago to the Asiatic coast: in Rhodes they + erected the cities of Ialyssus, Camirus, and Lindus; in Cos a city + of the same name; on the main land two cities, Halicarnassus and + Cnidus. These six ancient colonies had, like the Ionians, one + common sanctuary, the temple of Apollo Triopius, where they + celebrated their festivals and held their deliberative assemblies. + Halicarnassus, however, was afterwards excluded from the + confederation. They remained independent until the Persian period, + although the constitutions of the separate cities were subject to + violent revolutions; thus at Cnidus the oligarchy was converted + into a democracy; Halicarnassus was likewise generally subject to + the Carian sovereigns, among whom Mausolus and Artemisia are names + familiar to all.--The three cities in Rhodes appear never to have + grown to any importance; that of Rhodes, not built till after the + irruption of Xerxes into Greece, 480, soon eclipsed the others: its + flourishing period began after the death of Alexander. At no + period of early history could the Dorian colonies, or those of the + Æolians, compete in wealth and commerce with the Ionians. + +7. The shores of the Propontis, the Black sea, and the Palus Mæotis, +were likewise covered with Grecian settlements. Nearly all these were +colonies of the city of Miletus alone, and were, without exception, all +of them the marts of a prosperous trade. Although the date of each +cannot be precisely defined, they must have arisen between the eighth +and sixth centuries before the Christian era. They were not only +sovereigns of the Black sea, but likewise extended their trade over the +whole of southern Russia, and eastward to the regions beyond the Caspian +sea; that is, to great Bukharia. + + On the Propontis stood Lampsacus (adjoining the Hellespont) and + Cyzicus, on an island connected with the continent by means of + bridges. The latter town certainly was one of the most beautiful + and flourishing cities of Asia; but this did not occur until the + Roman age, and was in consequence of the fostering protection of + the Romans.--Opposite to Cyzicus, on the Thracian coast, was + Perinthus, subsequently called Heraclea; at the mouth of the + Thracian Bosporus stood Byzantium, over against which was + Chalcedon. The prosperity of all these towns affords sufficient + proof of the skill with which sites were chosen for the + establishment of colonies. + + HEYNE, _Antiquities Byzantina: Commentationes duæ_, 1809. The first + of which contains the fragments of the earlier history of + Byzantium. + + The colonies of the Black sea were: on the southern coast of + Bithynia, Heraclea, in the territory of the Maryandini. This place + preserved its republican constitution amid frequent broils and + revolutions, brought about by the oligarchic and democratic + factions, until about B. C. 370, when the democrats having gained + the upper hand, a path was opened to Clearchus, who became tyrant, + and abrogated the senate, ([Greek: boulê?]) the family of the + tyrant continued for a long time in possession of power, after he + himself had been murdered by two disciples of Plato.--In + Paphlagonia was Sinope, the most powerful of all the Grecian + settlements on the Black sea, of which it long held the + sovereignty. The freedom and independence of this place lasted to + about 100, when it fell under the dominion of the kings of Pontus, + and afterwards under that of the Romans. The principal source from + which it derived its wealth were the shoals of migratory fish + ([Greek: pêlamydes],) which, issuing from the Palus Mæotis, spread + along the shore of the Black sea down to the Thracian Bosporus.--In + Pontus was Amisus, the mother city of Trapezus, and which shared + the fate of Sinope.--On the eastern coast stood the cities of + Phasis, Dioscurias, and Phanagoria: this last was the principal + mart of the slave trade, and, during the Macedonian period, the + staple for Indian commodities imported across the Oxus and the + Caspian sea.--In the Chersonesus Taurica stood Panticapæum, capital + city of the little Grecian kingdom of Bosporus, whose kings (among + whom Spartacus, about 439, and more especially Leucon, about 350, + are celebrated) remained in alliance with Athens till Mithridates + the Great laid there the foundation of his dominion.--On the + northern coast was the city of Tanais, on the mouth of a river of + the same name at the bottom of the Palus Mæotis. Olbia was situated + at the mouth of the Borysthenes. These two places, and Olbia in + particular, were of the highest importance for the inland trade, + which issuing from thence in a northern and easterly direction, was + extended to the very centre of Asia.--The colonies of the western + coast, such as Apollonia, Tomi, and Salmidessus, were of less + notoriety. + +8. The coast of Thrace and Macedonia, washed by the Ægæan sea, was +likewise covered with Grecian colonies, from various cities, and +especially from Corinth and Athens. The Athenians having obtained in the +Persian war the sovereignty of the sea, endeavoured to establish their +dominion in this part of the world; hence the cities in that quarter +were closely implicated in the quarrels and wars excited, first by the +jealousy between Sparta and Athens, and afterwards by that which sprang +up between Athens and Macedonia, in the reign of Philip. + + On the Thracian coast of the Chersonesus, regarded as the key of + Europe, and ranging along the Hellespont, were the towns of Sestos, + Cardia, and Ægospotamos; farther to the west stood Maronea and + Abdera, the latter a colony of Teos. Of far greater importance, + however, were the towns on the Macedonian coast, Amphipolis, + Chalcis, Olynthus, Potidæa. The first of these towns, founded about + B. C. 464, was a colony from Athens, which endeavoured to keep it + in a state of dependence. Chalcis was a colony from a city of the + same name in Euboea. In 470 it was dependent on Athens; but in 432, + the inhabitants having raised the standard of rebellion, forsook + their houses and voluntarily withdrew to Olynthus.--Olynthus + derived its name from the founder, one of the sons of Hercules: in + the course of time it ranked among the most powerful cities of + Thrace, although it was tributary to the Athenians. It took a share + in the war between Athens and Sparta, and continued to be a + flourishing city until 348, when it was taken by Philip of Macedon, + and destroyed.--Potidæa was a colony of Corinth, from which it + received annual magistrates, ([Greek: epidêmiourgoi],) having + become tributary to Athens after the Persian war, it revolted in + 431: obliged to yield to the Athenian arms, its inhabitants were + expelled, and their place supplied by an Athenian colony. It now + became a possession of Athens, and remained so till it was taken by + Philip in 358. + +9. The Grecian settlements westward of the mother country were, almost +without exception, made at a later period than those in the Ægean and +Black seas: they reached nevertheless to an equal degree of splendour; +and though their trade was not so extensive, it was equally profitable: +these colonies not only rivalled those we have above described, in +wealth, but surpassed them in power, being generally characterized by +the wisdom and prudence displayed in their respective constitutions. The +foundation of most of them may be dated between B. C. 750 and 650; +consequently at a period when all the cities in the mother country had +already been republicanized: and at a time when there could be no lack +of domestic troubles, which would furnish sufficient motives for +emigration. + + 1. Grecian settlements in Lower Italy. The most numerous and + important of these were scattered around the bay of Tarentum; they + extended likewise along the western coast of Italy up to Naples. + These colonies were variously traced to the Dorian, Achæan, and + Ionian families: they were likewise distinguished by political + characteristics, the government in the Dorian settlements being + generally more aristocratic, in the rest more democratic: it must + be observed, however, that, with respect to the various revolutions + which the respective constitutions underwent, it is hardly possible + to give any general information, excepting so far as regards the + earliest times. Of Dorian origin were Tarentum, and its colonies + Heraclea and Brundusium. Of Achæan origin were Sybaris and Croton, + together with the colonies of the latter, Laus, Metapontum, + Posidonia; which last founded in its turn, Terina, Caulonia, and + Pandosia. Of Ionian origin were Thurii, (built on the site where + Sybaris had formerly stood,) Rhegium, Elea, Cumæ, and its branch + settlement of Neapolis. Locri Epizephyrii, a colony of the Locri + Ozolæ, may be regarded as an Æolian city. The most remarkable of + these cities in respect of general history are: + + _a._ Tarentum, founded by the Parthenii, from Sparta, about 707. It + waged several wars with the aboriginal tribes in the vicinity, the + Messapians, Lucanians, etc. and grew to be one of the richest and + most powerful of the maritime towns. The brilliant period of + Tarentum appears to have fallen between 500 and 400. Excess of + wealth subsequently introduced luxury, which extinguished the + national spirit. Nevertheless Tarentum preserved its independence + until 273, when, after the war with Pyrrhus, it fell under the + Roman dominion. The constitution was originally a moderate + aristocracy; but was commuted soon after the Persian war into a + democracy, which was, however, curbed by prudent restrictions. + Tarentum had its senate, ([Greek: boulê],) without whose consent + war could not be undertaken; its magistrates elected half by lot, + half by majority of votes given in the assemblies of the commons. + Among its most celebrated citizens is reckoned the Pythagoræan + Archytas, who, after the year B. C. 390, was frequently at the head + of the state, filling the offices of general and supreme + magistrate. The constitution appears to have preserved its form + until the Roman period, although the national spirit was greatly + corrupted by a luxury almost exceeding the limits of credibility. + + _b._ Croton, founded 710 by the Achæans, under the guidance of + Myscellus from Rhype in Achaia. This city must have attained to + very great power during the very first century of its existence; + since in the battle of Sagra against the Locrians, which may with + probability be dated about 600, the Crotoniates were able to set on + foot an army of 120,000 men. Neither does the defeat which they + there suffered appear to have debilitated the settlement for any + length of time; for in 510, with nearly the same number of forces, + they attacked the Sybarites, and destroyed their city. The original + constitution was, no doubt, a moderate democracy; but we are + unacquainted with the details of its organization. Pythagoras was + the reformer of customs, moral and political, not only at Croton, + but in several other of the Italico-Greek cities. This philosopher + arrived at Croton about 540, and there laid the foundation of the + league or secret association named after him; the object of which + was, not to change the form of government in the Italian cities, + but to create men capable of managing the helm of state. This + reform and influence of the Pythagoræans lasted about thirty years, + when their order underwent the same fate as generally befalls a + secret association founded with a political view. Probably about + 510 the Pythagoræean league was broken asunder by the democratic + faction under Cylon. The consequence was universal anarchy, not + only in Croton, where, about 494, a certain Clinias usurped the + supreme power, but likewise in the other cities: these disorders, + however, were quelled by the intervention of the Achæans; and the + Achæan colonies not only adopted the laws of their mother cities, + but likewise soon afterwards signed a league in the temple of + Jupiter Homorius, about 460: it appears that Croton, having already + recovered from the blow it had received, was at the head of this + league. In this happy posture affairs remained till about 400. + After the kings of Syracuse had commenced their attacks on Magna + Græcia, Croton was repeatedly captured; as in B. C. 389 by + Dionysius I. and about 321; and again, in 299, by Agathocles. + Finally, after the war with Pyrrhus, 277, it became dependent on + Rome. + + _c._ Sybaris was founded about 720, like the foregoing, by the + Achæans, who were mingled with Troezenians: this settlement existed + till 510, when it was destroyed by Croton. Soon after its + foundation it became one of the most extensive, populous, and + luxurious cities, so much so, that the effeminacy of the Sybarites + became proverbial. Sybaris appears to have been at the height of + her prosperity from about 600-550; she then possessed a respectable + territory, comprising four of the neighbouring tribes, and + twenty-five cities or places. The extraordinary fertility of the + soil, and the admission of all strangers to the rights of + citizenship, tended to increase the population so much, that + Sybaris, in the war against Croton, is said to have brought into + the field 300,000 men. The vast wealth possessed, not only by + Sybaris, but by the other cities in this quarter, was probably + derived from the great trade in oil and wine carried on with Africa + and Gaul: that such was the case at Agrigentum we know with + certainty. The constitution of Sybaris was likewise, it appears, a + moderate democracy: towards the year 510 one Telys took possession + of the supreme power, and drove out five hundred of the optimates, + who fled to Croton. The Crotoniates received the exiles, and the + Sybarites having put to death their ambassadors, a war was kindled + between the two cities, and ended in 510 by the defeat of the + Sybarites and the destruction of their city. + + _d._ Thurii, founded near the site of ancient Sybaris in 446 by + Athens, although the inhabitants were of mixed origin; a + circumstance which gave rise at first to many domestic broils, the + citizens disputing as to who was the real founder; at last, 433, + the Delphian oracle declared the city to be a colony of Apollo. The + constitution was at first a moderate democracy; but this was soon + converted into an oligarchy, all the power and the best lands + having been taken possession of by the Sybarite families who had + joined the settlement. The Sybarites were, however, again expelled, + and Thurii grew into importance by the confluence of several new + colonies out of Greece; its constitution was meliorated by the + adoption of the laws of Charondas of Catana. The principal enemies + of the Thurians were the Lucanians, by whom they were beaten, 390. + The desultory attacks of that tribe obliged them, 286, to crave the + assistance of the Romans, which soon after afforded the Tarentines + an excuse for attacking them. Thurii now formed a part of the Roman + dependencies, and after suffering much in the Carthaginian wars, + was at last, B. C. 190, occupied by a Roman colony. + + _e._ Locri Epizephyrii. The question of their origin is subject to + dispute: the causes of this uncertainty are, that here, as in most + other of the cities, various bands of colonists arrived at various + times, and those bands themselves were composed of a mixture of + several Grecian stocks. The chief colony was sent out, B. C. 683, + by the Locri Ozolæ. After suffering much from violent internal + commotions, Locri found, about 660, a lawgiver in Zaleucus, whose + institutions remained more than two centuries inviolate. The + constitution was aristocratic, the administration being in the + hands of a hundred families. The supreme magistrate was called + cosmopolis. The senate consisted of a thousand members, probably + elected from the commons, with whom resided, either wholly or + partially, the legislative power. The maintenance of the laws was, + as in other Grecian cities, committed to the nomophylaces. Locri + was certainly neither so wealthy nor so luxurious as the cities + above mentioned; but she was honourably distinguished by the good + manners and quiet conduct of her citizens, who were contented with + their government. The flourishing period of this city lasted till + the time of Dionysius II. who having been driven out of Syracuse, + fled with his dependents to Locri, the native country of his + mother: by his insolence and licentiousness of manners the city was + brought to the verge of ruin; after his return to Syracuse, 347, + the Locrians avenged their wrongs upon his family. Locri afterward + maintained its recovered independence until the time of Pyrrhus, + who, 277, placed a garrison in the town; the Locrians, however, put + the troops to the sword, and passed over to the Roman side: the + city was in consequence sacked by Pyrrhus in 275. From that time + Locri remained a confederate town dependent on Rome, and suffered + much in the second Punic war. + + _f._ Rhegium, a colony from Chalcis in Euboea, 668: here also the + government was aristocratic, the supreme power being in the hands + of a council of a thousand men, selected only from Messenian + families, which had joined the original settlers. Hence arose an + oligarchy, of which Anaxilaus took advantage to assume the sole + dominion, 494, in which he was succeeded by his sons. These having + been driven out, 464, commotions ensued, which, after a time, were + quelled by adopting the laws of Charondas. Rhegium now enjoyed a + period of happiness, which lasted till B. C. 392, when it was + captured and destroyed by Dionysius I. Dionysius II. restored it in + some measure; but in 281 the city was taken possession of by a + Roman legion, who being sent for the purpose of garrisoning the + place, murdered the inhabitants. The soldiers were punished with + death, 271; but Rhegium thenceforth remained in a state of + dependence upon Rome. + + _g._ Cumæ, founded as early as 1030, from Chalcis in Euboea. This + city attained at an early period to a high degree of power and + prosperity; its territory being of considerable extent, its navy + respectable, and Neapolis and Zancle (or Messana) among its + colonies. The government was a moderate aristocracy: this + constitution was subverted about 544, by the tyrant Aristodemus; + but restored after his assassination. Cumæ was subject to repeated + annoyances from the petty Italian nations; and in 564 she was + invaded and defeated by the Etruscans and Daunians combined; in 474 + she beat the Etruscans at sea: but in 420 was captured by the + Campanians; together with whom she became a dependent of Rome in + 345. Cumæ, nevertheless, in consequence of its harbour of Puteoli, + preserved a share of importance, even under the Roman dominion. + + HEYNE, _Prolusiones 16 de civitatum Græcarum per magnam Græciam et + Siciliam institutis et legibus_. Collected in his _Opuscula_, vol. + vii. + + 2. Grecian settlements in Sicily. These occupied the eastern and + southern shores of the island: they were founded in the same period + as those of Magna Græcia, and belonged partly to the Dorian, partly + to the Ionian stocks. Of Dorian origin were Messana and Tyndaris, + from Messene; Syracuse, who in her turn founded Acræ, Casmenæ, and + Camarina, from Corinth; Hybla and Thapsus from Megara; Segesta from + Thessaly; Heraclea Minoa from Crete; Gela, which founded + Agrigentum, from Rhodes; and Lipara, on the small island of that + name, from Cnidus. Of Ionian origin were Naxus, the founder of + Leontini; Catana and Tauromenium, from Chalcis; Zancle, (after its + occupation by Messenian colonists, called Messana,) founded by + Cumæ, and in its turn founder of Himera and Mylæ. The most + remarkable of these towns in ancient history are: + + _a._ Syracuse, the most powerful of all the Greek colonies, and + consequently that concerning which our information is the most + copious. The history of Syracuse, on which, as that town was for a + long time mistress of the greatest part of the island, depends + nearly the whole history of Sicily, comprises four periods. 1. From + the foundation, B. C. 735, to Gelon, 484; a space of two hundred + and fifty-one years. During this period Syracuse was a republic, + but does not appear to have risen to any very great height of + power: yet she founded the colonies of Acræ, 665, Casmenæ, 645, and + Camarina, 600. The assistance of her parent city, Corinth, and + Corcyra, alone prevented her falling a prey to Hippocrates, + sovereign of Gela; and even then she was obliged to cede Camarina, + 497. The constitution was aristocratic; but not free from domestic + troubles. The administration was in the hands of the opulent, + ([Greek: gamoroi?]) but these were, about 485, expelled by the + democratic faction and their own mutinous slaves. They fled to + Casmenæ, and by the help of Gelon, sovereign of Gela, were restored + to their homes; Gelon retaining the power in his own hands. 2. From + Gelon to the expulsion of Thrasybulus, 484-466. The three brothers, + Gelon, Hiero, and Thrasybulus, successively ruled over Syracuse. + Gelon, 484-477. He was at once the founder of the greatness of + Syracuse, and of his own power: this he effected partly by + increasing the population, bringing in new inhabitants from other + Greek cities, and partly by the great victory he won over the + Carthaginians, in alliance with the Persians, 480. At this early + period Syracuse was so powerful, both by sea and by land, as to + justify Gelon in claiming the office of generalissimo of Greece, + when Sparta and Athens came to solicit his aid. His beneficent + reign not only gained him the love of the Syracusans during his + life, but likewise procured him heroic honours after death at the + hands of a grateful people. He died in 477, and was succeeded by + his brother Hiero I. who had till then ruled over Gela. The reign + of this prince was splendid, his court was brilliant, and a + fostering protection was extended to arts and sciences. Hiero's + power strengthened by the establishment of new citizens, both in + Syracuse and its subordinate towns of Catana and Naxus, whose + original inhabitants are translated to Leontini.--Wars waged + against Thero, 476, and his son Thrasidæus, tyrants of Agrigentum: + after the expulsion of Thrasidæus, that town forms an alliance with + Syracuse; the Syracusan fleet sent to the assistance of Cumæ, wins + a victory over the Etruscans. Hiero, dying in 467, was succeeded by + his brother Thrasybulus, who, after a short reign of eight months, + was expelled for his cruelty by the Syracusans and the confederate + cities. 3. From the expulsion of Thrasybulus to the elevation of + Dionysius I.; Syracuse a free democratic state: from 466-405. + Reestablishment of republican forms of government in Syracuse and + the other Grecian cities; accompanied, however, with many + commotions and civil wars, proceeding from the expulsion of the new + citizens and the restoration of the ancient inhabitants to their + property.--Increasing power and prosperity of Syracuse, who is now + at the head of the confederate Grecian cities in the island, and + soon endeavours to convert her precedence into supremacy. The new + democratic constitution quickly suffers from the diseases incident + to that form of government; a vain attempt is made to apply a + remedy by the introduction of the petalismus, B. C. 454; in the + mean time the Siculi, aboriginal inhabitants of Sicily, unite in + closer league under their leader Ducetius; attempting to expel the + Greeks, 451, they engage the Syracusans in reiterated wars; the + arms of Syracuse are successful, her authority is confirmed by the + subjection of the ambitious Agrigentum, 446, and by her naval + victory over the Etruscans. First but unsuccessful attempt of the + Athenians to interpose in the domestic affairs of Sicily, by siding + with Leontini against Syracuse, 427; eleven years afterward occurs + the great expedition against Syracuse, 415-413, caused by the + disputes between Segesta and Selinus; the expedition ends in the + total rout of the Athenian fleet and army, (see below,) and the + power of Syracuse reaches its zenith. A constitutional reform takes + place, 412, brought about by Diocles, whose laws were subsequently + adopted by several other of the Sicilian cities. The magistrates + were chosen by lot. The rest of the laws, which appear to have had + reference to the criminal code, were the production of a committee + over which Diocles presided; these enactments were so beneficial to + Syracuse, that the author of them was honoured with a temple after + his death. Yet as early as 410, a renewal of the differences + between Segesta and Selinus afforded a pretext for war with + Carthage, from whom the Segestani had besought assistance; by this + war the whole state of affairs in Sicily was subverted. The rapid + strides made by the Carthaginians, who, under the command of + Hannibal the son of Gisgo, took, 409, Selinus and Himera, and even + Agrigentum, 406, engendered domestic factions and commotions within + Syracuse; and amid those disorders the crafty Dionysius succeeded + first in obtaining the office of general, and then, after + supplanting his colleagues, the sovereign power of Syracuse, 405. + 4. From Dionysius I. to the Roman occupation, 405-212. Dionysius + I. 405-368. Ominous commencement of his reign, by a defeat at Gela + and the mutiny of his troops.--A plague wasting the Carthaginian + army, he is enabled to patch up a peace, B. C. 405, by which it is + agreed, that Carthage, besides her territory in the island, shall + retain all the conquests made during the war, together with Gela + and Camarina. But the project of expelling the Carthaginians out of + Sicily, in order to subject the whole island, and to fall upon + Magna Grecia, kindles a long series of wars both with Carthage and + the cities of Magna Grecia. Second war with Carthage against + Hannibal and Himilco, 398-392. Dionysius loses all that he before + had conquered, and is himself besieged in Syracuse; but a plague + once more attacking the Carthaginians, rescues him from his + predicament, 396; deeds of hostility continued notwithstanding till + 392, when a peace was signed, by which Carthage ceded the town of + Tauromenium.--From 394, desultory attacks on the confederate + Grecian cities in Lower Italy, particularly on Rhegium, the chief + seat of the Syracusan emigrants, which, after repeated invasions, + is at last compelled to yield, 387. Third war with Carthage, 383, + against Mago; Dionysius wins a victory, which is however followed + by a greater defeat; and the war ends the same year by the adoption + of a peace, according to which each party is to retain what he then + had; the Halycus is fixed as the boundary line; so that Selinus and + a portion of the territory of Agrigentum remain in the hands of the + Carthaginians. Fourth war: inroad upon the Carthaginian states; it + ends, however, in the signing of a treaty. The decision of these + wars generally depended on the side taken by the Siculi, the most + powerful aboriginal race in Sicily. Dionysius I. having died by + poison, 368, was succeeded by Dionysius II. his eldest son by one + of his two wives, Doris of Locri, but under the guardianship of his + step-uncle Dio, the brother of Dionysius's other wife Aristomache. + Neither Dio or his friend Plato, who was three times invited to + Syracuse, were able to improve the character of a prince whose mind + had been corrupted by bad education.--Dio is banished, 360. He + returns, 357, and, in the absence of Dionysius, takes possession of + Syracuse, all but the citadel. Dionysius now has recourse to + stratagem; he excites in the city distrust of Dio, and foments + dissension between him and his general Heraclidas; meanwhile he + himself withdraws to Italy, taking with him his treasures. Dio is + compelled to retire from the city, which is sacked by the troops + garrisoned in the citadel; hereupon the Syracusans themselves fetch + back Dio; he possesses himself of the citadel and wishes to restore + the republican government, but soon falls a victim to party spirit, + being murdered by Callipus, B. C. 354, who usurped the government + till 353, when he is driven out by Hipparinus, a brother of + Dionysius, who keeps possession till 350. After ten years' absence, + Dionysius II. by a sudden attack, becomes once more master of the + city, 346. The tyranny of this prince, and the treachery of Icetas + of Gela, whom the Syracusans called in to their assistance, but who + leagues himself with the Carthaginians, and the formidable + attempts of the latter, compel the citizens to apply to the mother + city Corinth: Corinth sends to their assistance Timoleon with a + small force, 345. Rapid change of affairs wrought by Timoleon: he + beats Icetas and the Carthaginians: in 343 Dionysius is forced to + deliver up the citadel and evacuate the country; he retires to + Corinth, where he leads a private life. Restoration of the + republican government, not only in Syracuse, where the laws of + Diocles are reinstituted, but also in the rest of the Grecian + cities: the revolution confirmed by a great victory over the + Carthaginians, 340. In the midst of the execution of his plans + Timoleon dies, 337, the most splendid example of a republican that + history affords! From 337-317; almost a chasm in the history of + Syracuse. Wars with Agrigentum; the usurpation of Sosistratus, + disturbs the peace, both external and internal. The character of + the Syracusans was already too foully corrupted for one to expect + that liberty could again be established among them, without the + personal superintendence of a Timoleon. They deserved the fate that + befell them, when, in 317, that daring adventurer Agathocles + assumed the sovereign power, which he maintained till 289. Renewal + of the plan for expelling the Carthaginians from the island, and + subjecting Magna Græcia. Hence arises a new war with Carthage, in + which Agathocles is defeated, 311, and besieged in Syracuse: by a + bold stroke he passes over into Africa, accompanied by part of his + fleet and army, and there with general success prosecutes the war + until 307: the insurrection of most of the Grecian cities in Sicily + recalls him from the theatre of war; his views in Africa are + consequently defeated. In the peace of 306 both parties retain what + they had at the beginning of the war. The wars in Italy are + confined to the sacking of Croton, and a victory won over the + Bruttii; and are rather predatory expeditions than regular wars. In + the year 289, Agathocles died by poison, and his murderer, Mænon, + seized the power; he is expelled by the general Icetas, and flies + over to the Carthaginians. Icetas rules as pretor till 278, when, + in his absence, the government is usurped by Thynion, who meets + with a rival in the person of Sosistratus; in the mean while the + mercenaries of Agathocles (the Mamertini) possess themselves of + Messana, and the Carthaginians press forward to the very gates of + Syracuse. The Syracusans invite Pyrrhus of Epirus over from Italy; + that prince takes possession of the whole of Sicily as far as + Lilybæum; but having by his haughtiness incurred general hatred and + disgust, he is obliged to evacuate the island, B. C. 275. The + Syracusans now appoint Hiero, a descendant of the ancient royal + family, to the office of general: after defeating the Mamertini he + is called to the throne, 269. At the breaking out of the war + between Carthage and Rome, the new king forsakes his alliance with + Carthage, and, passing over to the Roman side, thereby purchases a + long and tranquil reign until 215, when he dies of old age. Under + this wise prince Syracuse enjoyed a degree of happiness and + prosperity which none of her demagogues had been able to effect. + After his death the Carthaginian party became predominant; + Hieronymus the grandson of Hiero is murdered, 214, and Hannibal's + intrigues enable the Carthaginian party to keep the upper hand, by + contriving to place at the head of affairs his friends Hippocrates + and Epicydes, who entangle Syracuse in a war with Rome; and the + city, after a long siege, celebrated by the inventions of + Archimedes, is brought to ruin, 212.--The history of Syracuse is a + practical compendium of politics: what other state ever underwent + so many and such various revolutions? + + The history of Syracuse was at an early period disfigured by + partiality. For the topography, see # BARTEL'S _Letters from + Calabria and Sicily_, vol. iii. with a plan. + + # A. ARNOLD, _History of Syracuse, from its foundation to the + overthrow of liberty by Dionysius_. Gotha, 1816. + + MITFORD, _History of Greece_: the fourth volume contains the + history of Syracuse, and a defence of the elder Dionysius. It would + seem that even now it is difficult to write this history in an + impartial spirit. + + _b._ Agrigentum, a colony of Gela, founded 582. The first city of + Sicily next to Syracuse, of which it was frequently the rival. Its + first constitution was that of the mother city; that is to say, + Dorian or aristocratic. It fell, however, soon after its + foundation, under the dominion of tyrants; the first of whom + noticed in history is Phalaris, who flourished probably 566-534. + He was succeeded by Alcmanes, 534-488, who was followed by + Alcander, an indulgent ruler, in whose reign the wealth of + Agrigentum seems to have already been considerable. More renowned + than the foregoing was Theron, the contemporary and stepfather of + Gelon; he ruled from B. C. 488-472: in conjunction with Gelon he + routed the Carthaginian army, 480, and subjected Himera. His son + and successor, Thrasydæus, was beaten by Hiero and expelled, 470; + whereupon the Agrigentines, as allies of Syracuse, introduced a + democracy. The period following, 470-405, is that in which + Agrigentum, blessed with political freedom, attained the highest + degree of public prosperity. She was one of the most opulent and + luxurious cities in the world, and in the display of public + monuments one of the most magnificent. For her wealth she was + indebted to the vast trade in oil and wine that she carried on with + Africa and Gaul, in neither of which were those productions + hitherto naturalized. In the year 446 the Agrigentines, excited by + envy, fell upon the Syracusans, but were defeated. In the war with + Athens they took no share; but in the Carthaginian invasion of + Sicily, 405, Agrigentum was taken and destroyed; from this blow she + recovered but slowly, and never effectually. By Timoleon she was, + in some measure, restored, 340; and under Agathocles, 307, was able + to head the cities combined against him, but was beaten. After the + death of Agathocles, a tyrant, by the name of Phintias, took + possession of the sovereign power; and was attacked, 278, by Icetas + of Syracuse. At the breaking out of the first Punic war, Agrigentum + was used by the Carthaginians as a military depôt; but was taken by + the Romans as early as 262. + + _c._ The fate of the other Sicilian cities was more or less + dependent on that of Agrigentum and Syracuse: they all had + originally republican forms of government; but though the Ionian + colonies had a celebrated legislator in the person of Charondas, + (probably about 660,) they had the same fortune with the rest, of + being frequently oppressed by tyrants, either from among their own + citizens, or by those of Syracuse, who often used to drive out the + old inhabitants, and introduce a new population more devoted to + their interest: hence must have sprung manifold wars. The foregoing + history shows how grievously they likewise suffered in the wars + between Syracuse and Carthage. Following the dates of their + respective foundations, they may be thus arranged: Zancle, (after + 664, known by the name of Messana,) the earliest, though of + uncertain date; Naxus, 736; Syracuse, Hybla, 735; Leontini, Catana, + 730; Gela, 690; Acræ, B. C. 665; Casmenæ, 645; Himera, 639; + Selinus, 630; Agrigentum, 582. The dates of the rest cannot be + ascertained with any degree of accuracy. + + 3. On the other islands and coasts of the Mediterranean we meet + with various insulated Grecian settlements; in Sardinia, the cities + Garalis and Olbia: the date of their foundation unknown; in + Corsica, Alaria, (or Alalia,) a colony of Phocæans founded, 561; + hither the inhabitants of the mother city betook themselves in + 541; and subsequently, after the naval engagement with the + Etruscans and Carthaginians, withdrew, some to Rhegium, others to + Massilia, 536. + + 4. On the coast of Gaul stood Massilia, founded by the Phocæans, + who had been driven out of Corsica after the above mentioned naval + engagement, 536; or rather, there was on the same site an old + settlement which was now increased. Massilia rapidly grew in wealth + and power. Our information respecting the wars she waged on the sea + against Carthage and the Etruscans is but of a general kind. Her + territory on the main land, although rich in wine and oil, was + limited in extent; she established, nevertheless, several colonies + along the shores of Spain and Gaul, among which Antipolis, Nicæa, + and Olbia are the best known. The trade of Massilia was carried on + partly by sea, and partly by land, through the interior of Gaul. + The constitution was a moderate aristocracy. The chief power was in + the hands of six hundred individuals; the members of this council + were called timuchi, they held their places for life, were obliged + to be married men with families, and descended at least to the + third generation from citizens. At the head of this council stood + fifteen men, three of whom were chief magistrates. As early as 218 + Massilia was in alliance with Rome, under whose fostering + protection she grew in prosperity; her freedom was preserved to her + until the war between Pompey and Cæsar; having sided with the + former, she was stormed, 49, by Cæsar's army. She soon retrieved + herself, and, under the reign of Augustus, Massilia was the seat of + literature and philosophy, in which public lectures were there + given as at Athens. + + AUG. BRUEKNER, _Historia Reipublicæ Massiliensium_. Gotting. 1826. + A prize essay. + + 5. On the Spanish coast stood Saguntum, ([Greek: Zakunthos],) a + colony from the island of Zacynthus; the date of its foundation is + undetermined. It became opulent by its commerce; but at the opening + of the second Punic war, B.C. 219, was destroyed by Hannibal, as + being an ally of Rome. + + 6. On the coast of Africa lay Cyrene, founded at the suggestion of + the Delphic oracle in 631, by the island of Thera. The constitution + was at first monarchical. Kings: Battus I. the founder, 631-591. + In whose family the sceptre remained. Arcesilaus I. _d._ 575. Under + the reign of his successor, Battus II. surnamed the happy, (_d._ + 554,) the colony was much strengthened by new comers from Greece. + The Libyans, bereaved of their lands, seek for help at the hands + of Apries, who is defeated by the Cyrenæans, 570, and in + consequence loses his crown.--Arcesilaus II. _d._ 550. Rebellion of + his brothers, and foundation of Barca, an independent town ruled by + its own separate kings. Secession of the Libyan subjects. He is put + to death by his brother or friend Learchus, who in his turn is + poisoned by Eryxo the widow of Arcesilaus. Her son, Battus III. + surnamed the lame, (_d._ about 529,) succeeds to the throne. The + royal power confined within narrow limits by the laws of Demonax of + Mantinea: the king retains nothing more than the revenue and + priestly office. His son Arcesilaus III. becomes of his own accord + tributary to the Persians; in conjunction with his mother, + Pheretime, he seeks to reestablish the regal supremacy, but is + expelled; nevertheless he regains possession of Cyrene. In + consequence of his cruelty he is assassinated in Barca, about 516. + Pheretime seeks for help from the Persian satrap of Egypt, + Aryandes, who by craft gets possession of Barca; the inhabitants + are carried away and translated into Bactria, 512. Soon after + Pheretime dies. It seems probable that another Battus IV. and + Arcesilaus IV. must have reigned at Cyrene, to whom Pindar's fourth + and fifth Pythian Odes are addressed: their history, however, is + veiled in obscurity. Cyrene then received a republican + constitution, probably somewhere about 450; but we are unacquainted + with the internal details of the government. Yet though Plato was + invited by the Cyrenæans to give them laws, and though they had for + their legislator Democles of Arcadia, they appear never to have + been blessed with a good and stable constitution. Not only is + mention often made of domestic troubles, as in 400, when amid the + uproar excited by Ariston most of the aristocratic party were cut + off; but we likewise frequently meet with tyrants. Concerning the + external affairs of this state we know nothing but a few general + facts relative to the border wars with Carthage. Subsequently to + Alexander, Cyrene became a part of the Egyptian kingdom; so early + as the reign of Ptolemy I. it was added to that realm by his + general Ophellas, about B.C. 331. It now continued to receive + various rulers from the family of the Ptolemies (see below) until + the reign of Ptolemy Physcon, when it became a separate state, the + bastard son of that prince, Apion by name, having made it over to + the Romans, 97. Cyrene possessed a considerable share of trade, + consisting partly in the exportation of country produce, more + especially the Silphium, (Laser,) partly in a varied intercourse + with Carthage, Ammonium, and thence with the interior of Africa. + The former splendour and importance of this city and the + neighbouring country are testified by an abundance of most noble + ruins; a more accurate research into which every friend of + antiquity must desire. + + HARDION, _Histoire de Cyrène_, in _Mém. de l'Académie des + Inscriptions_, t. iii. + + J. P. THRIGE, _Historia Cyrenes, inde a tempore quo condita urbs + est, usque ad ætatem, qua in provinciæ formam a Romanis redacta + est: particula prior, de initiis coloniæ Cyrenen deductæ, et + Cyrenes Battiadis regnantibus historia_. Havniæ, 1819. The best + work on Cyrene. It is hoped that the author will not disapppoint + our expectations of the second part, which is to contain the period + of republican government. [The whole was completed in 1828. The + learned and ingenious author has neglected no authority whether + ancient or modern, and is particularly cautious and judicious in + his researches.] + + A ray of light has lately, for the first time, been thrown on the + remains still found in Cyrenaica by DELLA CELLA, _Viaggio di + Tripoli_; translated by Spieker, in the # _Journal of the latest + travels by sea and by land_, Sept. 1820. + + W. BEECHEY, _Proceedings to explore the northern coast of Africa + from Tripoli eastward_, 1827. + + F. R. PACHO, _Relation d'un voyage à Marmarique et Cyrenaique_, + 1828. A most accurate description. + + T. EHRENBERG, _Travels through North Africa_, in the years + 1820-1825, by Dr. W. F. Hemprich and Dr. C. G. Ehrenberg. Berlin, + 1828. + + + + +THIRD PERIOD. + +_From the commencement of the Persian wars to the time of Alexander +the Great, B. C. 500-336._ + + + Sources. The chief writers in this period are: For the history of + the Persian wars to the battle of Platææ, 479, Herodotus. For the + period between 479 and the breaking out of the Peloponnesian war, + we must, in the absence of contemporary authors, consider Diodorus + Siculus as the principal authority.--The beginning of the 11th + book, which commences with the year 480, (the 6th, 7th, 8th, 9th, + and 10th books being lost,) to the middle of the 12th; the + chronology of this author, however, must in several cases be + rectified after Thucydides's summary in lib. i. For the period of + the Peloponnesian war, 431-410, the history of Thucydides is the + capital work; but it must be accompanied by Diodorus, from the + middle of the 12th book to the middle of the 13th.--From the year + 410 to the battle of Mantinea, 362, the principal sources are the + Hellenics of Xenophon, and occasionally his Anabasis and Agesilaus; + together with Diodorus, from the middle of the 13th book to the end + of the 15th. For the years intervening from 362-336, no + contemporary historian has been preserved; Diodorus's 16th book + must therefore here be considered as the chief source: for the + times of Philip, however, recourse may likewise be had to the + speeches of Demosthenes and Æschines. The Lives of Plutarch and + Nepos often touch upon this period, but cannot be regarded as + authentic sources; of still less authority are the abridged + documents given by Justin and some others. + + The modern authors on this, the brilliant period of Greece, are, of + course, the same as have been enumerated above: (see p. 118.) To + whom must here be added: + + POTTER, _Archæologia Græca; or the Antiquities of Greece:_ 2 vols. + 8vo. Lond. 1722. Translated into German by J. J. Rambach, 3 vols. + 1775. + + BARTHELEMY, _Voyage du Jeune Anacharsis en Grèce_. (Between the + years B. C. 362 and 338.) Paris, 1788, 5 vols. Accompanied with + charts and plans, illustrating the topography of Athens, etc. This + work is conspicuous for a rare union of good taste and erudition; + unattended, however, with an equal share of critical acumen and a + correct appreciation of antiquity. + + # _History of the Origin, Progress, and Fall of Science in Greece + and Rome_, by C. MEINERS. Gottingen, 1781. It contains also a + delineation of the political state of affairs; but does not extend + beyond the age of Philip. + + The principal works on the monuments of ancient Greece are: + + LE ROY, _Les Ruines des plus beaux Monumens de la Grèce_. Paris, + 1758, 2nd edit. 1770, fol. The first in point of time; but far + surpassed by: + + J. STUART, _The Antiquities of Athens measured and delineated_; 3 + vols. Lond. 1762: the 4th vol. published in 1816. In beauty and + accuracy of execution superior to all. + + R. DALTON, _Antiquities and Views of Greece and Egypt_, 1691, fol. + The Egyptian monuments are confined to those of Lower Egypt. + + R. CHANDLER, _Ionian Antiquities_. London, 1796, 1797, 2 vols. fol. + A worthy companion to Stuart. + + CHOISEUL GOUFFIER, _Voyage pittoresque dans la Grèce_, vol. i, + 1779: vol. ii, 1809. Confined principally to the islands and Asia + Minor. + +1. From a multitude of small states, never united but continually +distracted by civil broils--and such at the beginning of this period +were the states of Greece--any thing important could hardly be expected +without the occurrence of some external event, which, by rallying the +divided forces round one point, and directing them toward one object, +should hinder them from mutually exhausting one another. It was the +hostile attempt of Persia that first laid the foundation of the future +splendour of Greece; certain states then grew so rapidly in power, that +upon their particular history hinges the general history of all the +rest. + + Causes which led to the Persian war. Share taken by Athens in the + Ionian insurrection and firing of Sardes, B. C. 500. (see above, + p. 98.) Intrigues of Hippias, first with the satraps, and afterwards + at the Persian court itself.--First expedition, that of Mardonius, + thwarted by a storm, 493. + +2. Not even the summons to acknowledge the Persian authority was +sufficient to rouse the national energy of the Greeks. All the islands, +and most of the states on the main land, submitted to the yoke; Sparta +and Athens alone boldly rejected it. The Athenians, unassisted, under +their leader Miltiades, acquainted from his youth with the Persians and +their mode of warfare, and with the superiority of the arms of his +countrymen, became the saviours of Greece. + + Quarrel of Athens and Sparta with Ægina, which sides with the + Persians, 491; and consequent deposition of Demaratus, king of + Sparta, by his colleague Cleomenes. + + Persian expedition of Datis and Artaphernes under the guidance of + Hippias: frustrated by the battle of Marathon, B. C. Sept. 29, + 490, and the failure of an attempt upon Athens. + +3. The immediate consequence of this victory was a naval expedition +against the islands, more particularly Paros, to which Miltiades, out of +a private grudge, persuaded the Athenians. It was undertaken for the +purpose of levying contributions; and seems to have given the Athenians +the first idea of their subsequent dominion of the sea. The Athenians +punished Miltiades for the failure of this expedition, although the +effect of their own folly; yet was this act of injustice a source of +happiness to Athens; as the fall of Miltiades made room for the men who +laid the solid foundation of her glory and greatness. + +4. As usual in every democratic state rising to power, the history of +Athens now becomes that of eminent individuals, standing at the head of +affairs, as generals or demagogues. Themistocles, who united to an +astonishing degree in his own person the most splendid talents of +statesman and general, with a spirit of intrigue, and even of egotism; +and Aristides, whose disinterestedness, even in those days, was singular +at Athens, were the real founders of the power of this commonwealth. +Athens, however, was more indebted to the first than to the latter. + + Rivalry of these two men, 490-486. While Themistocles at the head + of the Athenian fleet prosecutes the design of Miltiades against + the islands, the management of state affairs is confided to + Aristides. On the return, however, of Themistocles as conqueror, + Aristides is by ostracism banished Athens, 486. Themistocles + alone, at the head of affairs, pursues his plan for making Athens + a maritime power. In consequence of a war against the object of + popular hatred, Ægina, B. C. 484, he prevails on the Athenians to + devote the income from the mines to the formation of a navy. While + Athens is thus rising to power, Sparta suffers from the insanity + of one of her kings, Cleomenes, (succeeded in 482 by his half + brother Leonidas,) and the arrogance of the other, Leotychides. + +5. The glory of frustrating the second mighty Persian invasion of Greece +under Xerxes I. belongs to Themistocles alone. Not only his great naval +victory off Salamis, but still more the manner in which he contrived to +work upon his countrymen, proves him to have been the greatest man of +the age, and the deliverer of Greece, now united by one common bond of +interest.--All national leagues are weak in themselves: yet how strong +may even the weakest be made when held together by one great man, who +knows how to animate it with his own spirit! + + Themistocles' plan for the conduct of the war; first, a common + union of all the Hellenic states; a measure which succeeds to a + certain degree, the honour of the command being left to the + Spartans; secondly, the sea made the theatre of war.--Gallant + death of Leonidas with his three hundred Spartans and seven + hundred Thespians, July 6, 480. An example of heroism which + contributes as much to the greatness of Greece as the victory of + Salamis. About the same time naval engagements off Artemisium in + Euboea, with two hundred and seventy-one sail. The leaders of the + Greeks are kept to their posts merely by bribery; the means of + purchasing their services being for the most part furnished by + Themistocles himself.--Athens, deserted by its inhabitants, is + taken and burnt by Xerxes, July 20. Retreat of the Grecian fleet + into the bay of Salamis: revocation of all exiles, Aristides among + the rest.--Politic measures adopted by Themistocles to hinder the + dispirited Greeks from taking flight, and at the same time to + secure to himself, in case of need, an asylum with the Persian + monarch.--Naval engagement and victory off Salamis, Sept. 23, 480, + with three hundred and eighty sail, (one hundred and eighty of + which were Athenian,) against the Persian fleet, already much + weakened: retreat of Xerxes.--Poets and historians have disfigured + these events by fanciful exaggerations: still, however, they may + show us how commonly human weakness is attended with human + greatness! + +6. The victory of Salamis did not conclude the war; but the negotiations +entered into during the winter months with the Persian general, +Mardonius, left in Thessaly, and with the Asiatic Greeks, to excite them +to throw off the yoke, show how far the confidence of the nation in its +own strength had increased. But by the battle fought on land at Platææ, +under the command of the Spartan, Pausanias, (guardian to Plistarchus, +son of Leonidas,) and the Athenian, Aristides; together with the naval +battle at Mycale on the same day, and the destruction of the Persian +fleet, the Persians are for ever driven from the territory of Greece, +though the war continues for some time longer. + +7. The expulsion of the Persians wrought an entire change in the +internal and external relations of Greece. From being the aggressed the +Greeks became the aggressors; to free their Asiatic countrymen is now +the chief object or pretext for the continuation of a war so profitable; +the chief command of which abides with Sparta until B. C. 470. + + Athens rebuilt and fortified by Themistocles despite of Spartan + jealousy, 478: formation of the Piræus, an event of still greater + importance, 477.--Naval expedition under Pausanias, accompanied by + Aristides and Cimon, undertaken against Cyprus and Byzantium, for + the purpose of expelling the Persians, 470. Treachery and fall of + Pausanias, 469. In consequence of the Spartans' haughtiness, the + supreme command devolves upon the Athenians. + +8. This transfer of the command to Athens had a decided effect on all +the subsequent relations of Greece, not only because it augmented the +jealousy between Sparta and Athens, but because Athens exercised her +predominance for a purpose entirely different from that of +Sparta.--Establishment of a permanent confederacy, comprising most of +the Grecian states without Peloponnesus, especially the islands, and an +adjustment of the contributions to be annually furnished by each, with +the view of prosecuting the Persian war, and liberating the Asiatic +Greeks from the Persian yoke. Although the common treasury was first +established at Delos, the superintendence of it was confided to Athens; +and such a manager as Aristides was not always to be found.--Natural +consequence of this new establishment: 1. What had hitherto been mere +military precedence, becomes in the hands of Athens a right of +political prescription, and that, as usual, is soon converted +into a sovereignty. Hence her idea of the supremacy of Greece, +([Greek: archê tês Hellados],) as connected with that of the sea, +([Greek: thalassokratia].) 2. The oppression of the Athenians, +sometimes real, at other times presumed, after a short time, rouses the +spirit of discontent and contumacy among several of the confederates: +hence, 3. The gradual formation of a counter league, headed by Sparta, +who maintains her supremacy over the greatest part of the Peloponnesus. + +9. The changes introduced into the internal organization are not to be +determined solely by the palpable alterations made in any of Lycurgus's +or Solon's institutions. In Sparta, the general frame-work of Lycurgus's +constitution subsisted; nevertheless the power was virtually in the +hands of the ephori, whose dictatorial sway placed Sparta in the +formidable posture she now assumed.--At Athens, in proportion as the +importance of foreign relations increased, and amid the protracted +struggles between the heads of the democratic and aristocratic parties, +the real power, under the outward appearance of a democracy, gradually +centered in the hands of the ten annually elected generals, ([Greek: +stratêgoi],) who with more or less effect played the parts of +demagogues. + + Abrogation of the law that excluded the poorer citizens from + official situations, B. C. 478. + + Expulsion of Themistocles, implicated in the fall of Pausanias, + principally through the intrigues of Sparta: he is first banished + by ostracism, 469, but in consequence of further persecution he + flies over to the Persians, 466. + +10. The following forty years, from 470-430, constitute the flourishing +period of Athens. A concurrence of fortunate circumstances happening +among a people of the highest abilities and promoted by great men, +produced here phenomena, such as have never since been witnessed. +Political greatness was the fundamental principle of the commonwealth; +Athens had been the guardian, and the champion of Greece, and she wished +to appear worthy of herself. Hence in Athens alone were men acquainted +with public splendour, exhibited in buildings, in spectacles, and +festivals, the acquisition of which was facilitated by private +frugality. This public spirit animating every citizen, expanded the +blossoms of genius; no broad line of distinction was anxiously drawn +between private and public life; whatever great, whatever noble was +produced by Athens, sprung up verdant and robust out of this harmony, +this buxom vigour of the state. Far different was the case with Sparta; +there rude customs and laws arrested the development of genius: there +men were taught to die for the land of their forefathers: while at +Athens they learnt to live for it. + +11. Agriculture continued the principal occupation of the citizens of +Attica; other employments were left to the care of slaves. Commerce and +navigation were mainly directed towards the Thracian coast and the Black +sea; the spirit of trade, however, was never the prevailing one. As +affairs of state became more attractive, and men desired to participate +in them, the want of intellectual education began to be felt, and +sophists and rhetoricians soon offered their instruction. Mental +expertness was more coveted than mental knowledge; men wished to learn +how to think and to speak. A poetical education had long preceded the +rise of this national desire; poesy now lost nothing of its value: as +heretofore Homer remained the cornerstone of intellectual improvement. +Could it be that such blossoms would produce other fruits than those +which ripened in the school of Socrates, in the masterpieces of the +tragedians and orators, and in the immortal works of Plato? + +12. These flowers of national genius burst forth in spite of many evils, +inseparable from such a constitution established among such a people. +Great men were pushed aside; others took their places. The loss of +Themistocles was supplied by Miltiades's son Cimon; who to purer +politics united equal talents. He protracted the war against the +Persians in order to maintain the union of the Greeks; and favoured the +aristocratic party at the same time that he affected popularity. Even +his enemies learnt by experience, that the state could not dispense with +a leader who seemed to have entered into a compact for life with +victory. + + Another expedition under Cimon; and victory by sea and land near + the Eurymedon, B. C. 469. He takes possession of the Hellespontine + Chersonesus, 468. Some of the Athenian confederates already + endeavour to secede. Hence, 467, the conquest of Caristus in + Euboea; subjection of Naxos, 466, and from 465-463, siege and + capture of Thasos, under Cimon. The Athenians endeavour to obtain + a firmer footing on the shore of Macedonia; and for that purpose + send out a colony to Amphipolis, 465. + + Great earthquake at Sparta; gives rise to a ten years' war, viz. + the third Messenian war or revolt of the Helots, who fortify + themselves in Ithome, 465-455: in this war the Athenians, at the + instigation of Cimon, send assistance to the Spartans, 461, who + refuse the proffered aid. The democratic party seize the + opportunity of casting on Cimon the suspicion of being in the + interest of Sparta; he is banished by ostracism, 461. + +13. The death of Aristides, and the banishment of Cimon, concur in +elevating Pericles to the head of affairs; a statesman whose influence +had begun to operate as early as 469. Less a general than a demagogue, +he supported himself in authority during forty years, until the day of +his death, and swayed Athens without being either archon or member of +the areopagus. That under him the constitution must have assumed a more +democratic character, is demonstrated by the fact of his exaltation as +leader of the democratic party. The aristocrats, however, contrive until +444 to set up rivals against him in the persons of the military leaders, +Myronides, Tolmidas, and more particularly the elder Thucydides. + + Change in the spirit of administration under Pericles, both in + reference to internal and external relations. A brilliant + management succeeds to the parsimonious economy of Aristides; and + yet, after the lapse of thirty years, the state treasury was + full.--Limitation of the power of the areopagus by Ephialtes, B. + C. 461. The withdrawal of various causes which formerly came under + the jurisdiction of that tribunal must have diminished its right + of moral censorship.--Introduction of the practice of paying + persons who attended the courts of justice. + + With regard to external relations, the precedence of the Athenians + gradually advanced toward supremacy; although their relations with + all the confederates were not precisely the same. Some were mere + confederates; others were subjects.--Augmentation in the imposts + on the confederates, and transfer of the treasury from Delos to + Athens, 461. The jealousy of Sparta and the discontent of the + confederates keep pace with the greatness of Athens. + + Unsuccessful attempt to support by the help of an Athenian fleet + and troops, Inarus of Egypt in his insurrection against the + Persians, 462-458. + + Wars in Greece: the Spartans instigate Corinth and Epidaurus + against Athens. The Athenians, at first defeated near Haliæ, in + their turn rout the enemy, 458, and then carry the war against + Ægina, which is subdued, 457. In the new quarrel between Corinth + and Megara respecting their boundaries, the Athenians side with + Megara; Myronides conquers at Cimolia, 457. Expedition of the + Spartans to the support of the Dorians against Phocis; and hence + arises the first rupture between Athens, Sparta, and Boeotia. + First battle of Tanagra, in which the Spartans are victorious in + the same year, 457. The Boeotians, incited by the Spartans, are + in the second battle of Tanagra worsted by Myronides, 456. The + recall of Cimon, at the suggestion of Pericles himself, in + consequence of the first defeat. + +14. Cimon recalled from exile, endeavours to reestablish the domestic +tranquillity of Greece, and at the same time to renew the war against +the Persians. He succeeds in his attempt after the lapse of five years; +and the consequence is a victorious expedition against the Persians. He +defeats their fleet off Cyprus, and routs their army on the Asiatic +coast. The fruit of this victory is the celebrated peace with Artaxerxes +I. (see above, p. 104.) Ere that peace is concluded Cimon dies, too soon +for his country, while occupied with the siege of Citium. + + Termination of the third Messenian war in favour of Sparta, by the + cession of Ithome, B. C. 455. Meantime Athens continues the war + with Peloponnesus; Tolmidas and Pericles making an incursion by + sea on the enemy's territory, 455-454. At the same time Pericles, + by sending out colonies to the Hellespont, endeavours to secure + more firmly the Athenian power in that quarter: a colony is + likewise sent out to Naxos, 453.--Cimon negotiates a truce, which + is adopted first (451) tacitly, afterwards formally, (450,) for + five years. The result of this truce is his victorious expedition + against the Persians, and the consequent peace with that nation. + Although the conditions of the peace prescribed by Cimon were + sometimes infringed, they appear to have been ratified by all + parties. + +15. The conclusion of peace with Persia, glorious as it was, and the +death of the man whose grand political object was to preserve union +among the Greeks, again aroused the spirit of internal strife. For +notwithstanding nearly twenty years intervened before the tempest burst +with all its fury, this period was so turbulent during its course, that +Greece seldom enjoyed universal peace. While Athens by her naval +strength was maintaining her ascendancy over the confederates, and while +some of those confederates were raising the standard of rebellion and +passing over to Sparta, every thing was gradually combining towards the +formation of a counter league, the necessary consequence of which must +have been a war, such as the Peloponnesian. Up to this time Athens was +at the height of her power; she was governed by Pericles, who, in every +thing but the name, was sole ruler during this period, and for that +reason she experienced few of the evils resulting from a democratic +constitution. Who, indeed, could overthrow a demagogue whose presence of +mind, even in the greatest good fortune, never once deserted him; who +knew how to keep alive among his fellow-citizens the conviction that, +however exalted they might be, it was to him alone they were indebted +for it? + + During the five years' truce the sacred war for the possession of + the Delphian oracle took place, and it is given by the Spartans to + the city of Delphi; but after their return is given back again by + the Athenians to the Phocians, B. C. 448. The Athenians commanded + by Tolmidas, are defeated by the Boeotians, 447. This expedition, + undertaken in opposition to the advice of Pericles, contributes to + increase his influence; particularly as he reduces to obedience + the revolted Euboea and Megara, 446. End of the five years' truce + with Sparta; and renewal of hostilities, 445; further warlike + proceedings are repressed by a new thirty years' peace, which + lasts, however, only fourteen years.--Complete suppression of the + aristocratic party, by the banishment of the elder Thucydides, + 444; the whole administration of the state consequently centres in + the hands of Pericles.--Democracy in the confederate states + favoured; forcibly introduced in Samos, which, after a nine + months' siege, is obliged to submit to Pericles, 440.--Commencement + of the war between Corinth and Corcyra, on the subject of Epidamnus, + 436, which the Corcyræans take possession of after winning a naval + victory, 435. The Athenians take part in the quarrel, and side with + the Corcyræans, 432. The rupture with Corinth, and the policy of + Perdiccas II. king of Macedonia, lead to the secession of the + Corinthian colony of Potidæa, which previously belonged to the + Athenian confederacy: the war thereby is extended to the Macedonian + coast. Engagement near Potidæa, and siege of that town, 432. The + Corinthians direct their steps to Sparta, and excite the Spartans + to war; which is further accelerated by the attack of the Thebans + upon Platææ, the confederate of Athens, 431. + +16. The history of the twenty-seven years' war, known by the name of the +Peloponnesian, or great Grecian war, which swept away the fairest +flowers of Greece, is the more deserving attention from its being not +merely a struggle between nations, but likewise against certain forms of +government. The policy of Athens, which to establish or preserve her +influence in foreign states, excited the multitude against the higher +orders, had on all sides given rise to two factions, the democrat or +Athenian, and the aristocrat or Spartan; and the mutual bitterness of +party spirit produced the most violent disorders. + +17. The respective relations of the two head states of Greece to their +confederates, were at this time of a very opposite nature. Athens, as a +naval power, was mistress of most of the islands and maritime cities, +which, as tributary confederates, rendered for the most part a forced +obedience. Sparta, as a land power, was allied with most of the states +on the continent, which had joined her side of their own accord, and +were not subject to tribute. Sparta therefore presented herself as the +deliverer of Greece from the Athenian yoke. + + Confederates of the Athenians: the islands Chios, Samos, Lesbos, all + those of the Archipelago, (Thera and Melos excepted, which stood + neutral,) Corcyra, Zacynthus; the Grecian colonies in Asia Minor, and + on the coast of Thrace and Macedonia; in Greece itself, the cities + of Naupactus, Platææ, and those of Acarnania.--Confederates of the + Spartans: all the Peloponnesians, (Argos and Achaia excepted, which + stood neutral,) Megara, Locris, Phocis, Boeotia, the cities of + Ambracia and Anactorium, and the island of Leucas. + +18. Sketch of the internal state of Athens and Sparta at this period. +The power of Athens depended mainly on the state of her finances; +without which she could not support a fleet, and without a fleet her +ascendancy over the confederates would of course fall to ground. And +although Pericles, notwithstanding his lavish public expenditure, was +able to enter upon the war with 6,000 talents in the treasury, +experience could not fail to show that, in such a democratic state as +Athens was now become under Pericles, the squandering of the public +money was an unavoidable evil. This evil was produced, however, at +Athens much less by the peculations of individual state officers than by +the demands of the multitude, who for the most part lived at the expense +of the state treasury. On the other hand, Sparta as yet had no finance; +and only began to feel the want of it as she began to acquire a naval +power, and entered upon undertakings more vast than mere incursions. + + Financial system of the Athenians. Revenue: 1. The tribute paid by + the confederates ([Greek: phoroi]) increased by Pericles from four + hundred and sixty to six hundred talents. 2. Income from the + customs, (which were farmed,) and from the mines at Laurium. 3. + The caution money of the non-citizens: ([Greek: metoikoi].) 4. The + taxes on the citizens, ([Greek: eisphorai],) which fell almost + entirely on the rich, more particularly on the first class, the + members of which were not only to bear the burthen of fitting out + the fleet, ([Greek: trierarchiai],) but were likewise to furnish + means for the public festivals and spectacles, ([Greek: + chorêgiai].) The whole income of the republic at this time was + estimated at 2,000 talents. But the disbursements made to the + numerous assistants at the courts of justice (the principal means + of existence with the poorer citizens, and which, more than any + thing else, contributed to the licentiousness of the democracy and + the oppression of the confederates, whose causes were all brought + to Athens for adjudication,) together with the expenditure for + festivals and spectacles, even at this time, absorbed the greatest + part of the revenue. + + # F. BOEKH, _Public Economy of the Athenians_, 2 parts, Berlin, + 1816. The chief work on the subject. [Ably translated by J. C. + LEWIS, esq. of Christ Church in this university.] + + _Athenian Letters, or the Epistolary Correspondence of an Agent of + the King of Persia, residing at Athens during the Peloponnesian + war._ London, 1798, 2 vols. 4to. The production of several young + authors; first printed, but not published, in 1741. This sketch + comprises, not only Greece, but likewise Persia and Egypt. + +19. First period of the war until the fifty years' peace. Beginning of +the war unsuccessful to Athens during the first three years, under the +conduct of Pericles, in whose defensive plan we may perhaps discern the +infirmities of age. The Athenians, however, suffered less from the +annual inroads of the Spartans than from the plague, to which Pericles +himself at last fell a victim. The alliance of the Athenians with the +kings of Thrace and Macedonia extended the theatre of war; on the other +hand, Sparta had already conceived the idea of an alliance with Persia. + +20. The death of Pericles was, for the next seven years, during which +the place of that great man was supplied by Cleon a currier, followed by +all the evils of an uncurbed democracy. The atrocious decrees with +respect to Mitylene, which after seceding, had been recaptured, and the +insurrection of the Corcyræan populace against the rich, characterized +the party spirit then dominant in Greece better than the few +insignificant events of a war conducted without any plan. Sparta, +however, found in young Brasidas a general, such as are wont to arise in +revolutionary times. His prosecution of the war on the Macedonian coast +might have brought great danger to Athens, had he so early not fallen a +victim to his own gallantry. + + Capture of Amphipolis by Brasidas, and exile of Thucydides, 424. + Engagement near Amphipolis between Brasidas and Cleon; and death + of those two generals, 422. + +21. The peace now concluded for fifty years could not be of long +duration, as many of the confederates on either side were discontented +with its terms. All hope of tranquillity must have been at an end when +the management of Athenian affairs fell into the hands of a youth like +Alcibiades, in whom vanity and artifice held the place of patriotism and +talent, and who thought war the only field in which he could gain +credit. Against him what availed the prudence of Nicias?--Happy was it +for Athens that during the whole of this period Sparta never produced +one man who could match even with Alcibiades! + + Attempt of some states, Corinth especially, to set Argos at the + head of a new confederacy; this measure Athens likewise favours, + 421.--Violation of the peace, 419; the war indirect until 415, and + limited to assisting the confederates on either side.--Alcibiades's + plan of giving Athens the preponderance in Peloponnesus, by an + alliance with Argos, is defeated by the battle of Mantinea, + 417.--Exterminating war of the Athenians waged against the Melians, + who wish to preserve their neutrality, whereas neutrality in the + weaker party now becomes a crime, 416. + +22. Alcibiades's party brings forward at Athens the project of +conquering Sicily, under the pretence of succouring the Segestani +against the Syracusans. This rash expedition, in which the hopes both of +the Athenians and of its instigator Alcibiades were blighted, gave to +Athens the first great blow, from which she never after, even with the +utmost exertion of her strength, recovered; especially as Sparta also +was now become a naval power. + + Early interference of the Athenians with the concerns of the + Sicilian Greeks.--A fleet and army under the command of Nicias, + Lamachus, and Alcibiades, sent against Sicily, 415.--Accusation, + recall, and flight of Alcibiades to Sparta: formal rupture of the + peace by an inroad of the Spartans into Attica, where they fortify + Decelea, 414. Unsuccessful siege of Syracuse, 414; and total + annihilation of the Athenian fleet and army by the assistance of + the Spartans under Gylippus, 413. + +23. Fatal as in the present circumstances the blow struck in Sicily must +appear to have been to Athens, yet the calamity was surmounted by +Athenian enthusiasm, never greater than in times of misfortune. They +maintained their supremacy over the confederates; but the part which +Alcibiades, in consequence of the new posture his own personal interest +had assumed at Sparta, took in their affairs, brought about a twofold +domestic revolution, which checked the licentious democracy. + + Alliance of the Spartans with the Persians, and indecisive + engagement off Miletus--Flight of Alcibiades from Sparta to + Tissaphernes; his negotiations to gain the satrap over to the + interests of Athens, 411.--Equivocal policy of + Tissaphernes.--Negotiations of Alcibiades with the chiefs of the + Athenian army at Samos, and the consequent revolution at Athens, + and overthrow of the democracy by the appointment of the supreme + council of four hundred in place of the [Greek: boulê], and of a + committee of five thousand citizens in place of the popular + assembly, 411.--The army assumes the right of debate; names + Alcibiades to be its leader; but declares again for + democracy.--Great commotions at Athens in consequence of the + discomfiture of the fleet at Eretria, and the secession of Euboea. + Deposition of the college of four hundred, after a despotic rule + of four months;--Reformation of the government;--Transfer of the + highest power to the hands of the five thousand;--Recall of + Alcibiades, and reconciliation with the army. + +24. Brilliant period of Alcibiades's command. The reiterated naval +victories won by the Athenians over the Spartans under Mindarus, who, +mistrusting Tissaphernes, now forms an alliance with Pharnabazus, satrap +of the north of Asia Minor, oblige the Spartans to propose peace, which +haughty Athens, unluckily for herself, rejects. + + Two naval engagements on the Hellespont, 411.--Great victory by + sea and land won near Cyzicus, 410.--Confirmation of the Athenian + dominion over Ionia and Thrace by the capture of Byzantium, 480. + Alcibiades returns covered with glory; but in the same year is + deposed, and submits to a voluntary exile, 407. + +25. Arrival of the younger Cyrus in Asia Minor; the shrewdness of +Lysander wins him over to the Spartan interest. The republican +haughtiness of Lysander's successor, Callicratidas, shown to Cyrus, was +a serious error in policy; for, unassisted by Persian money, Sparta was +not in a condition to pay her mariners, nor consequently to support her +naval establishment. After the defeat and death of Callicratidas, the +command is restored to Lysander, who terminates the twenty seven years' +war triumphantly for Sparta. + + Naval victory of Lysander over the Athenians at Notium, 407; in + consequence of which Alcibiades is deprived of the + command.--Appointment of ten new leaders at Athens; Conon among + the number.--Naval victory of Callicratidas at Mitylene; Conon is + shut up in the harbour of that place, 406.--Great naval victory of + the Athenians; defeat and death of Callicratidas at the Æginussæ + islands, near Lesbos, 406.--Unjust condemnation of the Athenian + generals.--Second command of Lysander, and last _decisive_ victory + by sea over the Athenians at Ægospotamos on the Hellespont, Dec. + 406.--The loss of the sovereignty of the sea is accompanied by the + defection of the confederates, who are successively subjected by + Lysander, 406.--Athens is besieged by Lysander in the same year, + 405; the city surrenders in May, 404.--Athens is deprived of her + walls; her navy is reduced to twelve sail; and, in obedience to + Lysander's commands, the constitution is commuted into an + oligarchy, under thirty rulers, (tyrants.) + +26. Thus ended a war destructive in its moral, still more than in its +political, consequences. Party spirit had usurped the place of patriotic +feeling; as national prejudice had that of national energy. Athens being +subdued, Sparta stood at the head of confederate Greece; but Greece very +soon experienced the yoke of her deliverers to be infinitely more +galling than that of the people hitherto called her oppressors. What +evils must not have ensued from the revolutions Lysander now found it +necessary to effect in most of the Grecian states, in order to place the +helm of government in the hands of his own party under the +superintendence of a Spartan harmost?--How oppressive must not have been +the military rule of the numerous Spartan garrisons?--Nor could any +alleviation of tribute be hoped for, now that in Sparta it was +acknowledged that the "state must possess an exchequer."--The arrogance +and rapacity of the new masters were rendered more grievous by their +being more uncivilized and destitute. + + History of the reign of terror at Athens under the thirty tyrants, + 403.--What happened here must likewise have happened more or less + in the other Grecian cities, which Lysander found it necessary to + revolutionize. In all quarters his party consisted of men similar + to Critias and his colleagues, who appear to have been long before + united in clubs ([Greek: hetaireiai]) intimately connected with + each other; from which were now taken the most daring + revolutionists, in order to place them everywhere at the head of + affairs. + +27. Happy revolution in Athens, and expulsion of the thirty tyrants +by Thrasybulus, favoured by the party at Sparta opposed to Lysander, +and headed by king Pausanias. Restoration and reform of Solon's +constitution; general amnesty. It was easy to reestablish forms;--to +recall the departed spirit of the nation was impossible! + + ED. PH. HINRICHS, _De Theramenis, Critiæ et Thrasybuli, virorum + tempore belli Peloponnesiaci inter Græcos illustrium, rebus et + ingenio, Commentatio_, Hamburgi, 1820. An inquiry which exhibits + much research and impartiality. + +28. The defeat of the younger Cyrus entangles the Spartans in a war with +the Persians, the same year that, after the death of king Agis, +Agesilaus takes possession of the regal dignity. We willingly forget his +usurpation as we follow him in his heroic career. None but a man of +genius could have instructed Sparta how to support for so long a time +the extravagant character which she had now undertaken to play. + + Opening of the war with Persia by Tissaphernes's attack on the + Æolian cities of Asia Minor, 400.--Command of Thimbron, who, 398, + is succeeded by the more successful and fortunate + Dercyllidas.--Availing himself of the jealousy between + Tissaphernes and Artabazus, he persuades the latter to a separate + truce, 397.--Command of Agesilaus; his expedition into Asia, from + the spring of 396 until 394. The conviction which he obtained of + the domestic weakness of the Persian empire in the successful + invasion of Phrygia, 395, seems to have matured in the mind of + Agesilaus the idea of overturning the Persian throne: this design + he would have accomplished had not the Persians been politic + enough to kindle a war against Sparta in Greece itself. + +29. The Corinthian war, waged against Sparta by Corinth, Thebes, and +Argos, to which Athens and the Thessalians unite, terminated by the +peace of Antalcidas. The tyranny of Sparta, and more particularly the +recent devastation of Elis, a sacred territory, were the alleged +pretexts; but the bribes of Timocrates, the Persian envoy, were the real +causes of this war. + + Irruption of the Spartans into Boeotia; they engage and are routed + at Haliartus, 394. Lysander falls on the field of battle; and + Agesilaus is recalled out of Asia.--His victory at Coronea ensures + to the Spartans the preponderance by land; but the discomfiture of + their navy near Cnidus at the same time, gives to their enemies + the sovereignty of the sea: Conon, who commanded the combined + Persian and Athenian fleets, avails himself, with consummate + skill, of this success to reestablish the independence of Athens, + 393.--Sparta endeavours by apparently great sacrifices to bring + over the Persians to her interests: the peace at last concluded by + the efforts of the skilful Antalcidas, (see above, book ii, parag. + 42), was readily agreed to by the Spartans, as they gave up only + what otherwise they could not have retained. The preponderance of + Sparta on the continent of Greece was established by the article + which invested them with the power of seeing the conditions of the + treaty fulfilled: the stipulated freedom of the Grecian cities was + but an apparent disadvantage; and now that the Asiatic colonies + were given up, the contest for power in Greece itself must be + decided by land, and not by sea. + +30. The quarrels which, after the peace of Antalcidas, Sparta began to +have with Mantinea and Phlius, and still more so her participation in +those between the Macedo-Greek cities and the over-powerful Olynthus, +prove too plainly the arrogance with which Sparta behaved to the weaker +states. But the arbitrary appropriation of the citadel of Thebes by +Phoebidas,--an act not indeed commanded, yet approved by Sparta,--was +attended with more serious consequences than were at first expected. +Would that all authors of similar breaches of good faith and the law of +nations were visited with the same vengeance! + +31. Period of the rivalry of Sparta and Thebes, Thebes, from the year +378. The greatness of Thebes was the work of two men, who knew how to +inspire their fellow-citizens and confederates with their own heroic +spirit: with them Thebes rose, with them she fell. Rarely does history +exhibit such a _duumvirate_ as that of Epaminondas and Pelopidas. How +high must our estimation of Pythagoras be, even had his philosophy +formed but one such man as Epaminondas! + + Liberation of Thebes from Spartan rule by the successful attempt + of Pelopidas and his fellow-conspirators, 378. Vain attempts + against Thebes, by the Spartans under Cleombrotus, 378, and + Agesilaus, 377 and 376. The defensive war conducted by Pelopidas, + during which he established the Theban supremacy in Boeotia, and + brought over the Athenians, (whose fleet, 376, beat that of the + Spartans,) deserves our admiration more than the winning of a + battle.--The vast plans of Thebes were not unfolded, however, till + Epaminondas was at the head of affairs. + + SERAN DE LA TOUR, _Histoire d'Epaminondas_. Paris, 1752. + + # MEISSNER, _Life of Epaminondas_. Prague, 1801, 2 parts. In which + the authorities are duly considered. + + # J. G. SCHEIBEL, _Essays towards a better understanding of the + Ancient World_, 1809. The second part contains an essay upon the + history of Thebes, as the first does on that of Corinth. + +32. A general peace is concluded in Greece through the mediation of the +Persians, (who wish to obtain auxiliaries against the Egyptians,) under +the condition that all the Grecian cities shall be free: it is acceded +to by Sparta and Athens, but rejected by Thebes, because she cannot +admit the condition without again falling under the Spartan yoke. In +fact, the lofty language used by Epaminondas, as envoy to Sparta, shows +that it was problematic whether Sparta or Thebes should now be at the +head of Greece. Could the idea, therefore, of a perfect equality between +the states of Greece be other than chimerical? + +33. The long struggle maintained so gloriously by Epaminondas against +Sparta is remarkable both in a political and military point of view. The +power of Sparta was abased; Epaminondas invented a new system of +tactics, (out of which soon after sprang the Macedonian art of war;) and +as soon as he found confederates in Peloponnesus itself, he made his way +to the very gates of Sparta. + + Victory won by the Thebans at Leuctra, July 8, 371, and + annihilation of what hitherto had been called the supremacy of + Sparta.--First irruption into Peloponnesus preceded by alliances + with Arcadia, Elis, and Argos.--The attack upon Sparta itself is + unsuccessful; but the freedom of Messene is restored, 369. + +34. Sparta in distress forms an alliance with Athens, under the +stipulation that the command shall alternately be in the hands of the +two confederates; conditions, no doubt, humiliating to Spartan pride! It +however affords them the means of frustrating Epaminondas's new attempt +on Corinth and the Peloponnesus. Even Dionysius I. of Syracuse, thinks +himself bound to assist the Spartans as being Dorians. + +35. Thebes played a no less brilliant part in the north than she did in +the south. And had the attempts to liberate Thessaly from the rule of +the tyrant, Alexander of Pheræ, been attended with success, Thebes would +have received a vast increase of power. Even in Macedonia she acted as +arbitress. + + First and successful expedition of Pelopidas into Thessaly, + 368.--After the decision of the disputed succession to the + Macedonian throne, young Philip is brought as hostage to Thebes, + and educated in the house of Epaminondas.--Pelopidas is sent as + ambassador, and taken prisoner by Alexander; hence the second + expedition of the Thebans, in which Epaminondas rescues the army + and delivers his friend, 367. + +36. Alliance of Thebes with Persia successfully brought about by +Pelopidas. In the intrigues of the opponents at the Persian court, the +object of each was to bring that court over to his own interest. Yet the +domineering tone in which the Persians wished to dictate peace, had not +the consequences that might have been expected; and although Sparta +consented to her confederates remaining neutral, she would not forego +her claims on Messene. The establishment of a navy would have been of +more important consequences to Thebes than this alliance, had not all +these plans, together with the greatness of Thebes, been swept away by +the premature death of her two leading men. + + Last expedition of Pelopidas against Alexander of Pheræ, in which + he himself falls, 364.--New irruption into Peloponnesus caused by + the commotions in Arcadia.--Battle of Mantinea, and death of + Epaminondas, June 27, 362.--General peace in Greece mediated by + the Persians; Sparta does not assent to it on account of Messene, + but sends Agesilaus to Egypt, there to support the insurrection of + Tachos. + +37. The result of this bloody struggle for the supremacy of Greece was, +that neither Sparta nor Thebes obtained it; the former of these states +being weakened by the loss of Messene, the latter by the loss of its +leaders, and both strained by their violent exertions. The situation of +Greece after this war seems to have been thus far changed, that no state +had the predominance; an independence proceeding from enervation. Even +Athens, who by means of her naval power still preserved her influence +over the cities on the coast and in the islands, lost the greater part +in the war of the allies, together with three of her most celebrated +leaders, Chabrias, Timotheus, and Iphicrates, whose places were ill +supplied by Chares. + + Confederacy of the islands Cos, Rhodes, and Chios, and the city of + Byzantium; their secession from Athens, 358.--Unsuccessful siege + of Chios, before which Chabrias falls, 358; of Byzantium, 357. + Athens suffers a still greater injury from the cabals of Chares + against his colleagues Timotheus and Iphicrates, and from her + imprudent participation in the insurrection of Artabazus, 356. The + threats of Artaxerxes III. force Athens to make a peace, in which + she is obliged to acknowledge the freedom of her confederates. + +38. At the very time when the growing power of Macedonia under Philip +ought to have united all the Grecian states, had such an union been +within the range of possibility, Greece plunged into another civil war +of ten years' duration, which is known by the name of the sacred or +Phocian war. The Amphictyonic assembly, whose duty it was to maintain +peace, and whose influence had been in the present circumstances +reinstated, abused its authority by kindling discord. The hatred of the +Thebans, who sought for new opportunities of quarrel with Sparta, and +the ambition of the Phocian Philomelus, were the real causes which led +to the war, which the policy of Philip knew how to prolong till the +precise moment favourable to his own particular views arrived. The +treasures of Delphi circulating in Greece, were as injurious to the +country as the ravages which it underwent. A war springing out of +private passions, fostered by bribes and subsidiary troops, and +terminated by the interference of foreign powers, was exactly what was +requisite for annihilating the scanty remains of morality and patriotism +still existing in Greece. + + Sentence of the Amphictyons against Sparta on account of the + former surprise of the citadel of Thebes by Phoebidas; and against + Phocis on account of the tillage of the sacred lands of Delphi, + 357.--Philomelus is elected general of the Phocians; the rifling + of the treasury of Delphi enables him to take into his pay + Athenian and other auxiliaries, and to carry war against the + Thebans and their confederates, the Locrians, etc. under pretence + of their being the executors of the Amphictyonic decrees. + Philomelus having fallen, 353, is succeeded by his brother + Onomarchus, more skilful than himself in intrigue and war: but + Onomarchus having fallen, 352, in the battle with Philip in + Thessaly, is followed by Phayllus. Philip even thus early + endeavours to push through Thermopylæ into Greece, but is repelled + by the Athenians. He executes this plan after his peace with + Athens, 347, and having procured the expulsion of the Phocians + from the Amphictyonic council, gets their place and right of vote + to be transferred to himself. + +39. From the very first advance of Philip, the fate of Greece could +scarcely afford matter for doubt; although the eloquence of Demosthenes +warded it off until the second invasion, caused by the Amphictyonic +sentence passed on the Locrians. (See below, book iv. parag. 15.) The +battle of Chæronea laid the foundation of Macedonia's complete +ascendancy over the Grecian republics: by the appointment of Philip to +be generalissimo of Greece in the Persian war, that ascendancy was, as +it were, formally acknowledged; nor did it end with the assassination of +that prince. + + + * * * * * + + + + +FOURTH BOOK. + +HISTORY OF THE MACEDONIAN MONARCHY. + + + + +FIRST PERIOD. + +_From its origin to the death of Alexander the Great. B. C. 800-323._ + + + Sources. We have no historian who wrote, particularly, on + Macedonia, before the time of Alexander. The facts relative to the + earlier history previous to Philip are collected from Diodorus, + Justin, Thucydides, and Arrian; from Diodorus more especially. In + consequence of the loss of the other historians, Diodorus is the + chief authority for the history of Philip; the speeches of + Demosthenes and Æschines must likewise be consulted, but not made + use of without caution and judicious historical criticism. With + respect to Alexander the Great, as so many writers on his reign + have been destroyed by time, Arrian must now be considered as the + chief authority, on account of the care he has shown in the + selection of his authorities, conjointly with the seventeenth book + of Diodorus. Plutarch's biography contains several valuable + additional facts; and even the superficial Curtius might furnish us + with abundance of information, did his accounts offer higher claims + to our credit. + +1. An Hellenic colony from Argos, headed by the Temenidæ, a branch of +the Heraclidæ, settled in Emathia, and laid the feeble foundation of the +Macedonian empire, which was in time to rise to such power. Not only did +the settlers keep their footing in the country, in spite of the +aboriginal inhabitants; but their princes gradually extended their +territory, by subjecting or expelling several of the neighbouring +tribes. Their earlier history, not excepting even the names of their +kings, is buried in obscurity till the time of the Persian invasions. + + The three first Macedonian kings, Caranus said to have ruled + twenty-eight years, Coenus twenty-three, Tyrmas forty-five, were + unknown to Herodotus, who names as founder of the Macedonian + monarchy, Perdiccas, 729-678. Of this prince and his successors + Argæus, _d._ 640, Philip I. _d._ 602, Æropus, _d._ 576, and + Alcetas, _d._ 547, nothing more is known than that they waged war, + with various success against the neighbouring Pierians and + Illyrians, who had their own kings. + +2. When the Persians commenced their incursions into Europe, Macedonia, +by its situation, must have been one of the first countries they +ravaged. Accordingly, as early as the reign of Darius Hystaspis, the +Macedonian kings were tributary to the Persians; and were indebted for +their deliverance from that yoke, not to their own valour, but to the +victories of the Greeks. The battle of Platææ restored independence to +the Macedonian kingdom, although that independence was not formally +acknowledged by the Persians. + + Immediately after the Scythian campaign, 513, Amyntas (_d._ 498,) + became tributary to the Persians; his son and successor, Alexander, + (_d._ 454,) was in the same state of subjection, and was even + compelled to join the expedition of Xerxes. + +3. But the expulsion of the Persians still left Macedonia exposed to the +attacks of other formidable neighbours; on one side there was the +Thracians, among whom, under Sitalces, and his successor, Seuthes, arose +the powerful kingdom of the Odrysæ; on the other, the Athenians, who, +availing themselves of their extensive navy, reduced to subjection the +Grecian settlements on the Macedonian shores. Harassing as these +neighbours were to the Macedonian kings, they proved to be the very +instruments by which Macedonia became so early and so deeply involved in +the affairs of Greece. + + Commencement of the differences with Athens, under the reign of + Perdiccas II, 454-413; Athens having supported his brother Philip + against him.--Defection of Potidæa, and fortification of Olynthus, + into which the Greeks from Chalcis and other cities are + transplanted, 432. Potidæa being forced to surrender to Athens, + 431, Perdiccas contrives to play so skilful a part in the + Peloponnesian war just now commencing, that he outwits the + Athenians, parrying the attack of Sitalces by a marriage of his + sister with Seuthes, the heir to that prince, 429. His alliance + with Sparta, 424, is very detrimental to the Athenians, Brasidas + wresting Amphipolis from their hands; nevertheless Perdiccas + chooses rather to conclude a peace with Athens, 423, than to throw + himself entirely into the arms of his new allies. + +4. Archelaus, the successor of Perdiccas, introduced agriculture and +civilization among the Macedonians, who were never, however, recognized +by the Hellenes as their legitimate brethren: highways and military +roads were constructed; forts were erected; and the court became the +seat of literature. In these days the Macedonian kingdom seems to have +comprised Emathia, Mygdonia, and Pelagonia, to which may be added some +of the neighbouring tribes, who, although governed by their own kings, +were tributary. The power of the kings was insignificant when unaided by +the nobles, among whom, as was the case with all the hereditary princes +of Greece, they merely held the right of precedence. How difficult was +it, even in Alexander's time, to erase from the minds of the Macedonian +nobility the recollection of their former importance! + +5. The murder of Archelaus was followed by a stormy period, wrapped in +obscurity: the unsettled state of the succession raised up many +pretenders to the throne, each of whom easily found the means of +supporting his claims, either in some of the neighbouring tribes, or in +one of the Grecian republics. + + Æropus, as guardian to the young king Orestes, usurps the supreme + power, B. C. 400-394. After his death, and the murder of his son + Pausanias, 393, the throne was seized by Amyntas II. son of + Philip, and brother to Perdiccas II. who was nevertheless unable + to maintain his power until he had gained a victory over Argæus, + the brother of Pausanias, who was backed by the Illyrians, + 390-369. The war with Olynthus, 383-380, could not be brought to a + successful conclusion until he had formed an alliance with Sparta. + +6. The three sons of Amyntas II, Alexander, Perdiccas, and Philip, +successively ascended the throne after the death of their father; but so +violent were the commotions during the reigns of the two former, that +the future existence of Macedonia as a kingdom might have been regarded +as problematical: it is certain that they were obliged to submit to the +payment of tribute to the Illyrians. + + Alexander, in opposition to his rival, Ptolemy of Alorus, placed + on the throne by Pelopidas, sends his youngest brother Philip as + hostage to Thebes: in the same year he is deposed by Ptolemy, 368. + Reign of Ptolemy, 388-365, with the stipulation imposed, 367, by + Pelopidas, that he shall only hold the sceptre in reserve for the + two younger brothers. Murder of Ptolemy, 365, by Perdiccas III. + who is nearly overwhelmed by Pausanias, another and earlier + pretender to the crown; he is at last firmly seated on the throne + by the Athenians, under Iphicrates, 364. But as early as 360 he + falls in the war against the Illyrians, leaving behind him a son, + Amyntas, still a minor, and a younger brother Philip, who escapes + from Thebes in order to gain possession of the throne. + +7. The reign of Philip, which lasted twenty-four years, is one of the +most instructive and interesting in the whole range of history, as well +on account of the prudence he displayed, as for the manner in which his +plans were arranged and executed. Though it may be difficult to trace in +his morals the pupil of Epaminondas, yet it is impossible to view +without feelings of astonishment the brilliant career of a man, who, +under the almost hopeless circumstances in which he commenced his +course, never lost his firmness of mind, and who in the highest +prosperity preserved his coolness of reflection. + + The history of Philip, even in his own days, was distorted to his + disadvantage by orators and historians. Demosthenes could not, + Theopompus would not, be impartial; and the information contained + in Diodorus and Justin is mostly derived from the work of the + latter. + + OLIVIER, _Histoire de Philippe, roi de Macédoine_. Paris, 1740, 2 + vols. 8vo. A defence of Philip. + + DE BURY, _Histoire de Philippe, et d'Alexandre le grand_. Paris, + 1760, 4to. A very mean performance. + + TH. LELAND, _The History of the Life and Reign of Philip king of + Macedon_. London, 1761, 4to. Dry, but exhibiting much reading and + strict impartiality. + + In MITFORD, _History of Greece_, vol. iv, Philip has found his + most zealous panegyrist and defender. It would seem that, even in + the present day, it is impossible to write an impartial history of + this monarch. + +8. Melancholy posture of the Macedonian affairs at the beginning of +Philip's reign. Besides victorious foes abroad, there were at home two +pretenders to the throne, Argæus, backed by Athens, Pausanias, supported +by Thrace; and Philip himself, at first, was merely regent, and not +king. In the two first years, however, every thing was changed, and +Macedonia recovered her independence. The newly-created phalanx ensured +victory over the barbarians; recourse was had to other means than force +for success against the suspiciousness of Athens and the neighbouring +Greek settlements, particularly against the powerful Olynthus. It is in +the conduct of these affairs that the peculiar sagacity of Philip is +displayed. + + After the defeat of Argæus, peace is purchased from Athens by a + momentary recognition of the freedom of Amphipolis, 360.--Removal + of Pausanias by means of an accommodation with Thrace.--By the + conquest of the Pæonians and Illyrians, 359, the boundaries of + Macedonia are extended to Thrace, and westward to the lake + Lychnitis.--As early as 360 Philip was proclaimed king. + +9. Development of Philip's further plans of aggrandizement.--By the +gradual subjection of the Macedo-Greek cities, he proposed, not only to +make himself sole master in Macedonia, but also to remove the Athenians +from his domain.--The first object of his policy against Greece was to +get himself acknowledged as a Hellen, and Macedonia as a member of the +Hellenic league. Hence the subsequent tutelage in which Macedonia held +Greece was not converted into a formal subjection, a proceeding which +would have savoured too much of barbarian origin.--The execution of all +these plans was facilitated by the possession of the Thracian gold +mines, which enabled Philip to create finances as well as the phalanx. + + Capture of Amphipolis, 358; in the mean while Athens is amused + with promises, and Olynthus with the momentary cession of Potidæa, + which had likewise been captured: this event is followed by the + conquest of the mountainous districts, abounding in gold, which + extend from the Nestus to the Strymon, and furnished an annual + income of nearly 1,000 talents. + +10. The interference of Philip in the affairs of Thessaly dates from the +year 357; the possession of that country was an object equally important +for the furtherance of his views upon Greece, as for the improvement of +his finances. He first stepped forth as the deliverer of Thessaly, and +ended in making it a province of Macedonia. + + Expulsion of the tyrants from Pheræ, at the request of the + Aleuadæ, 356; the tyrants, however, receive support in the sacred + war from the Phocians under Onomarchus. The final defeat of + Onomarchus, 352, makes Philip master of Thessaly; he places + Macedonian garrisons in the three chief places, and thus supports + his authority in the country until he is pleased to make it + entirely a Macedonian province, 344. + +11. The protraction of the sacred war in Greece furnished Philip with an +excellent opportunity of promoting his views upon that country; although +his first attempt at an irruption, too precipitately undertaken, was +frustrated by the Athenians. The capture of Olynthus, notwithstanding +the assistance afforded it by the Athenians, after a season of apparent +inaction, insured the safety of the frontiers in his rear; and by a +master stroke of policy, almost at the very moment in which he was +driving the Athenians out of Euboea, he found means to enter with them +into negotiations, which, after repeated embassies, were closed by a +peace, opening to him the way through Thermopylæ, and enabling him to +raise a party favourable to himself within the very walls of Athens. + +12. First descent of Philip into Greece, and termination of the sacred +war by reducing the Phocians. The place which he now obtained in the +Amphictyonic council, had been the height of his wishes; and the +humility of Sparta proved how firmly his ascendancy over Greece was +already established. + +13. Brief view of the state of Greece, and more particularly of Athens, +after the sacred war; description of the means by which Philip succeeded +in creating and supporting parties favourable to his own interests in +the Grecian states. Bribery was not his only instrument; what he gave he +borrowed from others; the main feature of his policy was, that he seldom +or ever recurred to the same means. Scheming and consistent even in his +drunken revels, he hardly ever appears under the same form. + + Dreadful consequences to the morals of the Greeks, resulting from + the spirit of party, the decline of religion, and the vast + increase in the circulating medium, produced by the treasures of + Delphi and Macedonia.--Estimate of the power of Athens during the + period of Demosthenes and Phocion. It seems that, unfortunately, + the eloquence and political acuteness of the former was not + accompanied with sufficient talents for negotiation; the latter, + perhaps, did not place confidence enough in his country, while + Demosthenes placed too much. In spite of public indolence and + effeminacy, Athens was still enabled to support her rank as a + maritime power, the navy of Philip not being equal to hers. + + # A. G. BECKER, _Demosthenes as a Statesman and an Orator_. An + historico-critical introduction to his works: 1815. A very useful + work, both as a history and as an introduction to the political + orations of Demosthenes. + +14. New conquests of Philip in Illyria and Thrace. The Adriatic sea and +the Danube appear to have been the boundaries of his empire on this +side. But the views of the Macedonian king were directed less against +the Thracians, than against the Grecian settlements on the Hellespont; +and the attack of the Athenian Diopithes furnished him a pretext for +making war against them. The siege, however, of Perinthus and Byzantium, +was frustrated by Phocion, to the great vexation of Philip; an event +which aroused the Athenians, and even the Persians, from their lethargy. + +15. Policy of Philip after this check.--At the very time that, engaged +in a war against the barbarians on the Danube, he appears to have wholly +lost sight of the affairs of Greece, his agents redouble their activity. +Æschines, richly paid for his services, proposes in the Amphictyonic +council, that, to punish the sacrilegious insults of the Locrians to the +Delphian oracle, he should be elected leader of the Greeks in this new +sacred war. Following his usual maxim, Philip suffers himself to be +entreated. + +16. Second expedition of Philip into Greece. His appropriation of the +important frontier town of Elatea soon showed that, for this time at +least, he was not contending merely for the honour of Apollo.--Alliance +between Athens and Thebes brought about by Demosthenes.--But the defeat +of Chæronea in the same year decided the dependence of Greece. Philip +now found it easy to play the magnanimous character towards Athens. + +17. Preparations for the execution of his plan against Persia, not as +his own undertaking, but as a national war of the Hellenes against the +barbarians. Thus, while Philip, by obtaining from the Amphictyons the +appointment of generalissimo of Greece against the Persians, secured in +an _honourable_ manner the dependence of the country, the splendour of +the expedition flattered the nation at whose expense it was to be +conducted. It is a question, indeed, whether Philip's own private views +extended much further! + +18. The internal government of Macedonia, under so skilful and +successful a conqueror, must necessarily have been absolute. No +pretender would dare to rise up against such a ruler, and the body guard +([Greek: doryphoroi]) established by him at the beginning of his reign, +and taken from the Macedonian nobility, contributed much to keep up a +proper understanding between the prince and the nobles. The court became +a military staff, while the people, from a nation of herdsmen, was +converted into a nation of warriors.--Philip was unfortunate only in his +own family; but the blame is not to be attributed to him if he could not +agree with Olympias. + +19. Philip murdered by Pausanias at Ægæ, probably at the instigation of +the Persians, while celebrating the marriage of his daughter. + +20. The reign of ALEXANDER the GREAT, in the eyes of the historical +inquirer, derives its great interest, not only from the extent, but from +the permanence, of the revolution which he effected in the world. To +appreciate properly the character of this prince, who died just as he +was about to carry his mighty projects into execution, is no easy task; +but it is totally repugnant to common sense to suppose that the pupil of +Aristotle was nothing more than a wild and reckless conqueror, unguided +by any plan. + + ST. CROIX, _Examen critique des anciens historiens + d'Alexandre-le-grand_, 2nd. edition, _considérablement augmentée_. + Paris, 1804, 4to. The new edition of this, which is the principal + work on the history of Alexander, and important in more respects + than one, contains more than the title implies, though by no means + a strictly impartial estimate of that prince's character. + +21. Violent commotions at court, in the conquered countries, and in +Greece, after the death of Philip. Great as his power appeared to be, +the preservation of it depended entirely on the first display of +character in his successor. Alexander showed himself worthy to inherit +the sceptre by his victorious expedition against the Thracians; (to +whom, and more especially to his alliance with the Agrians, he was +afterwards indebted for his light horse;) and by the example which he +exhibited to Greece in his treatment of Thebes. + +22. Appointment of Alexander in the assembly at Corinth to be +generalissimo of the Greeks. Yet what his father would probably have +turned to a very different account, he allowed to remain a mere nominal +office.--Development of his plan of attack upon Persia.--The want of a +navy, soon experienced by Alexander, would probably have frustrated his +whole project, had not Memnon's counterplan of an inroad into Macedonia +been thwarted by the celerity of the Macedonian king. + +23. Passage over the Hellespont, and commencement of the war. The +tranquillity of his kingdom and of Greece appeared to be secured, +Antipater being left at the head of affairs.--The victory on the +Granicus opens to Alexander a path into Asia Minor; but the death of +Memnon, which soon after followed, was perhaps a greater advantage than +a victory. + +24. The victory of Issus, gained over Darius in person, appears to have +given Alexander the first idea of completely overturning the Persian +throne, as was proved by the rejection of Darius's offers of peace. When +indeed have not the plans of conquerors been dependent on the course of +events? Yet Alexander must have been pretty certain of his future +victory, since he permitted Darius to escape, while he sat down seven +months before Tyre, in order to make himself master of the sea; and, +after the conquest of Egypt without a battle, to which the possession of +Tyre opened the way, to build Alexandria, and erect to himself a +monument more lasting than all his victories. + + Although Alexandria perhaps in the end may have surpassed the + expectations of the founder, yet the selection of the site, + favourable only for navigation and commerce, shows that an eye was + originally had to those objects. + +25. Invasion of Inner Asia, facilitated by the tacit submission of the +ruling tribes, and by the state of cultivation in which the country was +found. On the plains of Arbela the Macedonian tactics were completely +triumphant. It might now be said that the throne of Persia was +overturned; and the unexpectedly easy capture of Babylon, Susa, and +Persepolis, was surely of more importance for the moment than the +pursuit of a flying king. + + Insurrection of the Greeks quelled by Antipater; Alexander himself + falls in with the malcontent envoys to Darius in the interior of + Asia. + +26. The subjection of the north-eastern provinces of the Persian empire +would perhaps have been attended with the greatest difficulties, had +not the astonishing activity of the conqueror crushed in their birth +the schemes of the treacherous Bessus, who, after the assassination of +Darius, wished to erect a separate kingdom in Bactria. The Jaxartes was +now the northern boundary of the Macedonian monarchy, as it had hitherto +been that of the Persian. Besides, the possession of the rich trading +countries, Bactria and Sogdiana, was in itself an object of vast +importance. + + During this expedition, the execution of Philotas and his father + Parmenio took place, though both were, probably, guiltless of the + conspiracy laid to their charge, 330. After the death of Darius, + Alexander met with almost constant opposition in his own army: the + majority of the troops fancying that that event precluded the + necessity of any further exertions. Cautious as Alexander was in + his treatment of the Macedonian nobles, we may discern, not + however by the mere example of Clitus, how difficult they found it + to banish from their memory the relations in which they had + formerly stood to their kings. + +27. Alexander's expedition against India had, no doubt, its origin in +that propensity to romantic enterprise which constituted a main feature +in his character. Yet what could be more natural than that a close view +of Persian splendour, the conquest of such wealthy countries, and the +desire of prosecuting his vast commercial designs, should gradually +mature in the mind of the Macedonian king the plan of subjecting a +country which was represented as the golden land of Asia. To this +likewise the scantiness of geographic information must have greatly +contributed; if he pressed forward to the eastern seas, the circle of +his dominion would, it was supposed, be complete.--It appears very +certain that Alexander was destitute of a sufficient knowledge of the +country when he entered upon this expedition. + + Alexander's invasion was directed against Northern India, or the + Panjab; in those days a populous and highly cultivated country; + now the seat of the Seiks and Mahrattas; and then, as now, + inhabited by warlike races. He crossed the Indus at Taxila + (Attock,) passed the Hydaspes (Behut or Chelum,) and, availing + himself of the quarrels between the Indian princes, defeated the + king, Porus. He then proceeded across the Acesines (Jenaub) and + Hydraotes (Rauvee). The eastern verge reached in this expedition + was the river Hyphasis (Beyah;) here, having already proceeded + half way to the Ganges, the conqueror was, by a mutiny in his + army, compelled to retreat. His return was through the country of + the Malli (Multan) as far as the Hydaspes, when the majority of + his troops took ship, and were floated along that stream into the + Acesines, and from thence into the Indus, which they followed down + to its mouth. + + RENNEL, _Memoir of a Map of Hindostan_. London, 1793, (3d. edit.) + and + + ST. CROIX, _Examen_, etc. (see p. 216.) furnish all the necessary + historical and geographical explanations relative to the Persian + and Indian campaigns of Alexander. + +28. Although Alexander was obliged to give up the project of conquering +India, yet the connection between Europe and the east, which has +continued from that time, was the work of his hands. While the +communication on land was secured by the establishment of various +settlements, the communication by sea was opened by the voyage of his +admiral, Nearchus, from the Indus to the Euphrates. In the mean time +Alexander himself proceeded to Persis and Babylon, across the desert, +and the unexplored provinces of Gedrosia and Carmania. + + Nearchus's voyage (our knowledge of which is derived from his own + journal, preserved in Arrian's _Indica_) lasted from the + beginning of October, 326, to the end of February, 325: nearly + the same time was occupied in the almost incredible land march of + the king. + + VINCENT, _The Voyage of Nearchus from the Indus to the Euphrates_. + London, 1797, 4to. Exhibiting the most learned researches, and + illustrated with excellent charts. + +29. After the abandonment of India, the whole circuit of Alexander's +conquests was precisely that of the former Persian empire; his later +projects were probably directed against Arabia alone. However easy it +had been to make these conquests, it was a more difficult task to retain +them; for Macedonia, exhausted by continual levies of men, could not +furnish efficient garrisons. Alexander removed this difficulty, by +protecting the conquered from oppression; by showing proper respect to +their religion; by leaving the civil government in the hands of the +native rulers who had hitherto possessed it; and by confiding to +Macedonians the command only of the garrisons left in the chief places, +and in the newly established colonies. To alter as little as possible in +the internal organization of countries was his fundamental principle. + +30. Simple as Alexander's plans were in the outset, their simplicity was +more than compensated by the magnitude and importance of their results. +Babylon was to be the capital of his empire, and consequently of the +world. The union of the east and the west was to be brought about by the +amalgamation of the dominant races by intermarriage, by education, and, +more than all, by the ties of commerce, the importance of which much +ruder conquerors, in Asia itself, soon learnt to appreciate. In nothing +probably is the superiority of his genius more brilliantly displayed, +than in his exemption from all national prejudice, particularly when we +consider that none of his countrymen were in this respect to be compared +with him. To refuse him this merit is impossible, whatever judgment we +may form of his general character. + +31. Sudden death of Alexander at Babylon by fever; under the peculiar +circumstances of the time, the greatest loss mankind could experience. +From the Indus to the Nile the world lay in ruins; and where was now the +architect to be found, that could gather up the scattered fragments and +restore the edifice? + + Alexander's disorder may be easily accounted for by the hardships + he had undergone, and the impure air to which he exposed himself + in cleaning out the canals about Babylon. He certainly was not + poisoned; and in the charge of immoderate drunkenness brought + against him, we must take into account the manners of the + Macedonian and Persian courts. Was it not the same with Peter the + Great? In estimating his moral character we must bear in mind the + natural vehemence of his passions, ever inclined to the most rapid + transitions; nor should we forget the unavoidable influence of + constant success upon mankind. + + + + +SECOND PERIOD. + +_History of the Macedonian monarchy, from the death of Alexander +the Great to the battle of Ipsus, B. C. 323-301._ + + + To enable the reader to take a general view, the history of the + European events is resumed below, under the head of the history + of Macedonia Proper. + + SOURCES. Diodorus, lib. xviii-xx. is the great authority for this + portion of history. He compiled mostly, for this period, from a + contemporary historian, Hieronymus of Cardia. He is followed by + Plutarch in the Lives of Eumenes, Demetrius, and Phocion; and by + Justin, lib. xiii, etc. Of Arrian's history of Alexander's + successors, nothing unfortunately remains but a few fragments in + Photius. + + # MANNERT, _History of Alexander's successors_. Nuremberg, 1787. + Composed with the usual judgment and learning of that author. + +1. The very first measure adopted after the death of Alexander contained +within itself the seeds of all the dire revolutions that afterwards +ensued. Not only were the jealousy and ambition of the nobles aroused, +but even the interference of the army was exhibited in the most terrific +manner. Although the idea of the supremacy of the royal family was cast +off only by degrees, yet the dreadfully disturbed state in which that +family stood, rendered its fall unavoidable. + + State of the royal family at the death of Alexander. He left his + wife Roxana pregnant, who at the end of three months brought into + the world the rightful heir to the sceptre, Alexander; he left + likewise an illegitimate son, Hercules; a bastard half-brother, + Arrhidæus; his mother, the haughty and cruel Olympias, and a + sister, Cleopatra, both widows; the artful Eurydice, (daughter to + Cyane, one of Philip's sisters,) subsequently married to the king, + Arrhidæus; and Thessalonica, Philip's daughter, afterwards united + to Cassander of Macedonia. + +2. The weak Arrhidæus, under the name of Philip, and the infant +Alexander were at last proclaimed kings, the _regency_ being placed in +the hands of Perdiccas, Leonnatus, and Meleager; the last of whom was +quickly cut off at the instigation of Perdiccas. Meanwhile Antipater, +with whom Craterus had been joined as civil ruler, had the management of +affairs in Europe. + +3. The sequel of the history becomes naturally that of satraps, who fell +out among themselves, all being ambitious to rule, and none willing to +obey. Twenty-two years elapsed ere any massy edifice arose out of the +ruins of the Macedonian monarchy. In few periods of history are the +revolutions of affairs so violent, in few periods, therefore, is it so +difficult to unravel the maze of events. For this purpose the most +convenient division of the history is into _three_ periods: the first +extending to the death of Perdiccas, 321: the second to the death of +Eumenes, 315: the third to the defeat and death of Antigonus at the +battle of Ipsus, 301. + +4. First grant of the provinces made by Perdiccas. The vanity of this +man seems to have induced him to select the office of regent, in order +that no separate province might fall to his share; he placed his whole +reliance on having the command of the royal army, although it had +already given so many proofs of its determination to command rather than +to obey. + + In this division Ptolemy son of Lagus received Egypt; Leonnatus, + Mysia; Antigonus, Phrygia, Lycia, and Pamphylia; Lysymachus, + Macedonian Thrace; Antipater and Craterus remained in possession + of Macedonia.--The foreigner, Eumenes, would hardly have received + Cappadocia, although yet to be conquered, had Perdiccas been able + to dispense with his services. The remaining provinces either did + not come under the new division, or else their governors are + unworthy of notice. + +5. The first acts of Perdiccas's government showed how little dependence +he could place on the obedience of men who hitherto had been his +colleagues. The general insurrection among the mercenaries who had been +settled by Alexander in Upper Asia, and now wished to return to their +homes, was, no doubt, quelled by Python's destruction of the rebels; but +it was not Python's fault that he did not make himself independent +master of the scene of mutiny. + +6. Still more refractory was the behaviour of Leonnatus and Antigonus, +when they received orders to put Eumenes in possession of his province. +Antigonus was too haughty to obey; and Leonnatus preferred going over +into Europe to marry Cleopatra; there, however, he almost immediately +met with his death in the Lamian war. (See below, book iv. period iii. +parag. 2.) Perdiccas, therefore, was himself obliged to undertake the +expedition with the royal army; he succeeded by the defeat of +Ariarathes. + +7. Ambitious views of Perdiccas, who, in order to ascend the throne by a +marriage with Cleopatra, repudiates Nicæa, the daughter of Antipater. +Cleopatra actually came over to Asia; but Perdiccas, being obliged, at +the request of the army, to marry Eurydice, Philip's niece, after the +murder of her mother Cyane, to the king Arrhidæus, found her a +troublesome rival and opponent in the government. + +8. Attempts of Perdiccas to overthrow Antigonus and Ptolemy, by accusing +them before the army. Antigonus passes over to Antipater in Macedonia; +and gives rise to the league between Antipater, Craterus, and Ptolemy, +against Perdiccas and Eumenes. + +9. Commencement and termination of the first war. Perdiccas himself +marches against Egypt, leaving his friend Eumenes to command in Asia +Minor: meanwhile Antipater and Craterus fall upon Asia; the former +advances towards Syria against Perdiccas; the latter is defeated and +slain by Eumenes. Before the arrival, however, of Antipater, Perdiccas, +after repeated and vain attempts to cross the Nile, falls a victim to +the insurrection of his own troops.--Thus three of the principal +personages, Perdiccas, Craterus, Leonnatus, were already removed from +the theatre of action; and the victorious Eumenes, now master of Asia +Minor, had to maintain, unaided, the struggle against the confederates. + +10. Second period, from the death of Perdiccas to that of +Eumenes.--Python and Arrhidæus quickly resigning the regency, it is +assumed by Antipater.--New division of the provinces at Trisparadisus in +Syria. Seleucus receives Babylon; Antigonus is promised, besides his +former possessions, all those of the outlawed Eumenes. + +11. War of Antigonus with Eumenes. The latter, defeated by treachery, +shuts himself up in the mountain fastness of Nora, there to await more +favourable times; and Antigonus remains master of all Asia Minor: in the +mean time Ptolemy ventures to take possession of Syria and Phoenicia. + +12. Death of the regent Antipater, in the same year, (320;) he bequeaths +the regency to his friend, the aged Polysperchon, to the exclusion of +his own son Cassander. Antigonus now begins to unfold his ambitious +plans; he endeavours vainly to win over Eumenes, who deceives him in the +negotiations, and seizes the opportunity of leaving his mountain +fastness. + +13. Eumenes's plan to strengthen himself in Upper Asia; as he is on the +way he receives tidings of his being appointed generalissimo of the +royal troops. What better man could Polysperchon have selected for the +office than he who in his conduct towards Antigonus exhibited so +striking an example of attachment to the royal house? + +14. Exertions of Eumenes to maintain himself in Lower Asia, ineffectual, +the naval victory won by Antigonus over the royal fleet, commanded by +Clitus, depriving him of the empire of the sea. He bursts into Upper +Asia; where, in the spring, he unites with the satraps, who had taken +arms against the powerful Seleucus of Babylon. + +15. Antigonus following up the royal general, Upper Asia becomes the +theatre of war. Victorious as was at first the stand made by Eumenes, +neither valour nor talent were of any avail against the insubordination +of the royal troops, and the jealousy of the other commanders. Attacked +in winter quarters by Antigonus, he was, after the battle, delivered +into the hands of his enemy by the mutinous Argyraspidæ, who had lost +their baggage: he was put to death, and in him the king's family lost +its only loyal supporter. + +16. Great changes had also taken place in the royal family. Her enemy +Antipater having deceased, Olympias, invited by Polysperchon, who wished +to strengthen himself against Cassander, had returned from Epirus, and +put to death Arrhidæus together with his wife, Eurydice: in the year +following she was besieged in Pydna by Cassander, and being obliged to +surrender, was in her turn executed; meanwhile Cassander held Roxana and +the young king in his own power. + +17. Third period, from the death of Eumenes to that of Antigonus.--The +rout of Eumenes seemed to have established for ever the power of +Antigonus in Asia; still animated with the fire of youth, though full of +years, he saw himself revived in his son Demetrius, fond of boisterous +revelry, but gallant and talented.--Even Seleucus thought it time to +consult his safety by flying from Babylon into Egypt. + +18. Changes introduced by Antigonus into the upper provinces; return to +Asia Minor, where his presence seemed indispensable, by reason of the +aggrandizement of Ptolemy in Syria and Phoenicia, of the Macedonian +Cassander in Europe, of Lysimachus in Mysia, and the Carian Cassander in +Asia Minor.--He repossesses himself of Phoenicia, a country of the first +importance for the construction of a fleet. + + Siege of Tyre, 314-313: it lasts fourteen months; a proof that the + city was certainly not razed by Alexander. + +19. The fugitive Seleucus forms a league against Antigonus and +Demetrius, between Ptolemy, the two Cassanders, and Lysimachus. But +Antigonus frustrates their combination, himself driving out the Carian +Cassander, and his son marching against Ptolemy. + + Victory won by Ptolemy over Demetrius at Gaza, 312; after which + Seleucus marches back to Babylon, and, although subsequently + followed up by Demetrius, permanently maintains his footing in + Upper Asia.--On the other hand, Ptolemy, at the first approach of + Antigonus with the main body, surrenders back Syria and Phoenicia, + 312. + +20. A general peace concluded between Antigonus and his enemies, +Seleucus only excepted, from whom Upper Asia is to be again wrested. The +first article, that each should retain what he had, demonstrates pretty +evidently that the treaty was dictated solely by Antigonus; the second, +that the Greek cities should be free, was pregnant with the seeds of a +new war, ready to burst forth at every favourable opportunity; the +third, that the young Alexander should be raised to the throne upon +attaining his majority, was probably the death warrant of the hapless +prince, who, that same year, together with his mother, was murdered by +Cassander.--Shortly after, at the instigation of Antigonus, Cleopatra +was put to death, in order that Ptolemy might be thwarted in his object, +which depended on a matrimonial connection with that princess. + +21. Even the execution of the articles must have given rise to +hostilities; Ptolemy wishing to force Antigonus, and he, on his side, to +compel Cassander, to withdraw the garrisons from the Grecian towns; a +condition which neither party felt inclined to fulfil. Grecian freedom +was now but a name; this, however, is not the only example history +furnishes of political ideas making the greatest stir long after they +have survived their own existence; for then they become excellent tools +in the hands of artful designers. + + Expedition of Demetrius to liberate Athens, 308. The day when he + announced freedom to the Athenians, must have been the happiest of + his life! Few portions of history present such a scope for the + contemplation of human nature as the twofold sojourn of Demetrius + at Athens. + +22. The growing power of Ptolemy on the sea, and the capture of Cyprus, +determines Antigonus to an open rupture: he commands his son to drive +Ptolemy out of the island. + + Naval victory of Demetrius off Cyprus, 307, perhaps the greatest + and most bloody in history; nevertheless, as little decisive to + the general question as are most naval battles. The assumption of + the royal title, first by the conqueror, afterwards by the + conquered, and ultimately by all the rest, was but a mere form now + that the royal family was extirpated. + +23. The conquerors having failed in their project of subduing Egypt, +made the wealthy republic of the Rhodians, as an ally of that country, +the victim of their fury. But though in the renowned siege of their +capital, Demetrius earned his title of Poliorcetes, the noble defence of +the Rhodians afforded an illustrious example of the power of discipline +in conjunction with well-guided patriotism. The invitation of the +Athenians came seasonably to Demetrius; he raised the blockade and +proceeded to complete the liberation of Greece, the necessity of which +became every day more pressing. + +24. Second sojourn of Demetrius in Greece. The expulsion of Cassander's +garrisons from the Grecian cities, and more particularly from those in +Peloponnesus; the appointment of Demetrius as generalissimo of Greece, +for the conquest of Macedonia and Thrace; proved not only to Cassander, +but also to the other princes, that their common interest loudly called +upon them to resist the over-powerful Antigonus. + +25. Third grand league of Cassander, Ptolemy, and Seleucus, against +Antigonus and his son; brought about by Cassander. How easily, even +after the violent irruption of Lysimachus into Asia Minor, might +Antigonus have dispersed the gathering storms, had not his presumption +led him to place an overweening reliance on his own good fortune! + +26. Junction of Seleucus of Babylon and Lysimachus, in Phrygia. +Antigonus, to concentrate his forces, recalls his son, who had pushed on +to the borders of Macedonia. The cautious Ptolemy, on the other hand, is +afraid to invade Syria; and, in consequence of a false report, that +Lysimachus had been defeated, retires full of alarm, into Egypt. + +27. Great and decisive battle fought at Ipsus in Phrygia, in the spring +of 301, which costs Antigonus his life, and annihilates his empire, as +the two conquerors divide it between themselves, without taking any +account of the absent confederates. Asia Minor, as far as mount Taurus, +falls to the share of Lysimachus; and all the rest, with the exception +of Cilicia, which is given to Plisthenes, Cassander's brother, is left +to Seleucus.--Demetrius, by the help of his navy, escapes into Greece. + +28. The almost unbroken series of wars which had raged from the time of +Alexander, must have precluded the possibility of much being effected +with respect to domestic organization. It appears to have been nearly, +if not wholly, military. Yet were the numerous devastations in some +measure compensated by the erection of new cities, in which these +princes vied with one another, impelled partly by vanity to immortalize +their names, partly by policy to support their dominion, most of the new +settlements being military colonies. Nevertheless this was but a sorry +reparation for the manifold oppressions to which the natives were +exposed by the practice of quartering the army upon them. The spread of +the language and civilization of the Greeks deprived them of all +national distinction; their own languages sinking into mere provincial +dialects. Alexander's monarchy affords a striking example of the little +that can be expected from a forced amalgamation of races, when the price +of that amalgamation is the obliteration of national character in the +individuals. + + HEYNE, _Opum regni Macedonici auctarum, attritarum et eversarum, + causæ probabiles; in Opusc._ t. iv. This collection contains + several other treatises on Grecian and Macedonian history, which + cannot be all separately enumerated. + + + + +THIRD PERIOD. + +_History of the kingdoms and states which arose upon the dismemberment +of the Macedonian Monarchy after the battle of Ipsus._ + + +I. HISTORY OF THE SYRIAN EMPIRE UNDER THE SELEUCIDÆ, B. C. 312-64. + + SOURCES. Neither for the history of the Syrian, nor for that of + the Egyptian and Macedonian kingdoms, has any eminent writer been + preserved. The fragments of the lost books of Diodorus, and, from + the time that these kingdoms became allies of Rome, those of + Polybius, several narratives of Livy, the Syriaca of Appian, and a + few of Plutarch's Lives, are the principal authorities; too + frequently we are obliged to rely upon the extracts of Justin. For + the history of the Seleucidæ, in consequence of the political + connection between these princes and the Jews, the Antiquities of + Josephus and the book of Maccabees become of importance. Besides + these authorities, the many coins that have been preserved of + these kings, afford much information respecting their genealogy + and chronology. + + Of modern publications on the subject, the principal work is + + VAILLANT, _Imperium Seleucidarum sive historia regum Syriæ_, 1681, + 4to. The enquiry is principally grounded on coins, as is the case + with + + FROELICH, _Annales rerum et regum Syriæ_. Viennæ, 1754. + +1. The kingdom of the Seleucidæ was founded in Upper Asia by Seleucus +Nicator. It was an extensive empire; but, being composed of various +countries united only by conquest, it could possess but little internal +stability except what it derived from the power of its rulers. That +power fell with the founder; and the transfer of the seat of empire +from the banks of the Tigris to Syria, entangled the Seleucidæ in all +the political disputes of the western world, and facilitated the +insurrection of the upper provinces. The history of this kingdom divides +itself into the periods before and after the war with Rome; although at +the breaking out of this war the seeds of its decline and fall had +already been sown. + + Seleucus received, 321, Babylon as his province; but after the + defeat of Eumenes was obliged to take to flight, 315, in order to + avoid subjection to the conqueror Antigonus. But his moderate + government had rendered him so popular, that after the victory won + by Ptolemy over Demetrius at Gaza, 312, he could safely venture to + return with only a few adherents to Babylon. In this year + commences the kingdom of the Seleucidæ. + +2. In the ten following years, and while Antigonus was busied in Asia +Minor, Seleucus laid the foundation of his power over all Upper Asia, +with a facility to which the detestation excited by the rigid government +of Antigonus mainly contributed. After his victory over Nicanor of +Media, all in that quarter declared spontaneously for him; and the +unsuccessful expedition of Demetrius taught Antigonus himself, that it +would no longer be prudent to assert his claims. As early as 307, +Seleucus was in possession of all the countries between the Euphrates, +Indus, and Oxus. + +3. Great campaign in India undertaken by Seleucus against king +Sandracottus. He penetrated as far as the Ganges, and the close alliance +he formed with the Indian sovereign lasted a long time after, and was +kept up by embassies. The great number of elephants which he brought +back with him was not the only advantage accruing from this expedition; +the intercourse with the east seems to have been permanently +reestablished. + +4. By the battle of Ipsus Seleucus added to his dominions the greater +part of the territories of Antigonus;--Syria, Cappadocia, Mesopotamia, +and Armenia. Unfortunately Syria now became the head province, +notwithstanding Coele-Syria and Phoenicia were left in the hands of +Ptolemy. How widely different would have been the course of historic +events, had the seat of empire remained at Seleucia on the Tigris, and +the Euphrates continued to be the western boundary of the Seleucidæ! + +5. Reciprocal relations between the several kings, who now combine in +forming a kind of political system, in which continued exertions to +maintain a balance of power by alliance and marriage are plainly +discernible. + + Connection between Seleucus and Demetrius Poliorcetes, by the + marriage of the former with the beautiful Stratonice, daughter of + the latter; made with the view of counterbalancing a similar + connection between Ptolemy and Lysimachus; Lysimachus and his son + Agathocles having united themselves with two daughters of Ptolemy. + +6. The eighteen years of tranquillity enjoyed by Asia after the battle +of Ipsus, prove that Seleucus was one of the few followers of Alexander +who had any genius for the arts of peace. He either founded or +embellished a vast number of cities, the most important of which were +the capital, Antiochia in Syria, and the two Seleucias, one on the +Tigris, the other on the Orontes: the flourishing prosperity of several +of these places was the result of the restoration of eastern trade; new +channels for which appear to have been opened at this period on the main +streams of Asia, and more particularly on the Oxus. + +7. The home department of his empire was organized into satrapies, of +which there were seventy-two. But Alexander's maxim, "to give the +satrapies to natives," was wholly forgotten by his followers; and the +Seleucidæ were not long before they experienced the evil consequences of +swerving from that practice. Under such a prince as Seleucus scarce any +kingdom could of itself fall to pieces; but the king himself paved the +way for the dismemberment of his empire, by ceding Upper Asia, together +with his consort Stratonice, to his son Antiochus; not, however, without +the previous approbation of the army. + +8. War with Lysimachus, kindled by ancient jealousy, and now fomented by +family feuds. The battle of Curopedion cost Lysimachus his throne and +his life; and Asia Minor became a part of the Syrian realm. But as +Seleucus was crossing over to Europe, to add Macedonia to his dominions, +he fell by the hand of an assassin, Ptolemy Ceraunus, and with him the +splendour of his kingdom was extinguished. + +9. The reign of his son, Antiochus I. surnamed Soter, seemed not +unprosperous, inasmuch as the empire preserved its former extension; but +in any state founded upon conquest, the failure of new attempts at an +increase of territory is a sure token of approaching ruin; and this was +the case here.--In such a state, the more immediately all depends on +the person of the ruler, the more rapid and sensible are the effects of +degeneration in a family like that of the Seleucidæ. + + The late conquests of his father in Asia Minor entangled Antiochus + in new wars; although, by the marriage of his stepdaughter Phila + with Antigonus Gonatas, he ceded his claims on Macedonia, + 277.--Fruitless attempt at subjecting Bithynia, 279; the king of + that country, Nicomedes, calls in the Gauls, who had invaded + Macedonia, and gives them a settlement in Galatia, 277, where they + keep their footing, even after the victory won over them by + Antiochus, 275, and by their participation in the wars, as + mercenaries, become of importance.--The newly risen state of + Pergamus likewise thrives, at the expense of the Syrian empire, in + spite of Antiochus's attack, 263; and the inroad into Egypt, for + the purpose of supporting the rebel Magas, is anticipated by + Ptolemy II. 264. + +10. Antiochus II. surnamed [Greek: Theos]. During his reign the sway was +in the hands of women; and the diseased state of the interior of the +empire became palpable by the secession of various eastern provinces, +out of which arose the Parthian and Bactrian kingdoms. The boundless +luxury of the court hurried on the decline of the ruling family; having +once begun to sink, it could not without difficulty have retrieved its +virtue independently of the matrimonial connections now constantly +formed from within itself. + + Ascendancy of his stepsister and wife Laodice, and of his sister + Apame, relict of Magas; the latter involves him in war with + Ptolemy II. to vindicate her claims upon Cyrene; it ends by + Antiochus's marriage with Berenice, daughter of Ptolemy, and his + repudiation of Laodice, 260-252. Having, after the death of + Ptolemy, 247, put away Berenice and taken back Laodice; the + latter, distrusting his motives, cuts him off by poison.--The + secession of Parthia happened in consequence of the expulsion of + the Macedonian governor by Arsaces, founder of the house of the + Arsacidæ: that of Bactria, on the other hand, was brought about by + the Macedonian governor himself, Theodotus, who asserted his + independence. (Concerning these two kingdoms, see below, book iv. + period iii. Dist. Kingdoms iv. parag. 4, 5.) At first, the former + of these kingdoms comprised but a part of Parthia; the latter only + Bactria, and, perhaps, Sogdiana; both, however, were soon enlarged + at the expense of the Seleucidæ. + +11. Seleucus II. surnamed Callinicus. His reign, twenty years in +duration, is one unbroken series of wars; in which the kingdom, already +enfeebled, was subverted, partly by the struggle with Egypt, caused by +the hatred between Laodice and Berenice; partly by the jealousy of his +brother Antiochus Hierax; and partly by vain attempts at recovering the +upper provinces. + + Assassination of Berenice, and most unfortunate war thereby + kindled with Ptolemy Evergetes of Egypt, 247-244. The assistance + which Seleucus obtains from his junior brother, Antiochus, + governor of Asia Minor, induces Ptolemy to a truce, 243; but + another war ensues between the two brothers, in which Antiochus, + at first conqueror, is himself soon afterwards conquered in his + turn, 243-240; and during this contest, Eumenes of Pergamus + greatly increases his territory at the expense of Syria, 242.--His + first campaign against Arsaces, who had formed an alliance with + the Bactrian king, ended in a defeat, 238, regarded by the + Parthians as the real epoch of the foundation of their kingdom. In + the second campaign, 236, he himself fell into the hands of the + Parthians, and remained a prisoner till the day of his death, 227. + +12. His elder son Seleucus III. surnamed Ceraunus, on the point of +taking the field against Attalus king of Pergamus, was removed by +poison. But the dominion of the Seleucidæ was reestablished in Asia +Minor by his mother's fraternal nephew, Achæus; and the crown ensured to +the younger brother Antiochus, governor of Babylon. + +13. The long reign of Antiochus III. surnamed the Great, is not only the +most eventful in Syrian history, but likewise marks an epoch, by the +relations now commencing between Syria and Rome.--To earn the title of +_great_ was a task of no extreme difficulty in such a line of princes. + +14. Great power of Hermias the Carian, who soon became so formidable to +the young monarch, that he was obliged to rid himself of him by murder. +The great stand made by the brothers, Molo and Alexander, satraps of +Media and Persia, who probably had an understanding with Hermias, +threatened the king with the loss of all the upper provinces: it ended +in the defeat of Molo, Hermias being at last no longer able to hinder +the king from marching against him in person. + +15. The intrigues of Hermias excited Achæus to rebellion in Asia Minor: +but Antiochus held more important, first to execute the plan he had +previously traced, of ejecting the Ptolemies from their possessions in +Syria; great as the success which at first attended this expedition, it +was completely traversed by the battle of Raphia.--Combining with +Attalus of Pergamus, Antiochus then defeated Achæus, who, being shut up +in the citadel of Sardes, was treacherously delivered into his hands. + +16. Great campaign of Antiochus in the upper provinces, in consequence +of the seizure of Media by Arsaces III.--Hostilities ended in a compact, +by which Antiochus agreed formerly to cede Parthia and Hyrcania; +Arsaces, on his side, pledging himself to furnish assistance against +Bactria.--But the war with Bactria was also followed by a peace, +leaving the king, Euthydemus, in possession of his crown and +dominions.--The expedition now undertaken by Antiochus, in company with +Demetrius of Bactriana, against India, extended, probably far up the +country, and was attended with important consequences to Bactriana. (See +below, history of Bactria, book iv. per. iii. Dist. Kingdoms iv. parag. +5.) + +The result of these great expeditions was the establishment of the +supremacy of the Seleucidæ in Upper Asia; those countries excepted which +had been formally resigned. + + On his return through Arachotus and Carmania, where he wintered, + he likewise undertook a naval expedition on the Persian gulf: here + Gerrha, in possession of its freedom, appears a flourishing place + of trade. + +17. Resumption of the plan against Egypt, after the death of Ptolemy +Philopator; and alliance with Philip of Macedonia, then carrying on war +in Asia. Antiochus, it is true, attained his end in the expulsion of the +Ptolemies from their possessions in Syria, Coele-Syria, and Phoenicia; +but then, his success brought him in contact with Rome, an event of +decisive importance to himself and his successors. + +18. Growth of the disputes between the king and Rome, proceeding from +the conquest of the major part of Asia Minor and the Thracian +Chersonesus; meanwhile Hannibal had taken refuge at the Syrian court, +and the probability daily increased of a great league being formed +against Rome, although that power, after conquering Carthage, 201, and +Macedonia, 197, had succeeded in winning over Greece even, by the magic +spell of _freedom_. But Antiochus ruined all: instead of following +Hannibal's advice, and attacking the Romans on their own ground, he +stood on the defensive, and suffered himself to be invaded by them in +Asia. His defeat at Magnesia near Mount Sipylus compelled him to accede +to such conditions as Rome chose to dictate, and the power of the Syrian +empire was for ever broken. + + For the history of this war, see below in the Roman history. Book + v. per. ii. parag. 10, 11. + +19. The conditions of the peace were: 1st. That Antiochus should +evacuate Asia Minor; (Asia cis Taurum.) 2nd. That he should pay down +15,000 talents; and to Eumenes of Pergamus four hundred. 3rd. That +Hannibal and some others should be delivered up, and the king's younger +son Antiochus, be given as an hostage.--The loss of the surrendered +countries was a consequence of this peace, less disadvantageous to the +Syrian kings, than the use made of it by the conquerors. By adding the +greatest part of the ceded territories to those of the kings of +Pergamus, the Romans raised up alongside of their enemy a rival, whom +they might at their own will use as a political engine against +him.--Rome took care likewise that the stipulated sum should be paid by +instalments in twelve years, to the end that Syria might be kept in a +permanent state of dependence. + +20. Murder of the king, 187. The reign of his elder son, Seleucus IV. +surnamed Philopator, was a period of tranquillity; peace arising from +weakness.--Though once he unsheathed his sword in defence of Pharnaces +king of Pontus, against Eumenes, his fear of Rome soon compelled him to +restore it to the scabbard. He exchanged his son for his brother at +Rome; but fell a victim to the ambition of his minister Heliodorus. + +21. Antiochus IV. surnamed Epiphanes. Educated at Rome, he sought to +combine the popular manners of a Roman with the ostentatious luxury of a +Syrian; and thereby became an object of universal hatred and contempt. +Our information respecting his history is too meagre to allow of our +deciding whether most of the evil reported of him, in the Jewish +accounts especially, may not be exaggerated. At any rate, among all his +faults, we may still discern in him the germs of good qualities. + +22. War with Egypt, springing out of Ptolemy Philometor's claims upon +Coele-Syria and Palestine. Obscure as many parts are in the history of +this war yet it is evident that success attended the arms of Antiochus, +and that he would have become master of Egypt had not Rome interfered. + + The pretext for war, on the Egyptian side, was, that those + provinces had by Antiochus III. been promised as a dowry to + Cleopatra, sister of Antiochus and the mother of Philometor: + Antiochus Epiphanes, on his side, laid claim to the regency of + Egypt, as uncle to the young king, who, however, was soon declared + of age.--Opening of the war, and victory won by Antiochus at + Pelusium, 171; in consequence of which Cyprus is betrayed into his + hands.--Pelusium is fortified with a view of insuring the + possession of Coele-Syria, and of facilitating an irruption into + Egypt.--Another victory, 170, and Egypt subdued as far as + Alexandria. Philometor driven by a sedition out of Alexandria, + where his brother Physcon is seated on the throne, falls into the + hands of Antiochus, who concludes with him a most advantageous + peace, and takes his part against Physcon. Hence siege is laid to + Alexandria, 169; attended with no success. Upon the retreat of + Antiochus, Philometor, concluding a separate peace with his + brother, according to which both are to rule in conjunction, is + admitted into Alexandria. Antiochus, bitterly enraged, now + declares war against both brothers, who crave assistance from + Rome: he once more penetrates into Egypt, 168; where the Roman + ambassador, Popillius, assumes so lofty a tone, that the Syrian + king is glad to purchase peace by the surrender of Cyprus and + Pelusium. + +23. The religious intolerance of Epiphanes, exhibited in his wish to +introduce the Grecian worship everywhere among the subjects of his +empire, is the more remarkable, as such instances were less frequent in +those times. This intolerance seems to have taken its rise, not only in +the love of pomp, but in the cupidity of the king, who by that means was +enabled to appropriate to himself the treasures of the temples, no +longer inviolate, since the defeat of his father by Rome. The consequent +sedition of the Jews, under the Maccabees, laid the foundation of the +future independence of that people, and contributed not a little to +weaken the Syrian kingdom. + + See below; History of the Jews, book iv. per. iv; Small states + Jews, parag. 6. The deep decay of the finances of the Seleucidæ, + palpable from the latter days of Antiochus the Great, may be + accounted for well enough, by the falling off of the revenue, + accompanied with increased luxury in the kings, (an instance of + which is furnished in the festivals celebrated by Antiochus + Epiphanes at Daphne, 166,) and in the vast presents constantly + sent to Rome, in addition to the tribute, for the purpose of + keeping up a party there. + +24. His expedition also into Upper Asia, Persis especially, where great +disorders were likewise excited by the introduction of the Grecian +religion, had for its object not only the recovery of Armenia, but the +rifling of the temples. He died, however, on his way to Babylon. + +25. The real heir to the throne, Demetrius, being detained at Rome as an +hostage, Epiphanes was first succeeded by his son Antiochus V. surnamed +Eupator, a child nine years old. During his short reign, the quarrels of +his guardians, the despotism of the Romans, the protracted war with the +Jews, and the commencing conquests of the Parthians, reduced the kingdom +of the Seleucidæ to a powerless state. + + Contest between Lysias, regent in the absence of Epiphanes, and + Philip, appointed by the king, previously to his death, as + guardian of the young prince, terminated by the defeat of Philip, + 162.--Eupator's right acknowledged at Rome, in order that the + guardianship might fall into the hands of the senate, who + administer the government by means of a commission sent over into + Syria, and completely deprive the king of all power of resistance. + Octavius, head of the commission, put to death, probably at the + instigation of Lysias.--While the Parthian king, Mithridates I. is + prosecuting his conquests at the expense of the Syrian kingdom in + Upper Asia, Demetrius secretly escapes out of Rome, takes + possession of the throne, and causes Eupator and Lysias to be put + to death, 161. + +26. Demetrius I. surnamed Soter. He succeeded in getting himself +acknowledged at Rome, on which all now depended. The attempts to extend +his power, by supporting Orofernes, the pretender to the crown of +Cappadocia, against the king Ariarathes, had their origin partly in +family relations, but still more, as was the case with almost all +political transactions of those times, in bribery. By this act he only +drew upon himself the enmity of the kings of Egypt and Pergamus; as, +moreover, he was hated by his subjects on account of his intemperance, +the chances of success were greatly in favour of the shameful usurpation +of Alexander Balas, brought about by Heraclidas the expelled governor of +Babylon, and backed by the yet more shameful conduct of the Roman +senate, who acknowledged his title to the throne. The Syrian kingdom was +now fallen so low, that both king and usurper were obliged to court the +favour of the Jews under Jonathan, hitherto regarded as rebels. In the +second battle Demetrius lost his life. + +27. The usurper Alexander Balas endeavoured to confirm his power by a +marriage with Cleopatra, daughter of Ptolemy Philometor: but he soon +evinced himself more unworthy even than his predecessor of wielding the +sceptre. While he abandoned the government to his favourite, the +detested Ammonius, the eldest remaining son of Demetrius succeeds not +only in raising a party against the usurper, but even in prevailing on +Philometor to side with himself, and give him in marriage Cleopatra, +whom he takes away from Balas. The consequence of this alliance with +Egypt was the defeat and downfal of Balas, although it cost Philometor +his life. + + The account, that Philometor wished to conquer Syria for himself, + must probably be understood as meaning that he had formed the + design of recovering the ancient Egyptian possessions, Coele-Syria + and Phoenicia. Otherwise, why should he have given his daughter to + a second pretender to the throne? + +28. Demetrius II. surnamed Nicator, 145-141, and for the second time, +130-126. The disbanding of his father's mercenaries having roused the +indignation of the army, the cruelty of his favourite Lasthenes kindled +a sedition in the capital, which could not be quenched without the +assistance of the Jews, under their high priest and military chieftain, +Jonathan.--While affairs were in this posture, Diodotus, subsequently +called Tryphon, a dependent of Balas, excited an insurrection, by +bringing forward Antiochus, the latter's son, and even, with the help of +Jonathan, seating him on the throne of Antioch: soon after, Tryphon, +having by treachery got Jonathan into his power, removed Antiochus by +murder, and assumed the diadem himself.--Notwithstanding Demetrius +kept his footing only in a part of Syria, he was enabled to obey +the call of the Grecian colonists in Upper Asia, and support them +against the Parthians, who had overrun the country as far as the +Euphrates.--Although victorious in the commencement of the contest, he +was soon after taken by the Parthians, and remained ten years a +prisoner, though treated meanwhile as a king. + +29. In order to maintain herself against Tryphon, Cleopatra marries the +younger, and better brother, Antiochus of Sida, (Sidetes); he being at +first in alliance with the Jews,--who, however, were soon after +subdued--defeats and overthrows Tryphon. Being now lord and master of +Syria, he undertakes a campaign against the Parthians; at the +commencement, befriended by the subjects of the Parthians, he is +successful, but soon afterwards is attacked in winter quarters by those +very friends, and cut to pieces, together with all his army. + + If the accounts of the wanton licentiousness of his army are not + exaggerations, they furnish the clearest proof of the military + despotism of those times. By continued pillage and extortion, the + wealth of the country had been collected in the hands of the + soldiers; and the condition of Syria must have been pretty nearly + the same as that of Egypt under the Mamluk sultans. + +30. Meanwhile Demetrius II. having escaped from prison, again seated +himself on the throne. But being now still more overbearing than before, +and meddling in the Egyptian affairs, Ptolemy Physcon set up against him +a rival in the person of Alexander Zebinas a pretended son of Alexander +Balas; by him he was defeated and slain. + + The Parthian king Phraates II. had, at first, liberated Demetrius, + to whom his sister Rhodogune was united by marriage, in order + that, by appearing in Syria, he might oblige Antiochus to retreat. + Antiochus having fallen, Phraates would fain have recaptured + Demetrius, but he escaped. + +31. The ensuing history of the Seleucidæ is a picture of civil wars, +family feuds, and deeds of horror, such as are scarcely to be +paralleled. The utmost verge of the empire was now the Euphrates; all +Upper Asia acknowledging the dominion of the Parthians. The Jews, +moreover, having completely vindicated their independence, the kingdom +was consequently confined to Syria and Phoenicia. So thoroughly decayed +was the state, that even the Romans--whether because there was no longer +anything to plunder, or because they conceived it more prudent to suffer +the Seleucidæ to wear themselves out in mutual quarrels--do not seem to +have taken any account of it, until, at the conclusion of the last war +with Mithridates, they thought proper formally to annex it to their +empire as a province. + + War between Alexander Zebinas and the ambitious relict of + Demetrius, Cleopatra, who with her own hand murders her eldest son + Seleucus, B.C. 125, for pretending to the crown, which she now + gives to her younger son, Antiochus Gryphus; the new king, + however, soon saw himself compelled to secure his own life by the + murder of his mother, 122; Alexander Zebinas having been the year + before, 123, defeated and put to death. After a peaceful rule of + eight years, 122-114, Antiochus Gryphus is involved in war with + his half-brother Antiochus Cyzicenus, son of Cleopatra by + Antiochus Sidetes: it ends, 111, in a partition of territory. But + the war between the brothers soon burst out anew, and just as this + hapless kingdom seemed about to crumble into pieces, Gryphus was + murdered, 97.--Seleucus, the eldest of his five sons, having + beaten and slain Cyzicenus, 96; the eldest son of the latter, + Antiochus Eusebes, prosecuted the war against the sons of Gryphus; + Eusebes being at last defeated, 90, the surviving sons of Gryphus + fell to war among themselves, and the struggle continued until the + Syrians, weary of bloodshed, did what they ought to have done long + before, viz. made over the sovereign power to Tigranes the king of + Armenia, 85. Yet Eusebes's widow, Selene, retained Ptolemais till + 70; and her elder son Antiochus Asiaticus, at the time that + Tigranes was beaten by Lucullus, in the Mithridatic war, took + possession of some provinces in Syria, 68; these were wrested from + him after the total defeat of Mithridates by Pompey, when Tigranes + was obliged to give up his claim, and Syria became a province of + the Roman empire, 64. Antiochus Asiaticus died 58; his brother + Seleucus Cybiosactes, having married Berenice, was raised to the + Egyptian throne, but murdered at her command, 57; and thus the + family of the Seleucidæ was completely swept away. + + +II. _History of the Egyptian kingdom under the Ptolemies, 323-30._ + + The sources of this history are for the most part the same as in + the foregoing section; see above, p. 232; but unfortunately still + more scanty; for in the first place, less information can here be + derived from the Jewish writers; secondly, as on the coins struck + under the Ptolemies no continuous series of time is marked, but + only the year of the king's reign, they are by no means such + safeguards to the chronology as those of the Seleucidæ. With + respect to some few events, important illustrations are supplied by + inscriptions. + + By modern writers, the history of the Ptolemies has been composed + under a form almost entirely chronological, and by no means treated + of in the spirit which it deserves. + + VAILLANT, _Historia Ptolemæorum_, fol. Amstelodam. 1701. + Illustration by the aid of coins. + + CHAMPOLION FIGEAC, _Annales des Lagides, ou Chronologie des Rois + d'Egypte, successeurs d'Alexandre le Grand_. Paris, 1819, 2 vols. + This treatise, which was honoured with a prize by the Académie des + Inscriptions, has by no means exhausted the whole of the subject. + See + + J. SAINT-MARTIN, _Examen Critique de l'ouvrage de_ M. CH. F. + _intitulé Annales des Lagides_. Paris, 1820. + + LETRONNE, _Recherches pour servir à l'histoire de l'Egypte pendant + la domination des Grecs et des Romains, tirées des inscriptions + Grecques et Latines, relatives à la chronologie, à l'etat des arts + aux usages civils et religieux de ce pays_. Paris, 1828. It cannot + be denied that the author has thrown a much clearer light on the + subjects mentioned in his title. + +1. Egypt, under the Ptolemies, fulfilled, and perhaps more than +fulfilled, the designs projected by Alexander; it became not only a +mighty kingdom, but likewise the centre of trade, and of science. The +history of Egypt, however, confines itself, almost solely, to that of +the new capital, Alexandria; the foundation of that city produced, +imperceptibly, a change in the national character, which never could +have been wrought by main force. In the enjoyment of civil welfare and +religious freedom, the nation sunk into a state of political drowsiness, +such as could scarce have been expected in a people who so often rose up +against the Persians. + + Alexandria, originally, was no doubt a military colony; it was not + long, however, before it became a general place of resort for all + nations, such as was scarcely to be met with in any other town of + that day. The inhabitants were divided into three classes; + _Alexandrines_, (that is to say, foreigners of all nations, who had + settled in the place; next to the Greeks, the Jews were, it + appears, the most numerous,) _Egyptians_, and _Mercenaries_ in the + king's service. The Greeks and Macedonians divided into wards + ([Greek: phylas]), constituted the citizens; they were under + municipal government; the others, such as the Jews, formed bodies + corporate according to their respective nations. The more + important, in so many respects, that Alexandria is for history, the + more it is to be regretted that the accounts respecting it, which + have reached us, are so far from satisfactory!--Concerning the + topography of ancient Alexandria: + + BONAMY, _Description de la ville d'Alexandrie_ in the _Mém. de + l'Académie des Inscript._ vol. ix. Compare: + + # J. L. F. MANSO, _Letters upon ancient Alexandria_, in his + _Vermischte Schriften_, vol. i. + +2. Ptolemy I. surnamed Soter, the son of Lagus, received Egypt for his +share, at the first division after the death of Alexander. Aware of the +value of his lot, he was the only one of Alexander's successors that had +the moderation not to aim at grasping all. No doubt he was, by the +ambition of the other princes, entangled in their quarrels, but his +conduct was so cautious, that Egypt itself was never endangered. Twice +attacked in that country, first by Perdiccas, afterwards by Antigonus +and Demetrius, he availed himself successfully of his advantageous +position, and moreover, in this period, added to his dominion several +countries without Africa, such as Phoenicia, Judæa, Coele-Syria, and +Cyprus. + + The possession of Phoenicia and Coele-Syria, by reason of their + forests, was of indispensable necessity to Egypt as a naval power. + They frequently changed masters. The first occupation of those + provinces by the Egyptian government, occurred in 320, soon after + the rout of Perdiccas by Ptolemy's general Nicanor, who took the + Syrian satrap Laomedon prisoner, established his footing in the + whole of Syria, and placed garrisons in the Phoenician cities. In + 314 it was again lost to Antigonus, after his return out of Upper + Asia, and the siege of Tyre. Ptolemy having defeated Demetrius at + Gaza, 312, repossessed himself of those countries, but soon after + evacuated them on the appearance of Antigonus, to whom they were + ceded by the peace of 311. At the conclusion of the last grand + league against Antigonus, 303, Ptolemy once more occupied them: but + alarmed at a false report, that Antigonus had gained a victory, he + retreated into Egypt, leaving nevertheless troops in the cities. + After the battle of Ipsus, 301, those countries were made over to + him, and continued in the hands of the Ptolemies until they were + lost at the second invasion of Antiochus the Great, 203. + + Cyprus, (see p. 154) like most other islands, acknowledged + submission to those who possessed the sovereignty of the sea, and + therefore could not escape the dominion of the Ptolemies. It was + taken possession of by Ptolemy as early as 313. Still the separate + cities of the islands preserved their kings, among whom Nicocles of + Paphos, having entered into a secret league with Antigonus, was put + to death, 310. After the great seafight, 307, Cyprus fell into the + hands of Antigonus and Demetrius. Subsequently to the battle of + Ipsus, 301, it remained indeed at first in the power of Demetrius; + but that prince being gone over to Macedonia, Ptolemy, 294, seized + an opportunity of recovering it, and the island from that time + remained under the dominion of Egypt. Availing themselves of their + naval strength, the Egyptian kings frequently exerted sovereign + power over the coasts of Asia Minor, especially Cilicia, Caria, and + Pamphylia, which appear to have absolutely formed a part of their + territory under the second Ptolemy. It is, however, hardly possible + to define with accuracy what were their real possessions in those + quarters. + +3. Ptolemy likewise extends his territory within Africa, by the capture +of Cyrene; in consequence of which Libya, or the neighbouring countries +betwixt Cyrene and Egypt, fell under his dominion. It is probable, also, +that even in his reign the frontier of the Egyptian empire was advanced +into Æthiopia; but for this assertion we have no positive authority. + + The fall of Cyrene was brought about by domestic broils: at the + time the place was besieged by Thimbron, a portion of the exiled + nobles fled to Ptolemy; the Egyptian prince commanded that they + should be reinstated by his general Ophellas, who took possession + of the town itself, 321. An insurrection in 312 was quelled by + Agis, Ptolemy's general: nevertheless it would appear that + Ophellas had almost established his independence, when, by the + treachery of Agathocles, with whom he had entered into a league + against Carthage, he perished, about 308. Cyrene was now seized by + Ptolemy, and given to his son Magas, who ruled over it fifty + years. + +4. With respect to the internal government of Egypt, our information is +far from complete. The division into districts or nomes was continued; +subject perhaps, in some cases, to alterations. The power of the king +appears to have been unlimited; the extreme provinces were administered +by governors, appointed by the sovereign; similar officers were probably +placed at the head of the various districts of Egypt itself; but hardly +any document relative to the home department of that country has reached +our time. High public situations, at least in the capital, appear +exclusively reserved to Macedonians or Greeks; no Egyptian is ever +mentioned as holding office. + + There were four magistrates at Alexandria: the Exegetes, whose + office was to provide for the wants of the city; the Chief Judge; + the Hypomnematographus--(Registrar of the archives?)--and the + [Greek: Stratêgos nykterinos], no doubt, the supervisor of the + police, whose duty it was to watch over the peace of the city at + night. We have the express testimony of Strabo, that these + offices, which continued under the Romans, had already existed + under the kings; whether their establishment can be dated as far + back as the time of Ptolemy I. is a question that does not admit + of a solution.--The number of the districts or nomes appears to + have been augmented; probably with a political view, in order that + no governor or monarch should be invested with too great a share + of power. + +5. Be that as it may, it is an undoubted fact, that the ancient national +constitution and administration were not entirely obliterated. The caste +of priests, together with the national religion, continued to exist; and +though the influence of the former was considerably diminished, it did +not entirely cease. A certain sort of worship was, by appointed priests, +paid to the kings, both in their lifetime and after their death. +Memphis, though not the usual residence of the court, remained the +capital of the kingdom; there the ceremony of coronation was performed; +and its temple of Phtha was still the head sanctuary. What influence had +not the religion of the Egyptians upon that of the Greeks! It were +difficult to say which nation borrowed most from the other. + +6. The regeneration of Egypt from the state of general ruin into which +she had been plunged, and the permanent tranquillity she enjoyed during +nearly thirty years, the duration of the reign of Ptolemy I.--at a time +when the rest of the world was harassed by continual wars,--must have +heightened her prosperity under so mild and beneficent a ruler. But +Ptolemy was certainly the only prince who could have taken advantage of +these favourable circumstances. Though a soldier by profession he was +highly accomplished, was himself a writer, and had a genius for all the +arts of peace, which he fostered with the open-handed liberality of a +king: while amidst all the brilliant splendour of his court, he led +himself the life of a private individual. + + Increase of Alexandria by the importation of vast numbers of + colonists; especially Jews.--Erection of several superb buildings, + more particularly the Serapeum.--Measures taken for the extension + of trade and navigation.--The twofold harbour on the sea, and on + the lake Mareotis.--The Pharus built. + +7. But what more than any thing else distinguished Ptolemy from his +contemporaries was his regard for the interests of science. The idea of +founding the Museum sprung out of the necessities of the age, and was +suited to the monarchical form of government now prevalent. Where in +those days of destruction and revolution could the sciences have found a +shelter, if not under the protection of a prince? But under Ptolemy they +found more than a shelter, they found a rallying point. Here accordingly +the exact sciences were perfected: and although the critic's art which +now grew up could not form a Homer or a Sophocles, should _we_, had it +not been for the Alexandrines, be at present able to read either Homer +or Sophocles? + + Foundation of the Museum, (Society of the learned,) and of the + first library in Bruchium, (afterwards removed to the Serapeum;) + probably under the direction of Demetrius Phalereus. A proper + estimation of the services rendered by the Museum is yet wanting: + what academy in modern Europe, however, has done so much? + + HEYNE, _De genio Sæculi Ptolemæorum_. _In Opuscul._ t. i. + + MATTER, _Essai historique sur l'école d'Alexandrie_, 1820. + +8. Ptolemy II. surnamed Philadelphus, son of Berenice, the second wife +of his father, had ascended the throne in 286 as joint king. His reign, +which lasted thirty-eight years, was more peaceful even than that of his +predecessor, whose spirit seemed to inspire him in every thing, save +that he was not a warrior: but, by that very reason, the arts of peace, +trade, and science were promoted with the greater energy. In his reign +Egypt was the first power by sea, and one of the first by land, in the +world; and even though the account given by Theocritus of its +thirty-three thousand cities may be regarded as the exaggeration of a +poet, it is very certain that Egypt was in those days the most +flourishing country in existence. + + The commerce of Alexandria was divided into three main branches: + 1. The land-trade over Asia and Africa. 2. The sea-trade on the + Mediterranean. 3. The sea-trade on the Arabian gulf, and Indian + ocean.--With regard to the land-trade of Asia, especially that of + India carried on by caravans, Alexandria was obliged to share it + with various cities and countries: since one of its chief routes + traversed the Oxus, and Caspian, to the Black sea; while the + caravans, travelling through Syria and Mesopotamia, spread for the + most part among the seaports of Phoenicia and Asia Minor.--The + trade over Africa extended far west, and still farther south. + Westward it was secured by the close connection between Cyrene and + Alexandria; and no doubt followed the same roads as in earlier + times: of far greater importance was that carried on with the + southern countries, or Æthiopia, into the interior of which they + now penetrated, principally for the purpose of procuring + elephants. The navigation on the Arabian and Indian seas had + likewise for its immediate object the Æthiopian trade, rather than + the Indian.--The measures taken by Ptolemy with this view, + consisted partly in the building of harbours (Berenice, Myos + Hormos) on the Arabian gulf; partly in establishing a caravan from + Berenice to Coptos on the Nile, down which latter the goods were + further transmitted to their destination; for the canal connecting + the Red sea with the Nile, although, perhaps, completed at this + time, was nevertheless but little used. The grand deposit for + these wares was the lesser harbour of Alexandria, united by a + canal with the lake Mareotis, which in its turn communicated by + another canal with the Nile; so that the account we receive of the + lesser harbour being more thronged and full of bustle than the + larger one, need not excite our surprise. With regard to the trade + on the Mediterranean, it was shared between Alexandria, Rhodes, + Corinth, and Carthage. The chief manufactories appear to have been + those of cotton stuffs, established in or near the temples. + + The best inquiry into the trade of Alexandria will be found in J. + C. D. DE SCHMIDT, _Opuscula, res maxime Aegyptiorum illustrantia_, + 1765, 8vo. + +9. It would be important to know what, in a state like Egypt, was the +system of imposts, which under Philadelphus produced 14,800 silver +talents, (four millions sterling,) without taking into account the toll +paid in grain. In the extreme provinces, such as Palestine, the taxes +were annually farmed to the highest bidder, a mode of levy attended with +great oppression to the people. The case appears to have been very +different with regard to Egypt itself; the customs, however, constituted +the main branch of the revenue. + +10. The wars waged by Ptolemy II. were limited to those against +Antiochus II. of Syria, and Magas of Cyrene, half-brother to the +Egyptian king; the former sprung out of the latter. Luckily for Egypt, +Ptolemy II. was of a weak constitution, and by his state of health was +incapacitated from commanding his armies in person.--Under his reign the +first foundation was laid, by means of reciprocal embassies, of that +connection with Rome which afterwards decided the fate of Egypt. + + Magas had, after the defeat of Ophellas, received Cyrene, 308. He + had married Apame, daughter of Antiochus I., and in 266 had raised + the standard of rebellion with the intention of invading Egypt + itself, when an insurrection in Marmarica compelled him to + retreat; he contrived, notwithstanding, to prevail upon his + father-in-law to undertake an expedition against Egypt, which, + however, was frustrated by Philadelphus, 264. To terminate this + contest, Magas was about to unite his daughter Berenice with the + eldest son of Philadelphus; Apame, wishing to thwart the + negotiation, fled over to her brother, Antiochus II. whom, after + her husband's death, 258, she excited to a war against Egypt, + which closed in 252.--The embassy to Rome originated in the + victory won by the Romans over Pyrrhus, 273; it was answered by + another from the Romans, 272. + +11. The son inherited from his father all but the simplicity of domestic +life: under the reign of Philadelphus, the court was first thrown open +to that effeminate luxury, which soon wrought the destruction of the +Ptolemies as it had previously done that of the Seleucidæ; at the same +time was introduced the pernicious practice of intermarriages in the +same family, by which the royal blood was more foully contaminated here +even than in Syria. Philadelphus set the first example, by repudiating +Arsinoe the daughter of Lysimachus, and then marrying his own sister, +likewise named Arsinoe; this princess preserved her influence over the +king as long as she lived, although she did not bring him an heir, but +adopted the children of her predecessor. + +12. Ptolemy III. surnamed Evergetes. Under him, Egypt, from being merely +mercantile, assumed the character of a conquering state; notwithstanding +his warlike spirit, he was not uninspired with that genius for the arts +of peace peculiar to his family. His conquests were directed partly +against Asia in the war with Seleucus II. and extended as far as the +borders of Bactria; and partly, it is probable, against the interior of +Ethiopia, and the western coast of Arabia. Countries so wealthy, and +with which commerce had made men so well acquainted, could hardly escape +the arms of such a formidable power as Egypt; yet she seems to have made +scarcely any other use of this extension of territory, than to insure +the safety of her commercial routes. + + The main source of the history of Ptolemy Evergetes, is the + inscription on the monument erected by that prince at Adule in + Ethiopia: it contains a chronological list of his conquests, a + copy of which has been preserved to us by Cosmas Indicopleustes; + modern researches, however, have shown the probability of its + having consisted of two inscriptions, one referring to Evergetes, + the other to a later king of Abyssinia.--According to this + monument, Ptolemy inherited from his father, besides Egypt itself, + Libya, that is to say, western Africa as far as Cyrene, + Coele-Syria, Phoenicia, Lycia, Caria, Cyprus, and the + Cyclades.--War with Seleucus Callinicus caused by the murder of + Berenice (see above, p. 237.); lasted until the ten years' truce, + 246-240. During this war, he conquered the whole of Syria as far + as the Euphrates, and most of the maritime countries in Asia + Minor, from Cilicia to the Hellespont: an easy prey to a naval + power. Whether the conquest of the countries beyond the Euphrates, + Mesopotamia, Babylonia, Persis, Susiana, and Media as far as + Bactria, was effected in these four years, or not till between 240 + and 230, is a question which cannot be determined with certainty. + If we may judge by the booty brought back, this campaign was + rather a foray than a regular expedition for conquest, though + Ptolemy, indeed, appointed governors in Cilicia and Babylonia; yet + the peculiar situation of affairs in Asia at the time, Seleucus + being at war with his brother Antiochus Hierax, and the Parthian + and Bactrian kingdoms being also in a state of infant feebleness, + afforded unusual opportunities for an expedition of this sort. + + The southern conquests, so far as they may be referred to + Evergetes, were effected during the last period of his reign, in a + separate war. They comprised: 1st. The greatest part of modern + Abyssinia,--for as the catalogue of nations commences with that of + Abyssinia, it necessarily follows that Nubia had already been + subjected to Egypt.--The mountain range along the Arabian gulf, + the plain of Sennaar as far as modern Darfur, the lofty chain of + mountains to the south, beyond the fountains of the Nile. All + these conquests were made by the king in person; and from those + distant lands to Egypt, commercial roads were opened. 2nd. The + western coast of Arabia, from Leuke Kome to the southern point of + Arabia Felix, was conquered by his generals and admirals: here, + likewise, the security of the commercial roads was established. + + _Monumentum Adulitanum_, published in FABRICIUS, _B. Græc._ t. ii. + + MONTFAUCON, _Coll. Patr._ t. i. and in CHISHULL, _Antiquit. + Asiaticæ_. + + The assertion that the monument bears two different inscriptions + is made by SALT, in the narrative of his travels contained in the + _Travels of Lord Valentia_. + +13. Egypt was singularly blessed in having three great kings, whose +reigns filled one whole century. A change now ensued; but that change +was brought about by the natural course of events; in fact, it could +scarcely be expected that the court should remain untainted by such +luxury as must have prevailed in a city, which was the main seat of +trade, and the deposit of the treasures of the richest countries. + +14. Ptolemy IV. surnamed Philopator. A debauchee and a tyrant, who, +during the greater portion of his reign, remained under the tutelage of +the crafty Sosibius, and, after the decease of that individual, fell +into the yet more infamous hands of Agathocles and his sister +Agathoclea. Philopator being contemporary with Antiochus the Great, the +dangers that threatened Egypt under such a reign seemed to be doubled; +they were, however, averted by the ill-deserved victory of Raphia (see +above, p. 238). + +15. Agathocles and his sister would fain have taken into their own hands +the guardianship of his son Ptolemy V. surnamed Epiphanes, a child only +five years old; but the people having risen up and made a terrible +example of them, the office of guardian was confided to the younger +Sosibius and to Tlepolemus. The reckless prodigality of the former soon +gave rise to a feud between him and his colleague, who was at least +cunning enough to keep up appearances. Meanwhile the critical posture in +which the kingdom was placed, by the attack of the enleagued kings of +Syria and Macedonia, compelled the nation to defer the regency to Rome +and the senate, who had hitherto carefully cherished an amicable +connection with Egypt. + + The regency confided to M. Lepidus, 201, who hands over the + administration to Aristomenes of Acarnania. The sequel will show + how decidedly important this step was for the ulterior destinies + of Egypt. By the war of the Romans against Philip, and their + differences with Antiochus, Egypt was, no doubt, for the present + extricated from her embarrassment; but nevertheless in 198 she + lost her Syrian possessions, notwithstanding Antiochus III. had + promised to give them as a dowry to Cleopatra, the affianced + bride, and subsequently the consort of the young king of Egypt. + + To this time, or about 197, belongs the celebrated inscription on + the Rosetta stone, erected by the caste of priests as a tribute of + gratitude for past benefits, after the consecration of the king at + Memphis upon his coming of age: a monument important alike for + palæography, and for the knowledge of Egyptian administration. + + AMEILHON, _Eclaircissemens sur l'inscription Grecque du monument + trouvé à Rosette_. Paris, 1803. + + HEYNE, _Commentatio de inscriptione Græca ex Aegypto Londinum + apportata_, in the _Commentat. Societ. Gotting._ vol. xv. + +16. The hopes conceived of Epiphanes, were grievously disappointed as he +grew up to manhood. His guardian Aristomenes fell a victim to his +tyranny; nay, his cruelty drove even the patient Egyptians to rebel, +although the insurrections were stilled by his counsellor and general +Polycrates. His reign happened during the period in which Rome crushed +the power of Macedonia and Syria; and notwithstanding the close alliance +between Epiphanes and Antiochus III. the Romans succeeded in holding the +Egyptian king in dependence; he was, however, in the twenty-eighth year +of his age, brought to an early grave by intemperance and debauchery. + +17. Of his two sons, the elder, a child five years old, was his +immediate successor; this prince, by the title of Ptolemy VI. surnamed +Philometor, ascended the throne under the guardianship of his mother +Cleopatra, who fulfilled the duties of her office to the satisfaction of +all, until 173. But, after her death, the regency having fallen into the +hands of Eulæus an eunuch, and Lenæus, these individuals, asserting +their claims to Coele-Syria and Phoenicia, engaged with Antiochus +Epiphanes in a war exceedingly detrimental to Egypt, until Rome +commanded peace to be made. + + Antiochus, after the victory of Pelusium, B. C. 171, and the + treacherous surrender of Cyprus, having possessed himself of Egypt + as far as Alexandria, a faction arose in the city; Philometor was + expelled, and his younger brother Physcon seated on the throne, + 170.--The exile Philometor fell into the power of Antiochus, who + compelled the fugitive to sign a separate peace, highly injurious + to the interests of Egypt. The articles were not, however, + ratified; Philometor secretly entering into an agreement with his + brother that they should both rule in common, 169. Antiochus + having in consequence again made an inroad into Egypt, the two + kings addressed themselves for assistance to the Achæans and to + the Romans: the latter forthwith despatched an embassy to + Antiochus, commanding him to evacuate the territory of their + allies, which happened accordingly, 168. + +18. In the contest, which soon afterwards ensued between the two +brothers, the younger was driven out and sought a refuge at Rome; when a +partition of the kingdom between the princes was determined upon: the +senate, however, after due consideration, refused to confirm the +decision, so that the disputes between the two kings were rekindled and +protracted, until the younger fell into the power of the elder. + + In the first division, 164, Philometor received Egypt and Cyprus; + and the infamous Physcon had for his share Cyrene and Libya. But, + during his stay at Rome, Physcon, contrary to all justice, + obtained the promise of Cyprus; Philometor refusing to give up + that portion of his share, and Cyrene having risen up against its + king, Physcon ran the risk of losing the whole of his dominions. + In the war which, supported by Rome, he waged against his brother, + Physcon fell, 159, into the hands of Philometor, who not only + forgave him, but, leaving him in possession of Cyrene and Libya, + added some cities in the place of Cyprus, and promised him his + daughter in marriage. + +19. During the last period of his reign, Philometor was almost +exclusively busied with Syrian affairs. He supported Alexander Balas +against Demetrius, and even gave him his daughter Cleopatra. +Nevertheless, he afterwards passed over to the side of Demetrius, seated +him on the throne, gave him in marriage this same Cleopatra, who had +been taken away from Balas. But in the battle in which Balas was +overthrown, the Egyptian king also received his death wound. He may be +regarded as one of the good princes of the Ptolemaic dynasty, especially +if compared with his brother. + +20. His younger brother Ptolemy VIII. surnamed Physcon, and likewise +Evergetes II. a monster both in a moral and a physical sense, who had +hitherto been king of Cyrene, now possessed himself of the throne of +Egypt by marrying his predecessor's widow and sister, Cleopatra, whom, +however, after having murdered her son, he repudiated for her daughter +of the same name. This prince accordingly, once more united the divided +kingdom; but at the same time that he was purchasing the sanction of +Rome by vile adulation, he maintained himself at Alexandria by means of +military law, which soon converted the city into a desert, and obliged +him to attract foreign colonists by large promises. Another bloody +massacre, however, produced an insurrection in the town, which compelled +the king to flee to Cyprus, the Alexandrines, meanwhile, raising to the +throne his repudiated wife Cleopatra. Physcon, nevertheless, with the +assistance of his mercenaries, recovered the sceptre, and wielded it to +the day of his death. + + That a prince of such a character should nevertheless be a friend + to science, and himself an author, must ever be regarded as a + singular phenomenon; yet his exaction of manuscripts, and his + treatment of the learned, whole crowds of whom he expelled, betray + the despot. + +21. His widow, the younger Cleopatra, to gratify the Alexandrines, was +obliged to place on the throne the elder of her two sons, Ptolemy IX. +surnamed Lathyrus, who was living in a sort of banishment at Cyprus: to +the younger, Ptolemy Alexander I. who was her favourite, she accordingly +gave the island of Cyprus. But Lathyrus not choosing to obey her in +everything, she compelled him to exchange Egypt for Cyprus, and gave the +former to her younger son. But neither was the new king able to brook +the tyranny of his mother: as she threatened even his life, he saw no +other means of escape than to anticipate her design; but failing in his +project, he was obliged to take to flight, and, after a vain attempt to +recover the throne, perished. The Alexandrines then reinstated in the +government his elder brother Lathyrus, who ruled till the year 81, +possessing both Egypt and Cyprus. + + Revolt and three years' siege of Thebes in Upper Egypt, still one + of the most wealthy cities even in those days, but after its + capture almost levelled to the earth; about 86.--Complete + separation of Cyrenaica from Egypt: this province had been + bequeathed by Physcon as a separate branch-state to his + illegitimate son, Apion, 117; that prince, after a tranquil reign, + bequeathed it, in his turn, to the Romans, 96, who at first + allowed it to retain its independence. + +22. Lathyrus left one daughter born in wedlock, Berenice, and two +illegitimate sons, Ptolemy of Cyprus and Ptolemy Auletes. Besides the +above, there was a lawful son of Alexander I. of the same name as his +father, and at that time residing at Rome with the dictator Sylla. The +following history is obscured by clouds, which, amid the contradiction +of accounts, cannot be entirely dispelled. Generally speaking, Egypt was +now a tool in the hands of powerful individuals at Rome, who regarded it +but as a financial speculation whether they actually supported a +pretender to the Egyptian crown, or fed him with vain hopes. All now saw +that Egypt presented a ripe harvest; but they could not yet agree by +whom that harvest should be reaped. + + The first successor of Lathyrus in Egypt was his legitimate + daughter Cleopatra Berenice, 81: at the end of six months, + however, Sylla, then dictator at Rome, sent his client Alexander + II. to Egypt, 80; that prince married Berenice, and with her + ascended the throne. Nineteen days after Alexander murdered his + consort, and, according to Appian, was himself about the same time + cut off by the Alexandrines, on account of his tyranny. We + afterwards hear, notwithstanding, of a king Alexander, who reigned + until 73, or, according to others, until 66; when, being driven + out of Egypt, he fled to Tyre, and called upon the Romans for that + aid, which probably through Cæsar's intercession, would have been + granted, had not the supplicant soon after died at the place of + his refuge. He is said to have bequeathed by will his kingdom to + Rome; and although the senate did not accept the legacy, it does + not appear to have formally rejected the offer; in consequence of + which, frequent attempts were made at Rome for effecting the + occupation.--Either, therefore, Appian's account must be false, + and this person was the same Alexander II. or he was some other + person bearing that name, and belonging to the royal house.--Be + this as it may, after the death of Lathyrus the kingdom was + dismembered: and one of his illegitimate sons, Ptolemy, had + received Cyprus, but that island was taken from him, 57, and + converted into a Roman province: the other, Ptolemy Auletes, seems + to have kept his footing either in a part of Egypt, or in Cyrene, + and was probably the cause of Alexander's expulsion, at whose + decease he ascended the throne; although the Syrian queen Selene, + sister to Lathyrus, asserted her son's claims at Rome, as + legitimate heir to the throne of Egypt. With Cæsar's assistance, + Auletes, however, succeeded in obtaining the formal acknowledgment + of his right at Rome, 59. But the measures taken by the Romans + with regard to Cyprus, gave rise to a sedition at Alexandria, 57, + in consequence of which Auletes, being compelled to flee, passed + over into Italy: or, perhaps, he was ordered to take this step by + the intrigues of some Roman grandees, anxious of an opportunity to + reinstate him. Pompey's attempts, with this view, are thwarted by + Cato, 56. Meanwhile the Alexandrines placed Berenice, the eldest + daughter of Auletes, on the throne; she married first Seleucus + Cybiosactes, as being the lawful heir; and after putting that + prince to death, united herself to Archelaus, 57.--Actual + restoration of Auletes by the purchased assistance of Gabinius, + the Roman governor of Syria; and execution of Berenice, whose + husband had fallen in the war, 54. Not long after, this miserable + prince, no less effeminate than tyrannical, died, 51. + + J. R. FORSTER, _Commentatio de successoribus Ptolemæi VII._ + Inserted in _Comment. Soc. Gotting._ vol. iii. + +23. Auletes endeavoured by his last testament to insure the kingdom to +his posterity, nominating as his successor, under the superintendence of +the Roman nation, his two elder children. Ptolemy Dionysos, then +thirteen years old, and Cleopatra, seventeen, who were to be united in +wedlock: his two younger children, Ptolemy Neoteros and Arsinoe, he +recommended to the Roman senate. Notwithstanding these measures, Egypt +would not have escaped her fate upwards of twenty years longer, had not +the impending calamities been diverted by the internal posture of +affairs at Rome, and still more by the charms and policy of Cleopatra, +who through her alliance with Cæsar and Antony not only preserved but +even aggrandized her kingdom. From this time, however, the history of +Egypt is most closely implicated with that of Rome. + + Feuds between Cleopatra and her brother, excited and fomented by + the eunuch Pothinus, in whose hands the administration was: they + lead to open war: Cleopatra, driven out, flees to Syria, where she + levies troops: Cæsar in pursuit of the conquered Pompey arrives at + Alexandria, and in the name of Rome, assumes the part of + arbitrator between the king and queen, but suffers himself to be + guided by the artifices of Cleopatra, 48. Violent sedition in + Alexandria, and Cæsar besieged in Bruchium, the malcontent + Pothinus having brought Achillas, the commander of the royal + troops into the city. The hard struggle in which Cæsar was now + engaged, demonstrates not only the bitterness of the long + rankling grudge of the Alexandrines against Rome, but shows also + how decisive, to the whole of Egypt, were the revolutions of the + capital. Ptolemy Dionysos having fallen in the war, and Cæsar + being victorious, the crown fell to Cleopatra, 47, upon condition + of marrying her brother, when he should be of age: but as soon as + the prince grew to manhood, and had been crowned at Memphis, she + removed him by poison, 44. + +24. During the life of Cæsar, Cleopatra remained under his protection, +and consequently in a state of dependence. Not only was a Roman garrison +stationed in the capital city, but the queen herself, together with her +brother, were obliged to visit him at Rome. After the assassination of +Cæsar, she took the side of the triumviri, not without endangering +Egypt, threatened by Cassius who commanded in Syria; and after the death +of her brother, succeeded in getting them to acknowledge as king, +Ptolemy Cæsarion, a son whom she pretended to have had by Cæsar.--But +the ardent passion conceived by Antony for her person, soon after the +discomfiture of the republican party, now attached her inseparably to +his fortunes; which, after vainly attempting to win over the victorious +Octavius, she at last shared. + + The chronology of the ten years in which Cleopatra lived, for the + most part, with Antony, is not without difficulty, but, according + to the most probable authorities, may be arranged in the following + manner. Summoned before his tribunal, on account of the pretended + support afforded by some of her generals to Cassius, she appears + in his presence at Tarsus, in the attire, and with the parade, of + Venus, 41; he follows her into Egypt. In the year 40, Antony, + called back to Italy by the breaking out of the Perusine war, is + there induced, by political motives, to espouse Octavia; meanwhile + Cleopatra abides in Egypt. In the autumn of 37, she goes to meet + him in Syria, where he was making ready for the war against the + Parthians, until then prosecuted by his lieutenants; here she + obtained at his hands Phoenicia--Tyre and Sidon + excepted,--together with Cyrene and Cyprus; and in 36 went back to + Alexandria, where she remained during the campaign. The expedition + ended, Antony returned into Egypt and resided at Alexandria. From + thence it was his intention to attack Armenia in 35; this design, + however, he did not effect until 34, when, after taking the king + prisoner, he returned in triumph to Alexandria, and presented to + Cleopatra, or to his three children by her, all the countries of + Asia from the Mediterranean to the Indus, already conquered or to + be conquered. Preparing then to renew, in conjunction with the + king of Media, his attack on the Parthians, he is prevailed upon + by Cleopatra to break with Octavia, who was to bring over troops + to him, 38. A war between him and Octavius being now unavoidable, + the Parthian campaign already opened is suspended, and Cleopatra + accompanies Antony to Samos, 32, where he formally repudiated + Octavia. From hence she followed him in his expedition against + Octavius, which was decided by the battle of Actium, fought + September 2, 31.--Octavius having pursued his enemy into Egypt, + Alexandria was besieged, 30, and after Antony had laid violent + hands on himself, the place surrendered; and Cleopatra, not + brooking to be dragged a prisoner to Rome, followed the example of + her lover, and procured her own death. + +25. Even in this last period, Egypt appears to have been the seat of +unbounded wealth and effeminacy. The line of infamous princes who had +succeeded to the third Ptolemy were unable to destroy her prosperity. +Strange, however, as this seems, it may be easily accounted for when we +consider that the political revolutions scarcely ever overstepped the +walls of the capital, and that an almost perpetual peace ruled in the +country: that Egypt was the only great theatre of trade; and that that +trade must have increased in the same proportion as the spirit of luxury +increased in Rome, and in the Roman empire. The powerful effects +wrought on Egypt by the growth of Roman luxury, are most convincingly +demonstrated by the state of that country when it had become a Roman +province; so far from the trade of Alexandria decreasing in that +period,--though the city suffered in the first days after the +conquest--it subsequently attained an extraordinary and gigantic bulk. + + +III. _History of Macedonia and of Greece in general, from the death of +Alexander to the Roman conquest, B. C. 323-146._ + + The sources for this history are the same as have been quoted + above: see p. 232. Until the battle of Ipsus, 301, Diodorus is + still our grand authority. But in the period extending from 301 to + 224, we meet with some chasms: here almost our only sources are + the fragments of Diodorus, a few of Plutarch's lives, and the + inaccurate accounts of Justin. From the year 224, our main + historian is Polybius; and even in those parts where we do not + possess his work in its complete form, the fragments that have + been preserved must always be the first authorities consulted. + Livy, and other writers on Roman history, should accompany + Polybius. + + Among modern books, besides the general works mentioned above + p. 1. we may here in particular quote: + + JOHN GAST, D. D. _The History of Greece, from the accession of + Alexander of Macedon, till the final subjection to the Roman + power, in eight books._ London, 1782, 4to. Although not a + master-piece of composition, yet too important to be passed over + in silence. + +1. Of the three main kingdoms that arose out of Alexander's monarchy, +Macedonia was the most insignificant, not only in extent,--particularly +as till B. C. 286 Thrace remained a separate and independent +province,--but likewise in population and wealth. Yet, being, as it +were, the head country of the monarchy, it was considered to hold the +first rank; and here at first resided the power which, nominally at +least, extended over the whole. As early, however, as the year 311, upon +the total extermination of Alexander's family, it became a completely +separate kingdom. From that time its sphere of external operation was +for the most part confined to Greece, the history of which, +consequently, is closely interwoven with that of Macedonia. + + Posture of affairs in Greece at Alexander's decease: Thebes in + ruins: Corinth occupied by a Macedonian garrison: Sparta + humiliated by the defeat she had suffered at the hands of + Antipater in her attempt at a revolt against Macedonia, under Agis + II. 333-331: Athens on the other hand flourishing, and although + confined to her own boundaries, still by her fame, and her naval + power, the first state in Greece. + +2. Although at the first division of the provinces, Craterus, as civil +governor, was united with Antipater, the latter had the management of +affairs. And the termination, as arduous as it was successful, of the +Lamian war,--kindled immediately after the death of Alexander, by the +Greeks, enthusiastic in the cause of freedom,--enabled him to rivet the +chains of Greece more firmly than they had ever been before. + + The Lamian war--the sparks of which had been kindled by + Alexander's edict, granting leave to all the Grecian emigrants, + twenty thousand in number, nearly the whole of whom were in the + Macedonian interest, to return to their native countries,--was + fanned to a flame by the democratic party at Athens. Urged by + Demosthenes and Hyperides, almost all the states of central and + northern Greece, Boeotia excepted, took up arms in the cause; and + their example was quickly followed by most of those in + Peloponnesus, with the exception of Sparta, Argos, Corinth, and + the Achæans. Not even the Persian war produced such general + unanimity! The gallant Leosthenes headed the league.--Defeat of + Antipater, who is shut up in Lamia; Leosthenes, however, falls in + the siege of that place, B. C. 323, and although Leonatus--who + with the view of ascending the throne by his marriage with + Cleopatra, had come to the assistance of the Macedonians--was + beaten and slain, 322, the Greeks were finally overwhelmed by the + reinforcements, brought to Antipater out of Asia, by Craterus. And + Antipater having fully succeeded in breaking the league, and + negotiating with each separate nation, was enabled to dictate the + terms. Most of the cities opened their gates to Macedonian troops; + besides this, Athens was obliged to purchase peace through the + mediation of Phocion and Demades, by an alteration in her + constitution,--the poorer citizens being excluded from all share + in the government, and for the most part translated into + Thrace--and by a pledge to deliver up Demosthenes and Hyperides; + whose place Phocion occupied at the head of the state.--The + Ætolians, the last against whom the Macedonian wars were directed, + obtained better terms than they had ventured to expect, Antipater + and Craterus being obliged to hurry over to Asia in order to + oppose Perdiccas. + +3. That hatred which, even in the lifetime of Alexander, had sprung up +between Antipater and Olympias, in consequence of his not permitting the +dowager queen to rule, induced her to withdraw to Epirus; her rankling +envy being still more embittered by the influence of the young queen +Eurydice. See above, p. 224. Antipater, dying shortly after his +expedition against Perdiccas, in which his colleague Craterus had +fallen, and he himself had been appointed regent, nominates his friend, +the aged Polysperchon, to succeed him as regent and head guardian, to +the exclusion of his own son Cassander. Hence arose a series of quarrels +between the two, in which, unfortunately for themselves, the royal +family were implicated and finally exterminated, Cassander obtaining the +sovereignty of Macedonia. + + Cassander having secured the interest of Antigonus and Ptolemy, + makes his escape to the former, 319: he had previously + endeavoured also to raise a party in Macedonia and Greece, + particularly by getting his friend Nicanor to be commander at + Athens.--Measures taken by Polysperchon to oppose him; in the + first place, he recalls Olympias out of Epirus, but the princess + dares not come without an army; in the next place, he nominates + Eumenes commander of the royal troops in Asia (see above, p. 225); + he likewise endeavours to gain the Grecian cities, by recalling + the Macedonian garrisons, and changing the governors set over them + by Antipater. These latter, however, were in most of the cities + too firmly established to suffer themselves thus to be deposed; + and even the expedition into Peloponnesus, undertaken by + Polysperchon to enforce his injunctions was attended but with + partial success.--In the same year occurs a twofold revolution in + Athens, whither Polysperchon had sent his son Alexander, nominally + for the purpose of driving out Nicanor, but virtually to get + possession of that important city. In the first place, Alexander + and Nicanor appearing to unite both for the attainment of one and + the same object, the democratic party rise up, and overthrow the + rulers, hitherto taken from Antipater's party, and headed by + Phocion, who is compelled to swallow poison: soon after, however, + Cassander occupies the city, excludes from the administration all + that possess less than ten mines, and places at the head of + affairs Demetrius Phalereus, who, from 318 to 307, ruled with + great prudence.--Not long after, Olympias returns with an army + from Epirus; the Macedonian troops of Philip and Eurydice having + passed over to her side, she wreaks her revenge on the royal + couple, and on the brother of Cassander, all of whom she puts to + death, 317. Cassander, nevertheless, having obtained + reinforcements in Peloponnesus, takes the field against her; she + is besieged in Pydna, where, disappointed in the hope of being + relieved either by Polysperchon or by Æacidas of Epirus, both of + whom were forsaken by their men, she is obliged to surrender, 316. + Cassander, having caused her to be condemned by the Macedonian + people, has her put to death. + +4. Cassander being now master, and, from 302, king of Macedonia, +confirmed his dominion by a marriage with Thessalonice, half-sister to +Alexander, and at the same time endeavoured to corroborate as far as +possible his authority in Greece. Polysperchon and his son Alexander, +it is true, still made head in Peloponnesus; but the states without the +peninsula, Ætolia excepted, were all either allies of Cassander, or +occupied by Macedonian troops. After the defeat of the league against +Antigonus, in which Cassander had borne a part, general peace was +concluded, with the proviso, that the Grecian cities should be free, and +that the young Alexander, when of age, should be raised to the throne of +Macedonia: this induced Cassander to rid himself both of the young +prince and his mother Roxana by murder: but he thereby exposed himself +to an attack from Polysperchon, who, availing himself of the discontent +of the Macedonians, brought back Hercules, the only remaining +illegitimate son of Alexander. Cassander diverted the storm by a new +crime, instigating Polysperchon to murder the young Hercules, under +promise of sharing the government: Polysperchon, however, unable to +possess himself of the Peloponnesus which had been promised him, appears +to have preserved but little influence. Cassander met likewise with +formidable opponents in the persons of Antigonus and his son; and +although delivered by the breaking out of the war with Ptolemy from the +danger of the first invasion of Greece by Demetrius, his situation was +more embarrassing at the second irruption; from which, however, he was +extricated by the circumstance of Antigonus being obliged to recall his +son, on account of the newly formed league (see above, p. 230). + + Antigonus, on his return from Upper Asia, declares loudly against + Cassander, B. C. 314; despatches his general Aristodemus to + Peloponnesus, and frames a league with Polysperchon and his son + Alexander; the latter, however, Cassander succeeds in winning over + by a promise of the command in Peloponnesus. Alexander was soon + after murdered, but his wife Cratesipolis succeeded him, and + commanded with the spirit of a man. Meanwhile, Cassander carried + war against the Ætolians, who sided with Antigonus, 313; but + Antigonus, 312, having sent his general Ptolemy into Greece with a + fleet and army, Cassander lost his supremacy. In the peace of 311, + the freedom of all the Grecian cities was stipulated; but this + very condition became the pretext of various and permanent feuds; + and Cassander having murdered the young king, together with his + mother, drew upon himself the arms of Polysperchon, who wished to + place Hercules on the throne, 310; but the pretender was removed + in the manner above described, 309.--Cassander now endeavouring to + reestablish his power over Greece, Demetrius Poliorcetes was by + his father sent into that country in order to anticipate Ptolemy + of Egypt, in the enforcement of the decree for the freedom of the + Greeks, 308; the result at Athens was the restoration of + democracy, and the expulsion of Demetrius Phalereus.--From any + further attack of Demetrius, Cassander was delivered by the war + which broke out between Antigonus and Ptolemy, (see above, p. + 229.) and had the leisure, once more, to strengthen his power in + Greece, until 302, when Demetrius arrived a second time, and, as + generalissimo of liberated Greece, pressed forward to the borders + of Macedonia; Demetrius was, however, recalled by his father into + Asia, and at the battle of Ipsus, 301, lost all his dominions in + that quarter of the world. Yet although Athens closed her harbours + against him, he still maintained his possessions in Peloponnesus, + and even endeavoured to extend them; from thence, in 297, he + sallied forth, and once more took possession of his beloved + Athens, and after driving out the usurper Lachares, forgave her + ingratitude. + +5. Cassander survived the establishment of his throne by the battle of +Ipsus only three years: and bequeathed Macedonia as an inheritance to +his three sons, the eldest of whom, Philip, shortly after followed his +father to the grave. + +6. The two remaining sons, Antipater and Alexander, soon worked their +own destruction. Antipater having murdered his own mother Thessalonice, +on account of the favour she showed his brother, was obliged to flee; he +applied for help to his father-in-law Lysimachus of Thrace, where he +soon after died. Meanwhile Alexander, fancying that he likewise stood in +need of foreign assistance, addressed himself to Pyrrhus, king of +Macedonia, and to Demetrius Poliorcetes, both of whom obeyed the call +only with the expectation of being paid. After various snares +reciprocally laid for each other, the king of Macedonia was murdered by +Demetrius, and with him the race of Antipater became extinct. + +7. The army proclaimed Demetrius king; and in his person the house of +Antigonus ascended the throne of Macedonia, and, after many +vicissitudes, established their power. His seven years' reign, in which +one project succeeded the other, was a constant series of wars; and as +he never could learn how to bear with good fortune, his ambition was at +last his ruin. + + The kingdom of Demetrius comprised Macedonia, Thessaly, and the + greatest part of the Peloponnesus; he was also master of Megara + and Athens.--Twofold capture of Thebes, which had been rebuilt by + Cassander, 293, and 291; unsuccessful attempt upon Thrace, 292. + His war with Pyrrhus, 290, in whom men fancied they beheld another + Alexander, had already alienated the affections of the + Macedonians; but his grand project for the recovery of Asia + induced his enemies to get the start of him; and the hatred of his + subjects compelled him secretly to escape to Peloponnesus, to his + son Antigonus, 287. Athens, taking advantage of his misfortunes, + drove out the Macedonian garrison, and, by the election of + archons, reestablished her ancient constitution; although + Demetrius laid siege to the town, he allowed himself to be + pacified by Crates. Having once more attempted to prosecute his + plans against Asia, he was obliged, 286, to surrender to Seleucus + his father-in-law, who, out of charity, kept him till the day of + his death, 284. + +8. Two claimants to the vacant throne now arose, viz. Pyrrhus of Epirus +and Lysimachus of Thrace; but although Pyrrhus was first proclaimed +king, with the cession of half the dominions, he could not, being a +foreigner, support his power any longer than the year 286, when he was +deposed by Lysimachus. + + The sovereigns of Epirus, belonging to the family of the Æacidæ, + were properly kings of the Molossi. See above, p. 150. They did + not become lords of all Epirus, nor consequently of any historical + importance, until the time of the Peloponnesian war. After that + period Epirus was governed by Alcetas I. about 384, who pretended + to be the sixteenth descendant from Pyrrhus, the son of Achilles; + Neoptolemus, father to Olympias, by whose marriage with Philip, + 358, the kings of Epirus became intimately connected with + Macedonia, _d._ 352; Arymbas, his brother, _d._ 342; Alexander I. + son of Neoptolemus, and brother-in-law to Alexander the Great; he + was ambitious to be as great a conqueror in the west as his + kinsman was in the east, but he fell in Lucania, 332. Æacides, son + of Arymbas, _d._ 312. Pyrrhus II. his son, the Ajax of his time, + and, we might almost say, rather an adventurer than a king. After + uninterrupted wars waged in Macedonia, Greece, Italy, and Sicily, + he fell at last at the storming of Argos, 272. He was followed by + his son Alexander II. in the person of whose successor, Pyrrhus + III. 219, the male line became extinct. Although the daughter of + this last prince, Deidamia, succeeded to the throne, the Epirots + were not long before they established a democratic government, + which endured till such time as they were, together with Macedonia + and the rest of Greece, brought under the Roman yoke, 146. + +9. In consequence of the accession of Lysimachus, Thrace, and for a +short time even Asia Minor, were annexed to the Macedonian kingdom. But +rankling hatred and family relations soon afterwards involved Lysimachus +in a war with Seleucus Nicator, in which, at battle of Curopedion, he +lost both his throne and his life. + + Execution of the gallant Agathocles, eldest son of Lysimachus, at + the instigation of his step-mother Arsinoe: his widow Lysandra and + her brother Ptolemy Ceraunus, who had already been driven out of + Egypt by his step-mother Berenice, go over, followed by a large + party, to Seleucus, whom they excite to war. + +10. The victorious Seleucus, already lord of Asia, now causing himself +to be proclaimed likewise king of Macedonia, it seemed as if that +country was again about to become the head seat of the whole monarchy. +But shortly after he had crossed over into Europe, Seleucus fell by the +murderous hand of Ptolemy Ceraunus, who, availing himself of the +treasures of his victim, and of the yet remaining troops of Lysimachus, +took possession of the throne; by another act of treachery he avenged +himself of Arsinoe, his half-sister; but just as he conceived himself +securely established, he lost both his crown and his life by the +irruption of the Gauls into Macedonia. + + The irruption of the Gauls, threatening desolation not only to + Macedonia but to the whole of Greece, took place in three + successive expeditions. The first under Cambaules, (probably 280,) + advanced no further than Thrace, the invaders not being + sufficiently numerous. The second in three bodies; against Thrace + under Ceretrius; against Pæonia under Brennus and Acichorius; + against Macedonia and Illyria under Belgius, 279. By the + last-mentioned chieftain Ptolemy was defeated; he fell in the + contest. In consequence, Meleager first, and Antipater + subsequently, were appointed kings of Macedonia; but both, on + account of incapacity, being soon afterwards deposed, a Macedonian + noble, Sosthenes, assumed the command, and this time liberated his + country. But the year 278 brought with it the main storm, which + spent its fury principally on Greece: Sosthenes was defeated and + slain: and although the Greeks brought all their united forces + into the field, Brennus and Acichorius burst into Greece on two + different sides, and pushed on to Delphi, the object of their + expedition; from hence, however, they were compelled to retreat; + and most of them were cut off by hunger, cold, or the sword. + Nevertheless a portion of those barbarians stood their ground in + the interior of Thrace, which, consequently, was for the most part + lost to Macedonia: another portion, consisting of various hordes, + the Tectosagæ, Tolistobii, and Trocmi, crossed over to Asia Minor, + where they established themselves in the country called after them + Galatia (see above, p. 236). Although there can be no doubt that + the Tectosagæ must have come from the innermost parts of Gaul, the + mode of attack demonstrates that the main tide of invaders + consisted of the neighbouring races; and, in fact, in those days + the countries from the Danube to the Mediterranean and Adriatic + were mostly occupied by Gauls.--Greece, though she strained every + nerve, and with the exception of Peloponnesus, was united in one + league, could scarcely bring forward more than 20,000 men to stem + the torrent. + +11. Antigonus of Gonni, son to Demetrius, now seated himself on the +vacant throne of desolated Macedon; he bought off his competitor, +Antiochus I. named Soter, by treaty and marriage. Successfully as he +opposed the new irruption of the Gauls, he was dethroned by Pyrrhus, +who, on his return from Italy, was a second time proclaimed king of +Macedonia. That prince, however, having formed the design of conquering +the Peloponnesus, and, after an ineffectual attack on Sparta, which was +repelled with heroic gallantry, wishing to take possession of Argos, +fell at the storming of the latter place. + + Extraordinary as these frequent revolutions appear, they may be + easily accounted for by the mode of warfare in those days. Every + thing depended on the armies; and these were composed of + mercenaries, ever willing to fight against him they had defended + the day before, if they fancied his rival to be a more valiant or + fortunate leader. Since the death of Alexander, the Macedonian + phalanx was no longer dependent on its captains, but they on their + men. The impoverishment of the countries, in consequence of war, + was such, that the soldier's was almost the only profitable trade; + and none prosecuted that trade more ardently than the Gauls, whose + services were ever ready for any one who chose to pay for them. + +12. After the death of Pyrrhus, Antigonus Gonnatas recovered the +Macedonian throne, of which he and his descendants kept uninterrupted +possession, yet not till after a violent contest with Alexander, the son +and successor of Pyrrhus. But no sooner were they secure from foreign +rivals, than the Macedonian policy was again directed against Greece, +and the capture of Corinth seemed to insure the dependence of the whole +country, when the formation of the Ætolian, and the yet more important +Achæan, league, gave rise to relations entirely new, and of the highest +interest, even for the universal history of the world. After so many +storms, the sun of Greece was about to set in all his splendour! + + The ancient confederacy of the twelve Achæan cities (see above, p. + 145.) had subsisted until the death of Alexander, but was + dissolved in the subsequent commotions; particularly when, after + the battle of Ipsus, 301, Demetrius and his son made Peloponnesus + the principal seat of their power. Some of these cities were now + garrisoned by those princes, while in others arose tyrants, + generally favourable to their interests. In 281, four asserted + their freedom and renewed the ancient federation; which, five + years afterwards, was gradually joined by the rest, Antigonus + being busied elsewhere, in consequence of his occupation of the + Macedonian throne. But the league did not become formidable till + the accession of foreign states. This took place, in the first + instance, with Sicyon, through the exertions of the liberator of + that town, Aratus, who now became the animating spirit of the + federation; and in 243 brought over Corinth, after the expulsion + of the Macedonian garrison, and Megara. Afterwards the league + gradually acquired strength, by the junction of several Grecian + cities, Athens among others, 229; and thereby excited the jealousy + of the rest. And as Aratus, who was more of a statesman than a + general, and possessed but little independence, had in the very + outset joined the party of Ptolemy II. the league soon became + involved in the disputes of the great powers, and was too often + but a mere tool in their hands. The main principles on which it + was founded were the following: 1. Complete political equality of + all the federate cities; in this respect it essentially differed + from all the earlier federations in Greece. 2. Unconditional + preservation of the domestic government in every one of the + cities. 3. The meeting twice a year of deputies from all the + cities, at Ægium, and afterwards at Corinth; for transacting all + business of common interest, particularly foreign affairs, and + also for the purpose of electing the strategus, or military leader + and head of the union, and the ten demiurgi, or supreme + magistrates.--But what more than all contributed to exalt this + league, founded on pure liberty, was the virtue of Aratus, 213, + Philopoemen, 183, and Lycortas, 170; men who breathed into it the + spirit of union, until, enfeebled by Roman policy, it was + overthrown. + + # BREITENBAUCH, _History of the Achæans and their league_, 1782. + + The Ætolian league was formed about 284, in consequence of the + oppressions of the Macedonian kings. The Ætolians had likewise a + yearly congress, panætolium, at Thermus; where they chose a + strategus and the apocleti, who constituted the state council. + They had, besides, their secretary, [Greek: grammateus]; and + supervisors, [Greek: ephoroi], whose particular functions are, + however, matter of doubt. This federation did not increase like + the Achæan, none but Ætolians being admitted. The more unpolished + this piratical nation remained, the more frequently it was used as + the tool of foreign, and particularly of Roman, policy. + +13. Antigonus, in the latter part of his reign, had recourse to various +means, and more especially to an alliance with the Ætolians, for the +purpose of counterpoising the Achæans. He died in his eightieth year, +and was succeeded by his son, Demetrius II. who waged war upon the +Ætolians, now, however, supported by the Achæans; and endeavoured to +repress the growth of the latter, by favouring the tyrants of particular +cities. The remainder of the reign of this prince is little more than a +chasm in history. + + The vulgar assertion that this prince conquered Cyrene and Libya, + originates in a confusion of names; his uncle Demetrius, son of + Poliorcetes of Ptolemais, being mentioned by Plutarch as king of + Cyrene. The history of that town, from 258 to 142, is enveloped in + almost total darkness: cf. Prolog. Trogi, l. xxvi. ad calcem + Justini. + +14. Demetrius's son Philip was passed over; his brother's son, Antigonus +II. surnamed Doson, being raised to the throne. This king was occupied +the most of his time by the events in Greece, where a very remarkable +revolution at Sparta, as we learn from Plutarch, had raised up a +formidable enemy against the Achæans; and so completely altered the +relative position of affairs, that the Macedonians, from having been +opponents, became allies of the Achæans. + + Sketch of the situation of Spartan affairs at this period: the + ancient constitution still continued to exist in form; but the + plunder of foreign countries, and particularly the permission to + transfer landed estates, obtained by Epitadeus, had produced great + inequality of property. The restoration of Lycurgus's constitution + had, therefore, a twofold object; to favour the poor by a new + agrarian law and release from debts, and to increase the power of + the kings by repressing that of the ephori.--First attempt at + reform 244, by king Agis III; attended in the beginning with + partial success, but eventually frustrated by the other king, + Leonidas, and terminating in the extinction of Agis and his + family, 241. Leonidas, however, was succeeded, 236, by his son + Cleomenes, who victoriously defeated the plans of Aratus to force + Sparta to accede to the Achæan league, 227; this king, by a + forcible revolution, overthrew the ephori, and accomplished the + project of Agis, at the same time increasing the Spartans by the + admission of a number of periæci; and enforcing the laws of + Lycurgus referring to private life; but as in a small republic a + revolution cannot be confirmed without some external war, he + attacked the Achæans as early as 224; these being defeated, + implored, through Aratus, the help of Antigonus; Cleomenes in + consequence was, at the battle of Sellasia, 222, obliged to yield + to superior force, and with difficulty escaped over to Egypt; + while Sparta was compelled to acknowledge her independence as a + gift at the hands of Antigonus. Such was the miserable success of + this attempt made by a few great men on a nation already + degenerate. The quarrels between the ephori and king Lycurgus and + his successor Machanidas, placed Sparta in a state of anarchy, + which ended, 207, in the usurpation of the sovereign power by one + Nabis, who destroyed the ancient form of government. Let him who + would study great revolutions commence with that just described; + insignificant as it is, none perhaps furnishes more instructive + lessons. + + PLUTARCHI _Agis et Cleomenes_. The information in which is + principally drawn from the Commentaries of Aratus. + +15. Philip II. son of Demetrius. He ascended the throne at the early age +of sixteen, endowed with many qualities, such as might, under favourable +circumstances, have formed a great prince. Macedonia had recruited her +strength during a long peace; and her grand political aim, the supremacy +of Greece, secured by the connection of Antigonus with the Achæans, and +by the victory of Sellasia, seemed to be already within her grasp. But +Philip lived in a time when Rome was pursuing her formidable plans of +aggrandizement: the more vigorous and prompt his efforts were to +withstand that power, the more deeply was he entangled in the new maze +of events, which embittered the rest of his life, and at last brought +him to the grave with a broken heart, converted by misfortune into a +despot. + +16. The first five years of Philip were occupied by his participation +in the war between the Achæans and Ætolians, called the war of the two +leagues; notwithstanding the treachery of his minister Apellas and his +dependents, the prince was enabled to dictate the conditions of peace, +according to which both parties were to remain in possession of what +they then had. The conclusion of this peace was hastened by the news of +Hannibal's victory at Thrasymenus, Philip being then instigated to form +more extensive projects by Demetrius of Pharus, who had fled before the +Romans, and soon acquired unlimited influence with the Macedonian king. + + The war of the two leagues arose out of the piracies of the + Ætolians on the Messenians, the latter of whom the Achæans + undertook to protect, 221. The errors committed by Aratus + compelled the Achæans to have recourse to Philip, 220; whose + progress, however, was for a long time impeded by the artifices of + Apellas's faction, who wished to overthrow Aratus. The + Acarnanians, Epirots, Messenians, and Scerdilaidas of Illyria, + (who, however, soon after declared against Macedonia,) combined + with Philip and the Achæans; the Ætolians, on the other hand, + commanded by their own general, Scopas, had for their allies the + Spartans and Eleans.--The most important consequence of this war + for Macedonia was, that she began again to be a naval + power.--About the same time a war broke out between the two + trading republics of Byzantium and Rhodes (the latter supported by + Prusias I. of Bithynia) insignificant in itself, but which, as a + commercial war, originating in the duties imposed by the + Byzantines, was the only one of its kind in this age, 222. The + Rhodians, so powerful in those days by sea, compelled their + adversaries to submit. + +17. The negotiations between Philip and Hannibal concluded with an +alliance, in which reciprocal help was promised towards annihilating +Rome. But Rome contrived to excite so many foes against Philip on the +borders of his own kingdom, and availed herself so skilfully of her +naval power, that the execution of this plan was prevented until it +became possible to attack the Macedonian king in Greece; where he had +made himself many enemies, by the domineering tone he had assumed +towards his allies at the time that, sensible of his power, he was about +to enter upon a wider sphere of action. + + Commencement of hostilities by Rome, against Philip: immediately + that the alliance of Philip and Hannibal was known, a squadron + with troops on board was stationed off the coast of Macedonia, by + which the king himself was defeated at Apollonia, 214.--Alliance + of Rome with the Ætolians, joined likewise by Sparta and Elis, + Attalus king of Pergamus, and Scerdilaidas and Pleuratus, kings of + Illyria, 211. On Philip's side were the Achæans, with whom + Philopoemen more than supplied the loss of Aratus, occasioned, + 213, by the Macedonian king; to them were joined the Acarnanians + and Bæotians.--Attacked on every side, Philip successfully + extricated himself from his difficulties; in the first place, he + compelled the Ætolians, who had been abandoned by Attalus and + Rome, to accept separate terms, which, shortly after, Rome, + consulting her own convenience, converted into a general peace, + inclusive of the allies on either side, 204. + +18. New war of Philip against Attalus and the Rhodians, carried on for +the most part in Asia Minor; and his impolitic alliance with Antiochus +III. to attack Egypt. But can Philip be blamed for his endeavours to +disarm the military servants of the Romans? Rome, however, did not grant +him time to effect his designs; the Macedonian king was taught at Chios, +by woeful experience, that his navy had not increased proportionably +with that of the Rhodians. + +19. The war with Rome suddenly hurled the Macedonian power from its +lofty pitch; and by laying the foundation of Roman dominion in the +east, wrought a change in almost all the political relations of that +quarter. The first two years of the war showed pretty evidently, that +mere force could scarcely overturn the Macedonian throne. But T. +Quintius Flaminius stepped forward; with the magic spell of freedom he +intoxicated the Greeks; Philip was stripped of his allies; and the +battle of Cynoscephalæ decided everything. The articles of the peace +were: 1. That all Grecian cities in Europe and Asia should be +independent, and Philip should withdraw his garrisons. 2. That he should +surrender the whole of his navy, and never afterwards keep more than 500 +armed men on foot. 3. That he should not, without previously informing +Rome, undertake any war out of Macedonia. 4. That he should pay 1,000 +talents by instalments, and deliver up his younger son Demetrius as an +hostage. + + The Roman allies in this war were: the Ætolians, Athenians, + Rhodians, the kings of the Athamanes, Dardanians, and + Pergamus.--The Achæans at the beginning sided with Philip, but + were subsequently gained over by Flaminius. See below, in the + Roman History. + +20. Soon after, the freedom of Greece was solemnly proclaimed at the +Isthmian games by Flaminius: but loud as the Greeks were in their +exultations, this measure served merely to transfer the supremacy of +their country from Macedonia to Rome: and Grecian history, as well as +the Macedonian, is now interwoven with that of the Romans. To foster +quarrels between the Greek states, with the especial view of hindering +the Achæans from growing too formidable, now became a fundamental +principle at Rome; and Roman and anti-Roman parties having quickly +arisen in every city, this political game was easily played. + + Flaminius even took care that the Achæans should have an opponent + in the person of Nabis, although under the necessity of waging war + against him previous to his return into Italy, 194.--In 192, war + between Nabis and the Achæans; followed after the murder of Nabis, + at the hands of the Ætolians, by the accession of Sparta to the + Achæan league.--But about the same time Greece once more became + the theatre of foreign war; Antiochus having firmly seated himself + in the country, and enleagued himself with several tribes, but + more particularly the Ætolians, inspired with bitter and + long-standing hatred against the Romans. These last, however, + after the expulsion of Antiochus from Greece, 191, paid dearly for + their secession; nor was peace granted them by Rome till after + long and unsuccessful supplications, 189. + +21. While war was pending between the Romans and Antiochus, Philip, in +the character of one of the numerous allies of Rome, ventured to +increase his territory at the expense of the Athamanes, Thracians, and +Thessalians. To keep him in good humour he was permitted to effect those +conquests; but after the termination of the war the oppression of Rome +became so galling, that it could not be otherwise than that all his +thoughts should centre in revenge, and all his exertions be directed +towards the recovery of power. Meanwhile the violent measures adopted +for repeopling his exhausted kingdom--such is the punishment of ambition +which usually awaits even the victorious!--the transplantation of the +inhabitants of whole cities and countries, and the consequent and +unavoidable oppression of several of his neighbours, excited universal +complaints; and where was the accuser of Philip to whom Rome would not +now lend a ready ear?--His younger son, Demetrius, the pupil of Rome, +and by her intended, it is probable, to succeed to the crown, alone +diverted the impending fate of Macedonia. But after the return of that +prince from his embassy, the envy of his elder and bastard brother, +Perseus, grew into an inveterate rancour, such as could not be quenched +but by the death of the younger. The lot of Philip was indeed hard, +compelled as a father to judge between his two sons; but the measure of +human woe was filled, when after the death of his favourite child he +discovered that he was innocent; are we to wonder that sorrow should +soon have hurried him to a premature grave! + +22. The same policy which was observed by the Romans towards Philip, +they pursued towards the Achæans, with whom, since the termination of +the war with Antiochus, they had assumed a loftier tone; and this artful +game was facilitated by the continual quarrels among the Greeks +themselves. Yet the great Philopoemen, worthy of a better age, +maintained the dignity of the league at the very time that the Romans +presumed to speak as arbitrators. After his decease they found it easy +to raise a party among the Achæans themselves, the venal Callicrates +offering his services for that purpose. + + The Achæans was continually embroiled either with Sparta or with + Messene: the grounds of difference were, that in both of those + states there were factions headed by persons who, out of personal + motives, and for the most part hatred to Philopoemen, wished to + secede from the league; on the other hand, the prevailing idea + among the Achæans was, that this league ought to comprise the + whole of the Peloponnesus. In the war against the Messenians, + 183, Philopoemen, at the age of seventy, was taken prisoner by the + enemy and put to death. + + PLUTARCHI, _Philopoemen_. Nearly the whole of which is compiled + from the lost biography of Polybius. + +23. The last Macedonian king, Perseus, had inherited his father's +perfect hatred of the Romans, together with talents, if not equal, at +least but little inferior. He entered into the speculations of his +predecessor, and the first seven years of his reign was occupied in +constant exertions to muster forces against Rome; with this view he +called the Bastarnæ out of the north, in order to settle them in the +territories of his enemies the Dardanians; he endeavoured to form +alliances with the kings of Illyria, Thrace, Syria, and Bithynia; above +all, he strove by negotiations and promises to reestablish the ancient +influence of Macedonia in Greece. + + The settlement of the Bastarnæ (probably a German race, resident + beyond the Danube) in Thrace and Dardania, in order with them to + carry war against the Romans, was one of the plans traced out by + Philip, and now partially executed by Perseus.--In Greece the + Macedonian party, which Perseus formed chiefly out of the great + number of impoverished citizens in the country, would probably + have gained the upper hand, had not the fear inspired by Rome, and + the active vigilance of that power, interposed an effectual bar. + Hence the Achæans, apparently at least, remained on the Roman + side; the Ætolians, by domestic factions, had worked their own + destruction; the case was the same with the Acarnanians; and the + federation of the Boeotians had been completely dissolved by the + Romans, 171. On the other hand, in Epirus the Macedonian party was + superior; Thessaly was occupied by Perseus; several of the + Thracian tribes were friendly to him; and in king Gentius he found + an ally who might have been highly useful, had not the Macedonian + prince, by an ill-timed avarice, deprived himself of his + assistance. + +24. The commencement of open hostilities was hastened by the bitter +hatred existing between Perseus and Eumenes, and by the intrigues of the +latter at Rome. Neglect of the favourable moment for taking the field, +and the defensive system, skilfully in other respects as it was planned, +caused the ruin of Perseus, as it had done that of Antiochus. +Nevertheless he protracted the war to the fourth year, when the battle +of Pidna decided the fate both of himself and his kingdom. + + Miserable condition of Perseus until his capture at Samothrace; + and afterwards until his death at Rome, 166. + +25. According to the system at that period followed by Rome, the +conquered kingdom of Macedonia was not immediately converted into a +province; it was first deprived of all offensive power, by being +republicanized and divided into four districts, wholly distinct from one +another, and bound to pay Rome half the tribute they were before wont to +furnish to their kings. + +26. It was in the natural order of things that the independence of +Greece, and more especially that of the Achæan league, should fall with +Perseus. The political _inquisition_ of the Roman commissaries not only +visited with punishment the declared partizans of Macedonia; but even to +have stood neutral was a crime that incurred suspicion. Rome, however, +amid the rising hatred, did not deem herself secure until by one blow +she had rid herself of all opponents of any importance. Above a thousand +of the most eminent of the Achæans were summoned to Rome to justify +themselves, and there detained seventeen years in prison without a +hearing. While at the head of the league, stood the man who had +delivered them up, Callicrates, (_d._ 150.) a wretch who could, unmoved, +hear "the very boys in the streets taunt him with treachery."--A more +tranquil period, it is true, now ensued for Greece, but it was the +result of very obvious causes. + +27. The ultimate lot both of Macedon and was decided by the system now +adopted at Rome, that of converting the previous dependence of nations +into formal subjection. The insurrection of Andriscus in Macedonia, an +individual who pretended to be the son of Perseus, was quelled by +Metellus, the country being constituted a Roman province; two years +afterwards, at the sack of Corinth, vanished the last glimmer of Grecian +freedom. + + The last war of the Achæans arose out of certain quarrels with + Sparta, 150, fomented by Diæus, Critolaus, and Damocritus, who had + returned bitterly enraged from the Roman prison; in these disputes + Rome interfered, with the design of wholly dissolving the Achæan + league. The first pretext that offered for executing this scheme + was the ill-treatment of the Roman ambassadors at Corinth, 148; + war, however, still raging with Carthage and Andriscus, the Romans + preserved for the present a peaceful tone. But the party of Diæus + and Critolaus would have war; the plenipotentiaries of Metellus + were again insulted, and the Achæans declared war against Sparta + and Rome. In the very same year they were routed by Metellus, and + their leader Critolaus fell in the engagement; Metellus was + replaced in the command by Mummius, who defeated Diæus the + successor of Critolaus, took Corinth and razed it to the ground, + 146. The consequence was, that Greece, under the name of Achaia, + became a Roman province, although to a few cities, such as Athens, + for instance, some shadow of freedom was still left. + + +IV. _History of some smaller or more distant Kingdoms and States erected +out of the Macedonian monarchy._ + + SOURCES. Besides the writers enumerated above, (see p. 232.) + Memnon, an historian of Heraclea in Pontus, deserves particular + mention in this place, (see p. 162): some extracts from his work + have been preserved to us by Photius, Cod. 224. In some individual + portions, as, for instance, in the Parthian history, Justin[a] is + our main authority; as are likewise Ammianus Marcellinus, and the + extracts from Arrian's _Parthica_, found in Photius. The coins of + the kings are also of great importance; but unfortunately + Vaillant's Essay shows, that even with their assistance the + chronology still remains in a very unsettled state. For the Jewish + history, Josephus (see p. 35.) is the grand writer: of the Books + of the Old Testament, those of Ezra and Nehemiah, together with + the Maccabees, although the last are not always to be depended + upon. + + The modern writers are enumerated below, under the heads of the + different kingdoms. Much information is likewise scattered about + in the works on ancient numismatics. + + [a] As Justin did no more than extract from Trogus Pompeius, a + question presents itself of great consequence to various + portions of ancient history; what authorities did Trogus + Pompeius follow? The answer will be found in two treatises + by A. L. L. HEEREN: _De fontibus et auctoritate Trogi Pompeii, + ejusque epitomatoris Justini_, inserted in _Comment. Soc. + Gott._ vol. 15. + +1. Besides the three main empires into which the monarchy of Alexander +was divided, there likewise arose in those extensive regions several +branch kingdoms, one of which even grew in time to be among the most +powerful in the world. To these belong the kingdoms of, 1. Pergamus. 2. +Bithynia. 3. Paphlagonia. 4. Pontus. 5. Cappadocia. 6. Great Armenia. 7. +Little Armenia. 8. Parthia. 9. Bactria. 10. Jewish state subsequent to +the Maccabees. + + We are acquainted with the history of these kingdoms, the Jewish + state alone excepted, only so far forth as they were implicated in + the concerns of the greater empires; of their internal history we + know little, often nothing. With respect to many of them, + therefore, little more can be produced than a series of + chronological data, indispensable, notwithstanding, to the general + historian. + +2. The kingdom of Pergamus, in Mysia, arose during the war between +Seleucus and Lysimachus. It owed its origin on the one hand to the +prudence of its rulers, the wisest of whom luckily reigned the longest; +and, on the other, to the weakness of the Seleucidæ: for its progressive +increase it was indebted to the Romans, who in aggrandizing the power of +Pergamus acted with a view to their own interest. History exhibits +scarcely one subordinate kingdom whose princes took such skilful +advantage of the political circumstances of the times; and yet they +earned still greater renown by the anxiety they showed, in rivalling the +Ptolemies, to foster the arts of peace, industry, science, architecture, +sculpture, and painting. How dazzling the splendour with which the small +state of Pergamus outshines many a mighty empire! + + Philetærus, lieutenant of Lysimachus, in Pergamus, asserts his + independence; and maintains possession of the citadel and town, + 283-263. His nephew, Eumenes I. 263-241, defeats Antiochus I. at + Sardes, 263, and becomes master of Æolis and the circumjacent + country. His nephew, Attalus I. 241-197, after his victory over + the Galatians, 239, becomes king of Pergamus: a noble prince, and + one whose genius and activity embraced everything. His wars + against Achæus brought him in alliance with Antiochus III. 216. + Commencement of an alliance with Rome, arising out of his + participation in the Ætolian league against Macedon, 211, in order + to thwart Philip's project of conquest. Hence, after Philip's + irruption into Asia, 203, participation on the side of Rome, in + the Macedonian war. His son Eumenes II. the inheritor of all his + father's great qualities succeeds him, 197-158. As a reward for + his assistance against Antiochus the Great, the Romans presented + him with almost all the territories possessed by the vanquished + king in Asia Minor, (Phrygia, Mysia, Lycaonia, Lydia, Ionia, and a + part of Caria,) which thereafter constituted the kingdom of + Pergamus; this prince extended his frontiers, but lost his + independence. In the war with Perseus he was scarce able to + preserve the good will of the senate, and therewith his kingdom. + His brother, Attalus II. 158-138, a more faithful dependent of + Rome, took part in nearly all the concerns of Asia Minor, more + especially Bithynia. His nephew, Attalus III. 138-133, a prince of + unsound mind, bequeathed his kingdom to the Romans, who, after + vanquishing the lawful heir, Aristonicus, 130, took possession of + it, annexing it to their empire, under the shape of a province + called Asia.--Great discoveries and vast establishments made at + Pergamus. Rich library; subsequently transferred by Antony to + Alexandria, as a present for Cleopatra. Museum. Discovery of + parchment, an invaluable auxiliary to the preservation of works of + literature. + + CHOISEUIL GOUFFIER, _Voyage pittoresque de la Grèce_, vol. ii. + 1809. Containing excellent observations, both on the monuments and + history of Pergamus, as well as on those of all the neighbouring + coasts and islands. + + SEVIN, _Recherches sur les rois de Pergame_, inserted in the _Mém. + de l'Acad. des Inscript._ vol. xii. + + From the fall of Tyre and the unsuccessful attempt of Demetrius, + B. C. 307, to the establishment of Roman dominion in the east, + 300-200, was the brilliant period of Rhodes; alike important for + political wisdom, naval power, and extensive trade. At the head of + the senate ([Greek: boulê]) were presidents, ([Greek: prytaneis,]) + who went out of office every half year, and were honoured with + precedence in the meetings of the commons. Friendship with all, + alliance with none, was the fundamental maxim of Rhodian policy, + until subverted by Rome. Thus was preserved the dignity of the + state, together with its independence and political + activity--where do we not meet with Rhodian embassies?--and + permanent splendour, resulting from the cultivation of arts and + sciences. What proofs of general commiseration did not Rhodes + enjoy after that dreadful earthquake, which threw down even the + famous colossus, 227! Long did her squadrons command the Ægæan; + over that sea, the Euxine, and the western parts of the + Mediterranean as far as Sicily, her commerce extended, consisting + in the rich exchange of commodities between three quarters of the + globe. Her revenue proceeded from the customs, and was abundant; + until, blinded by avarice, she sought to obtain at Peræa a + territory on the mainland; an ambition of which the Romans availed + themselves to her detriment, by presenting her with Lycia and + Caria, 190. And yet did this republic outlive that of Rome! Great, + indeed, is the chasm left in general history by the loss of the + internal history of this island! + + P. D. CH. PAULSEN, _Commentatio exhibens Rhodi descriptionem + Macedonica ætate, Gottingæ_, 1818. A prize essay. + +3. The other small kingdoms of Asia Minor are fragments rather of the +Persian than of the Macedonian monarchy; for Alexander's march following +another direction, they were not formally subjugated by that conqueror. +The lines of their kings are generally traced back to an early period of +the Persian age; but, properly speaking, their rulers in those days were +nothing more than viceroys: selected indeed, for the most part, from the +royal family, they bore the title of princes, and, in the gradual +decline of the empire, not unfrequently threw up their allegiance. +Nevertheless these kingdoms do not appear as really independent until +after the time of Alexander. Connected with the Grecian republics +Heraclea, Sinope, Byzantium, etc. they formed, both in the Macedonian +and Roman ages, a system of small states, often distracted by internal +wars, and still oftener mere tools in the hands of the more powerful. + + 1. _Bithynia._ As early as the Persian period, mention is made of + two kings in Bithynia, Dydalsus and Botyras. The son of the + latter, Bias, B. C. 378-328, made head against Caranus, one of + Alexander's generals; as did also his son Zipoetas, _d._ 281, + against Lysimachus.--Lycomedes I. _d._ 248. He called the Gauls + over from Thrace, 278, and with their assistance deposed his + brother Zipoetas; the Gauls in consequence kept their footing in + Galatia, and were for a long time an object of terror to Asia + Minor. Zelas, _d._ about 232; established his dominion after a war + with his half-brothers. Prusias I. son-in-law and ally of Philip + II. of Macedon, _d._ 192. He sided with the Rhodians in the + commercial war against Byzantium, 222, (see above, p. 282.) and + directed his arms, 196, against Heraclea, a Grecian city in + Bithynia, with a respectable territory along shore. Prusias II. + waged war against Eumenes II. at the instigation of Hannibal, who + had fled to his court, 184; he was subsequently about to deliver + up the fugitive to the Romans; had not Hannibal put a period to + his existence, 183: this king likewise waged war against Attalus + II. 153; in both these contests Rome acted as mediator. Prusias, + who had the meanness to style himself a freedman of the Romans, + was dethroned by his own son, Nicomedes II. _d._ 92; a confederate + of Mithridates the Great, with whom, nevertheless, he afterwards + fell out concerning the appropriation of Paphlagonia and + Cappadocia. Nicomedes was murdered by his son Socrates, who was, + however, compelled to flee; in consequence of which Nicomedes III. + succeeded to the crown. Deposed by Mithridates, who supported his + half-brother Socrates, he was reinstated by Rome, 90. Having, + however, at the instigation of the Romans, 89, attacked + Mithridates, he was defeated and expelled in the first Mithridatic + war, now kindled; but in the peace of 85, he was again reinstated + by Sulla. At his death, 75, he bequeathed Bithynia to the Romans; + and this legacy gave rise to the third Mithridatic war. + + VAILLANT, _Imperium Arsacidarum_, vol. ii. See below. + + SEVIN, _Recherches sur les rois de Bithynie_; inserted in the + _Mém. de l'Académie des Inscript._ vol. xii. + + 2. _Paphlagonia._ Even in the Persian age, the rulers of this + country were but nominally subject. After Alexander's death, B. C. + 323, it fell into the hands of the kings of Pontus; it was, + however, subsequently, again ruled by its own monarchs; among whom + we hear of Morzes, about 179; Pylæmenes I. about 131: who assisted + the Romans in the war against Aristonicus of Pergamus.--Pylæmenes + II. _d._ before 121; who is said to have bequeathed his kingdom to + Mithridates V. of Pontus. Hence Paphlagonia came to be implicated + in the fortunes of Pontus, (see just below,) until after the fall + of Mithridates the Great, 63, that kingdom was converted into a + province, with the exception of one of the southern districts, to + which the Romans left some shadow of freedom. + + 3. _Pontus._ The later kings of this country derived their origin + from the family of the Achæmenidæ, or house of Persia. In the + Persian age they remained dependent or tributary princes: and as + such we must consider Artabazes, son of Hystaspes, _d._ 480, + Mithridates I. _d._ 368, and Ariobarzanes, _d._ 337, mentioned as + the earliest kings of Pontus. Mithridates II. surnamed Ctistes, + _d._ 302, was one of the first to acknowledge subjection to + Alexander; after the death of the conqueror he sided with + Antigonus, who treacherously caused him to be murdered. His son, + Mithridates III. _d._ 266, (the Ariobarzanes of Memnon,) not only + maintained himself after the battle of Ipsus against Lysimachus, + but likewise possessed himself of Cappadocia and Paphlagonia. + Mithridates IV. father-in-law to Antiochus the Great, waged an + unsuccessful war against Sinope. The year of his death is + undetermined, Pharnaces, _d._ about 156. He conquered Sinope 183; + and that town then became the royal residence. War with Eumenes + II. whom Rome had made so powerful, and with his allies; + terminated by a treaty, according to which Pharnaces ceded + Paphlagonia, B. C. 179. Mithridates V. _d._ about 121. He was an + ally of the Romans, from whom, after the defeat of Aristonicus of + Phrygia, he contrived to obtain Great Phrygia. Mithridates VI. + surnamed Eupator, about 121-64. He bore the title of Great, an + epithet to which he was as fully entitled as Peter I. in modern + history; indeed he resembled the Russian prince in almost + everything except in good fortune. His reign, although of the + highest importance to general history, is, particularly in the + portion previous to the wars with Rome, replete with chronological + difficulties.--At the age of twelve years he inherits from his + father not only Pontus, but likewise Phrygia, and a reversionary + title to the throne of Paphlagonia, vacated by the death of + Pylæmenes II.--During his nonage, 121-112, while by voluntarily + inuring himself to hardships, he contrived to elude the + treacherous hostility of his guardians, Rome deprived him of + Phrygia. His conquests in Colchis and on the eastern side of the + Black sea, 112-110.--Commencement of the Scythian wars. Called by + the Greeks of Crimea to their assistance, he expelled the + Scythians; subjected several insignificant Scythian princes on the + mainland; and entered into alliances with the Sarmatic and even + Germanic races as far as the Danube, 108-105, having already a + view to the invasion of Italy from the north.--This war ended, he + travels over Asia, (Asia Minor?) about 104-103.--At his return, + after punishing with death his faithless sister and wife, Laodice, + he makes good his pretensions to Paphlagonia, which he divides + with Nicomedes II. 102. The Roman senate demanding the restoration + of that province, Mithridates not only refuses to accede, but + likewise takes possession of Galatia; meanwhile Nicomedes places + on the throne of Paphlagonia one of his own sons, whom he gives + out to be a son of Pylæmenes II. and denominates Pylæmenes + III.--Rupture with Nicomedes II. 101; the subject of dispute, + Cappadocia, which, after removing the king, Ariarathes VII. his + brother-in-law, with the assistance of Gordius, Mithridates + himself now wished to possess; he is anticipated, however, by + Nicomedes II. who marries Laodice, Ariarathes's + widow.--Mithridates, notwithstanding, expels his rival, under + pretence of holding the kingdom for his sister's son, Ariarathes + VIII. whom at the end of a few months he puts to death at a + private conference, 94; he defeats the brother of the murdered + prince, Ariarathes IX. and then places on the throne, under the + name of Ariarathes X. his own son, who is given out to be a third + son of Ariarathes VII; in opposition to whom Nicomedes sets up + another pretended Ariarathes. The Roman senate, meanwhile, declare + both Paphlagonia and Cappadocia free, B. C. 92; attending, + however, to the desires of the Cappadocians, they sanction the + election of Ariobarzanes to the crown; and he is put in possession + of the kingdom by Sylla, as proprætor of Cilicia, likewise in + 92.--Mithridates, on the other hand, forms an alliance with the + king of Armenia, Tigranes, to whom he gives his daughter in + marriage; and employs him in expelling Ariobarzanes.--He himself, + after the death of Nicomedes II. 92, supports the claims of the + deceased king's exiled son, Socrates Chrestus, against the bastard + Nicomedes III. and in the mean time takes possession of + Paphlagonia. Nicomedes and Ariobarzanes are reinstated by a Roman + embassy, 90, Mithridates, in order to gain time against Rome, + causing Socrates to be put to death. The hostilities of Nicomedes, + instituted by Rome, gave rise to the first Roman war, 89-85, + carried on in Asia and Greece, and brought to a conclusion by + Sylla. By the peace of 85, Mithridates restores Bithynia, + Cappadocia, and Paphlagonia.--War with the revolted Colchians and + Bosporans, 84.--Second war with Rome brought about by the Roman + governor, Murena, 83-81. Mithridates hereupon appoints his son, + Machares, king of Bosporus, (Crimea,) whom he afterwards himself + causes to be put to death, 66; he was likewise, in all + probability, the instigator of the migration of the Sarmatæ out of + Asia into Europe, in order to maintain his conquests in that + quarter, about 80. Fresh disputes with Rome about Cappadocia, of + which Tigranes takes possession, and third war with Rome, 75-64. + The contest ended in the downfal of Mithridates, caused by the + treachery of his son Pharnaces; Pontus became a Roman province; + although the Romans, in the sequel, appointed over a portion of + the country princes from the royal house, Darius, Polemo I. Polemo + II. until Nero reduced it again wholly to the state of a province. + + VAILLANT, _Imperium Achæmenidarum_ in his _Imperium Arsacidarum_, + tom. ii. With the assistance of the coins. + + For the history of Mithridates the Great, previously treated + without sufficient chronological accuracy, see DE BROSSES, + _Histoire de la Rép. Romaine_, and more especially + + JOAN. ERNST. WOLTERSDORF, _Commentatio vitam Mithridatis Magni, + per annos digestam, sistens; præmio ornata ab A. Phil. Ord. + Gottingæ:, A_. 1812. + + 4. _Cappadocia._ Until the time of Alexander this country remained + a province of the Persian empire, although the governors + occasionally made attempts at insurrection. The ruling family was + here likewise a branch of the royal house; Ariarathes I. was + particularly distinguished about B. C. 354. The prince + contemporary with Alexander was Ariarathes II. who, being attacked + by Perdiccas and Eumenes, fell in the contest, 322. Nevertheless, + his son, Ariarathes III. supported by the Armenians, recovered the + sceptre about 312. The son of this king, Ariaramnes, formed a + matrimonial connection with the Seleucidæ, uniting his son + Ariarathes IV. with the daughter of Antiochus [Greek: Theos]. + Ariarathes IV. during his lifetime, associated in the government + his son Ariarathes V. _d._ 162. who married Antiochis, daughter to + Antiochus the Great: this princess, finding herself at first + barren, procured two supposititious sons, one of whom, Orophernes, + subsequently wrested the sceptre from the legitimate and later + born son, Ariarathes VI. but was afterwards expelled by the + rightful heir, 157. In the war against Aristonicus of Pergamus, + 131, he fell, as an ally of the Romans, leaving behind him six + sons; five of whom were cut off by his ambitious relict Laodice; + the sixth however, Ariarathes VII. ascended the throne, and was + married to Laodice, sister of Mithridates the Great, at whose + instigation he was murdered by Gordius, under pretence of placing + on the throne his sister's son, Ariarathes VIII; this last prince + was soon after treacherously put to death by Mithridates, 94, and + his brother Ariarathes IX. defeated 93, died of a broken heart; + Mithridates then placed on the throne his own son, Ariarathes X. a + lad eight years old. The independence of Cappadocia having + meanwhile been proclaimed at Rome, the inhabitants of the country, + in order to preclude domestic broils, themselves elect a king, + appointing to that dignity Ariobarzanes I. who was installed by + Sylla, 92, and, backed by the Romans, kept his footing in the + Mithridatic wars. In 63 he made the crown over to his son, + Ariobarzanes II. who was slain by the army of Brutus and Cassius, + 43, as was his brother, Ariobarzanes III. 34, by Mark Antony; + Antony then appointed Archelaus to be king, who enticed to Rome by + Tiberius, A. D. 17, was there assassinated; and Cappadocia then + became a Roman province. + + 5. _Armenia_ was a province of the Syrian empire until the defeat + of Antiochus the Great by Rome, 190. That defeat was followed by + the accession of Antiochus's lieutenants, Artaxias and Zariadras; + and now arose the two kingdoms of Armenia Major and Armenia Minor + (the latter on the west bank of the Upper Euphrates). In Armenia + Major the family of Artaxias kept possession of the throne, under + eight (according to others _ten_) consecutive kings, until B. C. + 5.--The only remarkable prince of this line was Tigranes I. 95-60, + son-in-law and ally of Mithridates the Great, and lord of Asia + Minor, Cappadocia, and Syria. He was, however, at the peace of 63, + obliged to give up all, so that Armenia was dependent on the + Romans, and remained so until B. C. 5, when it became the object + of contention between the Romans and Parthians, being ruled at + intervals by kings appointed by both parties, who endeavoured + thereby to protect their own provinces. Finally, in A. D. 412, + Armenia became a province of the new Persian empire.--In Asia + Minor the descendants of Zariadras ruled dependently on Rome; + after its defection under Mithridates the Great it usually formed + part of some one of the neighbouring kingdoms, until in the reign + of Vespasian it was converted into a province of the Roman empire. + + VAILLANT, _Elenchus regum Armeniæ Majoris_, in his _Hist. Imp. + Arsacidarum_. + +4. Besides the above small kingdoms, two mighty empires arose in Inner +Asia, both out of Alexander's monarchy, and at the same time: these were +the Parthian and the Bactrian; each having previously constituted a part +of the empire of the Seleucidæ, from which they seceded under Antiochus +II. The Parthian kingdom, or that of the Arsacidæ, B. C. 256-A. D. 226, +at the maximum of its extension, comprised the countries between the +Euphrates and Indus. Its history, so far as we are acquainted with it, +is divided into four periods (see below); but unfortunately our +information is so imperfect respecting all that relates to the +Parthians, except their wars, that even the most important particulars +are beyond the reach of conjecture. + + Main facts in the history and constitution of the Parthian + kingdom. _a._ Like the ancient Persian empire, the Parthian arose + out of the conquests made by a rude mountain race of Central Asia, + whose Scythian (probably Tatarian) origin, betrayed itself even in + later times by their speech and mode of life: their conquests, + however, were not effected with the same rapidity as those of the + Persians. _b._ This empire increased at the expense of the Syrian + in the west, and of the Bactrian in the east; but its dominion was + never permanently established beyond the Euphrates, Indus, and + Oxus. _c._ The wars with Rome, commencing in B. C. 53, and + springing out of disputes for the possession of the Armenian + throne, were for a long time unfortunate for the Romans. Success + did not accompany the arms of Rome until she had discovered the + art of raising her own parties within the kingdom itself, by + lending her support to pretenders, an art rendered comparatively + easy, by the unfavourable situation of the Parthian capital + Seleucia and the neighbouring town of Ctesiphon, the real head + quarters of the court. _d._ The empire was indeed divided into + satrapies, eighteen of which are enumerated; nevertheless it + comprised likewise several small kingdoms, which preserved their + own rulers, only that they were tributary, such, for instance, as + Persis, etc. The Græco-Macedonian settlements were also in + possession of great privileges, and of their own civic + governments; Seleucia more especially, where the coins of the + Parthian sovereigns were struck. _e._ The constitution was + monarchal-aristocratic, something like that of the Poles, in the + period of the Jagellons. At the king's side sat a supreme state + council, (_senatus_, in all probability what was called the + _megistanes_,) who had the power of deposing the king, and the + privilege, it is supposed, of confirming his accession previous to + the ceremony of coronation, performed by the field-marshals + (_surenas_). The right of succession was only so far determined as + belonging to the house of the Arsacidæ; the many pretenders to + which this uncertainty gave rise, produced factions and domestic + wars, doubly injurious to the empire when fomented and shared by + foreigners. _f._ With regard to Asiatic commerce, the Parthian + supremacy was of importance, inasmuch as it interrupted the direct + intercourse between the western and eastern countries: it being a + maxim of the Parthians not to grant a passage through their + country to any stranger. This destruction of the trade occurs in + the third period of the empire, being a natural result of the many + wars with Rome, and the distrust thence ensuing. The East India + trade, in consequence, took another road through Palmyra and + Alexandria, which were indebted to it for their splendour and + prosperity. _g._ It is probable that this was the reason why + excessive luxury took a less hold on the Parthians than on the + other ruling nations of Asia, notwithstanding their predilection + for Grecian manners and literature, at that time generally + prevalent throughout the east. + + _Line of the kings._ I. Syrian period; that of reiterated wars + with the Seleucidæ, until 130. Arsaces I. 256-253, founder of the + Parthian independence, by procuring the death of the Syrian + viceroy, Agathocles, to which he was instigated by the insult + offered to his brother Tiridates. Arsaces II. (Tiridates I.) + brother of the foregoing, _d._ 216. He possessed himself of + Hyrcania, about 244, confirmed the Parthian power by a victory on + Seleucus Callinicus, 238, whom he took prisoner, 236. Arsaces III. + (Artabanus I.) _d._ 196. In his reign occurred the unsuccessful + attempt of Antiochus III. who, in the treaty of 210, was obliged + to renounce all claims on Parthia and Hyrcania, in return for + which Arsaces lent his assistance to Antiochus in the war against + Bactria. Arsaces IV. (Priapatius,) _d._ about 181. Arsaces V. + (Phraates I.) _d._ about 144; he conquered the Mardians on the + Caspian. His brother, Arsaces VI. (Mithridates I.) _d._ 136. He + raised the hitherto confined kingdom of Parthia to the rank of a + mighty empire, having, after the decease of Antiochus Epiphanes, + 164, by the capture of Media, Persis, Babylonia, and other + countries, extended the frontiers westward to the Euphrates, and + eastward to the Hydaspes, beyond the Indus. The invasion of + Demetrius II. of Syria, supported by an insurrection of the + conquered races, ended, 140, in the capture of the aggressor. + Arsaces VII. (Phraates II.) _d._ about 127. Invasion of Antiochus + Sidetes, 132, who was at first successful, but being soon + afterwards cut off together with his whole army, 131, the Parthian + empire was for ever freed from the attacks of the Syrian kings. + + II. Period of the eastern nomad wars; from 130-53. After the fall + of the Bactrian empire, which had hitherto formed the eastern + rampart of the Parthians, violent wars took place with the nomad + tribes of Central Asia (Scythæ, Dahæ, Tochari, etc.) in which + Arsaces VII. was slain. Arsaces VIII. (Artabanus II.) shared the + same fate about 124. Arsaces IX. (Mithridates II.) _d._ 87. This + prince appears to have restored tranquillity to the east after + bloody wars; he met, however, with a powerful rival in Tigranes I. + of Armenia. In his reign occurred the first transactions between + the Parthians and Romans, 92, Sylla being proprætor of Cilicia. + Arsaces X. (Mnasciras,) _d._ about 76, waged a long war for the + succession with his follower on the throne, the septuagenarian, + Arsaces XI. (Sinatroces,) _d._ about 68. Unsuccessful war with + Tigranes I. In consequence of civil wars, and of that with + Tigranes, together with the formidable power of Mithridates the + Great, the Parthian empire was now greatly weakened. Arsaces XII. + (Phraates III.) _d._ 60, contemporary with the third Mithridatic + war. Although both parties eagerly courted his alliance, and he + himself was engaged in the contest with Tigranes, he, + notwithstanding, observed an armed neutrality, and made the + Parthian empire continue to be respected as far as the Euphrates. + Neither Lucullus nor Pompey durst attack him. The fall of + Mithridates and of his empire, 64, constitutes, however, an epoch + in the Parthian history, the Romans and Parthians having now + become immediate neighbours.--Arsaces XIII. (Mithridates II.) _d._ + 54, deposed after several wars, by his younger brother Orodes, + and at last put to death, after the capture of Babylonia, where he + had taken refuge. + + III. Roman period; from B. C. 53, to A. D. 226; comprising the + wars with Rome. Arsaces XIV. (Orodes I.) _d._ 36. In his reign the + first war with Rome, caused by the invasion of Crassus; it ends in + the annihilation of the invading army and general, 53. In + consequence of this victory the Parthians acquired such + preponderance, that during the civil wars they were frequently + masters on this side of the Euphrates, and in 52-51 proceeded to + attack Syria.--In the war between Pompey and Cæsar they sided with + the former, and thus furnished the latter with a pretext for his + Parthian expedition, which, however, was prevented by his murder + in 44; again in the war between the triumviri and Brutus and + Cassius, 42, they took the republican side. After the defeat of + Brutus and Cassius, the Parthians, at the instigation of the Roman + general and ambassador Labienus, and commanded by him and Pacorus, + (eldest son to Arsaces,) spread over the whole of Syria and Asia + Minor, 40; but, after violent exertions, were driven back by + Ventidius, Antony's general, 39, 38; Pacorus lost his life, and + his father died of grief. Arsaces XV. (Phraates IV.) _d._ A. D. 4, + contemporary of Augustus. He confirmed his power by murdering his + brothers and their dependents; his views were likewise furthered + by the failure of Antony's expedition, B. C. 36, which ended + pretty nearly in the same manner as that of Crassus. The remainder + of his reign was disturbed by a pretender to the throne, + Tiridates, who, after his defeat, 25, found an asylum at the court + of Augustus. The threatened attack of Augustus was diverted by + Phraates's restoration of the standards taken from Crassus, 20; a + dispute, however, subsequently arose respecting the possession of + the Armenian throne, A. D. 2, on which account Caius Cæsar was + despatched into Asia, and accommodated matters by a treaty. The + ultimate fate both of the king and the empire was principally + decided by a female slave, Thermusa, sent as a present from + Augustus; this woman, wishing to ensure the succession to her own + son, prevailed upon the king to send his four sons to Rome as + hostages, under the pretext of anticipating domestic troubles, + 18.--A practice which from that time became frequent, the Parthian + kings thinking it a convenient mode of ridding themselves of + dangerous competitors, while the Romans knew how to make the + proper use of them.--Thermusa's son having grown up, she removed + the king, and seated Phraataces on the throne, under the name of + Arsaces XVI; he was, however, put to death by the Parthians, A. D. + 4; and the crown given to one of the Arsacidæ, Orodes II, (Arsaces + XVII.) who was, however, immediately afterwards slain by reason of + his cruelty. In consequence, Vonones I. the eldest of the sons of + Phraates sent to Rome, was called back and placed on the throne + (Arsaces XVIII.); but that prince having brought with him Roman + customs and luxury, was expelled, A. D. 14, with the assistance of + the northern nomads, by Artabanes III. (Arsaces XIX.) _d._ 44, a + distant relation: the fugitive took possession of the vacant + throne of Armenia, but was soon after driven from thence likewise + by his rival. Tiberius took advantage of the consequent disorders + to send Germanicus into the east, A. D. 17, from whence he was + never to return. The remainder of the reign of Artabanus was very + stormy, Tiberius on the one hand taking advantage of the factions + between the nobles to support pretenders to the crown; the revolts + of the satraps, on the other hand, giving proof of the declension + of the Parthian power. After his death war raged between his sons; + the second, Vardanes, (Arsaces XX.) _d._ 47, made good his + pretensions to the crown, and took North Media, (Atropatene;) he + was succeeded by his elder brother Gotarzes, (Arsaces XXI.) _d._ + 50, to whom Claudius unsuccessfully opposed Meherdates, educated + as an hostage at Rome. Arsaces XXII. (Vonones II.) succeeded, + after a reign of a few months, by Arsaces XXIII. (Vologeses I.) + _d._ 90. The possession of the Armenian throne, given by this + prince to his brother Tiridates, by the Romans to Tigranes, + grandson of Herod the Great, excited a series of disputes, which + began so early as the reign of Claudius, A. D. 52, and under Nero + broke out into open war, waged with some success on the Roman side + by Corbulo, 56-64, and closed by Tiridates going, after the death + of Tigranes, to Rome, and there accepting the crown of Armenia as + a gift at the hands of Nero, 65. Arsaces XXIV. (Pacorus,) _d._ + 107, contemporary with Domitian. All that we know of him is, that + he embellished the city of Ctesiphon. Arsaces XXV. (Cosroes,) _d._ + about 121. The claims to the throne of Armenia implicated him in a + war with Trajan, 114, during which Armenia, together with + Mesopotamia and Assyria, were converted into Roman provinces. + Trajan's consequent and successful inroad into the interior parts + of the Parthian dominions, 115-116, followed by the capture of + Ctesiphon, and the appointment of Parthamaspates as king, appears + to have been facilitated by the domestic commotions and civil wars + which had for a long time harassed the empire. Nevertheless, in + the following year, 117, Hadrian was compelled to give up all the + conquered country; the Euphrates was again acknowledged as the + boundary; Parthamaspates was appointed king of Armenia; and + Cosroes, who had taken refuge in the upper satrapies, was + reinstated on the throne, of which he seems ever after to have + kept quiet possession. Arsaces XXVI. (Vologeses II.) _d._ 149. + Parthia under his reign, and Rome under that of Antoninus Pius, + remained on good terms. Arsaces XXVII. (Vologeses III.) _d._ 191. + Under the reign of this king, the contemporary of Marcus Aurelius + and L. Verus, the war with Rome was again kindled, 161, by Verus, + and carried on in Armenia and Syria; Cassius, the legate of Verus, + at last got possession of Seleucia, and demolished that city, + 165.--Arsaces XXVIII. (Ardawan or Vologeses IV.) _d._ 207. This + king having taken the part of Pescenninus Niger, in the war + between him and Septimius Severus, was, after the defeat of his + friend, 194, routed in a war with Septimius Severus, 197, and the + chief towns of Parthia were sacked by the invaders. He is, without + authority, represented as succeeded by a Pacorus, who took the + name of Arsaces XXIX.: his real successor, however, appears to + have been Arsaces XXIX. (Vologeses V.) _d._ 216. Domestic wars + among his sons, fomented by Caracalla. Arsaces XXX. (Artabanus + IV.) At the beginning of his reign, this prince likewise was + contemporary with Caracalla, who, in order to pick a quarrel, + demanded his daughter in marriage; according to some, Arsaces + refused her, in consequence of which the Roman emperor undertook a + campaign into Armenia; according to others, Arsaces having + assented, and escorted his daughter to Caracalla, was, by an + abominable stroke of treachery, cut off, together with all his + train, A. D. 216. Caracalla having been murdered, 217, his + successor, Macrinus, signed a peace with the Parthians. But + Arsaces subsequently raised his brother Tiridates to the throne of + Armenia; this act spurred the Persian Artaxerxes, son of Sassan, + to rebellion; the Parthian king, defeated in three battles, fell + in the last, thus putting a period to the family and dominion of + the Arsacidæ, 226, and Artaxerxes became the founder of the New + Persian kingdom, or that of the Sassanidæ. The revolution was + accompanied not only with a change of dynasty, but with a total + subversion of the constitution. + + VAILLANT, _Imperium Arsacidarum et Achæmenidarum_, Paris, 1725, 2 + vols. 4to. The first part comprises the Arsacidæ; the second the + kings of Bithynia, Pontus, and Bosporus. It is an attempt, not + altogether faultless, to arrange the series of kings, by the + assistance of coins. + + # C. F. RICHTER, _Historico-critical essay upon the dynasties of + the Arsacidæ and Sassanidæ, according to the Persian, Grecian, and + Roman authorities_. A prize essay. Leipzic, 1804. A comparative + research into the eastern and western sources. The chronology in + the above sketch has been corrected by this work, in conjunction + with + + TH. CHR. TYCHSEN, _Commentationes de Nummis Persarum et + Arsacidarum_; inserted in _Commentat. Nov. Soc. Sc. Gotting._ vol. + i. iii. + +5. The Bactrian kingdom arose nearly at the same time as the Parthian, +254; its origin, however, was of a different nature,--the independence +of this state being asserted by the Grecian governor, who was +consequently succeeded by Greeks;--its duration likewise was much +shorter, extending only from B. C. 254 to B. C. 126. Scarce any +fragments have been preserved of the history of this empire, the borders +of which appear at one time to have extended to the banks of the Ganges, +and the frontiers of China. + + Founder of the empire, Diodatus or Theodotus I. B. C. 254; he + threw off his allegiance to the Syrian king, under Antiochus II. + He appears to have been master not only of Bactria, but also of + Sogdiana. He likewise threatened the Parthians; after his decease, + 243, his son and successor, Theodotus II. signed a treaty and + alliance with Arsaces II. but was nevertheless deprived of his + crown by Euthydemus of Magnesia, about 221. Antiochus the Great, + at the conclusion of the Parthian war, directed his arms against + Euthydemus, 209-206; the contest ended in a peace, by which + Euthydemus, after delivering up his elephants, was not only left + in possession of the crown, but was allied to the Syrian family by + the marriage of his son Demetrius with a daughter of Antiochus. + Demetrius, though a great conqueror, does not seem to have been + king of Bactria; his dominions comprised, it is probable, North + India and Malabar, whose history now becomes closely connected + with that of Bactria, although consisting only of mere fragments. + The throne of Bactria fell to Apollodotus, and after him to + Menander, who extended his conquests as far as Serica, while + Demetrius was establishing his dominion in India, [as sovereign of + which country he is represented in a medal lately discovered,] and + where, about this time, several Greek states appear to have + existed, perhaps ever since the expedition of Antiochus III. 205. + Menander was succeeded, about 181, by Eucratidas, under whose + reign the Bactrian empire attained its greatest extension; after + defeating the Indian king, Demetrius, who had been the aggressor, + he, with the assistance of the Parthian conqueror, Mithridates, + (Arsaces VI.) annexed India to his own empire, 148. On his return, + he was murdered by his son; the same, probably, that is mentioned + afterwards by the name of Eucratidas II. He was the ally of + Demetrius II. of Syria, and the main instigator of his expedition + against the Parthians, 142; Demetrius being defeated by Arsaces + VI. Eucratidas was, in consequence, deprived of a portion of his + territory; overpowered soon after by the nomad races of Central + Asia, the Bactrian empire fell to the ground, and Bactria itself, + together with the other countries on this side of the Oxus, became + a prey to the Parthians. + + TH. SIEG. BAYER, _Historia regni Græcorum Bactriani_. Petropol. + 1738, 4to. The few remaining fragments are in this work collected + with industry and arranged with skill. + + [TOD, _Account of Greek, Parthian, and Hindu Medals_, in + _Transactions of the R. Asiatic Society_, vol. i. part ii, p. 316. + + TYCHSEN, _De Nummis Græcis et Barbaris in Bochara nuper retectis_, + in _Comment. Nov. Soc. Sc. Gotting._ vol. vi.] + +6. The restored kingdom of the Jews was likewise a fragment of the +Macedonian monarchy; and although it ranked only with the smaller +states, its history in various respects deserves our attention, few +nations having had so powerful an influence on the progress of human +civilization. The foundation of the independence of the Jews was not, it +is true, laid before the year 167; yet their domestic constitution had +previously assumed its main features, and their history, reckoning from +the return of the Babylonian captivity, accordingly divides itself into +four periods: 1. Under the Persian supremacy, 536-323. 2. Under the +Ptolemies and Seleucidæ, 323-167. 3. Under the Maccabees, 167-39. 4. +Under the Herodians and Romans, B. C. 39. to A. D. 70. + + First period under the Persians. By permission from Cyrus, a + colony of Jews belonging to the tribes of Benjamin, Judah, and + Levi, returned to the land of their forefathers, 536: this colony, + headed by Zorobabel, of the ancient royal family, and the high + priest Joshua, consisted of about 42,000 souls; the far more + important and wealthy portion of the nation preferred to remain on + the other side of the Euphrates, where they had been settled for + seventy years, and continued to be a numerous people. The new + settlers found it difficult to keep their footing, principally in + consequence of differences, produced by the intolerance they + themselves evinced at the building of the temple, with their + neighbours and kinsmen the Samaritans, to whom the colony was only + a cause of expense. The Samaritans, subsequently, having erected a + separate temple at Garizim, near Sichem, about 336, not only + separated completely, but laid the foundation of an inveterate + hatred between the two nations. Hence the prohibition to rebuild + the city and temple, brought about by their means, under Cambyses, + 529, and Smerdis, 522, and not taken off until 520, in the reign + of Darius Hystaspes. The new colony did not receive a permanent + internal constitution till the time of Ezra and Nehemiah; both + brought in fresh colonists, the former in 478, the latter in 445. + The country was under the dominion of the satraps of Syria; but in + the increasing domestic declension of the Persian empire, the high + priests gradually became the virtual rulers of the nation. + Nevertheless, even at the time of Alexander's conquest, 332, the + Jews seem to have manifested proofs of fidelity to the Persians. + + Second period under the Ptolemies and Seleucidæ, 323-167. After + the death of Alexander, Palestine, in consequence of its + situation, generally shared the fate of Phoenicia and Coele-Syria, + (see above, p. 249.) being annexed to Syria.--Capture of + Jerusalem, and transplantation of a vast colony of Jews to + Alexandria by Ptolemy I. 312; from thence they spread to Cyrene, + and gradually over the whole of North Africa, and even into + Æthiopia. From 311-301 the Jews remained, however, subject to + Antigonus. After the overthrow of his empire, they remained, + 301-203, under the dominion of the Ptolemies; the most conspicuous + of their high priests during this interval were Simon the Just, + _d._ 291, and afterwards his son, Onias I. _d._ 218, who, by + withholding the tribute due to Ptolemy III. exposed Judæa to + imminent danger.--In the second war of Antiochus the Great against + Egypt, 203, the Jews, of their own free will, acknowledged + themselves his subjects, and assisted in driving out the Egyptian + troops, who, under their general, Scopas, had again possessed + themselves of the country, and the citadel of Jerusalem, 198. + Antiochus confirmed the Jews in the possession of all their + privileges; and although he promised their country, together with + Coele-Syria and Phoenicia, to Ptolemy Epiphanes, as the future + dowry of his daughter, Judæa still remained under the Syrian + supremacy; except that the revenue was for a time divided between + the Syrian and Egyptian kings.--The high priests and self-chosen + ethnarchs or alabarchs were at the head of the people; and we now + find mention made for the first time of a senate, or the + sanhedrim. But the rout of Antiochus the Great by the Romans was + also the remote cause of the subsequent misfortunes of the Jews. + The consequent dearth of money in which the Syrian kings found + themselves, and the riches of the temple treasures, the + accumulation of the sacred income and gifts, made the office of + high priest an object of purchase under Antiochus Epiphanes: hence + arose quarrels between the pontifical families, and out of those + sprung factions, which Antiochus Epiphanes was desirous to turn to + his own account, by the introduction of Grecian institutions among + the Jews, in order thereby to promote the subjection of that + people, now raised by its privileges almost to the rank of a state + within that of Syria. Deposition of the high priest, Onias III. + 175; his brother Jason having obtained the mitre by purchase, and + the introduction of Grecian customs: Jason, however, was in his + turn supplanted by his brother Menelaus, 172. During the civil + war arising out of these events, Antiochus Epiphanes, at that time + conqueror in Egypt, (see above, p. 241.) takes possession of + Jerusalem, 170, being provoked by the behaviour of the Jews to + Menelaus, the high priest of his own appointment: the consequent + oppression of the Jews, who now were to be Hellenized by main + force, soon occasioned the rise under the Maccabees. + + Third period under the Maccabees, 167-39. Commencement of the + rebellion against Antiochus IV. brought about by the priest + Mattathias, 167, who was almost immediately succeeded, 166-161, by + his son Judas Maccabæus. Supported by the fanaticism of his party, + Judas defeats in several battles the generals of Antiochus, who + was absent in Upper Asia, where he died, 164; the Jewish leader is + even said to have been favoured by Rome. The primary object of the + insurrection was not, however, political independence; they fought + only for religious freedom. Under Antiochus V. the sedition + continued successful, both against the Syrian king and the high + priest Alcimus, his creature, 163; Judas having died soon after + his defeat by Demetrius I. was succeeded by his brother Jonathan, + 161-143. The death of the high priest, Alcimus, 160, opened the + path of Jonathan to that office, which he received in the ensuing + war between Demetrius I. and Alexander Balas, 143, (see above, p. + 244, 245.) both rivals courting his alliance: Jonathan sided with + Balas, and consequently, from being merely the leader of a party, + came to be head of the nation, which still, nevertheless, + continued to pay tribute to the kings. Notwithstanding the favour + he had shown to Balas, after the overthrow of that pretender, he + was confirmed in his dignity by Demetrius I. 145; to whose + assistance he marched at the subsequent great revolt in Antioch. + Jonathan however, in 144, passed over to the side of the usurper, + Antiochus, the son of Balas, (see above, p. 245.) and was by + embassy presented with the friendship of the Romans in the same + year, but by the treachery of Tryphon was taken and put to death, + 143. His brother and successor, Simon, 143-135, having declared + against Tryphon, was by Demetrius II. not only confirmed in his + dignity, but excused from paying tribute; he likewise received the + title of prince, (ethnarch;) and appears to have struck coins. + After the capture of Demetrius, Antiochus Sidetes allowed Simon to + remain in possession of those privileges so long as he stood in + need of his assistance against Tryphon; but after the death of + that usurper, he caused him, 130, to be attacked by Cendebæus, who + was defeated by the sons of Simon. Simon having been murdered by + his son-in-law, Ptolemæus, who aspired to the government, 135, was + succeeded by his son, John Hyrcanus, 135-107, who was compelled + again to acknowledge submission to Antiochus Sidetes; but after + the defeat and death of that prince by the Parthians, 130, he + asserted his entire independence. The deep decline of the Syrian + kingdom, the constant civil wars by which it was distracted, and + the renewed league with the Romans, not only enabled Hyrcanus + easily to maintain his independence, but likewise to increase his + territory, by the conquest of the Samaritans and Idumæans. But + with him ended the heroic line. Scarcely was he delivered from + foreign oppression, when domestic broils arose; the Pharisees and + Sadducees had hitherto been mere religious sects, but were + converted into political factions by Hyrcanus, who, offended with + the Pharisees, probably in consequence of their wish to separate + the pontifical and princely offices, went over to the Sadducees; + the former sect, the orthodox, were as usual supported by the + many; the latter, the innovators, in consequence of the laxity of + their principles, were favoured by the wealthy. Hyrcanus's eldest + son, the cruel Aristobulus, 107, assumed the royal title, but soon + after dying, 106, was succeeded by his younger brother, Alexander + Jannæus, 106-79. His reign was an almost unbroken series of + insignificant wars with his neighbours, this prince wishing to + play the conqueror; and having likewise had the imprudence to + irritate the powerful party of the Pharisees, these made him the + object of public insult, and excited a tumult, 92, which was + followed by a bloody civil war which lasted six years. Jannæus, it + is true, maintained himself during the struggle; but the opposite + party was so far from being annihilated, that, at his death, when + passing over his sons, the feeble Hyrcanus (who possessed the + pontifical dignity) and the ambitious Aristobulus, he bequeathed + the crown to his widow Alexandra, it was with the understanding + that she should join the party of the Pharisees: during her reign, + therefore, 79-71, the Pharisees held the reins of government, and + left her only the name. Provoked at this, Aristobulus, shortly + before the death of the queen, endeavoured to obtain possession of + the throne, and ultimately obtained his ends, notwithstanding + Alexandra nominated Hyrcanus to be her successor. Hyrcanus, at the + instigation of his confidant, the Idumæan Antipater, who was the + progenitor of the Herodians, and assisted by the Arabian prince + Aretas, waged war against his brother, 65, and shut him up in + Jerusalem: but the Romans were arbitrators, and Pompey, then + all-powerful in Asia, decided for Hyrcanus, 64; the party of + Aristobulus, however, refusing to accede, the Roman general took + possession of Jerusalem; made Hyrcanus high priest and prince, + under condition that he should pay tribute; and took as prisoners + to Rome Aristobulus and his sons, who, however, subsequently + escaped and caused great disturbances. The Jewish state being now + dependent on Rome, remained so, and the yoke was confirmed by the + policy of Antipater and his sons, who followed the general maxim + of entire devotion to Rome, in order thereby to succeed in wholly + removing the reigning family. As early as 48, Antipater was + appointed procurator of Judea by Cæsar, whom he had supported at + Alexandria, and his second son Herod, governor in Galilee, soon + became sufficiently powerful to threaten Hyrcanus and the + sanhedrim, 45. He gained the favour of Antony, and thus maintained + himself amid the tempests which, after the assassination of Cæsar, + 44, shook the Roman world, powerful as the party opposed to him + were: that party, however, at last, in lieu of the ill-fated + Hyrcanus, the only surviving son of Aristobulus, placed Antigonus + at their head, and, assisted by the Parthians, then flourishing in + power, seated him on the throne, 39. Herod having fled to Rome, + not only met with a gracious reception at the hands of the + triumviri, but was by them appointed king. + + Fourth period under the Herodians, B. C. 39 to A. D. 70. Herod the + Great, B. C. 39 to A. D. 1. put himself in possession of Jerusalem + and all Judæa, B. C. 37, and confirmed his power by marrying + Mariamne of the house of the Maccabees. Notwithstanding his + severity shown to the party of Antigonus, and the house of the + Maccabees, the total extinction of which Herod deemed necessary + for his own safety; yet so greatly did the wasted country stand in + need of peace, that for that very reason his reign may be said to + have been a happy one. Availing himself of the liberality of + Augustus, whose favour he contrived to obtain after the defeat of + Anthony, B.C. 31, Herod gradually increased the extent of his + kingdom, which at last comprised Judæa, Samaria, Galilee, and + beyond the Jordan, Peræa, Ituræa, and Trachonitis, (that is to + say, the whole of Palestine,) together with Idumæa; from these + countries he derived his income without being obliged to pay any + tribute. The deference consequently shown by Herod to Rome, was + but the effect of a natural policy, and his conduct in that + respect could be objected to him only by bigoted Jews. To his + whole family, rather than to himself individually, are to be + attributed the executions which took place among its members; + happy had it been if the sword had smitten none but the guilty and + spared the innocent. In the last year but one of his reign is + placed the birth of Christ (according to the usually adopted + computation, made in the sixth century by Dionysius Exiguus. But + the more accurate calculations of modern chronologists show that + the real date of the Saviour's birth was probably four years + earlier).--According to his will, with some few alterations made + by Augustus, his kingdom was divided among his three surviving + sons; Archelaus, as ethnarch, receiving the greater moiety, Judæa, + Samaria, and Idumæa; the two others, as tetrarchs, Philip a part + of Galilee and Trachonitis, Antipas the other part of Galilee, and + Peræa, together with Ituræa; subsequently to which division, the + various parts did not, in consequence, all share the same + fate.--Archelaus, by misgovernment, soon lost his portion, A. D. + 6; Judæa and Samaria were consequently annexed as a Roman province + to Syria, and placed under procurators subordinate to the Syrian + governors: among these procurators, the most famous is Pontius + Pilate, about A.D. 27-36, under whom the founder of our religion + appeared and suffered, not as a political--although accused of + being so--but as a moral reformer. On the other hand, Philip + retained his tetrarchy until the day of his death, A. D. 34, when + his country had the same lot with Judæa and Samaria. Soon after, + that is to say, in A. D. 37, it was, however, given by Caligula, + with the title of king, to Agrippa, (grandson of Herod by + Aristobulus,) as a recompense for his attachment to the family of + Germanicus; and when Antipas, who wished to procure a similar + favour for himself but instead of it, was deposed, 39, Agrippa + received his tetrarchy also, 40, and soon afterwards, by the + possession of the territory which had belonged to Archelaus, + became master of the whole of Palestine. Agrippa having died in A. + D. 44, the whole country being appended to Syria, became a Roman + province, and received procurators, although Chalcis, 49, and + subsequently also, 53, Philip's tetrarchy, were restored as a + kingdom to his son Agrippa II. _d._ 90. The oppression of the + procurators, and of Gessius Florus in particular, who obtained the + office, A. D. 64, excited the Jews to rebellion, which, 70, ended + in the capture and destruction of their city and temple by Titus. + The spread of the Jews over the whole civilized world of that + time, although previously commenced, was by this event still + further increased; and at the same time the extension of + Christianity was prepared and facilitated. Even after the + conquest, Jerusalem not only continued to exist as a city, but was + also still considered by the nation as a point of union; and the + attempt, under Adrian, to establish a Roman colony there, produced + a fearful sedition. + + BASNAGE, _Histoire des Juifs depuis J. C. jusqu' à present_. La + Haye, 1716, 15 vols. 12mo. The first two parts only, properly + speaking, belong to this period; but the others likewise contain + several very valuable historical researches. + + PRIDEAUX, _The Old and New Testament connected in the history of + the Jews and their neighbouring nations_. Lond. 1714, 2 vols. This + work, together with that above quoted, have always been esteemed + the grand books on the subject. The French translation of + Prideaux's Connection is, by its arrangement, more convenient for + use than the original: this translation was published at + Amsterdam, 1722, 5 vols. 8vo. under the title of PRIDEAUX, + _Histoire des Juifs et des peuples voisins depuis la décadence des + Royaumes d'Israel et de Juda, jusqu' à la mort de J. C._ + + # J. D. MICHAELIS, _Translation of the Books of Esdras, Nehemiah, + and Maccabees_, contains in the observations several historic + discussions of high importance. + + # J. REMOND, _Essay towards a history of the spread of Judaism, + from Cyrus to the total decline of the Jewish state_. Leipzig, + 1789. The industrious work of a young scholar. + + To the works enumerated p. 34, 35, must be added, for the more + ancient history of the Jews: + + J. L. BAUER, _Manual of the history of the Hebrew nation, from its + rise to the destruction of its state_. Nuremberg, 1800, 2 parts, + 8vo. As yet the best critical introduction, not only to the + history, but also to the antiquities of the nation. + + # In the works of J. J. HESS, belonging to this subject, namely, + _History of Moses_; _History of Joshua_; _History of the Rulers of + Judah_, 2 parts; _History of the Kings of Judah and Israel_: the + history is throughout considered in a theocratic point of view. + + + * * * * * + + + + +FIFTH BOOK. + +HISTORY OF THE ROMAN STATE. + + + + +_Introductory remarks on the Geography of Ancient Italy._ + + +Italy constitutes a peninsula, bounded on the north by the Alps, on the +west and south by the Mediterranean, and on the east by the Adriatic +sea. Its greatest length from north to south is 600 geogr. miles; its +greatest breadth, taken at the foot of the Alps, is 320 geogr. miles; +but that of the peninsula, properly so called, is not more than 120 +geogr. miles. Superficial contents, 81,920 sq. geogr. miles. The +principal mountain range is that of the Apennines, which, diverging +occasionally to the west, or east, stretch from north to south through +Central and Lower Italy. In the earlier times of Rome, these mountains +were covered with thick forests. Main streams: the Padus (Po) and the +Athesis, (Adige,) both of which discharge their waters in the Adriatic; +and the Tiberis, (Tiber,) which falls into the Mediterranean. The soil, +particularly in the plains, is one of the most fertile in Europe; on the +other hand, many of the mountain tracts admit but of little cultivation. +In that period when the Mediterranean was the grand theatre of trade, +Italy, by her situation, seemed destined to become the principal mart of +Europe; but she never in ancient times availed herself sufficiently of +this advantage. + +It is divided into _Upper_ Italy, from the Alps to the small rivers of +Rubicon and Macra; (this part, however, of Italy, until presented with +the right of citizenship under Cæsar, was, according to the Roman +political geography, considered as a province;) into _Central_ Italy, +from the Rubicon and the Macra down to the Silarus and Frento; and into +_Lower_ Italy from those rivers to the southern land's end. + + +I. _Upper Italy comprises the two countries, Gallia Cisalpina and +Liguria._ + +1. Gallia Cisalpina, or Togata, in contradistinction to Gallia +Transalpina. It bears the name of Gallia, in consequence of being for +the most part occupied by Gallic races. This country is one continuous +plain, divided by the Padus into two parts, the northernmost of which is +therefore denominated Gallia Transpadana, (inhabited by the Taurini, +Insubres, and Cenomani,) while the southern part (inhabited by the Boii, +Senones, and Lingones) is known by the name of Gallia Cispadana. Various +streams contribute to swell the Padus; from the north the Duria, +(Durance,) the Ticinus, (Tessino,) the Addua, (Adda,) the Ollius, +(Oglio,) the Mintius, (Minzio,) and several less important rivers; from +the south, the Tanarus, (Tanaro,) the Trebia, etc. The Athesis, (Adige,) +the Plavis, (Piave,) and a number of smaller mountain streams, roll +their waters directly into the Adriatic. + +The cities in Gallia Cisalpina were, generally speaking, Roman colonies; +and most of them have preserved to this day their ancient names. Among +these are reckoned in Gallia Transpadana, principally, Tergeste, +Aquileia, Patavium, (Padua,) Vincentia, Verona, all east of the Athesis; +Mantua, Cremona, Brixia, (Brescia,) Mediolanum, (Milan,) Ticinum, +(Pavia,) and Augusta Taurinorum, (Turin,) all west of the Athesis. In +Gallia Cispadana we meet with Ravenna, Bononia, (Bologna,) Mutina, +(Modena,) Parma, Placentia, (Piacenza). Several of the above places +received municipal rights from the Romans. + +2. Liguria. This country deduced its name from the Ligures, one of the +old Italic tribes: it extended from the river Varus, by which it was +divided from Gallia Transalpina, down to the river Macra; northward it +extended to the Padus, and comprised the modern territory of +Genoa.--Cities: Genua, an extremely ancient place; Nicæa, (Nice,) a +colony of Massilia; and Asta, (Asti.) + + +II. _Central Italy comprises six countries; Etruria, Latium, and +Campania on the west; Umbria, Picenum, and Samnium on the east._ + +1. Etruria, Tuscia, or Tyrrhenia, was bounded north by the Macra, which +divided it from Liguria; south and east by the Tiberis, which separated +it from Latium and Umbria. Main river, the Arnus, (Arno). It is for the +most part a mountainous country; the seashore only is level. This +country derives its name from the Etrusci, a very ancient people, +composed, it is probable, of an amalgamation of several races, and even +some early Grecian colonies, to which latter they were indebted, not +indeed for all their arts, but for that of writing; to commerce and +navigation the Etrusci were indebted for their opulence and consequent +splendour. Cities: between the Macra and Arnus, Pisæ, (Pisa,) Florentia, +Fæsulæ; between the Arnus and Tiberis, Volaterræ, (Volterra,) Volsinii, +(Bolsena,) on the Lacus Volsiniensis, (Lago di Bolsena,) Clusium, +(Chiusi,) Arretium, (Arrezzo,) Cortona, Perusia, (Perugia,) in the +neighbourhood of which is the Lacus Thrasimenus, (Lago di Perugia,) +Falerii, (Falari,) and the wealthy city of Veii. Each of the above +twelve cities had its own individual ruler, _lucumo_; although frequent +associations were formed among them, yet no firm and lasting bond seems +to have united the nation into one. + +2. Latium, properly the residence of the Latini, from the Tiberis north, +to the promontory of Circeii, south; hence that country was likewise +denominated Latium Vetus. Subsequently, under the name of Latium was +likewise reckoned the country from Circeii, down to the river Liris, +(Latium Novum;) so that the boundaries came to be, north, the Tiberis, +south, the Liris: the seat of the Latins, properly speaking, was in the +fruitful plain extending from the Tiber to Circeii; around them, +however, dwelt various small tribes, some eastward, in the Apennines, +such as the Hernici, Sabini, Æqui, and Marsi; others southward, such as +the Volsci, Rutuli, and Aurunci.--Rivers: the Anio (Teverone) and Allia, +which fall into the Tiber, and the Liris, (Garigliano,) which empties +itself into the Mediterranean. Cities in Latium Vetus: Rome, Tibur, +Tusculum, Alba Longa, Ostia, Lavinium, Antium, Gabii, Velitræ, the +capital of the Volsci, and several smaller places. In Latium Novum: +Fundi, Terracina, or Anxur, Arpinum, Minturnæ, Formiæ. + +3. Campania. The country lying between the Liris, north, and the +Silarus, south. One of the most fruitful plains in the world, but at the +same time greatly exposed to volcanic eruptions. Rivers: the Liris, the +Vulturnus, (Voltorno,) the Silarus, (Selo). Mountain: Vesuvius. Campania +derived its name from the race of the Campani. Cities: Capua the +principal one; and also Linternum, Cumæ, Neapolis, Herculaneum, Pompeii, +Stabiæ, Nola, Surrentum, Salernum, etc. + +_The three eastern countries of Central Italy are as follows_: + +1. Umbria. It is bounded, north, by the river Rubico, south, by the +river Æsis, (Gesano,) dividing it from Picenum, and by the Nar, (Nera,) +dividing it from the Sabine territory. It is for the most part plain. +The Umbrian race had in early times spread over a much larger portion of +Italy. Cities: Ariminium, (Rimini,) Spoletium, (Spoleto,) Narnia, +(Narni,) and Ocriculum, (Otriculi.) + +2. Picenum. Bounded, north, by the Æsis, south, by the Atarnus, +(Pescara.) The people are called Picentes. This country consists in a +fertile plain. Cities: Ancona and Asculum Picenum, (Ascoli.) + +3. Samnium, the name of a mountain tract extending from the Atarnus, +north, to the Frento, south; although that country reckoned among its +inhabitants, not only the rude and powerful Samnites, but also several +less numerous races; for instance, the Marrucini and Peligni in the +north, the Frentani in the east, and the Hirpini in the south. Rivers: +the Sagrus and the Tifernus. Cities: Allifæ, Beneventum, and Caudium. + + +III. _Lower Italy, or Magna Grecia, comprised four countries; Lucania +and Bruttium on the western side, Apulia and Calabria on the eastern._ + +1. Lucania. Boundaries: north, the Silarus, south, the Laus. For the +most part a mountain tract. It derived its name from the race of the +Lucani, a branch of the Ausones, or chief nation of Lower Italy. Cities: +Pæstum, or Posidonia, still renowned for its ruins, and Helia, or Velia. + +2. Bruttium, (the modern Calabria,) or the western tongue of land from +the river Laus to the southern land's end at Rhegium. The river +Brandanus constitutes the eastern frontier. A mountainous country, +deriving its name from the Bruttii, (a half savage branch of the +Ausones,) who dwelt in the mountains, while the seashores were occupied +by Grecian settlements. Cities: Consentia, (Cosenza,) Pandosia, +Mamertum, and Petilia. (Concerning the Greek colonies see above p. 155.) + +3. Apulia. The country ranging along the eastern coast, from the river +Frento to the commencement of the eastern tongue of land; an extremely +fertile plain, and particularly adapted to grazing cattle. Rivers: the +Aufidus (Ofanto) and the Cerbalus. This country is divided into two +parts by the Aufidus, the northern called Apulia Daunia, the southern +called Apulia Peucetia. Cities: in Apulia Daunia; Sipontum and Luceria: +in Apulia Peucetia; Barium, Cannæ, and Venusia. + +4. Calabria or Messapia, the smaller eastern tongue of land, which +terminates in the promontory of Iapygium. Cities: Brundusium (Brindisi) +and Callipolis (Gallipoli). Concerning Tarentum and other Grecian +colonies, see above, p. 155. + +Three large islands are likewise reckoned as appertaining to Italy: they +are Sicily, Sardinia, and Corsica. According to the political geography +of the Romans they were, however, considered as provinces. Although the +above islands were, along the coast, occupied by aliens, the +aboriginals, under their own kings, maintained a footing in the inland +parts; among these the Siculi, said to have migrated from Italy, were +the most celebrated; they remained in Sicily, and gave their name to the +whole island. Concerning the cities, the more important of which were, +some of Phoenician, but the most part of Grecian, origin, see above, p. +30, and p. 155, sqq. + + + + +FIRST PERIOD. + +_From the foundation of Rome to the conquest of Italy and the +commencement of the wars with Carthage, B. C. 754-264, or A. U. C. +1-490._ + + + SOURCES. The most copious author, and, if we except his system of + deducing everything connected with Rome from Greece, the most + critical of all those who have written on the earlier history of + Rome and Italy, is Dionysius Halicarnassensis, in his + _Archæologia_: of this work only the first eleven books, reaching + down to the year 443, have been preserved; to these, however, must + be added the fragments of the nine following books, xii-xx. + discovered in 1816, and published by the Abbate Mai of Milan. Next + to Dionysius is Livy, who as far as lib. iv, c. 18, is our main + authority, till B. C. 292. Of the Lives of Plutarch the following + belong to this period, Romulus, Numa, Coriolanus, Poplicola and + Camillus; which for the knowledge and criticism they display, are + perhaps more important even than Livy and Dionysius, see A. H. L. + HEEREN, _De fontibus et auctoritate vitarum Plutarchi_, inserted in + _Comment Recentiores Soc. Scient. Gott. Comment. I. II. Græci, III. + IV. Romani_; reprinted also as an appendix to the editions of + Plutarch by Reiske and Hutten, _Gottingen_, 1821, _ap. Dieterich_. + The sources of the most ancient Roman history were extremely + various in kind. The traditions of the Fathers were preserved in + historical ballads; (no mention is ever made of any grand epic + poem;) and in this sense there existed a bardic history; by no + means, however, wholly poetic, for even the traditions of Numa's + Institutes are without the characteristics of poetry. The art of + writing was in Italy of earlier origin than the city of Rome; how + far, consequently, the public annals, such as the _Libri + Pontificum_, extended back in early time remains undetermined. + Several of the memorials are, beyond a doubt, mere family records, + whether preserved by vocal tradition or in written documents. To + the above must be added monuments, not only buildings and works of + arts, but also treaties engraved on tables; of which, nevertheless, + too little use seems to have been made. The Romans having learnt + the art of writing from the Greeks, their history was as + frequently written in Greek as in Latin; and that not only by + Greeks, such as, in the first place, Diocles of Peparethus, but + likewise by Romans, such as Fabius Pictor, at an early period. From + these last sources Dionysius and Livy compiled. The more ancient + Roman history given by these authorities rests, therefore, in part, + but by no means entirely, on tradition and poetry; still further + amplified by the rhetoric style, that of the Greeks more + especially. At what epoch the Roman history lays aside the poetic + character can hardly be determined with certainty; it may be traced + even in some parts of the period extending from the expulsion of + the kings to the conquest by the Gauls.--For the purposes of + chronology, great importance attaches to the _fasti Romani_, + contained partly in inscriptions, (_fasti Capitolini_,) partly in + manuscripts. They have been collected and restored by Pighius, + Noris Sigonius, etc. in GRÆVII, _Thes. A. R._ vol. xi.; likewise in + ALMELOVEEN, _Fast. Rom._ I. II. Amstel. 1705, etc. + + PIGHII _Annales Romanorum_. Antwerp, 1615, fol. 2 vols. An essay + towards a chronological arrangement; it reaches down to Vitellius. + + The Roman history has been copiously treated of by the moderns in + many works besides those on universal ancient history before + enumerated, (p. 2.). We shall mention only the more important. + + ROLLIN, _Histoire Romaine, Depuis la foundation de Rome jusqu' à la + bataille d'Actium_. 13 vols. 8vo. Paris, 1823, édit. revue par + Letronne. This history, which extends to B. C. 89, has been + continued and terminated by CREVIER. Although the critical + historian might suggest much that is wanting in this work, it + nevertheless contributed to advance the study. + + ED. FERGUSON, _The History of the Progress and Termination of the + Roman Republic_. London, 1783, 4to. On the whole, the best work on + the history of the Roman republic; it has superceded the earlier + work of GOLDSMITH. + + P. CH. LEVESQUE, _Histoire de la République Romaine_, 3 vols. + Paris, 1807. He who would still wish to admire with blind + enthusiasm the glory of ancient Rome, had better not read this + work. + + B. G. NIEBUHR, _Roman History_. + + Rather criticism than history; the author seems to be perpetually + endeavouring to overthrow all that has hitherto been admitted. The + spirit of acuteness is not always that of truth; and men do not so + lightly assent to the existence of a constitution which not only + is contrary to the broad view of antiquity--inferences drawn from + some insulated passages not being sufficient to overturn what is + corroborated by all the others--but likewise, according to the + author's own avowal, stands opposed to all analogy in history. But + truth gains even where criticism is wrong; and the value of some + deep researches will not for that reason be overlooked.--Consult + on this subject: + + # W. WACHSMUTH, _Researches into the more Ancient History of + Rome_. Halle, 1819. + + C. F. TH. LACHMANN, _Commentatio de fontibus T. Livii in prima + Historiarum Decade_. Gottingæ, 1821. A prize essay. + + For the works upon the Roman constitution see below, at the end of + this and at the beginning of the third period. + + Abundance of most important writings upon Roman antiquities will + be found in the great collections: + + GRÆVII _Thesaurus Antiquitatum Romanarum_. Lugd. Batav. 1694, sq. + 12 vols. fol. and likewise in + + SALENGRE, _Thesaurus Antiquitatum Romanarum_. Venet. 1732, 3 vols. + fol. + + Many excellent papers, particularly in + + _Mémoires de l'Académie des Inscriptions_. + + With the exception of NARDINI, _Roma Vetus_, inserted in GRÆVII THES. + A. R. t. iv. the best work on the topography of ancient Rome is + + VENUTI, _Descrizione Topografica delle Antichità di Roma_. P. I. + II. Roma, 1763; and especially the new edition of that work by + VISCONTI, 1803. There is also: + + # S. H. L. ADLER, _Description of the city of Rome_. Altona, 1781, + 4to. + + The best representation of the monuments of ancient Rome will be + found in + + PIRANESI, _Antichità di Roma_, 3 vols. fol. + +1. In certain respects, the history of Rome is always that of one town, +inasmuch as until the period of the Cæsars, the city continued mistress +of her extensive territory. The main parts of the internal constitution +of Rome were formed during this first period; which, considered in an +historical point of view, can hardly be said to be void of interest. +Whether every fundamental institution had its origin precisely at the +epoch to which it is attributed, is a question of little importance; it +is sufficient to observe, that they certainly arose in this period; and +that the steps by which the constitution was developed are, upon the +whole, determined beyond the possibility of a doubt. + +2. Exaggerated and embellished as the most ancient traditions of the +Romans respecting their origin may be, they all agree in this, that the +Romans belonged to the race of the Latini, and that their city was a +colony of the neighbouring Alba Longa. Long before this the custom seems +to have obtained with the Latini, of extending the cultivation of their +country by colonies. + + The primitive history of Rome is as difficult to reduce to pure + historic truth as that of Athens, or any other city of antiquity; this + proceeds from its being principally founded on traditions, handled by + poets and rhetoricians, and likewise differing from one another; as + may be seen in Plutarch's Romulus. As the knowledge of those + traditions, such as they are found in Dionysius and Livy, attaches to + so many other subjects, it would be improper to pass them over in + silence; and that they contained truths as well as poetic fictions is + proved most evidently by the political institutions of which they + narrate the origin, and which certainly reached back to those times. + To attempt to draw a line of demarcation between mythical and historic + times would be to mistake the real nature of mythology. + + L. DE BEAUFORT, _Sur l'incertitude des cinq premiers siècles de + l'histoire Romaine_, nouv. éd. à la Haye, 1750, 2 vols. 8vo. Every + thing that can be said against the credibility of the primitive Roman + history has been developed by Beaufort with abundant, and often with + laboured, acuteness. + +3. During the first two hundred and forty-five years subsequent to its +foundation this city was under the rule of governors, denominated kings; +these, however, were not hereditary, still less were they invested with +unlimited power, although they exerted themselves to become both +perpetual and absolute. On the contrary, in this period was framed a +municipal constitution, demonstrative of the existence, even at this +early date, of a considerable degree of political civilization; in its +principal parts this constitution was, no doubt,--as in every +colony,--copied from that of the mother city. Its principal features +were: _a._ Establishment and internal organization of the senate. _b._ +Establishment and progress of the patrician or hereditary nobility, +which, supported by the privilege of administering the sacred affairs, +and by the introduction of family names, quickly formed, in opposition +to the plebeians, a political party ever growing in power, although not, +therefore, a mere sacerdotal caste. _c._ Organization of the people +(_populus_), and modes of popular assembly (_comitia_), founded +thereupon; besides the original division according to heads into +_tribus_ and _curiæ_, another was subsequently introduced according to +property into _classes_ and _centuriæ_, out of which, besides the more +ancient _comitia curiata_, arose the very artificially constructed +_comitia centuriata_. _d._ Religious institutions, (_religiones_,) which +being most closely connected with the political constitution, formed a +state religion, by means of which everything in the state was attached +to determined forms, and received a higher sanction. Nor must we omit +_e._ the relations in private life established by law, the clientship, +marriage, and especially paternal authority. In consequence of those +domestic relations, a spirit of subordination and discipline, from the +earliest times, pervaded the people; and to that spirit the Romans were +indebted for the glory to which they attained. + +4. Notwithstanding many little wars with their immediate neighbours the +Sabines, Æqui, and Volsci, together with various cities of the Etrusci, +and even with the Latins themselves, Rome added but little to her +territory: nevertheless she took the first step towards her +aggrandizement; from the time of the destruction of Alba Longa, she +aimed at being the head of the collected cities of the Latins, and +finally attained the object of her ambition. + + Line of kings. Romulus, 754-717. First establishment of the colony; + augmentation in the number of the citizens, produced by the + establishment of an asylum, and an union with part of the Sabines. + Numa Pompilius, _d._ 679. By representing this prince as the founder + of the religion of the Roman state, that religion received the high + sanction of antiquity. Tullus Hostilius, _d._ 640. The conquest and + destruction of Alba lays the foundation of Roman supremacy in Latium. + Ancus Martius, _d._ 618. He extends the territory of Rome to the sea; + the foundation of the port of Ostia proves that Rome already applied + to navigation, the object of which was perhaps as yet rather piracy + than trade. Tarquinius Priscus, _d._ 578. A Grecian by descent. Under + his conduct Rome was already able to enter the field against the + confederate Etrusci. Servius Tullius, _d._ 534. The most remarkable in + the line of Roman kings. He placed Rome at the head of the confederacy + of the Latins, which he confirmed by _communia sacra_. On his new + division of the people according to property were raised the highly + important institutions of the _census_ and _comitia centuriata_. The + necessity of this measure is demonstrative of the great and increasing + prosperity of the Roman citizens; there can be no doubt, however, + that by its adoption the frame of the republic was already completed. + Tarquinius Superbus, (the tyrant,)--509. This individual, having taken + forcible possession of the throne as nephew to Priscus, endeavoured to + confirm his power by a close connection with the Latins and Volsci; by + this, as well as by his tyranny, he offended both the patrician and + plebeian parties. His deposition, and the consequent reformation of + the government, were however, properly speaking, brought about by the + ambition of the patricians. + + ALGAROTTI, _Saggio sopra la durata de' regni de' rè di Roma_. (Op. t. + iii.) Chronological doubts. Can the raising of difficulties deserve + the name of criticism? + +5. The only direct consequence to the internal constitution of Rome, +proceeding from the abolition of royalty was, that that power, +undetermined as it had been while in the hands of the kings, was +transferred to two consuls, annually elected. Meanwhile the struggle for +liberty, in which the new republic was engaged with the Etrusci and +Latins, contributed much to arouse the republican spirit which +henceforward was the main feature of the Roman character--the evils of +popular rule being in times of need remedied by the establishment of the +dictatorship. The party, however, which had deposed the ruling family, +took wholly into their own hands the helm of state; and the oppression +of these aristocrats, shown principally towards their debtors, who had +become their slaves, (_nexi_,)--notwithstanding the _lex de +provocatione_ established by Valerius Poplicola, ensuring to the people +the highest judicial power--was so galling, that after the lapse of a +few years it gave rise to a sedition of the commons, (_plebis_,) the +consequence of which was the establishment of annually elected +presidents of the people (_tribuni plebis_). + + First commercial treaty with Carthage, 508, in which Rome appears + certainly as a free state, but not yet as sovereign of all Latium; the + most important monument of the authenticity of the earlier Roman + history. + + HEYNE, _Foedera Carthaginiensium cum Romanis super navigatione et + mercatura facta_: contained in his Opusc. t. iii. Cf. # A. H. L. + HEEREN, _Ideas_, etc. Appendix to the second vol. + +6. The further development of the Roman constitution in this period, +hinges almost wholly on the struggle between the new presidents of the +commons and the hereditary nobility; the tribunes, instead of confining +themselves to defend the people from the oppression of the nobles, soon +began to act as aggressors, and in a short time so widely overstepped +their power, that there remained no chance of putting an end to the +struggle but by a complete equalization of rights. A long time elapsed +ere this took place; the aristocracy finding a very powerful support +both in the clientship and in the religion of the state, operating under +the shape of auspices. + + Main facts of the contest: 1. In the trial of Coriolanus the tribunes + usurp the right of summoning some patricians before the tribunal of + the people.--Hence arise the _comitia tributa_; that is to say, either + mere assemblies of the commons, or assemblies so organized that the + commons had the preponderance. This institution gave the tribunes a + share in the legislation, subsequently of such high importance, those + officers being allowed to lay proposals before the commons. 2. More + equitable distribution among the poorer classes of the lands conquered + from the neighbouring nations, (the most ancient _leges agrariæ_,) + suggested by the ambitious attempts of Cassius, 486. 3. Extension of + the prerogatives of the _comitia tributa_, more especially in the + election of the tribunes, brought about by Volero, 472. 4. Attempts at + a legal limitation of the consular power by Terentillus, (_lex + Terentilla_,) 460, which, after a long struggle, at last leads to the + idea of one common written code, 452, which is likewise realized in + spite of the opposition at first made by the patricians. + + # CHR. F. SCHULZE, _Struggle between the Democracy and Aristocracy + of Rome, or History of the Romans from the Expulsion of Tarquin to + the Election of the first Plebeian Consul_. Altenburgh, 1802, 8vo. + A most satisfactory development of this portion of Roman history. + +7. The code of the twelve tables confirmed the ancient institutions, and +was in part completed by the adoption of the laws of the Greek +republics, among which Athens in particular is mentioned, whose counsels +were requested by a special deputation. In this, however, two faults +were committed; not only were the commissioners charged with drawing up +the laws elected from the patricians _alone_, but they were likewise +constituted sole magistrates, with _dictatorial_ power, (_sine +provocatione_;) whereby a path was opened to them for an usurpation, +which could be frustrated only by a sedition of the people. + + Duration of the power of the Decemviri, 451-447. The doubts raised as + to the deputation sent to Athens are not sufficient to invalidate the + authenticity of an event so circumstantially detailed. Athens, under + Pericles, was then at the head of Greece; and, admitting the proposed + design of consulting the Greek laws, it was impossible that Athens + should have been passed over. And indeed, why should it be supposed, + that a state which fifty years before had signed a commercial treaty + with Carthage, and could not be unacquainted with the Grecian colonies + in Lower Italy, might not have sent an embassy into Greece? + + The yet remaining fragments of the code of the twelve tables are + collected and illustrated in BACHII _Hist. Jurisprudentiæ Romanæ_; and + in several other works. + +8. By the laws of the twelve tables the legal relations of the citizens +were the same for all; but as that code seems to have contained very +little in reference to any peculiar constitution of the state, the +government not only remained in the hands of the aristocrats, who were +in possession of all offices, but the prohibition, according to the new +laws of marriage between patricians and plebeians, appeared to have +raised an insurmountable barrier between the two classes. No wonder, +then, that the tribunes of the people should have immediately renewed +their attacks on the patricians; particularly as the power of those +popular leaders was not only renewed, but even augmented, as the only +limit to their authority was the necessity of their being unanimous in +their acts, while each had the right of a negative. + + Besides the other laws made in favour of the people at the renewal of + the _tribunicia potestas_, 446, that which imported _ut quod tributim + plebes jussisset, populum teneret_, frequently renewed in subsequent + times, and meaning, in modern language, that the citizens constituted + themselves, must, it would appear, have thrown the supreme power into + the hands of the people; did not the Roman history, like that of other + free states, afford examples enough of the little authority there is + to infer from the enactment of a law that it will be practically + enforced. + +9. The main subjects of the new dissensions between patricians and +plebeians, excited by the tribune Canuleius, were now the _connubia +patrum cum plebe_, and the exclusive participation of the patricians in +the consulship, of which the tribunes demanded the abolition. The repeal +of the former law was obtained as early as 445, (_lex Canuleia_;) the +right of admission to the consulship was not extended to the Plebeians, +till after a struggle annually renewed for eighty years; during which, +when, as usually was the case, the tribunes forbade the military +enrolment, recourse was had to a transfer of the consular power +to the yearly elected commanders of the legions; a place to which +plebeians were entitled to aspire, (_tribuni militum consulari +potestate._)--Establishment of the office of CENSORS, designed at first +for nothing more than to regulate the taking of the census, and invested +with no higher authority than what that required, but who soon after, by +assuming to themselves the _censura morum_, took rank among the most +important dignitaries of the state. + +10. Meanwhile Rome was engaged in wars, insignificant but almost +uninterrupted, arising out of the oppression, either real or imaginary, +which she exercised as head of the neighbouring federate cities, +(_socii_,) comprising not only those of the Latins, but likewise, after +the victory of lake Regillus, those of the other nations: the cities +embraced every opportunity of asserting their independence, and the +consequent struggles must have depopulated Rome, had not that evil been +diverted by the maxim of increasing the complement of citizens by +admitting the freedmen, and not unfrequently even the conquered, to the +enjoyment of civic privileges. Little as these feuds, abstractedly +considered, deserve our attention, they become of high interest, +inasmuch as they were not only the means by which the nation was trained +to war, but also led to the foundation of that senatorial power, whose +important consequences will be exhibited hereafter. + + Among these wars attention must be directed to the last, that against + Veii, the richest city in Etruria; the siege of that place, which + lasted very nearly ten years, 404-395, gave rise to the introduction + among the Roman military of winter campaigning, and of pay; thus, on + the one hand, the prosecution of wars more distant and protracted + became possible, while on the other the consequences must have been + the levy of higher taxes, (_tributa_). + +11. Not long after, however, a tempest from the north had nearly +destroyed Rome. The Sennonian Gauls, pressed out of northern Italy +through Etruria, possessed themselves of the city, the capitol excepted, +and reduced it to ashes; an event which made so deep an impression on +the minds of the Romans, that few other occurrences in their history +have been more frequently the object of traditional detail. Camillus, +then the deliverer of Rome, and in every respect one of the chief heroes +of that period, laid a double claim to the gratitude of his native city, +by overruling, after his victory, the proposal of a general migration to +Veii. + +12. Scarcely was Rome rebuilt ere the ancient feuds revived, springing +out of the poverty of the citizens, produced by an increase of taxation +consequent on the establishment of military pay, and by the introduction +of gross usury. The tribunes, Sextius and Licinius, by prolonging their +term of office to five years, had established their power; while +Licinius, by an agrarian law, decreeing that no individual should hold +more than five hundred _jugera_ of the national lands, had ensured the +popular favour; so that at last they succeeded in obtaining, that one of +the consuls should be chosen from the commons; and although the +nobility, by the nomination of a prætor from their own body, and of +_ædiles curules_, endeavoured to compensate for the sacrifice they were +obliged to make, yet the plebeians having once made good a claim to the +consulship, their participation in the other magisterial offices, (the +dictatorship, 353, the censorship, 348, the prætorship, 334,) and even +the priesthood, (300,) quickly followed as a matter of course. Thus at +Rome the object of political equality between commons and nobles was +attained; and although the difference between the patrician and plebeian +families still subsisted, they soon ceased to form political parties. + + A second commercial treaty entered into with Carthage, 345, + demonstrates that even at this time the navy of the Romans was + anything but contemptible; although its principal object as yet was + mere piracy. Roman squadrons of war however appear more than once + within the next forty years. + +13. Far more important than any wars in which Rome had hitherto been +engaged, were those soon about to commence with the Samnites. In former +contests the object of Rome had been to establish her supremacy over her +immediate neighbours; but in these, during a protracted contest of fifty +years, she opened a way to the subjugation of Italy, and laid the +foundation of her future greatness. + + Commencement of the wars against the Samnites, the Campanians having + called the Romans to their assistance against that nation, 343. These + wars, carried on with vigorous exertion and various success, lasted, + with but short intermissions, till 290. This is the true heroic age of + Rome, ennobled by the patriotic valour of Decius Mus, (father and son, + both voluntary victims,) Papirius Cursor, Q. Fabius Maximus, etc. The + consequences of this struggle were: _a._ The Romans learnt the art of + mountain warfare, and thereby for the first time acquired a peculiar + system of military tactics; not, however, till they had been, 321, + obliged to pass under the _furcas Caudinas_. _b._ Their relations + were more firmly established with their neighbours the Latins and + Etrurians, by the complete conquest of the former, 340, and by + repeated victories over the latter, more especially in 308. _c._ Great + national federations having arisen in Italy, particularly during the + last period of the Samnite wars, the Romans entered into connection + with the more distant nations of the country; with the Lucanians and + Apulians, by the first league, 323, with the Umbri, from the year 308; + and although the nature of this connection frequently varied, the + different nations were perpetually struggling for independence, and + were consequently at enmity with Rome. In this period, moreover, + commenced the practical illustration of the leading ideas of Rome upon + the political relations in which she placed the conquered with regard + to herself. + +14. After the subjection of the Samnites, Rome, wishing to confirm her +dominion in Lower Italy, was thereby, for the first time, entangled in +war with a foreign prince; the Tarentines, too feeble to maintain alone +their footing against the Romans, called Pyrrhus of Epirus to their +assistance. He came, indeed, but not so much to further the views of the +Tarentines as to advance his own; but even in victory, he learnt by +experience that the Macedonian tactics gave him but a slight +preponderance, which the Romans soon transferred to their own side, +exhibiting the truth of the principle, that a good civic militia, sooner +or later, will always get the upper hand of mercenary troops. + + The idea of calling upon Pyrrhus for assistance was the more natural, + as the predecessor of that prince, Alexander I. (see above p. 275.) + had endeavoured, but without success, to effect conquests in Lower + Italy. In the first war with Pyrrhus, 280-278, two battles were + fought, the first at Pandosia, 280, the other at Asculum, 279; in both + of which Rome was unsuccessful. But Pyrrhus, after crossing over into + Sicily, 278, (see above, p. 173, 174.) once more returned into Italy, + 275, when he was defeated by the Romans at Beneventum, and compelled + to evacuate Italy, leaving a garrison at Tarentum. That city, however, + soon afterwards, 272, fell into the hands of the Romans, whose + dominion was consequently extended to the extremity of Lower Italy. + +15. The chief means to which, even from the earliest times, the Romans +had recourse for the foundation of their dominion over the conquered, +and at the same time for the prevention of the too great increase of the +needy classes at Rome, was the establishment of colonies of their own +citizens, which, being settled in the captured cities, served likewise +as garrisons. Each colony had its own distinct internal constitution, +modelled, for the most part, upon that of the mother city itself; hence +to keep the colonies in perfect dependence naturally became an object of +Roman policy. This colonial system of the Romans, necessarily and +spontaneously arising out of the rude custom of bereaving the conquered +of their lands and liberty, assumed its main features in the Samnite +war, and gradually embraced the whole of Italy. Closely connected with +this system was the construction of military highways, (_viæ +militares_,) one of which, the Appian Way, was constructed so early as +312, and to this day remains a lasting monument of the greatness of Rome +at that period. + + Even at the time of Hannibal's invasion, the number of Roman colonies + amounted to 53: but several which had been settled returned to the + mother city. + + HEYNE, _De Romanorum prudentia in coloniis regendis_: inserted in + _Opusc._ vol. iii. Cf. _Prolusiones de veterum coloniarum jure ejusque + causis_, in his _Opusc._ vol. i. + +16. But the relations existing between Rome and the Italian nations +were extremely various in kind. 1. A few cities and nations enjoyed the +full privileges of Roman citizenship; in some instances, however, +without the right of voting in the _comitia_ (_municipia_). 2. The +privileges of the colonies (_jus coloniarum_) were of a more restricted +nature; the colonists were indeed in possession of their own civic +government, but had no further share whatever either in the _comitia_ or +magistracies of Rome. The other inhabitants of Italy were either +federates (_socii, foedere juncti_) or subjects (_dedititii_). The first +(_a_) preserved their internal form of government; but on the other hand +(_b_) were obliged to furnish tribute and auxiliary troops (_tributis et +armis juvare rempublicam_). Their further relation with Rome depended +upon the terms of the league. The most advantageous of these terms were +3. in favour of the Latins, although each of their cities had its own +separate league (_jus Latii_;) as 4. the rest of the Italian nations had +their _jus Italicum_. On the other hand, 5. the subjects, _dedititii_, +were deprived of their internal constitutions, and were governed by +Roman magistrates, (_præfecti_,) annually renewed. + + C. SIGONIUS, _De antiquo jure civium Romanorum_; and his treatise _De + antiquo jure Italiæ_, inserted both in his _Opera_ and in GRÆVII + _Thes. Ant. Rom._ t. ii. contain the most learned researches on the + details of these relations. + +17. The internal constitution of Rome itself, now completed, bore the +character of a democracy, inasmuch as equality of rights existed both +for nobles and commons. Yet this democracy was modified by expedients so +various and wonderful--the rights of the people, of the senate, of the +magistrates, fitted so nicely into each other, and were so firmly +supported by the national religion, connecting every thing with +determinate forms--that there was no reason, at that time, to fear the +evils either of anarchy, or, what is much more astonishing when we +consider the warlike character of the people, those of military +despotism. + + The rights of the people consisted in the legislative power, so far as + fundamental national principles were concerned, and in the election of + the magistrates. The distinction between the _comitia tributa_ (as + independent of the senate) and the _comitia centuriata_ (as dependent + on the senate) still existed as to form, but had lost all its + importance, the difference between patricians and plebeians being now + merely nominal, and the establishment of the _tribus urbanæ_, 303, + excluding the too great influence of the people (_forensis factio_) + upon the _comitia tributa_. The rights of the senate consisted in + administering and debating all transitory national affairs, whether + foreign relations, (war and peace only excepted, in which the consent + of the people was requisite,) financial concerns, or matters regarding + domestic peace and security. But the manner in which the senate was + supplied must have made it the first political body at that time in + the world. The rights and rank of magistrates were founded on their + greater or lesser _auspicia_, no public affair being entered upon + except _auspicato_. Consequently he only who was in possession of the + former could hold the highest civic and military power; (_imperium + civile et militare; suis auspiciis rem gerere_;) as dictator, consul, + prætor; such was not the case with those who had only the lesser + _auspicia_. The union of civil and military power in the person of the + same individual was not without its inconveniences, but military + despotism was in some measure guarded against by the prohibition of + any magistrate possessing military command within Rome itself. We must + not dismiss this subject without observing, that as the Roman + constitution arose merely out of practice, there never having been any + completely written charter, we cannot expect that all the details + should be clearly ascertained; to attempt, therefore, in default of + such authority, to describe all the minutiæ would be the surest way to + fall into error. + + Of the numerous works on the Roman constitution and on Roman + antiquities, we shall mention: + + DE BEAUFORT, _La République Romaine, ou plan général de l'ancien + gouvernement de Rome_. La Haye, 1766, 2 vols. 4to. A most copious + work, and one of the most solid in regard to the matters discussed; + although it does not embrace the whole of the subject. + + _Histoire critique du gouvernement Romain_; Paris, 1765. Containing + some acute observations. + + _Du Gouvernement de la republique Romaine_, _par_ A. AD. DE TEXIER, 3 + vols. 8vo. Hamburg, 1796. This contains many enquiries peculiar to the + writer. + + Some learned researches respecting the principal points of the Roman + constitution, as SIGONIUS and GRUCHIUS _de comitiis Romanorum_, + ZAMOCIUS _de Senatu Romano_, etc. will be found collected in the first + two vols, of GRÆVIUS, _Antiq. Roman._ + + For the popular assemblies of the Romans, an antiquarian essay by Chr. + Ferd. Schulze, Gotha, 1815, chiefly according to Niebuhr, may be + consulted. + + Among the numerous manuals of Roman antiquities, NIEUPORT, _explicatio + rituum Romanorum, ed. Gesner_. Berol. 1743, promises at least as much + as it performs. Of those which profess to treat of Roman antiquities + in general, none have yet risen above mediocrity. Jurisprudence, + however, has been much more successfully handled. We cite the two + following excellent compendiums: + + BACHII, _Historia Jurisprudentiæ Romanæ_. Lips. 1754. 1796. + + # C. HUGO, _Elements of the Roman Law_; 7th edit. Berlin, 1820. + + + + +SECOND PERIOD. + +_From the commencement of the war with Carthage to the rise of the +civil broils under the Gracchi, B. C. 264-134. Year of Rome, 490-620._ + + + SOURCES. The principal writer for this highly interesting period, + in which was laid the foundation of the universal dominion of Rome, + is Polybius as far as the year 146, not only in the complete books + preserved to us, which come down to 216, but also in the fragments. + He is frequently followed by Livy, lib. xxi-xlv. 218-166. Appian, + who comes next, does not confine himself merely to the history of + the war; Florus gives us only an abridgement. The lives of Plutarch + which relate to this portion of history, are FABIUS MAXIMUS, P. + ÆMILIUS, MARCELLUS, M. CATO, and FLAMINIUS. + + Of modern writers we dare only mention one:--and who is worthy to + be ranked beside him? + + MONTESQUIEU, _Considerations sur les causes de la grandeur et de la + décadence des Romains_. + +1. The political division of Italy laid the foundation for the dominion +of Rome in that country; the want of union and political relations in +the world paved the way to her universal empire. The first step cost her +much, the succeeding followed easily and rapidly; and the history of the +struggle between Rome and Carthage only shows on a larger scale what the +history of Greece exhibits on a smaller. The whole of the following +history confirms the fact, that two republics cannot exist near each +other, without one being destroyed or subjected: but the vast extent of +this struggle, the important consequences which followed, together with +the wonderful exertions made, and the great men engaged on both sides, +gave it an interest which cannot be found in that of any other nations. +Though the power and resources of both states were nearly equal in +appearance, they were widely different in quality and circumstances. +Carthage, besides her dominion over the seas, had also a better +furnished treasury, by which she was enabled to enlist into her service +as many _mercenaries_ as she pleased: Rome, on the contrary, _strong in +herself_, had all the advantages possessed by a nation of warriors over +one partly commercial, partly military. + +2. The first war of twenty-three years between the two republics, arose +from very slight causes: it soon, however, became a struggle for the +possession of Sicily, which in the end naturally extended itself to the +dominion of the sea. Rome, by the aid of her newly-built fleet, having +obtained for some time this power, was enabled to attack Africa, and +succeeded in driving the Carthaginians from Sicily. + + The occupation of Messina by the Romans, 264, gave rise to this + war. The defection of Hiero king of Syracuse from the side of + Carthage, and his joining the Romans, first gave the latter the + idea of expelling the Carthaginians from the island. The victory + near Agrigentum, and capture of that city in 262, seemed to + facilitate the execution of this project: it also convinced the + Romans of the necessity of their having a naval power. We shall the + less wonder at their forming a fleet in Italy, where wood was then + plentiful, if we remember their previous experience in naval + affairs; these were not the first vessels of war which they + constructed, but only the first large ones which they built upon a + Carthaginian model. The first naval victory of the Romans under + Duilius, by the aid of grappling machines, 260. The project then + conceived of carrying the war into Africa was one of the great + ideas of the Romans, and from that time it became a ruling maxim of + the state, to attack the enemy in his own territory. The second and + very remarkable naval victory of the Romans, 257, opened the way + for them to Africa, and shows their naval tactics in a very + brilliant light: but the unfortunate issue of their expedition to + Africa, restored the equilibrium; and the struggle for the dominion + of the sea became the more obstinate, as success did not altogether + favour one party. The result of the contest appears to have turned + upon the possession of the eastern promontories of Sicily, + Drepanum, and Lilybæum, which were in a manner the bulwarks of the + Carthaginians, and seemed impregnable since Hamilcar Barca had + taken the command of them, 247. The last naval victory of the + Romans, however, under the consul Lutatius, 241, having cut off the + communication between Sicily and Carthage, and the finances of both + parties being completely exhausted, a peace was concluded upon the + conditions: 1. That the Carthaginians should evacuate Sicily and + the small islands adjacent. 2. That they should pay to Rome, by + instalments in ten years, for the expenses she had been at in + carrying on the war, the sum of 2,200 talents. 3. That they should + not make war against Hiero king of Syracuse. + +3. The issue of this war placed the political connections of Rome in a +new situation, and necessarily extended her influence abroad. The length +of the war and the manner of its conclusion had, moreover, inspired a +national hatred, such as is only found in republics; the conviction also +that they could not remain independent of one another, must have become +much more striking, as the points of contact had greatly increased since +the beginning of the war. Who does not know the arrogance of a republic +after the first essay of her power has been crowned with success! Rome +gave a striking example of this by her invasion of Sardinia in the midst +of peace. These successes had also a sensible effect on the Roman +constitution. For although in appearance its form was not in the least +changed, yet the power of the senate now acquired that preponderance +which the ruling authority of a republic never fails to do after long +and successful wars. + + Origin and nature of the governments of the first Roman provinces, + in part of Sicily and in Sardinia. + +4. An opportunity was soon afforded the Romans, in the Adriatic sea, of +making use of their superior naval power, in chastising the pirates of +Illyria under their queen Teuta. By effecting this, they not only +secured their authority over that sea, but at the same time formed their +first political relations with the Grecian states; relations which soon +afterwards became of great importance. + + Commencement of the first Illyrian war, 230, which ended with the + subjugation of Teuta, 226. The war, however, again broke out, 222, + against Demetrius of Pharus, who conceived himself inadequately + rewarded by Rome for the services he had rendered her in the + preceding war. The Romans found him a much more dangerous + adversary than had been expected, even after his expulsion and + flight to Philip, 220, (see above, p. 282.) Throughout this war, + Rome appeared as the deliverer of the Grecian states, which had + suffered extremely from the plunder of these freebooters; Corcyra, + Apollonia, and other cities placed themselves formally under her + protection, while the Achæans, Ætolians, and Athenians vied with + each other in showing their gratitude. + +5. In the mean time, while Carthage endeavoured to make up for the loss +of Sicily and Sardinia by extending her Spanish dominions, which the +jealousy of Rome restrained her from carrying beyond the Ebro (p. 84.), +Rome herself had a new war to maintain against her northern neighbours +the Gauls, which ended after a violent contest with the establishment of +her authority over the north of Italy. + + From the first Gallic war to the burning of Rome, 390, the Gauls + had repeated their attacks in 360 and 348, even to the conclusion + of the peace in 336. But in the latter part of the Samnite war, a + formidable confederacy having taken place among the Italian + tribes, some of the Gauls enlisted as mercenaries in the service + of the Etruscans, while others allied themselves to the Samnites. + This led them to take part in these wars in 306, 302, and 292, + until they were obliged, together with the Etruscans, to sue for + peace in 284, before which time the Romans had sent a colony into + their country, near Sena. This peace lasted till 238, when it was + disturbed by the incursion of the transalpine Gauls; without, + however, their coming to any war with Rome. But in 232, the + proposition of Flaminius the tribune, (_lex Flaminia_), to divide + the lands conquered from the Senones, became the cause of new + disturbances. Upon this occasion, the Gauls entered into an + alliance with their transalpine countrymen, the Gæsates on the + Rhone, who had been accustomed to engage as mercenaries. These + having crossed the Alps, the dreadful war of six years (226-220) + began, in which, after defeating the Gauls near Clusium, 225, the + Romans pursued them into their own territory, and encamped upon + the Po, 223. The Gauls having been again completely overthrown by + Marcellus, were obliged to sue for peace; when the Roman colonies + of Placentia and Cremona were established. The number of men + capable of bearing arms in all Italy subject to the Romans during + this war amounted to 800,000. + +6. Before this storm was totally appeased, in which it is probable that +Carthaginian policy was not altogether inactive, Hannibal had obtained +the chief command in Spain. From the reproach of having first begun the +war, he and his party cannot be cleared; Rome, in the situation she then +was, could hardly desire it; he however who strikes the first blow is +not always the real aggressor. The plan of Hannibal was the destruction +of Rome; and by making Italy the principal seat of the war, he +necessarily turned the scale in his favour; because Rome, obliged to +defend herself, left to him all the advantages of attack. The +preparations she made for defence, show that it was not believed +possible he could execute his enterprise by the route which he took. + + The history of this war, 218-201, of which no later transaction + has been able to destroy the interest, is divided into three + parts: the history of the war in Italy; the contemporary war in + Spain; and from 203, the war in Africa. Hannibal's invasion of + Italy in the autumn, 218--engagement near the river Ticinus and + the battle of Trebia, in the same year. Battle near the lake + Thrasymenus in the spring, 217. Seat of the war transferred to + Lower Italy, and the defensive system of the dictator Fabius until + the end of the year. Battle of Cannæ, 216, followed by the + conquest of Capua and the subjection of the greater part of Lower + Italy. The defensive mode of warfare afterwards adopted by the + Carthaginian, arose partly from his desire to form a junction with + his brother Asdrubal and the Spanish army, and partly from his + expectation of foreign support by means of alliances, with + Syracuse, after the death of Hiero, 215, and with Philip of + Macedon, 216. These hopes, however, were frustrated by the + Romans.--Syracuse was besieged and taken, 214-212, (see above, p. + 174.) and Philip kept employed in Greece, (see above, p. 282.) In + addition to this, the Romans retook Capua, notwithstanding the + audacious march of Hannibal towards Rome, 211, and he had now no + succour left except the reinforcement which Asdrubal was bringing + from Spain. The latter, however, was attacked immediately upon his + arrival in Italy, near Sena, by the consuls Nero and Livius, and + left dead on the field, 207. From this time the war in Italy + became only of secondary importance, as Hannibal was obliged to + act on the defensive in Bruttium. + + _The Course of Hannibal over the Alps ascertained_, by J. + WHITTAKER. London, 1794, 2 vols. 8vo. The author endeavours to + prove that the passage of Hannibal was over the great St. Bernard, + and criticises the opinions of other writers. + + [We may likewise mention the learned treatise:-- + + _A Dissertation on the Passage of Hannibal over the Alps._ By H. + L. WICKHAM, M. A. and the Rev. J. A. CRAMER, M. A. second edition, + Oxon.] + + The war in Spain began nearly about the same time between Asdrubal + and the two brothers, Cn. and P. Cornelius Scipio, and was + continued, with various success, till the year 216, the issue + depending much upon the disposition of the Spaniards themselves. + The plan of Carthage after the year 216, was to send Asdrubal with + the Spanish army into Italy, and to supply its place by an army + from Africa; two victories, however, gained by the Scipios near + the Ebro, 216, and the Illiberis, 215, prevented this from being + effected, till at last both fell under the superior power and + cunning of the Carthaginians, 212. But the arrival of the youthful + P. Cornelius Scipio, who did not appear merely to his own nation + as an extraordinary genius, entirely changed the face of affairs, + and the fortunes of Rome soon became attached to his name, which + alone seemed to promise victory. During his command in Spain, + 210-206, he won over the inhabitants while he defeated the + Carthaginians, and for the furtherance of his great design, + contracted an alliance with Syphax in Africa, 206. He was unable, + however, to prevent the march of Asdrubal into Italy, 208, which + nevertheless rendered it an easy task for him to subdue all + Carthaginian Spain as far as Gades, 206, and thus procured him the + consular dignity at his return, 205. + + The carrying of the war into Africa by Scipio, notwithstanding the + opposition of the old Roman generals, and the desertion of Syphax, + who at the persuasion of Sophonisba again went over to the + Carthaginians (whose loss however was well repaid by Masinissa, + whom Scipio had won over to his side in Spain), was followed by an + important consequence; for after he had gained two victories over + Asdrubal and Syphax, 203, and taken the latter prisoner, the + Carthaginians found it necessary to recall Hannibal from Italy, + 202; and the battle of Zama terminated the war, 201. The following + were the conditions of peace: 1. That the Carthaginians should + only retain the territory in Africa annexed to their government. + 2. That they should give up all their ships of war, except ten + triremes, and all their elephants. 3. That they should pay, at + times specified, 10,000 talents. 4. That they should commence no + war without the consent of Rome. 5. That they should restore to + Masinissa all the houses, cities, and lands that had ever been + possessed by himself or his ancestors.--The reproach usually cast + upon the Carthaginians, of having left Hannibal unsupported in + Italy, in a great measure vanishes, if we remember the plan formed + in 216, to send the Spanish army into Italy, and to replace it by + an African one: a plan formed with much ability, and followed with + as much constancy. We may add to this, that the Barcine faction + maintained its influence in the government even to the end of the + war. But why they, who by the treaty of peace gave up five hundred + vessels of war, suffered Scipio to cross over from Sicily, without + sending one to oppose him, is difficult to explain. + +7. Notwithstanding her great loss of men, and the devastation of Italy, +Rome felt herself much more powerful at the end of this war than at the +beginning. Her dominion was not only established over Italy, but +extensive foreign countries had been brought under it; her authority +over the seas was rendered secure by the destruction of the naval power +of the Carthaginians. The Roman _form_ of government, it is true, +underwent no change, but its _spirit_ much, as the power of the senate +became almost unlimited; and although the dawn of civilization had +broken over Rome, since her intercourse with more civilized foreigners, +the state still remained altogether a nation of warriors. And now, for +the first time, appears in the page of history the fearful phenomenon of +a great military republic; and the history of the next ten years, in +which Rome overthrew so many thrones and free states, gives a striking +proof, that such a power is the natural enemy to the independence of all +the states within the reach of her arms. The causes which led Rome from +this time to aspire after the dominion of the world are to be found +neither in her geographical situation, which for a conquering power by +land seemed rather unfavourable; nor in the inclination of the people, +who were opposed to the first war against Philip; but singly and +entirely in the spirit of her government. The means, however, whereby +she obtained her end, must not be sought for merely in the excellence of +her armies and generals, but rather in that uniform, sharp-sighted, and +dexterous policy, by which she was enabled to frustrate the powerful +alliances formed against her, notwithstanding the many adversaries who +at that time sought to form new ones. But where could be found such +another council of state, embodying such a mass of practical political +wisdom, as the Roman senate must have been from the very nature of its +organization? All this, however, would not have been sufficient to have +subjugated the world, if the want of good government, the degeneracy of +the military art, and an extremely corrupt state of morals among both +rulers and people, in foreign states, had not seconded the efforts of +Rome. + + View of the political state of the world at this period. In the + west, Sicily (the whole island after 212), Sardinia, and Corsica, + from the year 237, and Spain, divided into citerior and ulterior + (the latter rather in name than in fact), had become Roman + provinces 206; the independence of Carthage had been destroyed by + the last peace, and her subordination secured by the alliance of + Rome with Masinissa; Cisalpine Gaul, formed into a province, + served as a barrier against the inroads of the more northern + barbarians. On the other side, in the east, the kingdom of + Macedonia, and the free states of Greece, forming together a very + complicated system, had opened a connection with Rome since the + Illyrian war, 230, and Philip's alliance with Hannibal, 214. Of + the three powers of the first rank, Macedonia, Syria, and Egypt, + the two former were allied against the latter, who, on her part, + maintained a good understanding with Rome. The states of secondary + rank were, those of the Ætolian league, the kings of Pergamus, and + the republic of Rhodes, with some smaller, such as Athens: these + had allied themselves to Rome since the confederacy against + Philip, 211. The Achæan league, on the contrary, was in the + interests of Macedonia, which Rome always endeavoured to attach to + herself, in order to make head against those of the first rank. + +8. A declaration of war against Philip, notwithstanding the opposition +of the tribunes of the people, and an attack upon Macedonia itself, +according to the constant maxim of carrying the war into the enemy's +country, immediately followed. They could not, however, drive Philip so +soon from the fastnesses of Epirus and Thessaly, which were his +bulwarks. But Rome possessed in T. Quintius Flaminius, who marched +against Philip as the deliverer of Greece, a statesman and general +exactly fitted for a period of great revolutions. By the permanency of +his political influence he became indeed the true founder of the Roman +power in the east. Who could better cajole men and nations, while they +were erecting altars to him, than T. Quintius? So artfully indeed did he +assume the character of a great genius, such as had been given by nature +to Scipio, that he has almost deceived history itself. The struggle +between him and Philip consisted rather in a display of talents in +political stratagem and finesse than in feats of arms: even before the +battle of Cynoscephalæ had given the finishing stroke, the Romans had +already turned the balance in their favour, by gaining over the Achæan +league. + + The negotiations between Rome and Macedonia, from the year 214, + give the first striking examples of the ability and address of the + Romans in foreign policy; and they are the more remarkable, as the + treaty with the Ætolians and others, 211 (see above, p. 283), was + the remote cause of the transactions which afterwards took place + in the east. The peculiar system adopted by the Romans, of taking + the lesser states under their protection as allies, must always + have given them an opportunity of making war on the more powerful + whenever they chose. This in fact happened in the present case, + notwithstanding the peace concluded with Philip, 204. The chief + object of the Romans in this war, both by sea and land, was to + drive Philip completely out of Greece. The allies on both sides, + and the conditions of peace, were similar to those concluded with + Carthage (see above, p. 284). The destruction of the naval power + of her conquered enemies became now a maxim of Roman policy in + making peace; and she thus maintained the dominion of the seas + without any great fleet, and without losing the essential + character of a dominant power by land. + +9. The expulsion of Philip from Greece brought that country into a state +of dependence upon Rome; an event which could not have been better +secured than by the present of liberty which T. Quintius conferred upon +its inhabitants at the Isthmian games. The system of surveillance, which +the Romans had already established in the west over Carthage and +Numidia, was now adopted in the east over Greece and Macedonia. Roman +commissioners, under the name of ambassadors, were sent into the country +of the nations in alliance, and were the principal means by which this +system of espionage was carried on. These however did not fail to give +umbrage to the Greeks, particularly to the turbulent Ætolians; more +especially as the Romans seemed in no hurry to withdraw their troops +from a country which they had declared to be free. + + Liberty was expressly granted to the state which had taken the + part of Philip, namely, to the Achæans; to the others it was + naturally understood to belong. It was nevertheless three years, + 194, before the Roman army evacuated Greece and withdrew from the + fortified places. The conduct of T. Quintius during this period + fully shows what he was. The Greeks indeed had much want of such a + guardian if they wished to remain quiet: his conduct, however, in + the war against Nabis, 195, shows that he had not really at heart + the tranquillity of Greece. + +10. The treaty of peace with Philip contained the seeds of a new and +greater war with Syria; but though this seemed inevitable at that time, +it did not break out till six years afterwards; and in but few periods +of the history of the world is so great a political crisis to be found, +as in this short interval. The fall of Carthage and Macedonia had shown +the rest of the world what it had to expect from Rome; and there was no +lack of great men sufficiently endowed with courage and talents to +resist her. The danger of a formidable league between Carthage, Syria, +and perhaps Macedonia, was never so much to be feared, as when Hannibal, +now at the head of affairs, laboured to effect it with all the zeal +which his hatred of Rome could inspire; and they might calculate with +certainty beforehand on the accession of many smaller states. Rome, +however, by her equally decided and artful policy procured Hannibal's +banishment from Carthage, amused Philip by granting him some trifling +advantages, and gained over the smaller states by her ambassadors. By +these means, and by taking advantage of the intrigues in the court of +Syria, she prevented this coalition from being formed. Antiochus was +therefore left without assistance in Greece, except from the Ætolians, +and a few other unimportant allies; while Rome drew from hers, +especially the Rhodians and Eumenes, advantages of the greatest +consequence. + + The first cause of contention between Rome and Antiochus was the + liberty of Greece, which the former wished to extend to the + Grecian cities of Asia, and to those in particular which had + belonged to Philip, and afterwards to Antiochus; while the latter + contended, that Rome had no right to intermeddle with the affairs + of Asia. The second cause of dispute was the occupation of the + Thracian Chersonesus by Antiochus, 196, in right of some ancient + pretensions; and Rome, on her part, would not tolerate him in + Europe. This quarrel therefore commenced as early as 196, but did + not become serious till the year 105, when in consequence of + Hannibal's flight to Antiochus, together with the turbulence and + excitement of the Ætolians, whose object it was to embroil the + rival powers, the political horizon was completely overcast. What + a fortunate thing it was for Rome that such men as Hannibal and + Antiochus could not understand each other! + + HEYNE, _de foederum ad Romanorum opes imminuendas initorum eventis + eorumque causis; in Opusc._ vol. iii. + +11. This war was much sooner brought to a termination than the +Macedonian, owing to the half-measures adopted by Antiochus. After +having been driven from Greece by Glabrio, and after two naval victories +had opened to the Romans the way to Asia, he felt inclined to act on the +defensive; but in the battle near Magnesia at the foot of Mount Sipylus, +L. Scipio gathered the laurels which more properly belonged to Glabrio. +The total expulsion of Antiochus from Asia Minor, even before this +victory, had been the chief object of the war. The conditions of peace +(see above, p. 284.) were such, as not only weakened Antiochus, but +reduced him to a state of dependence. + + During this contest in the east, a sanguinary war was going on in + the west; from the year 201 in Spain, where the elder Cato + commanded; and from 193 in Italy itself, against the Ligurians. + Whatever may be said upon the means made use of by Rome to + increase the number of her citizens, it will always be difficult + to comprehend, not only how she could support all these wars + without being thereby weakened, but how at the same time she could + found so many colonies! + +12. Even after the termination of this war, Rome refrained with +astonishing moderation from appearing in the light of a conqueror: it +was only for the liberty of Greece, and for her allies, that she had +contended! Without keeping a foot of land for herself, she divided, with +the exception of the free Grecian cities, the conquered Asia Minor +between Eumenes and the Rhodians; the manner, however, in which she +dealt with the Ætolians, who after a long supplication for peace were +obliged to buy it dearly, shows that she also knew how to treat +unfaithful allies. The war against the Gauls in Asia Minor was not less +necessary for the preservation of tranquillity in that country, than it +was injurious to the morals and military discipline of the Roman army. +They here learned to levy contributions. + +13. Thus, within the short space of ten years, was laid the foundation +of the Roman authority in the east, and the general state of affairs +entirely changed. If Rome was not yet the ruler, she was at least the +arbitress of the world from the Atlantic to the Euphrates. The power of +the three principal states was so completely humbled, that they durst +not, without the permission of Rome, begin any new war; the fourth, +Egypt, had already, in the year 201, placed herself under the +guardianship of Rome; and the lesser powers followed of themselves: +esteeming it an honour to be called the _allies of Rome_. With this name +the nations were lulled into security, and brought under the Roman yoke; +the new political system of Rome was founded and strengthened, partly by +exciting and supporting the weaker states against the stronger, however +unjust the cause of the former might be, and partly by factions which +she found means to raise in every state, even the smallest. + + Although the policy of Rome extended itself everywhere by means of + her commissioners, or ambassadors, yet she kept a more particular + guard against Carthage by favouring Masinissa at her expense, + against the Achæan league by favouring the Spartans, and against + Philip of Macedon by favouring every one who brought any complaint + against him (see above, p. 285). + +14. Although these new connections and this intercourse with foreign +nations greatly aided the diffusion of knowledge and science, and was +followed by a gradual improvement in her civilization, yet was it +nevertheless, in many respects, detrimental to the internal state of +Rome. The introduction of the scandalous Bacchanalia, which were +immediately discovered and forbidden, shows how easily great vices may +creep in among a people who are only indebted for their morality to +their ignorance. Among the higher classes also the spirit of intrigue +manifested itself to an astonishing degree; particularly by the attacks +directed against the Scipios by the elder Cato, whose restless activity +became the instrument of his malignant passions. The severity of his +censorship did not repair the evils caused by his immorality and +pernicious politics. + + Voluntary exile of Scipio Africanus to Linternum, 187. He dies + there, 183, the same year in which Hannibal falls under the + continued persecution of Rome. His brother Scipio Asiaticus is + also unable to escape a trial and condemnation, 185. One would + have expected a sensible effect from the exile of these two great + men; but, in a state where the ruling power is in the hands of a + body like what the Roman senate was, the change of individuals is + but of little consequence. + +15. Fresh disputes arose, as early as 185, with Philip of Macedon, who +soon found that they had spared him no longer than it suited their own +convenience. Although the intervention of Philip's youngest son, upon +whom the Romans had formed some design, prevented the powers from coming +to an immediate rupture, and war was still further delayed by Philip's +death, yet the national hatred descended to his successor, and continued +to increase, notwithstanding an alliance concluded with him, until the +war openly broke out (see above, p. 287). + + The first circumstance which gave umbrage to Philip was the small + portion they permitted him to conquer in Athamania and Thessaly + during the war against Antiochus. But what sharpened his + animosity, much more than the object in dispute, was the conduct + of the Roman commissioners, before whom he, the king, was called + upon to defend himself as an accused party, 184. The exclamation + of Philip, that "the sun of every day had not yet set," showed his + indignation, and at the same time betrayed his intention. The + interval previous to the breaking out of the war was anything + rather than a time of peace for Rome; for besides that the Spanish + and Ligurian wars continued almost without intermission, the + revolts which broke out in Istria, 178, and in Sardinia and + Corsica, 176, produced much bloodshed. + +16. In the second Macedonian war, which ended with the destruction of +Perseus and his kingdom (see above, p. 288), it required the active +efforts of Roman policy to prevent a powerful confederacy from being +formed against her; as Perseus used all his endeavours to stimulate, not +only the Grecian states, and Thrace and Illyria, but also Carthage and +Asia, to enter into alliance with him. Where was it that Rome did not at +this crisis send her ambassadors? She did not, indeed, succeed so far as +to leave her enemy quite alone, but prepared new triumphs for herself +over the few allies she left him. The devastated Epirus, and Gentius +king of Illyria, suffered dearly for the assistance they had lent him; +the states also which had remained neuter, the Rhodians and Eumenes, +were made to feel severely that they were the mere creatures of Rome. + + Beginning of the Macedonian war, 171, before Rome was prepared; a + deceitful truce, which raised the indignation even of the elder + senators, was the means resorted to for gaining time. + Notwithstanding this, the war at first, 170 and 169, was + favourable to Perseus; but he wanted resolution and judgment to + enable him to turn his advantages to account. In 168, Paulus + Æmilius, an old general, against the usual custom of the Romans, + took the command. Bloody and decisive battle near Pydna, June 22, + 168. So completely may one day overturn a kingdom which has only + an army for its support! Contemporary with this war, and highly + fortunate for Rome, was the war of Antiochus Epiphanes with Egypt. + No wonder that Rome did not, till 168, through Popilius, command + peace between them! (See above, p. 261.) + +17. The destruction of the Macedonian monarchy was attended with +consequences equally disastrous to the conquerors and the conquered. To +the first it soon gave the notion of becoming the masters of the world, +instead of its arbiters; and it exposed the latter, for the next twenty +years, to all the evils inseparable from such a catastrophe. The system +of politics hitherto pursued by Rome could not last much longer; for if +nations suffered themselves to be brought under the yoke by force, it +was not to be expected that they would long be held in dependence under +the specious name of liberty. But the state of things after this war was +such as contributed to hasten a change in the form of the relations +which existed between Rome and her allies. + + The republican constitution given to the already ruined and + devastated Macedonians (see above, p. 288.) and Illyrians, and + which, according to the decree of the senate, "showed to all + people that Rome was ready to bestow liberty upon them," was + granted upon such hard conditions, that the enfranchised nation + soon used every endeavour to procure themselves a king. Greece + however suffered still more than Macedonia. Here, during the war, + the spirit of faction had risen to the highest pitch; and the + arrogant insolence of the Roman party, composed for the most part + of venal wretches, was so great, that they persecuted not only + those who had espoused an opposite faction, but even those who had + joined no faction at all. Rome nevertheless could not believe + herself secure, until she had destroyed, by a cruel artifice, all + her adversaries (see above, p. 288). + +18. Entirely in the same spirit did Rome proceed against the other +states from whom she had anything to fear. These must be rendered +defenceless; and every means of effecting that purpose was considered +justifiable by the senate. The quarrels between the successors to the +throne of Egypt were taken advantage of to cause dissensions in that +kingdom (see above, p. 260); while Syria was retained in a state of +tutelage, by keeping the rightful heir to the throne at Rome; and its +military power neutralized by means of their ambassadors (see above, p. +243). + +19. From these facts we may also conclude, that the injuries now +meditated against Carthage were not separate projects, but rather formed +part of the general system of Roman policy at this period, although +particular events at one time retarded their execution, and at another +hastened it. History, in recounting the incredibly bad treatment which +Carthage had to endure before her fall, seems to have given a warning to +those nations who can take it, of what they may expect from the +domination of a powerful republic. + + Cato was chief of the party which sought the destruction of + Carthage, both from a spirit of envy against Scipio Nasica, whom + he hated for his great influence in the senate; and because, when + ambassador to Carthage, he thought they did not treat him with + sufficient respect. But Masinissa's victory, 152 (see above, p. + 88), and the defection of Utica, brought this project into + immediate play. Beginning of the war, 150, the Carthaginians + having been previously inveigled out of their arms. The city, + however, was not captured and destroyed till 146, by P. Scipio + Æmilianus. The Carthaginian territory, under the name of Africa, + was then made a Roman province. + +20. During this third war with Carthage, hostilities again broke out in +Macedonia, which brought on a new war with Greece, and entirely changed +the state of both these countries. In Macedonia, an impostor named +Andriscus, who pretended to be the son of Philip, placed himself at the +head of that highly disaffected people, assumed the name of Philip, and +became, particularly by an alliance with the Thracians, very formidable +to the Romans, until overcome by Metellus. Rome wishing to take +advantage of this crisis to dissolve the Achæan league, the Achæan war +broke out (see above, p. 289). This war was begun by Metellus, and +terminated by Mummius with the destruction of Corinth. By reducing both +Macedonia and Greece to the form of provinces, Rome now gave evident +proof that no existing relations, nor any form of government, can +prevent nations from being subjugated by a warlike republic, whenever +circumstances render it possible. + + It might have been expected, that the destruction of the two first + commercial cities in the world, in the same year, would have been + followed by important consequences to the course of trade; but the + trade of Carthage and Corinth had already been drawn to Alexandria + and Rhodes, otherwise Utica might, in some respects, have supplied + the place of Carthage. + +21. While Rome was thus destroying thrones and republics, she met in +Spain with an antagonist--a simple Spanish countryman named +Viriathus--whom, after six years' war, she could only rid herself of by +assassination. The war, nevertheless, continued after his death against +the Numantines, who would not be subjected, but were at last destroyed +by Scipio Æmilianus. + + The war against the Spaniards, who of all the nations subdued by + the Romans defended their liberty with the greatest obstinacy, + began in the year 200, six years after the total expulsion of the + Carthaginians from their country, 206. It was exceedingly + obstinate, partly from the natural state of the country, which was + thickly populated, and where every place became a fortress; partly + from the courage of the inhabitants; but above all, owing to the + peculiar policy of the Romans, who were wont to employ their + allies to subdue other nations. This war continued, almost without + interruption, from the year 200 to 133, and was for the most part + carried on at the same time in Hispania Citerior, where the + Celtiberi were the most formidable adversaries, and in Hispania + Ulterior, where the Lusitani were equally powerful. Hostilities + were at the highest pitch in 195, under Cato, who reduced + Hispania Citerior to a state of tranquillity 185-179, when the + Celtiberi were attacked in their native territory; and 155-150, + when the Romans in both provinces were so often beaten, that + nothing was more dreaded by the soldiers at home than to be sent + there. The extortions and perfidy of Servius Galba placed + Viriathus, in the year 146, at the head of his nation, the + Lusitani: the war, however, soon extended itself to Hispania + Citerior, where many nations, particularly the Numantines, took up + arms against Rome, 143. Viriathus, sometimes victorious and + sometimes defeated, was never more formidable than in the moment + of defeat; because he knew how to take advantage of his knowledge + of the country, and of the dispositions of his countrymen. After + his murder, caused by the treachery of Cæpio, 140, Lusitania was + subdued; but the Numantine war became still more violent, and the + Numantines compelled the consul Mancinus to a disadvantageous + treaty, 137. When Scipio, in the year 133, put an end to this war, + Spain was certainly tranquil; the northern parts, however, were + still unsubdued, though the Romans penetrated as far as Galatia. + +22. Towards the end of this period, the Romans obtained at a much +cheaper rate the possession of one of their most important provinces; +for the profligate Attalus III. king of Pergamus, bequeathing them the +whole of his kingdom (on what account is uncertain, see above, p. 292.), +they immediately took possession of it, and kept in spite of the +resistance of the legitimate heir Aristonicus, merely ceding, as a +recompense, Phrygia to Mithridates V. king of Pontus. Thus, by a stroke +of the pen, the largest and finest part of Asia Minor became the +property of Rome. If this extraordinary legacy was the work of Roman +policy, she paid dearly enough, in the long run, for this accession to +her power and riches, by the destruction of her morals, and the dreadful +wars to which this legacy gave rise under Mithridates. + +23. The foreign possessions of Rome, besides Italy, comprised at this +time under the name of provinces, a name of much higher signification in +the Latin language than in any other, Hispania Citerior and Ulterior, +Africa (the territory of Carthage), Sicily, Sardinia and Corsica, +Liguria, and Cisalpine Gaul, in the west; and in the east, Macedonia, +Achaia, and Asia (territory of Pergamus). The inhabitants of these +countries were entirely subject to Rome. The administration of them was +carried on by those who had enjoyed the office of consul, and by +prætors, subordinate to whom were the quæstors, or collectors of the +revenue. The highest military and civil powers were united in these +governors; a principal cause of that horrible oppression which was soon +felt. Troops were always kept up in the provinces; and the Latin +language everywhere introduced (except only where Greek was spoken), +that the inhabitants might be made as much like Romans as possible. + + Till nearly the end of this period, prætors were expressly + appointed to each province. It was not till after the origin of + the _quæstiones perpetuæ_, that it became the custom for the + prætors who had vacated office, to succeed to the provinces + (_proprætores_), a principal cause of the degeneracy of the Roman + constitution. + + C. SIGONIUS, _de Antiquo jure provinciarum in Grævii Thes. Antiq. + Rom._ vol. ii. + +24. The acquisition of these rich countries naturally had great +influence in augmenting the revenue of the Romans. Though Rome was not +indeed a state, like Carthage, altogether dependent upon finances, yet +she kept these adjusted in a wonderful manner; a spirit of nice order +being observed in this as well as in every other department of her +administration. If in extraordinary emergencies recourse were had to +native loans, to a change in the value of money, or a monopoly of salt, +order was soon restored; while the booty obtained from conquered +countries was also a great source of the public income so long indeed as +it was reserved for the state, and did not become the prey of the +generals. + + Sources of the Roman revenue (_vectigalia_) were: 1. Tribute _a._ + from the Roman citizens; that is to say, a property-tax imposed by + the senate according to the urgency of the case (which, however, + was remitted, for a long time, after the war with Perseus, 168, + being no longer necessary). _b._ Tribute of the allies (_socii_) + in Italy: which seems also to have been a property-tax; differing + in different places. _c._ Tribute of the provinces: in some a + heavy poll-tax, in others taxes on property; in all, however, they + were paid in natural productions, mostly ordinary, though + sometimes extraordinary, as well for the salary of the governor as + for the supply of the capital. 2. The revenue from the national + domains (_ager publicus_), both in Italy (especially Campania) and + in the provinces; the tythes (_decumæ_) of which were paid by + means of leases for four years, granted by the censors. 3. The + revenue from the customs (_portoria_), collected in the seaports + and frontier towns. 4. The revenue arising from the mines + (_metalla_), particularly the Spanish silver mines; the + proprietors of which were obliged to pay a duty to the state. 5. + The duty upon enfranchised slaves (_aurum vicesimarium_). All + receipts flowed into the national treasury, the _ærarium_; all + outgoings were exclusively ordered by the senate; and the people + were consulted as little with regard to them as they were + respecting the imposts. The officers employed were the + _quæstores_, under whom were the _scribæ_, divided into + _decurias_, who, though certainly subordinate, had nevertheless + great influence. Their services, as they were not yearly changed, + must have been indispensable to the _quæstores_ for the time + being; and the whole management of affairs, at least in detail, + must have fallen into their hands. + + Upon the finances of Rome, the best work at present is:-- + + P. BURMANNI, _Vectigalia Populi Romani_. Leyden, 1734, 4to. + + Two excellent treatises have since appeared in German upon this + subject:-- + + # D. H. HEGEWISCH, _Essay upon Roman Finances_. Antona, 1804, and + + # R. BOSSE, _Sketch of the System of Finance in the Roman State_. + Brunswick, 1803, 2 parts. Both include the periods of the republic + and the monarchy. + + + + +THIRD PERIOD. + +_From the beginning of the civil broils under the Gracchi, to the fall +of the republic. B. C. 134-30. Year of Rome, 620-724._ + + + SOURCES. Concerning the first half of this important period of the + republic, down to the time of Cicero, we are sadly in want of precise + information. Not one of the contemporary writers has been preserved to + us, nor indeed any one of the later historians who have compiled a + history of the whole period. APPIAN, _de Bellis Civilibus_; PLUTARCH, + in his _Lives of the Gracchi_; and the spirited _Compendium_ of VEL. + PATERCULUS, are, for this portion, our principal authorities; and even + the imperfect summaries of the lost books of Livy, so masterly + supplied by Freinshemius here become of importance. For the times + which follow, the _Jugurtha_ and _Cataline_ of Sallust, are two + excellent historical cabinet pieces, and become the more valuable for + the insight they at the same time give us of the internal condition of + Rome. His great work, however, _The Histories_, is, with the exception + of a few precious fragments, unfortunately lost. For the times of + CÆSAR and CICERO, we have the _Commentaries_ of the first, and the + _Orations_ and _Letters_ of the latter; both fertile sources of + information. What is left us of DIO CASSIUS'S _History_, begins with + the year 69 before Christ. Of PLUTARCH'S _Lives_, besides those of + the Gracchi, the following are connected with this period: C. MARIUS, + SYLLA, LUCULLUS, CRASSUS, SERTORIUS, CATO OF UTICA, CICERO, BRUTUS, + and ANTONIUS. Upon the sources for these lives, see my treatises cited + above, p. 321. + + Among the moderns, the greater part of this period is particularly + treated of by:-- + + DE BROSSES, _Histoire de la République Romaine dans le cours du VIIe + Siècle par Salluste_, à Dijou, 1777, 3 vols. 4to. + + In German by J. C. SCHLEUTER, 1790, etc. with remarks, 4 vols. The + editor of this capital work had an idea of translating Sallust, and + supplying what is lost. It contains, besides a translation of Jugurtha + and Cataline, the period between both, of which Sallust treats in his + _Histories_: that is, from Sylla's abdication, B. C. 79-67; and is + equally important for its own merits and for the period to which it + belongs. + + VERTOT, _Histoire des révolutions arrivées dans le gouvernement de la + République Romaine_. Paris, 1796, 6 vols. 12mo. Although this justly + esteemed work includes the foregoing period, it is particularly + valuable for the present. + + MABLY, _Observations sur les Romains_. Genève, 1751, 2 vols. 8vo. A + survey of the internal history; ingenious, but as superficial as the + _Observations sur les Grecs_ by the same author. + +1. The foregoing period is composed of the history of foreign wars +alone; in this, on the contrary, Rome appears in a continual state of +internal commotion. And if foreign hostilities interrupt this state of +things for a short time, it is only that it may be renewed with more +violence, till at last it ends in a furious civil war. As the almost +boundless power of the senate had laid the foundation of an exceedingly +hateful family aristocracy, against which the tribunes of the people +arrayed themselves, in the character of powerful demagogues, there arose +a new struggle between the aristocratic and democratic parties, which +almost immediately grew into two powerful factions. This contest, from +its extent and its consequences, soon became much more important than +the ancient one between the patricians and the plebeians. + + This family aristocracy gradually arose from the power of the + magistrates, who now not only enjoyed a very high political + importance, but, by the government of the provinces, acquired immense + wealth. The present aristocracy, then, consisted of the ruling + families (_nobiles_) concentrated in the senate. The struggle with the + opposite party, the people (_plebs_), became so much the more violent + in consequence of the great abuses which had crept into the + administration, particularly in the division of the lands of the + republic; the ruling families securing to themselves the fruits of all + the victories and conquests, while the power of the democracy, by the + vast accumulation of people (without the means of livelihood, although + voting in the _comitia_), especially of enfranchised slaves, who, + though strangers, mostly without power or property, formed, + nevertheless, the greater part of what was then called the Roman + people. + + G. AL. RUPERTI, _Stemmata gentium Romanarum_. Goett. 1795, 8vo. Almost + indispensable for obtaining a clear insight into the history of the + Roman families, and of course into that of the state. + +2. Commencement of the disturbances under the tribunate of Tib. +Sempronius Gracchus, whom former connections had long made the man of +the people. His desire was to relieve the distress of the lower orders; +and the means whereby he hoped to do this was a better division of the +lands of the republic, now almost exclusively in the hands of the +aristocracy. His reform, therefore, naturally led at once to a struggle +with that party. Tib. Gracchus however soon found, by experience, that a +demagogue cannot stop where he would, however pure his intentions may be +at first; and no sooner had he obtained a prolongation of his term of +office, in opposition to the usual custom, than he fell a sacrifice to +his undertaking. + + The first agrarian law of Gracchus was confirmed by the people, + notwithstanding the fruitless opposition of his colleague Octavius, + who was deposed; it decreed, that no person should possess above five + hundred acres of land, nor any child above half that quantity. This + law was, in fact, only a renewal of the ancient _lex Licinia_; in the + condition, however, in which Rome now was, it bore much harder upon + the property usurped by the great families, than it did in former + times. Appointment of a committee for dividing the national lands, and + for enquiring also at the same time which were the property of the + state (_ager publicus_) and which were not. New popular propositions + of the elder Gracchus, especially that for the division of the + treasures left by king Attalus of Pergamus, with the view of securing + his continuance in office; great insurrection of the aristocratic + party under Scipio Nasica, and murder of Tiberius Gracchus, on the day + of electing the new tribunes of the people. + +3. The fall of the chief of the new party, however, occasioned any thing +rather than its destruction. Not only was there no mention of an +abrogation of the agrarian law, but the senate was obliged to allow the +place in the commission, which had become vacant by the death of +Gracchus, to be filled up; and Scipio Nasica himself was sent out of the +way, under the pretext of an embassy to Asia. The party of the senate +did, indeed, find a powerful support for a short time in the return of +Scipio Æmilianus (_d._ 129) from Spain; but its greatest support was +found in the difficulties of the law itself, which prevented its +execution. + + Great revolt of the slaves in Sicily under Eunus, 134-131. This + contributed not a little to keep alive the dissensions, as it showed + the necessity of a reform. + +4. Evident endeavours of the tribunes of the people to increase their +power, Gracchus having now awakened them to a sense of it. Not satisfied +with a seat and voice in the senate, Carbo wished that the renewing of +their dignity should be passed into a law. By the removal, however, of +the chiefs of the lower party, upon honourable pretexts, new troubles +were put off for some years. + + First establishment of the Roman power in Transalpine Gaul by M. + Fulvius Flaccus, on the occasion of his being sent to the assistance + of Massilia, 128. Southern Gaul became a Roman province as early as + 122, in consequence of the defeat of the Allobrogi and Averni by Q. + Fabius, who had been sent against them to support the Ædui, the allies + of Rome. Capture of the Balearian isles by Metellus, 123. Quæstorship + of C. Gracchus in Sicily, 128-125. + +5. These palliative remedies, however, availed nothing after the return +of C. Gracchus from Sicily with a full determination to tread in the +footsteps of his brother. Like him, it is true, he fell a victim to his +enterprise; but the storm that he raised during the two years of his +tribunate fell so much the more heavily, as the popular excitement was +more general, and from his possessing more of the shining talents +necessary to form a powerful demagogue than his brother. + + First tribunate of C. Gracchus, 123. Renewal of the agrarian law, and + rendering its provisions more strict. Nevertheless, as he increased + the fermentation by his popular measures and by acting the demagogue, + and obtained the renewal of the tribunate for the following year, 122, + he so far extended his plan, as to render it not only highly dangerous + to the aristocracy, but even to the state itself. Establishment of + distributions of corn to the poor people. Plan for the formation of + the knights (_ordo equestris_) into a political body, as a + counterbalance to the senate, by conferring on it the right of + administering justice, (_judicia_,) which was taken from the senate. + Still more important project of granting to the Italian allies the + privileges of Roman citizenship; and also the formation of colonies, + not only in Campania, but also out of Italy, in Carthage. The highly + refined policy of the senate, however, by lessening this man of the + people in the eyes of his admirers, through the assistance of the + tribune Livius Drusius, prevented his complete triumph; and, once + declining, Gracchus soon experienced the fate of every demagogue, + whose complete fall is then irretrievable. General insurrection, and + assassination of C. Gracchus, 121. + +6. The victory of the aristocratic faction was this time not only much +more certain and bloody, they turned the advantages it gave them to such +good account, that they eluded the agrarian law of Gracchus, and indeed, +at last, completely abrogated it. But the seeds of discord already +disseminated, especially among the Italian allies, could not be so soon +checked, when once the subjects of these states had conceived the idea +that they were entitled to a share in the government. How soon these +party struggles might be renewed, or indeed a civil war break out, +depended almost entirely upon foreign circumstances, and the chance of a +bolder leader being found. + + Agrarian law evaded: at first by repealing an act which prohibited the + transfer of the national lands already divided, whereby the patricians + were enabled to buy them again;--afterwards by the _lex Thoria:_ + complete stop put to all further divisions, a land-tax, to be + distributed among the people, being instituted in its stead; but even + this latter was very soon annulled. + + # D. H. HEGEWISCH, _History of the Civil Wars of the Gracchi_. + Altona, 1801. + + # _History of the Revolution of the Gracchi in my Miscellaneous + Historical Works._ Vol. iii. 1821. + +7. Visible effects of this party spirit upon public morals, which now +began to decline the more rapidly, in proportion to the increase of +foreign connections. Neither the severity of the censorship, nor the +laws against luxury (_leges sumtuariæ_), nor those which now became +necessary against celibacy, could be of much service in this respect. +This degeneracy was not only to be found in the cupidity of the higher +ranks, but also in the licentiousness of the lower orders. + + Luxury in Rome was first displayed in the public administration (owing + to the excessive accumulation of wealth in the treasury, especially + during the Macedonian wars) before it infected private life; and the + avarice of the great long preceded the latter. The sources from whence + they satisfied this passion were found in the extortions of the + governors of provinces, their great power, and the distance from Rome + rendering the _leges repetundarum_ of but little effect. Probably the + endeavours of the allied princes and kings to gain a party in the + senate was a still more fruitful source, as they could obtain their + end only by purchase, and so gave a new impulse to the cupidity and + intriguing disposition of the members of that council. But private + luxury requires everywhere some time to ripen. It attained its height + immediately after the Mithridatic wars. + + # D. MEINER, _History of the Corruption of the Morals and Constitution + of the Romans_. Leips. 1782. + + # MEIEROTTO, _Morals and Manners of the Romans at different periods of + the Republic_. Berlin, 1776. Which considers the subject in several + points of view. + + # C. A. BOTTIGER, _Sabina, or, morning scenes at the toilette of a + rich Roman lady_. Leips. 1806, 2 vols. A true and lively description + of the luxury of the Roman ladies, but principally at its most + brilliant period. It has been translated into French. + +8. This corruption was manifested in a striking manner in the next +great war that Rome entered into, which was in Africa, against Jugurtha +of Numidia, the adopted grandson of Masinissa; and soon after against +his ally Bocchus of Mauritania. This war, kindled and maintained by the +avarice of the Roman nobles, which Jugurtha had already had an +opportunity of knowing at the siege of Numantia, paved the way to the +aggrandizement of C. Marius, a new demagogue, who, being also a +formidable general, did much more harm to the state than even the +Gracchi. + + Commencement of the quarrel of Jugurtha with the two sons of Micipsa, + and assassination of Hiempsal, one of them, 118.--When the other, + Adherbal, arrived at Rome, 117, the party of Jugurtha had already + succeeded, and obtained a partition of the kingdom. New attack upon + Adherbal, who is besieged in Cirta, and, notwithstanding the repeated + embassies of Rome to Jugurtha, is compelled to surrender, and is put + to death, 112. The tribune C. Memmius constrains the senate to declare + war against Jugurtha; but Jugurtha purchases a peace of the consul + Calpurnius Piso, 111.--Nevertheless Memmius hinders the ratification + of the peace, and Jugurtha is required to justify himself at Rome. He + would probably, however, have bought his acquittal, if the murder of + his kinsman Massiva, 110, by the help of Bomilcar, had not rendered it + impossible. The war is renewed under the consul Sp. Albinus and his + brother Aulus, 110, but with very little success, until the + incorruptible Q. Metellus took the command, 109, who would have put an + end to it, notwithstanding the great talents now displayed as a + general by Jugurtha, and his alliance with Bocchus, 108, had he not + been supplanted by Marius, who obtains the consulship by his + popularity, 107. Marius is obliged to have recourse to perfidy to get + Jugurtha into his hands, who is betrayed by Bocchus, 106. Numidia is + divided between Bocchus and two grandsons of Masinissa, Hiempsal and + Hiarbas. + +9. The elevation of Marius to the consulate not only humbled the power +of the aristocracy, but also showed, for the first time, that the way +was open to a man of low birth (_homo novus_) to the highest offices; +the method, however, which he had taken to form his army, entirely +against the Roman custom, that is, of composing it of the lower orders +(_capite censis_) must have rendered him doubly formidable. +Nevertheless, he would scarcely have effected so great a change in the +constitution, if a new and terrible war had not rendered his services +indispensable:--this was the threatened invasion of the Cimbri and +Teutones the most powerful nations of the north, during which a new and +violent rebellion of the slaves was raging in Sicily:--for after the +defeat of so many Roman armies, the people believed that no one but the +conqueror of Jugurtha could save Italy; and Marius knew so well how to +turn this to account, that he remained consul during four successive +years. + + The Cimbri, or Cimmerians, probably a nation of German origin, from + beyond the Black sea, originated a popular migration which extended + from thence as far as Spain. Their march was perhaps occasioned, or + accelerated, by the Scythian war of Mithridates; and their course, + like that of most nomad races, was from east to west along the Danube. + They had already, in 113, defeated the consul Papirius Carbo, near + Noreia in Styria. In their progress towards the west they were joined + by German, Celtic, and Helvetic tribes (the _Teutones_, _Ambrones_, + and _Tigurians_).--Attack Roman Gaul, 109, where they demand + settlements and defeat Junius Silanus the consul.--Defeat of L. + Cassius Longinus and M. Aurelius Scaurus, 107.--Great defeat of the + Romans in Gaul, 105, occasioned by the disagreement of their generals, + the consuls, Cn. Manlius and Q. Servius Cæpio. Marius obtains the + command, and remains consul from 104-101. The migrations of the + Cimbri--a part of whom reach the Pyrenees, but are driven back by the + Celtiberians, 103--give Marius time to complete his army. In 102, + after dividing themselves, they first attempted to penetrate into + Italy: the Teutones through Provence, and the Cimbri by Tyrol.--Great + defeat and slaughter of the Teutones by Marius, near Aix, 102.--The + Cimbri, on the contrary, effect an invasion and make progress till + Marius comes to the help of Catulus. Great battle and defeat of the + Cimbri near the Po, July 30, 101. + + J. MULLER, _Bellum Cimbricum_. Tigur, 1772. A youthful essay of that + celebrated historian. Compare + + # MANNERT, _Geography,_ etc. part iii. + +10. Although during this war the power of the popular party had sensibly +increased, yet the storm did not break out until Marius _bought_ his +sixth consulate. Now, even in Rome itself, he wished to avenge himself +upon his enemies; and what could the senate do, when it had at its head +a demagogue in the consul himself?--His league with the tribune +Saturnius, and the prætor Glaucias, forming already a true triumvirate, +would have overthrown the republic after the expulsion of Metellus, if +the unbridled licentiousness of the rabble connected with his allies had +not obliged him to break with them, lest he should sacrifice the whole +of his popularity. + + The measures of this cabal, who wished to appear as if treading in the + steps of the Gracchi, were principally directed against Q. Metellus, + the chief of the party of the senate, and who, since the African war, + had been the mortal foe of Marius. After the exile of Metellus, + occasioned by his opposition to a new agrarian law, this faction + usurped the rights of the people, and lorded it in the committees; + until, at a new election of consuls, a general revolt, favoured by + Marius himself, took place of all the well-disposed citizens against + them; Saturnius and Glaucias were besieged in the capitol, forced to + surrender, and executed. The return of Metellus from his voluntary + exile soon followed, 92, much against the will of Marius, who was + obliged to retire into Asia. + +11. The few years of tranquillity which Rome now enjoyed, brought to +maturity many benefits and many evils, the seeds of which had been +already sown. On one hand the rising eloquence of Antonius, Crassus, and +others, was employed with effect against the oppressors of the provinces +in the state trials (_questiones_); and some generous spirits used all +their endeavours to heal the wounds of Sicily, Asia, and other +provinces, by a better administration; while, on the other hand, the +power of the _ordo equestris_ became a source of much abuse: for besides +their right to sit in the tribunals (_judiciis_), which C. Gracchus had +conferred upon them, they had also obtained the farming of the leases, +and thereby the collection of the revenue in the provinces; by which +means they were enabled not only to oppose every reform that was +attempted in the latter, but even at Rome to hold the senate in a state +of dependence. The struggle which now arose between them and the senate +respecting the _judicia_ (or right to preside in the tribunal), was one +of the most fatal to the republic, as this right was abused by them for +the purpose of satisfying their personal rancour, and oppressing the +greatest men. The tribune M. Livius Drusus the younger, it is true, +wrested from them half their power; but, alas! the manner in which he +did it kindled into a flame the fire which had been smouldering from the +time of the Gracchi. + + Acquisition of Cyrene by the testament of king Apion, 97; + notwithstanding which it maintained its independence, although + probably by paying a tribute. Adjustment of the differences between + the kings of Asia Minor by the prætor Sylla, 92 (see above, p. 294). + +12. Revolt of the Italian tribes, who desire to obtain the right of +Roman citizens; whereupon the bloody _war of the allies_ ensues. +Although the oppression of Rome had been preparing this war for a long +time, yet it was an immediate consequence of the intrigues of the Roman +demagogues, who since the law of the younger Gracchus, had, with the +view of making themselves popular, continually flattered the allies with +the hope of sharing the privileges of Roman citizenship. It was however +soon seen, that the allies were not at a loss among themselves for +leaders, capable of forming great plans and executing them with vigour. +Italy was about to become a republic, with Corfinium for its capital +instead of Rome. Neither could Rome have saved herself from such an +event, but by gradually permitting the allies to enjoy the complete +freedom of the city. + + After the civil wars of the Gracchi, large bands of the allies were + continually flocking to Rome. These were in the pay of the demagogues, + whom the _lex Licinia_, 95, had banished from Rome, and thereby laid + the foundation of the revolt. From that time the conspiracy among + these tribes began, and attained without interruption such a degree of + maturity, that the carelessness of Rome can only be accounted for from + the party fury which then existed, and which the _lex Varia_, 91, + enacted against the promoters of rebellion, served only to inflame the + more. The murder of the tribune Livius Drusus, 91, a very ambiguous + character, brought the affair to an open rupture. In this alliance + were the Marsi, Picentes, Peligni, Marrucini, Frentani, the Samnites, + who played a principal part, the Hirpini, Apuli, and the Lucani. In + this war, which was so much the more bloody, as it was mostly composed + of separate contests and sieges, especially of the Roman colonies, Cn. + Pompeius the elder, L. Cato, Marius, and, above all, Sylla, + particularly distinguished themselves on the side of the Romans; and + among the generals of the allies Pompadias, C. Papius, + etc.--Concession of the freedom of the city, first to such allies as + remained faithful, the Latins, Umbrians, etc. by the _lex Julia_, 91; + afterwards, by degrees, to the remainder by the _lex Plotia_. Some, + nevertheless, still continued in arms. + + HEYNE, _de Belli Socialis causis et eventu, in Opusc._ t. iii. + +13. The war now just ended, essentially changed the constitution of +Rome, as she no longer remained, as hitherto, the exclusive head of the +whole state; and although the new citizens were only formed into eight +tribes, yet their influence must soon have been felt in the committees, +on account of the readiness with which they promoted factions. Besides +this, the long-cherished private hatred between Marius and Sylla was +greatly strengthened by this war, as Sylla's fame was considerably +raised thereby, while that of Marius was proportionably diminished. An +opportunity was only wanted, like that which the first Pontine war soon +furnished, to stir up a new civil war, which threatened to destroy the +liberty of Rome. + +14. Alliance of Marius with the tribune Sulpicius, with the view of +wresting from Sylla the command of the forces against Mithridates, +already conferred upon him by the senate. The ease with which Sylla, at +the head of an army on which he could depend, expelled the chiefs of +this party, seems to have left him ignorant of the fact, that the party +itself was not thereby destroyed. However judicious may have been his +other measures, the elevation of Cinna to the consulship was an error in +policy of which Italy had still more reason to repent than himself. How +much blood might have been spared if Sylla had not unseasonably wished +to become popular! + + Proposition of Sulpicius for an indiscriminate distribution of the new + citizens and freemen among all the tribes of Italy, that he might + thereby gain a strong party in his favour, which, by a violent + assembly of the people, transfers the command from Sylla to Marius. + March of Sylla upon Rome, and expulsion of Marius, who, by a series of + adventures almost surpassing belief, escapes to Africa and is + proscribed with his son and ten of his partisans. Reestablishment of + the power of the senate, whose number is made up by three hundred + knights. Sylla, after having caused his friend C. Octavius and his + enemy L. Cinna to be elected consuls, hastens back to Greece. + +15. First war against Mithridates the Great. Sylla gains several +victories over that king's generals in Greece; wrests from him all his +conquests, and restricts him to his hereditary dominions. Rome since the +time of Hannibal had met with no such powerful opponent as the king of +Pontus, who in a few months had become master of all Asia Minor, +Macedonia, and Greece, and threatened even Italy itself; we must besides +consider, that the war on the side of Rome was carried on in a manner +altogether different from that of any previous one; as Sylla, after the +victory of the opposite party, being himself proscribed in Rome, was +obliged to continue it with his own army, and his own private resources. +The unfortunate countries which were the theatre of this war, felt as +many calamities during the struggle, as Italy was doomed to suffer after +its close. + + Commencement of the war by Mithridates before the termination of that + of the allies, 89, by taking possession of Cappadocia and Paphlagonia. + He was not less formidable by his alliance with the tribes along the + Danube, and his navy, than by his land forces; and the irritation of + the people of Asia against Rome rendered his enterprise still more + easy. Double victory over Nicomedes king of Bithynia and the Roman + general M. Aquilius, followed by the conquest of all Asia Minor except + the isle of Rhodes. Massacre of all the Roman citizens in the states + of Asia Minor. Expedition of the king's army into Greece, under the + command of his general Archelaus, who makes Athens the theatre of the + war, 88. Siege and capture of that unfortunate town by Sylla, 1st + March, 87. Repeated great defeats of Mithridates's army under the + command of Archelaus, near Chalcis, and afterwards near Orchomenus, by + Sylla, 86, whose general plan was formed upon the entire destruction + of his enemies. Negotiations for peace commenced by Archelaus, and + finally settled at a personal conference between Sylla and + Mithridates. The adverse party in Rome, however, had in the mean time + sent a new army into Asia Minor, to act as well against Sylla as + against Mithridates, under the command of L. Valerius Flaccus, who, + however, is assassinated by his lieutenant Fimbria. The latter gains + some advantages over the king, but, being shut up by Sylla, kills + himself. Owing to the licentiousness of his army, which Sylla dared + not restrain; and the heavy contributions exacted by him in Asia Minor + after the peace, in order to carry on the war in Italy, 84; together + with the bodies of pirates formed out of the fleet disbanded by + Mithridates, these unfortunate countries were almost ruined; the + opulent cities more especially. + +16. But during this war a new revolution took place in Rome, which not +only overthrew the order reestablished by Sylla, but also, by the +victory of the democratic faction under Cinna and Marius, gave rise to a +wild anarchy of the people, and which the death of Marius, alas, too +late for Rome! only rendered more destructive; as the leaders themselves +could no longer restrain the savage hordes of their own party. However +dreadful the prospect of the return of Sylla might seem, it was +nevertheless the only hope that remained for all those who had not +joined the popular faction, or had not some connection with its leaders. + + Revolt of Cinna, brought on by the proscriptions, soon after the + departure of Sylla; Cinna, by distributing the new citizens into all + the tribes, hoped to raise himself a party; but C. Octavius, at the + head of the senate and ancient citizens, drove him from Rome, and + forced him to give up the consulship, 87. He however soon raised a + powerful army in Campania, and recalled Marius from exile. Capture and + pillage of Rome, already weakened by famine, and horrible massacre of + the inhabitants; after which Marius and Cinna name themselves consuls + and banish Sylla. Death of Marius, 13th Jan. 86. C. Papirius Carbo + succeeds him in the consulship. The mediation of the senate is + useless, as the chiefs of both parties can only hope for security by + the annihilation of their adversaries. The murder of Cinna by his own + soldiers, 84, entirely deprives the dominant faction of a competent + leader. Neither the cowardly Carbo, although he remained consul alone, + nor the stupid Norbanus, nor the youth C. Marius (the son), had + sufficient personal authority for that purpose; and Sertorius leaves + Italy in good time to kindle a new flame in Spain. + +17. Return of Sylla to Italy, and a terrible civil war, which ends only +with the extermination of the democratic faction, and his own elevation +to the perpetual dictatorship. Although his enemies had so much +advantage over him in point of numbers, yet their party was so little +consolidated, that he with his veterans could not fail to obtain an easy +victory. The slaughter during this war fell for the most part upon the +Italian tribes, who had joined the party of Marius, and this afforded +Sylla the means of giving settlements to his own soldiers; but most of +the horrors of this revolution which fell to the share of Rome, were +reserved till the day of victory was past. Sylla's proscription, which +should only have punished his personal enemies, was the signal for a +general massacre, as every one took that opportunity to rid himself of +his private foes; and avarice did as much as vengeance. Who in these +days, so terrible to Italy, was sure of his life or property? And yet, +when we consider the dreadful circumstances which attended the foregoing +dominion of the people, deduct all that was done without Sylla's +knowledge, and consider how much he was obliged to do in order to +satisfy his army, we shall find it difficult to say how far he deserves +the reproach of wanton cruelty. + + Sylla's arrival; victory over Norbanus immediately after, and + seduction of the army of the consul Scipio, 82. After this almost + every person of distinction declared in his favour, and the young + Pompey having brought to him an army which he had himself raised, his + party acquired more consideration, and himself more power. Victory + over the younger Marius, near Sacriportum, who throws himself into + Præneste, where he is besieged. But the great and decisive battle + gained before the gates of Rome, over the Samnites under the command + of Telisinus, is followed by the fall of Præneste and the capture of + Rome. After the proscription which immediately ensued, Sylla is + created perpetual dictator, and secures his power in Rome by the + emancipation of ten thousand slaves, whose masters he had proscribed; + and in Italy by colonies of his veterans, whom he establishes at the + expense of his enemies. + +18. Great reform in the constitution during the two years' dictatorship +of Sylla. The aristocracy of the senate, which he filled up with +knights, was not only reestablished, but he also stopped the sources +from which the great disorders of the democracy had hitherto proceeded. +It seems probable that his natural indolence, which led him to prefer a +life of luxurious ease to one of laborious activity, when he was no +longer spurred to the latter by his passions, was the chief cause of his +voluntary abdication. He had, however, the great advantage over Marius, +of not being the sport of his own feelings. The conduct of Sylla, +indeed, was so consistent throughout, that it satisfactorily shows he +knew very well what was his ultimate aim--which Marius never did. + + Internal regulations of Sylla by the _leges Corneliæ_. 1. Law to + restrain the influence of the tribunes, by taking from them their + legislative power. 2. Law respecting the succession to the magistracy; + the number of prætors fixed to eight, and the quæstors to twenty. 3. + _Lex de majestate_, especially to limit the power of the governors of + provinces, and to abolish their exactions. 4. _Lex de judiciis_, + whereby the _judicia_ were again restored to the senate. 5. Several + police regulations, _de sicariis_, _de veneficiis_, etc. for the + preservation and tranquillity of Rome, upon which everything depended. + 6. The _lex de civitate_, taking from the Latins and several Italian + cities and tribes the privileges of Roman citizens, upon which they + set so much store, although we scarcely know in what they consisted. + _Foreign wars_: War in Africa against the leaders of the democratic + faction, Cn. Domitius and king Hiarbas, which is ended by a triumph to + Pompey, 80. Second war against Mithridates begun by Murena, in hopes + of obtaining a triumph, to whom Archelaus came over; but which, under + the command of Sylla, terminates in an accommodation. + +19. Nevertheless it was impossible that the enactments of Sylla should +be long observed; as the evil lay too deep to be eradicated by laws. +A free state like that of Rome, with no middle class, must, from its +nature, be exposed to continual convulsions, and these will be more or +less violent in proportion to its greatness. Besides, as in the last +revolution almost all property had changed hands, there was spread +over all Italy a powerful party, who desired nothing so much as a +counter-revolution. And to this we may add, that there were many young +men, such as Lucullus, Crassus, and above all Pompey, who had opened to +themselves a career during the late troubles, which they would scarcely +yet wish to bring to a close. It will not then appear strange, that +immediately after the death of Sylla (! 88), a consul, M. Æmilius +Lepidus, should form the design of becoming a second Marius; a design +which could only be frustrated by the courage and activity of such a +patriotic citizen as Q. Lutatius Catulus, his colleague. + + Attempt of Lepidus to rescind the acts of Sylla, 78. Defeated, first + before Rome and again in Etruria, by Catulus and Pompey, 77, after + which he dies in Sardinia. + +20. But much more dangerous for Rome might have been the civil war +kindled by Sertorius in Spain, if the plan of that exalted republican to +invade Italy had succeeded. Even Pompey himself, after a six years' +struggle, would hardly have prevented it, had it not been for the +worthlessness of the Roman vagabonds who surrounded him, and his +assassination by Perpenna. The rapid termination of the war after the +fall of its conductor, is a circumstance much more creditable to +Sertorius than to the conqueror Pompey. + + The forces of Sertorius in Spain, consisted not only of the party of + Marius which he had collected, but more essentially of the Spaniards, + particularly the Lusitanians, whom he had inspired with an unbounded + confidence in himself. Very variable success of the war against + Metellus and Pompey, who receive but very little support from Rome, + 77-75. Negotiation of Sertorius with Mithridates the Great, and + interchange of embassies without any important result, 75. Sertorius + assassinated by Perpenna, 72. + +21. Before, however, the flame of war was totally extinguished in the +west, Mithridates kindled a new and much fiercer one in the east; at the +same time a war of slaves and gladiators was raging with terrible fury +in Italy itself; and whole fleets of pirates not only ravaged the +Italian coasts, but threatened Rome herself with a famine, and obliged +her to have recourse to a mode of naval warfare altogether peculiar. All +these enemies were not without intelligence with one another; and +colossal as was the power of the republic at that time, and rich as Rome +was in distinguished men, it seems probable that the storm which beat on +every side between 75-71, would have razed her to the ground, if a +stricter alliance could have been formed between Sertorius, Spartacus, +and Mithridates. But the great difficulty of communication which at that +time existed, and without which probably a republic such as the Roman +never could have been formed, proved of more assistance at this crisis +than at any other. + + The third Mithridatic war, occasioned by the will of Nicomedes king of + Bithynia, who had bequeathed his kingdom to Rome (see above, p. 294), + was carried on in Asia Minor, first by Lucullus, 74-67, and afterwards + by Pompey, 66-64. Mithridates, being better prepared, had already + concluded an alliance with Sertorius in Spain, 75. But the deliverance + of Cyzicus by Lucullus, 73, and the defeat of the king's fleet, + intended to act against Italy, not only frustrated all his original + plans, but were followed by the occupation of his own dominions, 72 + and 71, by the enemy, notwithstanding a new army which Mithridates + collected, mostly from the nomad hordes of Northern Asia. Flight of + Mithridates to Tigranes, 71, who positively refused to deliver him up, + and formed an alliance with him, 70; while the Parthian, Arsaces XII. + held both parties in suspense by negotiations. Victory of Lucullus + over the allied sovereigns, near Tigranocerta, 69, and Artaxata, 68; + but the mutinies which now broke out among his troops not only + hindered him from following up these advantages, but turned the scale + so much in Mithridates's favour, that in 68 and 67 he quickly regained + almost all his dominions, even while the Roman commissioners were on + their route to take possession of them. Lucullus, by his reform in the + finances of Asia Minor, raises a powerful party against himself in + Rome, and thereby loses his command. + +22. The war of the slaves and gladiators, which happened nearly at the +same time, was, from the theatre of action being in its neighbourhood, +equally dangerous to Rome; it became still more terrible from the +violence with which these outraged beings sought to revenge their +wrongs, and more formidable from the talents of their leader, Spartacus; +and the conclusion of this struggle seemed, therefore, of so much +importance to Rome, that it gave M. Crassus a much higher influence in +the state than he could ever have obtained by his riches alone. + + Commencement of this war by a number of runaway gladiators, who, being + strengthened by an almost general revolt of the slaves in Campania, + 73, soon became very formidable. The defeat of four generals, one + after the other, throws open to Spartacus the road to the Alps, and + enables him to leave Italy; but the greediness of booty manifested by + his hordes, who wished to plunder Rome, obliged him to return. Crassus + takes the command and rescues Rome, 72; upon which Spartacus retires + into Lower Italy, hoping to form a junction with the pirates, and to + carry the war into Sicily, but is deceived by them, 71. His complete + overthrow near the Silarus, 71. Pompey, then returning from Spain, + finds means to seize a sprig of the laurel chaplet which by right + should have adorned only the brow of Crassus; hence arises a + misunderstanding between these two commanders, during their consulate, + 70, which threatened to be dangerous to the state. + +23. The war against the pirates of Sicily and Isauria was not only very +important in itself, but still more so in its consequences. It procured +for Pompey a legal power such as no Roman general had ever before +enjoyed; and the quick and glorious manner in which he brought it to a +close, opened for him the way to the great object of his ambition--the +conduct of the war in Asia against Mithridates. + + The extraordinary power acquired by these pirates was owing partly to + the great negligence of the Romans in sea affairs, (see page 340), + partly to the war against Mithridates, who had taken the pirates into + his pay, and partly also to the Roman oppressions in Asia Minor. War + had been undertaken against them as early as 75, by P. Servilius; but + his victories, though they procured him the title of _Isauricus_, did + them but little harm. They were to be dreaded, not only for their + piracies, but because they also offered an easy means of communication + between the other enemies of Rome from Spain to Asia. The new attack + of the prætor M. Antonius upon Crete, proved a complete failure; but + it was the cause of that hitherto independent island being again + attacked, 68, by Metellus, and reduced to a Roman province, 67. Pompey + takes the command against the pirates with extraordinary privileges, + obtained for him by Gabinius, and finishes the war in forty days, 67. + +24. After these triumphs over so many enemies, Mithridates was the only +one which now remained; and Pompey had here again the good fortune to +conclude a struggle already near its end; for notwithstanding his late +success, Mithridates had never been able completely to recover himself. +His fall undoubtedly raised the power of Rome in Asia Minor to its +highest pitch; but it brought her, at the same time, into contact with +the Parthians. + + Pompey obtains the conduct of the war against Mithridates with very + extensive privileges, procured for him by the tribune Manilius (_lex + Manilia_), notwithstanding the opposition of Catulus, 67. His victory + by night, near the Euphrates, 66. Subjection of Tigranes, while + Mithridates flies into the Crimea, 65, whence he endeavours to renew + the war. Campaign of Pompey in the countries about the Caucasus, 65; + he marches thence into Syria, 64. Mithridates kills himself in + consequence of the defection of his son Phraates, 63. Settlement of + Asiatic affairs by Pompey: besides the ancient province of Asia, the + maritime countries of Bithynia, nearly all Paphlagonia and Pontus, are + formed into a Roman province, under the name of Bithynia; while on the + southern coast Cilicia and Pamphylia form another under the name of + Cilicia; Phoenicia and Syria compose a third, under the name of Syria. + On the other hand, Great Armenia is left to Tigranes; Cappadocia to + Ariobarzanes; the Bosphorus to Pharnaces; Judæa to Hyrcanus (see page + 310); and some other small states are also given to petty princes, all + of whom remain dependent on Rome. The tribes inhabiting Thrace during + the Mithridatic war, were first defeated by Sylla, 85, and their power + was afterwards nearly destroyed by the proconsuls of Macedonia: as by + Appius, in 77; by Curio, who drove them to the Danube, 75-73; and + especially by M. Lucullus, while his brother was engaged in Asia. Not + only the security of Macedonia, but the daring plans of Mithridates + rendered this necessary. + +25. The fall of Mithridates raised the republic to the highest pitch of +her power: there was no longer any foreign foe of whom she could be +afraid. But her internal administration had undergone great changes +during these wars. Sylla's aristocratic constitution was shaken by +Pompey, in a most essential point, by the reestablishment of the power +of the tribunes, which was done because neither he nor any leading men +could obtain their ends without their assistance. It was by their means +that Pompey had procured such unlimited power in his two late +expeditions, that the existence of the republic was thereby endangered. +It was, however, a fortunate circumstance for Rome, that Pompey's vanity +was sufficiently gratified by his being at the head of affairs, where he +avoided the appearance of an oppressor. + + Reiterated attempts of the tribune Sicinius to annul the constitution + of Sylla defeated by the senate, 76. But as early as 75 Opimius + obtained that the tribunes should not be excluded from honourable + offices, and that the judgments (_judicia_) should be restored to the + knights (_equites_). The attempts of Licinius Macer, 72, to restore + the tribunes to all their former powers, encountered but a short + opposition; and their complete reestablishment was effected by Pompey + and Crassus during their consulate, in 70. + +26. This victory of the democratic faction, however, in consequence of +the use made of it by some leading men, necessarily led the way to an +oligarchy, which after the consulate of Pompey and Crassus became very +oppressive. Catiline's conspiracy, which was not matured till after +several attempts, would have broken up this confined aristocracy, and +placed the helm of state in the hands of another and still more +dangerous faction: a faction composed in part of needy profligates and +criminals dreading the punishment of their crimes, and partly of +ambitious nobles. It occasioned a short civil war; but procured Cicero a +place in the administration. With what pleasure do we forgive the little +weaknesses and failings of one so gifted with talents and great virtues! +of one who first taught Rome, in so many ways, what it was to be great +in the robe of peace! + + Catiline's first conspiracy, in which Cæsar and Crassus seem to have + been implicated, 66, as well as in the second, 65: failure of the + former by chance--of the latter through Piso's death. The third broke + out in 64, as well in Rome, where the conspirators, having no armed + force, were soon suppressed by the vigilance and activity of Cicero, + 63, as in Etruria, where a victory of the proconsul Antonius over + Catiline, who was left dead on the field, concluded it, 62. + +27. The suppression of this conspiracy, however, did not stay the effect +which the recently concluded Asiatic war had upon Roman manners. The +luxury of the east, though united with Grecian taste, which had been +introduced among the great by Lucullus; the immense riches poured into +the treasury by Pompey; the tempting examples of unlimited power, which +single citizens had already exercised; the purchase of the magistracy by +individuals, in order, like Verres, after the squandering of millions, +to enrich themselves again in the provinces; the demands of the soldiers +upon their generals; and the ease with which an army might be raised by +him who had only money enough to pay it; all these circumstances must +have foreboded new and approaching convulsions, even if the preceding +storms in this colossal republic, in which we must now judge of virtues +and vices, as well as of riches and power, by a very magnified standard, +had not formed men of that gigantic character they did:--men like Cato, +who struggled alone to stem the impetuous torrent of the revolution, and +was sufficiently powerful to retard its progress for a time; or, like +Pompey, who by good fortune and the art of acquiring influence, arose +to a degree of authority and power never before attained by any citizen +of a free state; or, like Crassus, "who only considered him as rich that +could maintain an army by his own private means," founding their +pretensions on wealth; or, finally, like the aspiring and now powerful +Cæsar, whose boundless ambition could only be surpassed by his talents, +and courage, "who would rather be the first in a village than the second +in Rome." The return of Pompey from Asia, threatening the senate with a +new dictator, appeared an eventful moment. + + Attempt of Pompey, through the tribune Metellus Nepos, to be allowed + to return to Rome at the head of his army, frustrated by the firmness + of Cato, 62. + +28. The arrival of Pompey in Rome renewed the struggle between the +senate and that powerful general, although he had disbanded his army on +landing in Italy. The ratification of his management of affairs in Asia, +which was the chief point of contention, was opposed by the leading men +of the senate, Cato, the two Metelli, and Lucullus, which induced Pompey +to attach himself entirely to the popular party, by whose means he hoped +to obtain his end; Cæsar's return, however, from his province of +Lusitania, entirely changed the face of affairs. + +29. Close union between Cæsar, Pompey, and Crassus; that is, a secret +alliance, formed by the interposition of Cæsar. That which formed the +height of the ambition of Pompey and Crassus was only regarded by Cæsar +as the means by which he might be able to effect his. His consulate--a +kind of dictatorship under the mask of great popularity--necessarily +paved the way to his future career, as by giving him the government of +the two Gauls and Illyria for five years, it opened a wide field for +conquest, and gave him an opportunity of forming an army devoted to his +will. + + Cæsar's abode and campaign in Gaul from the spring of 58 till the end + of the year 50. By arresting the emigration of the Helvetians, and by + the expulsion of the Germans, under Ariovistus, from Gaul, 58, Cæsar + gained an opportunity of intermeddling in the internal affairs of that + country, and afterwards of subduing it, which was completed by his + victory over the Belgæ, 57, and the Aquitani, 56; so that Cæsar was at + liberty to undertake his several expeditions, as well in Britain, 55 + and 54, as in Germany, 54 and 53. But the repeated revolts of the + Gauls, 53-51, especially under Vercingetorix, 52, occasioned a war no + less obstinate than their first conquest. Roman policy continued the + same throughout. The Gauls were subdued, by the Romans appearing as + _their deliverers_; and in the country they found allies in the Ædui, + Allobroges, etc. + +30. The triumvirate, in order to establish their power upon a solid +foundation, took care, by the management of the tribune Clodius, to get +rid of the leaders of the senate, Cato and Cicero, before the departure +of Cæsar; and this they did by giving the former a kingdom to govern, +and by procuring the banishment of the latter. They must however soon +have discovered, that so bold a demagogue as Clodius could not be used +as a mere machine. And, indeed, after Cæsar's departure he raised +himself so much above the triumvirs, that Pompey was soon obliged, for +his own preservation, to permit Cicero to return from exile, which could +only be effected by the most violent efforts of the tribune Milo. The +power of Clodius, however, was but little injured thereby, although +Pompey, to put a stop to the source of these disorders, and revive his +own popularity, procured the nomination of himself as _præfectus +annonæ_, or superintendent of provisions. + + Exile of Cicero, the greater part of which he spent in Macedonia, from + April, 58, till 4th Sept. 57. Ptolemy king of Cyprus deposed, and that + island reduced to a Roman province by Cato, on the proposition of + Clodius, 57 (see page 264). The personal dislike of Clodius and the + riches of the king were the causes that brought upon him this + misfortune. + + MIDDLETON'S _Life of Cicero_, 2 vols. 8vo. This work is almost a + complete history of Rome during the age of Cicero; for whom the writer + discovers an undue partiality. + + # M. TULLIUS CICERO, _all his Letters translated, in chronological + order, and illustrated with notes_, by C. M. WIELAND. Zurich, 1808. + With a preliminary view of the life of Cicero. Of all Germans the + writings of Wieland, whether original or translations (and to which + can we give the preference?) afford the most lively insight into + Greek and Roman antiquity at various periods. What writer has so + truly seized its spirit, and placed it so faithfully and elegantly + before his readers? His labours on the Letters of Cicero (whose + foibles he exposes with a rigorous and unflinching hand) serve to + make us much better acquainted with Rome, as it then was, than any + Roman history. + +31. A jealousy arises between the triumvirate, as Cæsar, though absent, +still found means to keep up his party at Rome in such watchful +activity, that Pompey and Crassus considered it impossible to maintain +their own influence, except by procuring such concessions as had been +made to him. Harmony once more restored by an accommodation at Lucca, as +the parties found it necessary to preserve a good understanding with +each other. + + The terms of this accommodation were; that Cæsar should have his + government prolonged for another five years; and that Pompey and + Crassus should enjoy the consulship for the ensuing year, the former + receiving the provinces of Spain and Africa; and the latter that of + Syria, for the purpose of carrying on a war against the Parthians. In + proportion as these conditions were kept secret, there remained less + secrecy respecting the alliance itself. + +32. Second consulate of Pompey and Crassus. It was only amidst violent +storms that they could effect their purposes; as it depended upon which +faction should first gain or keep possession of the forum. The +resistance they met with from the inflexible disposition of Cato, who in +his austere virtue alone found means to secure himself a powerful party, +shows how unfairly those judge who consider the power of the triumvirate +as unlimited, and the nation as entirely corrupted. + + Campaign of Crassus against the Parthians, undertaken at his own + expense, 54. Instead, however, of gathering laurels like Cæsar, he and + his whole army were completely overthrown in Mesopotamia, 53; and the + Parthians from this time maintain a powerful preponderance in Asia + (see above, p. 302). + +33. As the triumvirate by this failure of Crassus was reduced to a +duumvirate, Pompey (who remained in Rome, and governed his provinces by +lieutenants), in the midst of continual domestic broils, which he +cunningly took care to foment, was evidently aiming to become the +acknowledged head of the senate and republic. The idea that a dictator +was necessary prevailed more and more during an anarchy of eight months, +in which no appointment of a consul could take place; and +notwithstanding the opposition of Cato, Pompey succeeded, after a +violent commotion, in which Clodius was murdered by Milo, in getting +himself nominated sole consul; a power equal to that of dictator. + + Consulate of Pompey, 52, in which, at the end of seven months, he took + as colleague his father-in-law Metellus Scipio. The government of his + provinces, which afterwards became the chief seat of the republicans, + is prolonged for five years. + +34. From this time civil war became inevitable; for not only the chiefs +of the parties, but also their adherents desired it. The approach of the +time when Cæsar's command would expire, necessarily hastened the crisis. +Could it be supposed that the conqueror of Gaul would return to a +private life, and leave his rival at the head of the republic? The steps +taken on both sides towards an accommodation were only made to escape +the odium which would attach to him who struck the first blow. But +Pompey unfortunately could never understand his opponent, who did all +himself, all completely, and all alone. The brilliant light in which +Pompey now appeared, as _defender of the republic_, delighted him so +much, that it made him forget what belonged to its defence; while Cæsar +avoided, with the greatest care, every appearance of usurpation. The +friend, the protector of the people against the usurpations of their +enemies, was the character which he now chose to assume. + + Commencement of the contest upon Cæsar's demand to be allowed to hold + the consulship while absent, 52. Cæsar, by the most lavish corruption, + had increased his adherents in Rome, gained the tribunes, and among + them especially the powerful speaker C. Curio (whom he did not think + too dearly purchased at the price of about half a million sterling); + by this man it was suggested to Cæsar that he should give up his + command, and leave a successor to be appointed in his place, 51, if + Pompey would do the same: a proposition which created a prejudice much + in his favour. Repeated, but insincere offers of both parties for an + accommodation, 50, till at last a decree of the senate was passed, + Jan. 7, 49, by which Cæsar was commanded "to disband his army under + the penalty of being declared an enemy to the republic," without + regard to the intercessions of the tribunes, whose flight to him gave + an appearance of popularity to his party. Cæsar crosses the Rubicon, + the boundary of his province. + +35. The civil war now about to break out, seemed likely to spread over +nearly all the countries of the Roman empire; as Pompey, finding it +impossible to maintain himself in Italy, had chosen Greece for the +principal theatre of the war; while his lieutenants, with the armies +under their command, occupied Spain and Africa. Cæsar, by the able +disposition of his legions, was everywhere present, without exciting +beforehand any suspicion of his movements. A combination of +circumstances, however, carried the war into Alexandria, and even as far +as Pontus; indeed it might be called rather a series of six successive +wars than merely one, all of which Cæsar, by flying with his legions +from one quarter of the world to the other, ended, within five years, +victoriously and in person. + + Rapid occupation of Italy in sixty days (when the troops under + Domitius surrendered at Corfinus), which, as well as Sicily and + Sardinia, were subdued by Cæsar almost without opposition; Pompey, + with his troops and adherents, having crossed over to Greece. Cæsar's + first campaign in Spain against Pompey's generals, Afranius and + Petreius, whom he forces to surrender; this, however, is + counterbalanced by the loss of the legions under Curio in Africa. In + December, 49, however, Cæsar is again in Italy, and named dictator, + which he exchanges for the consulate. Spirited expedition into Greece + with the ships he had been previously collecting together, Jan. 4, 49. + Unfortunate engagement at Dyrrachium. Removal of the war into + Thessaly, and decisive battle of Pharsalia, July 20, 48, after which + Pompey flies to Alexandria, where he is killed on his landing. Cæsar + arrives three days after him at Alexandria. + +36. Cæsar, after the victory of Pharsalia, again nominated dictator, +with great privileges. The death of Pompey, however, does not destroy +his party; and the six months' war of Alexandria, as well as the +expedition into Pontus against Pharnaces, gave them time to rally their +forces both in Africa under Cato, and in Spain under the sons of Pompey. + + During the Alexandrine war (see above, p. 266) and the expedition + against Pharnaces, the son of Mithridates,--who had obtained the + kingdom of his father, but was slain by Cæsar immediately after his + arrival, 47,--great disorders had broken out in Rome, caused by the + tribune Dolabella's flattering the people with the abolition of debts + (_novæ tabulæ_), notwithstanding the military power of M. Antony, whom + Cæsar had sent to Rome as master of the horse (_magister equitum_), as + this abandoned sensualist at first actually favoured the projects of + the tribune. Cæsar's return to Rome, December, 47, put an end, it is + true, to these disorders; but the increase of the opposite party in + Africa, and an insurrection among his soldiers, obliged him to set out + for Africa immediately, January, 46. Victory near Thapsus over Scipio + and Juba; after which Cato kills himself at Utica. Numidia, the + kingdom of Juba, becomes a Roman province. Cæsar after his return to + Rome in June, is only able to stay there four months, as, before the + end of the year, he is obliged to set out for Spain to crush the + dangerous efforts of Pompey's two sons. Bloody battle at Munda, March, + 45, after which Cneius is killed, but Sextus escapes to the + Celtiberians. + +37. Nothing seems more evident than that Cæsar did not, like Sylla, +overthrow the republic for the purpose of reestablishing it; and it is +perhaps impossible to say what could be the final views of a childless +usurper, who throughout his whole career, seemed only to be guided by an +inordinate ambition, springing from a consciousness of superior powers, +and to satisfy which, no means seemed to him difficult or unlawful. The +period of his dictatorship was so short, and so much interrupted by +war, that his ultimate plans had not time for their development. He +endeavoured to establish his dominion by popular measures; and although +his army must still have been his main support, yet no proscription was +granted to satisfy it. The reestablishment of order in the distracted +country of Italy, and particularly in the capital, was his first care; +and he proposed to follow that by an expedition against the powerful +Parthian empire. His attempts, however, to obtain the diadem, seemed to +place it beyond a doubt that he wished to introduce a formal monarchy. +But the destruction of the form of the republic was shown to be more +dangerous than the overthrow of the republic itself. + + The following were the honours and privileges granted to Cæsar by the + senate. After the battle of Pharsalia, 48, he was nominated dictator + for one year and consul for five years; and obtained the _potestas + tribunicia_, as well as the right of making war and peace, the + exclusive right of the committees, with the exception of the tribunes, + and the possession of the provinces. The dictatorship was renewed to + him, 47, for ten years, as well as the _præfectura morum_, and was at + last, 145, conferred upon him for ever, with the title of _imperator_. + Although Cæsar thus became absolute master of the republic, it appears + to have been done without laying aside the republican forms. + +38. Conspiracy against Cæsar, formed by Brutus and Cassius, and +terminating in the death of Cæsar. Men so exalted as were the chiefs of +this plot, easily understand one another; and it was quite in accordance +with their character not to meditate upon the consequences of their +deed. Cæsar's death was a great misfortune for Rome. Experience soon +showed that the republic could not be reestablished thereby; and his +life might probably have spared the state some of those calamities which +now, by its change to a monarchy, became unavoidable. + + We still want a discriminating life of Cæsar, who in modern times has + been as extravagantly praised as Alexander has been unjustly censured. + As generals and conquerors, both were equally great--and little; as a + man, however, the Macedonian, in the brilliant period of his life, to + which Cæsar never attained, was superior; to the great political ideas + which developed themselves in Alexander, we know of none corresponding + in Cæsar; who knew better than any how to attain dominion, but little + of preserving it. + + _Histoire de la Vie de Jules Cæsar_, _par_ M. DE BURY, Paris, 1758, 2 + vols. 8vo. + + # _Life of C. Julius Cæsar_, _by_ A. G. MEISSNER, _continued by_ + J. Ch. L. Haken, 1811, 4 parts. At present the best. + + _Caius Julius Cæsar, from original sources_, _by_ PROFESSOR SÖLTL. A + short biography, judiciously executed. + +39. Notwithstanding the amnesty at first declared, the funeral obsequies +of Cæsar soon showed, that peace was of all things the least desired by +his generals, M. Antony and M. Lepidus, now become the head of his +party; and the arrival of Cæsar's nephew, C. Octavius (afterwards Cæsar +Octavianus), whom he had adopted in his will, rendered affairs still +more complicated, as every one strove for himself; Antony's particular +object being to raise himself into Cæsar's place. However earnestly they +sought to gain the people, it was in fact the legions who decided, and +the command of them depended, for the most part, upon the possession of +the provinces. We cannot therefore wonder, that while they sought to +revenge the murder of Cæsar, this became the chief cause of the +struggle, and in a few months led to a civil war. + + At the time of Cæsar's death, M. Antonius was actual consul, and + Dolabella consul-elect; M. Lepidus _magister equitum_ (master of the + horse); M. Brutus and Cassius, prætors (the first, _prætor urbanus_). + Cæsar had given to the former the province of Macedonia, and to the + latter that of Syria, which had been confirmed to them by the senate. + M. Lepidus had been nominated to Transalpine, and D. Brutus to + Cisalpine Gaul. But soon after the murder of Cæsar, Antony obtained, + by a decree of the people, Macedonia for himself, and Syria for his + colleague Dolabella, with whom he had formed a close connection; + instead of which the senate decreed to Cassius Cyrene, and to Brutus, + who now had the important charge of supplying Rome with provisions, + Crete. But soon after (June 1, 44), Antony desired, by a new change, + to obtain Cisalpine Gaul for himself, and Macedonia for his brother C. + Antony, both of which he procured from the people. + +40. As M. Antony sought by force to establish himself in Cisalpine Gaul, +and D. Brutus refused to give it up to him, and retired into Mutina, a +short, indeed, but very bloody civil war arose, (_bellum mutinense_.) +The eloquence of Cicero had caused Antony to be declared an enemy of the +republic; and the two new consuls, Hirtius and Pansa, together with +Cæsar Octavianus, were sent against him. The defeat of Antony compelled +him to seek refuge beyond the Alps with Lepidus; but the two consuls +being slain, Octavianus at the head of his legions was too importunate +to be refused the consulship, and soon convinced the defenceless senate, +how impossible it was to reestablish the commonwealth by their powerless +decrees. The employment, moreover, of the _magistratus suffecti_, which +soon after arose, was in itself a sufficient proof that it was now no +more than the shadow of what it had formerly been. + + The Mutine war begins in December, 44, and closes with the defeat of + Antony at Mutina, April 14, 43. Octavius obtains the consulate, Sept. + 22. + +41. Octavianus, deserting the party of the senate, enters into a secret +negotiation with Antony and Lepidus; the consequence of which is a +meeting of the parties at Bononia, and the formation of a new +triumvirate. They declare themselves the chiefs of the republic for five +years, under the title of _triumviri reipublicæ constituendæ_; and +dividing the provinces among themselves according to their own pleasure, +they make the destruction of the republican party their principal +object. A new proscription in Rome itself, and a declaration of war +against the murderers of Cæsar, were the means by which they proposed to +effect it. + + The agreement of the triumvirate was concluded Nov. 27, 43, after + which the march of the triumvirs upon Rome gives the signal for the + massacre of the proscribed, which soon extends all over Italy, and in + which Cicero perishes, Dec. 7. The cause of this new proscription was + not party hatred alone, but was as much, perhaps more, owing on the + one hand to the want of money for carrying on the war they had + undertaken, and on the other to a desire of satisfying the turbulent + demands of the legions. Where is to be found a time so full of terror + as this, when even tears were forbidden? + +42. The civil war, now on the eve of breaking out, may be considered +therefore as a war between the oligarchy and the defenders of the +republic. The Roman world was, as it were, divided between the two; and +although the former had possession of Italy, and the western provinces, +that advantage seemed counterbalanced to the chiefs of the opposite +party by the possession of the eastern countries, and the naval power of +Sextus Pompey, which seemed to assure them the dominion of the sea. + + M. Brutus had taken possession of his province of Macedonia as early + as the autumn of 44; while Cassius, on the contrary, had to contend + for that of Syria with Dolabella, who by the murder of the proconsul + Trebonius had possessed himself of Asia. Being, however, for this + offence, declared an enemy by the senate, and shut up in Laodicea by + Cassius, he killed himself, June 5, 43. From this time Brutus and + Cassius were masters of all the eastern provinces, at whose expense + they maintained their troops, though not without much oppression. S. + Pompey, after the victory of Munda, 45, having secreted himself in + Spain, and afterwards become a chief of freebooters, had grown very + powerful; when the senate, after Cæsar's assassination, having made + him commander of the sea-forces, he with them took possession of + Spain, and, after the conclusion of the triumvirate, of Sicily, and + then, very soon after, of Sardinia and Corsica. It was a great thing + for the triumvirate, that C. Pompey did not know how to reap half the + profit he might have done from his power and good fortune. + +43. Macedonia became the theatre of the new civil war, and together with +the goodness of their cause, superior talents, and greater power both by +land and sea, seemed combined to ensure the victory to Brutus and +Cassius. But in the decisive battle at Philippi, fortune played one of +her most capricious tricks, and with the two chiefs fell the last +supporters of the republic. + + Double battle at Philippi towards the close of the year 42; voluntary + death of Cassius after the first, and of Brutus after the second + engagement. + + PLUTARCHI _Vita Bruti_; from the narratives of eyewitnesses. + +44. The history of the eleven years intervening between the battle of +Philippi and that of Actium, is little more than an account of the +quarrels of the oligarchy among themselves. The most subtle was, in the +end, victorious; for M. Antony possessed all the sensuality of Cæsar, +without his genius: and the insignificant Lepidus soon fell a sacrifice +to his own vanity and weakness. While Antony went into Asia to arrange +the affairs of the eastern provinces, and from thence with Cleopatra to +Alexandria, Octavianus returned to Rome. But the famine which then +reigned in that city through Pompey's blockade of the seacoast; the +misery spread throughout Italy by the wresting of patrimonial lands from +the proprietors to distribute among the veterans; and the insatiable +covetousness of the latter rendered his situation as dangerous now as it +had been before the war. Besides all this, the hatred of the enraged +consort of Antony, who had entered into an alliance with her +brother-in-law, the consul L. Antony, brought on, towards the end of the +year, a civil war, which ended with the surrender and burning of +Perusium, in which L. Antony had shut himself up, and which was already +much weakened by famine. + + The _bellum Perusinum_ lasted from the end of the year 41 till April, + 40. + +45. This war, however, had nearly led to one still greater; for M. +Antony, as the enemy of Octavianus, had come to Italy in order to assist +his brother, and with the intention of forming an alliance with S. +Pompey against the former. But fortunately for the world, not only was +harmony restored between the triumvirs, but on account of the great +famine which prevailed at Rome, a peace was also concluded with Pompey, +although it lasted but a very short time. + + The principal object of the peace between the triumvirs was a new + division of the provinces, by which the city of Scodra in Illyria was + fixed upon as the boundary. Antony obtained all the eastern provinces; + Octavianus all the western; and Lepidus Africa. Italy remained in + common to them all. The marriage of Antony with Octavia, Fulvia being + dead, was intended to cement this agreement. In the peace concluded + with S. Pompey at Misenum, he obtained the islands of Sicily, + Sardinia, and Corsica, and the promise of Achaia. + +46. Pompey, however, was not long in finding that an alliance between +him and the triumvirs would only end in his own destruction; and the war +which he soon commenced, and which Octavianus could not bring to a close +but with the assistance of Agrippa, was of so much the more importance, +as it not only decided the fate of Pompey, but by leading to +dissensions, and the expulsion of Lepidus, reduced the triumvirate to a +duumvirate. + + After a doubtful engagement at sea, 38, and the formation of a new + fleet, Pompey was attacked on all sides at the same time; Lepidus + coming from Africa, and Antony sending also some ships. Final + overthrow of Pompey, who flies to Asia and there perishes.--Lepidus + wishing to take possession of Sicily, Octavianus gains over his + troops, and obliges him to retire from the triumvirate. + +47. The foreign wars in which Octavianus as well as Antony were engaged +in the following years, prevented for some time their mutual jealousy +from coming to an open rupture. Octavianus, to tame his unruly legions, +employed them with some success against the nations of Dalmatia and +Pannonia; whilst Antony undertook an expedition against the powerful +Parthians and their neighbours. But in offending Rome by his conduct in +these wars, he only armed his opponent against himself; and his formal +separation from Octavia, loosened the only tie which had hitherto held +together the two masters of the world. + + After his first stay in Alexandria, 41, Antony returned to Italy, 40, + and then, having made peace with Octavianus, he carried his new wife + Octavia with him into Greece, where he remained till the year 37. + Although his lieutenant Ventidius had fought with success against the + Parthians, who had invaded Syria (see above, p. 302.), Antony + determined to undertake an expedition against them himself, 36. But + although in alliance with Artavasdes king of Armenia (whom he soon + after accused of treachery), in seeking to effect an entrance into + Parthia, by passing through Armenia and Media, a different route from + that taken by Crassus, he was very nearly meeting with the same fate, + and the expedition completely failed. He then revenged himself upon + Artavasdes, who fell into his hands in a fresh expedition which he + made, 34, and deprived him of his kingdom. After his triumphal + entrance into Alexandria, he made a grant of this as well as other + countries to Cleopatra and her children. (See above, p. 267.) In 33, + he intended to renew his expedition against the Parthians, in alliance + with the king of Media; but having, at the instigation of Cleopatra, + ordered Octavia to return home, when she had already come as far as + Athens on her way to meet him, Octavianus and Antony reciprocally + accused each other before the senate, and war was declared at Rome, + though only against Cleopatra. + +48. Greece became again the theatre of war; and although the forces of +Antony were most considerable, yet Octavianus had the advantage of +having, at least in appearance, the better cause. The naval victory of +Actium decided for Octavianus, who could scarcely believe it, till he +found that Antony had forsaken his fleet and army, the latter of which +surrendered without striking a blow. The capture of Egypt followed, (see +above, p. 267.) and that country was reduced to a Roman province; the +death of Antony and Cleopatra ended the war, and left Octavianus +absolute master of the republic. + + The history of the last days of Antony, principally after his decline, + having been written under the rule of his enemies, must be received + with that mistrust which all such histories require. It has furnished + abundant matter for the retailers of anecdote. The history of + Cleopatra rests partly on the accounts of her physician Olympus, of + which Plutarch made use. + + + + +FOURTH PERIOD. + + + HISTORY OF THE ROMAN STATE AS A MONARCHY TO THE OVERTHROW OF THE + WESTERN EMPIRE. B. C. 30.-A. C. 476. + + + + +_Geographical outline. View of the Roman empire and provinces, and other +countries connected with it by war or commerce._ + + +The ordinary boundaries of the Roman empire, which, however, it +sometimes exceeded, were in Europe the two great rivers of the Rhine and +Danube; in Asia, the Euphrates and the sandy desert of Syria; in Africa +likewise, the sandy regions. It thus included the fairest portions of +the earth, surrounding the Mediterranean sea. + +EUROPEAN COUNTRIES: I. Spain (Hispania). Boundaries: on the east the +Pyrenees, on the south, north, and west, the sea. Principal rivers: the +Minius (Minho), Durius (Douro), Tagus (Tejo), Anas (Guadiana), Bætis +(Guadalquiver), which flow into the Atlantic; and the Iberus (Ebro), +which falls into the Mediterranean. Mountains: besides the Pyrenees, the +Idubeda along the Iberus, Orospeda (Sierra Morena). Divided into three +provinces. 1. Lusitania: northern boundary the Durius, southern, the +Anas. Principal tribes: Lusitani, Turdetani. Principal town: Augusta +Emerita. 2. Bætica: boundaries on the north and west the Anas, on the +east the mountains of Orospeda. Principal tribes: Turduli, Bastuli. +Principal towns: Corduba (Cordova), Hispalis (Seville), Gades (Cadiz), +Munda. 3. Tarraconensis, all the remainder of Spain. Principal tribes: +Callæci, Astures, Cantabri, Vascones, in the north; Celtiberi, +Carpetani, Ilergetes, in the interior; Indigetes, Cosetani, etc. on the +Mediterranean. Chief towns: Tarraco (Tarragona), Cartago Nova +(Carthagena), Toletum (Toledo), Ilerda (Lerida); Saguntum and Numantia +(Soria) were already destroyed. The Balearic isles, Major (Majorca), and +Minor (Minorca), were considered as belonging to Spain. + +II. Transalpine Gaul. Boundaries: on the west the Pyrenees; on the east +the Rhine, and a line drawn from its source to the little river Varus, +together with that river itself; on the north and south the sea. +Principal rivers: the Garumna (Garonne), Liger (Loire), Sequana +(Seine), and Scaldis (Scheldt), which empty themselves into the ocean; +the Rhodanus (Rhone), which is increased by the Arar (Saone), and falls +into the Mediterranean; and the Mosella (Moselle) and Mosa (Meuse), +which flow into the Rhine. Mountains: besides the Alps, the Jura, +Vogesus (Vosge), and Cebenna (Cevennes). Divided into four provinces. 1. +Gallia Narbonensis, or Braccata. Boundaries: on the west the Pyrenees, +on the east the Varus, on the north the Cevennian mountains. Principal +tribes: Allobroges, Volcæ, Calyes. Principal towns: Narbo (Narbonne), +Tolosa (Toulouse), Nemausus (Nîmes), Massilia (Marseilles), Vienna. 2. +Gallia Lugdunensis, or Celtica. Boundaries: to the south and west the +Liger (Loire), to the north the Sequana, to the east the Arar. Principal +tribes: Ædui, Lingones, Parisii, Cenomani, etc. all of Celtic origin. +Principal towns: Lugdunum (Lyons), Lutetia Parisiorum (Paris), Alesia +(Alise). 3. Gallia Aquitanica. Boundaries: the Pyrenees on the south, +the Liger on the north and east. Principal tribes: Aquitani (of Iberian +origin), Pictones, Averni, etc. of Celtic descent. Principal towns: +Climberis, Burdegala (Bourdeaux). 4. Gallia Belgica. Boundaries: on the +north and east the Rhine, on the west the Arar, on the south the +Rhodanus as far as Lugdunum, so that it comprised at first the countries +bordering on the Rhine and Helvetia. The latter, however, were +afterwards separated from it under the names of Germania Inferior and +Superior. Principal tribes: Nervii, Bellovaci, etc. in the north, of +Belgic origin; Treviri, Ubii, of German origin; Sequani, Helvetii, in +the interior, of Celtic origin. Principal towns: Vesentio (Besançon), +Verodunum (Verdun), etc. Along the Rhine in Germania Inferior: Colonia +Agrippina (Cologne). In Germania Superior: Mogontiacum (Mayence, or +Mentz), and Argentoratum (Strasburg). + +III. Gallia Cisalpina, or Togata (Lombardy, see above, p. 315). But as +from the time of Cæsar the inhabitants enjoyed all the privileges of +Roman citizens, it may be reckoned as forming part of Italy. + +IV. Sicilia; divided into Syracuse and Lilybæum. + +V. Sardinia and Corsica, see above, p. 320. + +VI. The Insulæ Britannicæ (British islands); but of these, only England +and the southern part of Scotland were reduced into a Roman province in +the time of Nero, under the name of Britannia Romana. Principal rivers: +Tamesis (Thames) and Sabrina (Severn). Cities: Eboracum (York) in the +north, Londinum (London) in the south. Into Scotland, Britannia +Barbaria, or Caledonia, the Romans often penetrated, but without being +ably completely to conquer it; and as for Hibernia, Ierne (Ireland), it +was visited by Roman merchants, but never by Roman legions. + +VII. The countries south of the Danube, which were subdued under +Augustus and formed into the following provinces: 1. Vindelicia. +Boundaries: on the north the Danube, on the east the Ænus (Inn), on the +west Helvetia, on the south Rhætia. Principal tribes: Vindelici, +Brigantii, etc. Principal towns: Augusta Vindelicorum (Augsburg), +Brigantia (Bregenz). 2. Rhætia. Boundaries: on the north Vindelicia, on +the east the Inn and the Salza, on the south the chain of the Alps from +Lacus Verbanus (Lago Maggiore) to Belinzona, on the west Helvetia. +Principal tribe: Rhæti. Principal towns: Curia (Chur), Veldidena +(Wilden), Tridentum (Trent). 3. Noricum. Boundaries: on the north the +Danube, on the west the Ænus, on the east the mountain Cetius +(Kahlenberg), and on the south the Julian Alps and the Savus (Save). +Principal tribes: Boii. Cities: Jovavum (Salzburg), Boiodurum (Passau). +4. Pannonia Superior. Boundaries: on the north and east the Danube, on +the south the Arrabo (Raab), on the west the mountain Cetius. Cities: +Vindobona (Vienna), Caruntum. 5. Pannonia Inferior. Boundaries: on the +north the Arrabo, on the east the Danube, on the south the Savus. +Cities: Taurunum (Belgrade), Mursa (Esseg), and Sirmium. 6. Moesia +Superior. Boundaries: on the north the Danube, on the south Mount +Scardus, or Scodrus, on the west Pannonia, on the east the river Cebrus +(Ischia). Cities: Singidunum (Semlin), and Naissus (Nissa). 7. Moesia +Inferior. Boundaries: on the north the Danube, on the west the Cebrus, +on the south mount Hæmus (the Balkan), and on the east the Pontus +Euxinus. Cities: Odessus (Varna), Tomi (Tomisvar). + +VIII. Illyricum, in its most extensive signification, comprised all the +provinces south of the Danube, together with Rhætia and Dalmatia: but +Illyricum Proper comprehends only the lands along the coast of the +Adriatic, from Rhætia in Italy to the river Drinus, and easterly to the +Savus. Principal towns: Salona, Epidaurus (near the present Ragusa), +Scodra (Scutari). + +IX. Macedonia. Boundaries: on the north mount Scodrus, on the south the +Cambunian mountains, on the west the Adriatic, and on the east the Ægean +sea. Rivers: the Nestus, Strymon, and Halyacmon, which fall into the +Ægean sea, and the Apsus and Aöus, which fall into the Adriatic. +Principal tribes: Pæones in the north, Pieres and Mygdones in the south. +Principal towns: Pydna, Pella, Thessalonica, Philippi, with other Greek +colonies (see above, p. 164). Dyrrachium and Apollonia on the western +coast. + +X. Thrace had for some time kings of her own, though dependent on Rome, +and was first reduced to a Roman province under Claudius. Boundaries: on +the north Mount Hæmus, on the west the Nestus, on the south and east the +sea. River: Hebrus. Principal tribes: Triballi, Bessi, and Odrysæ. +Cities: Byzantium, Apollonia, Beroea. + +XI. Achaia (Greece), see above, p. 131. + +XII. To the north of the Danube the province of Dacia was brought under +the Roman empire by Trajan. Boundaries: on the south the Danube, on the +west the Tibiscus (Theiss), in the east the Hierasus (Pruth), in the +north the Carpathian mountains. Principal tribe: Daci. Chief cities; +Ulpia Trajana and Tibiscum. + +ASIATIC PROVINCES: I. Asia Minor contained the provinces: 1. Asia (see +above, p. 293). 2. Bithynia, together with Paphlagonia and part of +Pontus. 3. Cilicia, with Pisidia (see above, p. 18.) II. Syria and +Phoenicia. III. The isle of Cyprus. Several other states, likewise +dependent, still preserved their kings: as, Judæa (became a Roman +province, A. D. 44.), Commagene (province A. D. 70, and, together with +Judæa, added to Syria), Cappadocia (province A. D. 17), Pontus +(completely a province under Nero). Free states at this time: Rhodes, +Samos (provinces A. D. 70), and Lycia (province A. D. 43). Beyond the +Euphrates, Armenia and Mesopotamia were reduced to provinces by Trajan, +but, as early as the time of Adrian, were abandoned. + +AFRICAN PROVINCES. I. Egypt. II. Cyrenaica, with the isle of Crete. III. +Africa, Numidia (see above, p. 47). Mauritania still had its separate +king, but he was set aside, A. D. 41, and the country divided into two +provinces: 1. Mauritania Cæsariensis. Boundaries: on the east the river +Ampsaga, on the west the Mulucha. Principal places: Igilgilis and +Cæsaria. 2. Mauritania Tingitana, from the river Mulucha to the Atlantic +ocean. Capital: Tingis. + +Principal states on the borders of the empire: I. Germania. Boundaries: +on the south the Danube, on the north the sea, on the west the Rhine, on +the east undetermined, though the Vistula is generally regarded as such. +Principal rivers: the Danubius, Rhenus (Rhine), Albis (Elbe), Visurgis +(Weser), Viadrus (Oder), and the Vistula; the Lupias (Lippe) and Amisia +(Ems) are likewise frequently mentioned. Mountains and forests: the +Hercynian forest, a general name for the forest mountains, particularly +of eastern Germany. Melibocus (the Hartz), Sudetus (the Thuringian +forest); the forest of Teutoburg, to the south of Westphalia, etc. It +would be useless to seek for a general political division, or for the +cities, of ancient Germany; we can only point out the situation of the +principal tribes. It is necessary, however, to precede this by two +observations: 1. The same territory, in the tide of forcible emigration +and conquest, and particularly after the second century, often changed +its inhabitants. 2. The names of some of the principal tribes often +became that of a confederacy. The principal tribes in the period of +Augustus were, in northern Germany; the Batavi in Holland; the Frisii in +Friesland; the Bructeri in Westphalia; the lesser and larger Chauci in +Oldenburg and Bremen; the Cherusci, likewise the name of a +confederation, in Brunswick; the Catti in Hesse. In southern (central) +Germany: the Hermunduri in Franconia; the Marcomanni in Bohemia. The +Alemanni, not the name of a single tribe, but of a confederation, are +first mentioned in the third century: in the period of Augustus these +tribes, and the principal of those of eastern Germany, which gradually +became known, were included under the general name of Suevi. + +The northernmost countries of Europe were considered as isles of the +German ocean, and therefore regarded as belonging to Germany. They were +Scandinavia, or Scandia (southern Sweden), Nerigon (Norway), and +Eningia, or probably Finningia (Finland). The northernmost island was +called Thule. + +The north of Europe, from the Vistula to the Tanais (Don), was comprised +under the general name of Sarmatia; but beyond the territory about the +Danube, and especially Dacia (see above, p. 407), they were only in a +slight degree acquainted with the coast of the Baltic, by the amber +trade. + +In Asia the Roman empire was bounded by Great Armenia (see above, p. 19, +and 299), the Parthian empire from the Euphrates to the Indus (see +above, p. 19-22), and the peninsula of Arabia (see above, p. 19). + +Eastern Asia, or India, became known to the Romans by a commercial +intercourse carried on between them, and which began soon after the +conquest of Egypt. It was divided into India on this side the Ganges, +that is: 1. The territory between the Indus and Ganges; 2. The peninsula +on this side, the western coast of which in particular (Malabar), was +very well known; and, 3. The island of Taprobana (Ceylon), and India +beyond the Ganges, to which also the distant Serica belonged: but of all +these countries they had but a very imperfect knowledge. + +The boundaries of Africa were Æthiopia above Egypt, and Gætulia and the +great sandy desert of Libya, above the other provinces. + + + + +FIRST SECTION. + +_From Augustus Cæsar to the death of Commodus, B. C. 30. A. C. 193._ + + + SOURCES. For the whole of this period DION CASSIUS, lib. li-lxxx, is + our historian; though of his last twenty books we have only the + abridgment of Xiphilinus. For the history of the emperors from + Tiberius to the beginning of Vespasian's reign, the principal writer + is TACITUS, in his _Annals_, A. C. 14-63; (of which, however, part of + the history of Tiberius, 32-34, all of Caligula and the first six + years of Claudius, 37-47, as well as the last year and a half of Nero, + are unfortunately lost); and in his _History_, of which scarcely the + first three years, 69-71, are come down to us. SUETONIUS'S _Lives of + the Cæsars_, down to Domitian, are so much the more valuable, because + in a state like the Roman it becomes of importance to know the + character and domestic life of the ruling men. For the reigns of + Augustus and Tiberius the _History_ of VELLEIUS PATERCULUS is not of + less consequence, although written in a court-like tone. The sources + for the history of the separate Cæsars will be given as we come to + them. + + The following are the labours of modern writers: + + _Histoire des Empereurs et des autres Princes qui ont régné dans les + six premiers siècles de l'Eglise_, _par_ M. LENAIN DE TILLEMONT. à + Bruxelle, 1707, 5 vols. 8vo. (An earlier edition in 4to. 1700, 4 + vols.) The work of Tillemont has some worth as a laborious + compilation, but is superseded in its execution by the following: + + _Histoire des Empereurs Romains, depuis Auguste jusqu' à Constantin_, + _par_ M. CREVIER. Paris, 1749, 12 vols. 8vo. [Translated into + English.] A continuation of Rollin's Roman History (see above, p. + 318), quite in the spirit of that writer, and by one of his school. + + DR. GOLDSMITH'S _Roman History, from the foundation of the city of + Rome to the destruction of the western empire_. London, 1774, 2 vols. + 8vo. Rather a sketch than a detailed history (see above, p. 321, + sqq.). + + # _History of Rome under the Emperors, and of the contemporary + nations_, _by_ M. D. G. H. HUBLER. Fryburg, 1803, 3 parts. + Continuation of the work cited p. 2: it reaches down to Constantine. + +1. Octavianus Cæsar, on whom the senate conferred the honourable title +of Augustus, which they periodically renewed, and which descended to his +successors, possessed the sole dominion of the empire during forty-four +years. The government, notwithstanding the great revolutions by which +the republic had been converted into a monarchy, was not yet, either in +fact or in form, altogether a despotic one. The private interest of the +ruler required that the republican form should be preserved to the +utmost, as without that he could not make an entire change; and the rest +of his history sufficiently shows, that the cruelty with which he may be +reproached in the early part of his career, was rather owing to +circumstances than to his natural disposition. But during a reign so +long, so tranquil, and so fortunate, could it be otherwise than that the +republican spirit which at the beginning existed only in a few +individuals, should evaporate of itself! + + The forms under which Augustus held the different branches of supreme + power (dictatorship excepted) were;--the consulate, which, till B. C. + 21, was annually renewed; and the _potestas consularis_, which, in B. + C. 19, was settled on him for ever;--the _tribunicia potestas_, which + was, 30, granted him for ever, rendered his person sacred + (_sacrosancta_), and prepared the way to the _judicia majestatis_ + (accusations of high treason). As _imperator_, 31, he continued + commander of all the forces, and obtained the _imperium proconsulare_ + (proconsular power) in all the provinces. He assumed the _magistratura + morum_ (censorship), 19; and became _pontifex maximus_ (high priest), + 13. To avoid all appearances of usurpation, Augustus at first + accepted the sovereign power only for ten years, and afterwards had it + renewed from time to time, for ten or five years, which, at a later + period, gave rise to the _sacra decennalia_. + +2. The senate, indeed, remained a permanent council of state, and +Augustus himself endeavoured to increase its authority by more than one +purification (_lectio_); but the connection between him and that +assembly seemed of a very fragile nature, as it was undetermined, and +could not at this time be settled, whether Augustus was over the senate, +or the senate over Augustus. All matters of state could not be brought +before the senate, as even the most important often required secrecy. It +naturally followed, that a prince, as yet without a court, and who had +no proper minister, but only his friends and freedmen, should consult +with those whom he thought most worthy his confidence, a Mæcenas, or an +Agrippa, etc. Hence afterwards was formed the secret council of state +(_consilium secretum principis_). Among the republican magistrates the +highest lost most; and as so much now depended upon the preservation of +peace in the capital, the offices of præfect of the city (_præfectus +urbis_) and præfect of provisions (_præfectus annonæ_) were not only +made permanent, but became, especially the former, the principal offices +in the state. + + The spirit of monarchy shows itself in nothing more than in its strict + distinction of ranks; hence, therefore, the magistrates, especially + the consuls, lost nothing. Hence also the long-continued custom of + nominating under-consuls (_consules suffecti_,) which in time + became merely a formal assumption of the _ornamenta consularia et + triumphalia_ (consular and triumphal ornaments). Other offices were + created for the purpose of rewarding friends and dependents. + +3. The introduction of standing armies, already long prepared, naturally +followed a dominion acquired by war; and became, indeed, necessary to +guard the frontiers and preserve the newly-made conquests; the +establishment of the guards and militia of the city (_cohortes +prætorianæ_ and _cohortes urbanæ_) were measures equally necessary for +the security of the capital and the throne. The creation of _two_ +prætorian præfects, however, instead of _one_, diminished for the +present the great importance of that office. + + Distribution of the legions over the provinces in _castra stativa_ + (fixed camps), which soon grew into cities, especially along the + Rhine, the Danube, and the Euphrates (_legiones Germanicæ, Illyricæ, + et Syriacæ_). Fleets also were stationed at Misenum and Ravenna. + +4. The government, as well as the administration and revenue of the +provinces, Augustus willingly divided with the senate; keeping to +himself those on the frontiers (_provinciæ principis_,) in which the +legions were quartered, and leaving to that assembly the others +(_provinciæ senatûs_). Hence his deputies (_legati_, lieutenants) +exercised both civil and military authority in his name; while those of +the senate, on the contrary (_proconsules_), only administered in civil +affairs. Both were, in general, attended by commissioners (_procuratores +et quæstores_). The provinces were unquestionably gainers by this new +arrangement, not only because their governors were more carefully looked +after, but because they were paid by the state. + + The fate of the provinces naturally depended, in a great degree, upon + the disposition of the emperor and governor; but there was also an + essential difference between the provinces of the emperor and those + of the senate (_provinciæ principis et senatûs_): in the latter there + was no military oppression as there was in the former; and to that may + be ascribed the flourishing state of Gaul, Spain, Africa, etc. + +5. There is little doubt but that the finances of the treasury remained, +upon the whole, much the same as before; but in its internal +administration Augustus made many alterations, of which we have but a +very imperfect knowledge. Of course there would be at first an obvious +difference between the privy and military chest of the emperor +(_fiscus_), which was at his immediate disposal, and the state chest +(_ærarium_) which he disposed of indirectly through the senate, though +it must afterwards follow as a natural consequence of increasing +despotism, that the latter should progressively become merged in the +former. + + The great disorder into which the treasury had been thrown during the + civil wars, and especially by giving away the state lands in Italy to + the soldiers, together with the heavy sums required for the + maintenance of the standing army now established, must have rendered + it much more difficult for Augustus to accomplish the reform he so + happily executed; and in which it seems to have been his chief aim to + place everything, as far as possible, upon a solid and lasting + foundation. The principal changes which he made in the old system of + taxation seem to have been: 1. That the tithes hitherto collected in + the provinces should be changed into a fixed quota, to be paid by each + individual. 2. The customs, partly by reestablishing former ones, and + partly by imposing new ones as well as an excise (_centesima rerum + venalium_), were rendered more productive. The possession of Egypt, + which was the depôt of nearly all the commerce of the east, rendered + the customs at this time of great importance to Rome. 3. All the state + lands in the provinces were, by degrees, changed into crown lands. Of + the new taxes the most considerable were the _vigesima hereditatum_ + (the twentieth of inheritances), though with important restrictions; + and the fines upon celibacy by the _lex Julia Poppæa_.--The greater + part of these state revenues most likely flowed, from the very first, + into the _fiscus_: that is, the whole revenues of the _provinciæ + principis_, as well as of those parts of the _provinciæ senatûs_ which + were appropriated to the maintenance of the troops; the revenues + arising from the crown domains; the _vigesima_, etc. To the _ærarium_ + (now under three _præfecti ærarii_) remained a part of the revenues of + the _provinciæ senatûs_, the customs and the fines. Thus it appears + that Augustus was master of the finances, of the legions, and thereby + of the empire. + + See above, p. 362, the writings of HEGEWISCH and BOSSE. + +6. The extension of the Roman empire under Augustus was very +considerable; being generally of such a nature as conduced to the +security of the interior, and to the safeguard of the frontiers. The +complete subjugation of northern Spain, and western Gaul, secured the +frontiers on that side; as did the threatened but never-executed +expedition against the Parthians, and the one actually undertaken +against Armenia, A. C. 2. But the most important conquest in this +quarter was that of the countries south of the Danube, viz. Rhætia, +Vindelicia, and Noricum, as well as Pannonia, and afterwards Moesia. To +counterbalance these, the expedition against Arabia Felix completely +failed; and that against Æthiopia was of no further consequence than to +strengthen the frontiers. + +7. All these conquests together, however, did not cost the Romans so +much as their fruitless attempt to subjugate Germany, first, by the +sons-in-law of Augustus, Drusus and Tiberius Nero, and afterwards by the +son of the former, Drusus Germanicus. Whether or not this undertaking +was a political fault, must always remain a problem, as it is now +impossible to say how far the security of the frontiers could be +preserved without it. + + Rome commenced her hostile attack upon Germany under the command of + Drusus, B. C. 12; Lower Germany (Westphalia, Lower Saxony, and Hesse) + being in general the theatre of the war: while the Lower Rhine was + attacked both by sea and land at the mouths of the Ems, the Weser, and + the Elbe, on account of the great assistance afforded the Romans by + their alliance with the nations on the coasts, the Batavi, Frisii, and + Chauci. The intrepid Drusus, in his second expedition, 10, penetrated + as far as the Weser, and, 9, even as far as the Elbe, but died on his + return. His successors in the command (Tiberius, 9-7, Domitius, + Ænobarbus, 7-2, M. Vinicius, 2-A. C. 2, then again Tiberius, A. C. + 2-4, who was followed by Quintilius Varus, A. C. 5-9,) endeavoured + to build on the foundation laid by Drusus, and, by erecting forts and + introducing the Roman language and laws, gradually to reduce into a + province the part of Germany they had already subdued; but the + craftily organized revolt of the young Arminius (Hermann,) a prince of + the Cherusci, son of Siegmar, and son-in-law of Segestes, a friend of + the Romans, together with the defeat of Varus and his army in the + Teutoburg wald, or forest, near Paderborn, A. C. 9, rescued Germany + from slavery, and its language from annihilation. It moreover taught + the conquerors (what they never forgot) that the legions were not + invincible. Augustus immediately despatched Tiberius, who had just + quelled a furious insurrection in Pannonia, together with Germanicus, + to the Rhine; but these confined themselves to simple incursions, till + Germanicus, A. C. 14-16, again carried his arms further into the + country, and certainly penetrated as far as the Weser. Yet, + notwithstanding his victory near Idistavisus (Minden), the loss of his + fleet and part of his army by a tempest on his return, and the + jealousy of Tiberius at his victory, obliged him to give up his + command. From this time the Germans were left at rest in this quarter. + + # MANNERT, _Geography of the Greeks and Romans_, part iii. + +8. The long, and for Italy itself, peaceable reign of Augustus, has +generally been considered a fortunate and brilliant period of Roman +history; and, when compared with the times which preceded and followed, +it certainly was so. Security of person and property were reestablished; +the arts of peace flourished under the benign patronage of Augustus and +his favourite Mæcenas; and we may add, that, as the formal restoration +of the republic would only have been the signal for new commotions, the +government of Augustus, if not the very best, was, at least, the best +that Rome could then bear. Should it be said his private life was not +blameless, it may be replied, that he inflexibly maintained an outward +decency, to which, indeed, he sacrificed his only daughter; and if laws +could have bettered the public morals, there was no lack of decrees for +that purpose. + + Among his most important laws to this end are, the _lex Julia de + adulteriis_ and the _lex Papia Poppæa_ against celibacy. The latter + excited many murmurs. + +9. Nearly all that remains of the history of Augustus, is an account of +his domestic troubles; the most unhappy family being that of the +emperor. The influence of Livia, his second wife, was very great, but +does not seem to have been perverted to any worse purpose than raising +her sons, Tiberius and Drusus, to the throne. The naturally unsettled +state of the succession, in a government such as that of Rome now was, +became much increased by circumstances. After the untimely death of his +nephew and son-in-law Marcellus, whom he had adopted, his widow Julia, +the only child of Augustus by his wife Scribonia, was married to +Agrippa. The two eldest sons of this marriage, C. and L. Cæsar, were +adopted, upon the death of their father, by the emperor, who showed so +much fondness towards them as they grew up, that Tiberius, who in the +mean time had married their mother, Julia,--afterwards banished by +Augustus for her licentious conduct--left the court in disgust. The +death of the two young princes, however, again revived the hopes of +Tiberius, who was adopted by Augustus upon the condition that he should +also adopt Drusus Germanicus, the son of his deceased brother Drusus; +after which Augustus, with the consent of the senate, formally +associated him with himself in the government, making him an equal +partner in the imperial privileges: called by his successors, _lex +regia_. + + _Marmor Ancyranum_; or, inscriptions in the temple of Augustus at + Ancyra. A copy of the account given of his government, which Augustus + latterly caused to be set up at Rome as a public memorial: + unfortunately much mutilated. It is to be found in CHISHULL, _Antiq. + Asiatic_. + + _Memoirs of the Court of Augustus, by_ THOMAS BLACKWELL. London, 1760, + 3 vols. 4to. divided into fifteen books. The last vol. was published + after the death of the author, by MR. MILLS. The last two books of + this prolix work contain a description of the contemporary affairs of + Augustus; the others go back to earlier times. A just appreciation of + Augustus requires a previous critical examination of the sources from + which Suetonius has drawn the materials for his biography. + + _Histoire des triumvirats augmentée de l'histoire d'Auguste, par_ + LARRY. Trevoux, 1741, 4 parts, 8vo. The last part of this simple + narrative contains the history of Augustus from the death of Catiline. + +10. The reign of Tiberius Claudius Nero, or, as he was called after his +adoption, Augustus Tiberius Cæsar, from his fifty-sixth to his +seventy-eighth year, changed rather the spirit than the form of the +Roman constitution. He succeeded quietly to the vacant throne at Rome, +although the legions in Pannonia, and still more in Germany, felt that +they could make emperors. Under him the _comitia_, or assemblies of the +people, were reduced to a mere shadow; as he transferred their duties to +the senate, which also became the highest tribunal for the state crimes +of its own members: this assembly, however, had now been so much +accustomed to obey the will of the prince, that everything depended on +his personal character. Tiberius founded his despotism upon the _judicia +majestatis_, or accusations of high treason, now become an engine of +terror, the senate also sharing his guilt with a pusillanimity and +servility which knew no bounds. This degraded assembly, indeed, from the +moment that it ceased to be the ruling authority of a free state, +necessarily became the passive instrument of the most brutal tyranny. +Notwithstanding the military talents and many good qualities of +Tiberius, his despotic character had been formed long before his +fifty-sixth year, when he mounted the throne; although exterior +circumstances prevented him from entirely throwing off the mask which he +had hitherto worn. + + The foundation of the _judicia majestatis_, which soon became so + terrible by the unfixed state of crime, had been laid during the reign + of Augustus by the _lex Julia de majestate_, and the _cognitiones + extraordinariæ_, or commissioners appointed to take cognizance of + certain crimes; it was, however, the abuse of them by Tiberius and his + successors, which rendered them so dreadful. + +12. The principal object of Tiberius's suspicion, and therefore of his +hate, was Germanicus, a man almost adored by the army and the people. +This brave general he soon recalled from Germany, and sent into Syria +to quell the disorders of the east. After having successfully put an end +to the commotions which called him there, he was poisoned by the +contrivances of Cn. Piso and his wife; and even that did not shelter the +numerous family which he left behind, with his widow Agrippina, from +persecution and ruin. + + The expeditions of Germanicus in the east not only gave a king to + Armenia, but also reduced Cappadocia and Commagene to Roman provinces, + A. C. 17. + + _Histoire de Cæsar Germanicus, par_ M. L. D. B. [EAUFORT]. à Leyden, + 1741. An unpretending chronological narrative. + +13. Rome, however, soon experienced to her cost the powerful ascendancy +which L. Ælius Sejanus, the præfect of the prætorian guard, had acquired +over the mind of Tiberius, whose unlimited confidence he possessed the +more, as he enjoyed it without a rival. The eight years of his authority +were rendered terrible not only by the cantonment of his troops in +barracks near the city (_castra prætoriana_), but (having first +persuaded Tiberius to quit Rome for ever, that he might more securely +play the tyrant in the isle of Capreæ) by his endeavouring to open a way +for himself to the throne by villanies and crimes without number, and by +his cruel persecution of the family of Germanicus. The despotism he had +introduced became still more dreadful by his own fall, in which not only +his whole party, but every one that could be considered as connected +with it, became involved. The picture of the atrocious despotism of +Tiberius is rendered doubly disgusting by the horrid and unnatural lust +which he joined to it in his old age. + + Tiberius's misfortune was, that he came too late to the throne. His + early virtues made no compensation for his later cruelties. It is + properly the former which Vel. Paterculus praises, whose flattery of + Tiberius, in whose reign he flourished, is more easily justified than + his praise of Sejanus. + +14. At the age of twenty-five Caius Cæsar Caligula, the only remaining +son of Germanicus, ascended the throne; but the hopes which had been +formed of this young prince were soon wofully disappointed. His previous +sickness and debaucheries had so distorted his understanding, that his +short reign was one tissue of disorder and crime. Yet he did still more +harm to the state by his besotted profusion than by his tiger-like +cruelty. At length, after a career of nearly four years, he was +assassinated by Cassius Chærea and Cornelius Sabinus, two officers of +his guard. + +15. His uncle Tiberius Claudius Cæsar, who, at the age of fifty, +succeeded him, was the first emperor raised to the throne by the guards; +a favour which he rewarded by granting them a _donative_. Too weak to +rule of himself, almost imbecile from former neglect, profligate, and +cruel from fear, he became the tool of the licentiousness of his wives +and freedmen. Coupled with the names of Messalina and Agrippina, we now +hear, for the first time in Roman history, of a Pallas and a Narcissus. +The dominion of Messalina was still more hurtful to the state by her +rapacious cupidity, to which everything gave way, than by her dissolute +life; and the blow which at last punished her unexampled wantonness, +left a still more dangerous woman to supply her place. This was +Agrippina, her neice, widow of L. Domitius, who joined to the vices of +her predecessor a boundless ambition, unknown to the former. Her chief +aim was to procure the succession for Domitius Nero, her son by a former +marriage--who had been adopted by Claudius, and married to his daughter +Octavia--by setting aside Britannicus, the son of Claudius; and this she +hoped to effect, by poisoning Claudius, having already gained Burrhus, +by making him _sole_ præfect of the prætorian guard. Notwithstanding the +contentions with the Germans and Parthians (see above, p. 303) were only +on the frontiers, the boundaries of the Roman empire were in many +countries extended. + + Commencement of the Roman conquests in Britain (whither Claudius + himself went) under A. Plautius, from the year A. C. 43. Under the + same general, Mauritania, A. C. 42, Lycia, 43, Judæa, 44 (see above, + p. 312), and Thrace, 47, were reduced to Roman provinces. He also + abolished the præfectures which had hitherto existed in Italy. + +16. Nero Claudius Cæsar, supported by Agrippina and the prætorian guard, +succeeded Claudius at the age of seventeen. Brought up in the midst of +the blackest crimes, and, by a perverted education, formed rather for a +professor of music and the fine arts than for an emperor, he ascended +the throne like a youth eager for enjoyment; and throughout his whole +reign his cruelty appears subordinate to his fondness for debaucheries +and revelry. The unsettled state of the succession first called into +action his savage disposition; and after the murder of Britannicus the +sword fell in regular order upon all those who were even remotely +connected with the Julian family. His vanity as a performer and composer +excited in an equal degree his cruelty; and as, among all tyrants, every +execution gives occasion for others, we need not wonder at his putting +to death every one that excelled him. His connection, however, in the +early part of his reign, with Agrippina, Burrhus, and Seneca, during +which he introduced some useful regulations into the treasury, kept him +within the bounds of decency. But Poppæa Sabina having driven him on to +the murder of his mother and his wife Octavia, and Tigellinus being made +his confident, he felt no longer restrained by the fear of public +opinion. The executions of individuals, nearly all of which history has +recorded, was not, perhaps, upon the whole, the greatest evil; the +plunder of the provinces, not only to support his own loose and +effeminate pleasures, but also to maintain the people in a continual +state of intoxication, had nearly caused the dissolution of the empire. +The last years of Nero were marked by a striking and undoubted insanity, +which displayed itself in his theatrical performances, and even in the +history of his fall. It appears that both around and upon a throne like +that of Rome, heroes were formed for vice as well as virtue! + + Discovery of the conspiracy of Piso, 65, and the revolt of Julius + Vindex in Celtic Gaul, 68, followed by that of Galba in Spain, who is + there proclaimed emperor, and joined by Otho, in Lusitania. + Nevertheless, after the defeat of Julius Vindex in Upper Germany, by + the lieutenant Virginius Rufus, these insurrections seemed quelled, + when the prætorian guard, instigated thereto by Nymphidius, broke out + into rebellion in Rome itself. Flight and death of Nero, June 11, 68. + Foreign wars during his reign: in Britain (occasioned by the revolt + of Boadicea), great part of which was subdued and reduced to a Roman + province, by Suetonius Paulinus; in Armenia, under the command of the + valiant Corbulo, against the Parthians (see above, p. 303); and in + Palestine against the Jews, 66. Great fire in Rome, 64, which gives + rise to the first persecution against the Christians. + + The principal cause why the despotism of Nero and his predecessors was + so tamely submitted to by the nation, may undoubtedly be found in the + fact, that the greater part of it was fed by the emperors. To the + monthly distributions of corn were now added the extraordinary + _congiaria_ and _viscerationes_ (supplies of wine and meat). The + periods of tyranny were very likely the golden days of the people. + +17. By the death of Nero the house of Cæsar became extinct, and this +gave rise to so many commotions, that in somewhat less than two years, +four emperors by violence obtained possession of the throne. The right +of the senate to name, or at least to confirm, the successors to the +throne, was still indeed acknowledged; but as the armies had found out +that they could create emperors, the power of the senate dwindled into +an empty ceremony. Servius Sulpicius Galba, now seventy-two years of +age, having been already proclaimed emperor by the legions in Spain, and +acknowledged by the senate, gained possession of Rome without striking a +blow, the attempt of Nymphidius having completely failed, and Virginius +Rufus voluntarily submitting to him. Galba, however, having given +offence both to the prætorian guard and the German legions, was +dethroned by the guards, at the instigation of his former friend Otho, +at the very time when he thought he had secured his throne by adopting +the young Licinius Piso, and had frustrated the hopes of Otho. + +18. M. Otho, aged thirty-seven, was indeed acknowledged emperor by the +senate, but wanted the sanction of the German legions, who, proclaiming +their general, A. Vitellius, emperor, invaded Italy. Otho marches +against him, but after the loss of the battle of Bedriacum kills +himself--whether from fear or patriotism, remains uncertain. + + The special sources for the history of Galba and Otho, are their + _Lives_ by PLUTARCH. + +19. Vitellius, in his thirty-seventh year, was acknowledged emperor not +only by the senate, but likewise in the provinces; his debaucheries and +cruelty, however, together with the licentiousness of his troops, having +rendered him odious at Rome, the Syrian legions rebelled and proclaimed +their general, T. Flavius Vespasian, emperor, who, at the solicitation +of the powerful Mutianus, governor of Syria, accepted the imperial +diadem. The troops on the Danube declaring for him shortly after, and +marching into Italy under their general Antonius Primus defeated the +army of Vitellius at Cremona. Vitellius was immediately hurled from the +throne, though not till after some blood had been spilt by the +commotions that took place at Rome, in which Flavius Sabinus, the +brother of Vespasian, was slain, and the capitol burnt. + +20. Flavius Vespasian ascended the throne in his fifty-ninth year, and +became thereby the founder of a dynasty which gave three emperors to +Rome. The state, almost ruined by profusion, civil war, and successive +revolutions, found in Vespasian a monarch well suited to its unhappy +condition. He endeavoured, as far as he could, to determine the +relations between himself and the senate; while, by a decree, he +restored to it all the rights and privileges which had been conferred +upon it by his predecessors of the family of Cæsar, and settled and +added some others (_lex regia_). He made a thorough reform in the +completely-exhausted treasury, which he recruited in part by reducing +the countries Nero had made free, together with some others, into +provinces; partly by restoring the ancient customs, by increasing +others, and by imposing new ones: without this it would have been +impossible for him to have reestablished the discipline of the army. His +liberality in the foundation of public buildings, as well in Rome as in +other cities; and the care with which he promoted education, by granting +salaries to public teachers, are sufficient to free him from the +reproach of avarice; and although, on account of their dangerous +opinions, he banished the Stoics (who since the time of Nero had become +very numerous, and retained nearly all the principles of republicanism), +the annulling of the _judicia majestatis_ and the restoration of the +authority of the senate show how far he was from being a despot. + + Rhodes, Samos, Lycia, Achaia, Thrace, Cilicia, and Commagene, were + brought by Vespasian into the condition of provinces. Foreign wars: + that against the Jews, which ended with the destruction of Jerusalem, + A. C. 70; and a much greater war against the Batavians and their + allies under Civilis, who during the late civil wars, sought to shake + off the Roman yoke, 69; but were reduced to an accommodation by + Cerealis, 70. Expeditions of Agricola in Britain, 78-85, who not only + subdued all England, and introduced the Roman manners and customs, but + also attacked and sailed round Scotland. + + _D. Vespasianus, sive de vita et legislatione T. Flavii Vespasiani + Imp. commentarius, auctore_ A. G. CRAMER. Jenæ, 1785. An excellent + enquiry, with illustrations of the fragments of the _lex regia_. The + second part, _de legislatione_, contains a learned commentary upon the + _senatus consulta_, during his reign. + +21. His eldest son, Titus Flavius Vespasian, who in the year 70 had been +created Cæsar, and reigned from his thirty-ninth to his forty-second +year, gives us the rare example of a prince becoming better on the +throne. His short and benevolent reign was, indeed, only remarkable for +its public calamities: an eruption of mount Vesuvius, overwhelming +several cities, was followed by a destructive fire, and a dreadful +plague at Rome. His early death secured him the reputation of being, if +not the happiest, at least the best of princes. + +22. His younger brother and successor, L. Flavius Domitian, who reigned +from his thirtieth to his forty-fifth year, gives an example quite +opposite to that of Titus: beginning with justice and severity, he soon +degenerated into the completest despot that ever swayed the Roman +sceptre. His cruelty, joined to an equal degree of pride, and nourished +by suspicion and jealousy, made him the enemy of all who excelled him by +their exploits, their riches, or their talents. The mortifications to +which his pride must have been subjected in consequence of his +unsuccessful wars against the Catti, and more particularly the Daci, +increased his bad disposition. His despotism was founded upon his +armies, whose pay he augmented one fourth; and that he might not +thereby diminish the treasury, as he had too much done at first, he +multiplied the _judicia majestatis_, rendering it still more terrible by +the employment of secret informers (_delatores_), in order, by +confiscations, to augment the wealth of his private treasury (_fiscus_). +By confining his cruelty chiefly to the capital, and by a strict +superintendence over the governors of provinces, Domitian prevented any +such general disorganization of the empire as took place under Nero. His +fall confirmed the general truth, that tyrants have little to fear from +the people, but much from individuals who may think their lives in +danger. + + The foreign wars during this reign are rendered more worthy of remark + by being the first in which the barbarians attacked the empire with + success. Domitian's ridiculous expedition against the Catti, 82, gave + the first proof of his boundless vanity; as did the recall of the + victorious Agricola, 85, from Britain, of his jealousy. His most + important war was that against the Daci, or Getæ, who, under their + brave king Dercebal, had attacked the Roman frontiers; this again + occasioned another with their neighbours, the Marcomanni, Quadi, and + Jazygi, 86-90, which turned out so unfortunate for Rome, that Domitian + was obliged to purchase a peace of the Daci by paying them an annual + tribute. + +23. M. Cocceius Nerva, aged about seventy years was raised to the throne +by the murderers of Domitian; and now, at last, seemed to break forth +the dawn of a more happy period for the empire. The preceding reign of +terror completely ceased at once; and he endeavoured to impart fresh +vigour to industry, not only by diminishing the taxes, but also by +distributing lands to the poor. The insurrection of the guards +certainly cost the murderers of Domitian their lives; but it was at the +same time the cause of Nerva's securing the prosperity of the empire +after his death, by the adoption of Trajan. + +24. M. Ulpius Trajan (after his adoption, Nerva Trajan), a Spaniard by +birth, governed the empire from his forty-second to his sixty-second +year. He was the first foreigner who ascended the Roman throne, and at +the same time the first of their monarchs who was equally great as a +ruler, a general, and a man. After completely abolishing the _judicia +majestatis_, he made the restoration of the _free Roman constitution_, +so far as it was compatible with a monarchical form, his peculiar care. +He restored the elective power to the _comitia_, complete liberty of +speech to the senate, and to the magistrates their former authority; and +yet he exercised the art of ruling to a degree and in a detail which few +princes have equalled. Frugal in his expenses, he was nevertheless +splendidly liberal to every useful institution, whether in Rome or the +provinces, as well as in the foundation of military roads, public +monuments, and schools for the instruction of poor children. By his wars +he extended the dominion of Rome beyond its former boundaries; subduing, +in his contests with the Daci, their country, and reducing it to a Roman +province; as he likewise did, in his wars against the Armenians and +Parthians, Armenia, Mesopotamia, and part of Arabia. Why was so great a +character disfigured by an ambition of conquest? + + The first war against the Daci, in which the shameful tribute was + withdrawn and Dercebal reduced to subjection, lasted from 101-103. + But as Dercebal again rebelled, the war was renewed in 105, and + brought to a close in 106, when Dacia was reduced to a Roman province, + and many Roman colonies established therein. The war with the + Parthians arose from a dispute respecting the possession of the throne + of Armenia (see above, p. 304), 114-116: but although Rome was + victorious she gained no permanent advantage thereby. + + The especial source for the history of Trajan is the _Panegyricus_ of + PLINY THE YOUNGER; the correspondence, however, of the same writer, + while governor of Bithynia, with the emperor, affords us a much deeper + insight into the spirit of his government: PLINII _Epist._ lib. x. Who + can read it without admiring the royal statesman? + + RITTERSHUSII _Trajanus in lucem reproductus_. Ambegæ, 1608. A mere + collection of passages occurring in ancient authors respecting Trajan. + + _Res Trajani Imperatoris ad Danubium Gestæ, auctore_ CONRAD MANNERT. + Norimb. 1793: and + + JOH. CHRIST. ENGEL, _Commentatio de Expeditionibus Trajani ad + Danubium, et origine Valachorum_. Vindob. 1794.--Both learned + dissertations, written for the prize offered by the Royal Society of + Gottingen; the first of which obtained the prize, and the other the + _accessit_, i. e. was declared second best. + +25. By the contrivances of Plotina, his wife, Trajan was succeeded by +his cousin and pupil, whom he is said also to have adopted, P. Ælius +Adrian, who reigned from his forty-second to his sixty-third year. He +was acknowledged at once by the army of Asia, with which he then was, +and the sanction of the senate followed immediately after. He differed +from his predecessor in that his chief aim was the preservation of +peace; on which account he gave up (rare moderation!), directly after +his accession, the newly conquered provinces of Asia, Armenia, Assyria, +and Mesopotamia, and so put an end to the Parthian war (see above, p. +304.) He retained, though with some unwillingness, that of Dacia, +because otherwise the Roman colonies would have become exposed. He well +made up for his pacific disposition, however, in seeking, by a general +and vigorous reform in the internal administration, and by restoring the +discipline of the army, to give greater solidity to the empire. For that +purpose he visited successively all the provinces of the Roman empire; +first the eastern, and afterwards the western; making useful regulations +and establishing order wherever he came. He improved the Roman +jurisprudence by the introduction of the _edictum perpetuum_. +Passionately fond of and well instructed in literature and the fine +arts, he gave them his liberal protection, and thus called forth another +Augustan age. Upon the whole, his reign was certainly a salutary one for +the empire; and for any single acts of injustice of which he may be +accused, he fully compensated by his choice of a successor. After having +first adopted L. Aurelius Verus (afterwards Ælius Verus), who fell a +sacrifice to his debaucheries, he next adopted T. Aurelius Antoninus +(afterwards T. Ælius Adrianus Antoninus Pius), upon condition that he +should again adopt M. Aurelius Verus (afterwards M. Aurelius Antoninus), +and L. Cesonius Commodus (afterwards L. Verus), the son of Ælius Verus. + + During his reign a great revolt broke out in Judæa, under Barcochab, + 132-135, occasioned by the introduction of pagan worship into the + Roman colony of _Ælia Capitolina_ (the ancient Jerusalem). + + The especial source for the history of Adrian, is his _Life_ and that + of _Ælius Verus_ by ÆLIUS SPARTIANUS _in Script. Hist. Aug. Minores_, + already quoted. + +26. The reign of Antoninus Pius, from his forty-seventh to his +seventieth year, was without doubt the happiest period of the Roman +empire. He found everything already in excellent order; and those +ministers which Adrian had appointed, he continued in their places. His +quiet activity furnishes but little matter for history; and yet he was, +perhaps, the most noble character that ever sat upon a throne. Although +a prince, his life was that of the most blameless individual; while he +administered the affairs of the empire as though they were his own. He +honoured the senate; and the provinces flourished under him, not only +because he kept a watchful eye over the conduct of the governors, but +because he made it a maxim of his government to continue in their places +all those whose probity he had sufficiently proved. He observed rigid +order in the finances, and yet without sparing where it could be of +service in the foundation or improvement of useful institutions; as his +erection of many buildings, establishment of public teachers with +salaries in all the provinces, and other examples fully show. He carried +on no war himself; on the contrary, several foreign nations made choice +of him to arbitrate their differences. Some rebellions which broke out +in Britain and Egypt, and some frontier wars excited by the Germans, the +Daci, the Moors, and the Alani, were quelled by his lieutenants. + + The principal and almost the only source for the history of Antoninus + Pius, Dion Cassius's history of this period being lost, is his _Life_ + by JULIUS CAPITOLINUS in the _Script. Hist. August._ And even this + refers to his private character rather than his public history. + Compare the excellent _Reflections_ of MARCUS AURELIUS, i, 16. upon + this prince. + + _Vie des Empereurs Tite Antonin et Marc Aurele_, _par_ M. GAUTIER DE + SIBERT. Paris, 1769, 8vo. A valuable essay on the lives of the two + Antonines. + +27. He was succeeded by Marcus Aurelius Antoninus, the philosopher (aged +40-59 years), who immediately associated with himself, under the title +of Augustus, L. Verus (aged 30-40 years, ! 169), to whom he gave his +daughter in marriage. Notwithstanding the differences of their +character, the most cordial union existed between them during the whole +of their common reign; L. Verus, indeed, being almost always absent in +the wars, took but a very small share in the government. The reign of M. +Aurelius was marked by several great calamities: a dreadful pestilence, +a famine, and almost continual wars. Nothing short of a prince like +Aurelius, who exhibited to the world the image of wisdom seated on a +throne, could have made so much misery tolerable. Soon after his +accession, the Catti made an irruption upon the Rhine, and the Parthians +in Asia. L. Verus was sent against them. But the wars on the Danube with +the Marcomanni and their allies in Pannonia, and other northern nations, +who now began to press forward with great force upon Dacia, were of much +greater consequence. They occupied M. Aurelius from the year 167, with +but little intermission, to the end of his reign. He succeeded, indeed, +in maintaining the boundaries of the empire; but then he was the first +who settled any of the barbarians within it, or took them into the Roman +service. In the internal administration of affairs he closely followed +the steps of his predecessor, except that he was rather too much +influenced by his freedmen and family. The only rebellion which broke +out against him, was that of Avidius Cassius, his lieutenant in Syria, +occasioned by a false report of his death; but it was quelled by the +destruction of that general, as soon as the truth was made known. + + The war against the Parthians (see above, p. 304) was indeed brought + to a successful issue by Verus, the principal cities of the Parthians + falling into the hands of the Romans; Verus left them, however, to be + carried on by his lieutenants, while he rioted in debaucheries at + Antioch. The first war against the Marcomanni, carried on in the + beginning and until the death of Verus, by the two emperors together, + was highly dangerous for Rome, as many other nations had joined the + Marcomanni, particularly the Quadi, Jazygi, and Vandals, and + penetrated as far as Aquileia. M. Aurelius ended this war by a + glorious peace, 174, as he found it necessary to stop the progress of + Cassius's rebellion; in 178, however, the Marcomanni again commenced + hostilities, and before their close M. Aurelius died at Sirmium. + Contemporary with these wars, yet, as it seems, without any connection + with them, were the attacks of other nations upon Dacia, the Bastarnæ, + Alani, etc. who poured in from the north, probably pressed forward by + the advance of the Goths. _This was the first symptom of the great + migration of nations now beginning._ + + The especial sources for the history of M. Aurelius, are the + Biographies of him and L. Verus, written by JULIUS CAPITOLINUS, as + well as that of Avidius Cassius, by VULCATIUS GALLICANUS in _Script. + Hist. August._ The letters discovered in Milan, among and together + with the writings of FRONTO, are of no historical service.--His + principles are best learnt from his _Meditations on himself_. + + CH. MEINERS _de M. Aurel. Antonini ingenio, moribus, et scriptis, in + Commentat. Soc. Gotting._ vol. vi. + +28. By means of adoption the Roman empire had been blessed, during the +last eighty years, with a succession of rulers such as have not often +fell to the lot of any kingdom. But in J. Commodus the son of M. +Aurelius (probably the offspring of a gladiator), who reigned from his +nineteenth to his thirty-first year, there ascended the throne a monster +of cruelty, insolence, and lewdness. At the commencement of his reign he +bought a peace of the Marcomanni that he might return to Rome. Being +himself unable to support the burden of government, the helm of state +was placed in the hands of the stern and cruel Perennis, præfect of the +prætorian guard; but who, being murdered by the discontented soldiers, +was succeeded by the freedman Cleander, who put up all for sale, till he +fell a sacrifice to his own insatiable avarice, in a revolt of the +people, caused by their want of provisions. The extravagant propensity +of Commodus for the diversions of the amphitheatres, and the combats of +wild beasts and gladiators, wherein he himself usually took a part, in +the character of Hercules, became a chief cause of his dissipation, and +thereby of his cruelty; till at last he was killed at the instigation of +his concubine Marcia, Lætus the præfect of the prætorian guard, and +Electus. The wars on the frontiers during his reign, in Dacia, and +especially in Britain, were successfully carried on by his lieutenants, +generals who belonged to the school of his father. + + The especial source for the history of Commodus is his private life + by ÆL. LAMPRIDIUS, in the _Script. Hist. August._--The history of + Herodian begins with his reign. + +29. The disasters under M. Aurelius, and the extravagances of Commodus, +had injured the empire, but not enfeebled it. Towards the close of the +period of the Antonines it still retained its pristine vigour. If wise +regulations, internal peace, moderate taxes, a certain degree of +political, and unrestrained civil liberty, are sufficient to form the +happiness of a commonwealth, it must have been found in the Roman. What +a number of advantages did it possess over every other, simply from its +situation! Proofs of it appear on every side. A vigorous population, +rich provinces, flourishing and splendid cities, and a lively internal +and foreign trade. But the most solid foundation of the happiness of a +nation consists in its moral greatness, and this we here seek for in +vain. Otherwise the nation would not so easily have suffered itself to +be brought under the yoke of Commodus by prætorian cohorts and the +legions. But what best shows the strength which the empire still +retained, is the opposition it continued to make, for two hundred years +longer, to the formidable attacks from without. + + D. H. HEGEWISCH _upon the Epochs in Roman History most favourable to + Humanity_. Hamburg, 1800-8. + + Foreign commerce, so flourishing in this period, could only be carried + on, to any extent, with the east--mostly with India--as the Roman + empire spread over all the west. This trade continued to be carried on + through Egypt, and also through Palmyra and Syria. Information + thereupon will be found in + + W. ROBERTSON'S _Disquisition concerning the Knowledge which the + Ancients had of India_. London, 1791, 4to. Often reprinted. And + particularly upon Egypt, in + + W. VINCENT, _the Periplus of the Erythrean Sea_. London, 1802, 4to. 2 + vols. A very instructive work. + + HEEREN, _Commentationes de Græcorum et Romanorum de India notitia, et + cum Indis commerciis_: _in Commentat. Soc. Gott._ vol. x. xi. + + + + +SECOND SECTION. + +_From the death of Commodus to Diocletian, A. C. 193-284._ + + + SOURCES. The Extracts of Xiphilinus from DION CASSIUS, lib. + lxxiii-lxxx. though often imperfect, reach down as low as the + consulate of Dion himself under Alexander Severus, 229.--HERODIANI + _Hist._ libri viii. comprise the period from Commodus to Gordian, + 180-238.--The _Scriptores Historiæ Augustæ Minores_ contain the + private lives of the emperors down to Diocletian, by JULIUS + CAPITOLINUS, FLAVIUS VOPISCUS, etc.--The _Breviaria Historiæ Romanæ_ + of EUTROPIUS, AURELIUS VICTOR, and S. RUFUS are particularly important + for this period.--Finally, the important information that may be + derived from the study of medals and coins, not only for this section, + but for the whole history of the emperors, may be best learnt by + consulting the writers upon those subjects: J. VAILLANT, _Numismata + Augustorum et Cæsarum_, _cura_ J. F. BALDINO. Rome, 1743, 3 vols. _The + Medallic History of Imperial Rome_, by W. COOKE. London, 1781, 2 + vols.--But above all, the volumes belonging to this period in ECKHEL, + _Doctrina Nummorum Veterum_. + + With the period of the Antonines begins the great work of the British + historian: + + _The History of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire_, by EDWARD + GIBBON. Oxford, 1828, 8 vols. 8vo. In worth and extent this work is + superior to all others. It embraces the whole period of the middle + ages; but only the first part belongs to this period. + +1. The extinction of the race of the Antonines by the death of Commodus +was attended with convulsions similar to those which took place when the +house of Cæsar became extinct at the death of Nero. It is true that P. +Helvius Pertinax, aged sixty-seven, præfect of the city, was raised to +the throne by the murderers of Commodus; and that he was acknowledged, +first by the guards, and afterwards by the senate. But the reform which +he was obliged to make at the beginning of his reign in the finances, +rendered him so odious to the soldiers and courtiers, that a revolt of +the first, excited by Lætus, cost him his life before he had reigned +quite three months. This was the first commencement of that dreadful +military despotism which forms the ruling character of this period; and +to none did it become so terrible as to those who wished to make it the +main support of their absolute power. + + The insolence of the prætorian guard had risen very high during the + reign of Commodus; but it had never, even in the time of the + Antonines, been entirely suppressed. It was only by large donatives + that their consent could be purchased, their caprice satisfied, and + their good humour maintained; especially at every new adoption. One of + the greatest reproaches to the age of the Antonines is, that those + great princes, who seem to have had the means so much in their power, + did not free themselves from so annoying a dependence. + + JUL. CAPITOLINI _Pertinax Imp. in Script. Hist. Aug._ + +2. When, upon the death of Pertinax, the rich and profligate M. Didius +Julianus, aged fifty-seven, had outbid, to the great scandal of the +people, all his competitors for the empire, and purchased it of the +prætorian guard, an insurrection of the legions, who were better able to +create emperors, very naturally followed. But as the army of Illyria +proclaimed their general Septimius Severus, the army of Syria, +Pescennius Niger, and the army of Britain, Albinus, nothing less than a +series of civil wars could decide who should maintain himself on the +throne. + + ÆL. SPARTIANI _Didius Julianus, in Script. Hist. Aug._ + +3. Septimius Severus, however, aged 49-66, was the first who got +possession of Rome, and, after the execution of Didius Julianus, he was +acknowledged by the senate. He dismissed, it is true, the old prætorian +guard, but immediately chose, from his own army, one four times more +numerous in its stead. And after he had provisionally declared Albinus +emperor, he marched his army against Pescennius Niger, already master of +the east, whom, after several contests near the Issus, he defeated and +slew. Nevertheless, having first taken and destroyed the strong city of +Byzantium, a war with Albinus soon followed, whom the perfidious Severus +had already attempted to remove by assassination. After a bloody defeat +near Lyons, Albinus kills himself. These civil wars were followed by +hostilities against the Parthians, who had taken the part of Pescennius, +and which ended with the plundering of their principal cities (see +above, p. 304). Severus possessed most of the virtues of a soldier; but +the insatiable avarice of his minister Plautianus, the formidable +captain of the prætorian guard, robbed the empire even of those +advantages which may be enjoyed under a military government, until he +was put to death at the instigation of Caracalla. To keep his legions +employed, Severus undertook an expedition into Britain, where, after +extending the boundaries of the empire, he died at York (_Eboracum_), +leaving his son the maxim, "to enrich the soldiers, and hold the rest +for nothing." + + Agricola had already erected a line of fortresses, probably between + the Firth of Clyde and the Firth of Forth. These were changed by + Adrian into a wall along the present boundaries of Scotland. Severus + again extended the frontiers, reestablished the fortresses of + Agricola, and afterwards built a wall from sea to sea; his son, + however, gave up the conquered country, and the wall of Adrian again + became the boundary of the empire. + + ÆL. SPARTIANI _Septimius Severus et Pescennius Niger_. + + JUL. CAPITOLINI _Claudius Albinus, in Script. Hist. Aug._ + +4. The deadly hatred which reigned between the two sons of Severus, M. +Aurelius Antoninus Bassianus Caracalla, aged 23-29, and his young +step-brother Geta, aged twenty-one, led to a dreadful catastrophe; for +at their return to Rome, and after a fruitless proposition had been made +for a division of the empire, Geta was assassinated in the arms of his +mother Julia Domna, together with all those who were considered as his +friends. The restless spirit of Caracalla, however, soon drew him from +Rome, and in traversing first the provinces along the Danube, and then +those of the east, he ruined them all by his exactions and cruelty, to +which he was driven for money to pay his soldiers, and to purchase peace +of his enemies on the frontiers. The same necessity led him to grant the +right of citizenship to all the provinces, that he might thereby gain +the duty of the _vicesima hereditatum et manumissionum_ (twentieth upon +inheritances and enfranchisements), which he very soon afterwards +changed into a tenth (_decima_).--With respect to his foreign wars, his +first was against the Catti and Alemanni, among whom he remained a long +time, sometimes as a friend and sometimes as an enemy. But his principal +efforts, after having previously ordered a dreadful massacre of the +inhabitants of Alexandria, to satisfy his cruel rapacity, were directed +against the Parthians (see above, p. 304); and in his wars against them +he was assassinated by Macrinus, the præfect of the prætorian guard. + + The præfect, or captain, of the prætorian guard became, from the time + of Severus, the most important officer in the state. Besides the + command of the guards, the finances were also under his control, + together with an extensive criminal jurisdiction. A natural + consequence of the continually increasing despotism. + + ÆL. SPARTIANI _Antoninus Caracalla et Ant. Geta, in Script. Hist. + Aug._ + +5. His murderer, M. Opelius Macrinus, aged fifty-three, was recognized +as emperor by the soldiers, and forthwith acknowledged by the senate. He +immediately created his son, M. Opelius Diadumenus, aged nine years, +Cæsar, and gave him the name of Antoninus. He disgracefully terminated +the war against the Parthians by purchasing a peace, and changed the +_decima_ (tenth) of Caracalla again into the _vicesima_ (twentieth). +However, while he still remained in Asia, Bassianus Heliogabalus, +grand-nephew of Julia Domna, and high priest in the temple of the Sun at +Emesa, whom his mother gave out for a son of Caracalla, was proclaimed +emperor by the legions, and, after a combat with the guards, +subsequently to which Macrinus and his son lost their lives, they raised +him to the throne. + + Mæsa, the sister of Julia Domna, had two daughters, both widows; + Soæmis, the eldest, was the mother of Heliogabalus, Mammæa, the + youngest, the mother of Alexander Severus. + + JUL. CAPITOLINI _Opelius Macrinus, in Script. Hist. Aug._ + +6. Heliogabalus, aged 14-18, who assumed the additional name of M. +Aurelius Antoninus, brought with him from Syria the superstitions and +voluptuousness of that country. He introduced the worship of his god +Heliogabal in Rome, and wallowed openly in such brutal and infamous +debaucheries, that history can scarcely find a parallel to his +dissolute, shameless, and scandalous conduct. How low must the morality +of that age have been sunk, in which a boy could so early have ripened +into a monster!--The debasement of the senate, and of all important +offices, which he filled with the degraded companions of his own lusts +and vices, was systematically planned by him; and he deserves no credit +even for the adoption of his cousin, the virtuous Alexander Severus, as +he shortly after endeavoured to take away his life, but was himself for +that reason assassinated by the prætorian guards. + + # ÆL. LAMPRIDII _Ant. Heliogabalus, in Script. Hist. Aug._ + +7. His young cousin and successor, M. Aurelius Alexander Severus, aged +14-27, who had been carefully educated under the direction of his mother +Mammæa, proved one of the best princes in an age and upon a throne where +virtues were more dangerous than vices. Under favour of his youth he +endeavoured to effect a reform, in which he was supported by the +cooperation of the guards, who had elevated him to the throne. He +restored the authority of the senate, from among whom he chose, with +rigid justice, his privy council of state, banishing the creatures of +Heliogabalus from their places. The revolution in the Parthian empire, +out of which was now formed the new Persian, was of so much importance +to Rome, that it obliged Alexander to undertake a war against +Artaxerxes, in which he was probably victorious. But while marching in +haste to protect the frontiers against the advance of the Germans upon +the Rhine, his soldiers, exasperated at the severity of his discipline, +and incited by the Thracian Maximin, murdered him in his own tent. His +præfect of the prætorian guard, Ulpian, had already, for the same cause, +fallen a victim to this spirit of insubordination, which was not checked +even by the immediate presence of the emperor himself. + + The revolution in Parthia, whereby a new Persian empire was formed + (see above, p. 304.), became a source of almost perpetual war to Rome; + Artaxerxes I. and his successors, the Sassanides, claiming to be + descendants of the ancient kings of Persia, formed pretensions to the + possession of all the Asiatic provinces of the Roman empire. + + ÆLII LAMPRIDII _Alexander Severus_, _in Script. Hist. Aug._ + + HEYNE _de Alexandro Severo Judicium_, Comment. i. ii. in _Opuscula + Academica_, vol. vi. + +8. The death of A. Severus raised military despotism to the highest +pitch, as it placed on the throne the half savage C. Julius Maximinus, +by birth a Thracian peasant. At first he continued the war against the +Germans with great success, repulsing them beyond the Rhine; and +resolved, by crossing Pannonia, to carry the war even among the +Sarmatians. But his insatiable rapacity, which spared neither the +capital nor the provinces, made him hateful to all; and Gordian, +proconsul of Africa, in his eightieth year, was, together with his son +of the same name, proclaimed Augustus by the people, and immediately +acknowledged by the senate. Upon this, Maximinus, eager to take +vengeance on the senate, marched directly from Sirmium towards Italy. In +the mean time, the legions of the almost defenceless Gordians were +defeated in Africa, and themselves slain by Capellianus the governor of +Numidia. Notwithstanding this, as the senate could expect no mercy, they +chose as co-emperors the præfect of the city, Maximus Pupienus, and +Clodius Balbinus, who, in conformity with the wishes of the people, +created the young Gordian III. Cæsar. In the meanwhile Maximinus, having +besieged Aquileia, and the enterprise proving unsuccessful, was slain by +his own troops. Pupienus and Balbinus now seemed in quiet possession of +the throne; but the guards, who had already been engaged in a bloody +feud with the people, and were not willing to receive an emperor of the +senate's choosing, killed them both, and proclaimed as Augustus, +Gordian, already created Cæsar. + + JUL. CAPITOLINI _Maximinus Gordiani tres, Pupienus et Balbinus_, _in + Script. Hist. August._ + +9. The reign of the young M. Antoninus Gordianus lasted from his twelfth +to his eighteenth year. He was grandson of the proconsul who had lost +his life in Africa, and in the early part of his reign, acquired a +degree of firmness from the support of his father-in-law, Misitheus, +præfect of the prætorian guard, as well as from the successful +expedition which he undertook into Syria against the Persians, who had +invaded that province. But after the death of Misitheus, Philip the +Arabian, being made præfect of the guards in his stead, found means to +gain the troops over to himself, and, after driving Gordian from the +throne, caused him to be assassinated. + +10. The reign of M. Julius Philippus was interrupted by several +insurrections, especially in Pannonia; until at length Decius, whom he +himself had sent thither to quell the rebellion, was compelled by the +troops to assume the diadem. Philip was soon after defeated by him near +Verona, where he perished, together with his son of the same name. In +this reign the secular games, _ludi sæculares_, were celebrated, one +thousand years from the foundation of the city. + +11. Under the reign of his successor, Trajanus Decius, aged fifty, the +Goths for the first time forced their way into the Roman empire by +crossing the Danube; and although Decius in the beginning opposed them +with success, he was at last slain by them in Thrace, together with his +son, Cl. Herennius Decius, already created Cæsar. Upon this the army +proclaimed C. Trebonianus Gallus emperor, who created his son, Volusian, +Cæsar; and having invited Hostilian, the yet remaining son of Decius, +with the ostensible purpose of securing his cooperation, he nevertheless +soon contrived to get rid of him. He purchased a peace of the Goths; +but, despised by his generals, he became involved in a war with his +victorious lieutenant, Æmilius Æmilianus, in Moesia, and was slain, +together with his son, by his own army. In three months, however, +Æmilianus shared the same fate; Publius Licinius Valerianus, the friend +and avenger of Gallus, advancing against him with the legions stationed +in Gaul. Both the people and army hoped to see the empire restored under +Valerian, already sixty years of age; but, although his generals +defended the frontiers against the Germans and Goths, he himself had the +misfortune to be defeated and taken prisoner by the superior forces of +the Persians. Upon this event his son and associate in the empire, P. +Licinius Gallienus, who knew everything except the art of governing, +reigned alone. Under his indolent rule the Roman empire seemed on one +hand ready to be split into a number of small states, while on the other +it seemed about to fall a prey to the barbarians; for the lieutenants in +most of the provinces declared themselves independent of a prince whom +they despised, and to which, indeed, they were driven, like Posthumius +in Gaul, for their own security.--There were nineteen of these; but as +many of them named their sons Cæsars, this period has been very +improperly distinguished by the name of _the thirty tyrants_, although +their intolerable oppressions might well justify the latter expression. +The Persians at the same time were victorious in the east, and the +Germans in the west. + + The German nations which were now become so formidable to the Roman + empire, were: 1. The great confederation of tribes under the name of + _Franks_, who spread over Gaul along the whole extent of the Lower + Rhine. 2. The allied nations of the Alemanni on the Upper Rhine. 3. + The Goths, the most powerful of all, who had formed a monarchy upon + the banks of the Lower Danube and the northern coasts of the Black + sea, which soon extended from the Boristhenes to the Don; and who + became formidable, not only by their land forces, but also by their + naval power, especially after they had captured the peninsula of Crim + Tartary (_Chersonesus Taurica_); and by means of their fleets they not + only kept the Grecian, but likewise the Asiatic provinces in a + continual state of alarm. + + TREBELLI POLLIONIS _Valerianus, Gallieni duo, triginta tyranni_, _in + Script. Hist. Aug._ + + # _Concerning the thirty tyrants under the Roman emperor Gallienus_, + by J. C. F. MANSO; at the end of his _Life of Constantine_. + +12. Gallienus losing his life before Milan, in the war against Aureolus +an usurper, had nevertheless recommended M. Aurelius Claudius (aged +45-47) for his successor. The new Augustus reestablished in some degree +the tottering empire; not only by taking Aureolus prisoner and defeating +the Alemanni, but also by a decisive victory gained at Nissa over the +Goths, who had invaded Moesia. He died, however, soon after, at Sirmium, +of a pestilential disease, naming for his successor Aurelian, a hero +like himself, who mounted the throne upon the death of Quintillus the +late emperor's brother, who had at first proclaimed himself Augustus, +but afterwards died by his own hand. + + TREBELLII POLLIONIS _divus Claudius_, _in Script. Hist. Aug._ + +13. During the reign of L. Domitius Aurelianus, which lasted almost five +years, those countries which had been partly or entirely lost to the +empire were restored. Having first driven back the Goths and the +Alemanni, who had advanced as far as Umbria, he undertook his expedition +against the celebrated Zenobia, queen of Palmyra, who at that time +possessed Syria, Egypt, and part of Asia Minor. These countries he again +brought under the dominion of the empire, after having defeated Zenobia +and made her prisoner. The western provinces of Gaul, Britain, and +Spain, which since the time of Gallienus had been governed by separate +rulers, and were now under the dominion of Tetricus, he reduced to their +former obedience. Dacia, on the contrary, he willingly abandoned; and as +he transported the Roman inhabitants across the Danube into Moesia, the +latter henceforward bore the name of _Dacia Aureliani_. Hated for his +severity, which in a warrior so easily degenerates into cruelty, he was +assassinated in Illyria at the instigation of his private secretary +Mnestheus. + + FLAV. VOPISCI _divus Aurelianus_, _in Script. Hist. Aug._ + + Palmyra in the Syrian desert, enriched by the Indian trade, and one of + the most ancient cities in the world, became a Roman colony in the + time of Trajan. Odenatus, the husband of Zenobia, had acquired so much + celebrity by his victories over the Persians, that Gallienus had even + named him Augustus with himself. He was murdered, however, by his + cousin Mæonius, 267. Zenobia now took possession of the government for + her sons Vabalathus, Herennianus, and Timolaus, without, however, + being acknowledged at Rome. After this, in the time of Claudius, she + added Egypt to her dominions. Aurelian, having first defeated her near + Antioch and Emesa, soon afterwards took Palmyra, which, in consequence + of a revolt, he destroyed.--Even in its ruins Palmyra is still + magnificent. + + _The Ruins of Palmyra_, by R. WOOD. London, 1753; and the _Ruins of + Balbec, otherwise Heliopolis_, by the same author, London, 1757, give + us clear and certain ideas of the splendour and magnitude of these + cities. + + A. H. L. HEEREN, _de Commercio urbis Palmyræ vicinarumque urbium_, in + _Comment. recent. Soc. Gotting._ vol. vii. and the Appendix to + Heeren's Researches. + +14. An interregnum of six months followed upon the death of Aurelian, +till at length the senate, at the repeated solicitations of the army, +ventured to fill up the vacant throne. The object of their choice, +however, M. Claudius Tacitus, the worthiest of the senators, was +unfortunately seventy-five years old, and perished after a short reign +of six months, in an expedition against the Goths. Upon this event the +army of Syria raised M. Aurelius Probus to the purple; while Florianus +the brother of Tacitus, who had already been acknowledged at Rome, was +put to death by his own people. + + FLAV. VOPISCI _Tacitus; ejusd. Florianus_, _in Script. Hist. Aug._ + +15. The six years' reign of Probus was a warlike one. He defeated the +Germans, and forced them beyond the Rhine and Danube; strengthening the +frontiers by building a strong wall from the Danube, near Regensburg, to +the Rhine. He also obliged the Persians to make peace. Nevertheless, the +number of towns which he reestablished and peopled with prisoners of +war, and the vineyards which he caused his soldiers to plant on the +Rhine, are proofs that he had taste and inclination for the arts of +peace. This policy, however, would not suit the legions! After he had +perished, therefore, by the hands of his soldiers, they proclaimed the +præfect of the prætorian guard, M. Aurelius Carus, emperor, who created +his two sons Cæsars--men very unlike each other in disposition, M. +Aurelius Carinus being one of the greatest reprobates, while M. +Aurelius Numerianus was gentle by nature, and had a mind well formed by +study. The new emperor, having defeated the Goths, marched against the +Persians, but was shortly afterwards killed, it is said, by a flash of +lightning. Nor did his son Numerianus long survive him, being murdered +by his own father-in-law, Arrius Aper, the prætorian præfect. + + FLAV. VOPISCI _Probus imper. ejusd. Carus, Numirianus et Carinus_, _in + Script. Hist. Aug._ + +16. Although this period gives us a finished picture of a complete +military despotism, it is still evident that this was owing to the +entire separation of the military order from the rest of the people, by +the introduction of standing armies, and the extinction of all national +spirit among the citizens. The legions decided because the people were +unarmed. It was, indeed, only among them, situated far from the soft +luxuries of the capital, and engaged in almost a continual struggle with +the barbarians, that a remnant of the ancient Roman character was still +preserved. The nomination of their leaders to the purple became a +natural consequence, not only of the uncertainty of the succession, +which could not be fixed by mere ordinances, but often of necessity, +from their being in the field under the pressure of urgent +circumstances. Thus a succession of distinguished generals came to the +throne: what authority, indeed, would an emperor at that time have had +who was not a general? All durable reform, however, was rendered quite +impossible by the quick succession of rulers. Even the best among them +could do but very little for the internal administration; as all their +energies were required to protect the frontiers, and defend themselves +against usurpers, who, with the exception of the formality of being +acknowledged by the senate, had claims as well founded as their own. + +17. The decline of the empire also became so much the more rapid, in +proportion as in these days of terror luxury had increased not only in +the splendour and profligate effeminacy of private life, but more +particularly in public, to a pitch almost beyond belief. The latter was +especially shown in the exhibitions of the amphitheatre and circus; by +which not only every new ruler, but even every new magistrate was +obliged to purchase the favour of the people. Thus these remnants of a +free constitution served only to accelerate the general ruin! What +enjoyments, indeed, could be found under the rod of despotism, except +those of the grossest sensuality; and to satisfy this, the intellectual +amusements of the theatre (mimes and pantomimes), and even those of +rhetoric and poetry, were made to contribute. + +18. Yet, during this general decay, the gradual spread of the Christian +religion was working a reform altogether of a different nature. Before +the end of this period it had opened itself a way into every province, +and, notwithstanding the frequent persecutions, had made converts in +every rank of society, and was now on the eve of becoming the +predominant form of worship. We shall be better able to estimate its +value, if we consider it as the vehicle by which civilization made its +way among the rude nations that now appeared on the scene, than if we +merely consider it as the means of improving the manners and morals of +the Roman world. In a political view it became of the greatest +importance on account of the hierarchy, the frame-work of which was now +in a great measure constructed among its professors. It was afterwards +adopted as a state religion; and although the ancient creed of Rome had +formerly been on the same footing, yet it was only calculated for the +republic, and not at all for the now existing monarchy. The overthrow of +paganism was necessarily attended with some violent convulsions, yet its +loss was nothing to be compared with the support which the throne +afterwards found in the hierarchy. + + The dispersion of the Jews, and especially the persecutions which were + renewed from time to time, after the reign of Nero, (but which only + served to kindle enthusiasm,) strongly cooperated in spreading the + Christian religion. These persecutions were principally called forth + against the Christians on account of their forming themselves into a + separate society, which caused them to be regarded as a dangerous sect + at Rome, notwithstanding the general toleration granted to every other + system of religious belief. Although towards the end of this period, + only a very small proportion of the inhabitants of the Roman empire as + yet professed the Christian faith, it nevertheless had followers in + every province. + + # _History of the Social Constitution of the Christian Church_, by + D. G. J. PLANCK, 4 parts, 1800. It is the first part of this excellent + work which relates to this period. + + + + +THIRD SECTION. + +_From Diocletian to the overthrow of the Roman empire in the west, +A. C. 284-476._ + + + SOURCES. It now becomes of importance to enquire whether the + historians were Christians or pagans. ZOSIMUS, the imitator of + Polybius, belonged to the last. He describes the fall of the Roman + state, as his model does the previous part. Of his _Histories_ only + five books and a half, to the time of Gratian, 410, have descended to + us. He was certainly a violent antagonist of the Christians, yet, + nevertheless, the best writer of this period. AMMIANI MARCELLINI + _Historiarum_, lib. xiv-xxxi. from the year 353-378 (the first + thirteen books are lost). Probably a Christian, but yet no flatterer; + and, notwithstanding his tiresome prolixity, highly instructive. + Together with the writers of general history already noticed at p. + 437, we must here especially add to the abbreviators, PAULI OROSII + _Hist._ lib. vii. and ZONARÆ _Annales_. The _Panegyrici Veteres_, from + Diocletian to Theodosius, can only be used with circumspection.--The + writers of church history, such as EUSEBIUS, in his _Hist. Eccles._ + lib. x. and in his _Vita Constantini Magni_, lib. v. as well as his + continuators, SOCRATES, THEODORET, SOZOMENUS, and EVAGRIUS, are also + highly important for the political history of this period, though, + from their partiality towards the Christian emperors, they should + rather be classed with the panegyrists than the historians. To these + may be added another principal source, viz. the _Constitutions_ of the + emperors, which have been preserved in the _Codex Theodosianus_ and + _Justinianeus_, from the time of Constantine the Great. + + Besides the works quoted at pages 411, 437, the Byzantine historians + here become of importance. We shall mention also: + + _Histoire du Bas-Empire depuis Constantin_, _par_ M. LE BEAU, + _continuée par_ M. AMEILHON. Paris, 1824, 20 vols. 8vo. The first + seven parts only belong to this period. + + # The German translation of GUTHRIE and GRAY'S _Universal History_, + 5 sections, 1 vol. Leipsic, 1768. Rendered very useful by the + labours of Ritter. + + _Histoire du Bas-Empire, depuis Constantin jusqu' à la prise de + Constantinople en 1453_, _par_ CARENTIN ROYOU. Paris, 1803, 4 vols. + 8vo. A useful abridgement, without much research. + +1. The reign of C. Valerius Diocletian, aged 39-60, proclaimed emperor +after the murder of Numerianus, by the troops in Chalcedon, begins a new +section in Roman history. To the period of military despotism succeeded +the period of partitions. After Diocletian had defeated Carinus the yet +remaining Cæsar, in Upper Moesia, where he was assassinated, he made M. +Valerius Maximianus Herculius, a rough warrior who had hitherto been his +comrade in arms, the sharer of his throne. Herculius now contended with +the Alemanni and Burgundians on the banks of the Rhine, while Diocletian +himself made head against the Persians. Nevertheless, the two Augusti +soon found themselves unable to withstand the barbarians, who were +pressing forward on every side, more especially as Carausius had usurped +and maintained the title of Cæsar in Britain. Each of them, therefore, +created a Cæsar: Diocletian chose C. Galerius, and Maximianus Flavius +Constantius Chlorus, both of whom had distinguished themselves as +generals, at that time the only road to advancement. The whole empire +was now divided between these four rulers; so that each had certain +provinces to govern and defend; without detriment, however, to the unity +of the whole, or to the dependence in which a Cæsar stood as the +subordinate assistant and future successor of his Augustus. + + In the partition, 292, Diocletian possessed the eastern provinces; + Galerius, Thrace, and the countries on the Danube (Illyricum); + Maximianus, Italy, Africa, and the islands; and Constantius, the + western provinces of Gaul, Spain, Britain, and Mauritania. + +2. This new system could not but have a striking effect upon the spirit +of the government. It was now not only in fact, but also in form, +entirely in the hands of the rulers. By their continual absence from +Rome they became freed from that moral restraint in which the authority +of the senate, and the name of the republic, not yet entirely laid +aside, had held before them. Diocletian formally assumed the diadem, +and, with the ornaments of the east, introduced its luxuries into his +court. Thus was laid the foundation of that structure which Constantine +the Great had to complete. + +3. The consequences of this new system became also oppressive to the +provinces, inasmuch as they had now to maintain four rulers, with their +courts, and as many armies. But however loud might be the complaints of +the oppression occasioned thereby, it was, perhaps, the only means of +deferring the final overthrow of the whole edifice. In fact, they +succeeded not only in defeating the usurpers, Allectus in Britain (who +had murdered Carausius in 293), Julian in Africa, and Achilleus in +Egypt; but also in defending the frontiers, which, indeed, by the +victories of Galerius over the Persians, they extended as far as the +Tigris. Did not, however, the gloomy perspective present itself, that +among so many rulers, and the undefined relations which existed between +the Cæsars and the emperors, the union could not be of long continuance? + +4. Diocletian voluntarily abdicated the throne (although the growing +power and encroaching disposition of Galerius might perhaps have had +some influence), and obliged his colleague Maximianus to do the same. +The two Cæsars, Constantius and Galerius, were proclaimed Augusti, and +altered the division of the empire, so that the former possessed all the +western countries, of which, however, he freely ceded Italy and Africa +to Galerius, who had all the remaining provinces. The latter, during the +same year, created Flavius Severus, Cæsar, and confided to him the +government of Italy and Africa; as he did also C. Galerius Maximin, to +whom he gave the Asiatic provinces. The administration of the two +emperors, however, was very different; Constantius was as much beloved +for his mild and disinterested government, as Galerius was hated for his +harshness and prodigality. Constantius died very soon after at York, +leaving his son Constantine heir to his dominions, who was immediately +proclaimed Augustus by the legions, although Galerius would only +acknowledge him as Cæsar. + +5. Thus Constantine, who afterwards obtained the surname of Great, began +to rule, aged 33-64, though at first only over Britain, Spain, and Gaul; +nevertheless, after seventeen years of violence and warfare, he +succeeded in opening himself a way to the sole dominion of the empire. +The rulers disagreed among themselves; and formidable usurpers started +up and rendered war inevitable. + + The history of the first seven years of Constantine, 306-313, is very + complicated; after that, he had only one rival to struggle with, + 314-323. At his accession, Galerius, as Augustus, was in possession of + all the other provinces; of which, however, he had given to Cæsar + Maximin the government of those of Asia, and to Cæsar Severus, now + created Augustus, Italy and Africa. The latter, however, rendering + himself odious by his oppression, Maxentius, the son of the former + emperor, Maximianus, assumed the title of Augustus at Rome (Oct. 28, + 306), and associated his father with himself in the government; so + that at this time there were six rulers: Galerius, Severus, + Constantine, Maximin, and the usurpers Maxentius and his father + Maximianus. But in the year 307, Severus, wishing to oppose Maxentius, + was abandoned by his own troops, upon which he surrendered himself to + Maximianus, who caused him to be executed. In his place Galerius + created his friend Licinius, Augustus; and Maximin obtained the same + dignity from his army in Asia. In the mean time, Maximianus, after + having endeavoured to supplant his own son in Rome, fled to + Constantine, who had crossed over into Gaul and there defeated the + Franks, 306; but having made an attempt upon the life of Constantine, + who had married his daughter Fausta, that emperor caused him to be put + to death, 310. As the excesses of Galerius soon brought him to the + grave, 311, there only remained Constantine, Licinius, and Maximin, + and the usurper Maxentius. The latter was soon defeated and slain, + 312, before the gates of Rome, by Constantine, who thereby became + master of Italy and the capital. A war having broken out about the + same time between Maximin and Licinius, Maximin was defeated near + Adrianople, and then killed himself, 313. The year 314 brought on a + war between the two remaining emperors, Constantine and Licinius, + which, however, ended the same year in an accommodation, by which + Constantine obtained all the countries on the south bank of the + Danube, as well as Thrace and Moesia Inferior; it broke out again, + however, in 322, and was finally terminated by a decisive victory in + Bithynia, and the total overthrow of Licinius, whom Constantine put to + death, 324. + +6. However opposite may be the opinions formed respecting the reign of +Constantine the Great, its consequences are perfectly plain. Although he +annihilated military despotism, he established in its stead, if not +completely, yet in great measure, the despotism of the court, and +likewise the power of the hierarchy. He had already, during his +expedition against Maxentius, decided in favour of the Christian +religion; and since he thereby gained a vast number of partisans in all +the provinces, and weakened at the same time the power of his +co-emperors, or competitors, it was the surest way he could have taken +to obtain sole dominion, the great object of his ambition. This change +must nevertheless have had very considerable influence on every part of +the government, as he found in the previously established hierarchy a +powerful support of the throne; and since he, in concert with it, +settled what was, and what was not the orthodox doctrine, he introduced +a spirit of persecution heretofore unknown. + + At a period in which religious parties must almost necessarily have + become political parties, we can by no means venture to judge of the + importance of the sect by the importance of their points of doctrine. + The quarrels of the Arians, which arose at this time, gave + Constantine, by the council of Nice, 325, the opportunity he wished + for, of making good his authority in religious legislation. + +7. The removal of the seat of empire from Rome to Constantinople was +connected with this change in the form of worship--as a Christian court +would have been awkwardly situated in a city still altogether +pagan--although the need there was of protecting the frontiers against +the Goths and Persians had a considerable share therein. It did, +indeed, become the principal means of establishing the despotism of the +court; but those who regard it as one of the causes of the decline of +the empire, should remember, that for an empire fallen so low as the +Roman was at this time, despotism was almost the only support that +remained. + + The various partitions of the empire from the time of Diocletian, had + led the way to this change of the capital; because a natural result of + that system was, that the emperors and Cæsars, when not with the army + as they usually were, would reside in different cities. The seat of + Diocletian's government was at Nicomedia; of Maximian's, at Milan; + even Constantine himself remained but very little at Rome. In these + new residences they felt themselves unfettered; and therefore, + although the Roman senate existed till after the time of Constantine, + its authority must have fallen of itself from the time of Diocletian. + +8. We ought not, therefore, to wonder that the consequence of this +removal was so complete a change in the whole form of government, that +after a short time it seemed to be altogether a different state. A +partition of the empire was made, which, though it might in part have +been founded on those which had previously existed, was yet so +different, that it not only changed the ancient divisions of the +provinces, but completely altered their mode of government.--The court, +with the exception of polygamy, assumed entirely the form of an eastern +court.--A revolution also had taken place in the military system, by the +complete separation of the civil and military authorities, which the +prætorian præfects had hitherto possessed, but who now became merely +civil governors. + + According to the new division the whole empire was divided into four + _præfectures_, each of which had its _dioceses_, and each diocese its + _provinces_. The præfectures were: I. The eastern (_præfectura + Orientis_); it contained five dioceses; 1. _Orientis_; 2. _Ægypti_; + 3. _Asiæ_; 4. _Ponti_; 5. _Thraciæ_; forming altogether forty-eight + provinces, and comprising all the countries of Asia and Egypt, + together with the frontier countries of Libya and Thrace. II. + _Præfectura Illyrici_, containing two dioceses; 1. _Macedoniæ_; 2. + _Daciæ_; forming eleven provinces, and comprising Moesia, Macedon, + Greece, and Crete. III. _Præfectura Italiæ_, containing three + dioceses; 1. _Italiæ_; 2. _Illyrici_; 3. _Africæ_; forming twenty-nine + provinces, and comprising Italy, the countries on the south of the + Danube, as far as the boundaries of Moesia; the islands of Sicily, + Sardinia, and Corsica, and the African provinces of the Syrtis. IV. + _Præfectura Galliarum_, containing three dioceses; 1. _Galliæ_; 2. + _Hispaniæ_; 3. _Britanniæ_; forming altogether twenty-eight provinces, + and comprising Spain and the Balearian islands, Gaul, Helvetia, and + Britain.--Each of these præfectures was under a _præfectus prætorio_ + (prætorian præfect), but who was merely a civil governor, and had + under him _vicarios_, in the dioceses, as well as the _rectores + provinciarum_, of various ranks and titles. They were named + _proconsules præsides_, etc. Besides these, Rome and Constantinople, + not being included in any of the four præfectures, had each its + præfect. + + As principal officers of state and the court (_s. cubiculi_), we now + for the first time meet with the _præpositus s. cubiculi_ + (grand-chamberlain), under whom were all the _comites palatii_ and + _cubicularii_, in four divisions; these, at a later period, were + frequently eunuchs of great influence; the _magister officiorum_ + (chancellor, minister of the interior); the _comes sacrarum + largitiorum_ (minister of the finances); the _quæstor_ (the organ of + the emperors in legislation; minister of justice and secretary of + state); the _comes rei principis_ (minister of the crown-treasury) + [privy-purse]; the two _comites domesticorum_ (commander of the + household guards), each of whom had his corps (_scholas_) under him. + The number of the state officers and courtiers was continually + increasing. If the good of a commonwealth consisted in forms, ranks, + and titles, the Roman empire must at this time have been truly happy! + + At the head of the troops were the _magistri peditum_ (masters of the + infantry) and the _magistri equitum_ (masters of the horse), under the + _magister utriusque militæ_ (general in chief of the whole army). + Their subordinate commanders were called _comites_ and _duces_. + Constantine considerably reduced the army. In the arrangement of the + troops he also made great alterations; these, however, were but of + slight consequence compared with that which was produced by admitting + into the service a continually increasing number of barbarians. + + _Notitia dignitatem utriusque Imperii cum not._ PANCIROLLI GRÆV. + _Thesaur. Antiquitat. Rom._ vol. vii. + +9. It would naturally be expected that these great changes should lead +to others in the system of taxation. New taxes, or old ones revived, +were added to those already existing, and became, by the manner in which +they were collected, doubly oppressive. We shall particularly notice, +_a._ The annual land-tax (_indictio_). _b._ The tax upon trade (_aurum +lustrale_). _c._ The free gift (_don. gratuit._), now grown into an +obligatory tax (_aurum coronarium_). To these we must add the municipal +expenses, which fell entirely upon the citizens, and especially upon the +civic officers (_decuriones_), places which must have been generally +held by the rich, as Constantine had in great measure appropriated the +wealth of the cities to the endowment of churches, and the support of +the clergy. + + _a._ The land-tax, or _indiction_, which if not first introduced by + Constantine was entirely regulated under him, was collected after an + exact register, or public valuation, of all the landed estates. Its + amount was yearly fixed and prescribed by the emperor (_indicebatur_), + and levied by the rectors of provinces and the decurions; an arbitrary + standard (_caput_) being taken as the rate of assessment. + + As this register was probably reviewed every fifteen years, it gave + rise to the _cycle of indictions_ of fifteen years, which became the + common era, beginning from September 1, 312. In this manner the tax + included all those who were possessed of property. _b._ The tax on + commerce; which was levied on almost every kind of trade. It was + collected every four years, whence the _aurum lustrale_. _c._ The + _aurum coronarium_ grew out of the custom which obtained of + presenting the emperors with golden crowns on particular occasions; + the value of which was at last exacted in money. Every considerable + city was obliged to pay it. + +10. The rapid spread of the Christian religion, the promulgation of +which was enforced as a duty upon all its professors, was now +accelerated by the endeavours of the court. Constantine forbade +sacrifices, and shut up the temples; and the violent zeal of his +successors unfortunately soon turned them into ruins. + + _Histoire de Constantin-le-Grand_, _par le_ R. P. BERN. DE VARENNE. + Paris, 1778, 4to. + + _Vita di Constantino il Grande dell'_ ABB. FR. GUSTA. Fuligno, 1786. + Both these works, especially the first, are written in a tone of + panegyric; the latest, and by far the best, is + + # _Life of Constantine the Great_, by J. C. F. MANSO. Bresl. 1817. + With several very learned appendixes, which clear up some particular + points. + +11. The three Cæsars and sons of Constantine the Great, Constantine, +337-340; Constantius, 337-361; and Constans, 337-350; had been carefully +educated, and yet resembled one another as much in their vices as they +did in their names. They indeed divided the empire again upon the death +of their father; but were so eager after territory, which neither of +them was qualified to govern, that a series of wars followed for the +next twelve years, till at last Constantius was left master of the +whole; and by the murder of most of his relations secured the throne to +himself. + + In the partition of the empire Constantine obtained the _præfectura + Galliarum_, Constans the _præfectura Italiæ et Illyrici_, and + Constantius the _præfectura Orientis_. But as Constantine desired to + add Italy and Africa to his portion, he attacked Constans, and + thereby lost his life, so that Constans came into thee possession of + the western countries. In consequence, however, of his wretched + misgovernment, Magnentius, a general, proclaimed himself emperor in + Gaul, and Constans was slain in endeavouring to escape, 350. A war + with Constantius, who was then occupied in the east, became + inevitable, and broke out 351. The usurper was defeated first at Mursa + in Pannonia, then retreating into Gaul he was again defeated, 353; + upon which he slew himself, together with his family. + +12. As Constantius, however--sunk in effeminacy and debauchery, and +surrounded and governed by eunuchs--was unable to sustain the weight of +government alone, he took his cousin Constantius Gallus, hitherto a +state prisoner, and whose father he had formerly slain, to his +assistance, created him Cæsar, and sent him into the east against the +Parthians. But his excessive arrogance, which was fomented by his wife +Constantina, rendered him so dangerous that Constantius recalled him, +and caused him, upon his return, to be put to death in Istria. His +younger brother Fl. Julian, from whom the suspicious Constantius +believed he had nothing to fear, was promoted in his place, created +Cæsar, and sent to defend the frontiers on the Rhine. Although Julian +passed suddenly from study to warfare, he not only fought against the +Germans with success, but also made a deep inroad into their country. In +the mean time Constantius, after his generals had been beaten by the +Persians, who wished to reconquer the provinces they had ceded, was +preparing an expedition against them in person, and with that view +endeavoured gradually to withdraw the troops of Julian, in consequence +of which the latter, suspecting his design, was induced to accept the +diadem presented by his soldiers. While marching, however, along the +Danube against Constantius, he received information of that prince's +death in Asia. + +13. Fl. Julian, (the apostate,) who reigned from his twenty-ninth to his +thirty-second year, was the last and most highly gifted prince of the +house of Constantine. Instructed by misfortunes and study, he yet had +some faults, though certainly free from great vices. He began with +reforming the luxury of the court. His abjuration of the religion now +become dominant, and which he wished to annihilate by degrees, was an +error in policy, which he must have discovered to his cost had his reign +been prolonged. Wishing, however, to terminate the war against the +Persians, he penetrated as far as the Tigris, where he lost his life in +an engagement, after a reign of three years. + + # _The Emperor Julian and his Times_, by AUGUST. NEANDER. Leipsic, + 1812. An historical sketch. + +14. Fl. Jovianus, now thirty-three years of age, was immediately raised +to the purple by the army. He concluded a peace with the Persians, by +which he restored them all the territory that had been conquered from +them since the year 297. After a short reign of eight months he was +carried off by a sudden disorder; and the army proclaimed Fl. +Valentinian at Nice in his stead, Valentinian almost immediately +associated his brother Valens with himself in the government, and +divided the empire by giving him the _præfectura Orientis_, and +retaining the rest for himself. + +15. The reign of Valentinian I. in the east, who, in the year 367, +created his son Gratian Augustus with himself, is distinguished by the +system of toleration which he followed with regard to the affairs of +religion, though in other respects a cruel prince. Nearly the whole of +his reign was taken up in almost continual struggles with the German +nations, who had recovered from the losses they had suffered under +Julian. His first efforts were directed against the Franks, the Saxons, +and the Alemanni on the Rhine; and afterwards against the Quadi and +other nations on the Danube; where he died of apoplexy at Guntz in +Hungary. + +16. In the mean time his brother Valens (aged 38-52 years) had to +contend with a powerful insurrection which had broken out in the east. A +certain Procopius had instigated the people to this, by taking advantage +of the discontent occasioned by the oppression of Valens, who, having +adopted the opinion of the Arians, was more disliked in the east than +his brother was in the west. His war against the Persians ended with a +truce. But the most important event that happened during his reign, was +the entrance of the Huns into Europe, which took place towards its +close. This in its turn gave rise to the great popular migration, by +which the Roman empire in the west may properly be said to have been +overthrown. The immediate consequence was the admission of the greater +part of the Visigoths into the Roman empire, and this occasioned a war +which cost Valens his life. + + The Huns, a nomad people of Asia, belonged to the great Mongolian + race. Having penetrated to the Don, 373, they subdued the Goths upon + that river as far as the Theiss. The Goths, divided into Ostrogoths + and Visigoths, were separated from one another by the Dnieper. The + former, driven from their country, fell upon the Visigoths, in + consequence of which the emperor Valens was requested by the latter to + grant them admission into the Roman empire, and with the exception of + the Vandals, who had been seated in Pannonia from the time of + Constantine, they were the first barbarian nation that had been + settled within the boundaries of the empire. The scandalous oppression + of the Roman governor, however, drove them into rebellion; and as + Valens marched against them, he was defeated near Adrianople and lost + his life, 378. + +17. During these events, Gratian (aged 16-24 years) succeeded his father +Valentinian I. in the west, and immediately associated his brother, +Valentinian II. (aged 5-21 years) with himself in the empire; giving +him, though under his own superintendence, the _præfectura Italiæ et +Illyrici_. Gratian set forward to the assistance of his uncle Valens +against the Goths, but receiving on his march an account of his defeat +and death, and fearing the east might fall a prey to the Goths, he +raised Theodosius, a Spaniard, who had already distinguished himself as +a warrior, to the purple, and gave him the _præfectura Orientis et +Illyrici_. + +18. The indolent reign of Gratian led to the rebellion of Maximus, a +commander in Britain, who, crossing into Gaul, was so strongly supported +by the defection of the Gallic legions, that Gratian was obliged to seek +safety in flight. He was, however, overtaken and put to death at Lyons. +By this event Maximus found himself in possession of all the _præfectura +Galliarum_; and by promising Theodosius not to interfere with the young +Valentinian II. in Italy, he prevailed upon him to acknowledge him +emperor. But having broken his promise by the invasion of Italy, he was +defeated and made prisoner by Theodosius in Pannonia, and soon after +executed. Upon this Valentinian II. a youth of whom great hopes were +entertained, became again master of all the west. But, unfortunately, he +was murdered by the offended Arbogast, his _magister militum_; who, +thereupon, raised to the throne his own friend Eugenius, _magister +officiorum_. Theodosius, however, so far from acknowledging, declared +war against him and made him prisoner. He himself thus became master of +the whole empire, but died in the following year. + +19. The vigorous reign of Theodosius in the east, from his thirty-fourth +to his fiftieth year, was not less devoted to politics than to religion. +The dexterity with which he at first broke the power of the victorious +Goths (though they still preserved their quarters in the provinces on +the Danube), procured him considerable influence, which the strength and +activity of his character enabled him easily to maintain. The blind +zeal, however, with which he persecuted Arianism, now the prevailing +creed in the east, and restored the orthodox belief, as well as the +persecutions which he directed against the pagans and the destruction of +their temples, occasioned the most dreadful convulsions. His efforts to +preserve the boundaries of the empire, not a province of which was lost +before his death, required an increase of taxes; and however oppressive +this might be, we cannot impute it to the ruler as a crime. In an +empire so enfeebled in itself, and which, nevertheless, had powerful +foes on every side to contend with, it followed that every active reign +would be oppressive. Yet never before had the internal depopulation of +the empire made it necessary to take so many barbarians into Roman pay, +as under this reign; whence naturally followed a change in the arms and +tactics of the Roman armies. + + P. ERASM. MULLER, _de genio sæculi Theodosiani_. Havniæ, 1798, 2 vols. + A very learned and in every respect excellent description of the + deeply-decayed Roman world as it now stood. + +20. Theodosius left two sons, between whom the empire was divided. Both +parts, however, were certainly considered as forming but one empire--an +opinion which afterwards prevailed, and even till late in the middle +ages had important consequences--yet never since this period have they +been reunited under one ruler. The eastern empire, comprising the +_præfectura Orientis et Illyrici_, was allotted to the eldest son, +Arcadius (aged 18-31) under the guardianship of Rufinus the Gaul. The +western, or the _præfectura Galliarum et Italiæ_, to the younger, +Honorius, aged 11-39, under the guardianship of the Vandal Stilico. + +21. The western empire, to the history of which we shall now confine +ourselves, suffered such violent shocks during the reign of Honorius, as +made its approaching fall plainly visible. The intrigues of Stilico to +procure himself the government of the whole empire, opened a way for the +Goths into its interior, just at a time when they were doubly +formidable, fortune having given them a leader greatly superior to any +they had hitherto had. Alaric king of the Visigoths established himself +and his people in the Roman empire, became master of Rome, and mounted +the throne: it was the mere effect of chance that he did not overthrow +it altogether. + + Both Honorius and Arcadius, especially the latter, belonged to that + class of men who never come to years of maturity; their favourites and + ministers therefore governed according to their own inclination. + Stilico, who made Honorius his son-in-law, was not deficient, indeed, + in abilities for governing; and his endeavour to obtain the management + of the whole empire, arose, perhaps, from the conviction that it was + necessary he should have it. He could not, however, gain his object by + intrigue; for after the murder of Rufinus; 395, he found a still more + powerful opponent in the eunuch Eutropius, his successor in the east. + Under the regency of Stilico, Gaul, in consequence of its troops being + withdrawn to oppose Alaric, 400, was inundated by German tribes--by + Vandals, Alani, and Suevi--who from thence penetrated even into Spain. + Nevertheless, he preserved Italy from their attacks by the victory + which he gained, 403, over Alaric at Verona; and again over + Radagaisus, 405, who had advanced with other German hordes as far as + Florence. But Stilico, having entered into a secret alliance with + Alaric, for the purpose of wresting eastern Illyrica from the empire + of the east, was overreached by the intrigues of the new favourite + Olympius, whose cabal knew how to take advantage of the weakness of + Honorius, and of the jealousy of the Roman and foreign soldiers. + Stilico was accused of aspiring to the throne, and was executed August + 23, 408. Rome lost in him the only general that was left to defend + her. Alaric invaded Italy the same year, 408, and the besieged Rome + was obliged to purchase peace; the conditions, however, not being + fulfilled, he was again, 409, before Rome, became master of the city, + and created Attalus, the præfect of the city, emperor instead of + Honorius, who had shut himself up in Ravenna. In 410 he assumed the + diadem; and, making himself master of the city by force, gave it up to + be plundered by his troops. Soon afterwards, while projecting the + capture of Sicily and Africa, he died in lower Italy. His + brother-in-law and successor, Adolphus, together with his Goths, left + Italy, now completely exhausted, 412, went into Gaul, and from thence + proceeding into Spain, founded there the empire of the Visigoths: he + carried with him, however, Placidia the sister of Honorius, either as + prisoner or as hostage, and married her in Gaul. During these events + an usurper arose in Britain and Gaul named Constantine, 407: he was + vanquished, and put to death, 411, by Constantius, one of Honorius's + generals. This latter prince not only gave Constantius his sister + Placidia, who had become a widow and was restored in 417, in marriage, + but also named him Augustus in 421. He died, however, a few months + after, so that Placidia henceforward had a considerable share in the + government. She went nevertheless, 423, to Constantinople, where she + remained until the death of Honorius. + + # _Fl. Stilico, or the Wallenstein of Antiquity_, by CHR. FR. SCHULZE, + 1805. Not written by way of comparison. + +22. In this manner was a great part of Spain, and part of Gaul, cut off +from the Roman empire during the reign of Honorius. After his death the +secretary John usurped the government, but was defeated by the eastern +emperor Theodosius II. The nephew of Honorius, Valentinian III. a minor +(aged 6-36), was then raised to the throne, under the guardian care of +his mother Placidia (! 450). Under his miserable reign the western +empire was stripped of almost all her provinces with the exception of +Italy. Yet the government of his mother, and afterwards his own +incapacity, were as much the cause as the stormy migration of barbarous +tribes, which now convulsed all Europe. + + Britain had been voluntarily left by the Romans since 427. In Africa, + the governor Boniface having been driven into rebellion by the + intrigues of the Roman general Ætius, who possessed the ear of + Placidia, invited the Vandals from Spain, under the command of + Genseric, to come to his assistance. The latter then obtained + possession of the country, 429-439; indeed, even as early as 435, + Valentinian was obliged to make a formal cession of it to them. + Valentinian's wife Eudoxia, a Grecian princess, was purchased by the + cession of western Illyricum (Pannonia, Dalmatia, and Noricum); so + that of all the countries south of the Danube there now only remained + those which belonged to the præfecture of Italy: Rhætia and + Vindelicia. On the south-east of Gaul was formed, 435, the kingdom of + the Burgundians, which, besides the south-east part of France, + comprised also Switzerland and Savoy. The south-west was under the + dominion of the Visigoths. There remained only the territory north of + the Loire which still submitted to the Roman governors; the last of + whom, Syagrius, survived the fall of the empire itself; holding out + till the year 486, when he was defeated near Soissons by Clodovicus, + or Clovis, king of the Franks. + +23. But while the western empire seemed thus of itself almost to fall to +pieces, another impetuous rush of nations took place, which threatened +the whole of western Europe. The victorious hordes of Huns who now +occupied the territory formerly the seat of the Goths, between the Don +and the Theiss, and even as far as the Volga, had united themselves, +since the year 444, under one common chief, Attila; who, by this union +and his own superior talents as a warrior and ruler, became the most +powerful prince of his time. The eastern empire having bought a peace by +paying him a yearly tribute, he fell with a mighty army upon the western +provinces. The united forces, however, of the Romans under Ætius and the +Visigoths, obliged him near Chalons (_in campis Catalaunicis_) to +retreat. Nevertheless, the following year he again invaded Italy, where +he had a secret understanding with the licentious Honoria, Valentinian's +sister. The cause of his second retreat, which was soon followed by his +death, is unknown. The miserable Valentinian soon after deprived the +Roman empire of its best general, being led by his suspicions to put +Ætius to death. He himself, however, was soon doomed to undergo the +punishment of his debaucheries, being murdered in a conspiracy formed by +Petronius Maximus, whose wife he had dishonoured, and some friends of +Ætius, whom he had executed. + +24. The twenty years which intervened between the assassination of +Valentinian, and the final destruction of the Roman empire in the west, +was nearly one continued series of intestine revolutions. No less than +nine sovereigns rapidly succeeded one another. These changes, indeed, +were but of little importance in this troublesome period, compared to +the terror with which Genseric king of the Vandals filled the Roman +empire: he by his naval power having become master of the Mediterranean +and Sicily, could ravage the coasts of the defenceless Italy at his +pleasure, and even capture Rome itself. While in Italy, the German +Ricimer, general of the foreign troops in Roman pay, permitted a series +of emperors to reign in his name. It would have been his lot to put an +end to this series of Augusti, but for mere accident, which reserved +that glory for his son and successor, Odoacer, four years after his +father's death. + + After the death of Valentinian, Maximus was proclaimed emperor; but as + he wished to compel Eudoxia, Valentinian's widow, to marry him, she + called over Genseric from Africa, who took and pillaged Rome, and + Maximus perished after a reign of three months, 455. He was succeeded + by M. Avitus, who ascended the throne at Arles; and he again was soon + deposed by Ricimer, 456, who, just before, had defeated the fleet of + the Vandals. Ricimer now placed upon the throne, first Julianus + Majorianus, April 1, 457; but he, having distinguished himself in the + wars against the Vandals, 461, was set aside, and Libius Severus put + in his place, who, however, died in 465, probably of poison. His + death was followed by an interregnum of two years, during which + Ricimer ruled, though without the title of emperor. At length the + patrician Anthemius, then at Constantinople (where they never gave up + their pretensions to the right of naming or confirming the sovereigns + of the west), was, though not without the consent of the powerful + Ricimer, named emperor of the west, April 12, 467, by the emperor Leo. + But differences having arisen between him and Ricimer, the latter + retired to Milan, 469, and commenced a war, in which he took and + pillaged Rome, and Anthemius was slain. Ricimer himself followed soon + after, ! Aug. 18, 472. Upon this, Anicius Olybrius, son-in-law of + Valentinian III. was proclaimed Augustus, but dying in three + months, Oct. 472, Glycerius assumed the purple at Ravenna, without, + however, being acknowledged at Constantinople, where they in + preference named Julius Nepos Augustus. The latter, in 474, having + expelled Glycerius, became also in his turn expelled by his own + general Orestes, 475, who gave the diadem to his son Romulus + Momyllus, who, as the last in the succession of Augusti, acquired + the surname of Augustulus. In 476, however, Odoacer, the leader of + the Germans in the Roman pay at Rome, sent him, after the execution + of Orestes, into captivity, and allowed him a pension. Odoacer now + remained master of Italy till the year 492, when the Ostrogoths, + under their king Theodoric, founded there a new empire. + +25. Thus fell the Roman empire of the west, while that of the east, +pressed on every side, and in a situation almost similar, endured a +thousand years, notwithstanding its intestine broils, which would alone +have sufficed to destroy any other, and the hosts of barbarians who +attacked it during the middle ages. The impregnable situation of its +capital, which usually decides the fate of such kingdoms, joined to its +despotism, which is not unfrequently the main support of a kingdom in +its decline, can alone, in some measure, explain a phenomenon which has +no equal in the history of the world. + + + + +APPENDIX. + + CHRONOLOGY OF HERODOTUS TO THE TIME OF CYRUS, EXTRACTED FROM THE + RESEARCHES OF M. VOLNEY. See Preface. + + +Although Herodotus did not write his work in chronological order, yet +we cannot doubt that he had some general plan of computing time. By +carefully selecting and comparing the separate data scattered through +his work, this plan to a certain extent may be traced out, and early +history, with regard to settled chronology, must necessarily gain a good +deal. The following essay is founded upon a procedure of this kind; it +is drawn entirely from Herodotus, and only from data which he has +precisely determined, the passages of his work being always referred to. + +The year B. C. 561, in which the fall of Astyages and the Median empire +took place, as may be proved from Herodotus himself, is a fixed point of +time from which we may ascend into higher antiquity. This point of time +may be determined by the chronological data respecting the battle of +Marathon, four years before the death of Darius (Herodotus VII. 1. 4.) +agreeing with the general data of the Greeks, who fix it in the third +year of the 72nd Olymp. B. C. 490. By adding to this the thirty-two +years of Darius's reign that had already elapsed (Herodotus, ibid.), the +eight months of Smerdis (Herodotus, III. 68.), the seven years and five +months of Cambyses (Herodotus III. 66.), and the twenty-nine years of +Cyrus (Herodotus, I. 214.), we obtain the year 560 as the first year of +Cyrus. + + +I. CHRONOLOGY OF THE MEDIAN EMPIRE. + + B. C. + End of the Median empire 561. + Duration of the Median empire one hundred and + fifty-six years (Herodotus, I, 130.) + The beginning of it, therefore, after their separation + from the Assyrians, would be 717. + In this period, at first, six years of anarchy[a] 716-710. + Reign of Deioces fifty-three years (Herodotus, I. 102.) 710-657. + Reign of Phraortes, twenty-two years (ibid.) 657-635. + Cyaxares, forty years (I. 106.) 635-595. + Irruption and dominion of the Scythians, twenty-eight + years (I. 203. 106.) 625-598. + Conquest of Nineveh (I. 106.) 597. + Astyages reigned thirty-five years (I. 130.) 595-561. + +The succession of Median kings given by Ctesias, which entirely differs +from this, the author thinks might be explained by a duplication; +see # _Gott. Gel. Anz._ 1810, p. 4. + + [a] These are certainly not determined from Herodotus; but they + remain after subtracting the one hundred and fifty years' + reign of the four Median kings. + + +II. CHRONOLOGY OF THE ASSYRIAN EMPIRE. + +The dominion of the Assyrians over Asia, or their empire, ended with the +revolt of the Medes (Herodotus, I. 95.); although the existence of their +state did not then end, but terminated with the capture of Nineveh by +Cyaxares, B. C. 597. + + B. C. + Revolt of the Medes, as above 717. + The dominion of the Assyrians had endured five + hundred and twenty years (Herodotus, I. 95.) + The Assyrian empire lasted therefore from 1237-717. + +As Herodotus intended to write the history of this empire in a separate +work (I. 184.), he only casually mentions (I. 7.) its founder Ninus, who +began to reign 1237; and afterwards Sennacherib and his expedition (II. +141.); and the last king, Sardanapalus (II. 150.). + +The mention of Sennacherib and his expedition furnishes a point of time +for comparing the chronology of Herodotus with that of the Bible, or the +Jews. According to the latter, Sennacherib's expedition took place B. C. +714. (see above, p. 26.); his death takes place immediately after, and +he has for his successor Esar-haddon, 2 Kings, xix. 37. Here then is +certainly a contradiction, since, according to Herodotus, the Assyrian +dominion had ceased three years before, namely, 717. M. Volney +endeavours to reconcile this difficulty by the restoration of an ancient +reading in the sacred text; according to which Amon, king of Judæa, +reigned twelve years instead of two (2 Kings, xxi. 10.); from which it +would follow, that the expedition of Sennacherib took place in 724. As +this would leave seven years after his death for his successor +Esar-haddon, who agrees both in time and name with the Sardanapalus of +the Greeks (the Greek name being formed from Esar-haddon-pal, i. e. +Esar, the lord, son of Pal), the two chronologies are thus made to agree +exactly. But even in following the ancient usual reading, the greatest +difference between the two statements is only ten years; quite as little +as can be reasonably expected under such circumstances. + +With regard to the Assyrian chronology of Ctesias, M. Volney has +satisfactorily shown that it is full of contradictions, and unworthy of +any credit. + + +III. CHRONOLOGY OF THE LYDIAN EMPIRE. + +The arrangement of the Lydian chronology rests upon the settlement of +two principal facts: first, the great eclipse of the sun under Alyattes, +foretold by Thales (Herodotus, I. 74.); and secondly, the conquest of +Sardes, and overthrow of the empire under Croesus, by Cyrus; both of +which Herodotus certainly mentions, but without assigning any precise +date. But by a careful comparison of all the data it has been proved, +that the great eclipse in Asia Minor (according to the Tables of Pingré) +happened in the year 625; and the conquest of Sardes, and the end of the +Lydian empire, B. C. 557, or in the fourth year of Cyrus. Therefore: + + B. C. + End of the Lydian empire 557. + +It subsisted under three houses; under that of the Atyadæ (fabulous and +uncertain); under that of the Heraclidæ, five hundred and five years +(Herodotus, I. 7.); and under the last, that of the Mermnadæ, one +hundred and seventy years. + +The Heraclidæ and Mermnadæ, then, reigned altogether six hundred and +seventy-five years. Therefore: + + B. C. + Commencement of the reign of the Heraclidæ, with Agron + the son of Ninus (I. 7.) 1232. + End of this house with the murder of Candaules, by Gyges 727. + +By fixings the time of Agron, son of Ninus, Herodotus verifies himself +(I. 7.); as, by the preceding data, Ninus began his reign in Assyria, +1237; consequently, it must have been in the fifth year of his reign +that he conquered Lydia, and placed his son Agron upon the throne. + + B. C. + Dominion of the Mermnadæ, one hundred and seventy + years, under kings of that house 727-557. + Gyges, thirty-eight years (Herodotus, I. 14.) 727-689. + Ardys, forty-nine years (Herodotus, I. 16.) 689-640. + First irruption of the Cimmerians 670. + Sadyattes, twelve years (Herodotus, I. 16.) 640-628. + Alyattes, fifty-seven years (Herodotus, I. 25.) 628-571. + War with Cyaxares, ending with the great eclipse, + and second irruption of the Cimmerians 625. + Croesus, fourteen years and fourteen days (Herodotus, + I. 86.) 571-557. + + +IV. CHRONOLOGY OF THE BABYLONIANS. + +For this as well as for the Egyptians there is no evidence to guide +us, the data being very scanty, and taken from Herodotus alone. The +chronology of the Babylonians, according to the canon of Ptolemy, begins +with Nabonassar, 747, who was succeeded by twelve kings (mentioned in +the same canon), down to Nabopolassar; (see above, p. 28.) + + B. C. + Nabopolassar 627-604. + Nebuchadnezzar 604-561. + Evil-Merodach 561-559. + Neriglissar 559-555. + Labynetus 555-538. + Conquest of Babylon by Cyrus 538. + + +V. CHRONOLOGY OF THE EGYPTIANS. + +M. Volney very properly commences this with the dodecarchy--as of the +earlier periods only the time of Sesostris, 1365, is ascertained;--and +arranges it in the following manner. + + B. C. + Dodecarchy 671-656. + Psammetichus's sole dominion thirty-nine years 656-617. + Reign of Neco, sixteen years 617-601. + -------- Psammis, six years 601-595. + -------- Apries, twenty-five years 595-570. + -------- Amasis, forty-four years 570-526. + Psammenitus, six months 525. + Conquest of Egypt by Cambyses + + + * * * * * + + + + +I. THE REIGNING HOUSES OF MACEDON. + + +I. HOUSE OF ALEXANDER THE GREAT. + + PHILIP ! 336. married, 1. Olympias. 2. Cleopatra. (3. Concubines.) + | + +------------------------------------------------------------------+ + | 1. 1. Cleopatra. 3. 3. | + | | | + ALEXANDER THE GREAT ! 323. PHILIP ARRHIDÆUS ! 317. | + married, 1. Roxana. (2. Barsine.) married Eurydice. | + | | + +--------------------------------------+ Thessalonice. + | 1. 2. | married Cassander. + ALEXANDER ! 311. HERCULES ! 309. + + +II. HOUSE OF ANTIPATER. + + ANTIPATER ! 320. + | + CASSANDER ! 298, married Thessalonice. + | + +-------------------------------------------------------+ + | PHILIP ! 297. ANTIPATER ! 294. ALEXANDER ! 294. | + + +III. HOUSE OF ANTIGONUS. + + ANTIGONUS ! 301. + | + DEMETRIUS I. POLIORCETES ! 284. + | + +-----------------------------------------------------------------+ + | Stratonice. ANTIGONUS I. GONATAS ! 242. | + married, 1. Seleucus I. | + 2. Antiochus I. +-------------------------------------+ + | DEMETRIUS II. ! 233. Alcyoneus. | + | | + +-------------------+ +---------------+ + | PHILIP II. ! 179. | | ANTIGONUS II. | + | DOSON ! 221 + +------------------------------------+ + | PERSEUS ! 166. Demetrius ! 180. | + + + + +II. GENEALOGICAL TABLE OF THE SELEUCIDÆ. + + + SELEUCUS I. NICATOR ! 281. + married, 1. Apame. 2. Stratonice, daughter of Demetrius Poliorcetes. + | + +--------------------------------------------------------------------+ + | 1. 2. | + ANTIOCHUS I. SOTER ! 262. married, Phila married + 1. Stratonice, his mother-in-law. 2. Anonymous. Antigonus Gonatas + | king of Macedon. + | + +--------------------------------------------------------------------+ + | 1. 1. 2. | + ANTIOCHUS II. THEOS ! 247. Apame Laodice. + married, married Magas + 1. Laodice, his sister-in-law. of Cyrene. + 2. Berenice, daughter of Ptol. Philad. + | + +--------------------------------------------------------------------+ + | 1. 1. 1. | + SELEUCUS II. CALLINICUS ! 227. Antiochus Stratonice married + married Laodice, Hierax. Ariarathes IV. of + daughter of Andromachus, Cappadocia. + father of Achæus. + | + +--------------------------------------------------------------------+ + | SELEUCUS III. Stratonice married ANTIOCHUS III. THE GREAT ! 187.| + CERAUNUS ! 224. Mithridates IV. married Laodice, daughter of + of Pontus. Mithridates IV. of Pontus. + | + +------------------------------------------------------------------+ + | Antiochus Laodice. | ANTIOCHUS IV. Cleopatra Antiochis | + ! 192. | EPIPHANES ! 164. married married + | | Ptolemy V. Ariarathes V. + | | of Cappad. + | +-----------------------------+ + | | ANTIOCHUS V. EUPATOR ! 161. | + | + SELEUCUS IV. PHILOPATOR ! 176. + married his sister Laodice. + | + +------------------------------------------------------+ + | DEMETRIUS I. Laodice | + ! 150. married Perseus king of Maced. + | + +--------------------------------------------------------------------+ + | DEMETRIUS II. NICATOR ! 126. married, ANTIOCHUS SIDETES ! 131. | + 1. Cleopatra, daughter of Ptol. Philom. married his + 2. Rhodogyne. | daughter-in-law, Cleopatra. + | | + +-------------------------------------+ +---------------------------+ + |SELEUCUS V. ANTIOCHUS GRYPHUS ! 97. | | ANTIOCHUS CYZICENUS ! 96. | + ! 125. married Cleopatra Selene, married Cleopatra, + daughter of Ptol. Phys. daughter of Ptol. Phys. + | | + | +----------------------------+ + | | ANTIOCHUS EUSEBES ! c. 90. | + | married Cleopatra Selene. + | | + | +---------------------------------------+ + | | ANTIOCHUS SELEUCUS CYBIOSACTES | + | ASIATICUS ! 58. ! 57. married + | Berenice, daughter + | of Ptol. Auletes. + | + +------------------------------------------------------------------+ + | Seleucus Antioch. Philippus Demetr. Antioch. | + Epiph. ! 94. Epiph. ! 93. Epiph. ! 83. Eucar. Dionys. + ! c. 87. ! 89. + + + + +III. GENEALOGICAL TABLE OF THE PTOLEMIES. + + + PTOLEMY I. son of LAGUS ! 284. + married, 1. Eurydice, daughter of Antipater. + 2. Berenice. + (3. Concubines.) + | + +-----------------------------------------------------+ + | | | | + 1. | | | + Ptol. Ceraunus ! 279. | 2. | + king of Macedonia. | Arsinoe | + 2. | + PTOL. II. PHILADELPHUS ! 246. 3. + married, 1. Arsinoe, daughter Magas of Cyrene. + of Lysimachus. | + 2. His sister Arsinoe. +-------------+ + | Berenice + | + +-------------------------------------------------------+ + | PTOL. III. EVERGETES ! 221. Berenice married | + Married Berenice, Antiochus Theos. + daughter of Magas. + | + +-------------------------------------------------------------+ + | PTOL. IV. PHILOPATOR ! 204. Magas. Arsinoe. | + married, 1. His sister Arsinoe. + (2. Agathoclea.) + | + +----------------------------+ + | PTOL. V. EPHIPHANES ! 181. | + married Cleopatra, + daughter of Antiochus the Great. + | + +---------------------------------------------------------------------+ + | PTOL. VI. PHILOMETOR ! 145. Cleopatra. PTOL. VII. PHYSCON ! 117.| + married his sister Cleopatra. married, + | 1. His sister Cleopatra. + | 2. Cleopatra the younger. + | (3. Irene.) + Cleopatra the younger. | + | + +-------------------------------------------------------------------+ + | 2. | 2. | 3. | + PTOL. VIII. | PTOL. ALEXANDER | Ptol. Apion. + LATHYRUS ! 81. | I. ! 88. | king of Cyrene, + married, | married Cleopatra, | ! 97. + 1, 2. his two sisters. | daughter of | + (3. Concubines.) | Ptol. Lathyrus. | + | | | + | 2. 2. + | Cleop. Selene. Cleopatra. + | + +------------------------------------------------------------+ + | | | | | | | + | 2. | 3. | | | + | Cl. Berenice. | Ptol. of Cyprus | PTOL. ALEXANDER | + | | ! 57. | II. ! 80. | + | | | married | + | | | Cleop. Berenice. | + 2. 3. 3. | + Cleopatra ! 88. PTOL. AULETES ! 51. Cleopatra. PTOL. ALEX. + married married, III. ! 66. + Alex. I. 1. His sister Cleop. + 2. Unknown. + | + +--------------------------------------------------------------------+ + | 1. | 2. | Arsinoe | + BERENICE ! 55. | PTOL. DIONYSIUS ! 47. | ! 43. + married, | married Cleopatra. | + 1. Seleucus Cybios. | | + 2. Archelaus. 1. 2. + CLEOPATRA ! 30. Ptol. the younger ! 44. + married, married Cleopatra. + 1. 2. her brothers. + (3. Jul. Cæsar.) + 4. Antony + + + + +IV. THE REIGNING HOUSES OF THE JEWS. + + + HOUSE OF THE MACCABEES. + Mattathias ! B. C. 166. + | + +------------------------------------------------------------------+ + | Judas Maccabæus, Jonathan, Simon, high priest | + general of the army high priest ! 143. and ethnarch, ! 135. + ! 161. | + +----------------------+ + | John Hyrcanus ! 107. | + | + +------------------------------------------------+ + | Aristobulus I. ! 106, Alex. I. Jannæus ! 79. | + king and high priest. married Alexandra. + | + +------------------------------------------------+ + | Hyrcanus II. ! 30. Aristobulus. | + high priest and ethnarch. ! 49. + | + +-----------------------------------------+ + | Alexander II. ! 49. Antigonus ! 37. | + | + +-----------------------------------------------+ + | Aristobulus ! 34. Mariamne ! 28. | + married Herod the Great. + + +II. HOUSE OF HEROD. + + Antipater ! 43. + | + +----------------------------------------------------------+ + | Salome. Herod the Great ! A. C. 3. | + married, 1. Doris. 2. Mariamne. 3. Many others. + | + +--------------------------------------------------------------------+ + | Antipater Alexander Aristobulus Archelaus, | Philip, | + ! A. C. 3. ! B. C. 5. ! B. C. 5. ethnarch, | tetrarch, + | deposed | ! A. C. 34. + +-------------------+ A. C. 6. | + | Herod II. Agrippa | | + ! A. C. 44. Antipas, tetrarch, + | deposed A. C. 39. + +---------------+ married Herodias. + | Herod Agrippa | + ! A. C. 100. + + + + +V. GENEALOGICAL TABLE OF THE CÆSARS. + + +I. + + C. Julius Cæsar, prætor, ! 84. + | + +--------------------------------------------------------------+ + | C. JULIUS CÆSAR, dictator, Julia ! 52. | + ! 44. married Accius Balbus. + | | + +-----------------------------+ +-----------------------+ + | Julia ! 52. married Pompey. | | Accia ! 42, | + married C. Octavius. + | + +--------------------------------------------------------------------+ + | Octavia the elder | C. OCTAVIUS (CÆSAR AUGUSTUS) | + married M. Marcellus. | ! A. C. 14 (see No. II.) + | + Octavia the younger married, + 1. C. Marcellus. 2. Pompey. 3. M. Antony. + + +II. + + CÆSAR OCTAVIANUS AUGUSTUS ! A. C. 14. + married, 1. Scribonia. 2. Livia, widow of Tiberius Claudius Nero. + | | + | +------------------------------------------------------+ + | | TIBERIUS NERO ! A.C. 37. Nero Claudius Drusus ! 9. | + | married, 1. Vipsania. married Antonia + | 2. Julia. the younger. + | | | + | +--------------------------+ | + | | DRUSUS CÆSAR ! A. C. 25. | | + | | + | +---------------------------------------------------+ + | | Germanicus CLAUDIUS ! A. C. 54. | + | ! A. C. 19. married, 1. Messalina. + | married Agrippina. 2. Agrippina. + | | | + | | +------------------------------------+ + | | | 1. Britannicus 1. Octavia | + | | ! A. C. 34. ! A. C. 59. + | | married Nero. + | | + | +-------------------------------------------------------+ + | | Nero Drusus | Agrippina | + | ! A. C. 29. ! A. C. 35. | married, + | | 1. Cn. Domitius. + | CAIUS CALIGULA 2. Claudius. + | ! A. C. 41. | + | | + | +---------------------------------------+ + | | 1. | + | DOMITIUS NERO ! A. C. 68. + | married, 1. Octavia. 2. Poppæa Sabina + | + +----------------------------------------------------------+ + | 1. | + Julia ! A. C. 17. + married, 1. ! M. Cl. Marcellus. 2. Agrippa. 3. Tiberius. + | + +------------------------------------------------------------------+ + | 2. 2. 2. 2. 2. | + C. Cæsar L. Cæsar Agrippina Julia Agrippa + ! A. C. 4. ! A. C. 2. ! A. C. 35. ! A. C. 30. Posthumus + married ! A. C. 14. + Germanicus. + + + + +VI. GENEALOGICAL TABLE OF THE HOUSE OF CONSTANTINE. + + + CONSTANTIUS CHLORUS ! 306. + married, 1. Helena. 2. Theodora. + | + +-----------------------------------------------------------------+ + CONSTANTINE the Great ! 337. | Jul. Constantius | + married, 1. Minervina. | ! 337. married, | + 2. Fausta. Constantia 1. Galla. | + | married 2. Basilina. | + | C. Valer LICINIUS, | | + | Cæsar, ! 324 +----------+ | + +--------------------------+ | Fl. Valer. | + 1. | 2. | +--------------+ Licinius | + CRISPUS | CONSTANTIUS | 1. 2. ! 326. | + ! 326. | ! 361. | Gallus JULIAN | + 2. 2. ! 354. (the apostate) | + CONSTANTINE CONSTANS ! 363. | + ! 340. ! 350. Annibalianus. + | + +-----------------------------+ + | Dalmatius Annibalianus | + Cæsar ! 339. ! 338. + + + + +PRINTED BY TALBOYS AND BROWNE, OXFORD. + + + + + * * * * * + + + + +Transcriber's note: + +The original text includes Greek characters. 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H. L. (Arnold Hermann Ludwig) Heeren</title> + <style type="text/css"> + + p { margin-top: .75em; + text-align: justify; + margin-bottom: .75em; + text-indent: 1em; + } + h1,h2,h3,h4,h5,h6 { + text-align: center; /* all headings centered */ + clear: both; + width: 70%; + margin-left: auto; + margin-right: auto; + } + hr { width: 33%; + margin-top: 2em; + margin-bottom: 2em; + margin-left: auto; + margin-right: auto; + clear: both; + } + + table {margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;} + + body{margin-left: 10%; + margin-right: 20%; + } + + .pagenum { /* uncomment the next line for invisible page numbers */ + /* visibility: hidden; */ + position: absolute; + left: 2%; + font-size: .8em; + text-align: right; + font-style: normal; + } /* page numbers */ + + .blockquot{margin-left: 5%; margin-right: 10%;} + .sblockquot{font-size: 0.9em; margin-top: 1.5em; margin-bottom: 1.5em;} + .iblockquot{margin-left: 2em; text-indent: -2em;} + .iblockquot2{margin-left: 2em; text-indent: -2em; font-size: 110%; margin-top: 1.5em;} + .cblockquot{text-align: center; text-indent: 0em; font-size: 110%; margin-top: 1.5em;} + .noin {text-indent: 0em;} + .sidenote {position: absolute; left: 82%; right: 2%; font-size: 90%; + text-align: left; text-indent: 0em;} + + .bb {border-bottom: solid 2px;} + .bl {border-left: solid 2px;} + .bt {border-top: solid 1px;} + .br {border-right: solid 2px;} + .bbox {border: solid 2px;} + + .center {text-align: center; text-indent: 0em;} + .smcap {font-variant: small-caps;} + .u {text-decoration: underline;} + + .caption {font-weight: bold;} + + .figcenter {margin: auto; text-align: center;} + + .footnotes {border: dashed 1px;} + .footnote {margin-left: 10%; margin-right: 10%; font-size: 0.9em; margin-top: 2.5em;} + .footnote .label {position: absolute; right: 84%; text-align: right;} + .fnanchor {vertical-align: super; font-size: .8em; text-decoration: none;} + + .poem {margin-left:10%; margin-right:10%; text-align: left;} + .poem br {display: none;} + .poem .stanza {margin: 1em 0em 1em 0em;} + .poem span.i0 {display: block; margin-left: 0em; padding-left: 3em; text-indent: -3em;} + .poem span.i2 {display: block; margin-left: 2em; padding-left: 3em; text-indent: -3em;} + .poem span.i4 {display: block; margin-left: 4em; padding-left: 3em; text-indent: -3em;} + + h1.pg { width: 100%; } + hr.full { width: 100%; + margin-top: 3em; + margin-bottom: 0em; + margin-left: auto; + margin-right: auto; + height: 4px; + border-width: 4px 0 0 0; /* remove all borders except the top one */ + border-style: solid; + border-color: #000000; + clear: both; } + </style> +</head> +<body> +<h1 class="pg">The Project Gutenberg eBook, A Manual of Ancient History, by A. H. L. +(Arnold Hermann Ludwig) Heeren</h1> +<p>This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with +almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or +re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included +with this eBook or online at <a +href="http://www.gutenberg.org">www.gutenberg.org</a></p> +<p>Title: A Manual of Ancient History</p> +<p> Particularly with Regard to the Constitutions, the Commerce, and the Colonies, of the States of Antiquity</p> +<p>Author: A. H. L. (Arnold Hermann Ludwig) Heeren</p> +<p>Release Date: May 21, 2012 [eBook #39747]</p> +<p>Language: English</p> +<p>Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1</p> +<p>***START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK A MANUAL OF ANCIENT HISTORY***</p> +<p> </p> +<h4>E-text prepared by Adrian Mastronardi<br /> + and the Online Distributed Proofreading Team<br /> + (<a href="http://www.pgdp.net">http://www.pgdp.net</a>)<br /> + from page images generously made available by<br /> + Internet Archive/American Libraries<br /> + (<a href="http://archive.org/details/americana">http://archive.org/details/americana</a>)</h4> +<p> </p> +<table border="0" style="background-color: #ccccff;margin: 0 auto;" cellpadding="10"> + <tr> + <td valign="top"> + Note: + </td> + <td> + Images of the original pages are available through + Internet Archive/American Libraries. See + <a href="http://archive.org/details/manualofancienth00heeriala"> + http://archive.org/details/manualofancienth00heeriala</a> + </td> + </tr> +</table> +<p> </p> +<hr class="full" /> +<p> </p> +<p> </p> +<p> </p> + +<h1>A MANUAL</h1> +<h4>OF</h4> +<h1>ANCIENT HISTORY,</h1> + +<h5>PARTICULARLY WITH REGARD TO</h5> + +<h2>THE CONSTITUTIONS, THE COMMERCE,<br /> +AND THE COLONIES,<br /> +<br /> +OF THE STATES OF ANTIQUITY.</h2> + +<p> </p> +<h3>BY A. H. L. HEEREN;</h3> + +<h5>KNIGHT OF THE NORTH STAR AND GUELPHIC ORDER; AULIC COUNSELLOR<br /> +AND PROFESSOR OF HISTORY IN THE UNIVERSITY OF GOETTINGEN;<br /> +AND MEMBER OF SEVERAL OTHER LEARNED SOCIETIES.</h5> + +<h4>Translated from the German.</h4> + +<h4>THE SECOND EDITION, CORRECTED AND IMPROVED.</h4> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 235px;"> +<img src="images/illus-001.jpg" width="235" height="281" alt="" title="" /> +</div> + +<h4><big>OXFORD:</big><br /> +PUBLISHED BY D. A. TALBOYS.<br /> +<small>M DCCC XXXIII.</small> +</h4> + + + +<hr style="width: 15%;" /> +<h5>OXFORD: PRINTED BY TALBOYS AND BROWNE.</h5> + + +<hr style="width: 100%;" /> +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_iii" id="Page_iii">[Pg iii]</a></span></p> +<h2>TRANSLATOR'S PREFACE</h2> + +<h3>TO THIS EDITION.</h3> + + +<p class="main">It is to the patient industry of the historians of +Germany, that we are indebted for the first production +of Manuals of history, and for those synchronistic +tables which have so much facilitated +the systematic study of ancient history; and +among the various and profound treatises of this +class which enrich and adorn their literature, the +works of Heeren are distinguished by their extended +range of enquiry, as well as by the minute +accuracy of their details.</p> + +<p class="main">The work before us embodies the result of his +laborious researches during the long period in +which he has been engaged as public lecturer +and professor of history in the university of Goettingen; +and if it be any recommendation of a +work to know that its writer has had ample time, +ability, and opportunity to collect and elaborate +his materials, it may be asserted, without fear of +contradiction, that the author of the present work +possessed all these advantages in an eminent degree. +He has spent the greater portion of his +life in lecturing upon the subjects of which it +treats, and has in every case gone for his information +immediately to the fountain head. It forms, +too, an important feature of his work, that a list +of the original sources, whence his own know<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_iv" id="Page_iv">[Pg iv]</a></span>ledge +has been drawn, is placed at the head of +each section; another is added of the principal +writers who have touched upon or illustrated the +particular portion of history under notice; both +being generally accompanied with a few words of +judicious criticism, in which the value of the +writer's authority is estimated, and his sources, +circumstances, and prejudices, briefly, but fairly +set forth. Besides this advantage, the work possesses +the merit of combining the convenience of +the Manuals with the synchronistic method of +instruction; as the geography, chronology, and +biography of the countries and states of the ancient +world are brought at once under the eye of +the reader; and so lucid is the arrangement, that +the darkest and most entangled portions of history +are seen in a clear and perspicuous light. +Professor Heeren seems, moreover, to possess in +a more eminent degree than any other writer, the +power of forcing, by a very few words, the attention +of the reader upon the most important facts +of history; and of conjuring up in his thoughts a +train of reflections calculated at once to instruct +and enlarge the mind. His work is not only admirably +adapted to become a text-book in the study +of history, but will be found equally serviceable as +a book of reference—it will guide the student in +his untried and intricate course, and enable the +more advanced scholar to methodize his collected +stores. Perhaps in no work has so much important +information been condensed into so small a +compass.</p> + +<p class="main">The estimation in which this Manual is held +on the continent, may be gathered from the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_v" id="Page_v">[Pg v]</a></span> +fact of its having passed through six large editions +in German, and two in French, and from its +having been translated into almost every language +of Europe.</p> + +<p class="main">The rapidity with which the first edition, as +well as the other writings of professor Heeren, +have sold in this country, is a proof that they only +required to be known here in order to be appreciated. +The favour with which these translations +have been received, both by the venerable author +himself and by the British public, has been a +source of the highest gratification to the publisher. +The encouragement, so kindly bestowed, has urged +him to new exertions, the fruits of which, he trusts, +will be observable in the present volume. The +Manual has not only been revised and corrected +throughout, but has also been diligently compared +with the German, and has received such ameliorations +as the original text or the English style +seemed to demand. When it is added to this +that a very numerous body of corrections and +improvements have been sent to the publisher by +professor Heeren himself, who has patiently examined +the translation expressly for this edition, +he trusts that the public will be satisfied that it is +as faithful a copy of the original work as the nature +of things will allow.</p> + +<p class="main">In the preface to the last edition of this Manual +the publisher announced his intention, should it +be favourably received, of following it up by the +publication of another elaborate work of the same +author, viz. A Manual of the History of the +States of Modern Europe and their Colonies, +as forming one political System. This work will<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_vi" id="Page_vi">[Pg vi]</a></span> +now very shortly appear. As an apology for the +delay which has taken place, he begs to call to +their notice another equally important work by +the same author, which he has published in the +mean time; the Historical Researches into the +Politics, Intercourse, and Trade of the Carthaginians, +Ethiopians, and Egyptians, with a general +introduction; the remainder of this work, containing +the Historical Researches into the Politics, +Intercourse, and Trade of the Ancient Asiatic +Nations—the Persians, Phœnicians, Babylonians, +Scythians, and Hindoos, will appear in a few +weeks.</p> + +<p class="main">To add to the usefulness of the work, an analysis +of the contents, with dates, has been given +in the margin. The † prefixed to some of the +books denote that they are written in German.</p> + +<p class="noin"> + <span class="smcap">Oxford</span>,<br /> + <i>March</i>, 1833.</p> + + + +<hr style="width: 100%;" /> +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_vii" id="Page_vii">[Pg vii]</a></span></p> +<h3>PROFESSOR HEEREN'S WORKS.</h3> + +<div class="sblockquot"> +<p class="main">The following catalogue of the historical works of Professor Heeren, +has been sent to the Publisher by the Professor himself. They are +uniformly printed in German, in 15 vols. 8vo. and may always be had +together or separate of the publisher of this volume.</p> +<p> </p> + +<p class="iblockquot">VOL. I. II. III. Vermischte historische Schriften. (Miscellaneous Historical +Pieces).</p> + +<p class="iblockquot">VOL. I. Einleitung. Biographische Nachrichten über den Verfasser. +(Biographical Sketch of Heeren's Life, by himself.)<br /> + + 1. Entwickelung der politischen Folgen der Reformation für +Europa. (Development of the Consequences of the Reformation +to the Politics of Europe).<br /> + + 2. * Versuch einer Entwickelung des Ursprungs und Fortganges +der britischen Continental-interesse. (Essay on the Rise and +Progress of the British Continental interests). A translation of this +Essay will be appended to the Manual of the History of Modern +Europe, see vol. viii. ix. below.<br /> + + 3. Ueber den Einfluss der politischen Theorien auf Europa. +(Of the Influence of Political Theories on Europe).</p> + +<p class="iblockquot">VOL. II. 1. Ueber die Erhaltung der Nationalität besiegter Völker. +(On the Method of Preserving the Nationality of Conquered States.) +Written in 1810, and suppressed by the French.<br /> + + 2. Entwickelung der Folgen der Kreuzzüge für Europa. (Development +of the Effects of the Crusades upon Europe: An essay +which obtained the prize of the French Institute in 1808.<br /> + + 3. Ueber den Einfluss der Normannen auf die französische +Sprache und Poësie. (On the Influence of the Normans on the +French Language and Poetry).<br /> + + 4. Ueber die Colonisation von Ægypten, und ihre Folgen für +Europa. (On the Colonisation of Egypt, and its Probable Consequences +to Europe).<br /> + + 5. Der deutsche Bund in seinen Verhaltnisse zu Europa. (The +Influence of the German Federation upon Europe).</p> + +<p class="iblockquot">VOL. III. 1. Ueber den historischen Werth der Biographien Plutarch's. +(On the Historical Value of Plutarch's Lives).<br /> + + 2. Geschichte der bürgerlichen Unruhen der Gracchen. (History +of the Civil Commotions under the Gracchi).<br /> + + 3. Fünf archæologische und antiquarische Aufsätze. (Five Archæological +and Antiquarian Tracts).</p> +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_viii" id="Page_viii">[Pg viii]</a></span></p> +<p class="iblockquot">VOL. IV. V. Geschichte der classischen Litteratur im Mittelalter. +(History of Classical Literature During the Middle Ages).</p> + +<p class="iblockquot">VOL. VI. Biographische und litterarische Denkschriften. (Biographical +and Literary Memoirs).<br /> + + 1. Christian Gottlob. Hëyne, biographisch dargestellt. (Biographical +Memoir of Heyne), the father-in-law of Heeren.<br /> + + 2. Andenken an deutsche Historiker. (Memoirs of German +Historians.)</p> + +<p class="iblockquot">VOL. VII. * Handbuch der Geschichte der Staaten des Alterthums. +(Manual of Ancient History, of which this volume is the second +edition of the English translation).</p> + +<p class="iblockquot">VOL. VIII. IX. * Handbuch der Geschichte der europäische Staaten-systems +und seiner Colonien. (Manual of the History of the European +States-system and their Colonies).</p> + +<p class="iblockquot">VOL. X. * Ideen ueber die Politik, den Verkehr und den Handel des +vornehmsten Staaten der alten Welt. (Researches into the Politics, +Intercourse, and Trade of the Principal States of Antiquity,—Asiatic +Nations). 1. General Introduction; 2. Persians.</p> + +<p class="iblockquot">VOL. XI. * Ideen, etc. (Asiatic Nations). 1. Phœnicians; 2. Babylonians; +3. Scythians.</p> + +<p class="iblockquot">VOL. XII. * Ideen, etc. (Asiatic Nations). Indians.</p> + +<p class="iblockquot">VOL. XIII. * Ideen, etc. (African Nations). 1. Carthaginians; 2. +Ethiopians.</p> + +<p class="iblockquot">VOL. XIV. * Ideen, etc. (African Nations). Egyptians.</p> + +<p class="iblockquot">VOL. XV. * Ideen, etc. (European Nations). Greeks.</p> + +<p> </p> +<p class="main">Those with a * prefixed are translated into English, and are either +now published or will very shortly be so.</p> +</div> + + + +<hr style="width: 100%;" /> +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_ix" id="Page_ix">[Pg ix]</a></span></p> +<h2>PREFACE</h2> + +<h3>TO THE FIRST EDITION.</h3> + + +<p class="main">In adding to the number of Manuals on Ancient +History already published, I feel myself bound +to give an account of the plan on which the present +has been executed.</p> + +<p class="main">It was at first designed to be used in my +public lectures, and from them it has grown up +to what it now is. In them I did not consider it +necessary to state all we know or think we know +of ancient history. Many facts highly interesting +to the learned historian are not adapted for public +lectures. It was therefore my great object to +make choice of such incidents as ought to be +known by my pupils in order to the effectual +prosecution of their historical studies. Consequently +I have not extended my labours so far as +to give an historical account of every nation, but +have limited myself to those most remarkable for +their general civilization and political eminence.</p> + +<p class="main">The subjects to which I have particularly directed +my attention are, the formation of states, +the changes in their constitution, the routes by +which commerce was carried on, the share which +the different nations respectively took in its pursuit, +and, as immediately connected with that<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_x" id="Page_x">[Pg x]</a></span> +department, their extension severally by means of +colonies.</p> + +<p class="main">The favourable reception which my larger work, +executed after a different plan, has met with, +would lead me to hope for a like indulgence in +this new attempt, even if the spirit of the age did +not so loudly call upon every historian to direct +his chief attention to these subjects. And for +this reason I could not rest satisfied with a mere +detail of isolated facts, but have made it my study +to follow the course of events, linking them into +one connected chain; so as to represent them in +a condensed form by continually and carefully +forcing together the main circumstances which +contributed to the development of the whole.</p> + +<p class="main">Without this, history in general would be but +a lifeless study, more especially that of republics, +which were so numerous in ancient times, and +which, from their constitution being made up of +political parties, everywhere present the most +difficult problems for the historian's solution. Of +all the larger divisions of my work, the arrangement +of the Greek history I have found most troublesome, +on account of the number of little states +into which it is sub-divided. Historians, indeed, +lighten this labour by confining themselves merely +to Athens and Sparta; but by so doing they give +us a very imperfect knowledge of the subject. I +have endeavoured to surmount the difficulty by +throwing the account of the smaller states and +their colonies into the second period; by which +means I have been able in the third and most +important portion, the interest of which depends +entirely upon the principal states, to carry on my<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_xi" id="Page_xi">[Pg xi]</a></span> +history, as a whole without interruption. But in +case others, who wish to make this Manual the +groundwork of their lectures, should dislike this +arrangement, they may very easily attach these +notices to the introductory geographical survey; a +plan I very often adopt in my own lectures. Upon +the arrangement of the other parts, I am not aware +of the necessity of making any observations. The +sources from which I have drawn my materials +are specified in every section. Particular references +do not come within my plan; and if I have +referred several times in the first two sections to +my larger work, it is only on particular points, +explanations of which may be sought for in vain +elsewhere.</p> + +<p class="main">Some knowledge of ancient geography and +the use of maps<a name="FNanchor_A_1" id="FNanchor_A_1"></a><a href="#Footnote_A_1" class="fnanchor">[a]</a>, if it has not been previously +acquired by the student, should, I am convinced, +always be connected with lectures on ancient +history. That this need not extend to detailed +explanations of ancient geography, but that it +should be restricted to what is merely useful in +the study of history, I have observed in the body +of my work. The geographical chapters which +are interspersed having been written with this +intent, will, I hope, be judged of accordingly. +I have taken care to arrange them so as to include +the whole of the ancient world; it depends, +therefore, only upon the teacher to form a more +or less extensive course upon them.</p> + +<p class="main">With regard to chronology, I have followed +throughout the same uniform plan of computing<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_xii" id="Page_xii">[Pg xii]</a></span> +time, viz. to and from the birth of Christ. By +preferring this method, so convenient and certain, +to the inconvenient and uncertain one of reckoning +from the year of the world, I hope I have deserved +the thanks of my readers. I relinquish, +on the other hand, all claim to merit on the score +of having more accurately defined the chronology +of events which occur before the time of Cyrus. +I have, on the contrary, in this part of my labour, +often stated round numbers, where, in many +modern publications, precise dates may be found. +Exact determinations of time are only necessary, +in my opinion, where a continuous development +of circumstances takes place; not where unconnected +facts are recorded.</p> + +<p class="main">The transactions of our own times have thrown +a light upon ancient history, and given it an interest +which it could not formerly possess. A +knowledge of history, if not the only, is at least +the most certain means of obtaining a clear and +unprejudiced view of the great drama now performing +around us. All direct comparisons, notwithstanding +the many opportunities which have +tempted me, I considered as foreign to my plan; +but if, notwithstanding in some chapters of my +work, particularly in the history of the Roman republic, +I may be thought to make a reference to +the transactions of the ten years during which +this work has been published, I do not consider +it necessary to offer any excuse for so doing. Of +what use is the study of history if it do not make +us wiser and better? unless the knowledge of the +past teach us to judge more correctly of the present? +Should I have contributed in any measure<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_xiii" id="Page_xiii">[Pg xiii]</a></span> +to promote this object, and should I be so fortunate +as to lead the minds of my young friends to +a deeper study of a science which can only in this +way reward its admirers, I shall esteem it the most +delightful recompense my labour can receive.</p> + +<p><small> +GOETTINGEN, Sept. 23, 1799.<br /> +</small></p> + + +<div class="footnote"><p class="main"><a name="Footnote_A_1" id="Footnote_A_1"></a><a href="#FNanchor_A_1"><span class="label">[a]</span></a> I have made use of D'Anville.</p></div> + + +<hr style="width: 100%;" /> +<h2>PREFACE</h2> + +<h3>TO THE SECOND AND FOLLOWING EDITIONS.</h3> + + +<p class="main">The call for a second edition of my Manual imposes +upon me an obligation to supply the deficiencies +of my former work. Corrections have +been carefully made, and many parts completely +re-written. A select list of books which treat of +the respective departments of my subject is now +first added; the former edition containing only +references to the sources from which my facts +were derived. This, I trust, will be considered an +essential service to the friends of historical science, +more especially the young, for whom and +not for the learned these additions have been +made. Their use in this place is particularly +obvious, where it is in every one's power to procure +the books referred to<a name="FNanchor_B_2" id="FNanchor_B_2"></a><a href="#Footnote_B_2" class="fnanchor">[b]</a>. The short criticisms +subjoined, where it seemed necessary, will serve +as guides for their use. In the author's depart<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_xiv" id="Page_xiv">[Pg xiv]</a></span>ment +of the work but little has been changed, +while its form and appearance have been improved +by the use of different types, by more accurate +running titles, and by ranging the dates in +the margin. By the adoption of the latter method +the increase in the number of pages is rendered +inconsiderable, notwithstanding the numerous additions +which have been made to the matter. In +its arrangement, this work is the same as my +Manual of the History of the European States +and their Colonies. Beyond this, however, these +works have no relation to each other, but have +been executed upon quite different principles; the +present as a history of the <i>separate</i> states of the +ancient world, and the other as a general history +of modern states and their colonies, as forming +altogether one political system. Each, however, +forms a complete work in itself, and it is by no +means my intention to fill up the gulf which time +has placed between them.</p> + +<p class="main">I regret that the acute researches of M. Volney<a name="FNanchor_C_3" id="FNanchor_C_3"></a><a href="#Footnote_C_3" class="fnanchor">[c]</a>, +upon the chronology of Herodotus before +the time of Cyrus, came too late into my hands +to be made use of in its proper place in my +second edition. In the third this has been +done. I lay claim, at the same time, to the +thanks of the reader for giving, in an Appendix, +the results of these researches, together with +references to the passages by which they are +supported; leaving out, however, all extraneous +matter, and everything that cannot be proved by +the positive assertions of the father of history.</p> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_xv" id="Page_xv">[Pg xv]</a></span></p> +<p class="main">I cannot close this preface without again recurring +to the advantage of the mode now becoming +more and more general, of computing +time in ancient history according to the number +of years before Christ. The fact of its being certain +and convenient has often been remarked; but +besides this it possesses the great advantage of +giving us at once a clear and precise notion of the +interval that separates us from the incidents recorded; +which it is impossible to obtain by the +use of any other era, whether the year of the +world, the olympiads, or the year of Rome, etc. +And yet this peculiar advantage, so great in the +eyes of the teacher, has not, to the best of my +knowledge, been hitherto made the subject of remark. +Even for the science of history itself, this +circumstance is of greater moment than might be +at first supposed. Should an enquirer arise who +would closely examine all ancient history according +to this era—setting out from the generally received +year of the birth of Christ as from a fixed +point, to which the labours of M. Volney are a +good beginning—the whole science would thereby +acquire a firmer consistency. For by this method +all dates would not appear equally certain and +equally uncertain, as they do in the eras which +are computed from the year of the world; but it +would be shown what is chronologically certain, +what only probable, and what completely uncertain, +according as we should recede from the +clearer into the more obscure regions of history. +The old manner of reckoning from the year of the +world, in which congruity was impossible, because +there was no agreement upon the point to<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_xvi" id="Page_xvi">[Pg xvi]</a></span> +start from, would certainly be thrown aside; but +where is the harm if something better and more +certain be substituted in its place?</p> + +<p class="main">In the third, fourth, fifth, and sixth editions, +though the increase in the number of pages is +small, yet all those additions and corrections +which I deemed necessary, and which the progress +of knowledge and discovery, as in the case +of Egypt and other countries, enabled me to +effect, have been most carefully and fully made. +The importance of these will be best seen by +comparison.</p> + +<p><small><i>Goettingen</i>, 1828.</small></p> + + + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p class="main"><a name="Footnote_B_2" id="Footnote_B_2"></a><a href="#FNanchor_B_2"><span class="label">[b]</span></a> [The author alludes to the public library at Goettingen. <span class="smcap">Tr</span>.]</p> + +<p class="main"><a name="Footnote_C_3" id="Footnote_C_3"></a><a href="#FNanchor_C_3"><span class="label">[c]</span></a> Chronologie d'Herodote, conforme à son Texte par C. F. Volney. Paris, +1809, 3 vols. See the <i>Gött. Gel. Anz.</i> for 1810 and 1816.</p> +</div> + +<hr style="width: 100%;" /> +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_xvii" id="Page_xvii">[Pg xvii]</a></span></p> +<h2>CONTENTS.</h2> + + + +<div class='center'> +<table border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" summary=""> +<tr><td align='left'> </td><td align='right'><small>Page</small></td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Introduction</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_1">1</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'><a href="#FIRST_BOOK">Book I.</a> Asiatic and African states previous to Cyrus</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_15">15</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>General geographical outline of Asia</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_15">ib.</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Preliminary and General Observations upon the History and Constitution of the great Asiatic Empires</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_22">22</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>History of the ancient Asiatic kingdoms before the reign of Cyrus</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_25">25</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'> I. Assyrian monarchy</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_25">ib.</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'> II. Median monarchy</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_26">26</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'> III. Babylonian monarchy</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_27">27</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'> IV. States in Asia Minor</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_29">29</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'> 1. Trojan empire</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_29">ib.</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'> 2. Phrygian empire</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_29">ib.</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'> 3. Lydian empire</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_29">ib.</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'> V. Phœnicia</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_30">30</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'> VI. Syrians</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_33">33</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'> VII. Jews</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_34">34</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'> 1. Period of the Nomad state from Abraham till the conquest of Palestine</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_35">35</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'> 2. Period of the federative republic</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_36">36</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'> 3. Period of the monarchy from B. C. 1100—600</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_38">38</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'> The Jewish state as one single kingdom</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_38">ib.</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'> The Jewish state as a divided kingdom</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_40">40</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>African Nations</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_45">45</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>General geographical outline of Ancient Africa</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_45">ib.</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'> I. Egyptians</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_47">47</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'> 1st Period. From the earliest times down to the Sesostridæ, about B. C. 1500</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_51">51</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'> 2nd Period. From the Sesostridæ till the sole dominion of Psammetichus, B. C. 1500—650</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_62">62</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'> 3rd Period. From the reign of Psammetichus to the Persian conquest of Egypt by Cambyses, B. C. 650—525</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_69">69</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'> II. Carthaginians</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_73">73</a><span class='pagenum'>[Pg xviii]</span></td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'> 1st Period. From the foundation of Carthage to the wars with Syracuse, B. C. 880—480</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_74">74</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'> 2nd Period. From the breaking out of the wars with Syracuse to the commencement of those with Rome, B. C. 480—264</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_80">80</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'> 3rd Period. From the beginning of the wars with Rome to the downfal of Carthage, B. C. 264—146</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_82">82</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'><a href="#SECOND_BOOK">Book II.</a> History of the Persian empire from B. C. 560—330</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_90">90</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'><a href="#THIRD_BOOK">Book III.</a> History of the Grecian states</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_112">112</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Geographical outline of Greece</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_112">ib.</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'> 1st Period. Traditional history down to the Trojan war, about B. C. 1200</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_118">118</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'> 2nd Period. From the Trojan war to the breaking out of the Persian war, B. C. 1200—500</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_127">127</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>History of the Hellenic states within Greece</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_127">ib.</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'> General history</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_127">ib.</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'> Sparta</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_131">131</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'> Athens</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_136">136</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Principal data for the history of the smaller states:</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>I. Within the Peloponnesus:</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'> <i>a.</i> Arcadia</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_142">142</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'> <i>b.</i> Argos</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_142">ib.</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'> <i>c.</i> Corinth</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_143">143</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'> <i>d.</i> Sicyon</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_144">144</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'> <i>e.</i> Achaia</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_144">ib.</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'> <i>f.</i> Elis</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_145">145</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>II. Central Greece, or Hellas:</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'> <i>a.</i> Megaris</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_146">146</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'> <i>b.</i> Bœotia</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_147">147</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'> <i>c.</i> Phocis</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_148">148</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'> <i>d.</i> Locris</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_148">ib.</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'> <i>e.</i> Ætolia</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_148">ib.</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'> <i>f.</i> Acarnania</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_149">149</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>III. Northern Greece:</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'> <i>a.</i> Thessaly</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_149">149</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'> <i>b.</i> Epirus</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_150">150</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>IV. Grecian Islands:</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'> <i>a.</i> Corcyra</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_151">151</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'> <i>b.</i> Ægina</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_151">ib.</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'> <i>c.</i> Eubœa</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_152">152</a><span class='pagenum'>[Pg xix]</span></td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'> <i>d.</i> The Cyclades</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_152">ib.</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'> <i>e.</i> Crete</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_152">ib.</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'> <i>f.</i> Cyprus</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_154">154</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>History of the Grecian colonies</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_155">155</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>General observations</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_155">ib.</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Colonies on the Western coast of Asia Minor:</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_157">157</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'> 1. Æolian colonies</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_158">158</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'> 2. Ionian colonies</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_159">159</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'> 3. Dorian colonies</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_161">161</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Colonies on the coast of the Propontis and the Black sea</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_162">162</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Colonies on the coasts of Thrace and Macedonia</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_163">163</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Colonies on the western coast of Greece</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_164">164</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Grecian settlements in Lower Italy:</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'> <i>a.</i> Tarentum</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_165">165</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'> <i>b.</i> Croton</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_166">166</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'> <i>c.</i> Sybaris</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_166">ib.</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'> <i>d.</i> Thurii</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_167">167</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'> <i>e.</i> Locri Epizephyrii</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_167">ib.</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'> <i>f.</i> Rhegium</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_168">168</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'> <i>g.</i> Cumæ</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_168">ib.</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Grecian settlements in Sicily:</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'> <i>a.</i> Syracuse</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_169">169</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'> <i>b.</i> Agrigentum</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_174">174</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'> <i>c.</i> The smaller Sicilian cities</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_175">175</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Colonies in Sardinia and Corsica</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_175">ib.</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Colonies in Gaul;—Massilia</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_176">176</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Colonies in Spain;—Saguntum</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_176">ib.</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Colonies in Africa;—Cyrene</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_176">ib.</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Period III. From the breaking out of the Persian wars to Alexander the Great, B. C. 500—336</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_178">178</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'><a href="#FOURTH_BOOK">Book IV.</a> History of the Macedonian Monarchy:</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Period I. From its origin to the death of Alexander the Great, B. C. 800—323</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_206">206</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Period II. History of the Macedonian monarchy, from the death of Alexander the Great to the battle of Ipsus, B. C. 323—301</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_222">222</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Period III. History of the separate kingdoms and states which arose out of the dismemberment of the Macedonian monarchy, after the battle of Ipsus</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_232">232</a><span class='pagenum'>[Pg xx]</span></td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'> I. History of the Syrian empire under the Seleucidæ B. C. 312—64</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_232">232</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'> II. History of the Egyptian kingdom under the Ptolemies, B. C. 323—30</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_247">247</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'> III. History of Macedonia itself and of Greece, from the death of Alexander to the Roman conquest, B. C. 323—146</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_268">268</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'> Achæan league</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_280">280</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'> Ætolian league</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_279">279</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'> IV. History of some smaller or more distant kingdoms and states formed out of the Macedonian monarchy</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_290">290</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'> The kingdom of Pergamus</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_291">291</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'> Bithynia</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_293">293</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'> Paphlagonia</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_294">294</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'> Pontus</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_295">295</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'> Cappadocia</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_297">297</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'> Armenia</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_298">298</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'> The kingdom of Parthia</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_299">299</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'> The kingdom of Bactria</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_305">305</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'> The restored kingdom of the Jews</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_306">306</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'> 1. Under the Persians</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_307">307</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'> 2. Under the Ptolemies and Seleucidæ</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_308">308</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'> 3. Under the Maccabees</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_309">309</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'> 4. Under the family of Herod</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_311">311</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'><a href="#FIFTH_BOOK">Book V.</a> History of the Roman state:</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Introductory remarks on the Geography of Ancient Italy</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_314">314</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'> Period I. From the foundation of Rome to the conquest of Italy, and the commencement of the wars with Carthage, B. C. 754—264, or A. U. C. 1—490</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_321">321</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'> Period II. From the commencement of the war with Carthage to the rise of the civil broils under the Gracchi, B. C. 264—134, or A. U. C. 490—620</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_339">339</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'> Period III. From the beginning of the civil broils under the Gracchi to the fall of the republic, B. C. 134—30, or A. U. C. 620—724</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_362">362</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'> Period IV. History of the Roman state as a monarchy till the overthrow of the western empire, B. C. 30—A. C. 476</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_402">402</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'><span class='pagenum'>[Pg xxi]</span>Geographical outline. View of the Roman empire and provinces, and other countries connected with it by war or commerce</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_402">ib.</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'> 1st Section. From Augustus Cæsar to the death of Commodus, B. C. 30—A. C. 193</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_411">411</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'> 2nd Section. From the death of Commodus to Diocletian, A. C. 193—284</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_437">437</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'> 3rd Section. From Diocletian to the overthrow of the Roman empire in the west, A. C. 284—476</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_454">454</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Appendix. Chronology of Herodotus from the time of Cyrus, according to Volney</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_475">475</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Genealogical Table of the reigning houses of Macedon</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_481">481</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Genealogical Table of the reigning houses of the Seleucidæ</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_482">482</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Genealogical Table of the reigning houses of the Ptolemies</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_483">483</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Genealogical Table of the reigning houses of the Jews</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_484">484</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Genealogical Table of the reigning houses of the Cæsars</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_485">485</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Genealogical Table of the reigning houses of Constantine</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_486">486</a></td></tr> +</table></div> + + + +<hr style="width: 100%;" /> +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_xxii" id="Page_xxii">[Pg xxii]</a></span></p> +<h5>OXFORD: PRINTED BY TALBOYS AND BROWNE.</h5> + + + +<hr style="width: 100%;" /> +<h1>MANUAL</h1> + +<h4>OF</h4> + +<h1>ANCIENT HISTORY.</h1> + + + +<hr style="width: 100%;" /> +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_1" id="Page_1">[Pg 1]</a></span></p> +<h2>INTRODUCTION.</h2> + + +<div class="sblockquot"><p>I. The sources of ancient history may be ranged under two +heads; the ancient writers, and the monuments still extant. +The various writers will be mentioned in their proper places, at +the different divisions of this work. A general view of the ancient +monuments, so far as they are sources of history, will be found in:</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Oberlin</span>, <i>Orbis antiqui monumentis suis illustrati primæ lineæ</i>. +Argentorati, 1790. Extremely defective, as many discoveries +have been made since it was published.</p> + +<p>II. <span class="smcap">General Treatises on Ancient History.</span></p> + +<p>1. <i>The more voluminous works</i> on the subject. These may be +divided in two classes: <i>a.</i> The part appropriated to ancient history, +in the general treatises on universal history; <i>b.</i> Works exclusively +devoted to ancient history.</p> + +<p><i>a.</i> To the first class belong:</p> + +<p><i>The Universal History, ancient and modern; with maps and +additions.</i> Lond. 1736, 26 vols. folio. Reprinted in 8vo. in +67 vols. and again in 60 vols. with omissions and additions.</p> + +<p>This work, compiled by a society of British scholars, has been +translated into German, and illustrated with remarks, by <span class="smcap">Siegm. +Jac. Baumgarten</span>. Halle, 1746, 4to. The Germans frequently +designate it by the name of the Halle Universal History of the +World: the first eighteen vols. comprise the ancient part.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Will. Guthrie, John Gray</span>, <i>etc.</i> <i>General History of the +World, from the creation to the present time.</i> London, 1764—1767, +12 vols. 8vo. This work, of no estimation in the original, +is rendered valuable and useful by the labours of the German +translator, <span class="smcap">C. G. Heyne</span>, (<i>Leip.</i> 1766, 8vo.) who has corrected +the errors, inserted the dates, and added his own observations.</p> + +<p><i>b.</i> To the second class belong:</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Rollin</span>, <i>Histoire ancienne des Egyptiens, des Carthaginois, +des Assyriens, des Mèdes el des Perses, des Macédoniens, des<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_2" id="Page_2">[Pg 2]</a></span> +Grecs.</i> Paris, 1824, 12 vols. 8vo.; revue par <span class="smcap">Letronne</span>: the +last and best edition. This work, which greatly promoted the +study of ancient history in France, still maintains its well-earned +reputation. [It was translated into English, 1768: best edition, +7 vols. 8vo.: frequently reprinted.] The above is generally accompanied +by the <i>Histoire Romaine</i> of the same author. See +below, book v. first period, <i>Sources</i>.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Jac. Ben. Bossuet</span>, <i>Discours sur l'Histoire Universelle</i>. +Paris, 1680, 3 vols. Frequently reprinted, being considered by +the French one of their classics.</p> + +<p>[English translation, by <span class="smcap">Rich. Spencer</span>. London, 1730, 8vo.]</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Millot</span>, <i>Elémens de l'Histoire Générale</i>. Paris, 1772, sq. +[Translated into English, 1778, 2 vols. 8vo.: and again, an improved +edition, with additions.] Edinb. 1823, 6 vols. 8vo. The +ancient history is contained in the first two volumes.</p> + +<p>†<span class="smcap">Joh. Matth. Schroeckh</span>, <i>General History of the World</i>, +for the use of children. Leipzic, 1779, sq. 6 vols.</p> + +<p>†<span class="smcap">J. G. Eichhorn</span>, <i>History of the Ancient World</i>, 1799, third +edition, 1817. (First part of the History of the World.)</p> + +<p>†<span class="smcap">Dan. G. J. Huebler</span>, <i>Sketch of the General History of the +Nations of Antiquity, from the birth of states to the end of the +Roman commonwealth</i>. Freyberg, 1798—1802. Five parts; +and a continuation: <i>History of the Romans under the Emperors, +and of the contemporary Nations, until the great migration</i>, 1803; +three parts. A work rendered extremely useful, by the judicious +advantage taken by the author of the labours of other writers.</p> + +<p>†<span class="smcap">H. Luden</span>, <i>General History of Nations</i>. 1814; three parts.</p> + +<p>†<span class="smcap">L. Von Dresch</span>, <i>General Political History</i>. 1815; three +parts. In each of the above works the first part contains the +ancient history, and exhibits the more modern views of the +subject.</p> + +<p>[The following is added, as well deserving the attention of the +English student: <span class="smcap">Ralegh</span> (Sir <span class="smcap">Walter</span>) <i>History of the World, +Part I. extending to the end of the Macedonian Empire; with his +Life and Trial, by Mr. Oldys</i>. Lond. 1736, 2 vols. folio. Formerly +the best edition; but a new and improved one has been +printed at the Clarendon press. Oxford, 1829, 8 vols. 8vo.]</p> + +<p>†<span class="smcap">F. Von Raumer</span>, <i>Lectures on Ancient History</i>, parts 1, 2. +Berlin, 1821.</p> + +<p>Works furnishing illustrations of the progressive civilization, +government, and commerce of early nations, although, strictly +speaking, not treatises on ancient history, are nevertheless very<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_3" id="Page_3">[Pg 3]</a></span> +closely connected with the subject. Among these may be mentioned:</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Goguet</span>, <i>De l'Origine des Lois, des Arts, et des Sciences, et de +leurs progrès chèz les anciens peuples; nouv. édit</i>. Paris, 1778. +[Translated by Dr. <span class="smcap">Dunn</span> and Mr. <span class="smcap">Speerman</span>. Edinb. 1761—1775, +3 vols. 8vo.]</p> + +<p>†<span class="smcap">A. H. L. Heeren</span>, <i>Reflections on the Politics, Intercourse, +and Trade of the most eminent Nations in the Ancient World</i>. +Third edition, with many additions. Gottingen, 1815, 8vo.; the +third part, 1821. Fourth edition. Gottingen, 1824. [This edition, +the last, contains many improvements and additions, suggested +by the great discoveries of modern travellers. Part I, +Asiatic Nations, in 3 vols. Persians, Phœnicians, Babylonians, +Scythians, Indians. An English translation of which is at this +moment in the press. Part II, African Nations, 2 vols. Carthaginians, +Ethiopians, Egyptians. Part III, European Nations; +of which only 1 volume, Greeks, has been published.]</p> + +<p>2. <i>Manuals</i>, or epitomes.</p> + +<p>The Germans are entitled to the merit of having first produced +manuals of ancient history, all of them useful, some excellent, in +their kind: they are a result of the progress made in this science +at the universities.</p> + +<p>†<span class="smcap">J. Chr. Gatterer</span>, <i>Attempt at an Universal History of the +World to the discovery of America</i>. Gottingen, 1792. He who +possesses this, the last and ripest fruit of Gatterer's studies, may +dispense with the earlier manuals published by that author.</p> + +<p>†<span class="smcap">Chr. Dan. Beck</span>, <i>A Short Introduction to the Knowledge +of the Universal History of the World and of Nature</i>. Leipzic, +1798. The first part connected with our subject extends to +A. D. 843. This volume is enriched with such a copious and +critical account of books relating to ancient history, that it may +supply the place of a particular work on the subject.</p> + +<p>†<span class="smcap">J. A. Remer</span>, <i>Manual of the more Ancient History, from the +creation of the world to the great migration</i>. Fourth edition. +Brunswick, 1832.</p> + +<p>†<span class="smcap">J. M. Schroeckh</span>, <i>Manual of Universal History</i>. 1774: +latest edition, 1795.</p> + +<p>†<span class="smcap">G. S. Bredow</span>, <i>Manual of Ancient History, with a sketch of +the chronology of the ancients</i>. Altona, 1799, 8vo. [Translated +into English. Lond. 1828, 12mo. In English we have:</p> + +<p><i>The Outlines of History</i>, in 1 vol. (forming part of Lardner's +Cabinet Cyclopædia) by Mr. <span class="smcap">Keightly</span>, author of a learned and<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_4" id="Page_4">[Pg 4]</a></span> +highly useful work on Grecian Mythology, is a convenient +abridgement. <span class="smcap">Tytler's</span> <i>Elements of General History</i>, improved +and continued by Dr. <span class="smcap">Nares</span>. Lond. 1825, best edition; owes +its reputation and success to the want of a better work on the +subject.]</p> + +<p>3. <i>Helps.</i></p> + +<p>Among the works subservient to the study of ancient history, +the first rank is justly due to the synchronistic tables.</p> + +<p>†<span class="smcap">D. G. J. Huebler</span>, <i>Synchronistic Tables of the History of +Nations</i>; arranged principally according to <span class="smcap">Gatterer's</span> <i>History +of the World</i>. In two numbers. Second edit. 1799 and 1804.</p></div> + +<div class="sidenote">Object of history.</div> + +<p>1. The object of <span class="smcap">Political History</span> +is to recount the destinies of nations, both in respect to +their foreign relations and internal affairs. In regard +to domestic concerns, one of its most important +objects is the <i>history of governments</i>: in +respect to external affairs, it comprises not only +an account of the wars, but likewise of the friendly +relations and intercourse with other states.</p> + +<div class="sblockquot"><p>Observe here the difference between universal history, or general +history of the human race, and the history of nations; the +latter forms part of the former. Observe also the difference between +political history and that of civilization, or of man as a +human being: the latter is merely the history of man, as man, +without regard to political circumstances.</p></div> + +<div class="sidenote">Divided into three parts:<br /> +first, to A. D. 500,<br /> +second, to A. D. 1500,<br /> +third, to our own times.</div> + +<p>2. Universal political history is usually +divided into three parts: <i>ancient history</i>, that of the <i>middle +ages</i>, and <i>modern history</i>. +The first extends to the fall of the Roman empire in the west, which took +place towards the close of the fifth century of the christian era; +the second extends to the discovery of America, and of a passage by sea to the +East Indies, about the end of the fifteenth century; +the third extends from the commencement of the sixteenth century +to the present time.</p> + +<div class="sblockquot"><p>The propriety of the above division is evinced by the nature of +the events which form these epochs. The student will easily<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_5" id="Page_5">[Pg 5]</a></span> +perceive that the division of history, into that before and after +the birth of Christ, is not judicious.</p></div> + +<div class="sidenote">Commencement +of +political +history.</div> + +<p>3. From the definition just given, it follows, +that political history does not commence till after +the first formation of states. Whatever is known, +therefore, of the period previous to this, or may +be gathered from traditions, respecting individuals +or tribes, or their migrations, affinities, or discoveries, +forms no part of political history, but must +be referred to the general history of man.</p> + +<div class="sblockquot"><p>It is well known that a great deal of information has been preserved +in the sacred writings concerning the early fortunes of +the human race. From these materials have been compiled what +has been called an <i>Historia Antediluviana</i>, sometimes considered +as forming a separate division of history. What has been said +above will satisfactorily account for the omission of this portion +of history in the present work; although none can deny the high +importance of such traditions in the investigation of the origin, +dispersion, and civilization of the human race.</p></div> + +<div class="sidenote">Sources of +history:</div> + +<p>4. The sources of history may be ranged under sources of +two general heads; <i>oral traditions</i>, and <i>written documents</i> +of various kinds. The history of every +nation usually commences with oral tradition, +which remains the only source, until the art of +writing becomes known, and in some degree +adopted by the people.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">mythology,</div> + +<p>5. Under the name of <i>traditional history</i> or <i>mythology</i>, +is comprehended all the general collection +of oral traditions preserved by a nation; and +some such traditional history or mythology is to +be found among every people in the first stage of +their existence as a community. This mythology, +however, is by no means confined to events strictly +historical, but embraces every branch of information +which may appear to a nation in its infancy,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_6" id="Page_6">[Pg 6]</a></span> +of sufficient importance to be preserved and handed +down to posterity.</p> + +<div class="sblockquot"><p>Hence the mythology of a people is invariably composed of +very heterogeneous materials; it not only preserves the remembrance +of various kinds of historical facts, but likewise the pervading +ideas of the people with respect to the nature and worship +of their deities; as well as the notions they had formed from +observations and experience respecting astronomy, morals, the +arts, etc. All these are handed down in the form of historical +narrative; because man, as yet unpractised in abstract thinking, +necessarily represents every thing to his mind under the figure +of some physical object. It is just as useless, therefore, to attempt +to mould the mythology of any people into a consistent +and connected whole, or indeed into any scientific system whatsoever, +as it is difficult to draw a strict line between what belongs +to mythology, and what to pure history. It follows, therefore, that +mythology should be employed by the historian with great caution; +and not without judicious criticism, and an accurate knowledge +of antiquity.</p> + +<p>These correct views of mythology,—the key to the whole of +earlier antiquity,—were first set forth and illustrated by Heyne, +in his commentaries upon Virgil and other poets, in his edition +of Apollodorus, and in various essays published in the Transactions +of the Gottingen Scientific Society. It is principally to +the aid of these that the Germans owe their superiority over +other nations in the science of antiquity.</p></div> + +<div class="sidenote">poetry,</div> + +<p>6. The place of writing among such nations, is +generally supplied, in a great measure, by poetry; +which being in its origin nothing more than imagery +expressed in figurative language, must spontaneously +arise among men, as yet wont to represent +every thing to their minds under the form of +images. Hence the subject matter of the poetry +of every nation, while in a state of rudeness, is +and can be nothing else but its mythology; and +the great variety in the materials of which this is +composed very naturally gave rise, at the same +early period, to various kinds of poetry; as the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_7" id="Page_7">[Pg 7]</a></span> +lyric, the didactic, the epic. The last of these, +inasmuch as it contains the historic songs and the +epopee, claims in a more especial manner the attention +of the historian.</p> + +<div class="sblockquot"><p>The mythi (or fables of which this mythology was composed) +were in later times frequently collected from the works of the +poets, and committed to writing by grammarians; such as Apollodorus +and others. This, however, can have had no effect on +their original character.</p></div> + +<div class="sidenote">written +documents,</div> + +<p>7. The second source of history, much more +copious and important than the former, are the +various kinds of written monuments. These may +be arranged according to the order of time at +which they were brought into use, into three +classes; 1st. Inscriptions on public monuments, +under which head are included the coins of later +date; 2nd. Chronological records of events, under +the form of annals and chronicles; 3rd. Real +philosophical works on history.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">inscriptions,</div> + +<p>8. Inscriptions on public monuments erected +to preserve the remembrance of certain events, +though perhaps no more than a stone set upright, +or even a bare rock, was used for that purpose, +were undoubtedly the most ancient written memorials. +These rude monuments became fashioned +by art into columns, obelisks, and pyramids, +as the taste of the nation became formed; and assumed +that definite character which local circumstances +and the natural features of the country +led it to adopt, as architecture arose and attained +to perfection among them. The very object, indeed, +for which they were erected—the commemoration +of remarkable events,—must have suggested +the practice of inscribing upon them some +particulars of the facts they were intended to per<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_8" id="Page_8">[Pg 8]</a></span>petuate. +Of this nature, no doubt, were the oldest +monuments, and more particularly those of +Egypt. Their use was much more general among +nations of a later period, especially Greece and +Rome, than among the moderns; yet of the great +mass of inscriptions still extant, but few comparatively +are of any importance as regards history.</p> + +<div class="sblockquot"><p>The characters engraved on these monuments were either symbolical +(hieroglyphics; see below under Egypt,) or alphabetical. +The invention and transmission of alphabetical writing are commonly +ascribed to the Phœnicians; although, if we may judge +by the shape of the arrow-headed character, it was made, without +communication with them, in the interior of Asia.</p> + +<p>The general collections of inscriptions are:</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Lud. Ant. Muratori</span>, <i>Novus Thesaurus veterum Inscriptionum</i>. +Mediolani, 1739, sq. 4 vols. fol. Together with <span class="smcap">Seb. Donati</span>, +<i>Supplementa</i>. Luccæ, 1764. <span class="smcap">Jan. Gruteri</span>, <i>Inscriptiones +antiquæ totius orbis Romani, cura</i> <span class="smcap">J. G. Grævii</span>. Amstel. +1707, 2 vols. fol.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">C. A. Boekhius</span>, <i>Corpus Inscriptionum Græcarum, auctoritate +et impensis Academiæ literarum Borussicæ</i>, vol. 1. 1827, +folio.</p> + +<p>Among the separate monuments, the most important for ancient +history is the Parian or Oxford Inscription, <i>Marmora Oxoniensia, +Arundeliana</i>, edited by <span class="smcap">Selden</span>, 1629; by <span class="smcap">Prideaux</span>, 1677. +The best edition is by <span class="smcap">Rich. Chandler</span>, Oxf. 1763, fol. A +useful and portable edition has been published by <span class="smcap">Fr. Ch. +Wagner</span>, <i>containing the Greek text, with a German translation +and notes</i>. Gottingen, 1790, 8vo.</p></div> + +<div class="sidenote">coins,</div> + +<p>9. Coins may likewise be regarded as a source +of ancient history, as by the light they throw upon +genealogy and chronology, the events known from +other authorities may be better arranged and understood. +The importance of coins, therefore, +becomes most sensible in those portions of history +where our information, in consequence of +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_9" id="Page_9">[Pg 9]</a></span> +the loss of the works of the original historians, is +reduced to a few insulated facts and fragments.</p> + +<div class="sblockquot"><p><span class="smcap">Ez. Spanhemii</span>, <i>Dissertatio de Usu et Præstantia Numismatum</i>. +Londini, 1707 et 1709, 2 vols. fol. The capital work, however, +on this subject, and which embraces the whole numismatic +science of antiquity is:</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Eckhel</span>, <i>De Doctrina Nummorum Veterum</i>. Viennæ, 1792—1798, +8 vols. 4to. And the epitome:</p> + +<p>† <span class="smcap">Eckhel</span>, <i>Brief Elements of Ancient Numismatics</i>. Vienna, +1707, 8vo. Another very useful work is:</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">J. C. Rasche</span>, <i>Lexicon Universæ Rei Nummariæ Veterum</i>. +1785, sq. 5 vols. 8vo.</p></div> + +<div class="sidenote">annals,</div> + +<p>10. Chronicles or annals form the second great +division of written historical monuments. These +presuppose the invention of letters, and the use +of materials for writing upon; consequently they +are of a later date than mere inscriptions. They +occur, nevertheless, in the earlier periods of nations; +and from such annals, indited by public +authority (state chronicles,) subsequent historians +have generally drawn materials for their works. +In many nations, and in nearly all the eastern +ones, history has not even yet advanced beyond +the composition of such chronicles.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">regular +histories.</div> + +<p>11. The third great division of historical writings +is formed of works composed on philosophical +principles, which differ from mere annals by their +containing not only a chronological narration of +events, but also a development of their connection +with one another, their causes and effects.</p> + +<div class="sblockquot"><p>But few nations among the moderns, and we know of none +among the ancients, except the Greeks and Romans, that had +any acquaintance with this sort of history. A fact which may +be attributed,—1st. To the government; for the more completely +the affairs of a nation are under the control of arbitrary +power and caprice, whether of one or more individuals, so much the +less apparent is a rational internal connection of events. Hence<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_10" id="Page_10">[Pg 10]</a></span> +philosophical history flourishes most under free governments; +and has not even a shadow of existence under pure despotic constitutions. +2nd. To the degree of civilization to which the nation +may have attained: for the observing and unravelling of the +political connection of events presupposes a considerable progress +in philosophical culture.</p></div> + +<div class="sidenote">Chronology +and Geography.</div> + +<p>12. Since all events are considered in reference +to the time and place in which they occur, +it follows that geography and chronology +are indispensable as auxiliary sciences in the +study of history, especially the ancient. These +sciences, however, need not, for this purpose, be +considered in their full extent and detail, but +only so far as they are of use in determining and +arranging events according to time and place. +A fixed mode of computing time is therefore necessary +in ancient history, as well as a continuous +geographical description of the countries which +were the theatres of the principal events.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">Eras.</div> + +<p>13. No method of computing time was adopted +generally in antiquity. Each nation, each state, +had its own era: yet, in the explication of ancient +history, there is an evident necessity that +some common era should be fixed upon, by which +a synchronistic view of the various events may be +obtained. For this purpose, the years may be +computed either from the creation of the world, +or before and after Christ. The latter method +has the advantage not only of greater certainty, +but also of greater convenience.</p> + +<div class="sblockquot"><p>Of the various modes of computing time, the best known are +those of the Greeks and the Romans; the former by olympiads, +the latter by years from the foundation of Rome. The era of +the olympiads commences at B. C. 776; that of the foundation +of Rome commences at B. C. 753, according to Varro; at B. C. +752, according to Cato.—The era of the Seleucidæ, in the Syrian<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_11" id="Page_11">[Pg 11]</a></span> +empire, commences with B. C. 312.—Various other eras, such as +that of Nabonnassar, commencing with B. C. 747, are founded +on observations preserved by Ptolemy, and made known by <span class="smcap">Scaliger</span>, +in his <i>Doctrina Temporum</i>.</p> + +<p>Chronology constitutes a distinct science: the best introduction +to which will be found in:</p> + +<p>† <span class="smcap">J. C. Gatterer</span>, <i>Epitome of Chronology</i>. Gottingen, 1777. +A most excellent criticism on the ancient eras has lately been +communicated to the public by:</p> + +<p>† <span class="smcap">L. Ideler</span>, <i>Historic Researches into the Astronomical Observations +of the Ancients</i>. Berlin, 1806.</p> + +<p>† <span class="smcap">D. H. Hegewisch</span>, <i>Introduction to Historical Chronology</i>; +1811. A very useful and portable work.</p> + +<p>[In English we have the laborious work of Dr. Hales:</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Hales</span> (<span class="smcap">Willm.</span>) <i>New Analysis of Chronology, explaining +the History and Antiquities of the primitive Nations of the World, +etc.</i> Lond. 1809-12, 4 vols. 4to. New edition, corrected and improved, +1830, 4 vols. 8vo.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Blair's</span> <i>Chronology and History of the World, from the Creation +to the present Time</i>. Lond. 1803, folio.</p> + +<p>And for the brilliant period of Greece and Rome the satisfactory +volumes:</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">H. F. Clynton's</span> <i>Fasti Hellenici. The civil and literary +Chronology of Greece, from the fifty-fifth to the hundred and +twenty-fourth Olympiad</i>. Second edition, with additions. Oxford, +1827, 4to. And the continuation of the same work to the +death of Augustus, Oxford, 1830, 4to. In this valuable work, +much light is also thrown upon the chronology of the times anterior +to the period with which the first volume is principally +occupied.]</p></div> + +<div class="sidenote">Geography, +mythological +and +true.</div> + +<p>14. In ancient geography there is much care +required to distinguish the fabulous from the +true. With regard to true geography, as an +auxiliary science to history, all that can be expected +is some general information respecting the +nature and peculiarities of the countries, respecting +their political divisions, and finally, respecting +the principal cities:—Long lists of the names +of places would be quite superfluous.</p> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_12" id="Page_12">[Pg 12]</a></span></p> +<div class="sblockquot"><p>Fabulous geography constitutes a part of the mythology of +every nation, and differs in each, because the ideas formed by +every early nation respecting the form and nature of the earth +are peculiar to itself. True geography gradually comes to light +as civilization increases, and discovery widens its horizon.—Necessity +of treating it historically, on account of the manifold +changes to which the division and the face of the countries of the +ancient world have been at various periods subjected.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Christoph. Cellarii</span> <i>Notitia Orbis Antiqui</i>. Lips. 1701—1706, +2 vols. 4to. <i>cum observat.</i> <span class="smcap">J. C. Schwarzii</span>. Lips. 1771, et +iterum 1773. This work was for a long time the only, and is +still an indispensable, treatise on ancient geography.</p> + +<p>† <span class="smcap">H. Mannert</span>, <i>Geography of the Greeks and Romans</i>. Nuremberg, +1788—1802. This work, now completed in 15 volumes, +may be justly designated classical, from the historical and critical +learning which the author has everywhere displayed. Vol. I, +contains Spain; II, Gallia et Britain; III, Germania, Rhætia, +Noricum; IV, The Northern parts of the World, from the Wessel +to China; V, India and the Persian Empire to the Euphrates, +2 parts; VI, Asia Minor, 3 parts; VII, Thrace, Illyria, Macedonia, +Thessaly, Epirus; VIII, Northern Greece, Peloponnesus, +and the Archipelago; IX, Italy and Sicily, Sardinia, etc. 2 parts; +X, Africa, 2 parts.</p> + +<p>† <span class="smcap">F. A. Ukert</span>, <i>Geography of the Greeks and Romans, from +the earliest periods to the time of Ptolemy</i>: first part, first division, +contains the historical, the second contains the mathematical +sections. Weimar, 1816; with maps.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Gosselin</span>, <i>Géographie des Grecs analysée</i>. Paris, 1790, 4to. +A development of the system of mathematical geography among +the Greeks. Partly continued in</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Gosselin</span>, <i>Recherches sur la Géographie des Anciens</i>. Paris, +an. vi. vol. 1—4.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">J. Rennel</span>, <i>Geographical System of Herodotus</i>. Lond. 1800, +4to.</p> + +<p>[Reprinted in 2 vols. 8vo. Lond. 1830, revised. Here, too, +for the benefit of the English reader may be mentioned:</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Rennel's</span> <i>Treatise on the Comparative Geography of Western +Asia, with an atlas</i>. London, 1831, 2 vols. 8vo.; published since +the author's death. And the learned and valuable volumes of +Dr. <span class="smcap">Cramer</span>, principal of New Inn Hall, and public orator of +the University of Oxford; they are,</p> +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_13" id="Page_13">[Pg 13]</a></span></p> +<p><i>Geographical and Historical Description of Ancient Greece, +with a map, and plan of Athens.</i> Oxford, 1826, 3 vols. 8vo.</p> + +<p><i>Geographical and Historical Description of Ancient Italy, +with a map.</i> Oxford, 1826, 2 vols. 8vo.</p> + +<p><i>Geographical and Historical Description of Asia Minor, with +a map.</i> Oxford, 1832, 2 vols. 8vo.</p> + +<p>The maps which accompany these works approach very nearly +to perfection.</p> + +<p>As useful compendiums, there are:</p> + +<p><i>An Introduction to Ancient Geography, with copious indexes +of Ancient and Modern Names</i>, by <span class="smcap">Peter Ed. Laurent</span>, +teacher in the Royal Naval Academy at Portsmouth. Oxford, +1813, 8vo.</p> + +<p><i>A Compendium of Ancient and Modern Geography, for the +use of Eton School; illustrating the most interesting points in +History, Poetry, and Fable; preceded by an Introduction to the +study of Astronomy, and containing plans of Athens, Rome, Syracuse, +and numerous diagrams explanatory of the motions of the +heavenly bodies</i>, by <span class="smcap">Aaron Arrowsmith</span>, Hydrographer to the +King, 1 vol. 8vo., with or without a copious index. London, +1830.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Butler's</span> (Dr. <span class="smcap">Sam.</span>) <i>Sketch of Ancient and Modern Geography</i>. +Seventh edition, 8vo. Also his <i>Atlas of Ancient Geography</i>, +consisting of twenty-one coloured maps, with a complete +accentuated index. 8vo.]</p> + +<p>We are indebted to d'Anville for the best charts of ancient +geography: <i>Atlas Orbis antiqui</i>, twelve leaves, fol.</p> + +<p>[The Eton Comparative Atlas of Ancient and Modern Geography, +with the index, published in several sizes; and the Maps +published by the Society for the Promotion of Useful Knowledge, +are very useful and correct.]</p></div> + +<div class="sidenote">Divisions +of this +Manual.</div> + +<p>15. Ancient history may be treated either ethnographically, +that is, according to separate nations +and states; or synchronistically, that is, +according to certain general epochs. Each of +these methods has its advantages and its disadvantages. +The two, however, may be combined, +and formed into one system; and as this seems +the most convenient, it has been adopted in the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_14" id="Page_14">[Pg 14]</a></span> +present work, which is accordingly divided as +follows:</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">First Book.</span>—History of the ancient Asiatic +and African states and kingdoms anterior to Cyrus, +or to the rise of the Persian monarchy, about the +year B. C. 560: comprising little more than insulated +fragments.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Second Book.</span>—History of the Persian monarchy, +from B. C. 560 to 330.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Third Book.</span>—History of the Grecian states, +both in Greece and other parts, to the time of +Alexander, B. C. 336.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Fourth Book.</span>—History of the Macedonian +monarchy, and of the kingdoms which arose out +of its division, until they merged into the Roman +empire.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Fifth Book.</span>—History of the Roman state, +both as a commonwealth and a monarchy, until +the fall of the western empire, A. D. 476.</p> + + + +<hr style="width: 100%;" /> +<h1>MANUAL OF ANCIENT HISTORY.</h1> + + +<hr style="width: 25%;" /> +<h1><a name="FIRST_BOOK" id="FIRST_BOOK"></a>THE FIRST BOOK.</h1> + +<p class="iblockquot2">HISTORICAL FRAGMENTS OF THE EARLIER ASIATIC AND +AFRICAN KINGDOMS AND STATES, PREVIOUS TO CYRUS, +OR THE RISE OF THE PERSIAN MONARCHY.</p> + + + +<hr style="width: 100%;" /> +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_15" id="Page_15">[Pg 15]</a></span></p> +<h2>I.—ASIATIC NATIONS.</h2> + + +<h3><i>General Preliminary Remarks on the Geography of Asia.</i></h3> + +<div class="sblockquot"><p>See the Introduction to Heeren's Researches into the Politics +and Commerce of the Nations of Antiquity, prefixed to vol. 1 of +the African Nations. Oxford, 1831.</p></div> + +<div class="sidenote">Extent and +situation.</div> + +<p>1. Asia is the largest and the most favourably +situated of the great divisions of the +globe. Its superficial contents are 11,200,000 +square geogr. miles; while those of Africa do not +exceed 4,780,000; and those of Europe are +not more than 2,560,000. As to situation, it +comprises the greatest portion of the northern +temperate zone.</p> + +<div class="sblockquot"><p>Compare it, in this point of view, with the other quarters of +the globe, especially Africa.—Advantages over the latter, in con<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_16" id="Page_16">[Pg 16]</a></span>sequence +of the convenience of its indented shores—of its surrounding +fruitful islands—of its deep gulfs and large streams—the +few sandy deserts in its interior.</p></div> + +<div class="sidenote">Natural +features.</div> + +<p>2. Natural features, and consequent division of +the land, according to the course of the larger +mountain chains and of the principal rivers.</p> + +<div class="sblockquot"><p>Two great mountain chains run from west to east; in the +north, the Altai, (nameless in antiquity): in the south, Taurus.—Branches +of both: the Caucasus, between the Black and Caspian +seas: Imaus extending along the golden desert (desert of +Cobi): the Paropamisus, on the north of India: the Ural (nameless +in antiquity).—Of the rivers remarkable in ancient history, +there are four flowing from north to south, namely, the Euphrates +and Tigris, which fall into the Persian gulf; the Indus and +Ganges, which fall into the Indian sea: two which run from east +to west, and discharged their waters into the Caspian sea, (but +now into the sea of Aral,) namely, the Oxus (or Jihon) and the +Jaxartes (or Sirr).</p></div> + +<div class="sidenote">Divisions:</div> + +<p>3. This quarter of the globe is accordingly +divided into Northern Asia, comprising the regions +north of Altai; Central Asia, or the countries +between the Altai and Taurus; and Southern +Asia, or the lands south of Taurus.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">Northern +Asia.</div> + +<p>4. Northern Asia, between the 76th and 50th +parallels of north latitude, (Asiatic Russia and +Siberia,) was almost, though not entirely, unknown +in antiquity.—Some obscure hints, though +partly true, respecting it, are found in Herodotus, +the father of history.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">Central +Asia.</div> + +<p>5. Central Asia, the regions extending between +the 50th and 40th degrees of north latitude, +Scythia and Sarmatia Asiatica, (Great Tartary +and Mongol;) for the most part a boundless, +barren table land, devoid of arable fields or +forests; and consequently a mere country of<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_17" id="Page_17">[Pg 17]</a></span> +pasture.—The inhabitants pastors, (nomads,) without +cities or fixed abodes; recognizing no other +political association than patriarchal government.</p> + +<div class="sblockquot"><p>Peculiar mode of life and character of nomad nations; powerful +influence which they have exercised, as conquerors, on political +history.—Whether we have a right to expect that the +civilization of the human race will for ever continue to advance, +when we consider that perhaps one half of it has from time immemorial +remained, and from its physical situation must for ever +remain, in a nomad state.</p></div> + +<div class="sidenote">Southern +Asia.</div> + +<p>6. Southern Asia, or the regions from the 40th +degree of N. lat. to about the equator.—Its natural +features altogether different from those of central +Asia. The great advantages of these regions +compared with all other parts of the earth, in possessing +a soil and climate highly favourable for +agriculture; and an abundance of various costly +productions. To these circumstances may be attributed, +1st. The adoption of fixed habitations +and political associations in these countries, from +the earliest times. 2ndly. Their becoming the +principal seat of trade, from the infancy of civilization +to the discovery of America.</p> + +<div class="sblockquot"><p>Reflections upon the rise of political associations.—Whether, +according to the general opinion, they were produced solely by +agriculture and the possession of land; or, whether religion, by +which I mean the common worship of one divinity as the national +god, (communia sacra,) was not the main bond which united the +earliest states of antiquity?—How shall we account for the very +remarkable fact, that in the earliest civil societies in the world, +the priesthood is generally found to be a ruling caste.—Reflections +on early trade, particularly that of the east, before it was +changed, by the discovery of America and the new passage to +India, from a land trade to a sea trade.—Observations upon ancient +commercial routes across Asia.—The banks of the large +rivers destined by nature to become the seats of commerce for the +interior; on the Oxus, Bactra and Maracanda, (Samarcand;) on<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_18" id="Page_18">[Pg 18]</a></span> +the Euphrates and Tigris, Babylon.—The sea shores on the +western coast of Asia Minor and Phœnicia, pointed out also by +nature as places of commerce;—line of Grecian and Phœnician +factories.</p></div> + +<p>7. Division of southern Asia. 1st. South-western +Asia, from the Mediterranean to the Indus; +2nd. South-eastern Asia, from the Indus to +the eastern ocean.</p> + +<p>A. South-western Asia is again subdivided into +the countries—1st. on this side the Euphrates—2ndly. +between the Euphrates and Tigris—3rdly. +between the Tigris and the Indus.</p> + +<p>1. <i>Countries on this side the Euphrates.</i></p> + +<div class="sidenote">Asia Minor.</div> + +<p>(<i>a</i>) The peninsula of Asia Minor (Natolia). +Principal rivers: the Halys and Sangarius. Countries: +three towards the west, Mysia, Lydia, +Caria. Along the shore, the Greek seaports of +Phocæa, Ephesus, Miletus, Smyrna, Halicarnassus, +etc. Inland, the cities of Sardes in Lydia, +of Pergamus in Mysia.</p> + +<p>Three towards the south, Lycia, Pamphylia, +and Cilicia, with its capital Tarsus.</p> + +<p>Three towards the north, Bithynia, Paphlagonia, +Pontus; with the Greek ports of Heraclea, +Amisus, and Sinope. Two inland, Phrygia, together +with Galatia and the capital cities of Gordium +and Celænæ; Cappadocia, with the city of +Mazaca.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">Islands.</div> + +<p>(<i>b</i>) Islands along the coast of Asia Minor: Lesbos, +with the city of Mitylene; Chios, Samos, +Cos, Rhodes, with cities of the same name.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">Syria.<br /> +Phœnicia.<br /> +Palestine.</div> + +<p>(<i>c</i>) Syria, together with Phœnicia and Palestine. 1st. Syria, properly so called. Cities: Damascus, +Emessa, Heliopolis, (Baalbec). In the desert, Palmyra. 2nd. Phœnicia, a mountainous +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_19" id="Page_19">[Pg 19]</a></span> +tract, extending along the shore. Mountains: Libanus and Antilibanus. Cities: Tyre, on an +island opposite the ancient Tyre, which was situate upon the mainland; Sidon, Byblus, Berytus, +Tripolis, Aradus. +3rd. Palestine. Mountains: Carmel, Tabor. River: Jordan, which discharges +its waters into the Dead sea. Division of Palestine; first, according to +the twelve tribes; afterwards into the provinces, of Judæa, capital +Jerusalem: of Samaria; cities, Samaria, Sichem: and of Galilee.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">Arabia.</div> + +<p>(<i>d</i>) Peninsula of Arabia, abounding in vast sandy +deserts, and almost entirely occupied by nomad +tribes. Its southern and eastern coasts render it, +nevertheless, a most important seat of trade. In +the north, Arabia Petræa, so called from the town +of Petra. Inland, Arabia Deserta. In the south, +Arabia Felix; rich, both in natural productions, +being the native land of almost every kind of perfume, +particularly frankincense; and also as being +the ancient staple for the merchandise of India. +Cities: Mariaba, Aden, etc. In the east, +the trading town of Gerra, and the islands near +the shore, Tylos and Aradus, (Bahrein,) both likewise +marts for Arabian and Indian wares, particularly +cinnamon from Taprobane (Ceylon).</p> + +<p>2. <i>Countries between the Euphrates and Tigris.</i></p> + +<div class="sidenote">Mesopotamia.</div> + +<p>(<i>a</i>) Mesopotamia; in the interior a sterile table +land, entirely occupied by nomad hordes. Cities +on the Euphrates: Thapsacus, Circesium, Cunaxa; +in the north, Zoba or Nisibis.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">Armenia.</div> + +<p>(<i>b</i>) Armenia, north of the foregoing. Very +mountainous; for a long time without cities, but +at last it had Tigranocerta. Rivers: the Cyrus<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_20" id="Page_20">[Pg 20]</a></span> +and Araxes, falling into the Caspian; and the +Phasis, falling into the Black sea.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">Babylonia.</div> + +<p>(<i>c</i>) Babylonia, the southern part of Mesopotamia, +from which it was separated by the Median +wall. A level plain, remarkable for the richness +of its soil; formerly, by its high cultivation, its +canals and lakes, and the erection of dams, the +most fruitful, and, from its situation, the most +opulent staple of inner Asia. Cities: Babylon +on the Euphrates, Borsippa.</p> + +<div class="sblockquot"><p>Whether the account given by Herodotus, as an eyewitness, of +the size and splendour of Babylon is not exaggerated?—Manner +in which the great Asiatic cities arose out of the royal encampments +of the nomad conquerors.</p></div> + +<p>3. <i>Countries between the Tigris and the Indus.</i></p> + +<div class="sidenote">Assyria.</div> + +<p>(<i>a</i>) Assyria, or the province of Adiabene; a table +land. Cities: Nineveh, (Ninus,) Arbela.</p> + +<div class="sblockquot"><p>The name of Assyria is also frequently taken by the Greeks +in a wider acceptation, as comprising both Mesopotamia and Babylonia; +it is sometimes even confounded with Syria.</p></div> + +<div class="sidenote">Susiana.</div> + +<p>(<i>b</i>) Susiana, a fruitful district, with the city +Susa on the river Choaspes, or Eulæus (Ulai), +one of the residences of the Persian monarchs.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">Persia.</div> + +<p>(<i>c</i>) Persis, rugged and mountainous towards +the north; level and fruitful in the centre; sandy +towards the south. Rivers: the Cyrus and +Araxes. Cities: Persepolis or Pasargada, the +national palace and cemetery of the kings of +Persia.</p> + +<div class="sblockquot"><p>The name of Persis was, in ancient as well as in modern geography, +taken in a more extensive sense, as comprising all the +countries between the Tigris and Indus, with the exception of +Assyria. In this sense, it contains three countries towards the +south—Persis, properly so called; Carmania, Gedrosia: three<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_21" id="Page_21">[Pg 21]</a></span> +central countries—Media, Aria, Arachosia: and three countries +towards the north—Parthia and Hyrcania, Bactria, Sogdiana.</p></div> + +<div class="sidenote">Carmania.</div> + +<p>(<i>d</i>) Carmania, an extensive country, for the +most part desert, ranging along the Persian gulf +and Indian sea. Cities: Carmana, Harmozia.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">Gedrosia.</div> + +<p>(<i>e</i>) Gedrosia, tract of land running along the +coast between Carmania and India, and washed +by the Indian sea. A mere sandy desert; towards +the north, mountainous. Town, Pura.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">Media.</div> + +<p>(<i>f</i>) Media, above Persis; an extensive and very +fruitful country; mountainous towards the north. +Rivers: Araxes, Cyrus, and Mardus. Cities: +Ecbatana, Rages. The northern district was +likewise known by the name of Atropatene (Azerbeijan), +or Lesser Media.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">Aria.</div> + +<p>(<i>g</i>) Aria, a smooth table land, with a lake and +river, Arius: and one city, Aria or Artacoana.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">Arachosia.</div> + +<p>(<i>h</i>) Arachosia; a rich and fertile country on the +frontiers of India; bounded towards the north by +the Paropamisus chain. Cities: Arachotus and +Prophthasia. The neighbouring highlands, occupied +by a numerous population, (now Cabul and +Kandahar,) are often regarded, in consequence of +their being subject to the Persian dominion, as +forming part of Persia. They are known by the +name of Paropamisus.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">Parthia.</div> + +<p>(<i>i</i>) Parthia and Hyrcania, rugged mountainous +districts to the north of Media; but abounding in +magnificent and fertile vales. Before and during +the predominance of Persia, but little known and +little valued; and without cities. It was at a +considerably later period that the inhabitants of +Parthia became a dominant nation.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">Bactria.</div> + +<p>(<i>k</i>) Bactria, the country on the south bank of +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_22" id="Page_22">[Pg 22]</a></span> +the Oxus; rich in natural productions, and one of +the most ancient marts of Asia. River: Oxus. +Cities: Bactra and Zariaspa.</p> + +<div class="sblockquot"><p>Bactria lies on the frontier of India, Little Thibet, Bukharia, +(the north India of Herodotus and Ctesias,) and the desert of +Cobi, (Herodotus's golden desert): the road to China runs +through this country. Nature, by the geographical situation in +which she has placed Bactria, seems to have destined it to be the +great emporium for the wares of south-eastern Asia; and in proportion +as we penetrate into early history, we become convinced +that Bactria, like Babylon, must have been one of the earliest +seats of international commerce, and consequently, if not the +birthplace, one of the cradles of infant civilization.</p></div> + +<div class="sidenote">Sogdiana.</div> + +<p>(<i>l</i>) Sogdiana, the territory between the upper +Oxus and upper Jaxartes, the latter dividing it +from central Asia. (A part of Great Bukharia.) +Its peculiarities and advantages similar to those +of the neighbouring Bactria. Capital: Maracanda +(Samarcand).</p> + +<p>B. South-eastern Asia, or Asia beyond the +Indus, offers nothing remarkable for history till a +later period. See Book v, Period iv.</p> + + + +<hr style='width: 25%;' /> + +<h3><i>General Preliminary Observations upon the History and +Constitution of the great Asiatic Empires.</i></h3> + + +<div class="sidenote">Magnitude +of the empires +in +Asia.</div> + +<p>1. Asia contained in ancient times, as it does +at present, empires of immense extent, differing +materially both in this respect and in their constitution +from the civilized nations of Europe. +Changes were frequent; but the form of government +continued nearly always the same. Some +deeply rooted and active principles therefore must<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_23" id="Page_23">[Pg 23]</a></span> +have been in constant operation, to have given so +repeatedly, in these various revolutions, the same +organization to the kingdoms of Asia.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">Nature of +their revolutions.</div> + +<p>2. The great revolutions of Asia, with the exception +of that caused by Alexander, were effected +by the numerous and powerful nomad races +which inhabited a large portion of that continent. +Pressed by necessity or circumstances, they forsook +their own seats, founded new kingdoms, and +carried war and conquest into the fruitful and cultivated +lands of southern Asia, until, enervated +by luxury, the consequence of the change in their +mode of life, they were in their turn, and in a +similar manner, subjugated.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">Their short +existence.</div> + +<p>3. This origin, common to all Asiatic kingdoms, +accounts for their immense extent, their rapid +establishment, and their generally brief duration.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">Similarity +in their +constitutions.</div> + +<p>4. The internal organization must, for the same +reasons, have been nearly alike in all; and the +constant reappearance of despotism is accounted +for, partly by the rights of conquest, partly by +the vast extent of the subdued countries, which +obliged the rulers to have recourse to satrap-government.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">Effects of +polygamy.</div> + +<p>5. To this, it must moreover be added, that +among all the considerable nations of inner Asia, +the paternal government of every household was +corrupted by polygamy: where that custom exists, +a good political constitution is impossible; +fathers being converted into domestic despots, +are ready to pay the same abject obedience to +their sovereign that they exact from their family +and dependants in their domestic economy.</p> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_24" id="Page_24">[Pg 24]</a></span></p> + +<div class="sblockquot"><p>To avoid confusion, it will be necessary to define the terms +despotism and despotic government. In theory, we must admit +<small>THREE</small> essentially different kinds of government. 1st. The <i>despotic</i>, +in which the members of the state are not secured in the +possession of their rights as men, (personal freedom and security +of property,) nor of their rights as citizens, (active participation +in the legislative power). Such a constitution exists only by +force, and can never be lawful. 2nd. The <i>autocratic</i>, in which +the members of the state are in full possession of their rights as +men, but not of their rights as citizens. This government, therefore, +arises from the union of the legislative and executive powers +in the person of the ruler. In form, it is either monarchical or +aristocratical (a pure monarchy, or a pure aristocracy). This kind +of government is most likely to be established by usurpation; it +may, nevertheless, be acquired by succession, or even adopted by +common consent: it may therefore be lawful. 3rd. The <i>republican</i>, +in which the members of the state are in possession of their +rights, both as men and as citizens. This government necessarily +presupposes a separation of the legislative and executive powers; +and with regard to its form, may be either monarchical or aristocratical, +(a moderate monarchy, or a moderate aristocracy).—How +far can a pure democracy be called a government, and comprised +under any of the foregoing heads?—Explanation of the +despotism in the Asiatic kingdoms, and the attempts made to +limit it by religion and religious institutions.</p></div> + +<div class="sidenote">Rise, progress, +and +fall of nomad +empires.</div> + +<p>6. General features in the gradual internal development +of all empires formed by nomad conquerors. +(<i>a</i>) At first the mere occupation of rich +territories, and levying of tribute. (<i>b</i>) Hence the +constitutions already established among the conquered +or tributary nations generally suffered to +remain. (<i>c</i>) Gradual progress towards the adoption +of a fixed abode and the building of cities, together +with the assumption of the customs and +civilization of the conquered. (<i>d</i>) Division into +provinces, and, as a necessary consequence, the +establishment of satrap-government. (<i>e</i>) Insurrections +of the satraps, and the internal ruin of +the state prepared thereby. (<i>f</i>) The influence<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_25" id="Page_25">[Pg 25]</a></span> +of the seraglio on the government has the same +effect, for its unavoidable consequences are—effeminacy +and indolence in the rulers. (<i>g</i>) Hence +the dissolution of the empire, or its total annihilation +by some violent attack from without.</p> + + +<hr style='width: 25%;' /> +<h3><i>Fragments of the History of the ancient Asiatic Kingdoms +previous to Cyrus.</i></h3> + +<div class="sblockquot"><p>Sources, and their critical examination: 1. Jewish writings, +particularly the books of Kings, Chroniclers, and the Prophets; +together with the Mosaic records. 2. Greek writers, Herodotus, +Ctesias, and Diodorus: later chroniclers, Syncellus, Eusebius, +Ptolemy. 3. Native writer, Berosus. Futility of all endeavours +to arrange into one work the accounts of authors so entirely different +by birth and the times in which they flourished: a task +attempted by the French writers, <span class="smcap">Sevin</span>, <span class="smcap">Freret</span>, and <span class="smcap">Debrosse</span>, +in their papers contained in the Mém. de l'Acad. des +Inscript.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Volney</span>, <i>Recherches nouvelles sur l'Histoire ancienne</i>. 1808—1814: +very important and authentic, so far as regards the +system of Herodotus's chronology.</p></div> + + +<p><b>I. <i>Assyrian monarchy.</i></b></p> + +<div class="sidenote">Assyrians +of the +Greeks different +from +those of the +Hebrews.</div> + +<p>1. With the Greeks, Assyrian is generally a +common name applied to the ruling nations about +the Euphrates and Tigris before the time of Cyrus. +With the Jews, on the contrary, it signifies +a distinct nation of conquerors, and the founders +of an empire. Hence a necessary discrepancy +between the Grecian and Hebrew statements.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">Grecian +account.</div> + +<p>2. Assyrian history, according to Grecian authorities, +particularly Ctesias and Diodorus, is nothing +more than mere traditions of ancient heroes +and heroines, who at some early period founded +a large kingdom in the countries about the Eu<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_26" id="Page_26">[Pg 26]</a></span>phrates +and Tigris; traditions without any chronological +data, and in the style of the east. Ninus—Semiramis—Ninyas—Sardanapalus.</p> + +<div class="sblockquot"><p>According to Herodotus, an Assyrian empire of 520 years' +duration, 1237—717. Lists of Assyrian kings in the chronicles +of Syncellus and Eusebius.</p></div> + +<div class="sidenote">Jewish account.</div> + +<p>3. Assyrian history, according to Jewish authorities. +Chronological history of an Assyrian empire +between B. C. 800 and 700.—Seat of the +nation in Assyria, properly so called.—Capital: +Nineveh on the Tigris.—Extension of their dominion +as far as Syria and Phœnicia.</p> + +<div class="sblockquot"><p>Line of Assyrian kings: 1. Pul, about 773. Invasion of Syria. +2. Tiglath-Pileser, about 740. He overthrows the kingdom +of Damascus. 3. Shalmaneser, about 720. He destroys the kingdom +of Samaria. Transplantation of the inhabitants into inner +Asia. 4. Sennacherib, about 714. Mighty expedition against +Egypt, frustrated by a pestilence. 5. Esarhaddon.</p> + +<p><i>Contemporary</i>: Jews, the divided kingdoms of Israel and +Judah.—Greeks, decennial archons at Athens.—Romans, rise +of the state and the two first kings.</p></div> + + +<p><b>II. <i>Median monarchy.</i></b></p> + +<div class="sidenote">Different +acceptations +of the +word +Medes.</div> + +<p>1. The name of Medes is undoubtedly often +used by the Greeks to designate one nation; it is, +however, frequently made use of as a common +appellation of the ruling nations in eastern Asia, +from the Tigris to the Indus, (or Persia, in the +more extensive sense of that word,) before Cyrus.—With +the Jews: nothing more than general +hints of the Medes as a conquering nation.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">Great nations +known +to have existed +east of +the Tigris.</div> + +<p>2. Although the statements of the Grecian +writers, as well as of the Zendavesta, sufficiently +prove that long before the rise of the Persian +power mighty kingdoms existed in these regions; +and particularly in the eastern part, or Bactria;<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_27" id="Page_27">[Pg 27]</a></span> +yet we have no consistent or chronological history +of these states: nothing but a few fragments, +probably of dynasties which ruled in Media, properly +so called, immediately previous to the Persians.</p> + +<div class="sblockquot"><p><i>a. Herodotus's History of the Medes.</i> Herodotus's Medes are +unquestionably the inhabitants of Media, properly so called. +Division into six tribes: among these, that of the Magi.—Ruling +nation after the overthrow of the Assyrians.—Capital of their +empire, Ecbatana.—Boundaries: west, the Tigris and Halys; +east, unknown.—Internal organization: graduated subjection of +the various nations to one another, according to their distance +from the seat of empire; rigid despotism; and imposition of tribute. +Line of kings between B. C. 717—560. Deioces, 53 <i>y.</i> +the founder of Ecbatana, <i>d.</i> 657.—Phraortes, 22 <i>y.</i> down to 635. +He conquers Persia. Cyaxares I. 40 <i>y.</i> down to 595. He establishes +military discipline among the Medes. Wages war with +the Lydians, the Assyrians.—Irruption of the Scythians and +Cimmerians, 625.—He takes Nineveh, 597. Astyages, 38 <i>y.</i> +down to 560, when he was dethroned by Cyrus. According to +Xenophon, Astyages was followed by another Median prince, +Cyaxares II. <i>b. Ctesias's History of the Medes</i>, deduced from +Persian archives, and contained in Diodorus. Probably a different +dynasty in eastern Asia. Line of kings, between B. C. 800 +and 560. Arbaces, conqueror of the Assyrians, 18 <i>y.</i> Mandaucus, +50 <i>y.</i> Sosarmes, 30 <i>y.</i> Artias, 50 <i>y.</i> Arbanes, 22 <i>y.</i> +Artæus, 40 <i>y.</i> and Artynes, 22 <i>y.</i> Sanguinary wars with the +nomad races of the east, the Sacæ, and Cadusii. Artibarnas, 14 <i>y.</i> +Astyages, the last king.</p> + +<p><i>Contemporary</i>: Jews, kingdom of Judah alone.—Greeks, +yearly archons, Draco, Solon.—Romans, kings from Tullus Hostilius +to Servius Tullius.</p></div> + + +<p><b>III. <i>Babylonian monarchy.</i></b></p> + +<div class="sidenote">Babylonians.</div> + +<p>Periods: 1st. Previous to the Chaldæan conquest, +which occurred about 630. 2nd. From the +Chaldæan conquest to the Persian, 630—538.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">1st period, +to B. C. 630.<br /> +fragments.</div> + +<p>1. Babylon was not only spoken of in the most +remote antiquity, but is mentioned in the Jewish<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_28" id="Page_28">[Pg 28]</a></span> +traditions as the earliest scene of political treaties, +and as the most ancient seat of intercourse +for the nations of Asia. Traditions concerning +Nimrod—and the erection of the tower of Babel.—Comparison +of those traditions with the Babylonian +mythology in Berosus.—Scanty historical +notices of this period in the later Jewish writers; +and probable subjection of Babylon to the Assyrian +empire.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">2nd period, to 538.<br /> + +Chaldæans.</div> + +<p>2. In the second period, 630—538, the Babylonians +were the ruling nation of western Asia.—The +Chaldæans take possession of Babylon, +there establish themselves, and ultimately extend +their empire, by conquest, to the Mediterranean.</p> + +<div class="sblockquot"><p>Origin of the Chaldæans: whether that name was applied to +a distinct nation, or to the northern nomads in general?—Line of +Chaldæan kings. In the enumeration of these rulers, as given +by Ptolemy, this line begins with Nabonassar, and the era bearing +the name of that sovereign, which commences in the year +B. C. 747: (probably because, under the reign of that prince, the +adoption of the Egyptian solar year first introduced among the +Chaldæans an exact method of reckoning time). Neither Nabonassar +himself, nor his twelve immediate successors, are remarkable +in history: the six last alone deserve notice. 1. Nabopolassar, +627—604. Settlement in Babylon; and complete establishment +of the Chaldæo-Babylonian dominion, by his victory +over Pharaoh-Nechoh, near Circesium, in 604. 2. Nebuchadnezzar, +604—561. Brilliant period of the Chaldæo-Babylonian +empire. He conquers Phœnicia and Old Tyre about 586: Jerusalem +in 587; probable irruptions into Egypt. Construction +of immense buildings and canals in and about Babylon. Rapid +decline of the empire after his death, under—3. Evil-Merodach, +561—559. 4. Neriglissar, (probably the contemporary of Herodotus's +Nitocris;)—555. Labosoarchad murdered, after a few +months' reign. Nabonadius, (Herodotus's Labynetus; and probably +the Chaldæan Belshazzar;) 555—538. attacked and conquered +by Cyrus. Sack of Babylon by the Persians, 538.</p> +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_29" id="Page_29">[Pg 29]</a></span></p> +<p>See the section concerning the Babylonians in <span class="smcap">A. H. L. Heeren's</span> +<i>Historical Researches</i>, vol. i, part. 2.</p> + +<p><i>Contemporary</i>: Jews, last sovereigns of the kingdom of +Judah.—Greeks, Solon, Pisistratus.—Romans, Tarquinius Priscus +and Servius Tullius.</p></div> + + +<p><b>IV. <i>States and kingdoms in Asia Minor.</i></b></p> + +<div class="sidenote">No lasting +empire +formed in +Asia Minor.</div> + +<p>The number and variety of the inhabitants of +this peninsula, was probably the reason why they +never became united into one empire. The most +important nations among them, were the Carians +in the west; the Phrygians in the centre, reaching +as far as the Halys; the Syro-Cappadocians +beyond the Halys; and the Thracians in Bithynia. +Nevertheless we find here but three kingdoms +deserving notice—the Trojan, the Phrygian, and +the Lydian.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">Troy.</div> + +<p><b>1. The Trojan empire</b> comprised western Mysia: +its history consists of mere traditions contained +in poets, with very uncertain chronological +data.</p> + +<div class="sblockquot"><p>Kings: Teucer, about 1400.—Dardanus—Erichthonius—Tros +(Troja)—Ilus (Ilium)—Laomedon—Priam. The destruction of +Troy, after a ten years' war, occurred, it is probable, B. C. 1190.</p> + +<p><i>Contemporary</i>: Jews, time of the Judges: before the foundation +of Rome, 450 years.</p></div> + +<div class="sidenote">Phrygia.</div> + +<p><b>2. The Phrygian empire.</b>—Almost all the kings +were named Midas and Gordius; their succession +cannot be accurately determined. After the death +of the last, called Midas V., Phrygia became a +province of the Lydian empire, about 560.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">Lydia:<br /> +three dynasties there.</div> + +<p><b>3. The Lydian empire.</b>—The Lydians (Mæonians) +were a branch of the Carian tribe. According +to Herodotus, three dynasties ruled in Lydia; +the Atyadæ down to 1232; the Heraclidæ down +to 727; and the Mermnadæ down to 557: the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_30" id="Page_30">[Pg 30]</a></span> +two first are almost wholly fabulous, and the proper +history of Lydia may be said to commence +with the last dynasty.</p> + +<div class="sblockquot"><p>Kings: Gyges, down to 689. From this period followed almost +uninterrupted wars with the Greek settlements on the seacoast. +Gyges takes Colophon. Ardys down to 640. He takes +Priene. Under his reign, an irruption of the Cimmerians. Sadyattes +down to 628. Alyattes down to 571. Expulsion of the +Cimmerians. Capture of Smyrna. Crœsus down to 557. He +takes Ephesus, and subjugates Asia Minor as far as the Halys. +Under his reign, the first rise of a Lydian empire, which however +is overthrown by Cyrus. Asia Minor becomes a province +of the Persian empire.</p> + +<p><i>Contemporary</i> with which, in Asia, were the Medic and Babylonian +empires.—Among the Jews, the last period of the kingdom +of Judah.—Among the Greeks, the yearly archons at Athens.—With +the Romans, the kings.</p></div> + + +<p><b>V. <i>Phœnicia.</i></b></p> + +<div class="sidenote">Fragments +of Phœnician +history.</div> + +<p>The Phœnicians may be regarded as one of the +most remarkable nations of Asia during this period; +yet we have no complete, or even connected +history of this people. But though a few scattered +fragments are all we possess, we may from +these trace out a general outline.</p> + +<div class="sblockquot"><p>The peculiar sources of Phœnician history.—How far Sanchoniathon +deserves to be mentioned here?—Hebrew writers, particularly +Ezekiel; Greek writers; Josephus—Eusebius, etc. and +the fragments which he has preserved of Menander of Ephesus, +and Dius, historians of Tyre.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Mignot</span>, <i>Mémoires sur les Phéniciens</i>; inserted in <i>Mém. de +l'Acad. des Inscript.</i> t. xxxiv—xlii. A series of twenty-four +papers.</p> + +<p>The section concerning the Phœnicians in <span class="smcap">A. H. L. Heeren's</span> +<i>Researches on the Politics, etc.</i></p></div> + +<div class="sidenote">Phœnician +federation +of cities.</div> + +<p>1. Observations on the internal state of Phœnicia. +It did not constitute one state, or, at least, +one single empire; but consisted of several, and<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_31" id="Page_31">[Pg 31]</a></span> +their territories. Alliances, however, were naturally +formed between them, and hence a kind +of supremacy of the more powerful, particularly of +Tyre.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">Each city +independent, +but +Tyre the +first.</div> + +<p>2. But though Tyre stood at the head, and +claimed a certain degree of superiority, each separate state still +possessed its own particular government. In all of them we meet with +kings, who appear to have possessed but a limited authority, as we +always find magistrates associated with them in power. Among a +mercantile and colonizing people, it was impossible that absolute +despotism should endure for any length of time. Of the separate states, +Tyre is the only one of which we possess +a series of kings; +<span class="sidenote">Tyrian kings.</span> +and even that series is not complete.</p> + +<div class="sblockquot"><p>This line of kings, which we derive from Menander through +Josephus, commences with Abical, the contemporary of David, +about B. C. 1050. The most remarkable among them are: Hiram, +the successor of Abical;—Ethbaal I. about 920;—Pygmalion, +Dido's brother, about 900;—Ethbaal II. in whose reign +Tyre was sacked by Nebuchadnezzar, 586.—Foundation of New +Tyre—republican constitution under suffetes: tributary kings +under the Persian rule;—conquest of New Tyre by Alexander, +332. The flourishing period of Phœnicia in general, and of +Tyre in particular, falls therefore between 1000—332.</p> + +<p><i>Contemporary</i> in inner Asia: monarchies of the Assyrians, +Medes, and the Babylonians. Jews: period of the kings after +David. Greeks: from Homer to Solon. Romans: period of +their kings in the last two centuries.</p></div> + +<div class="sidenote">Phœnician +colonies:</div> + +<p>3. During this period the Phœnicians spread +themselves by the establishment of colonies; some +of which, particularly Carthage, became as powerful +as the mother states.</p> + +<div class="sblockquot"><p>General ideas concerning colonization.—1. Colonies are absolutely +necessary to every seafaring and commercial people,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_32" id="Page_32">[Pg 32]</a></span> +whenever their trade extends to distant countries. 2. They have +likewise been established for the purpose of providing for the excessive +increase of the poor. 3. And they have sometimes arisen +from political commotion, when the malcontents, either from +free will, or force, have forsaken their country, and sought new +settlements in distant regions.</p></div> + +<div class="sidenote">in the islands;<br /> +Spain;<br /> +Africa;<br /> +Sicily;<br /> +probably in the Persian gulf.</div> + +<p>4. Geographical sketch of the Phœnician colonies. +They possessed, at a very early period, +most of the islands of the Archipelago; from +which, however, they were subsequently expelled +by the Greeks. The principal countries in which +they had settlements were the south of +Spain (Tartessus, Gades, Carteia); the north coast of +Africa, west of the Lesser Syrtis (Utica, Carthage, +Adrumetum); and the north-western coast of +Sicily (Panormus, Lilybæum). It is likewise +highly probable that they formed settlements towards +the east in the Persian gulf, on the islands +of Tylos and Aradus (Bahrein).</p> + +<div class="sidenote">Sea trade of +the Phœnicians:</div> + +<p>5. This sketch of the Phœnician colonies will +give us some idea of the extent of their sea trade +and navigation; which, however, extended much +farther than their colonies. Among them, as +among other nations, commerce took its rise in +piracy; even as late as the time of Homer, the +Phœnicians appear to have been freebooters. The +principal objects of their commerce were (<i>a</i>) the +settlements in north Africa and Spain; the latter +more particularly, on account of its rich silver +mines. (<i>b</i>) Beyond the Pillars of Hercules, the +west-coast of Africa; Britain and the Scilly islands, +for the purpose of procuring tin, and, very +probably, amber. (<i>c</i>) From Elath and Ezion-Gebar, +ports situate at the northern extremity of the +Arabian gulph, they undertook, in connection with +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_33" id="Page_33">[Pg 33]</a></span> +the Jews, voyages to Ophir, that is to say, to the +rich lands of the south, particularly Arabia Felix +and Ethiopia. (<i>d</i>) From the Persian gulf, they +extended their commerce to the western peninsula +of India and the island of Ceylon. Finally, (<i>e</i>) +<span class="sidenote">they double the cape of Good Hope.</span> +they made several extensive voyages of discovery, +among which, the most remarkable was the circumnavigation +of Africa.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">Their land +trade:</div> + +<p>6. Of no less importance was the land trade, +mostly carried on by caravans. The principal +branches of it were: (<i>a</i>) The Arabian caravan +trade for spices and incense, imported from Arabia +Felix, Gerra, and the Persian gulf. (<i>b</i>) The +trade through Palmyra with Babylon, which +opened them an indirect communication by way +of Persia, with lesser Bukharia and little Thibet, +probably even with China itself. (<i>c</i>) The trade +with Armenia and the neighbouring countries in +slaves, horses, copper utensils, etc.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">their manufactures.</div> + +<p>7. To all this must be added their own manufactures, +particularly their stuffs and dyes; (the +purple, made of the juice of a marine shellfish;) +their manufactures of glass and toys, which, in +their commerce with uncivilized nations, generally +carried on by barter, were turned to good account. +Many other important discoveries, among which +the invention of letters holds the first rank, are +attributed to the Phœnicians.</p> + + +<p><b>VI. <i>Syrians.</i></b></p> + +<div class="sidenote">Syria, an +early state;</div> + +<p>1. The inhabitants of Syria dwelt in cities as +early as B. C. 2000, when Abraham wandered +over their country. This country did not form +one single state, but consisted of several cities, +each of which had its separate territory, and its<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_34" id="Page_34">[Pg 34]</a></span> +chief or king; of these cities, Damascus, Hamath, +etc. are mentioned in the most remote antiquity.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">a frequent +object of +conquest:<br /> +about 1040.</div> + +<p>2. The Syrians were, however, often subjected +by foreign conquerors; and their country was certainly, +at least in the time of David, a Jewish province. +It shook off the yoke, however, in the +time of Solomon; when Rezon, who had formerly +been a slave, obtained possession of Damascus.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">Kingdom of +Damascus.</div> + +<p>3. After this, there arose the kingdom of Damascus, +which comprised the greatest portion of +Syria, the kings in the other cities becoming tributary +to Damascus. The boundaries of the empire, +too, were extended, and particularly at the +expense of the divided kingdoms of Judah and +Israel.</p> + +<div class="sblockquot"><p>The kings, whose names are taken from the books of Chronicles, +were: Rezon, about 980. Benhadad I. about 900. Hazael, +about 850. Benhadad II. about 830. Rezin. Under this last, +the kingdom of Damascus was overthrown by the Assyrian conqueror +Tiglath-Pileser, about 740.</p> + +<p><i>Contemporary</i> in Inner Asia: Assyrian kingdom. Jews: +kingdoms of Israel and Judah. Greeks: settlement of the Asiatic +colonies.—Lycurgus.</p></div> + + +<p><b>VII. <i>Jews.</i></b></p> + +<div class="sidenote">Periods of +Jewish history.</div> + +<p>The history of the Jewish people, begins with +Abraham the father of their race; that of the +Jewish state does not commence till after the conquest +of Palestine. It is divided into three periods. +I. History of the Jews, as a nomad horde, +from Abraham till their settlement in Palestine, +B. C. 2000—1500. II. History of the Jewish +state as a federative republic under the high +priests and judges, from B. C. 1500—1100. III. +History of the Jewish state under a monarchical +government, from B. C. 1100—600, first in one<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_35" id="Page_35">[Pg 35]</a></span> +kingdom,—975; afterwards as two separate kingdoms, +Israel and Judah, until the downfall of the +latter, 588.</p> + +<div class="sblockquot"><p>Sources of the Jewish history.—Their annals:—Books of +Judges, Samuel, Chronicles, Kings. How those books were composed, +and whether their authors may be considered as contemporary +with the events they relate? How far the Hebrew poets, +the prophets in particular, may be considered as historical authority?—<span class="smcap">Josephus</span>, +as an antiquarian in his <i>Archæologia</i>, and as a +contemporary historian in his <i>Historia Belli Romani</i>.</p> + +<p>Unfortunately there is not at present any satisfactory treatise +on the Jewish history previous to the Babylonian captivity; nor +one written in an impartial spirit, without credulity or scepticism. +The work of <span class="smcap">Berruyer</span>, <i>Histoire du Peuple de Dieu, depuis +son origine jusqu'à la Naissance de J. C.</i> Paris, 1742, 10 vols. +8vo.; and the continuation, <i>depuis la Naissance de J. C.</i> 10 +vols.; and others of the same kind do not answer this description. +<span class="smcap">Relandi</span> <i>Antiquit. Sacr. Heb.</i> The writings of <span class="smcap">J. D. Michaelis</span>, +particularly his † Remarks on the Translation of the Old +Testament, and his † <i>Mosaic Law</i>; together with † <span class="smcap">Herder</span>, +<i>On the Spirit of Hebrew Poesy</i>, furnish many excellent materials.</p></div> + + +<div class="sidenote">Jews as a nomad horde:<br /> +sojourn in Egypt 2000 to about 1500.</div> + +<p><b>I. <i>Period of the nomad state from Abraham to the conquest of +Palestine.</i></b>—Under Abraham, Isaac, and Jacob, nothing more +at first than a single nomad family; which, however, during its +sojourn in Lower Egypt, +where, during four hundred and thirty, or, according to others, two hundred and +fifty years, it roved about in subjection to the Egyptian Pharaohs,—increased +to a nomad nation, divided into twelve tribes. The nation, +however, becoming formidable from the great increase +of its numbers, the Pharaohs, following the +usual policy of the Egyptians, wished to compel +the Jews to build and inhabit cities. Unaccustomed +to restraint, they fled from Egypt under +the conduct of Moses; and conquered, under him +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_36" id="Page_36">[Pg 36]</a></span> +and his successor Joshua, Palestine, the land of +promise.</p> + +<div class="sblockquot"><p>Moses and his legislation.—What he borrowed and what he +did not borrow from the Egyptians?—The worship of Jehovah +in the national sanctuary, and by national festivals, celebrated +with ceremonies rigidly prescribed, the point of union for the +whole nation, and the political bond which held the tribes together.—The +caste of Levites, compared with the Egyptian caste +of priests.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">J. D. Michaelis</span>, <i>Mosaic Law</i>. Gottingen, 1778, etc. 6 vols. +8vo.; translated into English by Dr. <span class="smcap">Alexander Smith</span>. +Lond. 1814, 4 vols. 8vo. The commentator frequently sees more +than the lawgiver.</p></div> + + +<div class="sidenote">Jews as a +federate republic.</div> + +<p><b>II. <i>Period of the federative republic.</i></b> From the +occupation of Palestine to the establishment of +monarchy, 1500—1100.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">Heroic age.</div> + +<p>1. General character of this period as the heroic +age of the nation, which, after the gradual +adoption of fixed dwellings and agriculture, was +engaged in constant feuds with its neighbours, the +vagrant Arabs, the Philistines, and the Edomites. +Impossibility of exterminating entirely the ancient +inhabitants according to the intention of Moses.—Hence +the worship of Jehovah was never the <i>only</i> +religion in the land.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">Constitution.</div> + +<p>2. Political organization. In consequence of +the division of land, according to tribes, and their +separation from one another, the government long +remained patriarchal. Each tribe preserved its +patriarch or elder, as in the nomad state. All, +however, had, in the worship of Jehovah, one +common bond, uniting them into one federate +state. Magistrates were likewise appointed in +the cities, to whom scribes are conjoined out of +the Levite caste.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_37" id="Page_37">[Pg 37]</a></span></p> + +<div class="sidenote">Distribution +of the +Levites.</div> + +<p>3. The permanent union of the nation, and preservation +of the Mosaic law, were likewise promoted +by the distribution of the Levite caste into +forty-eight separate towns, situated in various +parts of the country, and by making the high +priesthood hereditary in Aaron's family.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">Disturbed +state of the +Jews at the +death of +Joshua.</div> + +<p>4. But when at the death of Joshua the people +were left without a common ruler, the tie of religion +became insufficient to hold them together; +especially as the weaker tribes became jealous of +the more powerful. At this time the high priests +appear to have had but little political influence; +and the national bond was only prevented from +being dissolved by the dread of a foreign yoke.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">Judges.</div> + +<p>5. The Jews were sometimes independent, at +other times tributary. In seasons of oppression +and distress heroes arose, jealous for the worship +of Jehovah, to deliver them from bondage. They +acted as chief magistrates and rulers of a part, or +even the whole of the nation, and as champions +of the worship of the true God. The judges, particularly +Othniel, Deborah, and Sampson.—Concerning +the marvellous in their history.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">Kings, +about 1150.</div> + +<p>6. Reestablishment of the worship of Jehovah +by Samuel. He becomes judge, and rules as +Jehovah's minister.—His scheme of making the +office of judge hereditary in his own family is +defeated by the conduct of his sons. The nation +demands a king, whom Samuel, as minister +of Jehovah, is called upon to appoint. His crafty +policy in the election, which he cannot impede. +He chooses Saul, politically speaking, the most +insignificant man of the nation; but the tallest +and most stately. A formal constitutional act,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_38" id="Page_38">[Pg 38]</a></span> +according to the Mosaic command, is drawn up +and deposited in the national sanctuary.</p> + +<div class="sblockquot"><p>Causes which led the nation to demand a king.—Earlier attempts +made, particularly by <i>Abimelech</i>, to obtain regal power.</p></div> + + +<p class="center"><b>III. <i>Period of the monarchy from</i> 1100—600.</b></p> + +<h4>I. <i>The Jewish state as one single kingdom from</i> +1100 (1095)—975.</h4> + +<div class="sidenote">Saul:</div> + +<p>1. <i>Saul</i>, the new king, strengthened himself on +the throne by a victory over the Ammonites; and +a general assembly of the nation, in which Samuel +laid down his office as judge, unanimously acknowledged +his sovereignty. But Saul, no sooner +became a conqueror than he threw off the tutelage +of Samuel, and ventured himself to consult Jehovah. +This was the occasion of a feud between +them. Samuel, offended, privately anointed another +young man, David the son of Jesse, as king. +David acquires fame and popularity by his heroic +conduct; but has much difficulty in escaping the +jealousy of Saul.—Saul sustains himself amid +constant wars with the neighbouring nations; +<span class="sidenote">slain about 1055.</span> +but at last defeated, he and all his sons, except +one, lose their lives.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">Jewish government +and state +under him.</div> + +<p>2. State of the nation and constitution under +Saul.—The king little more than a military leader +under the direction of Jehovah; without either +court or fixed residence.—The people still a mere +agricultural and pastoral race, without wealth or +luxury; but gradually assuming the character of +a warlike nation.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">David, +1055—1015.</div> + +<p>3. Saul was succeeded by David; but not +without opposition. Eleven tribes declare for<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_39" id="Page_39">[Pg 39]</a></span> +Ish-bosheth, the remaining son of Saul; and David +is only acknowledged by his own tribe, Judah. +It is not till seven years later, and the murder of +Ish-bosheth by his own people, that David is recognized +as king by the whole nation.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">State of the +nation and +government +in his reign.</div> + +<p>4. Complete formation of the nation, and a +change of constitution during the reign of David +over the united kingdom, which lasted thirty-three +years. Jerusalem is made the seat of government +and of the national sanctuary. Rigid observance +of the worship of Jehovah, the exclusive religion +of the nation, considered in respect to its political +consequence.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">Conquests.</div> + +<p>5. Vast aggrandizement of the Jewish state by +conquest. A war with Hadadezer opens the way +to the conquest of Syria and Idumæa. Extent of +the kingdom from the Euphrates to the Mediterranean; +from Phœnicia to the Red sea. Gradual +decline towards despotism and seraglio government; +the political consequences of which +become apparent about the end of David's reign, +in the rebellion of his sons.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">Solomon, +1015—975.</div> + +<p>6. Reign of Solomon. The brilliant government +of a despot from the interior of his seraglio; +unwarlike, but civilized, and fond of parade. New +organization of the kingdom for the support of +the court. Connections formed with the neighbouring +states, particularly with Tyre; hence a +participation in the southern trade carried on from +the ports of the Red sea, conquered by David; +but only as a monopoly of the court.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">Declension +of the state.</div> + +<p>7. The capital enriched by the splendour of the +court; but the country oppressed and impoverished, +particularly the distant tribes. Gradual<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_40" id="Page_40">[Pg 40]</a></span> +internal decay hastened by the admixture of the +worship of foreign gods with that of Jehovah; +although Solomon, by the erection of the temple +according to the plan of his father, seems to have +wished to make the worship of the true God the +only religion of the country. An unsuccessful +attempt at rebellion made by Jeroboam; and by +the Edomites, who remain tributary under their +own kings: actual secession, even during the +reign of Solomon, of the conquered province of +Syria by the foundation of the kingdom of Damascus.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">Rehoboam.</div> + +<p>8. Solomon is succeeded by his son Rehoboam, +who has scarcely ascended the throne, +before the malcontents, increased in number by +his imprudence, break into open rebellion. Jeroboam +is recalled from Egypt, and ten tribes acknowledge +him as their king. Only two tribes, +Judah and Benjamin, remain faithful to Rehoboam.</p> + + +<h4>II. <i>The Jewish state as a divided kingdom,</i> 975—588.</h4> + +<div class="sidenote">Causes of the long wars between Judah and Israel.</div> + +<p>1. Reciprocal relations between the two kingdoms +of Judah and Israel. Although Israel was +more extensive and populous than Judah, yet was +Judah, in consequence of possessing the capital, +richest of the two; thus their power was nearly +balanced; and hence the struggle between them +was the more obstinate.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">Policy of the kings of Israel:</div> + +<p>2. The kings of Israel seek to confirm the political +division of the nation, by establishing a +new form of worship within their dominions, in +order to restrain their subjects from visiting the +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_41" id="Page_41">[Pg 41]</a></span>ancient seat of the national worship at Jerusalem; +hence they were considered as the enemies of Jehovah. +Several kings, however, even of +<span class="sidenote">of those of Judah.</span> +Judah were so impolitic as to mingle the worship of +other gods with that of Jehovah. But oppression +itself serves to sustain the worship of Jehovah; +the number and political influence of the +prophets increase in proportion as men feel, amid +the turbulence of the times, need of the counsels +of the true God; the idea of some future happier +period under a mighty king—the idea of the Messiah +and of his kingdom—is more fully developed +by the lively recollection of the splendid reign of +David.—Schools of the prophets.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">Termination +of the +wars.</div> + +<p>3. The rivalry and wars between those two +states not only continue with slight interruption, +but become more and more fraught with danger, +in consequence of the alliances entered into with +foreign princes, particularly with the kings of Damascus +and Egypt. An end is at length put to +these feeble kingdoms by the rise of vast empires +in Inner Asia.</p> + +<div class="sblockquot"><p>Most important events in the history of the two kingdoms.</p> + +<p>1. <span class="smcap">Kingdom of Israel</span>, 975—722; under 19 kings, from different +families, who succeeded to the throne amid violent revolutions. +1. Jeroboam, <i>d.</i> 954. Settlement of the royal residence +at Shechem; of the sanctuaries at Bethel and Dan, and appointment +of priests, not belonging to the tribe of Levi. Constant +wars with the kings of Judah. 2. Nadab, Jeroboam's son, murdered +in 953 by 3. Baasha, <i>d.</i> 930. This prince, by his alliance +with the kings of Damascus, brought the kingdom of Judah into +great danger. 4. Elah murdered in 929 by one of his generals. +5. Zimri, in whose place the army immediately elected 6. Omri: +this prince, at the beginning of his reign, had a rival to the +throne in Tibni, <i>d.</i> 925. Omri founded the new capital, Samaria, +<i>d.</i> 918. He was succeeded by his son 7. Ahab: strong connections +by marriage with the kings of Sidon; introduction of<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_42" id="Page_42">[Pg 42]</a></span> +the Phœnician worship of Baal. Wars with Damascus, in which +Ahab at last perishes, 897. Under Ahab a league formed with +the king of Judah. He is succeeded by his sons, 8. Ahaziah, <i>d.</i> +896, and 9. Jehoram. The league with Judah continues. Jehoram +is murdered by Jehu, 883. 10. Jehu: this king destroys +the house of Ahab, which had given 4 kings to Israel, and does +away with the worship of Baal. The kings of Damascus wrest +from the kingdom of Israel the lands beyond Jordan. Jehu, <i>d.</i> +856. He is succeeded by his son 11. Jehoahaz, <i>d.</i> 840. The +wars with Damascus continue unsuccessful to Israel. 12. Jehoash, +<i>d.</i> 825. He defeats the kings of Damascus and Judah. +13. Jeroboam II. <i>d.</i> 784. He restores the kingdom of Israel to +its ancient extent. After a turbulent interregnum of 12 years, +he is succeeded by his son 14. Zechariah, 773; who was assassinated +the same year, being the last remnant of the house of +Jehu, which had given 5 kings to Israel. His murderer, 15. +Shallum, after a reign of one month, is, in his turn, assassinated +by 16. Menahem, <i>d.</i> 761: under his reign the first expedition +of the Assyrians, headed by Pul, whom he buys off by tribute. +17. His son Pekahiah murdered in 759 by 18. Pekah, under +whose reign falls the expedition of Tiglath-Pileser the Assyrian, +and destruction of Damascus. Pekah is assassinated in 740 by +19. Hoshea, who, after an anarchy of eight years, obtains possession +of the throne. Hoshea endeavours, by an alliance with +Egypt, to shake off the Assyrian yoke; but Shalmaneser, king +of Assyria, wages war against him, conquers Samaria, and puts +an end to the kingdom of Israel, whose inhabitants he transplants +to Media in Inner Asia, 722.</p> + +<p>2. <span class="smcap">Kingdom of Judah</span> under 20 kings of the house of David, +975—598. The regular line of hereditary succession is generally +followed without dispute, and is only twice interrupted by +Athaliah's usurpation, and the intervention of foreign conquerors. +1. Rehoboam, <i>d.</i> 958. Jerusalem is still the seat of government; +but even during this reign the worship of Jehovah begins to fall +into neglect, in consequence of the introduction of foreign gods. +Besides the war with Israel, Jerusalem is attacked and plundered +by Shishak, king of Egypt. 2. Abijah, <i>d.</i> 955. 3. Asa. +This prince was attacked by the combined kings of Israel and +Damascus, and, no doubt, would have sunk in the conflict, had +he not succeeded in breaking their alliance; <i>d.</i> 914. 4. Jehoshaphat, +the restorer of the worship of Jehovah and framer of a +league with the kingdom of Israel. His attempt to reestablish<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_43" id="Page_43">[Pg 43]</a></span> +the trade to Ophir, on the Red sea, is unsuccessful, <i>d.</i> 891. 5. +Jehoram. The union with Israel is confirmed by the marriage +of this prince with Ahab's daughter, Athaliah; but Idumæa, +under his reign, secedes wholly from the kingdom of Judah, <i>d.</i> +884. 6. His son Ahaziah is, in the next year, 883, assassinated +by Jehu, the murderer and successor of Jehoram king of Israel. +7. His mother, Athaliah, takes possession of the throne; murders +the whole royal family; only one son of Ahaziah, 8, Joash, +is, in consequence of his youth, rescued from the carnage, secretly +educated in the temple, and after seven years forcibly +placed upon the throne, by means of a revolution wrought by +the high priest, Jehoiada; and Athaliah is slaughtered, 877. +Joash rules under the tutelage of the priests, which leads to the +reestablishment of Jehovah's worship. This prince is menaced +by Hazael king of Damascus, and compelled to pay him tribute. +Slain 838. 9. Amaziah: he defeats the Edomites, and is in his +turn defeated by Jehoash king of Israel, by whom Jerusalem itself +is sacked. He is slain in 811, and succeeded 10. by his son +Azariah, (or Uzziah.) This prince was leprous, and <i>d.</i> 759. +His son 11. Jotham, <i>d.</i> 743, became regent during the life of +his father. The wars with Israel and Damascus recommence. +12. Ahaz, <i>d.</i> 728. The league between the kings of Damascus +and Israel induces Ahaz to call to his assistance Tiglath-Pileser +king of Assyria, who overthrows the kingdom of Damascus, and +subjects Israel and Judah to tribute. 13. Hezekiah, <i>d.</i> 699. +He shakes off the Assyrian yoke: under his reign Shalmaneser +destroys Samaria, 722: and Shalmaneser's successor, Sennacherib, +undertakes his expedition against Egypt, 714. Jerusalem +is again besieged, but fortunately relieved by the total failure of +the expedition. Isaiah prophecies during the reign of this prince. +14. Manasseh, <i>d.</i> 644. During his 55 years' reign, the worship +of the Phœnician god, Baal, becomes general; that of Jehovah +falls into contempt, and the Mosaic law into disuse. 15. Amon, +murdered as early as 642. 16. Josiah restorer of the temple, +and of the worship of Jehovah. The book of the Law, which +had been cast aside and neglected, is once more found, and a +complete reform instituted according to its principles. Palestine +however is the first country attacked by Necos, king of Egypt; +and Josiah falls in battle, 611. His son, 17. Jehoahaz, is, after +a reign of three months, dethroned by Pharaoh-Nechoh, and +his brother 18. Jehoiakim placed as a tributary prince on the +throne. But in consequence of the rise of the Chaldæo-Babylo<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_44" id="Page_44">[Pg 44]</a></span>nian +empire, Pharaoh-Nechoh is deprived of his Asiatic conquests +by the loss of the battle of Circesium, 606; and Jehoiakim +becomes tributary to Nebuchadnezzar, <i>d.</i> 599. The prophet +Jeremiah flourishes. 19. Jehoiachin, son of the former king, +after three months' reign, is, together with the greater part of +the nation, transplanted into Inner Asia by Nebuchadnezzar, +after a second expedition, (commencement of the Babylonian +captivity,) and, 20. Zedekiah, brother on the father's side to +Jehoiachin, is seated on the throne as a tributary prince. Forming, +however, a league with Egypt, in order to throw off the +Babylonian yoke, Nebuchadnezzar marches a third time against +Jerusalem, conquers it, 588, and delivers it up to pillage and +destruction. Zedekiah, after being deprived of his eye-sight, +and losing all his children by the hands of the executioner, is, +together with the remaining portion of the nation, led in captivity +to Babylon.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">S. Bernhardi</span> <i>Commentatio de causis quibus affectum sit ut +regnum Judæ diutius persisteret quam regnum Israel; cum tabula +geographica</i>, Lovanii, 1825, 4to. A prize essay, containing +also several valuable enquiries into the monarchical period of the +Jewish state.</p> + +<p>† <span class="smcap">Bauer</span>, <i>Manual of the History of the Hebrew Nation</i>, vol. +i—iii, 1800. The best introduction hitherto published, not only +to the history, but also to the antiquities of the nation, from the +rise to the fall of the state.</p></div> + + +<hr style="width: 25%;" /> +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_45" id="Page_45">[Pg 45]</a></span></p> +<h2>II. AFRICAN NATIONS.</h2> + +<h3><i>General Geographical Outline of Ancient Africa.</i></h3> + +<p class="center">See <span class="smcap">A. H. L. Heeren's</span> <i>Historical Researches</i>, etc. African +Nations. 2 vols. 8vo. Oxford, 1831.</p> + + +<div class="sidenote">Acquaintance +of the +ancients +with Africa.</div> + +<p>1. Although the Phœnicians had circumnavigated +Africa, the northern part only of that +quarter of the globe was known to antiquity. +With that part, however, the ancients were better +acquainted than we are at the present day, the +coast being then occupied by civilized and commercial +nations, who pushed their excursions far +inland. This was the case in early times with the +Carthaginians and the Egyptians; still more so +with the Macedonian Greeks, under the Ptolemies, +and under the Romans. War, hunting, and +commerce, were, generally speaking, the objects +which gave rise to those excursions.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">General +view of +Africa.</div> + +<p>2. Considered as a whole, Africa is very different +from Asia, both in situation and form. Asia +lies almost entirely within the temperate, while +Africa is almost wholly under the torrid zone. +Asia abounds in deep gulfs and large rivers; +Africa constitutes a regular triangle, and in its +northern half possesses but two large rivers, the +Nile and the Niger. No wonder, then, that this +portion of our globe should form, as it were, a +world in itself, distinguished by its productions +and its inhabitants.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">Physical +geography +of North +Africa.</div> + +<p>3. Physically considered, Northern Africa may +be divided into three regions, distinguished in +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_46" id="Page_46">[Pg 46]</a></span>early antiquity by separate names. The maritime +country along the Mediterranean, with the exception +of Tripolis, or the Regio-Syrtica, consists +principally of very fertile districts, and was consequently, +at all times, very thickly inhabited: +hence in Herodotus it bears the name of the <i>inhabited +Africa</i>; it is now called Barbary. Above +this, and under the 30th parallel of N. lat., succeeds +a mountainous tract, across which stretches +the Atlas chain of mountains; abounding in wild +beasts and dates: hence Herodotus calls it the +<i>wild beast Africa</i>: among the Arabs it is called +the land of dates, (<i>Biledulgerid</i>.) Beyond this, +and between the 30th and 20th degrees of N. lat. +the sandy region extends right across Africa and +Arabia: this part of Africa is therefore known, +both among the ancients and moderns, under the +name of Africa Deserta, or the Sandy Desert, +(Sahara). The fruitful lands beyond the desert, +stretching along the banks of the Niger, were +almost wholly unknown to the Greeks: by them +these parts were comprehended under the common +name of Ethiopia, although that name applied +more peculiarly to the districts above Egypt. +The Greeks were, however, acquainted with some +of the fruitful spots in the desert, the Oases; such +as Augila, Ammonium, and the Oases, properly +so called, in Egypt.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">Political +state.</div> + +<p>4. There exists no political division which comprises +the whole of Africa. The north coast alone +was inhabited by civilized nations: Egyptians, +Cyrenæans, and Carthaginians; of which the first +only were aboriginals. The rest of the inhabitants +either roved about as nomad hordes, or<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_47" id="Page_47">[Pg 47]</a></span> +formed insignificant states, of whose existence we +have heard some account, though we possess no +history of them. Along the shore, reckoning from +the Plinthinetic gulf, Egypt is succeeded by: 1st. +Marmarica, a tract without cities, consisting principally +of sandy deserts, occupied by nomad +hordes: this country extends from the 40—47° +E. long. from Ferro. 2nd. The fertile territory +occupied by the Greek colonies, called Cyrenaïca, +extended to the Greater Syrtis, 37—40° E. long. +Cities: Cyrene, Barca. 3rd. The territory of Carthage, +extending from the Greater Syrtis to the +Fair Promontory, 25—40° E. long. This territory +comprised (<i>a</i>) the country between the Greater +and Lesser Syrtis, (Regio Syrtica,) which constitutes +the modern kingdom of Tripoli; a sandy +tract, almost wholly occupied by nomads. (<i>b</i>) the +territory of Carthage, properly so called, (kingdom +of Tunis). A very fruitful country; the +southern part, called Byzacena, the northern part +Zeugitana. Cities: Carthage, Utica, etc. 4th. +Numidia and Mauritania; occupied during the +Carthaginian age by nomad races. Along the +shore some Carthaginian settlements.</p> + + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /> +<h3>EGYPTIANS.</h3> + +<div class="sidenote">Geography.</div> + + +<p>Preliminary remarks. Egypt in its superficial +contents is equal to about two-thirds of Germany, +and may therefore justly be ranked among the +more extensive countries of the globe; it greatly +varies, however, in its physical properties. The<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_48" id="Page_48">[Pg 48]</a></span> +soil is only sufficiently fertile for tillage on the +banks of the Nile, and as far as the floods of that +river extend; beyond that, on the west, is a sandy +desert, on the east a chain of rocky mountains. +From its entrance into Egypt at Syene, +<span class="sidenote">Course of the Nile.</span> +the Nile flows in one undivided stream to the city of Cercasorus, +60 geogr. miles above its mouth, directing +its source from south to north through a valley +from 8 to 16 geogr. miles broad, bounded on the +west by deserts of sand, and on the east by mountains +of granite. At Cercasorus the stream first +divides itself into two main branches, which formerly +discharged their waters into the Mediterranean, +the eastern near the city of Pelusium, the +western near the city of Canopus (<i>ostium Pelusiacum +et Canopicum</i>;) from these two diverged several +intermediate branches; so that in the time of +Herodotus there existed seven mouths of the Nile, +but the number has not always remained the same. +The tract between the two extreme arms of the +Nile bears, in consequence of its triangular form, +the name of the Delta; it was covered with cities, +and highly cultivated. The fertile part of Egypt, +inhabited by civilized men, was therefore confined +to the Delta and the valley of the Nile, on the two +banks of the stream from Syene to Cercasorus; +to which must be added some well watered spots +in the centre of the western desert, known under +the name of the Oases. In consequence of the +perpetual absence of rain, particularly in Upper +Egypt, the fertility of the Delta and the valley of +the Nile depends on the overflowing of the river, +which happens at stated periods. This commences +at the beginning of August and continues<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_49" id="Page_49">[Pg 49]</a></span> +to the end of October; so that during three whole +months the above-mentioned parts of the country +are under water.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">Divisions of +Egypt.</div> + +<p>Egypt is divided into Upper, extending from +Syene to the city of Chemmis, (capital, Thebes, +or Diospolis); Central from Chemmis to Cercasorus, +(capital, Memphis,) and Lower Egypt, +which comprises the Delta, and the land on both +sides: it was full of cities, among which the most +remarkable was Sais.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">Ethiopia.</div> + +<p>Next above Egypt lies Ethiopia, (<i>Æthiopia supra +Ægyptum</i>); which, from the earliest times, +principally through commerce, appears to have +been closely connected with the former country. +The regions immediately above Egypt, usually +called Nubia, are little more than deserts of sand, +still inhabited by roving hordes of nomad robbers. +The rocky mountain chain, which forms the eastern +boundary of Egypt, stretches along the Red +sea, and was formerly of great importance to +Nubia, from its containing, just above the +Egyptian frontier, productive gold mines. The +Nile, in this country, makes a wide curve to +the west, and becomes so full of shallows as to +render navigation difficult. The lands adjoining +the river, however, are fertile and well inhabited; +and contain numerous ancient monuments. Still +higher up, reckoning from 16° N. lat. the appearance +of the country changes; the region of fertility +commences, and its costly productions, its +gold and its perfumes, gave rise to a profitable +commerce. Among these countries, Meroe, with +its capital of the same name, was celebrated in the +days of Herodotus. By Meroe is understood a<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_50" id="Page_50">[Pg 50]</a></span> +tract of land bounded by two rivers, the Nile on +the west, and the Astaboras, (Tacazze,) which +falls into the Nile, on the east; for this reason it +is frequently, although improperly, called an island. +This country extended towards the sources +of the Nile, or the modern province of Gojam, +where, under the reign of Psammetichus, the +Egyptian caste of warriors, having for the most +part deserted, established themselves. Meroe +itself, like the Egyptian states, was sacerdotal, +with a king at its head.—The city of Axum, or +Auxume, is not indeed mentioned at so early a +period; but if we may judge by the ruins that +still remain, it was of equally high antiquity with +the old Egyptian towns and with Meroe. The +same observations apply to Adule, the harbour +on the Arabian gulf.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">Divisions of Egyptian history.</div> + +<p>The Egyptian history is divided into three periods +of unequal duration; the <i>first</i> of which extends +from the earliest time down to the Sesostridæ, +that is to say, to about B. C. 1500: the +<i>second</i> comprises the reigns of the Sesostridæ, or +the brilliant period of Egypt, down to Psammetichus, +1500—650: the <i>third</i> brings us from +Psammetichus down to the Persian conquest, +650—525.</p> + + +<hr style="width: 25%;" /> +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_51" id="Page_51">[Pg 51]</a></span></p> + +<h4>FIRST PERIOD.</h4> + +<h4><i>From the earliest times down to the Sesostridæ, about +B. C. 1500.</i></h4> + +<div class="sblockquot"><p>Sources: 1. Jewish writers. <i>Moses.</i> His records contain, no +doubt, a faithful picture of the Egyptian state in his day; but +no continuous history can be deduced from them.—From Moses +down to Solomon (B. C. 1500—1000.) total silence, with respect +to Egypt, of the Hebrew writers. From Solomon down to Cyrus, +(B. C. 1000—550.) a few scanty fragments.—Importance +and superiority of the Jewish accounts, so far as they are <i>purely +historical</i>. 2. Greek writers. (<i>a</i>) <i>Herodotus.</i> The first who +published a History of the Egyptians. About seventy years after +the destruction of the throne of the Pharaohs by the Persian conquerors, +this author collected, in Egypt itself, the earliest accounts +of the history of the country; he received his information +from the most capable persons, the priests; and wrote down +faithfully that information, such as he heard it. If, therefore, +we would estimate at their proper worth the accounts given by +Herodotus, it is necessary to enquire, what did the priests themselves +know of their earlier national history? And this question +cannot be answered until we have ascertained in what manner +the historical records of the earlier periods were preserved among +the Egyptians.</p> + +<p>The earliest history of the Egyptians, like that of all other +nations, was traditional. They adopted, however, before any +other nations, a sort of writing, hieroglyphics, or allegorical picture +writing; in which the signs borrowed from natural objects +served, as modern discoveries have proved, partly to represent +sounds, (<i>hiéroglyphes phonétiques</i>,) and partly to express ideas; +in the latter case they were either representative or allegorical. +This mode of writing, by its nature, is not so complete as the +purely alphabetical; since, 1. It can express only a narrow circle +of ideas, and these separately, without connection or grammatical +inflection, at least with very few exceptions. 2. As it is not +so well adapted to writing as to painting or engraving, it is not +so useful for books as for public monuments. 3. Being em<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_52" id="Page_52">[Pg 52]</a></span>blematic, +it is not intelligible without the help of a key, which +could only be preserved in some tradition connected with the +monument, and which was exclusively possessed by the priests; +this key, therefore, could hardly be preserved many centuries +without falsification. 4. The same image seems frequently to +have been used to express very different objects.—It follows, that +the Egyptian history, as deduced from the lips of the priests, can +hardly have been any thing more than records connected with, +and depending upon, public monuments: consisting, therefore, +of mere fragments, and reducible to no consistent chronology, +it ultimately admitted only of allegorical translation, and consequently +was very liable to be misinterpreted. Besides their +hieroglyphics, the Egyptians certainly had two other species of +writing: the <i>hieratic</i>, confined to the priests, and the <i>demotic</i>, +used in common life. Both, however, seem to have been nothing +more than running hands derived from the hieroglyphic system; +and we have no instance of the employment of either the one or +the other in public monuments of the time of the Pharaohs. +That the use of papyrus, a material on which all the above kinds +of writing were employed, had its origin in the highest antiquity, +or at least in the more brilliant period of the Pharaohs, we now +know for certain, written documents belonging to those times +having been obtained from the tombs.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Champollion le jeune</span>, <i>Précis du Système Hiéroglyphique +des anciens Egyptiens</i>. Paris, 1824. The main work on this +subject, of which the <i>Lettre à M. Dacier</i>, 1822, is but the precursor, +and the two <i>Lettres à M. le duc de Blacas</i> the continuation. +The new method of deciphering has received its principal +confirmation from the work of the British consul in Egypt, +<span class="smcap">Salt</span>, <i>Essay on the Phonetic System of Hieroglyphics</i>, 1825, +on the authority of a comparison with the Egyptian monuments +themselves. Hitherto, however, little more has been made out +than the names and titles of the kings, distinguished by being +always enclosed within a border.</p> + +<p>These preliminary remarks on the earlier Egyptian history, +will derive abundant support from a perusal of the account given +by Herodotus (ii, 99—150), of the Egyptian kings previous to +Psammetichus. The study of that author proves beyond all +doubt, that: I. The whole history is throughout founded on public +monuments, and on monuments too, either in or near <i>Memphis</i>. +We may even restrict ourselves to one single monument +at Memphis, to the temple of Vulcan, or Phtha, the chief temple<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_53" id="Page_53">[Pg 53]</a></span> +of that city. The history commences with Menes, the founder +of that edifice, (c. 99.), and we are informed, respecting each of +his successors, what was done towards the augmentation and +embellishment of the building: those who made no addition to +that temple, but left other monuments, (as the builders of the +pyramids,) are denominated oppressors of the people, and contemners +of the gods: of those princes who left no monuments at +all, the priests could give no other information than a catalogue +of names. II. Hence this line of kings, although the priests +gave it to Herodotus as such, is not without interruptions, but, +as is clearly proved by a comparison with Diodorus, contains +many wide chasms: therefore no chronological system can be +erected upon such a basis. III. The whole history is interwoven +with narrations derived from hieroglyphic representations, +and for that very reason allegorical, the meaning of which it is +no longer possible to unravel, the priests themselves being either +unable or unwilling to explain it, and even inclining, it appears, +to introduce false interpretations. To this class of narrations +belongs, for instance, that of the robbery of Rhampsinitus's treasury; +that of his journey into hell, where he played at dice with +Ceres, (c. 121, 122); that concerning the daughter of Cheops, +(c. 127.); concerning the blindness of Pheron, and the manner in +which he was cured, etc. (c. 111.) To prove that this charge is +not without foundation, it will suffice to adduce two examples; +one from c. 131, where Herodotus himself observes that such was +the case; the other from c. 141, the true meaning of which we +gather from other sources. Even in the time of Herodotus, it +was customary with the priests to endeavour to conciliate the +Greek and Egyptian authorities; a fact in proof of which there +are many arguments which cannot escape the critic: such, for +instance, as the completely <i>Græcised</i> history of king Proteus, +c. 112—115.—The general result of the above observations on +Herodotus's Egyptian history is, that it is nothing more than a +narration connected with public monuments. To this inference +but one objection can possibly be made, namely, that the Egyptian +priests possessed, besides their hieroglyphics, an alphabetical +mode of writing; consequently, that, over and above the public +monuments, they might likewise refer to written annals; but +this objection is overthrown by Herodotus himself. All the information +the priests could give him beyond what has been above +alluded to, consisted in the names of 330 kings subsequent to<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_54" id="Page_54">[Pg 54]</a></span> +Menes; these they read from a papyrus roll, but knew nothing +more of the kings who bore them, because <i>those sovereigns had +left no monuments behind them</i>, (c. 100.)</p> + +<p>(<i>b</i>) Besides Herodotus, <i>Diodorus</i> (lib. i.) likewise furnishes us +with the names of some Egyptian kings. This author, who +wrote 400 years subsequently to Herodotus, visited Egypt, and +collected his history, partly from the oral and written documents +of the priests of <i>Thebes</i>, partly from the more ancient Greek +writers, and particularly Hecatæus. If we consider Herodotus's +line of kings as not continuous or uninterrupted, all appearance +of contradiction between the two historians vanishes. Diodorus, +like Herodotus, did not intend to give a complete enumeration +of the Egyptian kings; but only of the most remarkable; indicating +the interruptions by the number of generations which +they contained.</p> + +<p>(<i>c</i>) Finally, different from both the above is the Egyptian +<i>Manetho</i>, high priest at <i>Heliopolis</i>, who flourished under the +reign of Ptolemy Philadelphus, about B. C. 260. He wrote the +<i>Ægyptiaca</i>, of which, besides several fragments in Josephus, the +enumeration of the kings has been preserved in the chronicles of +Eusebius and Syncellus. This catalogue is divided into three +sections, (tomos,) each of which contains several dynasties, in all +31, enumerated according to the different cities of Egypt. In +each dynasty the number of kings belonging to it and the years +of their reigns are marked. The authenticity of Manetho is now +completely established; since the names of the Pharaohs mentioned +by him have been deciphered on the Egyptian monuments. +To this period belong the first seventeen dynasties; in +the eighteenth begins the second and brilliant period, to which +the yet remaining monuments of Upper Egypt, bearing the names +of the founders, are to be ascribed. It is worthy of observation, +that in Herodotus we have the documents of the priests of Memphis, +in Diodorus those of the priests of Thebes, in Manetho +those of the priests of Heliopolis—the three principal seats of +sacerdotal learning:—perfect consistency cannot, therefore, be +expected in the accounts of those historians.</p> + +<p>The modern writers on Egyptian antiquities, from <span class="smcap">Kircher</span>, +<i>Œdipus Ægyptiacus</i>, 1670, to <span class="smcap">De Pauw</span>, <i>Recherches sur les +Egyptiens et sur les Chinois</i>, 1772, have too often substituted +their own dreams and hypotheses for truth. The principal attempts +at a chronological arrangement of the dynasties have been<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_55" id="Page_55">[Pg 55]</a></span> +made by <span class="smcap">Marsham</span>, in his <i>Canon Chronicus</i>; and by <span class="smcap">Gatterer</span>, +in his † <i>Synchronistic History of the World</i>.—Among +the principal works on this subject may be reckoned:</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Jablonski</span> <i>Pantheon Mythicum Ægyptiacum</i>, 1750, 8vo.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Gatterer</span>, <i>Commentationes de Theogonia Ægypt</i>. in <i>Commentat. +Societ. Gotting.</i> t. vii.</p> + +<p><i>De Origine et Usu Obeliscorum, auctore</i> <span class="smcap">G. Zoega</span>; Romæ, +1797.</p> + +<p><i>L'Egypte sous les Pharaons, ou Recherches sur la Géographie, +la Religion, la Langue, les Ecritures, et l'Histoire de l'Egypte +avant l'invasion de Cambyse, par</i> <span class="smcap">Champollion le Jeune</span>, +t. i, ii. 1814. These two volumes, dedicated to the geography, +contain the restoration of the ancient Egyptian names of provinces +and cities deduced from Coptic authorities.</p> + +<p><i>Commentationes Herodoteæ, scribebat</i> <span class="smcap">Frid. Creuzer</span>. <i>Ægyptica +et Hellenica, pars 1.</i> Lips. 1819. A series of most acute +and learned illustrations of different points in Egyptian antiquity, +introduced by different passages of Herodotus.</p> + +<p>The volume in <span class="smcap">Heeren's</span> <i>Historical Researches</i>, etc. 1831, +vol. ii, concerning the Egyptians; and particularly the introduction +on hieroglyphic writing. For the best representations of the +Egyptian monuments, we are indebted to the French expedition. +Those of Denon in his <i>Voyage en Egypte</i>, are far superior to +those of Pococke and Norden; but Denon's, in their turn, have +been greatly surpassed in the magnificent work:</p> + +<p><i>Description de l'Egypte, Antiquités</i>, P. i, ii, iii. P. i, contains +the monuments of Upper Egypt, from the frontiers of +Nubia to Thebes; P. ii, iii, contain the monuments of Thebes +alone.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Belzoni</span>, <i>Researches in Egypt</i>, London, 1824, with an atlas.</p> + +<p>† <span class="smcap">Minutoli</span>, <i>Journey to the Temple of Jupiter Ammon, and +Egypt</i>, 1824.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">L. Burckhardt</span>, <i>Travels in Nubia</i>, London, 1819.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">F. C. Gau</span>, <i>Antiquités de la Nubie</i>, Paris, 1824. A worthy +continuation of the great French work on Egypt.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Fr. Caillaud</span>, <i>Voyage à Méroé et au Fleuve Blanc</i>, Paris, +1825, contains the description of the monuments of Meroe.</p></div> + +<div class="sidenote">Early civilization +of +Egypt:</div> + +<p>1. Political civilization commenced in Egypt at +a much earlier period than that to which history +reaches; for even in the days of Abraham, and<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_56" id="Page_56">[Pg 56]</a></span> +still more so in those of Moses, the government +seems to have been so well organized, that a long +period must necessarily have elapsed in order to +raise the nation to that degree of civilization which +we see it had then attained. It may, therefore, +be safely asserted, that Egypt ranks among the +most ancient countries of our globe in which political +associations existed; although we cannot +determine with equal certainty whether they did +not exist still earlier +<span class="sidenote">of India.</span> +in India.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">Causes of its early civilization.<br /> +The Nile:</div> + +<p>2. The causes which contributed to render +Egypt thus early a civilized state, may be found +in the natural features of the country, and its favourable +situation, when compared with the +rest of Africa. It is the only tract in all northern +Africa situated on a large uninterrupted navigable +stream: had it not been for this, it would, like the +other parts of Africa under the same parallel, have +been a mere desert. To this must be added two +extraordinary circumstances: on the one hand, +the overflowing of the river so perfectly prepares +the soil, that to scatter the seed is almost +the only labour of the husbandman; and yet, on +the other hand, so many obstacles impede the +progress of agriculture, (by the necessity of canals, +dams, etc.) that the invention of man must necessarily have been awakened. +<span class="sidenote">commerce.</span> +When agriculture, and the kind of knowledge requisite for its ulterior +development had introduced a certain degree +of civilization into Egypt, the situation of that +country, between Asia and Africa, and in the +neighbourhood of the rich land of gold and spices, +must have been highly favourable to the purposes +of international commerce; hence Egypt appears<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_57" id="Page_57">[Pg 57]</a></span> +in all ages to have been one of the chief seats of +the inland or caravan trade.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">Egyptian +civilization +came from +the south.</div> + +<p>3. It is obvious, therefore, that in the fertile +valley of the Nile, the course of things must have +been very different from what it was in the desert +of Libya. Several small states appear to have +been formed in this valley long before the existence +of any great Egyptian kingdom. Their origin, +as might naturally be supposed, is enveloped +in an obscurity, which history can no longer entirely +penetrate. It may still, however, be gathered +from monuments and records, that Upper +Egypt was first the seat of civilization; which, originating +in the south, spread by the settlement +of colonies towards the north. It is probable +that this took place in consequence of the migration +of some tribe, differing from the negroes, as is +proved by the representations, both in sculpture +and in painting, found on the yet remaining monuments +of Egypt.</p> + +<p>4. The records of the high antiquity of political civilization, not only +in India, but likewise in Arabia Felix and Ethiopia, particularly in Meroe, +and the evident vestiges of +<span class="sidenote">Migrations from the south.</span> +ancient intercourse between the southern nations of our globe, prove +with sufficient evidence the truth of such migrations, +although they cannot be chronologically determined. +It is certain, however, that religion +had no small share in producing them. The national +bond of union in Egypt not only continued +in later times, entirely dependent upon religion, +but was originally grounded upon it. Thus every +step in political civilization must have depended,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_58" id="Page_58">[Pg 58]</a></span> +if not solely, at least principally, on the caste of +priests and on their extension.</p> + +<div class="sblockquot"><p>General development of the idea of division into castes. Originating +at first in the variety of tribes settled in one and the +same country, and their different modes of life.—Its further progress +in despotic and in theocratic kingdoms.—Application to +Egypt and to the Egyptian caste of priests, as an original, civilized +tribe.</p></div> + +<div class="sidenote">A caste of +priests introduce +their religion +and +civilization +in Egypt.</div> + +<p>5. The peculiarity of this caste was the worship +of certain deities, the principal of which were +Ammon, Osiris, and Phtha, confounded by the +Greeks with their Jupiter, Bacchus, and Vulcan. +The spread of this worship, which was always +connected with temples, affords, therefore, the +most evident vestiges of the spread of the caste +itself; and those vestiges combined with the records +of the Egyptians, lead us to conclude that +this caste was a tribe which migrated from the +south, from beyond Meroe in Ethiopia, and by +the establishment of inland colonies around the +temples founded by them, gradually extended and +made the worship of their gods the dominant religion +in Egypt.</p> + +<div class="sblockquot"><p>Proof of the accuracy of the above theory deduced from monuments +and express testimonies concerning the origin of Thebes +and Ammon from Meroe; it might have been inferred from the +preservation of the worship of Ammon in the latter place. Memphis, +again, and other cities in the valley of the Nile, are commonly +supposed to have been founded by detachments from +Thebes.</p></div> + +<div class="sidenote">Nomes.</div> + +<p>6. This conjecture, which agrees with the usual +progress of population, is corroborated by the very +ancient division of the country into districts, or +nomes. This division was intimately connected<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_59" id="Page_59">[Pg 59]</a></span> +with the chief temples, each of which represented +a separate colony of the caste of priests; so that +the inhabitants of every home belonged to the +chief temple, and joined in the religious worship +there performed.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">Separate +states +founded in +Egypt:</div> + +<p>7. To the gradual extension of this civilized +tribe, which comprised, not only the caste of the +priests, but certainly also that of the warriors, +and perhaps some others, may be attributed the +formation of several small states along the banks +of the Nile; the central point of each being always +such a colony as we have just now described; +although each state consisted both of the aboriginal +tribes of the neighbourhood, and of those that +had migrated into the country. The bond which +united every separate state was, therefore, as in +most of those formed in the infancy of mankind, +a common worship, in which all the members +participated. But what, by reason of the peculiarities +of soil and climate, could not take +place in southern Africa, took place in Egypt: +agriculture, and its progressive improvement, became +the great support of civilization; and, as +being the true foundation of states, formed the +principal political object of the ruling caste.</p> + +<div class="sblockquot"><p>Refutation of the idea, that the Egyptian priests were in possession +of great speculative knowledge; since their knowledge +rather had constant reference to practical life, and, therefore, was +in their hands the <i>instrumentum dominationis</i> over the people, +by which they rendered themselves indispensable, and kept the +former in a state of dependence.—Explanation of the close reference +which their gods, their astronomical and mathematical sciences +bore to agriculture.</p></div> + +<div class="sidenote">Manetho's +account of +them:</div> + +<p>8. According to Manetho's catalogues, these +separate Egyptian states existed first in Upper<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_60" id="Page_60">[Pg 60]</a></span> +and Middle Egypt; in the former were Thebes, +Elephantine, This, and Heraclea; in the latter, +Memphis. It is only in the last division of his +work that we meet with states in Lower Egypt, +such as Tanis, Mendes, Bubastis, and Sebennytus.</p> + +<div class="sblockquot"><p>To these states, therefore, no doubt, belong the 330 kings +after Menes, whose names the priests read to Herodotus; as also +those whom Diodorus mentions as reigning previous to Sesostris, +among whom are remarked Busiris II. founder of Thebes, and +Uchoreus, the founder of Memphis. Eusebius and Syncellus +have preserved from Manetho the names of several of those +kings, which Marsham has endeavoured to compare and arrange.</p></div> + +<div class="sidenote">obscurity +of their +chronology.</div> + +<p>9. In the absence of a certain and continuous +chronology, it is impossible to determine accurately +which of these states were contemporary, +and which succeeded the others. There can be +no question that Thebes was one of the earliest, +if not indeed the most ancient of them all; certainly +prior to Memphis, which was founded by +it. According to the natural order of things, +some of these states became wealthy and mighty, +and swallowed up the others. Even at this early +period, Thebes and Memphis had obtained a superiority +over the rest.</p> + +<div class="sblockquot"><p>This and Elephantine appear to have been united to Thebes; +as were the states of Lower Egypt to Memphis.</p></div> + +<div class="sidenote">Memphis a +powerful +state in Joseph's +time: +about 1800, +B. C.</div> + +<p>10. The Mosaic records prove, that even in Joseph's +time the state of Memphis (the real place, +it appears, of his residence, not On, or Heliopolis,) +comprised Middle and Lower Egypt. It possessed +a numerous and brilliant court; castes of priests +and warriors. Its agriculture flourished, and several +of its institutions indicated a deeply-rooted +civilization. But after the establishment of vassal<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_61" id="Page_61">[Pg 61]</a></span>age +in this state by Joseph, when the class of free +proprietors was destroyed, by making the king +the only landholder except the priests, the troubles +which already threatened the kingdom must have +assumed a more dangerous and alarming aspect.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">Invasions +by the +nomad.</div> + + +<p>11. These troubles came from abroad. Egypt, +surrounded on all sides by nomad tribes, had +often suffered from their irruptions, which sometimes +poured in from the south, sometimes from the +east. But never were these invasions so frequent +and durable as in the period which immediately +followed the administration of Joseph. Lower Egypt was overrun by +the Bedouin Arabs, whose chieftains, called by the Egyptians +<span class="sidenote">Hyksos, or Bedouins.</span> +<i>Hyksos</i>, settled +in the country, fortified Avaris, or Pelusium, +and extended their dominion to Memphis, which +they made probably the seat of their government. +They are depicted as the oppressors of religion, +and of the caste of priests; but when we consider +that Moses flourished in their time, we are led to +infer that, like the Mongols in China, they must +have gradually adopted Egyptian manners and +civilization. They do not appear to have gained +possession of Thebes in Upper Egypt; and it +seems highly probable, that the long struggle +against them was never, or at least but for a short +time, suspended.</p> + +<div class="sblockquot"><p>The dominion of the Arabian Hyksos falls between B. C. +1800—1600; and consequently was contemporary with Moses +and the exodus of the Jews. Josephus gives 500 years to their +dominion, in which he probably comprises the long periods of +earlier wars.</p></div> + +<div class="sidenote">Expulsion of the Hyksos:<br /> +and rising splendour of Egypt. +</div> + +<p>12. Defeat, and final expulsion of the Hyksos +from Upper Egypt by Thutmosis king of Thebes. +The consequence of this event was not only +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_62" id="Page_62">[Pg 62]</a></span> +the restoration of freedom and independence to +Egypt, but also the union of the different states +into one kingdom; as the rulers of Thebes now +became monarchs over all Egypt. This expulsion +of the Hyksos, which in itself cannot be considered +otherwise than as a vast national effort, +must have been the more deeply impressed on +the memory of the people, as it laid the foundation +of the splendid period which immediately +followed.</p> + +<div class="sblockquot"><p>The expulsion of the Hyksos appears to have been one of +the chief subjects on which the Egyptian artists exercised their +talents: it is supposed to have been represented upon one of the +large temples in Thebes. Denon, plate cxxxiii.</p></div> + + +<hr style="width: 25%;" /> +<h4>SECOND PERIOD.</h4> + +<h4><i>From the Sesostridæ until the sole dominion of Psammetichus. +B. C. 1500—650.</i></h4> + +<div class="sblockquot"><p>The sources for this period are the same as for the foregoing; +and the history still preserves the character of records handed +down by hieroglyphics. To this period belongs the line of kings +subsequent to Sesostris, given both by Herodotus and Diodorus. +Those two historians nearly agree, if we regard Herodotus's line +of kings, not as uninterrupted, but as the fragments of a series +deduced solely from public monuments: this will be demonstrated +by the following table, in which the predecessors of Sesostris +have likewise been indicated.</p> + + +<div class='center'> +<table border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" summary=""> +<colgroup><col width="50%" /><col width="50%" /></colgroup> +<tr><th><span class="smcap">Herodotus.</span></th><th><span class="smcap">Diodorus.</span></th></tr> +<tr><td align='left'><i>Menes.</i></td><td align='left'><i>Menes.</i></td></tr> +<tr><td align='left' rowspan='6' valign='top'>He was followed by three hundred and thirty kings belonging +to the previous period, concerning which our information is very incomplete: among +those sovereigns were eighteen Ethiopians, and one queen +named Nitocris.</td> +<td align='left'>Followed by fifty-two successors, ranging over a period of more than 1400 years.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'><i>Busiris I.</i> and eight successors; the last of whom was</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'><i>Busiris II.</i> the founder of Thebes.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_63" id="Page_63">[Pg 63]</a></span></td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'><i>Osymandyas</i> and eight successors; +the last of whom was</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'><i>Uchoreus</i>, founder of Memphis.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'><i>Ægyptus</i>, grandson of the foregoing. After the lapse of twelve generations,</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'><i>Mœris.</i></td><td align='left'><i>Mœris.</i></td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'></td><td align='left'>Seven generations.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'><i>Sesostris.</i></td><td align='left'><i>Sesostris</i> or <i>Sesoosis</i>.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left' rowspan='6' valign='top'><i>Pheron</i>, son of Sesostris.</td> +<td align='left'><i>Sesostris II.</i> son of the foregoing: +he assumed his father's name.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Interval comprising several generations.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'><i>Amasis</i>, and the Ethiopian,</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'><i>Actisanus.</i></td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'><i>Mendes</i> or <i>Manes</i>, builder of the labyrinth.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Anarchy which lasted five generations.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'><i>Proteus</i>, in the time of the Trojan war.</td><td align='left'><i>Proteus</i> or <i>Cetes</i>, in the time of the Trojan war.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left' rowspan='2' valign='top'><i>Rhampsinitus.</i></td> +<td align='left'><i>Remphis</i>, son of the foregoing.</td> +</tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Seven generations, in the course of which flourished <i>Nileus</i>, from whom the Nile derives its name.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'><i>Cheops</i>, builder of the great pyramid.</td><td align='left'><i>Chemmis</i> or <i>Chembes</i>, from Memphis, builder of the great pyramid.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'><i>Chephres</i>, brother to the foregoing, builder of a pyramid.</td><td align='left'><i>Cephren</i>, brother to the foregoing, builder of a pyramid.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'><i>Mycerinus</i>, son of Cheops, builder of a pyramid.</td><td align='left'><i>Mycerinus</i>, son of Chemmis, builder of a pyramid.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'><i>Asychis</i> the legislator.</td><td align='left'><i>Bochoris</i> the legislator.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'><i>Anysis</i>, who was blind.</td><td align='left'>Interval of several generations.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_64" id="Page_64">[Pg 64]</a></span></td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'><i>Sabaco</i>, the Ethiopian.</td><td align='left'><i>Sabaco</i>, the Ethiopian</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'><i>Anysis</i>, king for the second time.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'><i>Sethos</i>, a priest of Vulcan.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Dodecarchy.</td><td align='left'>Dodecarchy.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'><i>Psammetichus</i> of Sais, sole ruler.</td><td align='left'><i>Psammetichus</i> of Sais, sole ruler.</td></tr> +</table></div> + +<p>This comparative table demonstrates evidently, not only that +Herodotus's line is often interrupted, but likewise that it is impossible +to establish any continuous chronology, since Diodorus, +more than once leaves the number of generations undetermined. +Great importance, nevertheless, attaches to the date fixed by +Herodotus, ii, 13, where he declares that king Mœris flourished +900 years before his own visit to Egypt: consequently between +B. C. 1500 and 1450. And if, as seems highly probable, the age +of Sesostris was the 15th century B. C. (see <span class="smcap">Zoega</span>, <i>de Obeliscis</i>), +it cannot be denied but that we have some general epochs; and +with these we must remain content until more satisfactory information +can be discovered on the monuments. It should likewise +be observed, that the discrepancy between the names of the +kings mentioned by Herodotus and Diodorus, and those furnished +by Manetho, may be accounted for by the fact, that the +sovereigns were distinguished by different names on the monuments +and in common life.</p> + +<p>Of the dynasties of Manetho, the 18th, 19th, 20th, and 22nd, +belong to this period; more especially the two first, which contain +the most important of the Pharaohs.</p></div> + +<div class="sidenote">Brilliant +period of +the Pharaohs.</div> + +<p>1. The following period, nearly to its termination, +was the brilliant age of Egypt, during which +it formed but one empire; the kings being represented +as sovereign lords of the whole country. +And, indeed, it was natural that the expulsion +of the invaders should be followed by a period +in which the military force and ardour of the +nation would be developed, and directed to ex<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_65" id="Page_65">[Pg 65]</a></span>ternal +conquest. The capital of the empire was, +no doubt, Thebes, the great monuments of which +were erected in this period; that honour, however, +seems to have alternately belonged to Memphis, +Herodotus's line of kings being deduced +from the monuments of that city, and more especially +from the temple of Phtha.</p> + +<div class="sblockquot"><p>The more powerful of the Pharaohs of this period, and the +founders of the most important monuments of Upper Egypt, on +which their names are found, are the following: belonging to +the 18th dynasty, somewhere about 1600—1500.</p> + +<p><i>Amenophis I.</i> His name is likewise found beyond Egypt on +the temple of Amada, in Nubia.</p> + +<p><i>Thutmosis I.</i> Commencement of the expulsion of the Hyksos.</p> + +<p><i>Amenophis II.</i> The Memnon of the Greeks. Complete expulsion +of the Hyksos, and commencement of several of the +great edifices. His name is also found on the monuments of +Thebes, Elephantine, and even in Nubia, on the distant temple +of Soleb. Builder of the palace of Luxor.</p> + +<p><i>Thutmosis II.</i> His name found in Carnac, and on the obelisk +at the Lateran.</p> + +<p><i>Ramesses I.</i> Supposed to be the Danaus of the Greeks. Expelled +by his brother:</p> + +<p><i>Ramesses II.</i> Miamun. Builder of the palace of Medinet-Abu +in Thebes. One of the royal graves that have been opened +belongs to this king.</p> + +<p><i>Amenophis III.</i> Renewed invasion of the Hyksos; he flees +before them into Ethiopia; but returns victorious with his son +Ramesses.</p> + +<p>Belonging to the 19th dynasty, between 1500 and 1400.</p> + +<p><i>Ramesses III.</i>, called the Great, and sometimes <i>Sesostris</i>; +founder of the dynasty, liberator of Egypt, and a great conqueror. +His name and titles, his wars and triumphs, are found +on the temples and palaces of Luxor and Carnac, in Thebes and +Nubia. His son and follower:</p> + +<p><i>Ramesses IV.</i> Pheron, rules long in peace. His name is +found in the great pillared hall of the palace of Carnac, and on +many other buildings.</p> + +<p>Among his successors but few names have been preserved +until we come to Scheschonk or Sisac, of the 22nd dynasty, be<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_66" id="Page_66">[Pg 66]</a></span>tween +970 and 950; he took Jerusalem under the reign of Rehoboam, +and therefore furnishes a fixed date.</p> + +<p>† R. V. L. (<span class="smcap">Ruehle Von Lilienstern</span>), <i>Graphic Illustrations +of the most ancient History and Geography of Egypt and +Ethiopia, with an atlas, 1827</i>. A work containing every thing +necessary for understanding the discoveries hitherto made in this +department of history.</p></div> + + +<div class="sidenote">Splendid +reign of +Sesostris.</div> + +<p>2. For this splendour, the empire was principally +indebted to Sesostris, son of Amenophis. +This prince is justly entitled to the surname of +Great, which was given him by the Egyptians. +No one will, to the letter, credit the narrative of +his deeds, exaggerated as they were by the traditions +of the priests, or represented, as they still +appear, on the buildings of Thebes; but who can +doubt the existence of a monarch of whom so +many and such various monuments within and +without Egypt bear witness?</p> + +<div class="sblockquot"><p>Critical examination of the accounts of the nine years' campaign, +and conquests of Sesostris. His arms were principally +directed against wealthy commercial countries; probably by +land against Ethiopia, Asia Minor, and part of Thrace; by sea +against Arabia Felix, perhaps even the Indian peninsula. Can +the performance of these exploits be deemed improbable, in an +age when western Asia did not contain a single great empire? +The vast undertakings attributed to Sesostris in the interior of +his dominions; extensive buildings, canals, division of the land, +and imposition of taxes, according to a regular survey, prove that +he must have been the sovereign of all Egypt.</p></div> + + +<div class="sidenote">State of +the constitution.</div> + +<p>3. Notwithstanding the great changes that were +made, the constitution still bore the same general +character, that of a sacerdotal aristocracy combined +with a monarchy. Although the Egyptian +kings, like the Indian princes, were distinct from +the priests, yet their power was limited in various +ways by that caste. The high priest shared the +royal authority; the king was shackled by reli<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_67" id="Page_67">[Pg 67]</a></span>gious +ceremonies, both in public and private life; +he was obliged to evince his veneration for the +established worship by the erection of public monuments; +and all the high offices of state were +in the hands of the priests. It cannot be denied +that on the personal character of the king +depended much of his power; but how strong +must have been this aristocracy, when even successful +conquerors were obliged to conciliate its +approbation!</p> + +<div class="sidenote">Division +into castes.</div> + +<p>4. It was probably about this time that the +domestic relations of the people, the division into +castes, was completed. The sacerdotal caste +being in exclusive possession of all scientific +knowledge, remained for that reason in possession +of the offices of state. The caste of warriors +could hardly have assumed its complete form before +the country was united into one empire: in +like manner that of the navigators could not have +been completely established before the canals +were excavated; although the origin of all may +have been of a much earlier date.</p> + +<div class="sblockquot"><p>Comparison of the accounts given by Herodotus and Diodorus +of the division into castes. Not only precedence in time, but +likewise the discrepancies between the two, declare in favour of +Herodotus.</p></div> + +<div class="sidenote">Prosperous +period of Egypt,<br /> +B. C. 1500—900.<br /> +714.</div> + + +<p>5. It appears, therefore, that the most prosperous +period of the kingdom of the Pharaohs must +be placed somewhere between B. C. 1500—900: +although, according to Diodorus, even this period +was interrupted by a long anarchy. The splendour +of the empire was obscured towards the end. +Sabaco, a foreign conqueror from Ethiopia, (probably +from Meroe,) subjugated Egypt; after his +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_68" id="Page_68">[Pg 68]</a></span> +departure from the country, Sethos, a priest of +Phtha, contrary to all precedent, seated himself +upon the throne. He was, consequently, considered +an usurper; he offended the caste of +warriors, and could not have escaped the dangers +of an irruption threatened by the Assyrian, Sennacherib, +had not a pestilence compelled the invader +and his host to retreat.</p> + +<div class="sblockquot"><p>The dynasty of Sabaco, Seuechus, and Tarhaco in Meroe, +who as conquerors subjected Upper Egypt, is comprised between +B. C. 800—700. Their names likewise have been already discovered +on monuments; some at Abydos in Egypt, others in +Nubia.</p></div> + +<div class="sidenote">Dodecarchy.</div> + +<p>6. The Egyptian monarchy, however, at length +fell, and was replaced by an oligarchy; (or perhaps +a return was only made to the division of the +earlier kingdoms;) twelve princes sharing among +themselves the sovereign power. A certain degree +of unity seems to have existed at first in this +government; but quarrels soon sprung up among +the princes, and they compelled one of their +number, Psammetichus of Sais, to take flight. +<span class="sidenote">About B. C. 650.</span> +The exiled prince, supported by Greek and Carian +mercenaries, contrived to avenge his wrongs; he +drove away his rivals, and became the sole ruler.</p> + + + +<hr style="width: 25%;" /> +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_69" id="Page_69">[Pg 69]</a></span></p> +<h4>THIRD PERIOD.</h4> + +<h4><i>From the reign of Psammetichus as sole monarch to the +Persian conquest of Egypt by Cambyses.<br /> +B. C. 650—525.</i></h4> + +<div class="sblockquot"><p>Herodotus, (l. ii, c. 125, etc.) is still the principal authority for +this portion of history. His statements, however, are no longer +derived from hieroglyphics: they are purely historical. During +the reign of Psammetichus, the Greeks who had migrated into +Egypt gave rise to the caste of interpreters, +ἑρμηνεῖς, who acted +both as ciceroni for strangers, and as brokers between the Egyptians +and Greeks: these people were enabled to give information +respecting the history of the country. It is not, therefore, surprising +that Herodotus should assure us, that from this time the +history was authentic.—The names of the succeeding Pharaohs +are likewise found on the monuments; in the erection of which +they rivaled their predecessors.</p> + +<p><i>Contemporary</i>: Asia: rise and fall of the Chaldæo-Babylonian +empire; rise of the Persian monarchy.—Rome: kings from +Numa Pompilius to Servius Tullius.—Athens: Draco; Solon; +Pisistratus.—Jews: the last period and fall of the kingdom of +Judah; Babylonish captivity.</p></div> + + +<div class="sidenote">Revolutions +in +Egypt.</div> + +<p>1. From this epoch Egypt remained uninterruptedly +one kingdom, the capital of which was +Memphis, although Sais, in Lower Egypt, was the +general residence of the royal family. Strangers, +and more particularly Greeks, admitted into +Egypt; partly as mercenaries, partly as merchants. +Influence of this innovation upon the +national character, and upon the political system +in particular. A spirit of conquest gradually inherited +by the Egyptian kings, is directed principally +against Asia: hence the formation of a navy,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_70" id="Page_70">[Pg 70]</a></span> +and wars with the great rising monarchies of Asia. +Continued, but declining influence of the sacerdotal +caste, and proofs of the veneration of the +kings for the priesthood deduced from the erection +and embellishment of temples, particularly of that +consecrated to Phtha in Memphis.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">Psammetichus +<i>d.</i> +B. C. 610.</div> + +<p>2. <i>Psammetichus.</i> He obtains sole power +through the assistance of Greek and Carian mercenaries, +who are continued as a standing army in +the country. The caste of Egyptian warriors, +taking umbrage in consequence, emigrate for the +most part to Ethiopia, where they settle. The +southern portico of the temple of Phtha is erected, +and projects of conquest are formed against Asia.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">Neco <i>d.</i> +594.</div> + +<p>3. <i>Neco</i>, son and successor of Psammetichus. +His extensive plans of conquest. First formation +of a naval power; and unsuccessful attempt to +unite by a canal the Mediterranean with the Red +sea. Conquests in Asia as far as the Euphrates; +but quick secession of the conquered, in consequence +of the loss of the battle of Circesium. +<span class="sidenote">606.</span> +Circumnavigation of Africa undertaken at his +command by the Phœnicians, and successfully +performed.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">Psammis <i>d.</i> +458.</div> + +<p>4. <i>Psammis his son and successor.</i> Expedition +against Ethiopia, and conquests in the interior of +Africa.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">Apries <i>d.</i> +563.</div> + +<p>5. Reign of <i>Apries</i>, (the Pharaoh-hophra of the +Hebrews). Plans of conquest against Asia;—siege +of Sidon, and naval battle with the Tyrians;—expedition +against Cyrene in Africa; its fatal +result. A revolution caused thereby in Egypt, +the inhabitants of which were averse to foreign +wars, carried on mostly by mercenary aliens: the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_71" id="Page_71">[Pg 71]</a></span> +revolution headed by Amasis. In the civil war +which Apries now wages with his mercenaries +against the Egyptians commanded by Amasis, +he loses both his throne and life; and with him +ends the family of Psammetichus, which had +reigned to this time.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">Amasis <i>d.</i> +525.</div> + +<p>6. The usurper <i>Amasis</i> took possession of the +sovereign power; and although he had to contend +with a strong party, who despised him on account +of his low origin, he contrived by popular measures, +and by the respect he showed to the sacerdotal +caste, to establish himself upon the throne.—His +monuments, both at Sais and Memphis.—The +Egyptians and Greeks become better acquainted +and more closely connected with each +other, partly in consequence of the marriage of +the king with a Greek woman; but principally +owing to the mouths of the Nile being opened to +the Greek merchants, and the cession of Naucratis +as a factory for their merchandise. Great +and beneficial consequences to Egypt, which, +under the long reign of Amasis, reaches its highest +pitch of prosperity. This prince had already been +engaged in disputes with the Persian conqueror, +Cyrus, whose son and successor, Cambyses, led +an expedition against Egypt, which Amasis, however, +luckily for himself, escaped by a seasonable +death.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">Psammenitus.<br /> +525.</div> + +<p>7. His son Psammenitus, the last of the Egyptian +Pharaohs, is attacked by Cambyses in the +very first year of his reign. After a single battle, +fought at Pelusium, and a short siege of Memphis, +the empire of the Pharaohs is overthrown, and +Egypt merges into a Persian province. The<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_72" id="Page_72">[Pg 72]</a></span> +powerful caste of the priests suffered most from +the hatred of the conqueror; but the persecution +to which they were subjected must be attributed +rather to policy than fanaticism.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">Egypt a +province of +Persia.</div> + +<p>8. Condition and fate of Egypt as a Persian +province. After the death of Cambyses, the +country received a Persian governor, and consequently +became a satrapy. Immediately after +the first tempest of war had blown over, Egypt +was treated with mildness by the Persians. The +country paid a moderate tribute, together with +some royal gifts, among others the produce of the +<span class="sidenote">Revolts</span> +fisheries in lake Mœris; nevertheless, +repeated revolts occurred, which may be principally attributed +to the hatred and influence of the sacerdotal caste. +The first took place under Darius Hystaspes, +<span class="sidenote">488 to 484.</span> +and was quelled by Xerxes. An increase +of tribute was the consequence. +The second, under king Inarus, fomented and supported +by the Athenians, happened during the reign of Artaxerxes I.; +<span class="sidenote">463 to 456.</span> +it was quelled by Megabyzus. +The third occurred under Darius II. and in consequence +of the support which the Egyptians received +from the Greeks, was of longer duration +than either of the former, the throne of the Pharaoh's +<span class="sidenote">414.</span> +being in some measure restored.</p> + +<div class="sblockquot"><p>This third secession of the Egyptians lasted till 354. During +this period various kings were appointed; Amyrtæus, <i>d.</i> 408; +Psammetichus, about 400; Nephreus, about 397; Pausiris, <i>d.</i> +375; Nectanebus I. <i>d.</i> 365; Tachos, <i>d.</i> 363; Nectanebus II. +conquered by Artaxerxes III. 354.</p></div> + + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /> +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_73" id="Page_73">[Pg 73]</a></span></p> +<h3>CARTHAGINIANS.</h3> + + +<div class="sblockquot"><p>Sources. The first great republic which ancient records mention +as applying both to trade and war, is undoubtedly a phenomenon +well deserving the attention of the historical enquirer. +Our knowledge, however, of Carthaginian history is unfortunately +very deficient, as we possess no author who has made it the principal +object of his attention. The immediate subject of the +Greek and Roman writers was the history of their own country, +and they only allude to that of Carthage in so far as it is connected +with their main topic. This observation applies as well +to Polybius and Diodorus, as to Livy and Appian. Even the +information given by Justin, the only author who says any thing +concerning the early state of Carthage, is miserably defective, +although taken from Theopompus. (Cf. <i>Comment. de fontibus</i> +<span class="smcap">Justini</span> <i>in Commentat. Soc. Gotting.</i> vol. xv.) Moreover, as +Herodotus here fails us, we have not the writings of any author +whatever who witnessed Carthage in the days of her prosperity: +Polybius did not see that country till after the decline of its +power; the other historians, wrote long afterwards. But although +an uninterrupted history of Carthage does not exist, we are yet +able to trace the main outlines of the picture of that state.—The +modern writers on Carthage are:</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Hendrich</span>, <i>de Republica Carthaginiensium</i>, 1664. A useful +compilation.</p> + +<p>† <i>History of the Republic of Carthage</i>, 2 vols. Franckfort, +1781. A mere history of the wars.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Dampmartin</span>, <i>Histoire de la Rivalité de Carthage et de +Rome</i>, tom. i, ii. Very superficial.</p> + +<p>† <span class="smcap">W. Boetticher</span>, <i>History of Carthage</i>, part i. Berlin, +1827. The best work on the subject; in which use has been +made of modern researches.</p> + +<p>Concerning the Carthaginians, see <span class="smcap">Heeren's</span> <i>African Nations</i>, +2 vols. 8vo. Oxford, 1831.</p></div> + + +<div class="sidenote">Periods of +Carthaginian +history.</div> + +<p>The history of Carthage is most conveniently +divided into three periods: I. From the foundation +of the city to the commencement of the wars +with Syracuse, B. C. 880—480. II. From the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_74" id="Page_74">[Pg 74]</a></span> +commencement of the wars with Syracuse to +those with Rome, 480—264. III. From the +commencement of the wars with Rome to the +destruction of Carthage, 264—146.</p> + + +<hr style="width: 25%;" /> +<h4>FIRST PERIOD.</h4> + +<h4><i>From the foundation of Carthage to the wars with Syracuse, +B. C. 880—480.</i></h4> + +<div class="sblockquot"><p><i>Contemporary</i>: Inner Asia: kingdoms of the Assyrians, Babylonians, +and first half of the Persian monarchy. Greeks: +period from Lycurgus to Themistocles. Romans: period of the +kings, and of the commonwealth until the establishment of the +tribunes of the people.</p></div> + +<div class="sidenote">Early history +of Carthage</div> + +<p>1. The foundation and primitive history of Carthage, +like all very early and important events in +national history, have, by long tradition, been +wrapt in the veil of romance. The account given +of Dido, the supposed founder of the city, cannot +be reduced to the standard of pure historical +truth, though it appears to justify the inference +that some political commotions in the mother city, +Tyre, induced a party of emigrants to proceed to +the northern shores of Africa; where other Phœnician +establishments had already taken place: +here, by engaging to pay a yearly tribute, they +purchased from the natives permission to found a +city, the site of which was so happily chosen, +that it only depended upon the inhabitants to +raise it to that greatness which it afterwards attained.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">Vast extent +of the Carthaginian +dominions.</div> + +<p>2. It is probable that Carthage advanced at +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_75" id="Page_75">[Pg 75]</a></span>first by slow steps; yet even at the end of this +first period she had reached to such a height of +power, that she was mistress of a large territory +in Africa, and of foreign possessions still more +extensive. Establishment of the Carthaginian +dominion in Africa by the subjection of the neighbouring +aboriginal tribes, and the foundation of +Carthaginian settlements within their territories; +the natives, Liby-Phœnicians, gradually mingled +with the inhabitants of those colonies, and imbibed +from them a love of agriculture and fixed +abodes. The inhabitants of the fertile territory +extending southward as far as the lake Triton, +were, without exception, Carthaginian subjects.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">Relation of +Carthage +with the +other Tyrian +colonies of +Africa:</div> + +<p>3. Her connection, however, with the ancient +Phœnician towns along the coast, particularly +Utica, was of a different nature. For although +possessed a certain authority over them, +she did not claim absolute dominion, but rather +stood at the head of a federation; thus affording +a protection which must frequently have degenerated +into oppression.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">with the +Greek colony +of Cyrene.</div> + +<p>4. In consequence of a treaty with the neighbouring +republic of Cyrene, the whole territory +extending between the two Syrtes was also ceded +to the Carthaginians. The Lotophagi and Nasamones, +inhabitants of this district, preserved their +nomad mode of life; they must, however, from +their trade with the interior parts of Africa, have +been of the highest importance to Carthage.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">Carthaginian colonies:<br /> +Sardinia;<br /> +Baleares;<br /> +Corsica:<br /> +part of Sicily:<br /> +Canaries;<br /> +Madeira.</div> + +<p>5. System of colonization, and, as a necessary +result, that of conquest without Africa. It was +evidently the aim of the Carthaginians to settle +on islands, and to subject them to their dominion. +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_76" id="Page_76">[Pg 76]</a></span>Those lying in the western part of the Mediterranean +occupied the first place in their plan of conquest, +which was completely executed in Sardinia, +the Baleares, and other small islands; perhaps +in Corsica; in Sicily, however, they could +never succeed to the full extent of their wishes. +There is also every probability that the Canary +islands and Madeira were entirely in their possession. +On the other hand, the Carthaginians, +previous to their wars with Rome, were in the +practice of establishing separate settlements on +the main land, partly in Spain, and partly on the +western shore of Africa. In the latter, they +adopted the policy of their ancestors, the Phœnicians, +making the settlements so small, and +confining them within such narrow bounds, that +the mother country might always ensure their +dependence.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">Conquests of Mago and his family.<br /> +Carthage connected with Persia, B. C. 550—480.<br /> +Sea fight between the Carthaginians and Phocæans.<br /> +Colonies without the straits of Gibraltar.<br /> +539.<br /> +First treaty with Rome, 509.</div> + + +<p>6. The glory of extending the territory of Carthage, +by important conquests, belongs principally +to the family of Mago, who, together with his two +sons and six grandsons, established the dominion +of the republic in Sicily, Sardinia, and Africa. +This occurred about the same time that Cyrus, +Cambyses, and Darius were laying the foundation +of the Persian monarchy, with which +Carthage even then entered into connection. The Carthaginians, +therefore, made their first appearance, as +extensive conquerors, in the fourth century from +the foundation of their commonwealth; and it is +at this period that mention is made of their first +naval engagement, in which the Phocæans were +their adversaries. In the same period may be +dated the establishment of their colonies beyond +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_77" id="Page_77">[Pg 77]</a></span> +the Pillars of Hercules by Hanno and Himilco—both +probably sons of Mago;—by the former on +the coast of Africa, by the latter on that of Spain. +To the same period likewise is referred the first +commercial treaty between the Carthaginians and +Romans, in which the former appear as already +masters of Sardinia, Africa, and a portion of +Sicily.</p> + +<p>7. To complete these conquests, and to preserve +them when completed, the formation and +support of vast fleets and armies were indispensably +necessary. According to the usual practice +<span class="sidenote">Arts military and naval of Carthage.</span> +of those nations who apply both to trade and to +war, the Carthaginian armies were composed for +the most part of mercenaries. No nation, however, +followed this plan so extensively as the +Carthaginians, for to them half Africa and Europe +furnished warriors.—Description of a Carthaginian +army; development of the advantages +and disadvantages of its organization.—Organization +of their navy. The state supported very numerous +fleets of war-ships, with a multitude of +slaves who laboured at the oar, and were it seems +public property.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">Constitution +of Carthage:<br /> + +suffetes;<br /> + +senate;<br /> + +state council;<br /> + +commons.<br /> + +Military +and civil +functions +generally +divided.</div> + +<p>8. The political constitution of Carthage, like +that of all wealthy trading states, was an aristocracy +composed of the noble and the opulent, +though at all times combined with a certain admixture +of democracy. The affairs of the state +were confided to the hands of the two suffetes or +kings,—who, in all probability, held their office +for life—and to those of the senate (βουλὴ) which +contained within itself a more select council (the +γερουσία). The privilege of electing the magistrates +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_78" id="Page_78">[Pg 78]</a></span>resided with the people at large, who also shared +the legislative power with the suffetes. Civil and +military power was usually divided: the offices +of general and magistrate not being always, as at +Rome, united in the same individual,—although +such an instance might not be of impossible occurrence:—to +each military chief, on the contrary, +was appointed a committee from the senate, on +which he was more or less dependent.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">Supreme +court of the +<i>hundred</i>:<br /> +its object;</div> + + +<p>9. The high state tribunal of the <small>HUNDRED</small> was +instituted as a barrier to the constitution against +the attempts of the more powerful aristocrats, +particularly the military leaders; indeed the brilliancy +of Mago's conquests seemed to threaten +the republic with a military government; and immediately +previous to his time one of the generals, +Malchus, had actually made an attempt to +enslave Carthage. The object of the institution +was no doubt attained; but in later times the +council assumed to itself a power which increased +<span class="sidenote">its evils.</span> +to absolute despotism. It is not improbable that +this court likewise constituted the select committee +(the γερουσία) of the senate.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">Finances of Carthage.<br /> +Tributes from the African federates:<br /> +Sardinia, etc.<br /> +the Syrtic hordes:<br /> +dues and customs:<br /> +mines.</div> + +<p>10. Our information respecting the financial +system of the Carthaginians is extremely meagre. +The following seem to have been the principal +sources of the public revenue. 1. The tribute +drawn from the federate cities, and their African +subjects. The former paid in money, the latter +for the most part in kind; this tribute was imposed +at the will of the government, so that in +pressing cases the taxed nations were obliged to +give one half of their income. 2. The case was +the same with their external provinces, parti<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_79" id="Page_79">[Pg 79]</a></span>cularly +with Sardinia. 3. The tribute furnished +by the nomad hordes, partly by those in the +Regio-Syrtica, and occasionally also by those on +the western side. 4. The customs, which were +levied with extreme rigour, not only in Carthage, +but likewise in all the colonies. 5. The products +of their rich mines, particularly those of Spain. +In considering the financial system of the Carthaginians, +it should not be forgotten that many of +the nations with whom they traded, or who served +in their armies, were unacquainted with the use +of money.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">Trade of +Carthage:</div> + +<p>11. System and extent of their commerce. +Their object was to secure a monopoly of the +western trade; hence the practice of restricting +the growth of their colonies, and of removing as +much as possible all strangers from their commercial +marts. Their trade was carried on partly +<span class="sidenote">by sea to Britain and the Guinea coast;</span> +by sea, and partly by land. Their sea trade, +arising from the colonies, extended beyond the +Mediterranean, certainly as far as the coasts of +Britain and Guinea. Their land trade was carried +on by caravans, consisting principally of the +nomad tribes resident between the Syrtes: the +<span class="sidenote">by land to the interior of Africa.</span> +caravans travelled eastward to Ammonium and +Upper Egypt, southward to the land of the Garamantes, +(Fezzan,) and even still further into the +interior of Africa.</p> + + +<hr style="width: 25%;" /> +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_80" id="Page_80">[Pg 80]</a></span></p> + +<h4>SECOND PERIOD.</h4> + +<h4><i>From the breaking out of the wars with Syracuse, to the +commencement of those with Rome, B. C. 480—264.</i></h4> + +<div class="sidenote">Views of +Carthage +upon Sicily.</div> + +<p>1. The great object of Carthaginian policy +during the whole of the above period, was to +subdue Sicily; this object the nation pursued +with extraordinary pertinacity, often approximating +to, but never obtaining, complete success. +The growing power of Syracuse, which likewise +aimed at the sole possession of the island, laid +the foundation of that national hatred which now +arose between the Sicilian Greeks and the Carthaginians.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">rout at Himera +by +Gelon, +B. C. 480.</div> + +<p>2. First attempt, arising out of the league +formed with Xerxes I. upon his irruption into +Greece. Gelon of Syracuse, in a victory more +decisive even than that gained by Themistocles +over the Persians at Salamis, routs the Carthaginians +near Himera, and compels them to accede +to a disgraceful peace.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">General extension +of +the Carthaginian +empire +in +Africa, +480—410.</div> + +<p>3. This defeat was followed by a period of +tranquillity lasting seventy years, during which +we know little about Carthage. All that we can +say with any probability is, that in the mean time +the struggle for territory between Cyrene and +Carthage commenced and terminated to the advantage +of the latter state, whose dominion was +generally extended and confirmed in Africa by +wars with the aboriginal tribes.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_81" id="Page_81">[Pg 81]</a></span></p> + +<div class="sidenote">War in +Sicily renewed, +410.</div> + +<p>4. But the accession of Dionysius I. to the +throne of Syracuse, and the ambitious project +formed by him and his successors, of subjecting +to their rule all Sicily and Magna-Grecia, rekindled +once more the embers of war, which had +only smouldered for a short time, to burst forth +with additional violence.</p> + +<div class="sblockquot"><p>Repeated and bloody wars with Dionysius I. between the +years 410—368. Neither party able to expel the other: terms +of the last peace; that each party should remain in possession of +what he then occupied. Second commercial treaty with Rome.</p> + +<p>Crafty advantage taken by the Carthaginians of the internal +commotions at Syracuse during and subsequent to the reign of +Dionysius II: they endeavour to obtain their end; but are +thwarted by the heroism of Timoleon, 345—340.</p> + +<p>A new and frightful war with Agathocles, the seat of which +is transferred from Sicily into Africa itself; it at last terminates +in favour of Carthage, 311—307.</p> + +<p>The war with Pyrrhus, 277—275, whose ambition gave rise to +an alliance between Carthage and Rome, contributed likewise to +increase the preponderance of the Carthaginians in Sicily; and +probably the perseverance of that people, and their skill in profiting +by circumstances, would at last have enabled them to +attain their object, had not the seeds of war been thereby scattered +between Carthage and Rome.</p></div> + +<div class="sidenote">Two attempts +at +revolution. +340; +308.<br /> + +Excellent +state of the +Carthaginian +finances +at +the beginning of the +first Punic +war.</div> + +<p>5. What effect these Sicilian wars had upon +the state we are not informed. They were probably +regarded in Carthage as a beneficial channel +for carrying off the popular fermentation;—nevertheless, +two attempts, both unsuccessful, +were made by some of the aristocratical party, to +overthrow the constitution; first by Hanno, 340, +and afterwards by Bomilcar, 308.—At the breaking +out, however, of the war with Rome, the +commonwealth was so formidable and mighty, +that even the finances of the state do not appear +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_82" id="Page_82">[Pg 82]</a></span>to have been at all affected; a circumstance of +the highest importance. What consequence was +it to Carthage whether 100,000 barbarians more +or less existed in the world, so long as there remained +plenty of men willing to suffer themselves +to be sold, and she possessed money to purchase +them?</p> + +<hr style="width: 25%;" /> +<h4>THIRD PERIOD.</h4> + +<h4><i>From the beginning of the wars with Rome, to the downfal +of Carthage, B. C. 264—146.</i></h4> + +<div class="sidenote">Causes of +the Punic +wars.</div> + +<p>1. The wars between Carthage and Rome were +the necessary consequences of a desire of aggrandizement +in two conquering nations; any one +might have foreseen the struggle between the +two rivals as soon as their conquests should once +begin to clash. It is, therefore, a question of +little importance, to enquire which was the aggressor; +and although Rome may not be entirely +cleared of that charge, we cannot help observing +that, according to the principles of sound policy, +the security of Italy was hardly compatible with +the sole dominion of the Carthaginians over the +island of Sicily.</p> + +<div class="sblockquot"><p>First war with Rome, 264—241, (twenty-three years,) waged +for the possession of Sicily, and decided almost at its commencement +by Hiero's passing over to the Roman side. (For the history +of it, see below, in the Roman history, Book V. Period ii, +parag. 2 sq.)</p></div><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_83" id="Page_83">[Pg 83]</a></span></p> + +<div class="sidenote">Fatal consequences +of the first +Punic war +to Carthage.</div> + +<p>2. This war cost the republic, Sicily and the +sovereignty of the Mediterranean, by which the +fate of its other external possessions was already +predetermined. But that which appeared at the +first view to threaten the greatest danger, was +the total exhaustion of its finances; a circumstance +which will no longer surprise us, when we +consider how many fleets had been destroyed and +replaced, how many armies had been annihilated +and renewed. Carthage had never before been +engaged in such an obstinate struggle as this; and +the immediate consequences were more terrific +even than the war itself.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">Dreadful +civil war, +B. C. 240—237.</div> + +<p>3. The impossibility of paying the mercenaries +produced a mutiny among the troops, which rapidly +grew into a rebellion of the subject nations, +who had been most cruelly oppressed during the +war. The consequence was a civil war of three +years and a half, which probably would have +spared the Romans the trouble of destroying Carthage, +had not the state been snatched from ruin +by the heroism of Hamilcar.</p> + +<div class="sblockquot"><p>This war, which lasted from 240 to 237, produced lasting consequences +to the state; it gave rise to the feud between Hamilcar +and Hanno the Great, which compelled Hamilcar to seek +for support against the senate by becoming the leader of a democratic +faction.</p></div> + +<div class="sidenote">Sardinia is +lost, 237.</div> + +<p>4. The revolt spread abroad; it reached Sardinia +and caused the loss of that most important +island, of which the Romans, flushed with power, +took possession, in spite of the terms of the +peace.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">Rise of the +house of the +Barcas:</div> + +<p>5. The influence of the family of the Barcas, +supported in their disputes with the senate by the +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_84" id="Page_84">[Pg 84]</a></span>popular party, now got the upper hand in Carthage; +and the first fruit of their power was the +new and gigantic project of repairing the loss of +Sicily and Sardinia by the conquest of Spain; a +<span class="sidenote">vast projects upon Spain,</span> +country where the Carthaginians already had +some possessions and commercial connections. +The immediate object of the Barcas was the support +of their family and party; but the Spanish +silver mines soon furnished the republic with the +means of renewing the contest with Rome also.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">executed by +Hamilcar +and Hasdrubal, +237—221.<br /> + +By treaty +with the +Romans +the Ebro is +fixed as the +boundary of +their possessions +in +Spain, 226.<br /> + +Carthagena founded.<br /> + +Hannibal succeeds to the command of the +army, 221;<br /> + +and begins the second Punic war, +218.</div> + +<p>6. During the nine years in which Hamilcar +commanded, and in the following eight in which +Hasdrubal, his son-in-law and successor, was at +the head of the army, the whole of the south of +Spain, as far as the Iberus, was brought under +subjection to Carthage, either by negotiation or +force of arms. The further progress of the Carthaginians +was only arrested by a treaty with the +Romans, in which the Iberus was fixed upon as +a frontier line, and the freedom of Saguntum acknowledged +by both powers. Hasdrubal crowned +his victories as a general and as a statesman by +the foundation of New Carthage, (Carthagena,) +which was to be the future seat of Carthaginian +power in the newly-conquered country. Hasdrubal +having fallen by the hand of an assassin in +the year 221, the party of the Barcas succeeded +in appointing Hamilcar's son, Hannibal, a young +man of one-and-twenty, for his successor. Hannibal +found every thing already prepared in Spain +for the furtherance of the hereditary project of his +family, which was a renewal of the contest with +Rome; and the vigour with which this project +was pursued, clearly proves how great must have<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_85" id="Page_85">[Pg 85]</a></span> +been the preponderance of the Barcine influence, +at that time, in Carthage. Had the commonwealth +attended to the marine with the same +ardour as their great general did to the land service, +the fate of Rome would perhaps have been +very different.</p> + +<div class="sblockquot"><p>Second war with Rome, 218—201, (seventeen years,) first in +Italy and Spain, afterwards, from 203, in Africa itself. (See +the history of this war below, in the Roman history, Book V, Period +ii, parag. 6 sqq.)</p></div> + +<div class="sidenote">Internal +state of +Carthage +during the +second Punic +war.</div> + +<p>7. Until Africa became the scene of action, the +second war cost the republic much less than the +first; the expenses being principally defrayed by +Spain and Italy. Hanno, however, was at the +head of a powerful party at home, who were clamorous +for peace, and who can say they were +wrong? As might be expected, the family of the +Barcas were for war, and their influence carried +the day. That general who, with hardly any support +from Carthage, was yet able to maintain a +footing in the country of his powerful foes for no +less than fifteen years, and that, too, as much by +policy as by force of arms, must extort our admiration. +It cannot, however, be denied, that +during the struggle one favourable opportunity, +at least, was let slip of making peace; a fatal +omission, for which the hero of Cannæ paid +dearly enough, by the failure of his darling project.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">A disgraceful +peace the result of the war.</div> + +<p>8. By the second peace with Rome, Carthage +was deprived of all her possessions out of Africa, +and her fleet was delivered into the hands of the +Romans. She was now to be a mere trading city +under the tutelage of Rome. But Carthage found +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_86" id="Page_86">[Pg 86]</a></span>by this peace her most formidable enemy on the +soil of Africa itself. Massinissa had been elevated +to the dignity of king of Numidia; and his endeavours +to form his nomads into an agricultural +<span class="sidenote">Massinissa of Numidia a new instrument of Roman policy.</span> +people, and to collect them into cities, must have +changed the military system that Carthage had +hitherto followed. Roman policy, moreover, had +taken care that the article inserted in his favour +in the last treaty of peace, should be so ambiguously +worded, as to leave abundant openings for +dispute.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">Hannibal at +the head of affairs;<br /> + +attempts to check the oligarchy.</div> + +<p>9. Even after this disgraceful peace, the family +of the Barcas still preserved their influence, and +Hannibal was placed as supreme magistrate at +the head of the republic. He attempts to reform +the constitution and the finances, by destroying +the oligarchy of the hundred, by whom the finances +had been thrown into confusion. Complete as +was the success of the first blow, it soon became +apparent that aristocratic factions are not so readily +annihilated as armies.</p> + +<div class="sblockquot"><p>The democratic faction to which even the Barcas owed their +first elevation, was the cause of the degeneracy of the Carthaginian +constitution. By that faction the legislative authority of the +senate and magistrates was withdrawn and transferred to the <i>ordo +judicum</i>—probably the same as the high state tribunal of the +hundred—which now assumed the character of an omnipotent +national inquisition; and the members being chosen for life exercised +oppressive despotism. This tribunal was formed of those +who had served the office of ministers of finance, with whom it +shared unblushingly the revenues of the state. Hannibal destroyed +this oligarchy by a law, enacting that the members should +hold their office but for one year; whereas before they held it +for life. In the reform wrought by this law in the finances it +was seen, that after all wars and losses, the revenues of the republic +were still sufficient, not only for the usual expenditure<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_87" id="Page_87">[Pg 87]</a></span> +and the payment of tribute to Rome, but also for leaving a surplus +in the public treasury. Ten years had hardly elapsed before +Carthage was enabled to pay down at once the whole of the +tribute which she had engaged to furnish by instalments.</p></div> + +<div class="sidenote">Hannibal +compelled +to fly to Syria.</div> + +<p>10. The defeated party, whose interests were +now the same with those of Rome, joined the Romans, +to whom they discovered Hannibal's plan +of renewing the war in conjunction with Antiochus +the Great, king of Syria. A Roman embassy +was sent over to Africa, under some other pretext, +to demand that Hannibal should be given +up. The Carthaginian general secretly fled to +<span class="sidenote">195.</span> +king Antiochus, at whose court he became the +chief fomenter of the war against Rome; although +unsuccessful in his endeavour to implicate the +Carthaginian republic in the struggle.</p> + +<div class="sblockquot"><p>See hereafter the history of Syria, Book IV, Period iii, separate +kingdoms. I. Seleucidæ, parag. 18; and Book V, Period +ii, parag. 10 sq.</p></div> + +<div class="sidenote">Roman influence +completely +established +in Carthage.</div> + +<p>11. In consequence of the absence of Hannibal, +Carthage fell once more under the dominion of +the Romans, who contrived, by taking a crafty advantage +of the state of parties, to give a show of +generosity to the exercise of their power. Even +the patriotic faction, if we may judge by the violent +steps which they took more than once against +Massinissa and his partisans, seem to have been +but a tool in the hands of Rome.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">The Carthaginian +territory +gradually +dismembered.</div> + +<p>12. Disputes with Massinissa, which led to the +gradual partition of the Carthaginian territory in +Africa. The manner in which this territory had +been acquired, facilitated the discovery of claims +upon each of the component parts; and the interference +of Rome, sometimes disinterested, but of<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_88" id="Page_88">[Pg 88]</a></span>tener +swayed by party feeling, ensured the possession +of the territory to the Numidian.</p> + +<div class="sblockquot"><p>Even in 199, a disadvantageous treaty framed with Massinissa +for fifty years: nevertheless the rich province of Emporia is lost +in 193.—Loss of another province unnamed, to which Massinissa +inherited some claims from his father.—Seizure of the province +of Tysca, with fifty cities, about 174. Probable date of Cato's +embassy, who returned in disgust, because his decision had been +rejected, and became the fomenter of a project to destroy Carthage.—New +disputes about 152.—Massinissa's party is expelled +Carthage.—War breaks out in consequence, during which the +king in his ninetieth year personally defeats the Carthaginians; +and what with famine and the sword, Hasdrubal's army, which +had been surrounded by the enemy, was nearly exterminated; in +the mean while the Roman ambassadors, who had come to act as +mediators, obeying their private instructions, looked on with +quiet indifference.</p></div> + +<div class="sidenote">Destruction +of Carthage; +third Punic +war;</div> + + +<p>13. Though it is evident that the party spirit +raging between Cato and Scipio Nasica had a +considerable influence in hastening the destruction +of Carthage; and though it is equally clear +that Massinissa's late victory paved the way for +the immediate execution of that project; yet it is +difficult to unravel the web, by which, long before +the declaration of war now about to follow, +treachery prepared the final scene of this great +tragedy. Was the account that Cato at his return +gave of the resuscitated power of Carthage consonant +<span class="sidenote">brought about probably by Roman duplicity.</span> +to truth? Was not the sudden secession +of Ariobarzanes, the grandson of Syphax, who +was to have led a Numidian army to defend Carthage +against Massinissa, previously arranged with +Rome? Was not the turbulent Gisgo, who first +incited the populace to insult the Roman ambassadors, +and then opportunely rescued them from +the fury of the mob, in the pay of Rome? These<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_89" id="Page_89">[Pg 89]</a></span> +questions give rise to suspicions, although they +cannot satisfactorily be answered. At any rate, +it may be said, that the conduct of Rome, after +war had broken out, corroborates the suspicion. +The whole history of the last period sufficiently +proves, that it was not so much the debased character +of the nation, as party spirit, and the avarice +of the great, which produced the fall of Carthage. +Advantage was taken of that party spirit and avarice +by Roman policy, which, although acting according +to the dictates of blind passion, knew +how to profit by dark and base intrigue.</p> + +<div class="sblockquot"><p>Third war with Rome and destruction of Carthage, 150—146. +See hereafter the Roman history, Book V, Period ii, parag. 19 sq.</p></div> + + +<hr style="width: 100%;" /> +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_90" id="Page_90">[Pg 90]</a></span></p> +<h1><a name="SECOND_BOOK" id="SECOND_BOOK"></a>SECOND BOOK.</h1> +<hr style="width: 100%;" /> + +<h3><i>History of the Persian Empire, from B. C. 560—330.</i></h3> + + +<div class="sblockquot"><p>Sources. Preservation of historic records among the Persians +themselves under the form of royal annals; origin and nature of +those annals. As these have been destroyed, we are obliged to +deduce the history from foreign writers, some of whom, however, +availed themselves of the Persian annals. 1. <i>Greeks</i>: their +authority as writers, contemporary, but not always sufficiently +acquainted with the east. (<i>a</i>) <span class="smcap">Ctesias.</span> His court history compiled +from Persian annals, would be the principal work did we +possess the whole; we have, however, only an extract from it +preserved by Photius. (<i>b</i>) <span class="smcap">Herodotus</span>: who probably availed +himself of similar sources in some portion of his work. (<i>c</i>) <span class="smcap">Xenophon.</span> +To this period of history belong, not only his Anabasis +and Hellenica, but also his Cyropædia, or portraiture of a happy +empire and an accomplished ruler, according to eastern ideas, exhibited +in the example of Cyrus: of use so far as pure historic records +are interwoven with the narrative. (<i>d</i>) <span class="smcap">Diodorus</span>, etc. +2. <i>Jewish writers.</i> The books of <span class="smcap">Esdras</span> and <span class="smcap">Nehemiah</span>; and +more particularly that of <span class="smcap">Esther</span>, as containing a faithful representation +of the Persian court and its manners. 3. The accounts +of the later <i>Persian chroniclers</i>, <span class="smcap">Mirkhond</span> in particular, who +flourished in the thirteenth century of the christian era, can have +no weight in the scale of criticism; they are nevertheless interesting, +inasmuch as they make us acquainted with the ideas that +the inhabitants of the east form of their early history.</p> + +<p>The modern authors on Persian history are principally those +who have written on ancient history in general: see p. 2. A +treatise on Persian history, deduced from eastern sources, will +be found in the <i>Ancient Universal History</i>, vol. iv.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Brissonius</span>, <i>de Regno Persarum</i>, 1591, 8vo. A very laborious +compilation.</p> + +<p>The section concerning the Persians in † <span class="smcap">Heeren</span>, <i>Ideas</i>, etc. +vol. i, part 1.</p> + +<p>[<span class="smcap">Malcolm, Sir John</span>, <i>History of Persia</i>, from the earliest +ages to the present times. Lond. 1816, 4to. 2 vols. "A valuable +work."]</p></div><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_91" id="Page_91">[Pg 91]</a></span></p> + +<div class="sidenote">Original +condition +of the Persians.</div> + + +<p>1. State of the Persian nation previous to Cyrus; +a highland people, subject to the Medes, +dwelling in the mountainous parts of the province +of Persis, and leading wholly, or for the most +part, a nomad life. Division into ten clans, +among which that of the <i>Pasargadæ</i>, the noblest +<span class="sidenote">The horde of the Pasargadæ,</span> +and ruling horde, is particularly remarkable on +account of the figure it makes in subsequent history.—The +result of this division was a patriarchal +government, the vestiges of which remain visible +in the whole of the following history of the Persians. +Permanent distinction between the tribes +in reference to their mode of life, observable even +during the most flourishing period of the Persian +state: three of the nobles or warriors, three of +the husbandmen, and four of the shepherds. +Argument thence deduced, that the history of the +<span class="sidenote">has the ascendant.</span> +Persians as a dominant nation, <i>is that of the +nobler clans alone, and of the</i> <span class="smcap">Pasargadæ</span> <i>more +especially</i>.</p> + +<div class="sidenote"><span class="smcap">Cyrus</span>, +similar to +Gengis-khan +and other +Asiatic +conquerors;</div> + +<p>2. The personal history of Cyrus, the founder +of the Persian monarchy, was, even in the time of +Herodotus, so obscured under the veil of romance, +that it was no longer possible to detect the real +truth. It is, however, evident, that the course of +the revolution wrought by him was, on the whole, +the same as was followed in all similar empires +founded in Asia. Gengis-khan, in a later age, +was placed at the head of all the Mogol hordes; +in the same manner was Cyrus elected chief of +all the Persian tribes, by whose assistance he +<span class="sidenote">founds the Persian empire about B. C. 561.</span> +became a mighty conqueror, at the time that the +Babylonian and Median kingdoms of Inner Asia +were on the decline, and before the Lydian<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_92" id="Page_92">[Pg 92]</a></span> +empire, under Crœsus, had been firmly established.</p> + +<div class="sblockquot"><p>Descent of Cyrus from the family of Achæmenes, (Jamshid?). +That family belonged to the Pasargadæ tribe, and therefore remained +the ruling house.</p></div> + +<div class="sidenote">Of the Medo-Bactrian empire, destroyed 561.<br /> +of the Lydian empire:<br /> +Asiatic Greeks subjected, about 557<br /> +of Babylon, 538.<br /> +Cyrus is slain in battle with the Massagetæ, 529.</div> + +<p>3. Rise of the Persian dominion, in consequence +of the overthrow of the Medo-Bactrian +empire, after the defeat of Astyages at Pasargada. +Rapid extension by further conquest. Subjection +of Asia Minor after the victory won by Cyrus in +person over Crœsus, and capture of the Greek +colonies by the generals of the Persian monarch. +Conquest of Babylon and all the Babylonian provinces. +The Phœnician cities submit themselves +of their own accord. Even in Cyrus's time, +therefore, the frontiers of the Persian empire had +been extended in southern Asia to the Mediterranean, +to the Oxus, and to the Indus; but the +campaign against the nomad races, inhabiting the +steppes of Central Asia, was unsuccessful; and +Cyrus himself fell in the contest.</p> + +<div class="sblockquot"><p>It cannot be denied but that in the narration of the separate +wars waged by Cyrus, discrepancies are found in Herodotus and +Ctesias; those two authors, however, agree in the main facts: +and, indeed, the differences which exist between them cannot be +considered always as direct contradictions.</p></div> + +<div class="sidenote">The Persians +adopt +the religion, +laws, and +civility of +the conquered +Medes.</div> + +<p>4. Immediate consequences of this great revolution +in respect both of the conquerors and the +conquered. Among the former, even in the time +of Cyrus, the civilization and luxury of the Medes, +their legislation and national religion, and the +sacerdotal caste of the magi, who were guardians +of that religion, had been introduced, and the +whole system of the Persian court had been remodelled +upon that of the Medes.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_93" id="Page_93">[Pg 93]</a></span></p> + +<div class="sblockquot"><p>Description of Zoroaster's legislation, and of the magian national +religion, according to the Zend-avesta. How far the +dogmas of Zoroaster can be considered as dominant among the +Persians?—Proof that they were adopted only by the nobler +tribes, more particularly the Pasargadæ. Their great and beneficial +influence on agriculture.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Anquetil Du Perron</span>, <i>Zend-avesta, ouvrage de</i> <span class="smcap">Zoroastre</span>, +<i>traduit en François sur l'original Zend</i>. Paris, 1771. 4to. This +work has been much improved by the critical discussions added +to the German translation by <span class="smcap">J. L. Kleuker</span>. Compare the +dissertations on Zoroaster by <span class="smcap">Meiners</span> and <span class="smcap">Tychsen</span>, in <i>Comment. +Soc. Gotting.</i> and <span class="smcap">Heeren</span>, <i>Ideas</i>, etc. vol. i.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Hyde</span>, <i>De Religione veterum Persarum</i>; Oxon. 1700, 4to. +Replete with learned research, and the first work that excited +enquiry on the subject.</p> + +<p>† <span class="smcap">J. S. Rhode</span>, <i>Sacred Traditions of the East</i>; Breslau, +1821. An excellent work for the study of the Zend-avesta, the +magian religion, and the antiquities of the Medes and Persians.</p></div> + + +<div class="sidenote">Expedients adopted to keep possession +of the conquered territories.<br /> +Tribute.<br /> +Standing armies.<br /> +Transfer of whole nations.</div> + +<p>5. First political constitution of the Persian empire under Cyrus. No general new organization; +but for the most part the original institutions are preserved among the conquered, who +are compelled to pay tribute. Royal officers, appointed to collect +the tribute, are associated with the generals, who with numerous armies +keep in subjection the inhabitants of the conquered +countries. For the support of the empire +large standing armies are kept in pay, besides +which, recourse is frequently had to the transplanting +of whole nations; while, as was the case +with the Jews, some who had been formerly transplanted +are restored to their country. With the +same view injunctions are issued, as in the case +of the Lydians, to effect the enervation of warlike +races by a luxurious and effeminate system of +education.</p> + +<p>6. Cyrus leaves two sons, the elder of whom,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_94" id="Page_94">[Pg 94]</a></span> +Cambyses, succeeds as king; the younger, Smerdis, +(the <i>Tanyoxarces</i> of Ctesias,) becomes independent +lord of Bactria and the eastern territories; +but is soon after murdered by the command +of his elder brother.</p> + +<div class="sidenote"><span class="smcap">Cambyses</span> +529—522.<br /> +conquers +Egypt, etc.</div> + +<p>7. Under Cambyses the conquering arms of +the Persians are directed against Africa. Egypt +becomes a Persian province, and the neighbouring +Libya, together with Cyrene, assume the yoke of +their own accord. But the twofold expedition +against the opulent commercial establishments, +Ammonium in the west, and Meroe in the south, +is wholly unsuccessful; that against Carthage is +arrested in its commencement by the refusal of +the Tyrians to join the naval armament. A colony +of six thousand Egyptians is transplanted into +Susiana.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">His policy +in persecuting +the Egyptian priesthood:<br /> +his vices probably much exaggerated.</div> + +<p>8. The cruelty with which Cambyses is accused +of treating the Egyptians was directed +rather against the powerful caste of the priests, +than against the whole nation; and originated +more in political than in religious motives. It +must be observed, however, that we ought to be +particularly on our guard against all the evil that +is related of Cambyses, inasmuch as our information +respecting that prince is derived entirely from +his enemies, the Egyptian priests.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">Usurpation of the magi:<br /> +death of Cambyses, 522.</div> + +<p>9. The usurpation of the Pseudo-Smerdis, (or +<i>Tanyoxarces</i>,) was an attempt of the magi to replace +a Median dynasty on the throne, by means +of a plot hatched within the seraglio. It was the +occasion of an accident which cost Cambyses his +life, after a reign of seven years and a half: (or, +according to Ctesias, of eighteen.)</p> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_95" id="Page_95">[Pg 95]</a></span></p> +<div class="sidenote">The false +<span class="smcap">Smerdis</span>, +after a reign +of eight +months, is +slain by the +seven grandees.</div> + +<p>10. The Pseudo-Smerdis kept his seat on the +throne eight months, during which he attempted +to bring over the conquered nations to his interest +by a remission of all tribute for three years; but +the discovery of his cheat gave rise to a conspiracy +of seven of the chief Persians, who could +not brook the rule of a Mede, and the usurper lost +his life.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">No progress made towards an established +government under Cambyses and Smerdis.<br /> + +The Persians having forsaken the nomad life,<br /> + +Persepolis is built.</div> + +<p>11. It could not be expected that the political +organization of the kingdom should advance to +completion during the reign of Cambyses, who +was almost always absent in the prosecution of +war; or during the brief rule of the Pseudo-Smerdis. +It remained, therefore, in the same +state as under Cyrus. But the introduction of +the Median court-ceremonial among the ruling +tribe of the Persians, and the adoption of fixed +dwellings by that tribe, rendered it necessary that +royal residences should be erected for the reception +of the king's court; among these Persepolis, +(see above, p. 20,) probably commenced by Cyrus, +was completed under Darius and Xerxes.</p> + +<div class="sblockquot"><p>The best drawings of the monuments of Persepolis, remarkable +alike for their architecture, their sculpture, and their inscriptions +in the arrow-headed character, are to be found in the Travels of +<span class="smcap">Chardin</span> and <span class="smcap">Niebuhr</span>. Illustrations:</p> + +<p>† <span class="smcap">Herder's</span> <i>Persepolis</i>, in the collection of his works, vol. i.</p> + +<p>† <span class="smcap">Heeren</span>, <i>Ideas</i>, etc. Part I. vol. i. Great assistance in +studying the inscriptions, is furnished by</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">De Sacy</span>, <i>Mémoires sur diverses Antiquités de la Perse</i>; +Paris, 1793, 4to. It must be observed, however, that this work +is confined to the illustration of the later monuments, belonging +to the <i>Sassanidæ</i>. The most successful attempt at deciphering +the arrow-headed inscriptions of the old Persic, since <span class="smcap">Tychsen</span>, +<span class="smcap">Muenter</span>, and <span class="smcap">Lichtenstein</span>, will be found in</p> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_96" id="Page_96">[Pg 96]</a></span></p> + +<p>† <span class="smcap">Grotefend</span>, <i>On the Interpretation of the Arrow-headed +Characters, particularly of the Inscriptions at Persepolis</i>, contained +in the appendix to <span class="smcap">Heeren</span>, <i>Ideas</i>, etc. vol. ii. with an +accompanying Zend alphabet.</p></div> + + +<div class="sidenote">The seven +grandees +hold council +on the future +form of +government.</div> + +<p>12. After a very remarkable debate held by +the seven conspirators, concerning the form of +of government which should be established, Darius, +the son of Hystaspes, one of the family of the +Achæmenides, was raised to the throne by an +oracle; this king endeavoured to strengthen his +right to the sceptre by marrying two of Cyrus's +daughters.</p> + + +<div class="sidenote"><span class="smcap">Darius</span> +(522—486.) +a great +statesman +and conqueror:</div> + +<p>13. The reign of Darius I. which lasted thirty-six +years, (according to Ctesias 31,) is remarkable +for the improvements made both in the external +and internal administration of the Persian empire. +In the former, by the great expeditions and conquests, +which extended the Persian realm to its +utmost limits; in the latter, by several important +institutions, established for the internal organization +of the state.</p> + + +<div class="sidenote">the first +Persian +that carries +his arms +into Europe:<br /> +and is embroiled with the European Greeks.</div> + + +<p>14. The expeditions of the Persians under Cyrus +were directed against the countries of Asia; +those of Cambyses against Africa. But those +undertaken by Darius I. were directed against +Europe, though the Persian territory was at the +same time extended in the two other quarters of +the world. In the reign of this king likewise +commenced those wars with the Greeks, so fatal +to the Persians; constantly fomented and supported +by emigrant or exile Greeks, who found +an asylum in the Persian court, and there contrived +to raise a party.—First example of the kind +exhibited shortly after the accession of Darius, in<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_97" id="Page_97">[Pg 97]</a></span> +the case of Syloson, brother to Polycrates, who +had been tyrant of Samos: at his request the +island was taken possession of by the Persians, +and delivered up to him after the almost total destruction +of the male population.</p> + + +<div class="sidenote">Babylon secedes, +and +is reduced: +516.</div> + +<p>15. Great revolt in Babylon, which would not +submit tamely to a foreign yoke. After a siege +of twenty-one months, Darius by stratagem regains +possession of the city. The power of +Babylon and the importance of its situation increased +the jealousy with which it was guarded +by the Persian kings; so much so, that they +were wont to reside there a certain portion of the +year.</p> + + +<div class="sidenote">Campaign against the Scythians: 513.<br /> +The Persians, though unsuccessful, establish themselves in Europe.</div> + +<p>16. First great expedition of Darius undertaken +against the Scythians inhabiting the lands north +of the Black sea: the former irruption of the +Scythians into Asia afforded a pretext for the +war, which, therefore, was considered as a general +national undertaking. Unsuccessful as the +Persian arms were in this vast expedition against +the Scythians, and disgraceful as was the retreat +from the barren steppes of the Ukrain, yet the +power of Darius was established in Thrace and +Macedonia, and the Persians obtained firm footing +in Europe.</p> + +<div class="sblockquot"><p>Concerning the peculiar character of the Persian national wars, +or great campaigns, in which all the conquered nations were +obliged to participate, contrasted with the other wars waged by +Persian troops alone.</p></div> + + +<div class="sidenote">Campaign against western India, 509:</div> + + +<p>17. The next expedition made by Darius was +more successful. It was carried on along the +banks of the Indus, down which river Scylax, a +Greek, had previously sailed on a voyage of +discovery. The highlands north of the Indus +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_98" id="Page_98">[Pg 98]</a></span>were then subjected to the Persian dominion, +and the Indus became the boundary of the +kingdom. About the same time that Darius +was engaged on the Danube and the Indus, +Aryandes, his viceroy in Egypt, led an expedition against +<span class="sidenote">against Barca in Africa.</span> +Barca, to avenge the murder of king +Arcesilaus; a war which terminated in the destruction +of the city, and the transplantation of +its inhabitants into Asia.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">Secession of the Asiatic Greeks, 502—496;<br /> +who, assisted by Athens, fire Sardes, 500,<br /> +but are completely routed off Miletus, 496.</div> + +<p>18. However trifling the first occurrence which +gave rise to the revolt of the Asiatic Greeks, +it was much more important in its consequences. +It was set on foot by Aristagoras, lieutenant-governor +of Miletus, who was secretly supported +by his relation, the offended Histiæus, +then resident at the Persian court. The share +taken by the Athenians in this rebellion, which +led to the burning of Sardes, was the origin of the +national hatred between Persia and European +Greece, and of the long series of wars that ensued. +The confederates were this time defeated; +but the naval battle off the island of Lada, could +hardly have had such a fatal result, had not the +league been previously corrupted by the craft and +gold of Persia. Be that as it may, this war +ended in the reduction of the Ionians, and the +destruction of Miletus, their flourishing capital; a +city which in those days, together with Tyre and +Carthage, engrossed the trade of the world.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">First campaign against Greece.<br /> +under Mardonius, frustrated by a tempest off Athos, 492.<br /> +Second campaign.<br /> +Battle of Marathon, Sept. 29, 490.</div> + +<p>19. First attack upon Greece, particularly +Athens. Darius, already enraged against the +Athenians by the firing of Sardes, is still further +instigated by the suggestions of the banished tyrant +of Athens, Hippias, the son of Pisistratus. +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_99" id="Page_99">[Pg 99]</a></span> +This prince, who had fled to the Persian court, +was evidently the animating spirit of the whole +undertaking. Although the first attempt, made +under the command of Mardonius, was thwarted +by a tempest, yet the mighty expedition which +afterwards followed, was undertaken with so much +more prudence, and conducted with so much +knowledge of the country, that no one can fail to +recognize the guiding hand of Hippias. Even the +battle of Marathon, which seems to have been +but a diversion on the side of the Persians, would +not have decided the war, had not the activity of +Miltiades defeated the principal design of the +enemy upon Athens.</p> + + +<div class="sidenote">Progress of +the Persians +towards a +regular +constitution.</div> + +<p>20. It may be said that Darius, by these foreign +wars, debilitated the kingdom which he endeavoured +to extend; this circumstance, however, +it cannot be denied, increases the merit which he +has of perfecting the internal organization of the +empire. His reign constitutes precisely that period +which must enter into the history of every +nomad race that has attained to power, and is +advancing towards political civilization; a period +at which it becomes visible that the nation is endeavouring +to obtain a constitution, however gradual +the progress towards it.</p> + + +<div class="sidenote">Division of +the empire +into <i>satrapies</i>.</div> + +<p>21. Division of the empire into twenty <i>satrapies</i>, +and the imposition of a regular tribute on +each. This division at first depended solely on +that of the various tributary races, but from it +gradually arose a geographic division, in which +the ancient distinction of countries was for the +most part preserved.</p> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_100" id="Page_100">[Pg 100]</a></span></p> +<div class="sblockquot"><p>Proofs that the division into satrapies was originally a mere +arrangement for the civil government and collection of taxes, +distinct from military power. Duties of the satraps. The attention +they were to pay to the cultivation and improvement of +the land; to the collection of the imposts; to the execution of +the royal commands relating to provincial affairs. An abuse of +this institution, at a later period, placed in the hands of these +satraps the command also of the troops.—Various means of keeping +the satraps in a state of dependence: royal secretaries appointed +for each, who were to be the first to receive the king's +commands.—Periodical visits paid to the provinces by commissioners +under the direct appointment of the king, or by the king +himself accompanied with an army.—Establishment of couriers +in every part of the empire, for the purpose of securing a safe +and rapid communication with the provinces, as was the case +also in the Mongol countries; (not a regular post, however, the +institution here alluded to being intended only for the court.)</p></div> + + +<div class="sidenote">Persian +finances: +the conquered +to +support the +conquerors.</div> + +<p>22. The Persian finance continues to preserve +those peculiarities which naturally result from the +formation of an empire by a nomad race of conquerors, +desirous of living at the expense of the +conquered, and under a despotic form of government.</p> + +<div class="sblockquot"><p>Collection of tribute, mostly in kind, for the support of the +court and the armies; and in precious metals, not coined, but in +their raw state. Application of the treasure thus collected towards +constituting a private chest for the king. Various other +royal imposts.—Mode of providing for the public expenditure by +assignments on the revenues of one or several places.</p></div> + + +<div class="sidenote">Art military.</div> + +<p>23. Organization of the military system, conformably +to the primitive state of the nation, and +the necessity now felt of keeping the conquered +countries in subjection by means of standing armies.</p> + +<div class="sblockquot"><p>Military organization of the Persian nations, by means of a +decimal division pervading the whole.—Royal troops cantoned in +the open field, according to a certain division of the empire, or +stationed as garrisons in the cities, and distinct from the encampments.—Manner +in which the troops were supported at the cost +and by the taxes of the provinces.—Introduction of mercenaries<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_101" id="Page_101">[Pg 101]</a></span> +and Greeks, more particularly among the Persians, and fatal consequences +of that measure. Military household of the satraps +and grandees.—Institution of a general conscription in national +wars. Formation of the Persian navy, consisting of the Phœnician, +and not unfrequently of the Asiatic Greek fleets.</p></div> + + +<div class="sidenote">The Persian +court both a +seraglio and +the head +quarters of +the army.</div> + +<p>24. From the time of Darius, the court of the +kings of Persia attained its complete form, and +the government soon after was wholly concentrated +in the seraglio. Yet the mode of life which +the kings led, surrounded by a court, taken principally +if not wholly from the tribe of the Pasargadæ, +and changing their residence according to +the revolutions of the seasons, still preserved the +traces of nomad origin.</p> + +<div class="sblockquot"><p>Babylon, Susa, and Ecbatana, the usual residences; Persepolis +now used as a royal cemetery. The court supported by the +most costly productions of each province; hence arose the rigid +ceremonial observed at the royal table.—Internal organization of +the seraglio.—Influence of the eunuchs and queen-mothers on +the government.</p></div> + + +<div class="sidenote">Revolt of Egypt, 488:<br /> +death of Darius, 486.</div> + +<p>25. Already had Darius commenced preparations +to wreak his vengeance on Athens, when a +revolution broke out in Egypt, and hindered him +from prosecuting his design. He died after nominating +for his successor Xerxes I. grandson of +Cyrus, and his eldest son by a second wife, +Atossa, whose influence over her husband was +boundless.</p> + + +<div class="sidenote"><span class="smcap">Xerxes I.</span> 486—465:<br /> +recovers Egypt, 484:</div> + +<p>26. Xerxes I. A prince educated in the seraglio, +who knew nothing beyond the art of representing +the pomp of royalty. Subjection of +Egypt, and severe treatment of that country under +the satrap Achæmenes, brother to Xerxes.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">leads a +mighty +army +against +Greece.</div> + +<p>27. Xerxes' famous expedition against Greece +was again the result of the cabals and intrigues of +the Greek exiles, the Pisistratidæ, the soothsayer +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_102" id="Page_102">[Pg 102]</a></span>Onomacritus, the Thessalian princes or Aleuadæ, +who contrived to exert their influence on the +king's mind, and to raise a party in their favour +among the grandees. But the progress of the +campaign showed that no Hippias was at the +head of the invading army, although the Persian +king did certainly succeed in his avowed object, +the capture and destruction of Athens.</p> + +<div class="sblockquot"><p>Critique on the detailed account given by Herodotus of this +expedition, as a national undertaking in which all the subjugated +nations were obliged to take a share.—Preparations which last +for three years in the Persian empire; league framed with Carthage +for the subjection of the Sicilian Greeks, 483—481. The +expedition itself in 480; over Asia Minor and the Hellespont, +through Thrace and Macedonia.—Muster of the army and division +of the troops according to nations at Doriscus; the detailed +description of which found in Herodotus, was most probably borrowed +from some Persian document.—The pass of Thermopylæ +taken by treachery; on the same day a naval engagement off +Artemisium.—Athens captured and burnt. Battle of Salamis, +Sept. 23, 480. Retreat of Xerxes; an army of picked men left +behind, under the command of Mardonius.—Fruitless negotiations +with the Athenians.—Second campaign of Mardonius: he +is routed at Platææ, Sept. 25, 479; and that event puts an end +for ever to the Persian irruptions into Greece: on the same day +the Persian army is defeated, and their fleet burnt at Mycale in +Asia Minor.</p></div> + + +<div class="sidenote">Persia now +obliged to +concentrate +her forces in +Asia Minor.</div> + +<p>28. The consequences of these repeated and +unsuccessful expeditions, in which almost the +whole population was engaged, must be self-evident. +The empire was weakened and depopulated. +The defensive war which the Persians for +thirty years were obliged to maintain against the +Greeks, who aimed at establishing the independence +of their Asiatic countrymen, completely +destroyed the balance of their power, by compelling +them to transfer their forces to Asia<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_103" id="Page_103">[Pg 103]</a></span> +Minor, the most distant western province of the +empire.</p> + + +<div class="sidenote">Policy of +the Persians +in bribing +the Greeks.<br /> +Cimon wrests from Persia the sovereignty of the sea:<br /> +battle of the Eurymedon, 469.</div> + +<p>29. Little as the Greeks had to fear from the +Persian arms, the danger with which they were +now threatened was much more formidable, when +the enemy began to adopt the system of bribing +the chieftains of Greece; a system which succeeded +beyond expectation in the first trial made +of it with Pausanias, and perhaps was not wholly +unsuccessful with Themistocles himself.—But the +Persians soon found in Cimon an adversary who +deprived them of the sovereignty of the sea; who +in one day destroyed both their fleet and their +army on the Eurymedon; and by the conquest of +the Thracian Chersonese, wrested from them the +key of Europe.</p> + + +<div class="sidenote">Bloody deeds in the Persian seraglio:<br /> +Xerxes murdered.</div> + +<p>30. What little we know further concerning the +reign of Xerxes, consists in the intrigues of the +seraglio, which now, through the machinations of +queen Amestris, became the theatre of all those +horrors which are wont to be exhibited in such +places, and to which Xerxes himself at last fell a +victim, in consequence of the conspiracy of Artabanes +and the eunuch Spamitres.</p> + +<div class="sblockquot"><p>Was Xerxes the Ahasuerus of the Jews?—On the difference +between the names of the Persian kings in Persian and Chaldee; +not to be wondered at when we consider that they were mere +titles or surnames, assumed by the sovereigns after their accession.</p></div> + + +<div class="sidenote"><span class="smcap">Artaxerxes</span>, 465—424.<br /> +during his reign Persia is on the decline.</div> + +<p>31. Artaxerxes I. surnamed Longimanus. In +consequence of the murder of his father and his +elder brother, in the conspiracy of Artabanes, this +prince ascended the throne, but was unable to +keep possession of the sceptre without assassi<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_104" id="Page_104">[Pg 104]</a></span>nating, +in his turn, Artabanes. His reign, which +lasted forty years, exhibits the first symptoms of +the decline of the empire, which this king, although +possessed of many good qualities, had not +the talent or spirit to arrest.</p> + + +<div class="sidenote">Rebellions +in the provinces.</div> + +<p>32. At the very commencement of his reign +rebellions are excited in the provinces; in the +mean while the war with Athens continues. Two +battles are required to repress the insurrection of +his brother Hystaspes in Bactria.</p> + + +<div class="sidenote">Second secession of Egypt, 463:</div> + +<p>33. Second revolt of Egypt, excited by the +Libyan king, Inarus of Marea, in conjunction +with the Egyptian, Amyrtæus, and supported by +an Athenian fleet. Although the confederates +did not make themselves masters of Memphis, +they defeated the Persian army, commanded by +the king's brother, Achæmenes, who lost his life +in the battle; they were at last overpowered by +Megabyzus, satrap of Syria, and shut up together +with Inarus in the town of Byblus. Inarus and +<span class="sidenote">partly quelled, 456.</span> +his party were admitted to capitulation; but +Amyrtæus, having taken refuge in the morasses, +continued to make head against the Persians.</p> + + +<div class="sidenote">Persian fleet and +army defeated by Cimon, 449.<br /> + +Disgraceful peace with Athens, 449.</div> + +<p>34. The Grecian war takes, once more, an unfavourable +turn for the Persians: Cimon defeats +the enemy's fleet and army near Cyprus. The +fear of losing the whole of the island accordingly +compels Artaxerxes I. to sign a treaty of peace +with Athens, in which he recognizes the independence +of the Asiatic Greeks, and agrees that +his fleet shall not navigate the Ægæan sea, nor +his troops approach within three days' march of +the coast.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">Megabyzus, +the first example +of a +rebellious +satrap, +447.</div> + +<p>35. But the haughty and powerful Megabyzus, +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_105" id="Page_105">[Pg 105]</a></span>enraged at the execution of Inarus, in violation of +the promise made by him to that prince, excites +a rebellion in Syria; repeatedly defeats the royal +armies, and prescribes himself the conditions upon +which he will be reconciled to his sovereign. +This was the first great example of a successful +insurrection excited by one of the Persian satraps; +and chequered as were the subsequent +fortunes of Megabyzus, his party continued to +subsist after his death in the persons of his sons. +He possessed in the centre of the court a support +in the dowager queen Amestris, and the reigning +<span class="sidenote">Death of Artaxerxes, 424.</span> +queen Amytis; (both notorious for their excesses;) +who kept Artaxerxes I. in a constant state of tutelage +to the hour of his death.</p> + + +<div class="sidenote"><span class="smcap">Xerxes +II.</span> 424.</div> + +<p>36. Revolutions in the government now succeed each other with rapidity and violence. +Xerxes II. the only legitimate son and successor of Artaxerxes, is slain, after forty-five days' reign, +by his bastard brother +<span class="sidenote"><span class="smcap">Sogdianus.</span></span> +Sogdianus; the latter, in his turn, after a reign of six months, is deposed +by another bastard brother, Ochus, who ascends the throne, and assumes the name of Darius II.</p> + + +<div class="sidenote"><span class="smcap">Darius II.</span> 423—404.<br /> +Rapid decline of the state.</div> + +<p>37. Darius II. surnamed the Bastard, or Nothus. +He reigns nineteen years under the tutelage +of his wife, Parysatis, and of three eunuchs, +one of whom, Artoxares, even attempts to open a +way to the throne, but is put to death. In this +period the decline of the state advances with hurried +steps; partly by reason of the extinction of +the legitimate royal line, partly by the increased +practice of placing more than one province, together +with the military command, in the hands of +the same satrap. Although the repeated insur<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_106" id="Page_106">[Pg 106]</a></span>rections +of the satraps are repressed, the court, +by the breach of faith to which it is obliged to +have recourse, in order to succeed in its measures, +<span class="sidenote">422.</span> +exhibits to the world a convincing proof of its infirmity. +The revolt of Arsites, one of the king's +brothers, who was supported by a son of Megabyzus, +and that of Pisuthnes, satrap of Lydia, are +quelled only by obtaining treacherous possession of their +<span class="sidenote">414.</span> +persons.</p> + + +<p>38. In consequence of the weak state of the +empire, the fire, which had hitherto been smouldering +under the ashes, burst forth in Egypt. +Amyrtæus, who had remained till now in the morasses, +issued forth, supported by the Egyptians; +<span class="sidenote">Third revolt of Egypt, 414.</span> +and the Persians were again expelled the land. +Obscure as the subsequent history may be, we +see that the Persians were obliged to acknowledge, +not only Amyrtæus, but his successors. +[See page 72].</p> + + +<div class="sidenote">Peloponnesian +war favorable +to +the Persian +interests.</div> + +<p>39. The Persians must have regarded it as a +happy event, that the Peloponnesian war, kindled +in Greece during the reign of Artaxerxes, and +protracted through the whole of that of Darius II. +had prevented the Greeks from unitedly falling +upon Persia. It now became, and henceforward +continued to be, the chief policy of the Persians +to foment quarrels and wars between the Grecian +republics, by siding at various times with various +parties; and the mutual hatred of the Greeks +rendered this game so easy, that Greece could +hardly have escaped total destruction, had the +Persian plans been always as wisely laid as they +were by Tissaphernes; and had not the caprice +and jealousy of the satraps in Asia Minor gene<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_107" id="Page_107">[Pg 107]</a></span>rally +had more effect than the commands of the court.</p> + +<div class="sblockquot"><p>Alliance of the Persians with Sparta, framed by Tissaphernes, +441; but in consequence of the policy of Alcibiades, and the +artful principles of Tissaphernes, followed by no important results, +until the younger Cyrus, satrap of all Asia Minor, was by +Lysander, 407, brought over to the Spartan interest. (See below, +the Grecian history, III. Period, parag. 23.)</p></div> + + +<div class="sidenote"><span class="smcap">Artaxerxes II.</span> +405—362.</div> + +<p>40. Artaxerxes II. surnamed Mnemon. Although +this prince was the eldest son of Darius, +his right to the throne might, according to the +Persian ideas of succession, have appeared dubious, +since his younger brother, Cyrus, had the +advantage over him of being the first born subsequent +to the accession of his father. +<span class="sidenote">Anabasis of Cyrus.</span> +Relying on the support of his mother Parysatis, Cyrus, +even without this claim to the throne, would, no +doubt, have asserted his pretence to the sovereign +power. It would have been, in all probability, a +fortunate event for the Persian empire, had the +fate of battle, in the ensuing war between the two +brothers, assigned the throne to him whom nature +seems to have pointed out as the fittest person.</p> + +<div class="sblockquot"><p>History of this war according to Xenophon. Battle of Cunaxa, +in which Cyrus falls, 401. Retreat of the ten thousand Greek +mercenaries in the service of Cyrus, under the guidance of Xenophon.</p></div> + + +<div class="sidenote">Weak reign of Artaxerxes II.</div> + +<p>41. During the whole of this reign, Artaxerxes, +now firmly seated on the throne, remained under +the tutelage of his mother, Parysatis, whose inveterate +hatred against his wife, Statira, and +against all who had any share in the death of her +darling son, Cyrus, converted the seraglio into a +theatre of bloody deeds, such as can be conceived +and committed only in similar places.</p> +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_108" id="Page_108">[Pg 108]</a></span></p> + +<div class="sidenote">War with Sparta, 400.<br /> +Agesilaus in Asia, 396—394.<br /> +Peace of Antalcidas, 387.<br /> +Policy of Persia in keeping on good terms with Thebes.<br /> +War with Evagoras of Cyprus, 385.</div> + +<p>42. The insurrection and rout of Cyrus produced +a corresponding change in the political relations +between the Persian court and Sparta: +which, however, were now determined, not so +much by the will of the monarch himself, as by +the satraps of Asia Minor, Tissaphernes and Pharnabazus, +of whose jealousy Sparta knew how to +take advantage. The former, by his severity towards +the Asiatic Greeks, who had supported the +cause of Cyrus, excited a war with Sparta, in +which he himself fell a victim. The death of the +satrap is not, however, succeeded by tranquillity; +for Agesilaus commands in Asia, and threatens to +overthrow the Persian throne itself. The policy +of the Persians is shown by the war which they +foment in Greece against Sparta: Conon is placed +at the head of their fleet, and extricates Persia +from her difficulties better than could have been +done by her own generals; +in the peace of Antalcidas she herself dictates the terms, by which +the Grecian colonies of Asia Minor, together with +Cyprus and Clazomenæ, are again delivered into +her possession. The rising power of Thebes +under Epaminondas and Pelopidas, with whom +Persia keeps up a friendly connection, ensures +her from any future blow at the hands of the +Spartans.—War for the possession of Cyprus with +Evagoras, who, however, by the subsequent peace +retains the sovereignty of Salamis.</p> + + +<div class="sidenote">War with the Cadusii, 384.<br /> +Attempt to recover Egypt, 374.</div> + +<p>43. The war against the Cadusii in the mountains +of Caucasus, proves that Artaxerxes II. was +not fitted for military command; and his attempt +to recover Egypt from king Nectanebus I. which +was defeated by the feud between Iphicrates<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_109" id="Page_109">[Pg 109]</a></span> +and Artabazus, evinces that the most numerous +Persian host could achieve nothing without the +assistance of Grecian troops and Grecian generals.—It +could hardly be expected that an empire +should endure much longer, when in the court all +was ruled by the desire of revenge in the women; +when the political organization was already so +corrupt, that the satraps waged war against each +other; and when those generals who gave any +proof of talent received no better reward than +that of Datames.</p> + + +<div class="sidenote">The succession +to the +throne of +Persia is +disputed +and almost +produces +the downfal +of the empire +before +the death of +Artaxerxes.<br /> +Rebellion in the west dispelled by treachery, 362.</div> + +<p>44. In fact, it seemed not unlikely that the +Persian empire would fall asunder a little before +the death of Artaxerxes Mnemon. A quarrel +about the succession arose in the court between +the three legitimate sons of the king, the eldest +of whom, Darius, was put to death: the standard +of rebellion was erected in the western half of the +empire, and joined by all the governors of Asia +Minor and Syria, supported by Tachos, king of +Egypt, to whose assistance the Spartans had sent +Agesilaus. The insurrection, however, was quelled +in consequence of the treachery of the chief leader, +Orontes, who was bribed over to the court.</p> + + +<div class="sidenote"><span class="smcap">Artaxerxes +III.</span> about 362—338.<br /> +contemporary with Philip, the father of Alexander the Great.</div> + +<p>45. In the midst of these commotions died Artaxerxes II.: his youngest son, +Ochus, took possession of the throne, and assumed the name of Artaxerxes III. +This king conceived that he could not establish his power but by the total +destruction of the royal family, numerous as it was. He was +contemporary with Philip of Macedon, in whom he soon found a more formidable +rival than any he could have met with in his own family.</p> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_110" id="Page_110">[Pg 110]</a></span></p> + +<div class="sidenote">Insurrection +in Asia +Minor, +358.</div> + +<p>46. The new insurrection fomented by Artabazus +in Asia Minor, was accompanied with success +so long as it was backed by the Thebans; +but the reception which Artabazus met +with at the hands of Philip soon betrayed the +secret intentions of the Macedonian king.</p> + + +<div class="sidenote">Rebellion +of the Phœnicians +and +Cyprians, +356.</div> + +<p>47. But the extensive rebellion of the Phœnicians +and Cyprians, in conjunction with Egypt, +compelled the king to undertake another expedition, +which succeeded almost beyond expectation; +although in this case the object was again +attained principally by treachery and by Grecian +auxiliaries.</p> + +<div class="sblockquot"><p>Treachery of Mentor, the leader of the confederates: the consequent +capture and destruction of Sidon, followed by the subjection +of Phœnicia, 356. Capture of Cyprus by Grecian troops, +under the command of Phocion and the younger Evagoras, 354. +Expedition of the king in person against Egypt: victory of Pelusium, +won over king Nectanebus II. with the help of Grecian +mercenaries. Egypt becomes, once more, a Persian province.</p></div> + + +<div class="sidenote">The Persian empire once more +restored to its ancient bounds.<br /> + +The king poisoned by the eunuch Bagoas,</div> + +<p>48. This restoration of the empire to its former +limits was followed by a period of tranquillity, +the result of force, as Mentor and the eunuch Bagoas, +holding the king in complete dependence, +divided the kingdom, as it were, between themselves; +until Bagoas was pleased, by poison, to +remove Artaxerxes out of his way.</p> + + +<div class="sidenote">Bagoas +places Arces +on the +throne, but +soon after +makes away +with him. +336.</div> + +<p>49. After the assassination of the royal family, +Bagoas placed on the throne the king's youngest +and only surviving son, Arces. Bagoas was desirous +of reigning in the name of that prince; but +after the lapse of two years, he found it necessary +to depose him, and to substitute in his place a +distant relation of the reigning family, Darius<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_111" id="Page_111">[Pg 111]</a></span> +Codomannus, who commenced his reign by putting +to death the wretch himself.</p> + + +<div class="sidenote"><span class="smcap">Darius III.</span> 336.<br /> +His kingdom invaded by Alexander the Great, 334.</div> + +<p>50. Darius III. Codomannus, not having been educated, like his predecessors, +in the seraglio, gave proof of virtues which entitled him to a better fate. +Attacked in the second year of his +reign by Macedon, against which Persia had +hitherto made no preparation for resistance,—unless, +perhaps, the dagger which pierced Philip +was pointed by Persian hands,—Darius was unable +at once to reestablish a kingdom which of +itself was mouldering away. And yet, had not +death defeated the invasion of Macedonia by his +general, Memnon, it might have been matter of +doubt, whether Alexander would ever have shone +as the conqueror of +<span class="sidenote">Alexander's dominion established in Asia, 330.</span> +Asia.—After the loss of two +battles, in which he fought in person, Darius III. +fell a victim to the treachery of Bessus, and the +burning of Persepolis made known to Asia that the +realm of Persia was destroyed, and that the east +must acknowledge a new lord and master.</p> + +<div class="sblockquot"><p>For the history of the war, see below: the history of Macedon.</p></div> + + +<hr style="width: 100%;" /> +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_112" id="Page_112">[Pg 112]</a></span></p> +<h1><a name="THIRD_BOOK" id="THIRD_BOOK"></a>THIRD BOOK.</h1> + +<h3>HISTORY OF THE GRECIAN STATES.</h3> +<hr style="width: 100%;" /> + + +<h3><i>Geographical Outline.</i></h3> + + +<div class="sidenote">Boundaries of Greece:</div> + +<p><i>Greece</i> is bounded on the north by the Cambunian +mountains, which separate it from Macedonia; +on the south and east by the Ægæan, on +the west by the Ionian sea. +<span class="sidenote">its dimensions:</span> +Greatest length from south to north = 220 geog. miles, greatest breadth +from west to east, = 140 geog. miles. Superficial +contents, = 29,600 square miles.—Principal +<span class="sidenote">rivers:</span> +rivers: the Peneus, which discharges its waters +into the Ægæan, and the Achelous, which flows +into the Ionian sea. Advantages in respect to +fertility, resulting from the mildness of the climate, +<span class="sidenote">physical advantages.</span> +between 37—40° N. lat.; from the number +of small streams; from the qualities and variety +of the soil, in which this country has been so +much more blessed by nature than any other of +similar extent, that every branch of cultivation +may be prosecuted equally and in conjunction.—Advantages +in reference to navigation and commerce: +situated in the vicinity of the three +quarters of the world, on three sides washed by +the sea, and by reason of its irregular, indented +coast, abounding with commodious ports and +havens.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">Divisions.</div> + +<p>It may be divided into Northern Greece, from +the north boundary to the chain of Œta and +Pindus, between the Ambracian gulf west, and<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_113" id="Page_113">[Pg 113]</a></span> +the Maliac east. Central Greece, or Hellas, down +to the isthmus of Corinth: and the southern peninsula, +or Peloponnesus.</p> + +<div class="sidenote"><span class="smcap">Northern +Greece.</span></div> + +<p>Northern Greece comprises two countries; +Thessaly east, Epirus west.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">Thessaly.</div> + +<p>1. Thessaly, the largest and one of the most +fruitful of the Grecian countries. Length from +north to south 60 geog. miles; breadth from west +to east 64 geog. miles. Rivers: the Peneus, Apidanus, +and several smaller streams. Mountains: +Olympus, residence of the fabulous gods, and +Ossa in the north; the chain of Œta, Othrys, and +Pindus in the south. Division into five provinces: +1. Estiæotis; cities: Gomphi, Azorus: +2. Pelasgiotis; cities: Larissa, Gonni, the vale +of Tempe: 3. Thessaliotis; cities: Pharsalus, +etc. 4. Phthiotis; cities: Pheræ, etc. 5. The +foreland of Magnesia, with a city of the same +name. Other territories, such as Perrhæbia, etc. +for instance, derived their names from the non-Greek +races who inhabited them.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">Epirus.</div> + +<p>2. Epirus. Next to Thessaly, the largest, although +one of the least cultivated countries of +Greece: 48—60 geog. miles long, and the same +in breadth. Divisions: Molossis; city, Ambracia: +Thesprotia; city, Buthrotum; in the interior, +Dodona.</p> + +<div class="sidenote"><span class="smcap">Central +Greece.</span></div> + +<p>Central Greece, or Hellas, comprises nine +countries.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">Attica.</div> + +<p>1. Attica, a foreland, extending towards the +south-east, and gradually diminishing. Length, +60 geog. miles; greatest breadth, 24 geog. miles. +Rivers: Ilissus, Cephissus. Mountains: Hymettus, +Pentelicus, and the headland of Sunium.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_114" id="Page_114">[Pg 114]</a></span> +City: Athens, with the harbours Piræus, Phalereus, +and Munychius; in the other parts no +towns, but hamlets, δήμοι, such as Marathon, Eleusis, +Decelea, etc.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">Megaris.</div> + +<p>2. Megaris, close to the isthmus of Corinth. +The smallest of the Grecian countries; 16 geog. +miles long, and from 4—8 broad. City, Megara.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">Bœotia.</div> + +<p>3. Bœotia, a mountainous and marshy country, +52 geog. miles long, and from 28—32 broad. +Rivers: Asopus, Ismenus, and several smaller +streams. Mountains: Helicon, Cythæron, etc. +Lake: Copais.—Bœotia was, of all the Grecian +countries, that which contained the greatest number +of cities, each having its own separate territory. +Among these, the first in importance, and +frequently mistress of the rest, was Thebes on the +Ismenus. The others, Platææ, Tanagra, Thespiæ, +Chæronea, Lebadea, Leuctra, and Orchomenus, +are all celebrated in Grecian history.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">Phocis.</div> + +<p>4. Phocis, smaller than Attica; 48 geog. miles +long, from 4—20 broad. River: Cephissus. +Mountain: Parnassus. Cities: Delphi, on Parnassus, +with the celebrated oracle of Apollo. +Crissa, with the harbour of Cirrha, and up the +country Elatea. The other cities are insignificant.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">Locris 1st +and 2nd.</div> + +<p>5, 6. The two countries called Locris. The +eastern on the Euripus, territory of the Locri +Opuntii and Epicnemidii is the lesser of the two; +being but little larger than Megaris. City: Opus; +pass, Thermopylæ. The western Locris on the +Corinthian gulf, station of the Locri Ozolæ, is +from 20—24 geog. miles long, and from 16—20 +broad. Cities: Naupactus on the sea, Amphissa +up the country.</p> +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_115" id="Page_115">[Pg 115]</a></span></p> + +<div class="sidenote">Doris.</div> + +<p>7. The small country of Doris, or the Tetrapolis +Dorica, on the south side of mount Œta, +from 8—12 geog. miles long, and the same in +breadth.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">Ætolia.</div> + +<p>8. Ætolia, somewhat larger than Bœotia; from +40—52 geog. miles long, and from 28—32 broad; +but the least cultivated country of all. Rivers: +Achelous, which skirts Acarnania, and the Evenus. +Cities: Calydon, Thermus.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">Acarnania.</div> + +<p>9. Acarnania, the most western country of Hellas, +32 geog. miles long, from 16—24 broad. +River: Achelous. Cities: Argos Amphilochicum, +and Stratus.</p> + +<div class="sidenote"><span class="smcap">Peloponnesus.</span></div> + +<p>The peninsula of Peloponnesus contains eight +countries.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">Arcadia.</div> + +<p>1. Arcadia, a mountainous country, abounding +in pastures, and situate in the centre of the peninsula; +greatest length, 48 geog. miles; greatest +breadth, 36 geog. miles. Mountains: Cyllene, +Erymanthus, etc. Rivers: Alpheus, Erymanthus, +and several smaller streams. Lake: Styx. +Cities: Mantinea, Tegea, Orchomenus, Heræa, +Psophis; subsequently Megalopolis, as a common +capital.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">Laconia.</div> + +<p>2. Laconia, likewise mountainous. Greatest +length, 66 geog. miles; greatest breadth, 36 geog. +miles. River: Eurotas. Mountains: Taygetus, +and the headlands Malea and Tenarium. Cities: +Sparta on the Eurotas; other places: Amyclæ, +Sellasia, and others of little importance.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">Messenia.</div> + +<p>3. Messenia, west of Laconia; a more level +and extremely fertile country, subject to the +Spartans from B. C. 668. Greatest length, 28 +geog. miles: greatest breadth, 36 geog. miles.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_116" id="Page_116">[Pg 116]</a></span> +City: Messene. Frontier places, Ithome and +Ira: of the other places, Pylus (Navarino) and +Methone are the most celebrated.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">Elis.</div> + +<p>4. Elis, with the small territory of Triphylia, on +the west of the Peloponnesus. Length, 60 geog. +miles: greatest breadth, 28 geog. miles. Rivers: +Alpheus, Peneus, Sellis, and several smaller +streams. Cities: in the north, Elis, Cyllene, and +Pylus. On the Alpheus, Pisa and the neighbouring +town of Olympia. In Triphylia, a third Pylus.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">Argolis.</div> + +<p>5. Argolis, on the east side of the peninsula; +a foreland opposite to Attica, with which it forms +the Sinus Saronicus. Length, 64 geog. miles: +breadth, from 8—28 geog. miles. Cities: Argos, +Mycenæ, Epidaurus. Smaller but remarkable +places; Nemea, Cynuria, Trœzen.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">Achaia.</div> + +<p>6. Achaia, originally Ionia, called likewise +Ægialus, comprises the north coast. Length, 56 +geog. miles: breadth, from 12—24. It contains +twelve cities, of which Dyme, Patræ, and Pellene +are the most important.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">Sicyonia.</div> + +<p>7. The little country of Sicyonia, 16 geog. miles +long, 8 broad, with the cities of Sicyon and Phlius.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">Corinth.</div> + +<p>8. The small territory of Corinth, of the same +extent as the foregoing, adjoining the isthmus +which connects Peloponnesus with the main land. +City: Corinth, originally Ephyra, with the ports +of Lechæum and Cenchreæ; the former on the +Corinthian, the latter on the Saronic gulf.</p> + +<div class="sidenote"><span class="smcap">Islands.</span></div> + +<p>The Greek islands may be divided into three +classes; those which lie immediately off the +coasts, those which are collected in groups, and +those which lie separate in the open sea.</p> +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_117" id="Page_117">[Pg 117]</a></span></p> + +<div class="sidenote"><i>Off the coasts.</i><br /> + +Corcyra; Leucadia; Cephalonia and Ithaca; Zacynthus; Cythera; Ægina and Salamis;<br /> + +Eubœa;</div> + +<p>1. Islands off the coasts. Off the west coast +in the Ionian sea: Corcyra, opposite Epirus, 32 +geog. miles long, from 8—16 broad. City: Corcyra. +A Corinthian colony. Opposite Acarnania; +Leucadia, with the city and headland of +Leucas.—Cephalonia or Same, originally Scheria, +with the cities of Same and Cephalonia. In the +neighbourhood lies the small island of Ithaca.—Opposite +Elis: Zacynthus. Off the south coast: +Cythera, with a town of the same name. Off the +east coast, in the Saronic gulf: Ægina and Salamis. +Opposite Bœotia, from which it is separated +by the strait named Euripus, +Eubœa, the most extensive of all; 76 geog. miles long, from +12—16 geog. miles broad. Cities: Oreus, with the headland of +Artemisium on the north, in the centre Chalcis, Eretria. Off Thessaly, +<span class="sidenote">Scyathus, Thasus, Imbrus, Samothrace, Lemnos, etc.</span> +Scyathus and Halonesus. Farther north, Thasus, Imbrus, Samothrace, and Lemnos.</p> + + +<div class="sidenote"><i>Groups.</i><br /> + +Cyclades and Sporades;</div> + +<p>2. Clusters of islands in the Ægæan sea: the +Cyclades and Sporades; the former of which comprise +the western, the latter the eastern islands +of the Archipelago. The most important among +them are, Andros, Delos, Paros, Naxos, Melos, +all with cities of the same names.</p> + + +<div class="sidenote"><i>Separate.</i><br /> + +Crete;<br /> + +Cyprus.</div> + +<p>3. The more extensive separate islands: 1. +Crete, 140 geog. miles long, from 24—40 broad. +Mountain: Ida. Cities: Cydonia, Gortyna, Cnossus. +2. Cyprus, 120 geog. miles long, from 20—80 +broad. Cities: Salamis, Paphos, Citium, and +several smaller places.</p> + +<div class="sblockquot"><p>Concerning the principal Greek islands off the coast of Asia +Minor, see above, p. 18.</p> +<p>† <span class="smcap">Fr. Carl. Herm. Kruse</span>, <i>Geographico-Antiquarian delineation +of ancient Greece and its colonies, with reference to mo<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_118" id="Page_118">[Pg 118]</a></span>dern +discoveries</i>. Illustrated with maps and plates: first part, +1825. General Geography: second part, first division, 1826. +Second division, 1827. Special Geography of Central Greece. +A most minute and careful description of Greece, founded on +modern discoveries.</p></div> + + + +<hr style="width: 25%;" /> +<h2>FIRST PERIOD.</h2> + +<p class="cblockquot"><i>The most ancient traditional history, down to the Trojan +war, about B. C. 1200.</i></p> + + +<div class="sblockquot"><p>Sources: On the formation and progress of history among the +Greeks. Preliminary enquiry into the peculiarities of Grecian +mythology in a historical point of view, as comprising the most +ancient history of the national tribes and heroes. A history rich +in itself, on account of the number of tribes and their leaders; +but embellished and altered in various ways by the poets, particularly +the great early epic writers, and afterwards by the tragedians.—First +advance of history from tradition, wrought by the +logographi, especially those of the Ionian cities, Hecatæus, Pherecydes, +etc. until <span class="smcap">Herodotus</span>, so justly called the Father of History, +raised it at once to such a lofty pitch of eminence. (Compare +† <i>The historical Art of the Greeks considered in its Rise and Progress, +by</i> <span class="smcap">G. F. Creuzer</span>; 1803.) Nevertheless, in Herodotus, +and even later writers, history continued to savour of its origin; +and so far as the realm of tradition extended, even Theopompus +and Ephorus felt no disinclination to borrow their materials from +mythologists or poets. It need scarcely be observed, that in this +first period the history is merely traditional.</p> + +<p>Among the moderns, the English have most successfully treated +the subject of Grecian history: the principal works are:</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">John Gillies</span>, <i>The History of Ancient Greece, its colonies +and conquests, from the earliest accounts till the division of the +Macedonian empire in the east, including the history of literature, +philosophy, and the fine arts</i>. London, 1786, 2 vols. 4to. and</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">William Mitford</span>, <i>The History of Greece</i>. London, 1784,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_119" id="Page_119">[Pg 119]</a></span> +4 vols. 4to. Several new editions have since appeared. Translated +into German, Jena, 1800, sqq. by <i>H. L. Eichstädt</i>. Mitford +is perhaps superior in learning, copiousness, and solidity, +but he certainly is greatly surpassed by Gillies in genius and taste, +and more especially in a proper conception of the spirit of antiquity. +[Few English critics will here coincide with our author.]</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">De Pauw</span>, <i>Recherches sur les Grecs</i>, 1701, 2 vols. 8vo. Replete +with partial views and hypotheses.</p> + +<p>† <span class="smcap">Heeren</span>, <i>Researches into the politics, intercourse, and trade +of the most celebrated nations of antiquity</i>: 3 vols. 1st part, 4th +edit. 1826. [Translated into English, Oxford, 1830, 8vo.]</p> + +<p>Many important enquiries on various portions of Grecian history +and antiquities will be found in the great collection:</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Gronovii</span>, <i>Thesaurus Antiquitatum Græcarum</i>, 12 vols. folio.</p> + +<p>Others are contained in the transactions of different learned +societies; particularly in</p> + +<p><i>Mémoires de l'Académie des Inscriptions et des Belles Lettres</i>, +Paris, 1709, sqq. 49 vols. 4to.</p> + +<p><i>Commentarii</i>, (4 vols.) <i>Commentarii novi</i>, (8 vols.) <i>Commentationes</i>, +(16 vols.) and <i>Commentationes recentiores Societatis Scientiarum +Gotting.</i> (5 vols.)</p></div> + + +<div class="sidenote">Early inhabitants of Greece.</div> + +<p>1. Although Greece was originally inhabited +by several insignificant races, two principal tribes +claim our attention, the <i>Pelasgi</i> and the <i>Hellenes</i>. +Both probably were of Asiatic origin; but the +difference of their language characterized them as different tribes. +<span class="sidenote"><span class="smcap">Pelasgi.</span></span> +The Pelasgi were the first that extended their dominion in Greece.</p> + +<div class="sblockquot"><p>First seat of the Pelasgians in the Peloponnesus, under Inachus, +about B. C. 1800. According to their own traditions, they +made their first appearance in this quarter as uncultivated savages; +they must, however, at an early period, have made some +progress towards civilization, since the most ancient states, Argos +and Sicyon, owed their origin to them; and to them, perhaps, +with great probability, are attributed the remains of those most +ancient monuments generally termed <i>cyclopian</i>.—Extension of +this tribe towards the north, particularly over Attica; settlement +in Thessaly under their leaders Achæus, Phthius, and Pelasgus; +here they learned to apply themselves to agriculture, and re<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_120" id="Page_120">[Pg 120]</a></span>mained +for a hundred and fifty successive years; about 1700—1500.</p></div> + +<div class="sidenote"><span class="smcap">Hellenes</span>:</div> + +<p>2. The Hellenes,—subsequently so called from +Hellen, one of their chieftains,—originally the +weaker of the two tribes, make their first appearance +in Phocis, near Parnassus, under king Deucalion; +from whence they are driven by a flood. +<span class="sidenote">descend southward, about B. C. 1550.</span> +They migrate into Thessaly, and drive out the +Pelasgi from that territory.—The Hellenes soon +after this become the most powerful race; and +spreading over Greece, expel the Pelasgi from +almost every part. The latter tribe maintain their +<span class="sidenote">and obtain the ascendant</span> +ground only in Arcadia, and the land of Dodona; +some of them migrate to Italy, others to Crete, +and various islands.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">Hellenic +tribes.</div> + +<p>3. The Hellenic tribe is subdivided into four +principal branches, the <i>Æolians</i>, <i>Ionians</i>, <i>Dorians</i>, +and <i>Achæans</i>, which continue afterwards to be +distinguished and separated by many peculiarities +of speech, customs, and political government. +These four tribes, although they must not be considered +as comprising all the slender ramifications +of the nation, are derived by tradition from Deucalion's +immediate posterity; with whose personal +history, therefore, the history of the tribes +themselves and their migrations is interwoven.</p> + +<p>This derivation of the tribes will be better understood by an +inspection of the following genealogical table:</p> + +<div class='center'> +<table border="0" cellpadding="6" cellspacing="0" summary=""> +<tr> + <td colspan='4'></td> + <td colspan='2' align='center'>DEUCALION.</td> + <td colspan='4'></td> +</tr> +<tr><td colspan='5' class='br'></td></tr> +<tr> + <td colspan='4'></td> + <td colspan='2' align='center'>HELLEN.</td> + <td colspan='4'></td> +</tr> +<tr><td colspan='5' class='br'></td></tr> +<tr><td></td><td colspan='8' class="bt bl br"></td><td></td></tr> +<tr> + <td colspan='2' align='center'>DORUS.</td> + <td colspan='2'></td> + <td colspan='2' align='center'>XUTHUS.</td> + <td colspan='2'></td> + <td colspan='2' align='center'>ÆOLUS.</td> +</tr> +<tr><td colspan='1' class='br'></td><td colspan='4' class='br'></td><td colspan='4' class='br'></td></tr> +<tr><td></td><td></td><td></td><td colspan='4' class="bt bl br"></td><td></td><td></td><td></td></tr> +<tr> + <td colspan='2' align='center'>DORIANS.</td> + <td colspan='2' align='center'>ACHÆUS.</td> + <td colspan='2'></td> + <td colspan='2' align='left'>ION.</td> + <td colspan='2' align='center'>ÆOLIANS.</td> +</tr> +<tr><td colspan='3' class='br'></td><td colspan='4' class='br'></td></tr> +<tr> + <td colspan='2'></td> + <td colspan='2' align='center'>ACHÆANS.</td> + <td colspan='2'></td> + <td colspan='2' align='center'>IONIANS.</td> + <td colspan='2'></td> +</tr> +</table></div> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_121" id="Page_121">[Pg 121]</a></span></p> + +<p>4. The gradual spread of the various branches +of the Hellenic tribe over Greece was effected by +several migrations, between B. C. 1500—1300; +after which they preserved the settlements they +had already obtained until the later migration of +the Dorians and Heraclidæ, about 1100.</p> + +<h4><i>Principal data for the history of the separate tribes in +this period.</i></h4> + +<div class="sblockquot"> +<p>1. <span class="smcap">Æolus</span> follows his father Hellen into Phthiotis, which consequently +remains the seat of the Æolians; they spread from +thence over western Greece, Acarnania, Ætolia, Phocis, Locris, +Elis in the Peloponnesus, and likewise over the western islands.</p> + +<p>2. <span class="smcap">Dorus</span> follows his father into Estiæotis, the most ancient +seat of the Dorians. They are driven from thence after the +death of Dorus by the Perrhæbi; spread over Macedonia and +Crete; part of the tribe return, cross mount Œta, and settle +in the Tetrapolis Dorica, afterwards called Doris, where they +remain until they migrate into Peloponnesus, under the guidance +of the Heraclidæ; about 1100. (See below, p. 127).</p> + +<p>3. <span class="smcap">Xuthus</span>, expelled by his brothers, migrates to Athens, +where he marries Creusa, daughter of Erectheus, by whom he +has sons, Ion and Achæus. Ion and his tribe, driven out of +Athens, settle in that part of Peloponnesus called Ægialus, a +name which by them was converted into Ionia, and in later times +exchanged for Achaia. The Achæans preserve their footing in +Laconia and Argos, until the time of the Dorian migration.</p> + +<p>† <span class="smcap">L. D. Huellman</span>, <i>Early Grecian History</i>, 1814. Rich in +original views and conjectures, beyond which the early history +of nations seldom extends.</p> + +<p>† <span class="smcap">D. C. Otfried Mueller</span>, <i>History of the Hellenic Tribes +and Cities</i>, 1820, vol. 1. containing, O<i>rchomenus and the Minyæ</i>; +vols. 2, 3, containing the <i>Dorians</i>, 1825.</p> +</div> + +<div class="sidenote">Colonies +settle in +Greece.</div> + +<p>5. Besides these original inhabitants, colonies +at the same early period came into Greece from +civilized countries, from Egypt, Phœnicia, and<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_122" id="Page_122">[Pg 122]</a></span> +Mysia. The settlements of these strangers occurred +probably between B. C. 1600—1400.</p> + +<div class="sblockquot"><p>Establishment in Attica of the colony of Cecrops, from Sais in +Egypt, about 1550; in Argos, of the colony of Danaus, likewise +from Egypt, about 1500.—The colony of Cadmus, from Phœnicia, +settles in Bœotia about 1550.—The colony of Pelops, from +Mysia, settles in Argos about 1400.</p></div> + +<div class="sidenote">Progress of +civilization +among the +Hellenes.</div> + +<p>6. The mythology of the Hellenes proves beyond +a doubt, that they were at first savages, like +the Pelasgi since they had to learn even the use +of fire from Prometheus; yet it is equally clear +that they must, even in the earliest period, particularly +from 1300—1200, when they had ceased +to migrate, have made the first important steps +towards the attainment of a certain degree of +civilization. About the time of the Trojan war +they appear to have been still barbarians, though +no longer savages.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">Was the +Hellenic +civilization +of native or +foreign +growth?</div> + +<p>7. The origin and progress of this national organization, +and the influence wrought upon it by +settlers from foreign countries, are difficult subjects +to determine. If we allow that Cecrops was +the first who introduced marriage in Attica, and +that agriculture and the cultivation of the olive +were discovered in that country, it unquestionably +follows, that the Hellenes were indebted to +strangers for the foundation of domestic civilization. +And when we consider that the families +which subsequently held sway were descended +directly from the most powerful of these strangers, +their lasting influence can hardly be a matter of +doubt. It must, however, be observed, that what +the Greeks borrowed from foreigners they previously +stamped with their own peculiar charac<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_123" id="Page_123">[Pg 123]</a></span>ter, +so that it became, as it were, the original +property of the nation. The question, therefore, +is deprived of much of the importance which it +assumes at the first glance.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">Hellenic religion +derived from +foreigners.</div> + +<p>8. The case was the same with regard to all +branches of intellectual civilization, particularly +religion. That many deities and religious +rites were introduced into Greece from Egypt, +Asia, and Thrace, and generally through Crete, +hardly admits of a doubt; but they did not therefore +remain Egyptian, Asiatic, or Thracian; they +became Grecian gods. Hence it appears that the +investigation of those relations can hardly lead to +any important conclusion. It is a fact, however, +of the highest importance, that whatever gods the +<span class="sidenote">No sacerdotal caste in Greece.</span> +Greeks adopted, no separate order of priesthood +was established among them, still less any caste +laying claim to the exclusive possession of knowledge. +Several traces, nevertheless, make it probable, +that many of the most ancient sanctuaries +were settlements of Egyptian, Phœnician, or +Cretan priests, who imported with them their +own peculiar forms of worship. And notwithstanding +this worship consisted merely of outward +ceremonies, many ideas and institutions +which were attached to it, became, in this manner, +the common property of the nation.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">Influence of +the bards:</div> + +<p>9. It was principally, therefore, by religion, +that the rude mind became in some degree polished. +But it was the ancient minstrels, +(ἀοιδοὶ,) +Orpheus, Linus, etc., who, by disseminating religious +principles, contributed so much towards +abolishing revenge, and with it the perpetual +state of warfare which had hitherto distracted the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_124" id="Page_124">[Pg 124]</a></span> +country. These it was who in their mysteries +contrived in some measure to impress the narrow +circle of the initiated with the advantages resulting +from a civilized life.</p> + +<div class="sblockquot"><p><span class="smcap">Sainte-Croix</span>, <i>Recherches sur les Mystères du Paganisme</i>, +Paris, 1765. Translated into German, with valuable observations, +by <span class="smcap">C. G. Lenz</span>; Gotha, 1790.</p></div> + +<div class="sidenote">of the oracles:</div> + +<p>10. The influence of religion, through the medium +of oracles, especially those of Dodona and +Delphi, was not less powerful. The two latter, +with that of Olympia, were perhaps, originally +ancient settlements of priests, such as have been +already alluded to. The necessity of consulting +these sanctuaries naturally led men to regard the +oracles as the common property of the nation, +to which every one should have access; it followed +therefore as an inevitable consequence, that +the direction of affairs in which all were engaged, +depended principally on those oracles.</p> + +<div class="sblockquot"><p><span class="smcap">A. Van Dalen</span>, <i>De Oraculis veterum Ethnicorum Dissertationes</i>6. Amstel. 1700. A very valuable work. A comprehensive +dissertation on the subject, however, is still wanting: a portion +of it is treated of in</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">J. Groddek</span>, <i>De Oraculorum veterum, quæ in Herodoti libris +continentur, natura, commentatio</i>; Gotting. 1786.</p></div> + +<div class="sidenote">of the religious +festivals:</div> + +<p>11. It happened with Greece as with other +countries; the tender plant of civilization grew +up under the shelter of the sanctuary. There the +festivals were celebrated, and there the people +assembled; and there various tribes, who had +hitherto been strangers to one another, met in +peace, and conversed on their common interests. +Hence arose spontaneously the first idea of a law +of nations, and those connections which led to its<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_125" id="Page_125">[Pg 125]</a></span> +development. Among these connections, that of +the Amphictyons at Delphi was the most important, +and continued the longest: it is probable +that it did not assume its complete form till a +later period; yet it appears in early times to have +adopted the principle, that none of the cities belonging +to the league should be destroyed by the +others.</p> + +<div class="sblockquot"><p>† <span class="smcap">Fr. Wilh. Tittmann</span>, <i>Upon the Amphictyonic League</i>; +1812. A dissertation which gained the prize of the Academy of +Sciences at Berlin.</p></div> + +<div class="sidenote">of navigation:</div> + + +<p>12. To religion must likewise be added navigation, +and the consequent intercourse which +brought the nation into contact with strangers, and +prepared it to receive civilization. It cannot be +denied that the navigators continued long to be +mere pirates; but as Minos of Crete cleared the +<span class="sidenote">about 1400</span> +sea of freebooters, the want of another state of +things must have been felt long before.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">Age of chivalry.</div> + +<p>13. In the mean time the chivalrous spirit of +the nation was gradually aroused; and developed +the first bloom of its youthful vigour in the heroic +ages. An affection for extraordinary undertakings +was excited; and conducted the chieftains, not +only individually, but also in confederate bodies, +beyond the limits of their father-land. These undertakings +were not only important in themselves, +but their advantages were increased by their +being preserved in the songs of their bards by +means of a national poesy, such as no other people +possessed, and such as contributed to the further +development of the national genius.</p> + +<div class="sblockquot"><p>Expedition of the Argonauts to Colchis, somewhere about +B. C. 1250; war of the seven confederate princes against Thebes<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_126" id="Page_126">[Pg 126]</a></span> +about 1225; the town, however, was not taken until the second +attempt made by the sons of the chiefs (Epigoni) in 1215.</p></div> + +<div class="sidenote">Effects of +the Trojan +war.</div> + + +<p>14. Thus every thing was now ripe for some +great national undertaking of all the combined +Hellenic nations; and that object was attained in +the war against Troy. The most important result of +that expedition was the kindling of one common +national spirit,—a spirit which in spite of dissensions +and feuds, was never wholly extinguished, +and which must almost necessarily have arisen +<span class="sidenote">1194—1184</span> +from an expedition carried on in so distant a +field, which lasted ten years, in which all were +joined, and which was crowned with such signal +success. From the time of the Trojan war downwards +the Hellenes always looked upon themselves +as but one people.</p> + +<div class="sblockquot"><p>General view of the political state of Greece about the time +of the Trojan war.—Division into several small states, the most +powerful of which were Argos and Mycenæ.—All those states +were governed by hereditary chieftains or princes from a certain +<i>family</i> (kings, βασιλεῖς,) +who combined the offices of leaders in +war and judges in peace. Their authority being more or less +extended in proportion to the qualities they possessed, and particularly +to their valour in battle.—Manner of life among the +people: a nation dwelling in cities, but at the same time cultivating +the land and tending cattle; applying also to war, and +already somewhat advanced in the art of navigation.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">A. W. Schlegel</span>, <i>De Geographia Homeri Commentatio</i>. +Hannov. 1788. A review of the political geography of Greece +at this period.—On the topography of Troy:</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Lechevalier</span>, <i>Description de la Plaine de Troie</i>. Translated +and accompanied with notes by <span class="smcap">Heyne</span>, Leipzig, 1794. Compare +<span class="smcap">Clarke</span>, <i>Travels</i>, vol. i, c. 4—6, who has thrown doubts +on the system of Lechevalier, which has, however, been again +confirmed by <span class="smcap">Leake</span>, <i>Travels in Asia Minor</i>.</p></div> + + +<hr style="width: 25%;" /> +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_127" id="Page_127">[Pg 127]</a></span></p> +<h2>SECOND PERIOD.</h2> + +<p class="cblockquot"><i>From the Trojan war to the breaking out of the Persian +war, B. C. 1200—500.</i></p> + +<div class="sblockquot"><p>Sources. On no portion of the Grecian history is our information +so scanty as upon this long period, in which we can be +hardly said to have more than a general knowledge of many of +the most important events. As in the foregoing period, its commencement +is but a traditional and poetical history. It was not +till towards the end of it that the use of writing became common +among the Greeks; add to which the period itself was not rife +in great national undertakings, such as might afford appropriate +materials for the poet or historian. Besides the scattered information +which may be gathered from Herodotus, Plutarch, +Strabo, and above all from the introduction to Thucydides's history, +Pausanias must not be forgotten; who, in his description +of Greece, has preserved an abundance of most valuable documents +relating to the separate histories of the minor states. The +Books of Diodorus belonging to this period are lost.</p> + +<p>† <span class="smcap">Fr. Wilhelm Tittmann</span>, <i>Delineation of the Grecian +Forms of Government</i>, 1822. An industrious collection of all +the information we possess respecting this subject.</p> + +<p>† <span class="smcap">W. Wachsmuth</span>, <i>Grecian Antiquities with regard to Politics</i>, +4 vols. An excellent work.</p></div> + + +<h3>1. <i>History of the Hellenic states within Greece.</i></h3> + +<div class="sidenote"><span class="smcap">Return of +the Heraclidæ</span>:<br /> +about B. C. +1100.</div> + +<p>1. The Trojan war was followed by a very +stormy period, in consequence of the many disorders +prevalent in the ruling families, especially +in that of Pelops. But more violent commotions +soon arose, caused by the attempts of +the rude tribes of the north, particularly of the +Dorians combined with the Ætolians, who, under +the guidance of the descendants of Hercules,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_128" id="Page_128">[Pg 128]</a></span> +exiled from Argos, strove to obtain possession of +Peloponnesus. Those commotions shook Greece +during a whole century, and as the seats of most +of the Hellenic tribes were then changed, the +consequences were lasting and important.</p> + +<div class="sblockquot"><p>First unsuccessful attempt under Hyllus, son of Hercules, +about 1180.—Repeated attempts, until at last the claims of the +Heraclidæ are made good by the grandsons of Hyllus, viz. Telephus +and Cresphontes, together with Eurysthenes and Procles, +sons of their brother Aristodemus, 1100.</p></div> + +<div class="sidenote">Consequences +of +that great +revolution.</div> + + +<p>2. Consequences resulting to the Peloponnesus +from this migration. The territories of Argos, +Sparta, Messene, and Corinth, wrested from the +Achæans who had hitherto inhabited them, become +the property of the Dorians; Elis falls +to the share of the Ætolians, who had accompanied +the former. The Achæans expelled, in their +turn expel the Ionians and settle in the country +since called Achaia; the fugitive Ionians are received +by their ancient kinsmen the Athenians.—But +among the consequences of this migration of +the Hellenic races must be reckoned likewise the +<span class="sidenote">Colonies sent to Asia.</span> +establishment of Greek colonies in Asia Minor; +an occurrence of the highest importance to the +ulterior development of the nation. This colonization +was commenced by the Æolian Hellenes, +whose example was soon after followed by the +Ionians, and even by the Dorians.</p> + +<div class="sblockquot"><p>For the history of these colonies, see the following section.</p></div> + +<div class="sidenote">Monarchies +succeeded +by republics.</div> + +<p>3. Although the effect of these migrations and +wars, in which the ruder tribes oppressed the +more civilized, must inevitably have been, not +only to interrupt the progress of civilization, but +even almost entirely to annihilate it, yet in this<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_129" id="Page_129">[Pg 129]</a></span> +universal movement the foundation was laid of +that constitution of things which afterwards existed +in Greece. The tribes which had migrated, +as well as those which had been expelled, remained +at first under the dominion of their hereditary +princes, some for a longer, others for a +shorter time. In the two centuries, however, +immediately subsequent to the migrations, B. C. +1100—900, republican constitutions took the place +of hereditary clanship in all the Grecian countries, +the distant Epirus excepted. These republics +continued to exist amid the various revolutions +which happened; and the love of political freedom, +deeply impressed on the minds of the people, +constituted from this time the principal feature +in the national character.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">Origin of +the small +republics.</div> + +<p>4. The sequel proves, that the principal cause +of this change so important for Greece,—this +change, by which her future internal policy was +for ever determined, originated in the progress +made by the newly come tribes towards civic life, +and consequently at the same time towards national +civilization. In this newly constituted +order of things, each city, with the territory +around it, formed a separate state, and framed +its own constitution; hence there arose as many +free states as cities.</p> + +<div class="sblockquot"><p>The notion that Greece contained the same number of states +as countries is completely false, although it cannot be denied that +the mode of expression in most writings upon Greek history +seems to authorize the assertion. It is true that some of those +countries, such as Attica, Megaris, Laconia, may be each regarded +as a separate state, because each constituted the territory +of one city. The others, however, such as Arcadia, Bœotia, etc. +did not each form one state, but comprised as many separate +states as there were free and independent cities, each of which,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_130" id="Page_130">[Pg 130]</a></span> +with its territory, formed one. Still, however, it must be observed, +(<i>a</i>) that the natural ties of kindred subsisted; Arcadians, +Bœotians, etc. spoke of one another as countrymen. (<i>b</i>) Voluntary +connections were entered into between different cities, +and sometimes all the cities of a country, as, for instance, in +Achaia, so that the whole formed one confederation; each individual +city nevertheless still preserved its own system of laws +and government. Again, (<i>c</i>) in consequence of a greater share +of power, one city assumed a sort of dominion over the other; +as, for instance, that of Thebes over the Bœotian cities. This +dominion, however, was always precarious, and depended upon +the state of affairs. (<i>d</i>) It must likewise be observed, that +the constitution of each separate city underwent many changes, +wrought generally by influential citizens, (tyrants,) who not +only possessed themselves of the supreme power, but also contrived +frequently to make it for some time hereditary in their +families. Every one will easily discern that the above are the +fundamental principles of Greek history, which cannot be too +clearly conceived, or too correctly defined; since it is self-evident +what a wide field was by such a constitution of things +thrown open to practical politics. The more improbable the attainment +of fixed constitutions in the separate cities was, the +more frequent must have been the political attempts; (attempts +facilitated by the narrow extent of the state;) and the more frequently +those attempts failed, the more extensive in this intellectual +people became the mass of political ideas; the results +of which in later times were the legislative codes of Solon and +others.</p></div> + +<div class="sidenote">Unity of the +small Grecian +states.</div> + +<p>5. Although Greece was thus parcelled out +into a number of small states, united by no common +political bond, yet there existed a certain +unity of the Hellenic race, a certain national +spirit: this was produced in part by national +festivals and games, occurring at stated periods, +among which those in honour of Jupiter at Olympia +were the chief. The nation at these appeared +in all its splendour; and all Hellenes, but no +others, were allowed to join in them. This union, +too, was promoted by the extension of the Am<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_131" id="Page_131">[Pg 131]</a></span>phictyonic +council: and the reason why this last +institution was not followed by all the consequences +which might have been expected from +it, may perhaps be found in what naturally takes +place in every great confederation whenever any +of the component states become too powerful.</p> + +<div class="sblockquot"><p>The Amphictyonic council was certainly not a states-general, +in which all national affairs were discussed. Its immediate office +was to attend to the temples and the oracles of Delphi. But +then it must be observed, 1st, that from this council originated +the Grecian ideas of the law of nations; over the preservation +of which the Amphictyons watched. 2. In consequence of its +political influence on the oracle, this council, in certain cases, +was enabled to take a share in the affairs of different states. +3. The Amphictyons always formed a national institution, since +none but Hellenes were admitted.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">St. Croix</span>, <i>Des anciens gouvernemens fédératifs, et de la législation +de Crète</i>, Paris, 1796. One of the most invaluable inquiries, +not only into the institutions of the Amphictyons, but +also into other matters of Grecian history connected with them.</p></div> + +<div class="sidenote">Sparta and +Athens.</div> + +<p>6. Among the different states of Greece, Sparta +and Athens, even at this period, became celebrated, +not only for their greater power, but also +for their superior constitutions and their laws: +and though it may not perhaps be strictly true, +that the history of the rest of Greece is connected +with that of these two cities, yet they certainly +possess the highest claim to our attention.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">Revolutions +in the government +of +Sparta.<br /> +1100.</div> + +<p>7. History of Sparta. The Achæans at first were +governed by princes of the house of Perseus, but +after Menelaus's accession to the throne in virtue +of his wife, by princes of the house of Pelops. +When the latter had been expelled by the Dorians, +Laconia fell by lot to the sons of Aristodemus, +Procles and Eurysthenes, between whose +families the royal power was divided, so that two<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_132" id="Page_132">[Pg 132]</a></span> +kings constantly reigned in common, one from +each family.</p> + +<div class="sblockquot"><p>Families of the Proclidæ and Ægidæ; the latter so called +from Agis, the son and successor of Eurysthenes.</p> + +<p>† <span class="smcap">J. C. F. Manso</span>, <i>An Essay on the History and Constitution +of Sparta</i>, Leipzig, 1800 sqq. 3 vols. The most important work +upon this subject, and which likewise contains much information +upon various points of Grecian history connected with it.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Cragius</span>, <i>De Republica Lacedæmoniorum</i>, 1642.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Meursius</span>, <i>De regno Laconico</i>; and <i>Miscellanea Laconica</i>. +Both laborious compilations.</p></div> + +<div class="sidenote">Conquests +of the Dorians.</div> + +<p>8. The Dorians now gradually conquered, and +established themselves in many cities of the peninsula; +forming, if not the whole population, at +least the only part of it that enjoyed any power, +as the Achæans that remained were reduced to +slavery. No long time, however, elapsed ere the +city of Sparta usurped an authority over the +whole country, which it ever afterwards preserved; +the other towns, formerly considerable, +becoming unfortified, defenceless, and insignificant.</p> + +<div class="sblockquot"><p>Relation between the Spartan citizens of the capital as a +ruling body, and the Lacedæmonians, or +περίοικοι, inhabitants of +the country, as subjects who paid tribute and military service. +Even in the time of Agis, the successor of Eurysthenes, this +subjection was effected by force; the inhabitants of Helos were +made slaves, as a punishment for their opposition; while the +others, by the sacrifice of their political freedom, preserved their +personal liberty, however confined it might be.</p></div> + +<div class="sidenote">Repeated +wars of the +Spartans.</div> + +<p>9. The history of the two following centuries, +to the time of Lycurgus, exhibits nothing but the +repeated wars of the Spartans with their neighbours +the Argives; their domestic broils, occasioned +by the too unequal division of property, +by the feuds, and the diminished power of the +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_133" id="Page_133">[Pg 133]</a></span>kings, and which lasted until Lycurgus, the uncle +and guardian of the minor king, Charilaus, about +the year 880, gave to Sparta that constitution to +which she was principally indebted for her subsequent +splendour.</p> + +<div class="sblockquot"><p><i>Illustration of the principal features in the Spartan constitution.</i> +Some preliminary observations are necessary. (<i>a</i>) As the +legislation of Lycurgus occurred at so early a period, and as his +laws were not written, but conveyed in apophthegms, +(ῥήτραι,) +which were confirmed by the oracle of Delphi, many things of +later origin have been attributed to Lycurgus. (<i>b</i>) Much that is +rightly attributed to him was not original, but deduced from ancient +Dorian institutions, which being now upon the decline, +were reestablished by force of law. Hence it follows, that the +legislation of Lycurgus must naturally have had many points +of resemblance with that of the Cretans, likewise of Dorian +origin, although much, as we are told, was directly borrowed from +them. (<i>c</i>) The principal object of the laws of Lycurgus was to +ensure the existence of Sparta by creating and supporting a +vigorous and uncorrupted race of men. Hence those laws had a +more peculiar reference to private life and physical education, +than to the constitution of the state, in which the legislator appears +to have introduced but few alterations.</p> + +<p>In reference to the constitution: 1. The relation which had +hitherto existed between the Spartans as a dominant people, and +the Lacedæmonians as subjects, was preserved. 2. The two +kings, from the two ruling families, were likewise continued, as +leaders in war and first magistrates in peace. On the other hand, +3. to Lycurgus is attributed the institution of a senate, +(γερούσια,) +consisting of twenty-eight members, none of whom could be less +than sixty years old, who were to be chosen by the people for +life, and were to constitute the king's council in public affairs. +4. Whether the college of the five Ephori annually chosen, was +originally instituted by Lycurgus, or at some later period, is a +question impossible to decide, but of little importance, since the +great power of this college, to which every thing was finally referred +as the highest tribunal of the state, was certainly assumed +after the time of Lycurgus. 5. Besides the above, there were +likewise the popular assemblies, convened according to the division +into φύλας and +ὤβας, at which none but Spartans could assist:<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_134" id="Page_134">[Pg 134]</a></span> +their privileges extended no further than to approve or reject the +measures proposed to them by the kings and the senate.</p> + +<p>In the laws relating to private life, Lycurgus aimed at making +the Spartans a society of citizens, equal as far as possible with +respect to their property and mode of life, and each deeply impressed +with the conviction that he was the property of his +country, to which he was bound to yield an unconditional obedience. +Hence, 1. The new division of land, 9000 portions to +the Spartans, and 30,000 to the Lacedæmonians; permission +being given to dispose of those portions by entail or gift, but +not by sale. 2. The removal as far as possible of every species +of luxury, particularly by means of the daily public tables +(συσσίτια) +of all the citizens, according to their divisions, in which +the commons were settled by law. 3. The complete organization +of domestic society in relation both to husband and wife, parents +and children, which was so framed as to further, even at the cost +of morality, the grand political object, the production of vigorous +and healthy citizens. 4. Hence, finally, the condition of the +slaves, comprehended under the general name of helots, who, +although they may be regarded nearly as serfs, were likewise the +property of the state, which had the right of claiming their services +in war.—Easy, however, as it is to enumerate thus generally +the principal heads of the Spartan constitution, the want of +sufficient documents renders it difficult and oftentimes impossible +to answer a crowd of questions, which present themselves on our +penetrating more deeply into the subject. Still, however, its +long duration, (nearly four hundred years,) without any observable +change, is more remarkable even than the constitution itself. +More remarkable, inasmuch as the Spartans soon after this time +appear as conquerors. Indeed, it could no longer be expected +that any durable peace should exist in Greece, while the centre +of the country was occupied by a military commonwealth, whose +citizens must have been, by the restlessness common to man, impelled +to war, since all the occupations of household life and of +agriculture were left to the care of slaves.</p> + +<p>Besides the works mentioned above, p. 119.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Heyne</span>, <i>De Spartanorum republica Judicium</i>; inserted in +<i>Commentat. Soc. Gotting.</i> vol. ix. Intended to correct the partial +opinions of <span class="smcap">De Pauw</span>.</p></div> + +<div class="sidenote">Wars of the +Spartans in +Peloponnesus.</div> + +<p>10. Soon after the time of Lycurgus com<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_135" id="Page_135">[Pg 135]</a></span>menced +the war of the Spartans with their neighbours, +the Argives, the Arcadians, but more particularly +the Messenians. The wars with these +last appear to have originated in an old grudge +on the part of the Dorian tribe, proceeding from +the unequal division of lands at the occupation of +Peloponnesus: it is nevertheless evident, that +the quarrel between the two nations was mainly +fostered by the ambition of the Spartan kings, +who wrought upon a superstitious multitude by +oracular responses and interpretations.</p> + +<div class="sblockquot"><p>Unimportant wars with Tegea and Argos; and disputes with +Messene, 783—745.</p> + +<p>First Messenian war, 742—722, terminated by the capture of +the frontier fortress Ithome, after the voluntary death of the +Messenian king, Aristodemus.—The Messenians become tributary +to the Spartans, and are obliged to give up one half of the +revenues of their lands.—Occurrences during this war: 1. Institution, +according to some authorities, of the college of Ephori as +vicegerents of the kings in their absence, and arbitrators in the +quarrels which might arise between the kings and the senate. +2. The power of the people so far limited as to restrain the +popular assemblies from making alterations in the resolutions +proposed to them by the senate or the kings, and confining them +merely to a vote of approval or rejection. 3. Insurrection of the +Parthenii and Helots becomes the motive for sending out colonies; +a measure to which Sparta had more than once resorted +for the purpose of maintaining domestic tranquillity.</p> + +<p>Second Messenian war, 682—668, waged by the Messenians +under the command of their hero Aristomenes, by the Spartans +under that of Tyrtæus, who fanned the flame of war until the +contest was terminated by the capture of the strong town Ira. +The Messenian territory is divided among the conquerors, and +the conquered inhabitants become, like the helots, agricultural +slaves.</p></div> + +<div class="sidenote">Sparta takes +the lead +among the +Dorian +states</div> + +<p>11. Although the territory of the Spartans was +greatly increased by these Messenian wars, the +nation seems to have been a long time before it<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_136" id="Page_136">[Pg 136]</a></span> +recovered from the struggle, and to have raised +itself by slow steps to the first rank among the +Dorian states, extending its boundaries at the +expense of the Argives and Arcadians.</p> + +<div class="sblockquot"><p>Wars with Tegea for the most part unsuccessful; and with +Argos, for the possession of Thyrea and the island of Cythera; +by the accession of which the Spartan territory received an important +augmentation, about 550.</p></div> + +<div class="sidenote">First interference +of Sparta in +affairs without +the +peninsula.</div> + +<p>12. These wars within Peloponnesus were not +of such a nature as to give rise to any remarkable +changes in the Spartan constitution, and for a +long time the nation refused to take any share in +foreign affairs. But no sooner did king Cleomenes, +who in the end procured the deposition of +his colleague, Demaratus, interfere in the affairs +of the Athenians, than the seeds of strife were +sown between these two republics. The Persian +war next ensued, in which Sparta was obliged +to bear a part, although Cleomenes had refused +to participate in the insurrection of Aristagoras: +that struggle, together with the idea of supremacy +in Greece which now took its rise, introduced +a series of political relations before +unknown.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">History of +Athens.</div> + +<p>13. The history of Athens during this period is +rendered important rather by domestic revolutions, +which gradually tended to convert the +state into a republic, than by external aggrandizement. +The situation and peculiarities of Attica, +which rendered it less exposed than other parts +of Greece to the attacks and forays of wandering +hordes, favoured the gradual and tranquil growth +of national prosperity; the traces of which are +incontestable, though it would be difficult for the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_137" id="Page_137">[Pg 137]</a></span> +most profound research to point out the whole +course of its progress so perspicuously as the historian +might wish.</p> + +<div class="sblockquot"><p>The history of Athens, of course, constitutes a main part of the +works mentioned above, p. 119. Besides which:</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">W. Young</span>, <i>The history of Athens politically and philosophically +considered</i>. London, 1796. 4to. Argumentation rather +than history.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Corsini</span>, <i>Fasti Attici</i>. Florent. 1747. 4 vols. 4to. A most +careful chronological essay.</p> + +<p>1. Period of kingly government down to 1068. The history +of Athens as a state begins properly with Theseus, who succeeded +his father Ægeus, about B. C. 1300. Although certain +institutions, such as that of the areopagus, the division of the +people into nobles, (εὐπατρίδαι,) +husbandmen, (γεώργοι,) +and mechanics: (δημιούργοι·) +a division which recals to our memory the +Egyptian institution of castes, are perhaps of an earlier date, and +may be ascribed to the colony of Cecrops. Theseus was, however, +in some measure the founder of the state, since, instead of +the four districts, (δήμοι,) +hitherto independent of one another, he +constituted the city of Athens as the only seat of government. +Among his successors the attention of the student is directed to +Mnestheus, who fell before Troy; and the last king, Codrus, +who by a voluntary sacrifice of his life rescued Attica from the +inroads of the Dorians, 1068.</p> + +<p>2. Period of archons for life, taken from the family of Codrus, +thirteen of whom ruled; 1068—752. The first was Medon, the +last, Alcmæon. These archons succeeded, like the kings, by inheritance, +but were accountable for their administration, +(ὑπεύθυνοι.)—At +the commencement of this period occur the migrations +of the Ionians from Attica to Asia Minor, 1044. See +below.</p> + +<p>3. Period of the decennial archons, seven of whom succeeded +between 752—682. These likewise were taken from the family +of Codrus. This period is devoid of any remarkable occurrences.</p> + +<p>4. Period extending to Solon, 682—594. that of nine archons +yearly chosen, but so arranged that the prerogatives of the former +kings, and the preceding archons, were divided among the three +first of the nine. With respect to this, as well as to the other +changes above mentioned, we know little of the causes which +produced them, or of the manner in which they were brought +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_138" id="Page_138">[Pg 138]</a></span>about. Rise of an oppressive aristocracy, (like that of the patricians +at Rome, immediately after the expulsion of the kings,) +both the archons and the members of the areopagus being elected +only from noble families. First attempt at legislation by Draco, +622, which appears only to have consisted in a criminal code, +rendered unavailing by its severity.—The insurrection of Cylon, +598, in consequence of the manner in which it was quelled, +turned out most injurious to the aristocratical party, inasmuch as +the nobles drew upon themselves the pollution of blood, which, +even after the purification of Epimenides, 593, was long used as +a pretext for commotion. The political factions of the Pediæi, +of the Diacrii, and of the Parhali, produced an anarchy at Athens, +during which the neighbouring Megarians took possession of the +island of Salamis; a conquest which, however, was subsequently +wrested from them by Solon.</p></div> + +<div class="sidenote">Solon's +legislation,<br /> +594.</div> + +<p>14. From this state of anarchy Athens was +rescued by Solon; a man to whom not only +Athens, but the whole human race, are deeply +indebted. He was chosen archon, and at the +same time commissioned to remodel the constitution +of Athens: and the successful manner in +which he executed this task, laid the foundation +of the happiness of his native country.</p> + +<div class="sblockquot"><p><i>Review of the prominent features in Solon's legislation.</i> Its +main object was to abolish the oppressive aristocracy, without +however introducing a pure democracy. 1. Provisional laws: +abolition of the statutes of Draco, those against murder excepted: +law enacted for the relief of debtors, +(σεισαχθεία, novæ tabulæ,) +not so much by cancelling the debts as by diminishing their +amount by a rise in the value of money; and likewise by ensuring +the personal liberty of the debtor. 2. Fundamental laws, +both in reference to the constitution and in reference to private +life and private rights.—Constitution of the state. (<i>a</i>) Organization +of the people by means of divisions: according to property +into four classes; the Pentacosimedimni, or those who had +a yearly income of 500 medimni; the Equites, (ἱππεῖς,) who had +400; the Zeugitæ, who had 300; and the Thetes, (capite censi,) +whose yearly revenue did not amount to so much.—The ancient +divisions according to heads, into wards, (φύλαι,) of which there +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_139" id="Page_139">[Pg 139]</a></span>were four, and according to residence into demi, (hundreds,) of +which a hundred and seventy are enumerated, were preserved. +(<i>b</i>) None but citizens of the three first classes could fill all the +offices of state; but all were admitted to the popular assemblies, +and had a right of voting in the courts of judicature. (<i>c</i>) The +nine archons annually chosen, who acted as supreme magistrates, +although not permitted to assume military office at the same +time, remained at the head of the state; the first bearing the +name of ἐπώνυμος, the second of +βασιλεὺς, the third of +πολέμαρχος, +the remaining six that of θεσμοθὲται. +Combined with the archons was (<i>d</i>) The council, +(βουλὴ,) which consisted of a body of four +hundred persons annually taken from the three first classes of +citizens; (a hundred from each ward;) these were chosen by +lot, but were obliged to submit to a rigid examination (δοκιμασία) +before they entered upon office. The archons were obliged to +consult the four hundred on every occurrence; and nothing +could be carried down to the commons until it had been previously +debated in this council. (<i>e</i>) To the people, consisting of +the whole four classes, was reserved the right in its assemblies +(ἐκκλησίαι) +of confirming the laws, of electing the magistrates, of +debating all public affairs referred to them by the council, and +likewise the public distribution of justice. (<i>f</i>) The areopagus +was, according to Solon's plan, to be the main buttress of the +constitution; that tribunal had hitherto been a mere tool in the +hands of the aristocracy. It was composed of retired archons, +and remained not only the supreme tribunal in capital cases, but +likewise was charged with the superintendence of morals, with +the censorship upon the conduct of the archons who went out of +office, and had the prerogative of amending or rescinding the +measures that had been approved of by the commons. The +power of this court, which might easily have become equal to the +college of Ephori at Sparta, might at first have been supposed +too extensive, had not experience shown the fatal consequences +of the reduction of that power by Pericles. This alloy of aristocracy +and democracy certainly gives proof of a deep insight into +the nature of republican constitutions; but Solon is not less entitled +to praise for his endeavours to place the helm of government +in the hands only of the most enlightened and prudent +citizens. It must likewise be observed, that the code for private +life given by Solon exhibits the genius of a man who regarded +polity as subordinate to morals, and not, like Lycurgus, morals as +subordinate to polity.</p> +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_140" id="Page_140">[Pg 140]</a></span></p> +<p><span class="smcap">Sam. Petitus</span>, <i>De Legibus Atticis</i>, 1635. fol. The best compilation +and illustration of the fragments remaining of the Attic +law.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Chr. Bunsen</span>, <i>De jure Atheniensium hereditario, ex Isæo +cæterisque oratoribus Græcis ducto</i>, Goett. 1812. The law of +inheritance was a principal feature in Solon's legislation; the +explanation of it requires a profound acquaintance with the constitution, +so far as it was connected with government by clans +or families.</p> + +<p>An explanation of the Athenian constitution will be likewise +found in the above-mentioned works of Tittmann, Kruse, and +Wachsmuth.</p></div> + +<div class="sidenote">Tyranny established in Athens by Pisistratus.</div> + +<p>15. The legislation of Solon, like all other state +reforms, was not followed by the total extinction +of party spirit. It was natural that the commons, +now free, should wish to try their strength with +the aristocratical party, and that, after the defeat +of the latter, Pisistratus, who headed the commons, +should grasp the rudder of the state without, +therefore, necessarily abrogating the constitution +of Solon. Modern history has proved +with sufficient evidence, that the frame-work of a +republic may easily subsist under the rule of an +usurper. And would that no republics might +fall into the hands of a worse tyrant than Pisistratus!</p> + +<div class="sblockquot"><p>First exaltation of Pisistratus, 561, procured by his obtaining +a body guard; flight of the Alcmæonidæ under Megacles. Pisistratus +expelled, 560. Second exaltation of Pisistratus procured +by his matrimonial connection with the family of Megacles, +556—552.—His second expulsion by Megacles, 552—538.—His +third exaltation; obtains the power by force of arms, and preserves +it to the day of his death, 538—528. Flight of the Alcmæonidæ +into Macedonia, where they attach the malcontents to +their party. Pisistratus is succeeded by his sons Hipparchus +and Hippias, who rule conjointly until 514, when the elder is +murdered by Harmodius and Aristogiton. The exiled Alcmæonidæ, +having bribed the Delphian oracle, gain over the Spartans<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_141" id="Page_141">[Pg 141]</a></span> +to their interest: backed by a Spartan army, they take possession +of Athens in 510; Hippias is deposed, and flies over to the Persians.</p></div> + +<div class="sidenote">Changes in Solon's constitution.</div> + +<p>16. This return of the Alcmæonidæ was followed +by a change in the constitution of Solon. +Clisthenes, the son of Megacles, with a view of +quenching party spirit by a new combination of +the citizens, increased the number of wards to +ten, and that of the members of the council to +five hundred.—But the Athenians had to purchase +the continuance of their freedom by a struggle +with Sparta, who, united with the Bœotians +and Chalcidians, and aided by Ægina, sought to +<span class="sidenote">527—504.</span> +reestablish monarchy in Attica; first in the person +of Isagoras, the rival of Clisthenes, and afterwards +in that of the exiled Hippias. But the +glorious success of the republic in this first struggle +in the cause of liberty, gave an additional +impulse to the national spirit. Impelled by that +spirit, Athens suffered herself to be induced to +share in the war of freedom carried on by the +Asiatic Greeks under Aristagoras; and the audacity +<span class="sidenote">500.</span> +which led to the firing of Sardis, drew upon +Attica the vengeance of the Persians, without +which, doubtless, neither Athens or Greece would +ever have risen to that degree of eminence which +they ultimately attained.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">History of +the other +Grecian +states.</div> + +<p>17. Of the history of the other states of Greece +we have at best but few data, and even these in +most instances are very scanty. Towards the +end of this period Sparta and Athens had, undoubtedly, +exalted themselves above the rest, and +were recognized, one as the first among the Dorian, +the latter as the first among the Ionian<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_142" id="Page_142">[Pg 142]</a></span> +states; yet did Sparta more than once meet +with rivals in Messene, Argos, and Tegea: while +Athens had to contend with Megara and Ægina. +Sparta and Athens had, nevertheless, not only +the best constitutions, but possessed also a more +extended territory than any other of the great +cities.</p> + + +<h3><i>Principal data for the history of the smaller states.</i></h3> + +<p class="cblockquot">I. <i>Within the Peloponnesus.</i></p> + +<div class="sblockquot"><p><i>a.</i> Arcadia. The Arcadian traditions enumerate a line of +kings or hereditary princes, said to have ruled over the whole of +Arcadia; the line commences with Arcas and his son Lycaon, +whose successors kept possession of the supreme power, and +shared more or less in the ancient feuds of the Hellenic princes. +Upon the conquest of Peloponnesus by the Dorians, Arcadia was +the only land that did not suffer by the irruption: an advantage +for which it was probably indebted more to its mountains, than +to the skill of Cypselus its king. The successors of that prince +took a part in the wars between the Messenians and Spartans, +siding with the former: but in the second Messenian war, the +last Arcadian king, Aristocrates II. having betrayed his allies, +was in consequence stoned to death by his subjects, and the regal +dignity was abolished in 668. Arcadia now became divided into +as many small states as it contained cities with their respective +districts; among these Tegea and Mantinea were the chief, and +probably held the others in a certain state of control, without, +however, depriving them wholly of their independence. As +might have been expected in a pastoral nation, the constitution +was democratical. In Mantinea there were wardens of the people, +(δημιούργοι,) +and a senate, (βουλή.) The wars of separate cities +are frequently mentioned, but no general confederation united +them.</p> + +<p>† See <span class="smcap">A. von Breitenbauch</span>, <i>History of Arcadia</i>, 1791.</p> + +<p><i>b.</i> Argos. Even previously to the Dorian migration, the +country of Argolis was parcelled out into several small kingdoms, +such as those of Argos, Mycenæ, and Tiryns. In Argos, the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_143" id="Page_143">[Pg 143]</a></span> +oldest Grecian state next to Sicyon, ruled the forefathers of Perseus, +who exchanged the kingdom of his ancestors for Tiryns: +here his successors continued to reign till the time of Hercules, +whose sons, expelled by Eurystheus, sought an asylum among +the Dorians.—In Mycenæ, said to have been built by Perseus, +the throne was occupied by the family of Pelops: and at the +period of the Trojan war, this little state, to which Corinth and +Sicyon then belonged, was the most powerful in Greece, and governed +by Agamemnon. The migration into this country by +Pelops from Asia Minor, must have been attended with important +consequences, since it has given a name to the whole peninsula: +the object of Pelops, as we may infer from the riches he brought +with him, was probably to establish a trading settlement.—At +the Dorian conquest Argos fell to the share of Temenus, the +Achæans were expelled, and the country was peopled by Dorians. +As early as the reign of Cisus, son of Temenus, the royal power +was so limited, that the successors of that prince hardly preserved +any thing but the mere name: about 984 the regal dignity +was wholly abrogated, and its place supplied by a republican +constitution, concerning the domestic organization of which we +know nothing more than that at Argos the government was in +the hands of a senate, (βουλὴ,) of a college of eighty citizens, +(οἱ ὀγδοήκοντα,) +and of magistrates, who bore the name of +ἀρτύνοι: in Epidaurus, however, there was a body of one hundred and eighty +citizens who chose from among themselves the senate, the members +of which were called ἀρτύνοι. As in the other states of +Greece so in Argolis, there were as many independent states as +there were cities; in the north Argos, Mycenæ, and Tiryns; in +the south Epidaurus and Trœzen. The two last preserved their +independence; but Mycenæ was destroyed by the Argives in 425, +and the inhabitants of Tiryns were forcibly transplanted to Argos. +The district of Argos, therefore, comprised the northern portion +of the country called Argolis; but not the southern portion, which +belonged to the towns situated therein.</p> + +<p><i>c.</i> Corinth. In this place, previous to the time of the Dorian +migration, the house of Sisyphus held the royal power; and +even at that early period Corinth is extolled by Homer for its +wealth. The Dorians drove out the original inhabitants; and +Aletes, belonging to the race of Hercules, became king about +1089; the posterity of that prince held the sceptre down to the +fifth generation. After the death of the last king, Telessus, 777,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_144" id="Page_144">[Pg 144]</a></span> +the family of the Bacchiadæ, likewise a branch of the family of +Hercules, took possession of the government and introduced an +oligarchy, electing annually from among themselves a Prytane. +At last, in 657, Cypselus got the upper hand; he was succeeded, +627, by his son Periander; both father and son were equally +conspicuous for their avarice and cruelty. Periander (<i>d.</i> 587) +was succeeded by his nephew Psammetichus, who reigned till +584, when the Corinthians asserted their freedom. With regard +to the internal organization of the republic, little more is known +than that there were at Corinth assemblies of the commons and a +senate, (γερουσία): the government appears to have been the +aristocracy of a trading state; for even the Bacchiadæ, at least +some of them, were merchants.—The Corinthian commerce consisted +chiefly in the exchange of Asiatic and Italian goods, and +therefore was mostly carried on by sea: for such a trade the city +of Corinth offered many advantages, particularly if we consider +the state of navigation in those times; but the sea trade of +Corinth, however profitable to the citizens, and even to the +state, in consequence of the customs, cannot be considered as +very extensive.—The colonies of Corinth in the west were principally +Corcyra, Epidamnus, Leucas, Syracuse; in the east Potidæa: +these colonies would fain have asserted a sort of independence, +but never succeeded for any length of time in so doing.</p> + +<p>From the possession of these colonies, and from the necessity +of protecting the trader from pirates, Corinth grew to be a naval +power; she invented triremes, and at the early date of 664 gave +battle to the Corcyræans at sea. On the other hand, her wars by +land were generally waged with the assistance of foreign subsidiaries; +and from the facility with which she was enabled to pay +her mercenary troops, she was the more ready to interfere in the +domestic wars of Greece.</p> + +<p><i>d.</i> Sicyon. Tradition represents this state, together with Argos, +as the most ancient in Greece; the catalogues of early kings +and princes, who are said to have reigned at this place, make it +probable that in early antiquity some settlements of priests were +made in this quarter. In the times previous to the migration of +the Dorians, Sicyon was first inhabited by the Ionians; at the +Trojan war, however, it made part of Agamemnon's kingdom. +At the Dorian irruption, Phalces, son of Temenus, took possession +of Sicyon, which then became a Dorian city. After the +abrogation of the kingship, the date of which is not precisely<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_145" id="Page_145">[Pg 145]</a></span> +known, the constitution assumed the form of an uncurbed democracy, +which, as usual, paved the way for the usurpation of one +individual. Orthagoras and his posterity, the last and most celebrated +of whom was Clisthenes, ruled over Sicyon during a whole +century; 700—600. After the restoration of her freedom, Sicyon +frequently suffered from revolutions; and the period of her +highest splendour was during the latter days of Greece, when she +became a member of the Achæan league.</p> + +<p><i>e.</i> Achaia. During the spread of the Hellenes, this country, +which till then had borne the name of Ægialus, was taken possession +of by Ion, who had been expelled from Athens, and his +tribe, who from their leader took the name of Ionians: the country +remained in the hands of the Ionians until the Dorian migration, +when the Achæans, driven out of Argos and Laconia, pressed +into the northern parts of Peloponnesus under Tisamenus, son +of Orestes: they settled in the land of the Ionians, and the power +of the chieftain descended to his posterity, until the tyranny of +the last sovereign of that race, Gyges, (of date undetermined,) +produced the abolition of monarchy. Achaia thereupon was parcelled +into twelve small republics, or so many cities with their +respective districts, each of which comprised seven or eight cantons. +All these republics had democratic constitutions, and were +mutually united by a league, founded on the most perfect equality, +and which nothing but the policy of the Macedonian kings +could dissolve; and even this dissolution gave rise to the <i>Achæan</i> +league, of such high importance in subsequent times. The +Achæans lived in peace and happiness, inasmuch as they had not +the vanity, before the Peloponnesian war, to interfere in the +affairs of foreign states: their constitutions were so renowned, +that they were adopted by several other Grecian cities.</p> + +<p><i>f.</i> Elis. The inhabitants in earlier times bore the name of +Epeans, which, like that of Eleans, was traced to one of their +ancient kings. The names of their most ancient hereditary +princes, Endymion, Epeus, Eleus, Augias, are celebrated by the +poets. It appears that this country was divided into several +small kingdoms, since, at the period of the Trojan war it contained +four, to which however must be added Pylus in Triphylia, a +territory usually reckoned as belonging to Elis. At the epoch +of the Dorian migration the Ætolians, who had accompanied the +Dorians, headed by their chieftain Oxylus, settled in Elis; but +permitted the ancient inhabitants to remain in the country.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_146" id="Page_146">[Pg 146]</a></span> +Among the successors of Oxylus was Iphitus the contemporary of +Lycurgus, and celebrated as the restorer of the Olympian games, +to the celebration of which Elis was indebted for the tranquil +splendour that distinguished her from this time: her territory +being regarded as sacred, although she had occasional disputes +with her neighbours, the Arcadians, for precedence at the games. +After the abolition of the royal power supreme magistrates were +chosen, to whose office was added the charge of superintending +the games: (Hellanodicæ). These magistrates were at first two; +they were afterwards increased to ten, one from each tribe, +although their number frequently changed with that of the tribes +themselves. There must likewise have been a senate, consisting +of ninety persons, who held their places for life, since Aristotle +makes mention of that branch of the Elean constitution. The +city of Elis was first built in 477, before which time the Eleans +resided in several small hamlets.</p></div> + + +<p class="cblockquot">II. <i>Central Greece, or Hellas.</i></p> + +<div class="sblockquot"><p><i>a.</i> Megaris. Until the epoch of the Dorian migration, this +state generally formed part of the domain of the Attic kings; or +at least was governed by princes of that house. Immediately +previous to that event, the Megarians, after the assassination of +their last sovereign, Hyperion, placed the government in the +hands of magistrates elected for stated periods. At the time of +the Dorian irruption, under the reign of Codrus, Megara was occupied +by Dorians, more especially those of Corinth, who consequently +reckoned the city among their colonies, and during the +sway of the Bacchiadæ endeavoured to keep it in a state of +dependency; a circumstance which gave rise to several wars. +Nevertheless Megara supported her rank as a separate state, both +in those and many subsequent wars among the Greeks, in which +she took a share both by sea and land. About the year 600, +Theagenes, step-father of the Athenian Cylon, had possessed +himself of the supreme power: after the expulsion of that tyrant, +the republican constitution was once more restored, but soon +after merged into the lowest species of democracy. Megara, +however, even at the period of the Persian war, in which it took +a glorious share, appears to have recovered the character of a +well-ordered state, although we have no information respecting +its internal organization.</p> +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_147" id="Page_147">[Pg 147]</a></span></p> +<p><i>b.</i> Bœotia. History mentions several very early races in Bœotia, +such as the Aones, Hyantes, etc.; with these were mingled +Phœnician emigrants, who had come into the country under the +guidance of Cadmus. The stock of Cadmus became the ruling +family, and remained so for a long time: the history of his descendants, +who were kings of Thebes, and comprised under their +dominion the greatest part of Bœotia, constitutes a main branch +of Grecian mythology: among them were Œdipus, Laïus, Eteocles, +and Polynices. After the capture of Thebes by the Epigoni, +1215, the Bœotians were expelled by Thracian hordes, and +settled at Arne in Thessaly; at the time of the Dorian migration +they returned to the land of their forefathers, and mingled with +the Æolians of those quarters. Not long after, upon the death +of Xuthus, royalty was abolished, 1126. Bœotia was now divided +into as many small states as it contained cities; of these, +next to Thebes, the most eminent were the towns of Platææ, +Thespiæ, Tanagra, and Chæronea, each of which had its own +separate district and peculiar form of government; but all those +constitutions appear to have been commuted into oligarchies +about the time of the Persian war. Such had been the case even +with Thebes, although she had received as a legislator, Philolaus +from Corinth; but the code given by this individual cannot have +been attended with the desired effect, as the government was +continually fluctuating between a licentious democracy and an +overbearing oligarchy. The Bœotian cities were, however, mutually +united by a league, at the head of which stood Thebes, +who gradually converted her right of precedence into a right of +power, although her ambitious attempts were resisted to the last +extremity by the separate cities, and by Platææ in particular: +hence sprung many wars. The general affairs were decided upon +in four assemblies, (βουλαὶ,) held in the four districts into which +Bœotia was divided; these assemblies in conjunction elected +eleven Bœotarchs, who stood at the head of the federation as supreme +magistrates and field marshals. The great extent and +population of their territory might have enabled the Bœotians to +act the first part on the theatre of Greece, had they not been impeded +by their pernicious form of government, by the envy felt +against Thebes, and by the want of union which naturally ensued. +Yet in subsequent times the example of Epaminondas and Pelopidas +gave proof that the genius of two men was sufficient to surmount +all these obstacles.</p> +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_148" id="Page_148">[Pg 148]</a></span></p> +<p><i>c.</i> Phocis was originally ruled by kings descended, it is said, +from Phocus, the leader of a colony from Corinth. The sovereign +power was abolished about the time of the Dorian migration; +but the form of the republican constitution which succeeded +remains undetermined; and of the undertakings of the +Phocians previous to the Persian invasion, we know nothing more +than that they waged war with the Thessalians, and were successful. +As history never mentions the Phocians but in the +aggregate, the whole territory must have formed but one independent +state. To that state, however, the city of Delphi, which +had its own constitution, did not belong: the city of Crissa +with its fertile district, and the harbour of Cirrha, constituted a +separate state, which became opulent by practising extortions +upon the pilgrims to Delphi: this state lasted till 600, when, in +consequence of the insults of the Crissæans to the Delphian oracle, +a war was proclaimed against them by the Amphictyons, +which ended in 590 with the rasing of Crissa; the land of which +was thenceforward added to the sacred glebe of Delphi.</p> + +<p><i>d.</i> Locris. Although we learn from early history that the +Locrians also had their kings,—among whom Ajax, the son of +Oileus, is renowned in the Trojan war,—and that they likewise +in subsequent times adopted a republican form of government; +yet the date of that revolution, and the manner in which it was +brought about, are not known. The three tribes of Locrians remained +politically distinct. The Locri Ozolæ, west of Phocis, +possessed the most extensive territory; each city of which stood +independent, though Amphissa is mentioned as the capital. The +country of the Locri Opuntii, eastward, consisted of the district +appertaining to the city of Opus; of their domestic organization, +as well as that of their neighbours, the Locri Epicnemidii, we +know nothing.</p> + +<p><i>e.</i> Ætolia. The Ætolians remained the most rude and uncivilized +of all the Hellenic races; they were little more than a +band of freebooters, and carried on their predatory excursions +both by sea and land. Renowned as are the names of their earliest +heroes, Ætolus, Peneus, Meleager, Diomede, the nation +has no place in the history of the flourishing times of Greece. +Nor did they acquire any celebrity until the Macedo-Roman +period, when the various insignificant tribes of which they were +composed gathered themselves together and chose one common +leader, for the purpose of carrying on a war with the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_149" id="Page_149">[Pg 149]</a></span> +Achæans. The earlier period of their history seems, however, +to afford no previous example of such an union; their political +constitution in those times is wholly unknown.</p> + +<p><i>f.</i> Acarnania. This country derived its name from Acarnan, +son of Alcmæon, both of whom are adduced as its earliest kings. +In the Trojan age it appears beyond a doubt, that some part at +least of this country was subject to the governors of the island of +Ithaca. When and how a republican government was introduced +among the Acarnanians, and what were the peculiarities of that +government we know not. All that can be distinguished through +the veil of time is, that here likewise the different cities, the +most important of which was Stratus, had each its own form of +government. Those cities upon particular emergencies were wont +to combine; and out of that practice in later times, during the +Macedonian period, grew up a permanent confederation. The +city and district of Argos Amphilochicum constituted a separate +state, which endured a long time, and flourished greatly; it derived +its name from Amphilochus, the founder. The inhabitants, +however, being driven out by the Ambracians, whom they had +themselves called in, sought assistance at the hands of the Acarnanians, +who with the help of Athens, replaced the exiles in possession +of their city, which thenceforward was inhabited in common +by Amphilochians and Acarnanians, and was almost constantly +engaged in war with Ambracia.</p></div> + + +<p class="cblockquot">III. <i>Northern Greece.</i></p> + +<div class="sblockquot"><p><i>a.</i> The importance of Thessaly in the earliest history of Greece, +may be gathered from the principal data enumerated above for +the history of the Pelasgi and the Hellenes. From this country +it was that the Hellenes proceeded and spread over Greece; and +here likewise they maintained their original seat. In the Trojan +age Thessaly contained ten small kingdoms, governed by hereditary +princes, several of whom, such as Achilles and Philoctetes, +were among the most renowned heroes of the time. In the period +subsequent to the Trojan war and the Dorian migration, +Thessaly must have experienced political revolutions similar to +those of the other Grecian countries; but neither the time nor +the manner in which those revolutions occurred can be ascertained. +All that can be deduced from the subsequent history is,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_150" id="Page_150">[Pg 150]</a></span> +that if the Thessalian cities ever did recover their political freedom, +they were unable to maintain it; for in the two most eminent +cities, Pheræ and Larissa, with whose history that of the +whole country is closely connected, the supreme power had fallen +into the hands of arbitrary individuals, who appear to have kept +possession of it almost without interruption. Even before the +breaking out of the Persian war, Larissa was under the rule of +the Aleuadæ; a family who claimed descent from Hercules, and +are specially denominated by Herodotus kings of the Thessalians. +They preserved their power until the Macedonian period.—In +Pheræ there arose about the year 380, a tyrant, by the name of +Jason, who extended his dominion not only over Thessaly, but +likewise over several of the neighbouring barbarous tribes. The +sceptre of Jason passed rapidly and successively into the hands +of his three brothers, Polydorus, Polyphron, and Alexander. The +last was first driven out of Larissa by the Aleuadæ, assisted by +the Macedonians; was afterwards worsted in war by Pelopidas; +and finally, at the instigation of his wife Thebe, was murdered, +356, by her brothers, Lycophron and Tisiphonus. The two murderers +then assumed the supreme power, but were, in compliance +with the request of the Aleuadæ, deposed by Philip of Macedon.—Some +other such tyrants are met with at intervals in the rest +of the Thessalian cities, such as <i>Pharsalus</i>, etc.</p> + +<p><i>b.</i> Epirus. This country was occupied by several tribes, partly +Greek and partly barbarian. The most powerful of these was +that of the Molossi, who were governed by kings of the house of +the Æacidæ, descendants of Pyrrhus, the son of Achilles. This +Greek family was the only one that held the kingly power for a +permanency; it must be observed, however, that previous to the +Macedonian period, those sovereigns were by no means lords of +the whole of Epirus; for the other non-Hellenic races, such as the +Thesprotii, Orestii, etc. had their own separate kings. Moreover +the Corinthian colony of Ambracia constituted a distinct state, +generally governed as a republic, although sometimes subject to +the rule of tyrants. But, in consequence of an alliance framed +with the Macedonian kings, the whole of Epirus, and even Ambracia +itself, was placed under the sceptre of the Molossian kings; +and some of those princes, Pyrrhus II. more especially, rose to +be mighty conquerors. See below.</p></div> +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_151" id="Page_151">[Pg 151]</a></span></p> + +<p class="cblockquot">IV. <i>Grecian Islands.</i></p> + +<div class="sblockquot"><p>Both the islands off the coast of Greece, and those of the Archipelago, +all underwent the same political revolutions as occurred +in the states on the main land. But those events did not +take place till after the more ancient non-Hellenic inhabitants, +such as the Phœnicians, Carians, etc. had been driven out, and +the land had been taken possession of by the Hellenes. In the +more extensive islands, which contained several cities, there generally +arose as many small republics as there were towns, and +those little states were wont to enter into mutual alliances. The +smaller islands, containing but one city, formed each one small +independent state, the territory of which comprised the whole +island. The respective independence of these islands ceased to +exist at the period of the Trojan war; for after the Athenians +had by their success placed themselves at the head of confederate +Greece, and possessed themselves of the sovereignty of the sea, +these smaller states, although called confederates, were treated +little better than subjects, except that their political constitutions +were not changed.—Among the islands of the Grecian coast, the +most remarkable in history are the following:</p> + +<p><i>a.</i> Corcyra, a colony of Corinth, important for its naval power +and trade, in which it rivalled the mother state itself: a rivalry +which occasioned many feuds and wars, and was even one of the +principal motives that led to the Peloponnesian war. About the +time this struggle began Corcyra had attained the height of her +power, being able, without foreign aid, to man a fleet of 120 +galleys. The constitution appears, as at Corinth, to have been +aristocratic, or oligarchical: but after the Persian war a democratic +faction arose, which produced the most violent internal +commotions, and ended in the total ruin of Corcyra.</p> + +<p><i>b.</i> Ægina. This small island was, after the Dorian migration, +occupied by colonists from Epidaurus; it however soon shook +off the yoke of the mother city, and rapidly grew by commerce +and navigation, to be one of the first Grecian states. Ægina was +for a long time the rival of Athens; over whom her naval power +enabled her to maintain a superiority until the time of the Persian +war. Humbled, however, by Themistocles, 485, she could +no longer support herself against the preponderating influence of +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_152" id="Page_152">[Pg 152]</a></span>Athens; and although subsequently she made another stand for +independence, 458, the consequences were but an increase of oppression. +Neither must it be forgotten, that Ægina suffered +much, even before the Persian war, from internal broils, caused +by the bitterness of party spirit engendered between the aristocratic +and democratic factions.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">C. O. Mueller</span>, <i>Ægineticorum liber</i>, 1817. This treatise +contains not only the political history, but likewise that of trade +and arts.</p> + +<p><i>c.</i> Eubœa. The different cities of this island, Chalcis and +Eretria in particular, had each its separate domestic constitution: +in the two towns above mentioned the constitution was aristocratic, +since the government was in the hands of the opulent, +(Hippobatæ;) nevertheless we hear of tyrants in Chalcis. After +the Persian war Eubœa became dependent upon Athens, which +drew from that island a portion of her supplies and provisions. +The oppression of the Athenians stirred up the minds of the +Eubœans to rebellion, and the islanders were in the sequel ever +ready to throw up their allegiance when a suitable opportunity +presented itself; such an opportunity was seized in 446, when +the island was recovered by Pericles; and the attempt was renewed +in the Peloponnesian war.</p> + +<p><i>d.</i> The Cyclades were first colonized by Crete, during the +reign of Minos. The Carian race had in earlier times spread +over these islands, but were gradually driven out by Hellenic +invaders, belonging principally to the Ionian and Dorian families. +The most important was Delos, chief seat of the Ionians. Sheltered +under the protection of Apollo, this place became the +centre of an extensive trade, and during the Persian war, 479, +was selected for the treasury of Greece. Next was Paros, famed +for its marble, and for the stand it made against Miltiades, 489, +although it afterwards shared the fate of the other islands, and +passed under the dominion of the Athenians. We know little of +the constitution of the other smaller islands; each of them contained +one city of the same name as the island which constituted +its territory.</p> + +<p><i>e.</i> Crete. The inhabitants of Crete were not pure Hellenes, +but of alloyed origin, such as Curetes, Pelasgi, etc. mingled with +whom were Hellenes, of the Dorian and Æolían stock. In the +earlier periods, Crete had her kings, the most celebrated of whom +were Minos, about 1300, probably first sovereign of the whole<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_153" id="Page_153">[Pg 153]</a></span> +island; his brother Rhadamanthus, Idomeneus, Meriones, who +followed Idomeneus to the Trojan war, and succeeded him upon +the throne: the last king Etearchus, about 800, after whose +death a republican form of government was introduced. Under +these kings Crete was powerful on sea: to Minos is ascribed the +honour of having by his fleets purged the Ægæan of pirates, occupied +the islands, and ensured security to the mariner. To him +likewise is attributed the Cretan legislation, the model, it is said, +of that given to Sparta by Lycurgus. But the uncertainty as to +what does and what does not belong to Minos, is in this case +even greater than in that of Lycurgus; many of the laws referred +to Minos are probably nothing more than ancient Dorian institutions. +The insular situation which in some measure ensured +Crete from foreign inroads, and the proximity of Egypt and +Phœnicia must indubitably have contributed to expand the germ +of political civilization. The abolition of the kingly office seems +to have been the effect of internal commotions, to which Crete +continued to be frequently exposed, even under a republican +form of government. Those commotions originated in the jealousy +between the two largest cities, Gortina and Cnossus, which, +when united, ruled the rest; but when at war, shook the whole +island, until the city of Cydonia, passing over to one of the sides, +gave a turn to the balance. The laws instituted by Minos respecting +private life were enforced in all the cities of the island; +but declined at an earlier period than in the country. Each +city had its own constitution; each possessed it senate, (γερούσια,) +at the head of which were ten censors, (κόσμοι,) chosen from certain +families: these cosmi were not only prime magistrates, but +likewise invested with the command in war, not often, it is true, +waged by the Cretans against other nations, but, for that reason, +more frequently with one another; a circumstance which must +have necessarily contributed to corrupt, not only their constitution, +but likewise their national character.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Meursii</span> <i>Creta, Rhodus, Cyprus</i>, 1675, 4to. Very laborious +compilations. New light, however, has been thrown upon the +subject by the inscriptions published in</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Chishull's</span> <i>Antiq. Asiaticæ</i>; 1728, folio. A work which has +been made use of by</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">St. Croix</span>, <i>Des anciens gouvernemens</i>, etc. (See above, +p. 131.) The principal work upon Crete.</p> +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_154" id="Page_154">[Pg 154]</a></span></p> +<p>† <span class="smcap">C. Hoeck</span>, Crete. An attempt to explain the mythology, +history, etc. of this island, 1823.</p> + +<p><i>f.</i> Cyprus. This island, like Crete, was inhabited by a race of +mixed origin, who, even in the time of Herodotus, traced their +descent from Phœnicians, Africans, (Ethiopians,) from Greeks +out of Arcadia, Attica, and the island of Salamis; of which last +the city of Salamis, founded by Teucer about 1160, was a colony. +There can be no doubt, that in earlier times the Phœnicians were +for a long period the dominant race in the island; since in the +flourishing days of Tyre the Cyprians rebelled against their +oppressors, at the same time that Psalmanezer led an expedition +against the former city, about 720: moreover, even in the present +day, Phœnician monuments are still found in the island. From +that time to the Persian period, there appears to have been a close +connection between this island and the Phœnicians, although the +Cyprians preserved their independence. Several smaller kingdoms +afterwards arose in various cities of the island; the number +of which in subsequent times amounted to nine, and under +Amasis, about 550, were tributary to the Egyptians; and under +Cambyses, 525, to the Persians: notwithstanding this species of +subjection, the various states preserved their own kings. During +the Persian dominion, the Cyprians more than once joined in the +insurrections against the Persians; more particularly the kings +of Salamis, now become the most powerful. So early as the year +500, Onesilus joined the Ionian rebels, but was defeated. In the +wars which afterwards ensued between the Persians and Greeks, +Cyprus was frequently attacked by the combined Grecian fleets; +as in 470 by Pausanias, and during the reign of Evagoras I. 449, +by Cimon, who died at the siege of Citium; yet the Persians were +not driven out, but appear to have kept their footing even after +the peace of 449. Among the subsequent kings of Salamis was +Evagoras II. (400—390,) who was master of the greatest portion +of the island; but as in the peace of Antalcidas Cyprus was +ceded to the Persians, he was obliged to wage a hot war against +them, in which he lost every thing but Salamis. Finally, the +Cyprians, in 356, took a part in the insurrection of the Phœnicians +and Egyptians: thereupon the Persians sent an army +against them, under the command of a younger Evagoras, (who +had been banished by his uncle Protagoras,) and under that of +the Athenian Phocion Salamis was besieged, but matters were +made up by a negotiation. The nine small kingdoms of the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_155" id="Page_155">[Pg 155]</a></span> +island continued to exist till the time of Alexander, whom they +voluntarily joined during the siege of Tyre, 332, and thenceforward +Cyprus constituted a part of the Macedonian monarchy.</p></div> + + +<h3>2. <i>History of the Grecian Colonies.</i></h3> + +<div class="sblockquot"><p>To assist the student in obtaining a general view of the events +connected with the Greek colonies, the history of them will be +here carried on through the subsequent period.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Raoul Rochette</span>, <i>Histoire critique de l'établissement des Colonies +Grecques</i>, Paris, 1815, 4 vols. The most comprehensive +treatise on the subject: it comprises the earlier Pelasgian and the +later Macedonian colonies, as well as those of the Hellenes. +There is much erudition displayed in this work, but sufficient attention +is not paid to the value of the authorities made use of.</p> + +<p>† <span class="smcap">D. H. Hegewisch</span>, <i>Geographic and Historic Documents relative +to the Colonies of the Greeks</i>, Altona, 1808, 8vo. A brief +review of the subject.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">St. Croix</span>, <i>De l'état et du sort des Colonies des anciens peuples</i>, +Paris, 1786. A series of valuable and important enquiries.</p></div> + +<div class="sidenote">Historic importance of the Greek colonies.</div> + +<p>1. No nation of antiquity ever founded so many +colonies as the Greeks: these colonies became so +important in various respects, that an acquaintance +with them is indispensably requisite towards +understanding the more early history of the world. +Not only is the history of the civilization of the +mother country and that of early trade intimately +connected with these settlements, but some of +them grew to such power as to have the greatest +influence on political history.</p> + +<p>2. The Grecian colonies, to which the following +observations apply, are those founded by the +Hellenes in the time which elapsed between the +Dorian migration and the Macedonian period. It<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_156" id="Page_156">[Pg 156]</a></span> +appears certain that before the date of that migration +some Pelasgian, and perhaps even some +Hellenic settlers passed over into Italy. The +history of these colonies however is not only involved +in obscurity, but it is besides known that +they ceased after a time to be Greek. The later +settlements of the Macedonians were of a quite +different nature from those of the Hellenes, to +which we now allude.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">Hellenic colonies.</div> + +<p>3. The Hellenic race spread alike to the east +and to the west of Greece, their settlements, however, +were confined to the shores of the Mediterranean +and Black sea. The countries in which +their principal colonies were established, were +Asia Minor and Thrace in the east; the coasts of +Lower Italy and Sicily in the west. Nevertheless +particular settlements were to be found scattered +here and there on the shores of most other countries.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">Origin of these colonies.</div> + +<p>4. The Grecian colonies had their origin either +in political motives, being generally made in accordance +with the express command or advice of +an oracle, (for the propagation of the religion of +the parent state was always connected therewith,) +or, in commercial speculations; the former was +the case, almost without exception, with the settlements +made by the mother country herself; +the latter, with those which had branched out of +such colonies as had already exalted themselves +by their commerce. In fact, almost all the Grecian +colonies applied more or less to trade, even +when that was not the sole object of their foundation.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">Relations +between colony and metropolis.</div> + +<p>5. The connection existing between the colo<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_157" id="Page_157">[Pg 157]</a></span>nies +and the mother cities was generally determined +by the same causes that led to their foundation. +In those cases where a city had been +founded by malcontent or banished emigrants, all +dependence on the mother country was naturally +out of the question; and even in the colonies established +for the purposes of trade, that dependence +was but feeble and brief; the mother cities +failing in power, if not in will, to enforce it. The +very independence of so many colonies, made (almost +without exception) in countries preeminently +favoured by nature in productions and climate, +and so situated as to oblige the inhabitants to navigation +and commerce, must have given a great +impulse to the civilization of the Hellenic race, +and may be regarded as the main cause of its +rapid progress and wide extension; wider indeed +than that of any other nation of the ancient world. +What a variety of political ideas must have been +formed among a people whose settlements, more +than a hundred in number, had each its own peculiar +form of government.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">Importance of the Asiatic Greek settlements.</div> + +<p>6. Of the Greek colonies, the most ancient, and +in many respects the most important, were those +along the western coast of Asia Minor, extending +from the Hellespont to the boundary of Cilicia. +Here, ever since the Trojan war, which first +made these countries generally known, Hellenes +of the three great families, Æolians, Ionians, and +Dorians had planted settlements. These were +the most important for trade; and here likewise +in the native country of Homer, the father of Grecian +civilization, of Alcæus, and of Sappho, poesy, +both epic and lyric, expanded her first and fairest<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_158" id="Page_158">[Pg 158]</a></span> +blossoms; and hence too, the mother country herself +received the first impulse of moral and cultivated +taste.</p> + +<div class="sblockquot"><p>1. The Æolian colonies. Their original foundation dates about +1124: they appear to have been a consequence of the Dorian +migration, having been established during that great movement +in Greece. The Pelopidæ, who had been driven out of Peloponnesus, +Orestes, his son Penthilus, his grandson Archelaus, +and his great grandson Grais, successively headed the emigrants, +who proceeded slowly by land, divided, it appears, into several +companies, with which some Bœotians and others gradually +coalesced. In Asia they occupied the coasts of Mysia and +Caria; a strip of land which from thence derived the appellation +of Æolis. They moreover possessed the islands of Lesbos, +Tenedos, and the Hecatonnesi. On the main land, in the +quarter named from them Æolis, they erected twelve cities, the +most eminent of which were Cyme and Smyrna; the latter, +however, afterwards fell into the hands of the Ionians. But +their chief settlements were on the island of Lesbos; here they +inhabited five cities, at the head of which, and likewise of +all their other colonies, stood Mitylene. They had likewise +spread inland as far as mount Ida. All these towns were independent +of one another, and possessed their own peculiar forms +of government: our information, however, respecting these constitutions +extends no further than to enable us to ascertain that +they were subject to many disorders, which it was often attempted +to quell by nominating rulers of unlimited power, under +the title of Æsymnetæ. These were elected sometimes for a +stipulated period, at others for life; the most celebrated of the +number was Pittacus of Mitylene, who flourished about 600, and +was the contemporary of Sappho and Alcæus. The Æolians +maintained their independence till the time of Cyrus, with the +exception of Smyrna, which as early as 600, was captured and +destroyed by the Lydians, and not rebuilt till four hundred years +afterwards, when it was restored by Antigonus, and entered upon +its flourishing period. The cities of the main land were compelled +to acknowledge the supremacy of the Persian conqueror; +but not the islands. The Æolian cities were not leagued together +by any permanent bond; it was only in peculiar cases that +they debated in common. Mitylene, which they all regarded as<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_159" id="Page_159">[Pg 159]</a></span> +their capital, was the only one of their colonies that became rich +by trade, and formidable by its naval power. Yet in 470 it was +tributary to Athens; having seceded in 428, at the time of the +Peloponnesian war, it was recaptured and almost levelled to the +earth by the Athenians.</p> + +<p>2. The Ionian colonies. These were, no doubt, founded at a +later period than those of the Æolians; like them, however, +they were a consequence of the Dorian migration. The Ionians, +driven out of Peloponnesus by the Achæans, had withdrawn to +Athens, from whence, sixty years afterwards, that is to say about +1044, they proceeded by sea to Asia, headed by Neleus and others +of the sons of Codrus. They were joined, however, by some +Thebans, Phocians, Eubœan Abantes, and various other Greeks. +In Asia they settled on the southern coast of Lydia and the +northern shore of Caria; which, together with the islands of Samos +and Chios, took from them the name of Ionia. Here they +built twelve cities on the main land; namely, reckoning from +north to south, Phocæa, Erythræ, Clazomene, Teos, Lebedus, +Colophon, Ephesus, Priene, Myus, Miletus, and in the islands, +Samos and Chios. They possessed in common one sanctuary, +the Panionium temple of Neptune, built on the headland of Mycale. +Here they celebrated their festivals, and assembled to +deliberate upon matters affecting the general interest, although +it must still be remembered that each city was in itself independent. +This independence was maintained until the time of +the Lydian dynasty of the Mermnadæ, and that of Cyrus, under +whose reign they were compelled to submit to the Persian yoke. +Still, under the Persian rule, they for the most part preserved +their own form of government, and were subject only so much as +they had to pay tribute. Nevertheless they seized every opportunity +of delivering themselves from this species of thraldom; +and hence their history in the following period is closely interwoven +with that of Greece. The political constitution was, no +doubt, at an early period republican in all; but these colonies +likewise were oppressed by continual factions, and frequently +by tyrants. Among the towns situate on the continent, the +most remarkable were Miletus, Ephesus, and Phocæa. Miletus +was the principal seat of trade. It had been founded by +the Carians before the arrival of the Ionians; but was by the +latter raised to opulence and power. The most flourishing period +of its existence was between 700—500: in the latter year it was +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_160" id="Page_160">[Pg 160]</a></span>implicated in the insurrection of Aristagoras against the Persians, +in consequence of which it was destroyed in 496. From that +time Miletus never recovered its ancient splendour. Nevertheless, +in the days of her prosperity Miletus was, next to Tyre and +Carthage, the first emporium of the world. Her sea trade was +chiefly carried on in the Euxine, and the Palus Mæotis, whose +shores, on all sides, were occupied by her colonies, amounting, +according to some authorities, to more than a hundred. By +means of these settlements she monopolized the whole of the +northern trade in pulse, dry fish, slaves, and furs. Her land +trade was carried on by the great <i>military</i> road, constructed by +the Persians, far into the interior of Asia. Four harbours admitted +her vessels; and her naval power was so great, that she +had been known, more than once, to fit out, unaided, fleets of +from eighty to a hundred sail.—Phocæa. The flourishing period +of this establishment was contemporary with that of Miletus; +but ended at the rise of the Persian dominion, 540, when the +Phocæans, rather than submit to the Persian yoke, chose to forsake +the city of their fathers and migrate to Corsica, although +one half of the inhabitants repented of their resolution and returned. +Phocæa had the most extensive trade by sea of all the +Grecian cities; they were to the west what the Milesians were +to the north. Their navigation extended as far as Gades; and +they not only visited the coasts of Italy, Gaul, and Corsica, but +even founded colonies in these countries; as for instance, Aleria +in Corsica, Elea in Italy, and, above all, Massilea, (Marseilles,) on +the coast of Gaul.—Ephesus. This city was likewise originally +founded by the Carians, but subsequently occupied by the Ionians. +Its independence was maintained until the time of Crœsus, +who annexed it to his other conquests about 560. The constitution +was aristocratic; the government being in the hands of +a senate, (γερούσια,) combined with the magistrates, +(ἐπίκλητοι): +and the family which had once possessed the throne preserved +certain prerogatives. Ephesus was not so important in a commercial +point of view as Phocæa and Miletus; but was much +celebrated for its temple of Diana, which in 355 was fired by +Erostratus, and afterwards rebuilt with more sumptuous splendour. +The flourishing period of Ephesus appears to have commenced +at this time, long after that of Miletus and Phocæa had +terminated; for both in the Macedonian and Roman ages Ephesus +was regarded as the first city of Asia Minor.—Of the cities +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_161" id="Page_161">[Pg 161]</a></span>on the islands, Samos was the most important, for its trade, +and for its naval power. The period of its splendour was under +the reign of the tyrant Polycrates, 540—523, whose sway extended +over the sea and islets of the neighbourhood. Syloson, +brother to the tyrant, having by the assistance of the Persians, +517, obtained possession of Samos, the island was almost depopulated. +Soon afterwards Samos became dependent upon the +Athenians, who in 440 introduced a democratic form of government, +and made it the rendezvous for her troops and fleets +during the war with Sparta.—Chios was scarcely inferior to Samos, +either in power or wealth. It submitted to the Persian +yoke with the rest of the Ionian colonies; but was so powerful, +that in 500, at the insurrection of Aristagoras, ninety-eight sail +of the combined fleet belonged to Chios. After the defeat of +Xerxes, 469, it entered into the Athenian league, from which it +endeavoured to secede in the Peloponnesian war, 412. The +naval power of the Chians was still considerable; and those +islanders had the high honour of not suffering prosperity to inflate +them with overweening ambition.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">F. G. Rambach</span>, <i>De Mileto ejusque coloniis</i>, 1790, 4to.</p> + +<p>3. The Dorian colonies. These were situated in Asia Minor, +upon the southern coast of Caria, and in the islands of Cos and +Rhodes, but were all planted at a later period than the Ionian +colonies, and, no doubt, were the result of successive migrations. +The Dorians appear to have gradually spread beyond Peloponnesus, +over the islands of the Archipelago to the Asiatic coast: +in Rhodes they erected the cities of Ialyssus, Camirus, and Lindus; +in Cos a city of the same name; on the main land two +cities, Halicarnassus and Cnidus. These six ancient colonies +had, like the Ionians, one common sanctuary, the temple of +Apollo Triopius, where they celebrated their festivals and held +their deliberative assemblies. Halicarnassus, however, was afterwards +excluded from the confederation. They remained independent +until the Persian period, although the constitutions of +the separate cities were subject to violent revolutions; thus at +Cnidus the oligarchy was converted into a democracy; Halicarnassus +was likewise generally subject to the Carian sovereigns, +among whom Mausolus and Artemisia are names familiar to all.—The +three cities in Rhodes appear never to have grown to any +importance; that of Rhodes, not built till after the irruption of +Xerxes into Greece, 480, soon eclipsed the others: its flourish<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_162" id="Page_162">[Pg 162]</a></span>ing +period began after the death of Alexander. At no period of +early history could the Dorian colonies, or those of the Æolians, +compete in wealth and commerce with the Ionians.</p></div> + +<p>7. The shores of the Propontis, the Black sea, +and the Palus Mæotis, were likewise covered +with Grecian settlements. Nearly all these were +colonies of the city of Miletus alone, and were, +without exception, all of them the marts of a +prosperous trade. Although the date of each +cannot be precisely defined, they must have arisen +between the eighth and sixth centuries before the +Christian era. They were not only sovereigns of +the Black sea, but likewise extended their trade +over the whole of southern Russia, and eastward +to the regions beyond the Caspian sea; that is, +to great Bukharia.</p> + +<div class="sblockquot"><p>On the Propontis stood Lampsacus (adjoining the Hellespont) +and Cyzicus, on an island connected with the continent by means +of bridges. The latter town certainly was one of the most beautiful +and flourishing cities of Asia; but this did not occur until +the Roman age, and was in consequence of the fostering protection +of the Romans.—Opposite to Cyzicus, on the Thracian coast, +was Perinthus, subsequently called Heraclea; at the mouth of +the Thracian Bosporus stood Byzantium, over against which +was Chalcedon. The prosperity of all these towns affords sufficient +proof of the skill with which sites were chosen for the establishment +of colonies.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Heyne</span>, <i>Antiquities Byzantina: Commentationes duæ</i>, 1809. +The first of which contains the fragments of the earlier history of +Byzantium.</p> + +<p>The colonies of the Black sea were: on the southern coast of +Bithynia, Heraclea, in the territory of the Maryandini. This +place preserved its republican constitution amid frequent broils +and revolutions, brought about by the oligarchic and democratic +factions, until about B. C. 370, when the democrats having gained +the upper hand, a path was opened to Clearchus, who became tyrant, +and abrogated the senate, (βουλὴ;) the family of the tyrant +continued for a long time in possession of power, after he himself<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_163" id="Page_163">[Pg 163]</a></span> +had been murdered by two disciples of Plato.—In Paphlagonia +was Sinope, the most powerful of all the Grecian settlements on +the Black sea, of which it long held the sovereignty. The freedom +and independence of this place lasted to about 100, when it +fell under the dominion of the kings of Pontus, and afterwards +under that of the Romans. The principal source from which it +derived its wealth were the shoals of migratory fish +(πηλάμυδες,) +which, issuing from the Palus Mæotis, spread along the shore of +the Black sea down to the Thracian Bosporus.—In Pontus was +Amisus, the mother city of Trapezus, and which shared the fate +of Sinope.—On the eastern coast stood the cities of Phasis, Dioscurias, +and Phanagoria: this last was the principal mart of the +slave trade, and, during the Macedonian period, the staple for +Indian commodities imported across the Oxus and the Caspian +sea.—In the Chersonesus Taurica stood Panticapæum, capital +city of the little Grecian kingdom of Bosporus, whose kings +(among whom Spartacus, about 439, and more especially Leucon, +about 350, are celebrated) remained in alliance with Athens till +Mithridates the Great laid there the foundation of his dominion.—On +the northern coast was the city of Tanais, on the mouth of +a river of the same name at the bottom of the Palus Mæotis. +Olbia was situated at the mouth of the Borysthenes. These two +places, and Olbia in particular, were of the highest importance +for the inland trade, which issuing from thence in a northern and +easterly direction, was extended to the very centre of Asia.—The +colonies of the western coast, such as Apollonia, Tomi, and +Salmidessus, were of less notoriety.</p></div> + +<p>8. The coast of Thrace and Macedonia, washed +by the Ægæan sea, was likewise covered with +Grecian colonies, from various cities, and especially +from Corinth and Athens. The Athenians +having obtained in the Persian war the sovereignty +of the sea, endeavoured to establish their +dominion in this part of the world; hence the +cities in that quarter were closely implicated in +the quarrels and wars excited, first by the jealousy +between Sparta and Athens, and afterwards by +that which sprang up between Athens and Macedonia, +in the reign of Philip.</p> +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_164" id="Page_164">[Pg 164]</a></span></p> +<div class="sblockquot"><p>On the Thracian coast of the Chersonesus, regarded as the +key of Europe, and ranging along the Hellespont, were the +towns of Sestos, Cardia, and Ægospotamos; farther to the west +stood Maronea and Abdera, the latter a colony of Teos. Of far +greater importance, however, were the towns on the Macedonian +coast, Amphipolis, Chalcis, Olynthus, Potidæa. The first of these +towns, founded about B. C. 464, was a colony from Athens, which +endeavoured to keep it in a state of dependence. Chalcis was a +colony from a city of the same name in Eubœa. In 470 it was +dependent on Athens; but in 432, the inhabitants having raised +the standard of rebellion, forsook their houses and voluntarily +withdrew to Olynthus.—Olynthus derived its name from the +founder, one of the sons of Hercules: in the course of time it +ranked among the most powerful cities of Thrace, although it was +tributary to the Athenians. It took a share in the war between +Athens and Sparta, and continued to be a flourishing city until +348, when it was taken by Philip of Macedon, and destroyed.—Potidæa +was a colony of Corinth, from which it received annual magistrates, +(ἐπιδημιούργοι,) +having become tributary to Athens +after the Persian war, it revolted in 431: obliged to yield to the +Athenian arms, its inhabitants were expelled, and their place supplied +by an Athenian colony. It now became a possession of +Athens, and remained so till it was taken by Philip in 358.</p></div> + +<p>9. The Grecian settlements westward of the +mother country were, almost without exception, +made at a later period than those in the Ægean +and Black seas: they reached nevertheless to an +equal degree of splendour; and though their +trade was not so extensive, it was equally profitable: +these colonies not only rivalled those we +have above described, in wealth, but surpassed +them in power, being generally characterized by +the wisdom and prudence displayed in their respective +constitutions. The foundation of most of +them may be dated between B. C. 750 and 650; +consequently at a period when all the cities in +the mother country had already been republicanized: +and at a time when there could be no lack<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_165" id="Page_165">[Pg 165]</a></span> +of domestic troubles, which would furnish sufficient +motives for emigration.</p> + +<div class="sblockquot"><p>1. Grecian settlements in Lower Italy. The most numerous +and important of these were scattered around the bay of Tarentum; +they extended likewise along the western coast of Italy up +to Naples. These colonies were variously traced to the Dorian, +Achæan, and Ionian families: they were likewise distinguished +by political characteristics, the government in the Dorian settlements +being generally more aristocratic, in the rest more democratic: +it must be observed, however, that, with respect to the +various revolutions which the respective constitutions underwent, +it is hardly possible to give any general information, excepting +so far as regards the earliest times. Of Dorian origin were Tarentum, +and its colonies Heraclea and Brundusium. Of Achæan +origin were Sybaris and Croton, together with the colonies of the +latter, Laus, Metapontum, Posidonia; which last founded in its +turn, Terina, Caulonia, and Pandosia. Of Ionian origin were +Thurii, (built on the site where Sybaris had formerly stood,) +Rhegium, Elea, Cumæ, and its branch settlement of Neapolis. +Locri Epizephyrii, a colony of the Locri Ozolæ, may be regarded +as an Æolian city. The most remarkable of these cities in respect +of general history are:</p> + +<p><i>a.</i> Tarentum, founded by the Parthenii, from Sparta, about +707. It waged several wars with the aboriginal tribes in the +vicinity, the Messapians, Lucanians, etc. and grew to be one of the +richest and most powerful of the maritime towns. The brilliant +period of Tarentum appears to have fallen between 500 and 400. +Excess of wealth subsequently introduced luxury, which extinguished +the national spirit. Nevertheless Tarentum preserved +its independence until 273, when, after the war with Pyrrhus, +it fell under the Roman dominion. The constitution was originally +a moderate aristocracy; but was commuted soon after the +Persian war into a democracy, which was, however, curbed by +prudent restrictions. Tarentum had its senate, (βουλὴ,) without +whose consent war could not be undertaken; its magistrates +elected half by lot, half by majority of votes given in the assemblies +of the commons. Among its most celebrated citizens is +reckoned the Pythagoræan Archytas, who, after the year B. C. +390, was frequently at the head of the state, filling the offices of +general and supreme magistrate. The constitution appears to +have preserved its form until the Roman period, although the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_166" id="Page_166">[Pg 166]</a></span> +national spirit was greatly corrupted by a luxury almost exceeding +the limits of credibility.</p> + +<p><i>b.</i> Croton, founded 710 by the Achæans, under the guidance +of Myscellus from Rhype in Achaia. This city must have attained +to very great power during the very first century of its +existence; since in the battle of Sagra against the Locrians, +which may with probability be dated about 600, the Crotoniates +were able to set on foot an army of 120,000 men. Neither does +the defeat which they there suffered appear to have debilitated +the settlement for any length of time; for in 510, with nearly +the same number of forces, they attacked the Sybarites, and destroyed +their city. The original constitution was, no doubt, a +moderate democracy; but we are unacquainted with the details +of its organization. Pythagoras was the reformer of customs, +moral and political, not only at Croton, but in several other of +the Italico-Greek cities. This philosopher arrived at Croton +about 540, and there laid the foundation of the league or secret +association named after him; the object of which was, not to +change the form of government in the Italian cities, but to create +men capable of managing the helm of state. This reform and +influence of the Pythagoræans lasted about thirty years, when +their order underwent the same fate as generally befalls a secret +association founded with a political view. Probably about 510 +the Pythagoræean league was broken asunder by the democratic +faction under Cylon. The consequence was universal anarchy, +not only in Croton, where, about 494, a certain Clinias usurped +the supreme power, but likewise in the other cities: these disorders, +however, were quelled by the intervention of the Achæans; +and the Achæan colonies not only adopted the laws of their +mother cities, but likewise soon afterwards signed a league in the +temple of Jupiter Homorius, about 460: it appears that Croton, +having already recovered from the blow it had received, was at +the head of this league. In this happy posture affairs remained +till about 400. After the kings of Syracuse had commenced +their attacks on Magna Græcia, Croton was repeatedly captured; +as in B. C. 389 by Dionysius I. and about 321; and again, in +299, by Agathocles. Finally, after the war with Pyrrhus, 277, +it became dependent on Rome.</p> + +<p><i>c.</i> Sybaris was founded about 720, like the foregoing, by the +Achæans, who were mingled with Trœzenians: this settlement +existed till 510, when it was destroyed by Croton. Soon after +its foundation it became one of the most extensive, populous, and<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_167" id="Page_167">[Pg 167]</a></span> +luxurious cities, so much so, that the effeminacy of the Sybarites +became proverbial. Sybaris appears to have been at the height of +her prosperity from about 600—550; she then possessed a respectable +territory, comprising four of the neighbouring tribes, +and twenty-five cities or places. The extraordinary fertility of +the soil, and the admission of all strangers to the rights of citizenship, +tended to increase the population so much, that Sybaris, +in the war against Croton, is said to have brought into the field +300,000 men. The vast wealth possessed, not only by Sybaris, +but by the other cities in this quarter, was probably derived from +the great trade in oil and wine carried on with Africa and Gaul: +that such was the case at Agrigentum we know with certainty. +The constitution of Sybaris was likewise, it appears, a moderate +democracy: towards the year 510 one Telys took possession of +the supreme power, and drove out five hundred of the optimates, +who fled to Croton. The Crotoniates received the exiles, and +the Sybarites having put to death their ambassadors, a war was +kindled between the two cities, and ended in 510 by the defeat +of the Sybarites and the destruction of their city.</p> + +<p><i>d.</i> Thurii, founded near the site of ancient Sybaris in 446 by +Athens, although the inhabitants were of mixed origin; a circumstance +which gave rise at first to many domestic broils, the +citizens disputing as to who was the real founder; at last, 433, +the Delphian oracle declared the city to be a colony of Apollo. +The constitution was at first a moderate democracy; but this was +soon converted into an oligarchy, all the power and the best lands +having been taken possession of by the Sybarite families who +had joined the settlement. The Sybarites were, however, again +expelled, and Thurii grew into importance by the confluence of +several new colonies out of Greece; its constitution was meliorated +by the adoption of the laws of Charondas of Catana. +The principal enemies of the Thurians were the Lucanians, by +whom they were beaten, 390. The desultory attacks of that +tribe obliged them, 286, to crave the assistance of the Romans, +which soon after afforded the Tarentines an excuse for attacking +them. Thurii now formed a part of the Roman dependencies, +and after suffering much in the Carthaginian wars, was at last, +B. C. 190, occupied by a Roman colony.</p> + +<p><i>e.</i> Locri Epizephyrii. The question of their origin is subject +to dispute: the causes of this uncertainty are, that here, as in +most other of the cities, various bands of colonists arrived at various +times, and those bands themselves were composed of a mix<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_168" id="Page_168">[Pg 168]</a></span>ture +of several Grecian stocks. The chief colony was sent out, +B. C. 683, by the Locri Ozolæ. After suffering much from violent +internal commotions, Locri found, about 660, a lawgiver in +Zaleucus, whose institutions remained more than two centuries +inviolate. The constitution was aristocratic, the administration +being in the hands of a hundred families. The supreme magistrate +was called cosmopolis. The senate consisted of a thousand +members, probably elected from the commons, with whom resided, +either wholly or partially, the legislative power. The +maintenance of the laws was, as in other Grecian cities, committed +to the nomophylaces. Locri was certainly neither so +wealthy nor so luxurious as the cities above mentioned; but she +was honourably distinguished by the good manners and quiet +conduct of her citizens, who were contented with their government. +The flourishing period of this city lasted till the time of +Dionysius II. who having been driven out of Syracuse, fled with +his dependents to Locri, the native country of his mother: by +his insolence and licentiousness of manners the city was brought +to the verge of ruin; after his return to Syracuse, 347, the Locrians +avenged their wrongs upon his family. Locri afterward +maintained its recovered independence until the time of Pyrrhus, +who, 277, placed a garrison in the town; the Locrians, however, +put the troops to the sword, and passed over to the Roman side: +the city was in consequence sacked by Pyrrhus in 275. From +that time Locri remained a confederate town dependent on Rome, +and suffered much in the second Punic war.</p> + +<p><i>f.</i> Rhegium, a colony from Chalcis in Eubœa, 668: here also +the government was aristocratic, the supreme power being in the +hands of a council of a thousand men, selected only from Messenian +families, which had joined the original settlers. Hence arose +an oligarchy, of which Anaxilaus took advantage to assume the +sole dominion, 494, in which he was succeeded by his sons. These +having been driven out, 464, commotions ensued, which, after a +time, were quelled by adopting the laws of Charondas. Rhegium +now enjoyed a period of happiness, which lasted till B. C. +392, when it was captured and destroyed by Dionysius I. Dionysius +II. restored it in some measure; but in 281 the city was +taken possession of by a Roman legion, who being sent for the +purpose of garrisoning the place, murdered the inhabitants. The +soldiers were punished with death, 271; but Rhegium thenceforth +remained in a state of dependence upon Rome.</p> + +<p><i>g.</i> Cumæ, founded as early as 1030, from Chalcis in Eubœa.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_169" id="Page_169">[Pg 169]</a></span> +This city attained at an early period to a high degree of power +and prosperity; its territory being of considerable extent, its +navy respectable, and Neapolis and Zancle (or Messana) among +its colonies. The government was a moderate aristocracy: this +constitution was subverted about 544, by the tyrant Aristodemus; +but restored after his assassination. Cumæ was subject to +repeated annoyances from the petty Italian nations; and in 564 +she was invaded and defeated by the Etruscans and Daunians +combined; in 474 she beat the Etruscans at sea: but in 420 +was captured by the Campanians; together with whom she became +a dependent of Rome in 345. Cumæ, nevertheless, in consequence +of its harbour of Puteoli, preserved a share of importance, +even under the Roman dominion.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Heyne</span>, <i>Prolusiones 16 de civitatum Græcarum per magnam +Græciam et Siciliam institutis et legibus</i>. Collected in his <i>Opuscula</i>, +vol. vii.</p> + +<p>2. Grecian settlements in Sicily. These occupied the eastern +and southern shores of the island: they were founded in the +same period as those of Magna Græcia, and belonged partly to +the Dorian, partly to the Ionian stocks. Of Dorian origin were +Messana and Tyndaris, from Messene; Syracuse, who in her +turn founded Acræ, Casmenæ, and Camarina, from Corinth; +Hybla and Thapsus from Megara; Segesta from Thessaly; Heraclea +Minoa from Crete; Gela, which founded Agrigentum, +from Rhodes; and Lipara, on the small island of that name, +from Cnidus. Of Ionian origin were Naxus, the founder of +Leontini; Catana and Tauromenium, from Chalcis; Zancle, +(after its occupation by Messenian colonists, called Messana,) +founded by Cumæ, and in its turn founder of Himera and Mylæ. +The most remarkable of these towns in ancient history are:</p> + +<p><i>a.</i> Syracuse, the most powerful of all the Greek colonies, and +consequently that concerning which our information is the most +copious. The history of Syracuse, on which, as that town was +for a long time mistress of the greatest part of the island, depends +nearly the whole history of Sicily, comprises four periods. +1. From the foundation, B. C. 735, to Gelon, 484; a space of +two hundred and fifty-one years. During this period Syracuse +was a republic, but does not appear to have risen to any very +great height of power: yet she founded the colonies of Acræ, +665, Casmenæ, 645, and Camarina, 600. The assistance of her +parent city, Corinth, and Corcyra, alone prevented her falling a +prey to Hippocrates, sovereign of Gela; and even then she was<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_170" id="Page_170">[Pg 170]</a></span> +obliged to cede Camarina, 497. The constitution was aristocratic; +but not free from domestic troubles. The administration +was in the hands of the opulent, +(γαμόροι;) but these were, about +485, expelled by the democratic faction and their own mutinous +slaves. They fled to Casmenæ, and by the help of Gelon, sovereign +of Gela, were restored to their homes; Gelon retaining the +power in his own hands. 2. From Gelon to the expulsion of +Thrasybulus, 484—466. The three brothers, Gelon, Hiero, and +Thrasybulus, successively ruled over Syracuse. Gelon, 484—477. +He was at once the founder of the greatness of Syracuse, +and of his own power: this he effected partly by increasing the +population, bringing in new inhabitants from other Greek cities, +and partly by the great victory he won over the Carthaginians, +in alliance with the Persians, 480. At this early period Syracuse +was so powerful, both by sea and by land, as to justify Gelon +in claiming the office of generalissimo of Greece, when Sparta +and Athens came to solicit his aid. His beneficent reign not only +gained him the love of the Syracusans during his life, but likewise +procured him heroic honours after death at the hands of a +grateful people. He died in 477, and was succeeded by his +brother Hiero I. who had till then ruled over Gela. The reign +of this prince was splendid, his court was brilliant, and a fostering +protection was extended to arts and sciences. Hiero's power +strengthened by the establishment of new citizens, both in Syracuse +and its subordinate towns of Catana and Naxus, whose original +inhabitants are translated to Leontini.—Wars waged against +Thero, 476, and his son Thrasidæus, tyrants of Agrigentum: +after the expulsion of Thrasidæus, that town forms an alliance +with Syracuse; the Syracusan fleet sent to the assistance of +Cumæ, wins a victory over the Etruscans. Hiero, dying in 467, +was succeeded by his brother Thrasybulus, who, after a short +reign of eight months, was expelled for his cruelty by the Syracusans +and the confederate cities. 3. From the expulsion of +Thrasybulus to the elevation of Dionysius I.; Syracuse a free +democratic state: from 466—405. Reestablishment of republican +forms of government in Syracuse and the other Grecian cities; +accompanied, however, with many commotions and civil wars, +proceeding from the expulsion of the new citizens and the restoration +of the ancient inhabitants to their property.—Increasing +power and prosperity of Syracuse, who is now at the head of the +confederate Grecian cities in the island, and soon endeavours to +convert her precedence into supremacy. The new democratic<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_171" id="Page_171">[Pg 171]</a></span> +constitution quickly suffers from the diseases incident to that +form of government; a vain attempt is made to apply a remedy +by the introduction of the petalismus, B. C. 454; in the mean +time the Siculi, aboriginal inhabitants of Sicily, unite in closer +league under their leader Ducetius; attempting to expel the +Greeks, 451, they engage the Syracusans in reiterated wars; the +arms of Syracuse are successful, her authority is confirmed by the +subjection of the ambitious Agrigentum, 446, and by her naval +victory over the Etruscans. First but unsuccessful attempt of +the Athenians to interpose in the domestic affairs of Sicily, by +siding with Leontini against Syracuse, 427; eleven years afterward +occurs the great expedition against Syracuse, 415—413, +caused by the disputes between Segesta and Selinus; the expedition +ends in the total rout of the Athenian fleet and army, (see +below,) and the power of Syracuse reaches its zenith. A constitutional +reform takes place, 412, brought about by Diocles, +whose laws were subsequently adopted by several other of the +Sicilian cities. The magistrates were chosen by lot. The rest +of the laws, which appear to have had reference to the criminal +code, were the production of a committee over which Diocles presided; +these enactments were so beneficial to Syracuse, that the +author of them was honoured with a temple after his death. Yet +as early as 410, a renewal of the differences between Segesta and +Selinus afforded a pretext for war with Carthage, from whom the +Segestani had besought assistance; by this war the whole state +of affairs in Sicily was subverted. The rapid strides made by +the Carthaginians, who, under the command of Hannibal the son +of Gisgo, took, 409, Selinus and Himera, and even Agrigentum, +406, engendered domestic factions and commotions within Syracuse; +and amid those disorders the crafty Dionysius succeeded +first in obtaining the office of general, and then, after supplanting +his colleagues, the sovereign power of Syracuse, 405. 4. From +Dionysius I. to the Roman occupation, 405—212. Dionysius I. +405—368. Ominous commencement of his reign, by a defeat at +Gela and the mutiny of his troops.—A plague wasting the Carthaginian +army, he is enabled to patch up a peace, B. C. 405, by +which it is agreed, that Carthage, besides her territory in the +island, shall retain all the conquests made during the war, together +with Gela and Camarina. But the project of expelling +the Carthaginians out of Sicily, in order to subject the whole +island, and to fall upon Magna Grecia, kindles a long series of +wars both with Carthage and the cities of Magna Grecia. Second +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_172" id="Page_172">[Pg 172]</a></span>war with Carthage against Hannibal and Himilco, 398—392. +Dionysius loses all that he before had conquered, and is himself +besieged in Syracuse; but a plague once more attacking the +Carthaginians, rescues him from his predicament, 396; deeds of +hostility continued notwithstanding till 392, when a peace was +signed, by which Carthage ceded the town of Tauromenium.—From +394, desultory attacks on the confederate Grecian cities in +Lower Italy, particularly on Rhegium, the chief seat of the +Syracusan emigrants, which, after repeated invasions, is at last +compelled to yield, 387. Third war with Carthage, 383, against +Mago; Dionysius wins a victory, which is however followed by +a greater defeat; and the war ends the same year by the adoption +of a peace, according to which each party is to retain what +he then had; the Halycus is fixed as the boundary line; so that +Selinus and a portion of the territory of Agrigentum remain in +the hands of the Carthaginians. Fourth war: inroad upon the +Carthaginian states; it ends, however, in the signing of a treaty. +The decision of these wars generally depended on the side taken +by the Siculi, the most powerful aboriginal race in Sicily. Dionysius +I. having died by poison, 368, was succeeded by Dionysius +II. his eldest son by one of his two wives, Doris of Locri, +but under the guardianship of his step-uncle Dio, the brother of +Dionysius's other wife Aristomache. Neither Dio or his friend +Plato, who was three times invited to Syracuse, were able to improve +the character of a prince whose mind had been corrupted +by bad education.—Dio is banished, 360. He returns, 357, and, +in the absence of Dionysius, takes possession of Syracuse, all but +the citadel. Dionysius now has recourse to stratagem; he excites +in the city distrust of Dio, and foments dissension between him +and his general Heraclidas; meanwhile he himself withdraws to +Italy, taking with him his treasures. Dio is compelled to retire +from the city, which is sacked by the troops garrisoned in the +citadel; hereupon the Syracusans themselves fetch back Dio; he +possesses himself of the citadel and wishes to restore the republican +government, but soon falls a victim to party spirit, being +murdered by Callipus, B. C. 354, who usurped the government +till 353, when he is driven out by Hipparinus, a brother of Dionysius, +who keeps possession till 350. After ten years' absence, +Dionysius II. by a sudden attack, becomes once more master of +the city, 346. The tyranny of this prince, and the treachery of +Icetas of Gela, whom the Syracusans called in to their assistance, +but who leagues himself with the Carthaginians, and the for<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_173" id="Page_173">[Pg 173]</a></span>midable +attempts of the latter, compel the citizens to apply to +the mother city Corinth: Corinth sends to their assistance Timoleon +with a small force, 345. Rapid change of affairs wrought +by Timoleon: he beats Icetas and the Carthaginians: in 343 +Dionysius is forced to deliver up the citadel and evacuate the +country; he retires to Corinth, where he leads a private life. +Restoration of the republican government, not only in Syracuse, +where the laws of Diocles are reinstituted, but also in the rest of +the Grecian cities: the revolution confirmed by a great victory +over the Carthaginians, 340. In the midst of the execution of +his plans Timoleon dies, 337, the most splendid example of a +republican that history affords! From 337—317; almost a chasm +in the history of Syracuse. Wars with Agrigentum; the usurpation +of Sosistratus, disturbs the peace, both external and internal. +The character of the Syracusans was already too foully corrupted +for one to expect that liberty could again be established among +them, without the personal superintendence of a Timoleon. They +deserved the fate that befell them, when, in 317, that daring adventurer +Agathocles assumed the sovereign power, which he +maintained till 289. Renewal of the plan for expelling the +Carthaginians from the island, and subjecting Magna Græcia. +Hence arises a new war with Carthage, in which Agathocles is +defeated, 311, and besieged in Syracuse: by a bold stroke he +passes over into Africa, accompanied by part of his fleet and +army, and there with general success prosecutes the war until +307: the insurrection of most of the Grecian cities in Sicily recalls +him from the theatre of war; his views in Africa are consequently +defeated. In the peace of 306 both parties retain what +they had at the beginning of the war. The wars in Italy are +confined to the sacking of Croton, and a victory won over the +Bruttii; and are rather predatory expeditions than regular wars. +In the year 289, Agathocles died by poison, and his murderer, +Mænon, seized the power; he is expelled by the general Icetas, +and flies over to the Carthaginians. Icetas rules as pretor till +278, when, in his absence, the government is usurped by Thynion, +who meets with a rival in the person of Sosistratus; in the +mean while the mercenaries of Agathocles (the Mamertini) possess +themselves of Messana, and the Carthaginians press forward +to the very gates of Syracuse. The Syracusans invite Pyrrhus +of Epirus over from Italy; that prince takes possession of the +whole of Sicily as far as Lilybæum; but having by his haughtiness +incurred general hatred and disgust, he is obliged to eva<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_174" id="Page_174">[Pg 174]</a></span>cuate +the island, B. C. 275. The Syracusans now appoint +Hiero, a descendant of the ancient royal family, to the office of +general: after defeating the Mamertini he is called to the +throne, 269. At the breaking out of the war between Carthage +and Rome, the new king forsakes his alliance with Carthage, +and, passing over to the Roman side, thereby purchases a long +and tranquil reign until 215, when he dies of old age. Under +this wise prince Syracuse enjoyed a degree of happiness and +prosperity which none of her demagogues had been able to effect. +After his death the Carthaginian party became predominant; +Hieronymus the grandson of Hiero is murdered, 214, and Hannibal's +intrigues enable the Carthaginian party to keep the upper +hand, by contriving to place at the head of affairs his friends +Hippocrates and Epicydes, who entangle Syracuse in a war with +Rome; and the city, after a long siege, celebrated by the inventions +of Archimedes, is brought to ruin, 212.—The history of +Syracuse is a practical compendium of politics: what other state +ever underwent so many and such various revolutions?</p> + +<p>The history of Syracuse was at an early period disfigured by +partiality. For the topography, see † <span class="smcap">Bartel's</span> +<i>Letters from Calabria and Sicily</i>, vol. iii. with a plan.</p> + +<p>† <span class="smcap">A. Arnold</span>, <i>History of Syracuse, from its foundation to the +overthrow of liberty by Dionysius</i>. Gotha, 1816.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Mitford</span>, <i>History of Greece</i>: the fourth volume contains the +history of Syracuse, and a defence of the elder Dionysius. It +would seem that even now it is difficult to write this history in +an impartial spirit.</p> + +<p><i>b.</i> Agrigentum, a colony of Gela, founded 582. The first city +of Sicily next to Syracuse, of which it was frequently the rival. +Its first constitution was that of the mother city; that is to say, +Dorian or aristocratic. It fell, however, soon after its foundation, +under the dominion of tyrants; the first of whom noticed in history +is Phalaris, who flourished probably 566—534. He was +succeeded by Alcmanes, 534—488, who was followed by Alcander, +an indulgent ruler, in whose reign the wealth of Agrigentum +seems to have already been considerable. More renowned +than the foregoing was Theron, the contemporary and stepfather +of Gelon; he ruled from B. C. 488—472: in conjunction with +Gelon he routed the Carthaginian army, 480, and subjected Himera. +His son and successor, Thrasydæus, was beaten by Hiero +and expelled, 470; whereupon the Agrigentines, as allies of +Syracuse, introduced a democracy. The period following, 470<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_175" id="Page_175">[Pg 175]</a></span>—405, +is that in which Agrigentum, blessed with political freedom, +attained the highest degree of public prosperity. She was one of +the most opulent and luxurious cities in the world, and in the +display of public monuments one of the most magnificent. For +her wealth she was indebted to the vast trade in oil and wine +that she carried on with Africa and Gaul, in neither of which +were those productions hitherto naturalized. In the year 446 +the Agrigentines, excited by envy, fell upon the Syracusans, but +were defeated. In the war with Athens they took no share; but +in the Carthaginian invasion of Sicily, 405, Agrigentum was +taken and destroyed; from this blow she recovered but slowly, +and never effectually. By Timoleon she was, in some measure, +restored, 340; and under Agathocles, 307, was able to head the +cities combined against him, but was beaten. After the death +of Agathocles, a tyrant, by the name of Phintias, took possession +of the sovereign power; and was attacked, 278, by Icetas of +Syracuse. At the breaking out of the first Punic war, Agrigentum +was used by the Carthaginians as a military depôt; but was +taken by the Romans as early as 262.</p> + +<p><i>c.</i> The fate of the other Sicilian cities was more or less dependent +on that of Agrigentum and Syracuse: they all had originally +republican forms of government; but though the Ionian +colonies had a celebrated legislator in the person of Charondas, +(probably about 660,) they had the same fortune with the rest, +of being frequently oppressed by tyrants, either from among their +own citizens, or by those of Syracuse, who often used to drive +out the old inhabitants, and introduce a new population more devoted +to their interest: hence must have sprung manifold wars. +The foregoing history shows how grievously they likewise suffered +in the wars between Syracuse and Carthage. Following the +dates of their respective foundations, they may be thus arranged: +Zancle, (after 664, known by the name of Messana,) the earliest, +though of uncertain date; Naxus, 736; Syracuse, Hybla, 735; +Leontini, Catana, 730; Gela, 690; Acræ, B. C. 665; Casmenæ, +645; Himera, 639; Selinus, 630; Agrigentum, 582. The +dates of the rest cannot be ascertained with any degree of +accuracy.</p> + +<p>3. On the other islands and coasts of the Mediterranean we +meet with various insulated Grecian settlements; in Sardinia, +the cities Garalis and Olbia: the date of their foundation unknown; +in Corsica, Alaria, (or Alalia,) a colony of Phocæans +founded, 561; hither the inhabitants of the mother city betook +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_176" id="Page_176">[Pg 176]</a></span>themselves in 541; and subsequently, after the naval engagement +with the Etruscans and Carthaginians, withdrew, some to +Rhegium, others to Massilia, 536.</p> + +<p>4. On the coast of Gaul stood Massilia, founded by the Phocæans, +who had been driven out of Corsica after the above mentioned +naval engagement, 536; or rather, there was on the same +site an old settlement which was now increased. Massilia rapidly +grew in wealth and power. Our information respecting +the wars she waged on the sea against Carthage and the Etruscans +is but of a general kind. Her territory on the main land, +although rich in wine and oil, was limited in extent; she established, +nevertheless, several colonies along the shores of Spain +and Gaul, among which Antipolis, Nicæa, and Olbia are the best +known. The trade of Massilia was carried on partly by sea, and +partly by land, through the interior of Gaul. The constitution was +a moderate aristocracy. The chief power was in the hands of six +hundred individuals; the members of this council were called +timuchi, they held their places for life, were obliged to be married +men with families, and descended at least to the third generation +from citizens. At the head of this council stood fifteen +men, three of whom were chief magistrates. As early as 218 +Massilia was in alliance with Rome, under whose fostering protection +she grew in prosperity; her freedom was preserved to her +until the war between Pompey and Cæsar; having sided with +the former, she was stormed, 49, by Cæsar's army. She soon retrieved +herself, and, under the reign of Augustus, Massilia was +the seat of literature and philosophy, in which public lectures +were there given as at Athens.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Aug. Bruekner</span>, <i>Historia Reipublicæ Massiliensium</i>. Gotting. +1826. A prize essay.</p> + +<p>5. On the Spanish coast stood Saguntum, +(Ζακυνθὸς,) +a colony from the island of Zacynthus; the date of its foundation is undetermined. +It became opulent by its commerce; but at the +opening of the second Punic war, B. C. 219, was destroyed by +Hannibal, as being an ally of Rome.</p> + +<p>6. On the coast of Africa lay Cyrene, founded at the suggestion +of the Delphic oracle in 631, by the island of Thera. The +constitution was at first monarchical. Kings: Battus I. the +founder, 631—591. In whose family the sceptre remained. +Arcesilaus I. <i>d.</i> 575. Under the reign of his successor, Battus +II. surnamed the happy, (<i>d.</i> 554,) the colony was much strengthened +by new comers from Greece. The Libyans, bereaved of +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_177" id="Page_177">[Pg 177]</a></span>their lands, seek for help at the hands of Apries, who is defeated +by the Cyrenæans, 570, and in consequence loses his +crown.—Arcesilaus II. <i>d.</i> 550. Rebellion of his brothers, and +foundation of Barca, an independent town ruled by its own separate +kings. Secession of the Libyan subjects. He is put to +death by his brother or friend Learchus, who in his turn is poisoned +by Eryxo the widow of Arcesilaus. Her son, Battus III. +surnamed the lame, (<i>d.</i> about 529,) succeeds to the throne. The +royal power confined within narrow limits by the laws of Demonax +of Mantinea: the king retains nothing more than the revenue +and priestly office. His son Arcesilaus III. becomes of his +own accord tributary to the Persians; in conjunction with his +mother, Pheretime, he seeks to reestablish the regal supremacy, +but is expelled; nevertheless he regains possession of Cyrene. +In consequence of his cruelty he is assassinated in Barca, about +516. Pheretime seeks for help from the Persian satrap of Egypt, +Aryandes, who by craft gets possession of Barca; the inhabitants +are carried away and translated into Bactria, 512. Soon after +Pheretime dies. It seems probable that another Battus IV. and +Arcesilaus IV. must have reigned at Cyrene, to whom Pindar's +fourth and fifth Pythian Odes are addressed: their history, however, +is veiled in obscurity. Cyrene then received a republican +constitution, probably somewhere about 450; but we are unacquainted +with the internal details of the government. Yet +though Plato was invited by the Cyrenæans to give them laws, +and though they had for their legislator Democles of Arcadia, +they appear never to have been blessed with a good and stable +constitution. Not only is mention often made of domestic troubles, +as in 400, when amid the uproar excited by Ariston most +of the aristocratic party were cut off; but we likewise frequently +meet with tyrants. Concerning the external affairs of this state +we know nothing but a few general facts relative to the border +wars with Carthage. Subsequently to Alexander, Cyrene became +a part of the Egyptian kingdom; so early as the reign of +Ptolemy I. it was added to that realm by his general Ophellas, +about B. C. 331. It now continued to receive various rulers +from the family of the Ptolemies (see below) until the reign of +Ptolemy Physcon, when it became a separate state, the bastard +son of that prince, Apion by name, having made it over to the +Romans, 97. Cyrene possessed a considerable share of trade, +consisting partly in the exportation of country produce, more especially +the Silphium, (Laser,) partly in a varied intercourse +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_178" id="Page_178">[Pg 178]</a></span>with Carthage, Ammonium, and thence with the interior of +Africa. The former splendour and importance of this city and +the neighbouring country are testified by an abundance of most +noble ruins; a more accurate research into which every friend of +antiquity must desire.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Hardion</span>, <i>Histoire de Cyrène</i>, in <i>Mém. de l'Académie des +Inscriptions</i>, t. iii.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">J. P. Thrige</span>, <i>Historia Cyrenes, inde a tempore quo condita +urbs est, usque ad ætatem, qua in provinciæ formam a Romanis +redacta est: particula prior, de initiis coloniæ Cyrenen deductæ, +et Cyrenes Battiadis regnantibus historia</i>. Havniæ, 1819. The +best work on Cyrene. It is hoped that the author will not disapppoint +our expectations of the second part, which is to contain +the period of republican government. [The whole was completed +in 1828. The learned and ingenious author has neglected no authority +whether ancient or modern, and is particularly cautious +and judicious in his researches.]</p> + +<p>A ray of light has lately, for the first time, been thrown on +the remains still found in Cyrenaica by <span class="smcap">Della Cella</span>, <i>Viaggio +di Tripoli</i>; translated by Spieker, in the † <i>Journal of the latest +travels by sea and by land</i>, Sept. 1820.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">W. Beechey</span>, <i>Proceedings to explore the northern coast of +Africa from Tripoli eastward</i>, 1827.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">F. R. Pacho</span>, <i>Relation d'un voyage à Marmarique et Cyrenaique</i>, +1828. A most accurate description.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">T. Ehrenberg</span>, <i>Travels through North Africa</i>, in the +years 1820—1825, by Dr. W. F. Hemprich and Dr. C. G. +Ehrenberg. Berlin, 1828.</p></div> + + +<hr style="width: 25%;" /> +<h2>THIRD PERIOD.</h2> + +<p class="cblockquot"><i>From the commencement of the Persian wars to the time of +Alexander the Great, B. C. 500—336.</i></p> + + +<div class="sblockquot"><p>Sources. The chief writers in this period are: For the history +of the Persian wars to the battle of Platææ, 479, Herodotus. +For the period between 479 and the breaking out of the Peloponnesian +war, we must, in the absence of contemporary authors,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_179" id="Page_179">[Pg 179]</a></span> +consider Diodorus Siculus as the principal authority.—The beginning +of the 11th book, which commences with the year 480, +(the 6th, 7th, 8th, 9th, and 10th books being lost,) to the middle +of the 12th; the chronology of this author, however, must in +several cases be rectified after Thucydides's summary in lib. i. +For the period of the Peloponnesian war, 431—410, the history +of Thucydides is the capital work; but it must be accompanied +by Diodorus, from the middle of the 12th book to the middle of +the 13th.—From the year 410 to the battle of Mantinea, 362, +the principal sources are the Hellenics of Xenophon, and occasionally +his Anabasis and Agesilaus; together with Diodorus, +from the middle of the 13th book to the end of the 15th. For +the years intervening from 362—336, no contemporary historian +has been preserved; Diodorus's 16th book must therefore here be +considered as the chief source: for the times of Philip, however, +recourse may likewise be had to the speeches of Demosthenes +and Æschines. The Lives of Plutarch and Nepos often touch +upon this period, but cannot be regarded as authentic sources; +of still less authority are the abridged documents given by Justin +and some others.</p> + +<p>The modern authors on this, the brilliant period of Greece, +are, of course, the same as have been enumerated above: (see +p. 118.) To whom must here be added:</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Potter</span>, <i>Archæologia Græca; or the Antiquities of Greece:</i> +2 vols. 8vo. Lond. 1722. Translated into German by J. J. Rambach, +3 vols. 1775.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Barthelemy</span>, <i>Voyage du Jeune Anacharsis en Grèce</i>. (Between +the years B. C. 362 and 338.) Paris, 1788, 5 vols. Accompanied +with charts and plans, illustrating the topography of +Athens, etc. This work is conspicuous for a rare union of good +taste and erudition; unattended, however, with an equal share +of critical acumen and a correct appreciation of antiquity.</p> + +<p>† <i>History of the Origin, Progress, and Fall of Science in +Greece and Rome</i>, by <span class="smcap">C. Meiners</span>. Gottingen, 1781. It contains +also a delineation of the political state of affairs; but does +not extend beyond the age of Philip.</p> + +<p>The principal works on the monuments of ancient Greece are:</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Le Roy</span>, <i>Les Ruines des plus beaux Monumens de la Grèce</i>. +Paris, 1758, 2nd edit. 1770, fol. The first in point of time; but +far surpassed by:</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">J. Stuart</span>, <i>The Antiquities of Athens measured and deli<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_180" id="Page_180">[Pg 180]</a></span>neated</i>; +3 vols. Lond. 1762: the 4th vol. published in 1816. +In beauty and accuracy of execution superior to all.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">R. Dalton</span>, <i>Antiquities and Views of Greece and Egypt</i>, +1691, fol. The Egyptian monuments are confined to those of +Lower Egypt.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">R. Chandler</span>, <i>Ionian Antiquities</i>. London, 1796, 1797, +2 vols. fol. A worthy companion to Stuart.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Choiseul Gouffier</span>, <i>Voyage pittoresque dans la Grèce</i>, +vol. i, 1779: vol. ii, 1809. Confined principally to the islands +and Asia Minor.</p></div> + +<div class="sidenote">Beneficial +effects of +the Persian +invasion.</div> + +<p>1. From a multitude of small states, never +united but continually distracted by civil broils—and +such at the beginning of this period were +the states of Greece—any thing important could +hardly be expected without the occurrence of +some external event, which, by rallying the divided +forces round one point, and directing them +toward one object, should hinder them from mutually +exhausting one another. It was the hostile +attempt of Persia that first laid the foundation of +the future splendour of Greece; certain states +then grew so rapidly in power, that upon their +particular history hinges the general history of all +the rest.</p> + +<div class="sblockquot"><p>Causes which led to the Persian war. Share taken by Athens +in the Ionian insurrection and firing of Sardes, B. C. 500. (see +above, p. 98.) Intrigues of Hippias, first with the satraps, and +afterwards at the Persian court itself.—First expedition, that of +Mardonius, thwarted by a storm, 493.</p></div> + +<div class="sidenote">Athens and +Sparta +alone reject +the demands +of Persia:<br /> +B. C. 491.</div> + +<p>2. Not even the summons to acknowledge the +Persian authority was sufficient to rouse the national +energy of the Greeks. All the islands, and +most of the states on the main land, submitted +to the yoke; Sparta and Athens alone boldly rejected +it. The Athenians, unassisted, under their +leader Miltiades, acquainted from his youth with<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_181" id="Page_181">[Pg 181]</a></span> +the Persians and their mode of warfare, and with +the superiority of the arms of his countrymen, became +the saviours of Greece.</p> + +<div class="sblockquot"><p>Quarrel of Athens and Sparta with Ægina, which sides with +the Persians, 491; and consequent deposition of Demaratus, king +of Sparta, by his colleague Cleomenes.</p> + +<p>Persian expedition of Datis and Artaphernes under the guidance +of Hippias: frustrated by the battle of Marathon, B. C. +Sept. 29, 490, and the failure of an attempt upon Athens.</p></div> + +<div class="sidenote">Expedition +against Paros +by Miltiades.</div> + +<p>3. The immediate consequence of this victory +was a naval expedition against the islands, more +particularly Paros, to which Miltiades, out of a +private grudge, persuaded the Athenians. It was +undertaken for the purpose of levying contributions; +and seems to have given the Athenians the +first idea of their subsequent dominion of the sea. +The Athenians punished Miltiades for the failure +of this expedition, although the effect of their own +folly; yet was this act of injustice a source of happiness +to Athens; as the fall of Miltiades made +room for the men who laid the solid foundation of +her glory and greatness.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">Internal +state of +Athens.</div> + +<p>4. As usual in every democratic state rising to +power, the history of Athens now becomes that +of eminent individuals, standing at the head of +affairs, as generals or demagogues. Themistocles, +who united to an astonishing degree in his own +person the most splendid talents of statesman and +general, with a spirit of intrigue, and even of +egotism; and Aristides, whose disinterestedness, +even in those days, was singular at Athens, were +the real founders of the power of this commonwealth. +Athens, however, was more indebted to +the first than to the latter.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_182" id="Page_182">[Pg 182]</a></span></p> + +<div class="sblockquot"><p>Rivalry of these two men, 490—486. While Themistocles at +the head of the Athenian fleet prosecutes the design of Miltiades +against the islands, the management of state affairs is confided to +Aristides. On the return, however, of Themistocles as conqueror, +Aristides is by ostracism banished Athens, 486. Themistocles +alone, at the head of affairs, pursues his plan for making Athens +a maritime power. In consequence of a war against the object +of popular hatred, Ægina, B. C. 484, he prevails on the Athenians +to devote the income from the mines to the formation of a +navy. While Athens is thus rising to power, Sparta suffers from +the insanity of one of her kings, Cleomenes, (succeeded in 482 by +his half brother Leonidas,) and the arrogance of the other, Leotychides.</p></div> + +<div class="sidenote">Second expedition +of +the Persians +defeated +by +Themistocles: +480.</div> + +<p>5. The glory of frustrating the second mighty +Persian invasion of Greece under Xerxes I. belongs +to Themistocles alone. Not only his great +naval victory off Salamis, but still more the manner +in which he contrived to work upon his countrymen, +proves him to have been the greatest +man of the age, and the deliverer of Greece, now +united by one common bond of interest.—All +national leagues are weak in themselves: yet how +strong may even the weakest be made when held +together by one great man, who knows how to animate +it with his own spirit!</p> + +<div class="sblockquot"><p>Themistocles' plan for the conduct of the war; first, a common +union of all the Hellenic states; a measure which succeeds to a +certain degree, the honour of the command being left to the +Spartans; secondly, the sea made the theatre of war.—Gallant +death of Leonidas with his three hundred Spartans and +seven hundred Thespians, July 6, 480. An example of heroism +which contributes as much to the greatness of Greece as the victory +of Salamis. About the same time naval engagements off +Artemisium in Eubœa, with two hundred and seventy-one sail. +The leaders of the Greeks are kept to their posts merely by bribery; +the means of purchasing their services being for the most +part furnished by Themistocles himself.—Athens, deserted by +its inhabitants, is taken and burnt by Xerxes, July 20. Retreat<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_183" id="Page_183">[Pg 183]</a></span> +of the Grecian fleet into the bay of Salamis: revocation of all +exiles, Aristides among the rest.—Politic measures adopted by +Themistocles to hinder the dispirited Greeks from taking flight, +and at the same time to secure to himself, in case of need, +an asylum with the Persian monarch.—Naval engagement and +victory off Salamis, Sept. 23, 480, with three hundred and eighty +sail, (one hundred and eighty of which were Athenian,) against +the Persian fleet, already much weakened: retreat of Xerxes.—Poets +and historians have disfigured these events by fanciful exaggerations: +still, however, they may show us how commonly +human weakness is attended with human greatness!</p></div> + +<div class="sidenote">Battles of +Platææ and +Mycale, +Sept. 25, 479.</div> + +<p>6. The victory of Salamis did not conclude the +war; but the negotiations entered into during the +winter months with the Persian general, Mardonius, +left in Thessaly, and with the Asiatic +Greeks, to excite them to throw off the yoke, +show how far the confidence of the nation in its +own strength had increased. But by the battle +fought on land at Platææ, under the command +of the Spartan, Pausanias, (guardian to Plistarchus, +son of Leonidas,) and the Athenian, Aristides; +together with the naval battle at Mycale +on the same day, and the destruction of the Persian +fleet, the Persians are for ever driven from +the territory of Greece, though the war continues +for some time longer.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">Sparta has +the ascendancy +to 470.</div> + +<p>7. The expulsion of the Persians wrought an +entire change in the internal and external relations +of Greece. From being the aggressed the +Greeks became the aggressors; to free their +Asiatic countrymen is now the chief object or +pretext for the continuation of a war so profitable; +the chief command of which abides with +Sparta until B. C. 470.</p> + +<div class="sblockquot"><p>Athens rebuilt and fortified by Themistocles despite of Spartan +jealousy, 478: formation of the Piræus, an event of still<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_184" id="Page_184">[Pg 184]</a></span> +greater importance, 477.—Naval expedition under Pausanias, +accompanied by Aristides and Cimon, undertaken against Cyprus +and Byzantium, for the purpose of expelling the Persians, 470. +Treachery and fall of Pausanias, 469. In consequence of the +Spartans' haughtiness, the supreme command devolves upon the +Athenians.</p></div> + +<div class="sidenote">Athens assumes +the +chief command:</div> + +<p>8. This transfer of the command to Athens had +a decided effect on all the subsequent relations +of Greece, not only because it augmented the +jealousy between Sparta and Athens, but because +Athens exercised her predominance for a purpose +entirely different from that of Sparta.—Establishment +of a permanent confederacy, comprising most +of the Grecian states without Peloponnesus, especially +the islands, and an adjustment of the contributions +to be annually furnished by each, with +the view of prosecuting the Persian war, and +liberating the Asiatic Greeks from the Persian +yoke. Although the common treasury was first +established at Delos, the superintendence of it +was confided to Athens; and such a manager as +Aristides was not always to be found.—Natural +consequence of this new establishment: 1. What +had hitherto been mere military precedence, becomes +in the hands of Athens a right of political +prescription, and that, as usual, is soon converted +into a sovereignty. Hence her idea of the supremacy of Greece, +(ἀρχὴ τῆς Ἑλλάδος,) +as connected with that of the sea, +(θαλασσοκρατία.) +2. The oppression of the Athenians, sometimes real, at +other times presumed, after a short time, rouses +the spirit of discontent and contumacy among +several of the confederates: hence, 3. The gradual +formation of a counter league, headed by<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_185" id="Page_185">[Pg 185]</a></span> +Sparta, who maintains her supremacy over the +greatest part of the Peloponnesus.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">consequences +of that +change.</div> + +<p>9. The changes introduced into the internal organization +are not to be determined solely by the +palpable alterations made in any of Lycurgus's +or Solon's institutions. In Sparta, the general +frame-work of Lycurgus's constitution subsisted; +nevertheless the power was virtually in the hands +of the ephori, whose dictatorial sway placed +Sparta in the formidable posture she now assumed.—At +Athens, in proportion as the importance +of foreign relations increased, and amid the +protracted struggles between the heads of the democratic +and aristocratic parties, the real power, +under the outward appearance of a democracy, +gradually centered in the hands of the ten annually elected generals, +(στρατηγοὶ,) who with more +or less effect played the parts of demagogues.</p> + +<div class="sblockquot"><p>Abrogation of the law that excluded the poorer citizens from +official situations, B. C. 478.</p> + +<p>Expulsion of Themistocles, implicated in the fall of Pausanias, +principally through the intrigues of Sparta: he is first banished +by ostracism, 469, but in consequence of further persecution he +flies over to the Persians, 466.</p></div> + +<div class="sidenote">Brilliant +period of +Athens.</div> + +<p>10. The following forty years, from 470—430, +constitute the flourishing period of Athens. A +concurrence of fortunate circumstances happening +among a people of the highest abilities and +promoted by great men, produced here phenomena, +such as have never since been witnessed. Political +greatness was the fundamental principle of the +commonwealth; Athens had been the guardian, +and the champion of Greece, and she wished to +appear worthy of herself. Hence in Athens alone +were men acquainted with public splendour, exhi<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_186" id="Page_186">[Pg 186]</a></span>bited +in buildings, in spectacles, and festivals, the +acquisition of which was facilitated by private +frugality. This public spirit animating every citizen, +expanded the blossoms of genius; no broad +line of distinction was anxiously drawn between +private and public life; whatever great, whatever +noble was produced by Athens, sprung up verdant +and robust out of this harmony, this buxom +vigour of the state. Far different was the case +with Sparta; there rude customs and laws arrested +the development of genius: there men +were taught to die for the land of their forefathers: +while at Athens they learnt to live for it.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">Athenian +civilization.</div> + +<p>11. Agriculture continued the principal occupation +of the citizens of Attica; other employments +were left to the care of slaves. Commerce +and navigation were mainly directed towards the +Thracian coast and the Black sea; the spirit of +trade, however, was never the prevailing one. +As affairs of state became more attractive, and +men desired to participate in them, the want of +intellectual education began to be felt, and sophists +and rhetoricians soon offered their instruction. +Mental expertness was more coveted than +mental knowledge; men wished to learn how to +think and to speak. A poetical education had +long preceded the rise of this national desire; +poesy now lost nothing of its value: as heretofore +Homer remained the cornerstone of intellectual +improvement. Could it be that such blossoms +would produce other fruits than those which ripened +in the school of Socrates, in the masterpieces +of the tragedians and orators, and in the +immortal works of Plato?<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_187" id="Page_187">[Pg 187]</a></span></p> + +<div class="sidenote">Changes in +the persons +at the head +of affairs.</div> + +<p>12. These flowers of national genius burst forth +in spite of many evils, inseparable from such a +constitution established among such a people. +Great men were pushed aside; others took their +places. The loss of Themistocles was supplied +by Miltiades's son Cimon; who to purer politics +united equal talents. He protracted the war +against the Persians in order to maintain the +union of the Greeks; and favoured the aristocratic +party at the same time that he affected popularity. +Even his enemies learnt by experience, that the +state could not dispense with a leader who +seemed to have entered into a compact for life +with victory.</p> + +<div class="sblockquot"><p>Another expedition under Cimon; and victory by sea and land +near the Eurymedon, B. C. 469. He takes possession of the +Hellespontine Chersonesus, 468. Some of the Athenian confederates +already endeavour to secede. Hence, 467, the conquest +of Caristus in Eubœa; subjection of Naxos, 466, and from +465—463, siege and capture of Thasos, under Cimon. The +Athenians endeavour to obtain a firmer footing on the shore of +Macedonia; and for that purpose send out a colony to Amphipolis, +465.</p> + +<p>Great earthquake at Sparta; gives rise to a ten years' war, +viz. the third Messenian war or revolt of the Helots, who fortify +themselves in Ithome, 465—455: in this war the Athenians, at +the instigation of Cimon, send assistance to the Spartans, 461, +who refuse the proffered aid. The democratic party seize the +opportunity of casting on Cimon the suspicion of being in the +interest of Sparta; he is banished by ostracism, 461.</p></div> + +<div class="sidenote">Aristides +dies, 467.</div> + +<p>13. The death of Aristides, and the banishment +of Cimon, concur in elevating Pericles to the +head of affairs; a statesman whose influence had +begun to operate as early as 469. Less a general +than a demagogue, he supported himself in authority +during forty years, until the day of his +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_188" id="Page_188">[Pg 188]</a></span>death, and swayed Athens without being either +archon or member of the areopagus. That under +him the constitution must have assumed a more +democratic character, is demonstrated by the fact +<span class="sidenote">Pericles dies, 429.</span> +of his exaltation as leader of the democratic +party. The aristocrats, however, contrive until +444 to set up rivals against him in the persons of +the military leaders, Myronides, Tolmidas, and +more particularly the elder Thucydides.</p> + +<div class="sblockquot"><p>Change in the spirit of administration under Pericles, both in +reference to internal and external relations. A brilliant management +succeeds to the parsimonious economy of Aristides; and +yet, after the lapse of thirty years, the state treasury was full.—Limitation +of the power of the areopagus by Ephialtes, B. C. 461. +The withdrawal of various causes which formerly came under the +jurisdiction of that tribunal must have diminished its right of +moral censorship.—Introduction of the practice of paying persons +who attended the courts of justice.</p> + +<p>With regard to external relations, the precedence of the Athenians +gradually advanced toward supremacy; although their relations +with all the confederates were not precisely the same. Some +were mere confederates; others were subjects.—Augmentation +in the imposts on the confederates, and transfer of the treasury +from Delos to Athens, 461. The jealousy of Sparta and the +discontent of the confederates keep pace with the greatness of +Athens.</p> + +<p>Unsuccessful attempt to support by the help of an Athenian +fleet and troops, Inarus of Egypt in his insurrection against the +Persians, 462—458.</p> + +<p>Wars in Greece: the Spartans instigate Corinth and Epidaurus +against Athens. The Athenians, at first defeated near Haliæ, +in their turn rout the enemy, 458, and then carry the war against +Ægina, which is subdued, 457. In the new quarrel between +Corinth and Megara respecting their boundaries, the Athenians +side with Megara; Myronides conquers at Cimolia, 457. Expedition +of the Spartans to the support of the Dorians against +Phocis; and hence arises the first rupture between Athens, +Sparta, and Bœotia. First battle of Tanagra, in which the +Spartans are victorious in the same year, 457. The Bœotians,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_189" id="Page_189">[Pg 189]</a></span> +incited by the Spartans, are in the second battle of Tanagra +worsted by Myronides, 456. The recall of Cimon, at the suggestion +of Pericles himself, in consequence of the first defeat.</p></div> + +<div class="sidenote">Cimon restored.<br /> + +450.<br /> + +449.</div> + +<p>14. Cimon recalled from exile, endeavours to +reestablish the domestic tranquillity of Greece, and +at the same time to renew the war against the Persians. +He succeeds in his attempt after the lapse +of five years; and the consequence is a victorious +expedition against the Persians. He defeats their +fleet off Cyprus, and routs their army on the +Asiatic coast. The fruit of this victory is the +celebrated peace with Artaxerxes I. (see above, +p. 104.) Ere that peace is concluded Cimon dies, +too soon for his country, while occupied with the +siege of Citium.</p> + +<div class="sblockquot"><p>Termination of the third Messenian war in favour of Sparta, +by the cession of Ithome, B. C. 455. Meantime Athens continues +the war with Peloponnesus; Tolmidas and Pericles +making an incursion by sea on the enemy's territory, 455—454. +At the same time Pericles, by sending out colonies to the Hellespont, +endeavours to secure more firmly the Athenian power in +that quarter: a colony is likewise sent out to Naxos, 453.—Cimon +negotiates a truce, which is adopted first (451) tacitly, +afterwards formally, (450,) for five years. The result of this +truce is his victorious expedition against the Persians, and the +consequent peace with that nation. Although the conditions of +the peace prescribed by Cimon were sometimes infringed, they +appear to have been ratified by all parties.</p></div> + +<div class="sidenote">State of +Greece after +the peace +with Persia.<br /> + +431.</div> + +<p>15. The conclusion of peace with Persia, glorious +as it was, and the death of the man whose +grand political object was to preserve union among +the Greeks, again aroused the spirit of internal +strife. For notwithstanding nearly twenty years +intervened before the tempest burst with all its +fury, this period was so turbulent during its course, +that Greece seldom enjoyed universal peace.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_190" id="Page_190">[Pg 190]</a></span> +While Athens by her naval strength was maintaining +her ascendancy over the confederates, and +while some of those confederates were raising the +standard of rebellion and passing over to Sparta, +every thing was gradually combining towards the +formation of a counter league, the necessary consequence +of which must have been a war, such as +the Peloponnesian. Up to this time Athens was +at the height of her power; she was governed by +Pericles, who, in every thing but the name, was +sole ruler during this period, and for that reason +she experienced few of the evils resulting from +a democratic constitution. Who, indeed, could +overthrow a demagogue whose presence of mind, +even in the greatest good fortune, never once deserted +him; who knew how to keep alive among +his fellow-citizens the conviction that, however +exalted they might be, it was to him alone they +were indebted for it?</p> + +<div class="sblockquot"><p>During the five years' truce the sacred war for the possession +of the Delphian oracle took place, and it is given by the Spartans +to the city of Delphi; but after their return is given back again +by the Athenians to the Phocians, B. C. 448. The Athenians +commanded by Tolmidas, are defeated by the Bœotians, 447. +This expedition, undertaken in opposition to the advice of Pericles, +contributes to increase his influence; particularly as he reduces +to obedience the revolted Eubœa and Megara, 446. End +of the five years' truce with Sparta; and renewal of hostilities, +445; further warlike proceedings are repressed by a new thirty +years' peace, which lasts, however, only fourteen years.—Complete +suppression of the aristocratic party, by the banishment of +the elder Thucydides, 444; the whole administration of the state +consequently centres in the hands of Pericles.—Democracy in +the confederate states favoured; forcibly introduced in Samos, +which, after a nine months' siege, is obliged to submit to Pericles, +440.—Commencement of the war between Corinth and Corcyra, +on the subject of Epidamnus, 436, which the Corcyræans take<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_191" id="Page_191">[Pg 191]</a></span> +possession of after winning a naval victory, 435. The Athenians +take part in the quarrel, and side with the Corcyræans, 432. +The rupture with Corinth, and the policy of Perdiccas II. king +of Macedonia, lead to the secession of the Corinthian colony of +Potidæa, which previously belonged to the Athenian confederacy: +the war thereby is extended to the Macedonian coast. Engagement +near Potidæa, and siege of that town, 432. The Corinthians +direct their steps to Sparta, and excite the Spartans to war; which +is further accelerated by the attack of the Thebans upon Platææ, +the confederate of Athens, 431.</p></div> + +<div class="sidenote">Peloponnesian +war,<br /> +431—404.</div> + +<p>16. The history of the twenty-seven years' war, +known by the name of the Peloponnesian, or great +Grecian war, which swept away the fairest flowers +of Greece, is the more deserving attention from +its being not merely a struggle between nations, +but likewise against certain forms of government. +The policy of Athens, which to establish or preserve +her influence in foreign states, excited the +multitude against the higher orders, had on all +sides given rise to two factions, the democrat or +Athenian, and the aristocrat or Spartan; and the +mutual bitterness of party spirit produced the +most violent disorders.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">Power and +influence of +Athens and +Sparta.</div> + +<p>17. The respective relations of the two head +states of Greece to their confederates, were at +this time of a very opposite nature. Athens, as +a naval power, was mistress of most of the islands +and maritime cities, which, as tributary confederates, +rendered for the most part a forced obedience. +Sparta, as a land power, was allied with +most of the states on the continent, which had +joined her side of their own accord, and were +not subject to tribute. Sparta therefore presented +herself as the deliverer of Greece from the Athenian +yoke.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_192" id="Page_192">[Pg 192]</a></span></p> + +<div class="sblockquot"><p>Confederates of the Athenians: the islands Chios, Samos, Lesbos, +all those of the Archipelago, (Thera and Melos excepted, +which stood neutral,) Corcyra, Zacynthus; the Grecian colonies +in Asia Minor, and on the coast of Thrace and Macedonia; in +Greece itself, the cities of Naupactus, Platææ, and those of Acarnania.—Confederates +of the Spartans: all the Peloponnesians, +(Argos and Achaia excepted, which stood neutral,) Megara, Locris, +Phocis, Bœotia, the cities of Ambracia and Anactorium, +and the island of Leucas.</p></div> + +<div class="sidenote">Internal state of +Athens and +Sparta.</div> + +<p>18. Sketch of the internal state of Athens and +Sparta at this period. The power of Athens depended +mainly on the state of her finances; without +which she could not support a fleet, and without +a fleet her ascendancy over the confederates +would of course fall to ground. And although +Pericles, notwithstanding his lavish public expenditure, +was able to enter upon the war with +6,000 talents in the treasury, experience could +not fail to show that, in such a democratic state +as Athens was now become under Pericles, the +squandering of the public money was an unavoidable +evil. This evil was produced, however, at +Athens much less by the peculations of individual +state officers than by the demands of the multitude, +who for the most part lived at the expense +of the state treasury. On the other hand, Sparta +as yet had no finance; and only began to feel the +want of it as she began to acquire a naval power, +and entered upon undertakings more vast than +mere incursions.</p> + +<div class="sblockquot"><p>Financial system of the Athenians. Revenue: 1. The tribute +paid by the confederates (φόροι) +increased by Pericles from four +hundred and sixty to six hundred talents. 2. Income from the +customs, (which were farmed,) and from the mines at Laurium. +3. The caution money of the non-citizens: (μέτοικοι.) +4. The taxes on the citizens, (εἰσφοραὶ,) +which fell almost entirely on the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_193" id="Page_193">[Pg 193]</a></span> +rich, more particularly on the first class, the members of which +were not only to bear the burthen of fitting out the fleet, +(τριεραρχίαι,) +but were likewise to furnish means for the public festivals +and spectacles, (χορηγίαι.) +The whole income of the republic at +this time was estimated at 2,000 talents. But the disbursements +made to the numerous assistants at the courts of justice (the principal +means of existence with the poorer citizens, and which, +more than any thing else, contributed to the licentiousness of the +democracy and the oppression of the confederates, whose causes +were all brought to Athens for adjudication,) together with the +expenditure for festivals and spectacles, even at this time, absorbed +the greatest part of the revenue.</p> + +<p>† <span class="smcap">F. Boekh</span>, <i>Public Economy of the Athenians</i>, 2 parts, +Berlin, 1816. The chief work on the subject. [Ably translated +by <span class="smcap">J. C. Lewis</span>, esq. of Christ Church in this university.]</p> + +<p><i>Athenian Letters, or the Epistolary Correspondence of an +Agent of the King of Persia, residing at Athens during the Peloponnesian +war.</i> London, 1798, 2 vols. 4to. The production +of several young authors; first printed, but not published, in +1741. This sketch comprises, not only Greece, but likewise +Persia and Egypt.</p></div> + +<div class="sidenote">First period +of the war,<br /> +431—422.<br /> +429.<br /> +430.</div> + +<p>19. First period of the war until the fifty years' +peace. Beginning of the war unsuccessful to +Athens during the first three years, under the +conduct of Pericles, in whose defensive plan we +may perhaps discern the infirmities of age. The +Athenians, however, suffered less from the annual +inroads of the Spartans than from the plague, to +which Pericles himself at last fell a victim. The +alliance of the Athenians with the kings of Thrace +and Macedonia extended the theatre of war; on +the other hand, Sparta had already conceived the +idea of an alliance with Persia.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">Consequence +of +the death +of Pericles.<br /> +427.<br /> +424.<br /> +422.</div> + +<p>20. The death of Pericles was, for the next +seven years, during which the place of that great +man was supplied by Cleon a currier, followed +by all the evils of an uncurbed democracy. The +atrocious decrees with respect to Mitylene, which +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_194" id="Page_194">[Pg 194]</a></span>after seceding, had been recaptured, and the insurrection +of the Corcyræan populace against the +rich, characterized the party spirit then dominant +in Greece better than the few insignificant events of +a war conducted without any plan. Sparta, however, +found in young Brasidas a general, such as +are wont to arise in revolutionary times. His prosecution +of the war on the Macedonian coast +might have brought great danger to Athens, had +he so early not fallen a victim to his own gallantry.</p> + +<div class="sblockquot"><p>Capture of Amphipolis by Brasidas, and exile of Thucydides, +424. Engagement near Amphipolis between Brasidas and +Cleon; and death of those two generals, 422.</p></div> + +<div class="sidenote">Peace not +lasting. +422.<br /> + +Alcibiades +at the head +of affairs, +420.</div> + +<p>21. The peace now concluded for fifty years +could not be of long duration, as many of the confederates +on either side were discontented with +its terms. All hope of tranquillity must have +been at an end when the management of Athenian +affairs fell into the hands of a youth like Alcibiades, +in whom vanity and artifice held the place +of patriotism and talent, and who thought war +the only field in which he could gain credit. +Against him what availed the prudence of Nicias?—Happy +was it for Athens that during the whole +of this period Sparta never produced one man +who could match even with Alcibiades!</p> + +<div class="sblockquot"><p>Attempt of some states, Corinth especially, to set Argos at the +head of a new confederacy; this measure Athens likewise favours, +421.—Violation of the peace, 419; the war indirect until +415, and limited to assisting the confederates on either side.—Alcibiades's +plan of giving Athens the preponderance in Peloponnesus, +by an alliance with Argos, is defeated by the battle +of Mantinea, 417.—Exterminating war of the Athenians waged +against the Melians, who wish to preserve their neutrality,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_195" id="Page_195">[Pg 195]</a></span> +whereas neutrality in the weaker party now becomes a crime, +416.</p></div> + +<div class="sidenote">Project +upon Sicily.</div> + +<p>22. Alcibiades's party brings forward at Athens +the project of conquering Sicily, under the pretence +of succouring the Segestani against the Syracusans. +This rash expedition, in which the +hopes both of the Athenians and of its instigator +Alcibiades were blighted, gave to Athens the first +great blow, from which she never after, even with +the utmost exertion of her strength, recovered; +especially as Sparta also was now become a naval +power.</p> + +<div class="sblockquot"><p>Early interference of the Athenians with the concerns of the +Sicilian Greeks.—A fleet and army under the command of Nicias, +Lamachus, and Alcibiades, sent against Sicily, 415.—Accusation, +recall, and flight of Alcibiades to Sparta: formal rupture +of the peace by an inroad of the Spartans into Attica, where +they fortify Decelea, 414. Unsuccessful siege of Syracuse, 414; +and total annihilation of the Athenian fleet and army by the +assistance of the Spartans under Gylippus, 413.</p></div> + +<div class="sidenote">Athens after +the war +in Sicily.</div> + +<p>23. Fatal as in the present circumstances the +blow struck in Sicily must appear to have been +to Athens, yet the calamity was surmounted by +Athenian enthusiasm, never greater than in times +of misfortune. They maintained their supremacy +over the confederates; but the part which Alcibiades, +in consequence of the new posture his +own personal interest had assumed at Sparta, +took in their affairs, brought about a twofold domestic +revolution, which checked the licentious +democracy.</p> + +<div class="sblockquot"><p>Alliance of the Spartans with the Persians, and indecisive engagement +off Miletus—Flight of Alcibiades from Sparta to Tissaphernes; +his negotiations to gain the satrap over to the interests +of Athens, 411.—Equivocal policy of Tissaphernes.—Negotiations +of Alcibiades with the chiefs of the Athenian army<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_196" id="Page_196">[Pg 196]</a></span> +at Samos, and the consequent revolution at Athens, and overthrow +of the democracy by the appointment of the supreme +council of four hundred in place of the βουλὴ, and of a committee +of five thousand citizens in place of the popular assembly, 411.—The +army assumes the right of debate; names Alcibiades to be +its leader; but declares again for democracy.—Great commotions +at Athens in consequence of the discomfiture of the fleet at Eretria, +and the secession of Eubœa. Deposition of the college of +four hundred, after a despotic rule of four months;—Reformation +of the government;—Transfer of the highest power to the +hands of the five thousand;—Recall of Alcibiades, and reconciliation +with the army.</p></div> + +<div class="sidenote">Brilliant +period of +Alcibiades,<br /> +411—410.<br /> + +410.</div> + +<p>24. Brilliant period of Alcibiades's command. +The reiterated naval victories won by the Athenians +over the Spartans under Mindarus, who, +mistrusting Tissaphernes, now forms an alliance +with Pharnabazus, satrap of the north of Asia +Minor, oblige the Spartans to propose peace, +which haughty Athens, unluckily for herself, rejects.</p> + +<div class="sblockquot"><p>Two naval engagements on the Hellespont, 411.—Great victory +by sea and land won near Cyzicus, 410.—Confirmation of +the Athenian dominion over Ionia and Thrace by the capture of +Byzantium, 480. Alcibiades returns covered with glory; but in +the same year is deposed, and submits to a voluntary exile, 407.</p></div> + +<div class="sidenote">Anabasis of +Cyrus, +407.<br /> + +406.<br /> + +406.<br /> + +405—403.</div> + +<p>25. Arrival of the younger Cyrus in Asia Minor; +the shrewdness of Lysander wins him over +to the Spartan interest. The republican haughtiness +of Lysander's successor, Callicratidas, +shown to Cyrus, was a serious error in policy; +for, unassisted by Persian money, Sparta was +not in a condition to pay her mariners, nor consequently +to support her naval establishment. +After the defeat and death of Callicratidas, the +command is restored to Lysander, who terminates +the twenty seven years' war triumphantly for +Sparta.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_197" id="Page_197">[Pg 197]</a></span></p> + +<div class="sblockquot"><p>Naval victory of Lysander over the Athenians at Notium, 407; +in consequence of which Alcibiades is deprived of the command.—Appointment +of ten new leaders at Athens; Conon among the +number.—Naval victory of Callicratidas at Mitylene; Conon is +shut up in the harbour of that place, 406.—Great naval victory +of the Athenians; defeat and death of Callicratidas at the Æginussæ +islands, near Lesbos, 406.—Unjust condemnation of the +Athenian generals.—Second command of Lysander, and last <i>decisive</i> +victory by sea over the Athenians at Ægospotamos on the +Hellespont, Dec. 406.—The loss of the sovereignty of the sea is +accompanied by the defection of the confederates, who are successively +subjected by Lysander, 406.—Athens is besieged by +Lysander in the same year, 405; the city surrenders in May, +404.—Athens is deprived of her walls; her navy is reduced to +twelve sail; and, in obedience to Lysander's commands, the constitution +is commuted into an oligarchy, under thirty rulers, (tyrants.)</p></div> + +<div class="sidenote">End of the +Peloponnesian +war.</div> + +<p>26. Thus ended a war destructive in its moral, +still more than in its political, consequences. +Party spirit had usurped the place of patriotic +feeling; as national prejudice had that of national +energy. Athens being subdued, Sparta stood at +the head of confederate Greece; but Greece very +soon experienced the yoke of her deliverers to be +infinitely more galling than that of the people hitherto +called her oppressors. What evils must +not have ensued from the revolutions Lysander +now found it necessary to effect in most of the +Grecian states, in order to place the helm of government +in the hands of his own party under the +superintendence of a Spartan harmost?—How +oppressive must not have been the military rule +of the numerous Spartan garrisons?—Nor could +any alleviation of tribute be hoped for, now that +in Sparta it was acknowledged that the "state +must possess an exchequer."—The arrogance and +rapacity of the new masters were rendered more<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_198" id="Page_198">[Pg 198]</a></span> +grievous by their being more uncivilized and destitute.</p> + +<div class="sblockquot"><p>History of the reign of terror at Athens under the thirty tyrants, +403.—What happened here must likewise have happened +more or less in the other Grecian cities, which Lysander found +it necessary to revolutionize. In all quarters his party consisted +of men similar to Critias and his colleagues, who appear to have +been long before united in clubs +(ἑταιρείαι) intimately connected +with each other; from which were now taken the most daring +revolutionists, in order to place them everywhere at the head of +affairs.</p></div> + +<div class="sidenote">Expulsion +of the thirty +tyrants.<br /> + +403.</div> + +<p>27. Happy revolution in Athens, and expulsion +of the thirty tyrants by Thrasybulus, favoured by +the party at Sparta opposed to Lysander, and +headed by king Pausanias. Restoration and reform +of Solon's constitution; general amnesty. +It was easy to reestablish forms;—to recall the +departed spirit of the nation was impossible!</p> + +<div class="sblockquot"><p><span class="smcap">Ed. Ph. Hinrichs</span>, <i>De Theramenis, Critiæ et Thrasybuli, +virorum tempore belli Peloponnesiaci inter Græcos illustrium, +rebus et ingenio, Commentatio</i>, Hamburgi, 1820. An inquiry +which exhibits much research and impartiality.</p></div> + +<div class="sidenote">War of the +Spartans +with Persia, +400.</div> + +<p>28. The defeat of the younger Cyrus entangles +the Spartans in a war with the Persians, the same +year that, after the death of king Agis, Agesilaus +takes possession of the regal dignity. We willingly +forget his usurpation as we follow him +in his heroic career. None but a man of genius +could have instructed Sparta how to support for +so long a time the extravagant character which +she had now undertaken to play.</p> + +<div class="sblockquot"><p>Opening of the war with Persia by Tissaphernes's attack on +the Æolian cities of Asia Minor, 400.—Command of Thimbron, +who, 398, is succeeded by the more successful and fortunate Dercyllidas.—Availing +himself of the jealousy between Tissaphernes +and Artabazus, he persuades the latter to a separate truce, 397.—Command +of Agesilaus; his expedition into Asia, from the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_199" id="Page_199">[Pg 199]</a></span> +spring of 396 until 394. The conviction which he obtained of +the domestic weakness of the Persian empire in the successful +invasion of Phrygia, 395, seems to have matured in the mind of +Agesilaus the idea of overturning the Persian throne: this design +he would have accomplished had not the Persians been politic +enough to kindle a war against Sparta in Greece itself.</p></div> + +<div class="sidenote">Corinthian +war, 394.<br /> + +387.</div> + +<p>29. The Corinthian war, waged against Sparta +by Corinth, Thebes, and Argos, to which Athens +and the Thessalians unite, terminated by the +peace of Antalcidas. The tyranny of Sparta, and +more particularly the recent devastation of Elis, +a sacred territory, were the alleged pretexts; +but the bribes of Timocrates, the Persian envoy, +were the real causes of this war.</p> + +<div class="sblockquot"><p>Irruption of the Spartans into Bœotia; they engage and are +routed at Haliartus, 394. Lysander falls on the field of battle; +and Agesilaus is recalled out of Asia.—His victory at Coronea +ensures to the Spartans the preponderance by land; but the discomfiture +of their navy near Cnidus at the same time, gives to +their enemies the sovereignty of the sea: Conon, who commanded +the combined Persian and Athenian fleets, avails himself, +with consummate skill, of this success to reestablish the independence +of Athens, 393.—Sparta endeavours by apparently +great sacrifices to bring over the Persians to her interests: the +peace at last concluded by the efforts of the skilful Antalcidas, +(see above, book ii, parag. 42), was readily agreed to by the +Spartans, as they gave up only what otherwise they could not +have retained. The preponderance of Sparta on the continent +of Greece was established by the article which invested them +with the power of seeing the conditions of the treaty fulfilled: +the stipulated freedom of the Grecian cities was but an apparent +disadvantage; and now that the Asiatic colonies were given up, +the contest for power in Greece itself must be decided by land, +and not by sea.</p></div> + +<div class="sidenote">386.<br /> + +384.<br /> + +383—380.<br /> + +382.</div> + +<p>30. The quarrels which, after the peace of +Antalcidas, Sparta began to have with Mantinea +and Phlius, and still more so her participation in +those between the Macedo-Greek cities and the +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_200" id="Page_200">[Pg 200]</a></span>over-powerful Olynthus, prove too plainly the arrogance +with which Sparta behaved to the weaker +states. But the arbitrary appropriation of the +citadel of Thebes by Phœbidas,—an act not indeed +commanded, yet approved by Sparta,—was +attended with more serious consequences than +were at first expected. Would that all authors +of similar breaches of good faith and the law of +nations were visited with the same vengeance!</p> + +<div class="sidenote">Rivalry of Sparta and Thebes.</div> + +<p>31. Period of the rivalry of Sparta and Thebes, +Thebes, from the year 378. The greatness of Thebes was +the work of two men, who knew how to inspire +their fellow-citizens and confederates with their +own heroic spirit: with them Thebes rose, with +them she fell. Rarely does history exhibit such +a <i>duumvirate</i> as that of Epaminondas and Pelopidas. +How high must our estimation of Pythagoras +be, even had his philosophy formed but one +such man as Epaminondas!</p> + +<div class="sblockquot"><p>Liberation of Thebes from Spartan rule by the successful attempt +of Pelopidas and his fellow-conspirators, 378. Vain attempts +against Thebes, by the Spartans under Cleombrotus, 378, +and Agesilaus, 377 and 376. The defensive war conducted by +Pelopidas, during which he established the Theban supremacy in +Bœotia, and brought over the Athenians, (whose fleet, 376, beat +that of the Spartans,) deserves our admiration more than the +winning of a battle.—The vast plans of Thebes were not unfolded, +however, till Epaminondas was at the head of affairs.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Seran de la Tour</span>, <i>Histoire d'Epaminondas</i>. Paris, 1752.</p> + +<p>† <span class="smcap">Meissner</span>, <i>Life of Epaminondas</i>. Prague, 1801, 2 parts. +In which the authorities are duly considered.</p> + +<p>† <span class="smcap">J. G. Scheibel</span>, <i>Essays towards a better understanding of +the Ancient World</i>, 1809. The second part contains an essay +upon the history of Thebes, as the first does on that of Corinth.</p></div> + +<div class="sidenote">General peace in Greece +mediated by +Persia: +374.<br /> + +372.</div> + +<p>32. A general peace is concluded in Greece +through the mediation of the Persians, (who wish +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_201" id="Page_201">[Pg 201]</a></span>to obtain auxiliaries against the Egyptians,) under +the condition that all the Grecian cities shall be +free: it is acceded to by Sparta and Athens, but +rejected by Thebes, because she cannot admit the +condition without again falling under the Spartan +yoke. In fact, the lofty language used by Epaminondas, +as envoy to Sparta, shows that it was +problematic whether Sparta or Thebes should +now be at the head of Greece. Could the idea, +therefore, of a perfect equality between the states +of Greece be other than chimerical?</p> + +<div class="sidenote">Epaminondas: +371—362.</div> + +<p>33. The long struggle maintained so gloriously +by Epaminondas against Sparta is remarkable +both in a political and military point of view. +The power of Sparta was abased; Epaminondas +invented a new system of tactics, (out of which +soon after sprang the Macedonian art of war;) +and as soon as he found confederates in Peloponnesus +itself, he made his way to the very gates +of Sparta.</p> + +<div class="sblockquot"><p>Victory won by the Thebans at Leuctra, July 8, 371, and annihilation +of what hitherto had been called the supremacy of +Sparta.—First irruption into Peloponnesus preceded by alliances +with Arcadia, Elis, and Argos.—The attack upon Sparta itself +is unsuccessful; but the freedom of Messene is restored, 369.</p></div> + +<div class="sidenote">Sparta in alliance +with +Athens.</div> + +<p>34. Sparta in distress forms an alliance with +Athens, under the stipulation that the command +shall alternately be in the hands of the two confederates; +conditions, no doubt, humiliating to +Spartan pride! It however affords them the +means of frustrating Epaminondas's new attempt +on Corinth and the Peloponnesus. Even Dionysius +I. of Syracuse, thinks himself bound to assist +the Spartans as being Dorians.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_202" id="Page_202">[Pg 202]</a></span></p> + +<p>35. Thebes played a no less brilliant part in the +north than she did in the south. And had the +attempts to liberate Thessaly from the rule of the +tyrant, Alexander of Pheræ, been attended with +success, Thebes would have received a vast increase +of power. Even in Macedonia she acted +as arbitress.</p> + +<div class="sblockquot"><p>First and successful expedition of Pelopidas into Thessaly, +368.—After the decision of the disputed succession to the Macedonian +throne, young Philip is brought as hostage to Thebes, and +educated in the house of Epaminondas.—Pelopidas is sent as +ambassador, and taken prisoner by Alexander; hence the second +expedition of the Thebans, in which Epaminondas rescues the +army and delivers his friend, 367.</p></div> + +<div class="sidenote">Alliance of +Thebes and +Persia.</div> + +<p>36. Alliance of Thebes with Persia successfully +brought about by Pelopidas. In the intrigues +of the opponents at the Persian court, the +object of each was to bring that court over to his +own interest. Yet the domineering tone in which +the Persians wished to dictate peace, had not the +consequences that might have been expected; +and although Sparta consented to her confederates +remaining neutral, she would not forego her +claims on Messene. The establishment of a navy +would have been of more important consequences +to Thebes than this alliance, had not all these +plans, together with the greatness of Thebes, been +<span class="sidenote">365.</span> +swept away by the premature death of her two +leading men.</p> + +<div class="sblockquot"><p>Last expedition of Pelopidas against Alexander of Pheræ, in +which he himself falls, 364.—New irruption into Peloponnesus +caused by the commotions in Arcadia.—Battle of Mantinea, and +death of Epaminondas, June 27, 362.—General peace in Greece +mediated by the Persians; Sparta does not assent to it on account<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_203" id="Page_203">[Pg 203]</a></span> +of Messene, but sends Agesilaus to Egypt, there to support the +insurrection of Tachos.</p></div> + +<div class="sidenote">State of +Greece after +the war +between +Thebes and +Sparta.</div> + +<p>37. The result of this bloody struggle for the +supremacy of Greece was, that neither Sparta +nor Thebes obtained it; the former of these states +being weakened by the loss of Messene, the latter +by the loss of its leaders, and both strained by +their violent exertions. The situation of Greece +after this war seems to have been thus far +changed, that no state had the predominance; an +independence proceeding from enervation. Even +Athens, who by means of her naval power still +preserved her influence over the cities on the +coast and in the islands, lost the greater part in +the war of the allies, together with three of her +most celebrated leaders, Chabrias, Timotheus, +and Iphicrates, whose places were ill supplied by +Chares.</p> + +<div class="sblockquot"><p>Confederacy of the islands Cos, Rhodes, and Chios, and the +city of Byzantium; their secession from Athens, 358.—Unsuccessful +siege of Chios, before which Chabrias falls, 358; of Byzantium, +357. Athens suffers a still greater injury from the +cabals of Chares against his colleagues Timotheus and Iphicrates, +and from her imprudent participation in the insurrection of Artabazus, +356. The threats of Artaxerxes III. force Athens to make +a peace, in which she is obliged to acknowledge the freedom of +her confederates.</p></div> + +<div class="sidenote">Sacred war.<br /> +356—346.</div> + +<p>38. At the very time when the growing power +of Macedonia under Philip ought to have united +all the Grecian states, had such an union been +within the range of possibility, Greece plunged +into another civil war of ten years' duration, which +is known by the name of the sacred or Phocian +war. The Amphictyonic assembly, whose duty +it was to maintain peace, and whose influence had<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_204" id="Page_204">[Pg 204]</a></span> +been in the present circumstances reinstated, +abused its authority by kindling discord. The +hatred of the Thebans, who sought for new opportunities +of quarrel with Sparta, and the ambition +of the Phocian Philomelus, were the real +causes which led to the war, which the policy +of Philip knew how to prolong till the precise +moment favourable to his own particular views +arrived. The treasures of Delphi circulating in +Greece, were as injurious to the country as the +ravages which it underwent. A war springing out +of private passions, fostered by bribes and subsidiary +troops, and terminated by the interference +of foreign powers, was exactly what was requisite +for annihilating the scanty remains of morality and +patriotism still existing in Greece.</p> + +<div class="sblockquot"><p>Sentence of the Amphictyons against Sparta on account of the +former surprise of the citadel of Thebes by Phœbidas; and +against Phocis on account of the tillage of the sacred lands of +Delphi, 357.—Philomelus is elected general of the Phocians; the +rifling of the treasury of Delphi enables him to take into his pay +Athenian and other auxiliaries, and to carry war against the +Thebans and their confederates, the Locrians, etc. under pretence +of their being the executors of the Amphictyonic decrees. +Philomelus having fallen, 353, is succeeded by his brother Onomarchus, +more skilful than himself in intrigue and war: but +Onomarchus having fallen, 352, in the battle with Philip in +Thessaly, is followed by Phayllus. Philip even thus early endeavours +to push through Thermopylæ into Greece, but is repelled +by the Athenians. He executes this plan after his peace +with Athens, 347, and having procured the expulsion of the +Phocians from the Amphictyonic council, gets their place and +right of vote to be transferred to himself.</p></div> + +<div class="sidenote">Philip's advance +into +Greece.<br /> +338.<br /> +336.</div> + +<p>39. From the very first advance of Philip, the +fate of Greece could scarcely afford matter for +doubt; although the eloquence of Demosthenes +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_205" id="Page_205">[Pg 205]</a></span>warded it off until the second invasion, caused by +the Amphictyonic sentence passed on the Locrians. +(See below, book iv. parag. 15.) The +battle of Chæronea laid the foundation of Macedonia's +complete ascendancy over the Grecian +republics: by the appointment of Philip to be +generalissimo of Greece in the Persian war, that +ascendancy was, as it were, formally acknowledged; +nor did it end with the assassination of +that prince.</p> + + +<hr style="width: 100%;" /> +<h1><a name="FOURTH_BOOK" id="FOURTH_BOOK"></a>FOURTH BOOK.</h1> + +<h3>HISTORY OF THE MACEDONIAN MONARCHY.</h3> + + + +<hr style="width: 100%;" /> +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_206" id="Page_206">[Pg 206]</a></span></p> +<h2>FIRST PERIOD.</h2> + +<p class="cblockquot"><i>From its origin to the death of Alexander the Great. B. C.</i> 800—323.</p> + + +<div class="sblockquot"><p>Sources. We have no historian who wrote, particularly, on +Macedonia, before the time of Alexander. The facts relative to +the earlier history previous to Philip are collected from Diodorus, +Justin, Thucydides, and Arrian; from Diodorus more especially. +In consequence of the loss of the other historians, Diodorus +is the chief authority for the history of Philip; the +speeches of Demosthenes and Æschines must likewise be consulted, +but not made use of without caution and judicious historical +criticism. With respect to Alexander the Great, as so many +writers on his reign have been destroyed by time, Arrian must +now be considered as the chief authority, on account of the care +he has shown in the selection of his authorities, conjointly with +the seventeenth book of Diodorus. Plutarch's biography contains +several valuable additional facts; and even the superficial Curtius +might furnish us with abundance of information, did his accounts +offer higher claims to our credit.</p></div> + +<div class="sidenote">Origin of +the kingdom: +about<br /> +B. C. 813.</div> + +<p>1. An Hellenic colony from Argos, headed by +the Temenidæ, a branch of the Heraclidæ, settled +in Emathia, and laid the feeble foundation of the +Macedonian empire, which was in time to rise to +such power. Not only did the settlers keep their +footing in the country, in spite of the aboriginal +inhabitants; but their princes gradually extended +their territory, by subjecting or expelling several +of the neighbouring tribes. Their earlier history,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_207" id="Page_207">[Pg 207]</a></span> +not excepting even the names of their kings, is +buried in obscurity till the time of the Persian +invasions.</p> + +<div class="sblockquot"><p>The three first Macedonian kings, Caranus said to have ruled +twenty-eight years, Cœnus twenty-three, Tyrmas forty-five, +were unknown to Herodotus, who names as founder of the Macedonian +monarchy, Perdiccas, 729—678. Of this prince and +his successors Argæus, <i>d.</i> 640, Philip I. <i>d.</i> 602, Æropus, <i>d.</i> 576, +and Alcetas, <i>d.</i> 547, nothing more is known than that they waged +war, with various success against the neighbouring Pierians and +Illyrians, who had their own kings.</p></div> + +<div class="sidenote">Situation at +the time of +the Persian +invasion.<br /> +479.</div> + + +<p>2. When the Persians commenced their incursions +into Europe, Macedonia, by its situation, +must have been one of the first countries they +ravaged. Accordingly, as early as the reign of +Darius Hystaspis, the Macedonian kings were +tributary to the Persians; and were indebted for +their deliverance from that yoke, not to their own +valour, but to the victories of the Greeks. The +battle of Platææ restored independence to the +Macedonian kingdom, although that independence +was not formally acknowledged by the Persians.</p> + +<div class="sblockquot"><p>Immediately after the Scythian campaign, 513, Amyntas +(<i>d.</i> 498,) became tributary to the Persians; his son and successor, +Alexander, (<i>d.</i> 454,) was in the same state of subjection, and +was even compelled to join the expedition of Xerxes.</p></div> + +<div class="sidenote">Situation +after the retreat +of the +Persians.<br /> + +<i>d.</i> 424.</div> + +<p>3. But the expulsion of the Persians still left +Macedonia exposed to the attacks of other formidable +neighbours; on one side there was the +Thracians, among whom, under Sitalces, and his +successor, Seuthes, arose the powerful kingdom +of the Odrysæ; on the other, the Athenians, +who, availing themselves of their extensive navy, +reduced to subjection the Grecian settlements<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_208" id="Page_208">[Pg 208]</a></span> +on the Macedonian shores. Harassing as these +neighbours were to the Macedonian kings, they +proved to be the very instruments by which Macedonia +became so early and so deeply involved +in the affairs of Greece.</p> + +<div class="sblockquot"><p>Commencement of the differences with Athens, under the +reign of Perdiccas II, 454—413; Athens having supported his +brother Philip against him.—Defection of Potidæa, and fortification +of Olynthus, into which the Greeks from Chalcis and other +cities are transplanted, 432. Potidæa being forced to surrender +to Athens, 431, Perdiccas contrives to play so skilful a part in +the Peloponnesian war just now commencing, that he outwits the +Athenians, parrying the attack of Sitalces by a marriage of his +sister with Seuthes, the heir to that prince, 429. His alliance +with Sparta, 424, is very detrimental to the Athenians, Brasidas +wresting Amphipolis from their hands; nevertheless Perdiccas +chooses rather to conclude a peace with Athens, 423, than to +throw himself entirely into the arms of his new allies.</p></div> + +<div class="sidenote">Archelaus +lays the +foundation +of Macedonia, +413—400.</div> + +<p>4. Archelaus, the successor of Perdiccas, introduced +agriculture and civilization among the +Macedonians, who were never, however, recognized +by the Hellenes as their legitimate brethren: +highways and military roads were constructed; +forts were erected; and the court became +the seat of literature. In these days the +Macedonian kingdom seems to have comprised +Emathia, Mygdonia, and Pelagonia, to which +may be added some of the neighbouring tribes, +who, although governed by their own kings, were +tributary. The power of the kings was insignificant +when unaided by the nobles, among whom, +as was the case with all the hereditary princes of +Greece, they merely held the right of precedence. +How difficult was it, even in Alexander's time, to +erase from the minds of the Macedonian nobility +the recollection of their former importance!<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_209" id="Page_209">[Pg 209]</a></span></p> + +<p>5. The murder of Archelaus was followed by a +stormy period, wrapped in obscurity: the unsettled +state of the succession raised up many +pretenders to the throne, each of whom easily +found the means of supporting his claims, either +in some of the neighbouring tribes, or in one of +the Grecian republics.</p> + +<div class="sblockquot"><p>Æropus, as guardian to the young king Orestes, usurps the +supreme power, B. C. 400—394. After his death, and the murder +of his son Pausanias, 393, the throne was seized by Amyntas +II. son of Philip, and brother to Perdiccas II. who was +nevertheless unable to maintain his power until he had gained +a victory over Argæus, the brother of Pausanias, who was backed +by the Illyrians, 390—369. The war with Olynthus, 383—380, +could not be brought to a successful conclusion until he had +formed an alliance with Sparta.</p></div> + +<p>6. The three sons of Amyntas II, Alexander, +Perdiccas, and Philip, successively ascended the +throne after the death of their father; but so violent +were the commotions during the reigns of +the two former, that the future existence of Macedonia +as a kingdom might have been regarded +as problematical: it is certain that they were +obliged to submit to the payment of tribute to +the Illyrians.</p> + +<div class="sblockquot"><p>Alexander, in opposition to his rival, Ptolemy of Alorus, +placed on the throne by Pelopidas, sends his youngest brother +Philip as hostage to Thebes: in the same year he is deposed by +Ptolemy, 368. Reign of Ptolemy, 388—365, with the stipulation +imposed, 367, by Pelopidas, that he shall only hold the +sceptre in reserve for the two younger brothers. Murder of +Ptolemy, 365, by Perdiccas III. who is nearly overwhelmed +by Pausanias, another and earlier pretender to the crown; he is +at last firmly seated on the throne by the Athenians, under Iphicrates, +364. But as early as 360 he falls in the war against the +Illyrians, leaving behind him a son, Amyntas, still a minor, and +a younger brother Philip, who escapes from Thebes in order to +gain possession of the throne.</p></div><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_210" id="Page_210">[Pg 210]</a></span></p> + +<div class="sidenote">Philip, +360—336.</div> + +<p>7. The reign of Philip, which lasted twenty-four +years, is one of the most instructive and interesting +in the whole range of history, as well on +account of the prudence he displayed, as for the +manner in which his plans were arranged and +executed. Though it may be difficult to trace in +his morals the pupil of Epaminondas, yet it is impossible +to view without feelings of astonishment +the brilliant career of a man, who, under the almost +hopeless circumstances in which he commenced +his course, never lost his firmness of +mind, and who in the highest prosperity preserved +his coolness of reflection.</p> + +<div class="sblockquot"><p>The history of Philip, even in his own days, was distorted to +his disadvantage by orators and historians. Demosthenes could +not, Theopompus would not, be impartial; and the information +contained in Diodorus and Justin is mostly derived from the +work of the latter.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Olivier</span>, <i>Histoire de Philippe, roi de Macédoine</i>. Paris, +1740, 2 vols. 8vo. A defence of Philip.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">De Bury</span>, <i>Histoire de Philippe, et d'Alexandre le grand</i>. +Paris, 1760, 4to. A very mean performance.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Th. Leland</span>, <i>The History of the Life and Reign of Philip +king of Macedon</i>. London, 1761, 4to. Dry, but exhibiting much +reading and strict impartiality.</p> + +<p>In <span class="smcap">Mitford</span>, <i>History of Greece</i>, vol. iv, Philip has found his +most zealous panegyrist and defender. It would seem that, even +in the present day, it is impossible to write an impartial history +of this monarch.</p></div> + +<p>8. Melancholy posture of the Macedonian affairs +at the beginning of Philip's reign. Besides +victorious foes abroad, there were at home two +pretenders to the throne, Argæus, backed by +Athens, Pausanias, supported by Thrace; and +Philip himself, at first, was merely regent, and +not king. In the two first years, however, every<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_211" id="Page_211">[Pg 211]</a></span> +thing was changed, and Macedonia recovered her +independence. The newly-created phalanx ensured +victory over the barbarians; recourse was +had to other means than force for success against +the suspiciousness of Athens and the neighbouring +Greek settlements, particularly against the +powerful Olynthus. It is in the conduct of these +affairs that the peculiar sagacity of Philip is displayed.</p> + +<div class="sblockquot"><p>After the defeat of Argæus, peace is purchased from Athens +by a momentary recognition of the freedom of Amphipolis, 360.—Removal +of Pausanias by means of an accommodation with +Thrace.—By the conquest of the Pæonians and Illyrians, 359, +the boundaries of Macedonia are extended to Thrace, and westward +to the lake Lychnitis.—As early as 360 Philip was proclaimed +king.</p></div> + +<div class="sidenote">Policy of +Philip:</div> + +<p>9. Development of Philip's further plans of +aggrandizement.—By the gradual subjection of +the Macedo-Greek cities, he proposed, not only +to make himself sole master in Macedonia, but +also to remove the Athenians from his domain.—The +first object of his policy against Greece was +to get himself acknowledged as a Hellen, and Macedonia +as a member of the Hellenic league. +Hence the subsequent tutelage in which Macedonia +held Greece was not converted into a +formal subjection, a proceeding which would have +savoured too much of barbarian origin.—The execution +of all these plans was facilitated by the +possession of the Thracian gold mines, which enabled +Philip to create finances as well as the +phalanx.</p> + +<div class="sblockquot"><p>Capture of Amphipolis, 358; in the mean while Athens is +amused with promises, and Olynthus with the momentary cession +of Potidæa, which had likewise been captured: this event is followed +by the conquest of the mountainous districts, abounding in<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_212" id="Page_212">[Pg 212]</a></span> +gold, which extend from the Nestus to the Strymon, and furnished +an annual income of nearly 1,000 talents.</p></div> + +<div class="sidenote">possesses +himself of +Thessaly:</div> + +<p>10. The interference of Philip in the affairs of +Thessaly dates from the year 357; the possession +of that country was an object equally important +for the furtherance of his views upon Greece, as +for the improvement of his finances. He first +stepped forth as the deliverer of Thessaly, and +ended in making it a province of Macedonia.</p> + +<div class="sblockquot"><p>Expulsion of the tyrants from Pheræ, at the request of the +Aleuadæ, 356; the tyrants, however, receive support in the sacred +war from the Phocians under Onomarchus. The final defeat +of Onomarchus, 352, makes Philip master of Thessaly; he places +Macedonian garrisons in the three chief places, and thus supports +his authority in the country until he is pleased to make it entirely +a Macedonian province, 344.</p></div> + +<div class="sidenote">takes advantage +of +the sacred +war:</div> + +<p>11. The protraction of the sacred war in +Greece furnished Philip with an excellent opportunity +of promoting his views upon that country; +although his first attempt at an irruption, too +precipitately undertaken, was frustrated by the +Athenians. The capture of Olynthus, notwithstanding +the assistance afforded it by the Athenians, +after a season of apparent inaction, insured +the safety of the frontiers in his rear; and by a +master stroke of policy, almost at the very moment +in which he was driving the Athenians out +of Eubœa, he found means to enter with them +into negotiations, which, after repeated embassies, +were closed by a peace, opening to him the +way through Thermopylæ, and enabling him to +raise a party favourable to himself within the very +walls of Athens.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">invades +Greece:</div> + +<p>12. First descent of Philip into Greece, and +termination of the sacred war by reducing the +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_213" id="Page_213">[Pg 213]</a></span> +Phocians. The place which he now obtained in +the Amphictyonic council, had been the height +of his wishes; and the humility of Sparta proved +how firmly his ascendancy over Greece was already +established.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">fosters a +party in +Greece;</div> + +<p>13. Brief view of the state of Greece, and more +particularly of Athens, after the sacred war; description +of the means by which Philip succeeded +in creating and supporting parties favourable to +his own interests in the Grecian states. Bribery +was not his only instrument; what he gave he +borrowed from others; the main feature of his +policy was, that he seldom or ever recurred to the +same means. Scheming and consistent even in +his drunken revels, he hardly ever appears under +the same form.</p> + +<div class="sblockquot"><p>Dreadful consequences to the morals of the Greeks, resulting +from the spirit of party, the decline of religion, and the vast increase +in the circulating medium, produced by the treasures of +Delphi and Macedonia.—Estimate of the power of Athens during +the period of Demosthenes and Phocion. It seems that, unfortunately, +the eloquence and political acuteness of the former +was not accompanied with sufficient talents for negotiation; the +latter, perhaps, did not place confidence enough in his country, +while Demosthenes placed too much. In spite of public indolence +and effeminacy, Athens was still enabled to support her +rank as a maritime power, the navy of Philip not being equal to +hers.</p> + +<p>† <span class="smcap">A. G. Becker</span>, <i>Demosthenes as a Statesman and an Orator</i>. +An historico-critical introduction to his works: 1815. A very +useful work, both as a history and as an introduction to the political +orations of Demosthenes.</p></div> + +<div class="sidenote">is thwarted +by Phocion;</div> + +<p>14. New conquests of Philip in Illyria and +Thrace. The Adriatic sea and the Danube appear +to have been the boundaries of his empire +on this side. But the views of the Macedonian<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_214" id="Page_214">[Pg 214]</a></span> +king were directed less against the Thracians, +than against the Grecian settlements on the Hellespont; +and the attack of the Athenian Diopithes +furnished him a pretext for making war +against them. The siege, however, of Perinthus +and Byzantium, was frustrated by Phocion, to the +great vexation of Philip; an event which aroused +the Athenians, and even the Persians, from their +lethargy.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">but obtains +the command +in the +second sacred +war;</div> + +<p>15. Policy of Philip after this check.—At the +very time that, engaged in a war against the barbarians +on the Danube, he appears to have wholly +lost sight of the affairs of Greece, his agents redouble +their activity. Æschines, richly paid for +his services, proposes in the Amphictyonic council, +that, to punish the sacrilegious insults of the +Locrians to the Delphian oracle, he should be +elected leader of the Greeks in this new sacred +war. Following his usual maxim, Philip suffers +himself to be entreated.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">and falls +upon +Greece.</div> + +<p>16. Second expedition of Philip into Greece. +His appropriation of the important frontier town +of Elatea soon showed that, for this time at least, +he was not contending merely for the honour of +Apollo.—Alliance between Athens and Thebes +brought about by Demosthenes.—But the defeat +of Chæronea in the same year decided the dependence +of Greece. Philip now found it easy to +play the magnanimous character towards Athens.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">Philip's +designs +against +Persia.</div> + +<p>17. Preparations for the execution of his plan +against Persia, not as his own undertaking, but as +a national war of the Hellenes against the barbarians. +Thus, while Philip, by obtaining from the +Amphictyons the appointment of generalissimo<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_215" id="Page_215">[Pg 215]</a></span> +of Greece against the Persians, secured in an <i>honourable</i> +manner the dependence of the country, +the splendour of the expedition flattered the nation +at whose expense it was to be conducted. +It is a question, indeed, whether Philip's own private +views extended much further!</p> + +<div class="sidenote">Internal +state of +Macedonia +under Philip.</div> + +<p>18. The internal government of Macedonia, +under so skilful and successful a conqueror, must +necessarily have been absolute. No pretender +would dare to rise up against such a ruler, and +the body guard (δορυφόροι) established by him at the +beginning of his reign, and taken from the Macedonian +nobility, contributed much to keep up a +proper understanding between the prince and the +nobles. The court became a military staff, while +the people, from a nation of herdsmen, was converted +into a nation of warriors.—Philip was unfortunate +only in his own family; but the blame +is not to be attributed to him if he could not agree +with Olympias.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">Philip murdered, +336.</div> + +<p>19. Philip murdered by Pausanias at Ægæ, +probably at the instigation of the Persians, while +celebrating the marriage of his daughter.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">Alexander: +336—323.</div> + +<p>20. The reign of <span class="smcap">Alexander</span> the <span class="smcap">Great</span>, in +the eyes of the historical inquirer, derives its +great interest, not only from the extent, but +from the permanence, of the revolution which he +effected in the world. To appreciate properly +the character of this prince, who died just as he +was about to carry his mighty projects into execution, +is no easy task; but it is totally repugnant +to common sense to suppose that the pupil +of Aristotle was nothing more than a wild and +reckless conqueror, unguided by any plan.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_216" id="Page_216">[Pg 216]</a></span></p> + +<div class="sblockquot"><p><span class="smcap">St. Croix</span>, <i>Examen critique des anciens historiens d'Alexandre-le-grand</i>, +2nd. edition, <i>considérablement augmentée</i>. Paris, +1804, 4to. The new edition of this, which is the principal work +on the history of Alexander, and important in more respects than +one, contains more than the title implies, though by no means a +strictly impartial estimate of that prince's character.</p></div> + +<div class="sidenote">Disturbances +of the +Macedonian +court.</div> + +<p>21. Violent commotions at court, in the conquered +countries, and in Greece, after the death of Philip. +Great as his power appeared to be, the preservation +of it depended entirely on the first display of +character in his successor. Alexander showed +himself worthy to inherit the sceptre by his victorious +expedition against the Thracians; (to whom, +and more especially to his alliance with the +Agrians, he was afterwards indebted for his light +horse;) and by the example which he exhibited +to Greece in his treatment of Thebes.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">Alexander, +generalissimo +of +Greece.</div> + +<p>22. Appointment of Alexander in the assembly +at Corinth to be generalissimo of the Greeks. +Yet what his father would probably have turned +to a very different account, he allowed to remain +a mere nominal office.—Development of his plan +of attack upon Persia.—The want of a navy, soon +experienced by Alexander, would probably have +frustrated his whole project, had not Memnon's +counterplan of an inroad into Macedonia been +thwarted by the celerity of the Macedonian king.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">Battle of the +Granicus.</div> + +<p>23. Passage over the Hellespont, and commencement +of the war. The tranquillity of his +kingdom and of Greece appeared to be secured, +Antipater being left at the head of affairs.—The +victory on the Granicus opens to Alexander a +path into Asia Minor; but the death of Memnon, +which soon after followed, was perhaps a greater +advantage than a victory.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_217" id="Page_217">[Pg 217]</a></span></p> + +<div class="sidenote">Battle of +Issus.<br /> +333.<br /> +332.</div> + + +<p>24. The victory of Issus, gained over Darius in +person, appears to have given Alexander the first +idea of completely overturning the Persian throne, +as was proved by the rejection of Darius's offers +of peace. When indeed have not the plans of +conquerors been dependent on the course of +events? Yet Alexander must have been pretty +certain of his future victory, since he permitted +Darius to escape, while he sat down seven months +before Tyre, in order to make himself master of +the sea; and, after the conquest of Egypt without +a battle, to which the possession of Tyre opened +the way, to build Alexandria, and erect to himself +a monument more lasting than all his victories.</p> + +<div class="sblockquot"><p>Although Alexandria perhaps in the end may have surpassed +the expectations of the founder, yet the selection of the site, favourable +only for navigation and commerce, shows that an eye +was originally had to those objects.</p></div> + +<div class="sidenote">Decisive battle of +<span class="smcap">Arbela</span>.<br /> + +Oct. 1, 331.</div> + +<p>25. Invasion of Inner Asia, facilitated by the +tacit submission of the ruling tribes, and by the +state of cultivation in which the country was +found. On the plains of Arbela the Macedonian +tactics were completely triumphant. It might +now be said that the throne of Persia was overturned; +and the unexpectedly easy capture of +Babylon, Susa, and Persepolis, was surely of +more importance for the moment than the pursuit +of a flying king.</p> + +<div class="sblockquot"><p>Insurrection of the Greeks quelled by Antipater; Alexander +himself falls in with the malcontent envoys to Darius in the interior +of Asia.</p></div> + +<div class="sidenote">Persia wholly subjected.</div> + +<p>26. The subjection of the north-eastern provinces +of the Persian empire would perhaps have +been attended with the greatest difficulties, had +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_218" id="Page_218">[Pg 218]</a></span>not the astonishing activity of the conqueror +crushed in their birth the schemes of the treacherous +<span class="sidenote">330.</span> +Bessus, who, after the assassination of Darius, +wished to erect a separate kingdom in Bactria. +The Jaxartes was now the northern boundary +of the Macedonian monarchy, as it had hitherto +<span class="sidenote">329.</span> +been that of the Persian. Besides, the +possession of the rich trading countries, Bactria +and Sogdiana, was in itself an object of vast importance.</p> + +<div class="sblockquot"><p>During this expedition, the execution of Philotas and his father +Parmenio took place, though both were, probably, guiltless +of the conspiracy laid to their charge, 330. After the death of +Darius, Alexander met with almost constant opposition in his +own army: the majority of the troops fancying that that event +precluded the necessity of any further exertions. Cautious as +Alexander was in his treatment of the Macedonian nobles, we +may discern, not however by the mere example of Clitus, how +difficult they found it to banish from their memory the relations +in which they had formerly stood to their kings.</p></div> + +<div class="sidenote">Alexander +marches +against +India.<br /> +328—326.</div> + +<p>27. Alexander's expedition against India had, +no doubt, its origin in that propensity to romantic +enterprise which constituted a main feature in his +character. Yet what could be more natural than +that a close view of Persian splendour, the conquest +of such wealthy countries, and the desire of +prosecuting his vast commercial designs, should +gradually mature in the mind of the Macedonian +king the plan of subjecting a country which +was represented as the golden land of Asia. To +this likewise the scantiness of geographic information +must have greatly contributed; if he pressed +forward to the eastern seas, the circle of his dominion +would, it was supposed, be complete.—It +appears very certain that Alexander was destitute<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_219" id="Page_219">[Pg 219]</a></span> +of a sufficient knowledge of the country when he +entered upon this expedition.</p> + +<div class="sblockquot"><p>Alexander's invasion was directed against Northern India, or the +Panjab; in those days a populous and highly cultivated country; +now the seat of the Seiks and Mahrattas; and then, as now, inhabited +by warlike races. He crossed the Indus at Taxila (Attock,) +passed the Hydaspes (Behut or Chelum,) and, availing +himself of the quarrels between the Indian princes, defeated the +king, Porus. He then proceeded across the Acesines (Jenaub) +and Hydraotes (Rauvee). The eastern verge reached in this expedition +was the river Hyphasis (Beyah;) here, having already +proceeded half way to the Ganges, the conqueror was, by a +mutiny in his army, compelled to retreat. His return was +through the country of the Malli (Multan) as far as the Hydaspes, +when the majority of his troops took ship, and were floated +along that stream into the Acesines, and from thence into the +Indus, which they followed down to its mouth.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Rennel</span>, <i>Memoir of a Map of Hindostan</i>. London, 1793, +(3d. edit.) and</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">St. Croix</span>, <i>Examen</i>, etc. (see p. 216.) furnish all the necessary +historical and geographical explanations relative to the Persian +and Indian campaigns of Alexander.</p></div> + +<div class="sidenote">Consequences +of +this expedition.</div> + +<p>28. Although Alexander was obliged to give up +the project of conquering India, yet the connection +between Europe and the east, which has +continued from that time, was the work of his +hands. While the communication on land was +secured by the establishment of various settlements, +the communication by sea was opened by +the voyage of his admiral, Nearchus, from the +Indus to the Euphrates. In the mean time +Alexander himself proceeded to Persis and Babylon, +across the desert, and the unexplored provinces +of Gedrosia and Carmania.</p> + +<div class="sblockquot"><p>Nearchus's voyage (our knowledge of which is derived from his +own journal, preserved in Arrian's <i>Indica</i>) lasted from the be<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_220" id="Page_220">[Pg 220]</a></span>ginning +of October, 326, to the end of February, 325: nearly the +same time was occupied in the almost incredible land march of +the king.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Vincent</span>, <i>The Voyage of Nearchus from the Indus to the +Euphrates</i>. London, 1797, 4to. Exhibiting the most learned +researches, and illustrated with excellent charts.</p></div> + +<div class="sidenote">Alexander's +policy in the +conquered +countries:</div> + +<p>29. After the abandonment of India, the whole +circuit of Alexander's conquests was precisely +that of the former Persian empire; his later projects +were probably directed against Arabia alone. +However easy it had been to make these conquests, +it was a more difficult task to retain them; +for Macedonia, exhausted by continual levies of +men, could not furnish efficient garrisons. Alexander +removed this difficulty, by protecting the +conquered from oppression; by showing proper +respect to their religion; by leaving the civil +government in the hands of the native rulers who +had hitherto possessed it; and by confiding to +Macedonians the command only of the garrisons +left in the chief places, and in the newly established +colonies. To alter as little as possible in +the internal organization of countries was his fundamental +principle.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">his views.</div> + +<p>30. Simple as Alexander's plans were in the +outset, their simplicity was more than compensated +by the magnitude and importance of their results. +Babylon was to be the capital of his empire, and +consequently of the world. The union of the +east and the west was to be brought about by +the amalgamation of the dominant races by intermarriage, +by education, and, more than all, by +the ties of commerce, the importance of which +much ruder conquerors, in Asia itself, soon learnt<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_221" id="Page_221">[Pg 221]</a></span> +to appreciate. In nothing probably is the superiority +of his genius more brilliantly displayed, +than in his exemption from all national prejudice, +particularly when we consider that none of his +countrymen were in this respect to be compared +with him. To refuse him this merit is impossible, +whatever judgment we may form of his general +character.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">Death of +Alexander,<br /> +April 21, +323.</div> + +<p>31. Sudden death of Alexander at Babylon by +fever; under the peculiar circumstances of the +time, the greatest loss mankind could experience. +From the Indus to the Nile the world lay in +ruins; and where was now the architect to be +found, that could gather up the scattered fragments +and restore the edifice?</p> + +<div class="sblockquot"><p>Alexander's disorder may be easily accounted for by the hardships +he had undergone, and the impure air to which he exposed +himself in cleaning out the canals about Babylon. He certainly +was not poisoned; and in the charge of immoderate drunkenness +brought against him, we must take into account the manners of +the Macedonian and Persian courts. Was it not the same with +Peter the Great? In estimating his moral character we must +bear in mind the natural vehemence of his passions, ever inclined +to the most rapid transitions; nor should we forget the unavoidable +influence of constant success upon mankind.</p></div> + + + +<hr style="width: 25%;" /> +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_222" id="Page_222">[Pg 222]</a></span></p> + +<h2>SECOND PERIOD.</h2> + +<p class="cblockquot"><i>History of the Macedonian monarchy, from the death of +Alexander the Great to the battle of Ipsus, B. C.</i> +323—301.</p> + + +<div class="sblockquot"><p>To enable the reader to take a general view, the history of the +European events is resumed below, under the head of the history +of Macedonia Proper.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Sources.</span> Diodorus, lib. xviii—xx. is the great authority +for this portion of history. He compiled mostly, for this period, +from a contemporary historian, Hieronymus of Cardia. He is +followed by Plutarch in the Lives of Eumenes, Demetrius, and +Phocion; and by Justin, lib. xiii, etc. Of Arrian's history of +Alexander's successors, nothing unfortunately remains but a few +fragments in Photius.</p> + +<p>† <span class="smcap">Mannert</span>, <i>History of Alexander's successors</i>. Nuremberg, +1787. Composed with the usual judgment and learning of that +author.</p></div> + +<div class="sidenote">Measures +adopted at +the death of +Alexander.</div> + +<p>1. The very first measure adopted after the +death of Alexander contained within itself the +seeds of all the dire revolutions that afterwards +ensued. Not only were the jealousy and ambition +of the nobles aroused, but even the interference +of the army was exhibited in the most +terrific manner. Although the idea of the supremacy +of the royal family was cast off only by +degrees, yet the dreadfully disturbed state in +which that family stood, rendered its fall unavoidable.</p> + +<div class="sblockquot"><p>State of the royal family at the death of Alexander. He left +his wife Roxana pregnant, who at the end of three months +brought into the world the rightful heir to the sceptre, Alexander; +he left likewise an illegitimate son, Hercules; a bastard<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_223" id="Page_223">[Pg 223]</a></span> +half-brother, Arrhidæus; his mother, the haughty and cruel +Olympias, and a sister, Cleopatra, both widows; the artful Eurydice, +(daughter to Cyane, one of Philip's sisters,) subsequently +married to the king, Arrhidæus; and Thessalonica, Philip's +daughter, afterwards united to Cassander of Macedonia.</p></div> + +<div class="sidenote">Arrhidæus and Alexander joint kings:<br /> + +<span class="smcap">Perdiccas</span> regent.<br /> + +<span class="smcap">Antipater</span> in Europe.</div> + +<p>2. The weak Arrhidæus, under the name of +Philip, and the infant Alexander were at last +proclaimed kings, the <i>regency</i> being placed in +the hands of Perdiccas, Leonnatus, and Meleager; +the last of whom was quickly cut off at the instigation +of Perdiccas. Meanwhile Antipater, with +whom Craterus had been joined as civil ruler, had +the management of affairs in Europe.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">Violent revolutions.</div> + +<p>3. The sequel of the history becomes naturally +that of satraps, who fell out among themselves, +all being ambitious to rule, and none willing to +obey. Twenty-two years elapsed ere any massy +edifice arose out of the ruins of the Macedonian +monarchy. In few periods of history are the revolutions +of affairs so violent, in few periods, +therefore, is it so difficult to unravel the maze of +events. For this purpose the most convenient +division of the history is into <i>three</i> periods: the +first extending to the death of Perdiccas, 321: +the second to the death of Eumenes, 315: the +third to the defeat and death of Antigonus at the +battle of Ipsus, 301.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">Division of +the empire.<br /> +B. C. 323.</div> + +<p>4. First grant of the provinces made by Perdiccas. +The vanity of this man seems to have induced +him to select the office of regent, in order +that no separate province might fall to his share; +he placed his whole reliance on having the command +of the royal army, although it had already +given so many proofs of its determination to command +rather than to obey.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_224" id="Page_224">[Pg 224]</a></span></p> + +<div class="sblockquot"><p>In this division Ptolemy son of Lagus received Egypt; Leonnatus, +Mysia; Antigonus, Phrygia, Lycia, and Pamphylia; Lysymachus, +Macedonian Thrace; Antipater and Craterus remained +in possession of Macedonia.—The foreigner, Eumenes, would +hardly have received Cappadocia, although yet to be conquered, +had Perdiccas been able to dispense with his services. The remaining +provinces either did not come under the new division, or +else their governors are unworthy of notice.</p></div> + +<div class="sidenote">First acts of Perdiccas.</div> + +<p>5. The first acts of Perdiccas's government +showed how little dependence he could place on +the obedience of men who hitherto had been his +colleagues. The general insurrection among the +mercenaries who had been settled by Alexander +<span class="sidenote">Insurrection in Upper Asia.</span> +in Upper Asia, and now wished to return to their +homes, was, no doubt, quelled by Python's destruction +of the rebels; but it was not Python's +fault that he did not make himself independent +master of the scene of mutiny.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">Disobedience of Antigonus and Leonnatus.</div> + +<p>6. Still more refractory was the behaviour of +Leonnatus and Antigonus, when they received +orders to put Eumenes in possession of his province. +Antigonus was too haughty to obey; and +Leonnatus preferred going over into Europe to +marry Cleopatra; there, however, he almost immediately +met with his death in the Lamian war. +(See below, book iv. period iii. parag. 2.) Perdiccas, +therefore, was himself obliged to undertake +the expedition with the royal army; he succeeded +<span class="sidenote">322.</span> +by the defeat of Ariarathes.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">Perdiccas +wishes to +marry Cleopatra, +but is +frustrated;</div> + +<p>7. Ambitious views of Perdiccas, who, in order +to ascend the throne by a marriage with Cleopatra, +repudiates Nicæa, the daughter of Antipater. +Cleopatra actually came over to Asia; +but Perdiccas, being obliged, at the request of +the army, to marry Eurydice, Philip's niece, after<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_225" id="Page_225">[Pg 225]</a></span> +the murder of her mother Cyane, to the king +Arrhidæus, found her a troublesome rival and +opponent in the government.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">seeks to ruin +Antigonus +and Ptolemy.</div> + +<p>8. Attempts of Perdiccas to overthrow Antigonus +and Ptolemy, by accusing them before the +army. Antigonus passes over to Antipater in +Macedonia; and gives rise to the league between +Antipater, Craterus, and Ptolemy, against Perdiccas +and Eumenes.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">War between the two parties, 321.</div> + +<p>9. Commencement and termination of the first +war. Perdiccas himself marches against Egypt, +leaving his friend Eumenes to command in Asia +Minor: meanwhile Antipater and Craterus fall +upon Asia; the former advances towards Syria +against Perdiccas; the latter is defeated and slain +by Eumenes. Before the arrival, however, of +Antipater, Perdiccas, after repeated and vain attempts +to cross the Nile, falls a victim to the insurrection +<span class="sidenote">320.</span> +of his own troops.—Thus three of the +principal personages, Perdiccas, Craterus, Leonnatus, +were already removed from the theatre of +action; and the victorious Eumenes, now master +of Asia Minor, had to maintain, unaided, the +struggle against the confederates.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">320—315.<br /> + +<span class="smcap">Antipater</span> regent.<br /> + +320.</div> + +<p>10. Second period, from the death of Perdiccas +to that of Eumenes.—Python and Arrhidæus +quickly resigning the regency, it is assumed by +Antipater.—New division of the provinces at Trisparadisus +in Syria. Seleucus receives Babylon; +Antigonus is promised, besides his former possessions, +all those of the outlawed Eumenes.</p> + +<p>11. War of Antigonus with Eumenes. The latter, +defeated by treachery, shuts himself up in the +mountain fastness of Nora, there to await more<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_226" id="Page_226">[Pg 226]</a></span> +favourable times; and Antigonus remains master +of all Asia Minor: in the mean time Ptolemy +ventures to take possession of Syria and Phœnicia.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">Antipater dies. 320.<br /> + +<span class="smcap">Polysperchon</span> regent.<br /> + +319.</div> + +<p>12. Death of the regent Antipater, in the same +year, (320;) he bequeaths the regency to his friend, +the aged Polysperchon, to the exclusion of his own +son Cassander. Antigonus now begins to unfold +his ambitious plans; he endeavours vainly to win +over Eumenes, who deceives him in the negotiations, +and seizes the opportunity of leaving his +mountain fastness.</p> + +<p>13. Eumenes's plan to strengthen himself in +Upper Asia; as he is on the way he receives +tidings of his being appointed generalissimo of the +royal troops. What better man could Polysperchon +have selected for the office than he who in +his conduct towards Antigonus exhibited so striking +an example of attachment to the royal house?</p> + +<div class="sidenote">318.</div> + +<p>14. Exertions of Eumenes to maintain himself +in Lower Asia, ineffectual, the naval victory +won by Antigonus over the royal fleet, commanded +by Clitus, depriving him of the empire +of the sea. He bursts into Upper Asia; where, +in the spring, he unites with the satraps, who had +<span class="sidenote">317.</span> +taken arms against the powerful Seleucus of Babylon.</p> + +<p>15. Antigonus following up the royal general, +Upper Asia becomes the theatre of war. Victorious +as was at first the stand made by Eumenes, +neither valour nor talent were of any avail against +the insubordination of the royal troops, and the +jealousy of the other commanders. Attacked in +winter quarters by Antigonus, he was, after the +battle, delivered into the hands of his enemy by +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_227" id="Page_227">[Pg 227]</a></span>the mutinous Argyraspidæ, who had lost their +<span class="sidenote">315.</span> +baggage: he was put to death, and in him the +king's family lost its only loyal supporter.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">317.<br /> + +315.<br /> + +315—301.</div> + +<p>16. Great changes had also taken place in the +royal family. Her enemy Antipater having deceased, +Olympias, invited by Polysperchon, who +wished to strengthen himself against Cassander, +had returned from Epirus, and put to death Arrhidæus +together with his wife, Eurydice: in the +year following she was besieged in Pydna by +Cassander, and being obliged to surrender, was +in her turn executed; meanwhile Cassander held +Roxana and the young king in his own power.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">Predominance of Antigonus.</div> + + +<p>17. Third period, from the death of Eumenes +to that of Antigonus.—The rout of Eumenes +seemed to have established for ever the power of +Antigonus in Asia; still animated with the fire of +youth, though full of years, he saw himself revived +in his son Demetrius, fond of boisterous +revelry, but gallant and talented.—Even Seleucus +<span class="sidenote">315.</span> +thought it time to consult his safety by flying +from Babylon into Egypt.</p> + +<p>18. Changes introduced by Antigonus into the +upper provinces; return to Asia Minor, where his +presence seemed indispensable, by reason of the +aggrandizement of Ptolemy in Syria and Phœnicia, +of the Macedonian Cassander in Europe, +of Lysimachus in Mysia, and the Carian Cassander +in Asia Minor.—He repossesses himself of +Phœnicia, a country of the first importance for +the construction of a fleet.</p> + +<div class="sblockquot"><p>Siege of Tyre, 314—313: it lasts fourteen months; a proof +that the city was certainly not razed by Alexander.</p></div> + +<p>19. The fugitive Seleucus forms a league<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_228" id="Page_228">[Pg 228]</a></span> +against Antigonus and Demetrius, between Ptolemy, +the two Cassanders, and Lysimachus. But +Antigonus frustrates their combination, himself +driving out the Carian Cassander, and his son +marching against Ptolemy.</p> + +<div class="sblockquot"><p>Victory won by Ptolemy over Demetrius at Gaza, 312; after +which Seleucus marches back to Babylon, and, although subsequently +followed up by Demetrius, permanently maintains his +footing in Upper Asia.—On the other hand, Ptolemy, at the first +approach of Antigonus with the main body, surrenders back Syria +and Phœnicia, 312.</p></div> + +<div class="sidenote">Peace +concluded, +311.</div> + +<p>20. A general peace concluded between Antigonus +and his enemies, Seleucus only excepted, +from whom Upper Asia is to be again wrested. +The first article, that each should retain what he +had, demonstrates pretty evidently that the treaty +was dictated solely by Antigonus; the second, +that the Greek cities should be free, was pregnant +with the seeds of a new war, ready to burst +forth at every favourable opportunity; the third, +that the young Alexander should be raised to the +throne upon attaining his majority, was probably +the death warrant of the hapless prince, who, that +same year, together with his mother, was murdered +by Cassander.—Shortly after, at the instigation +of Antigonus, Cleopatra was put to death, +in order that Ptolemy might be thwarted in his +object, which depended on a matrimonial connection +with that princess.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">Disputes on +the liberation +of +Greece.</div> + +<p>21. Even the execution of the articles must +have given rise to hostilities; Ptolemy wishing +to force Antigonus, and he, on his side, to compel +Cassander, to withdraw the garrisons from the +Grecian towns; a condition which neither party +felt inclined to fulfil. Grecian freedom was now<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_229" id="Page_229">[Pg 229]</a></span> +but a name; this, however, is not the only example +history furnishes of political ideas making +the greatest stir long after they have survived +their own existence; for then they become excellent +tools in the hands of artful designers.</p> + +<div class="sblockquot"><p>Expedition of Demetrius to liberate Athens, 308. The day +when he announced freedom to the Athenians, must have been +the happiest of his life! Few portions of history present such a +scope for the contemplation of human nature as the twofold sojourn +of Demetrius at Athens.</p></div> + +<p>22. The growing power of Ptolemy on the +sea, and the capture of Cyprus, determines Antigonus +to an open rupture: he commands his son +to drive Ptolemy out of the island.</p> + +<div class="sblockquot"><p>Naval victory of Demetrius off Cyprus, 307, perhaps the +greatest and most bloody in history; nevertheless, as little decisive +to the general question as are most naval battles. The assumption +of the royal title, first by the conqueror, afterwards by +the conquered, and ultimately by all the rest, was but a mere +form now that the royal family was extirpated.</p></div> + +<div class="sidenote">Rhodes besieged.</div> + +<p>23. The conquerors having failed in their project +of subduing Egypt, made the wealthy republic +of the Rhodians, as an ally of that country, +the victim of their fury. But though in the renowned +siege of their capital, Demetrius earned +<span class="sidenote">305.</span> +his title of Poliorcetes, the noble defence of the +Rhodians afforded an illustrious example of the +power of discipline in conjunction with well-guided +patriotism. The invitation of the Athenians +came seasonably to Demetrius; he raised +the blockade and proceeded to complete the +<span class="sidenote">304.</span> +liberation of Greece, the necessity of which became +every day more pressing.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">Demetrius +again visits +Greece.</div> + +<p>24. Second sojourn of Demetrius in Greece. +The expulsion of Cassander's garrisons from the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_230" id="Page_230">[Pg 230]</a></span> +Grecian cities, and more particularly from those +in Peloponnesus; the appointment of Demetrius +as generalissimo of Greece, for the conquest of +Macedonia and Thrace; proved not only to Cassander, +but also to the other princes, that their +common interest loudly called upon them to resist +the over-powerful Antigonus.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">League +against +Antigonus, +302.</div> + +<p>25. Third grand league of Cassander, Ptolemy, +and Seleucus, against Antigonus and his son; +brought about by Cassander. How easily, even +after the violent irruption of Lysimachus into +Asia Minor, might Antigonus have dispersed the +gathering storms, had not his presumption led +him to place an overweening reliance on his own +good fortune!</p> + +<div class="sidenote">Junction of +Seleucus +and Lysimachus, +301.</div> + +<p>26. Junction of Seleucus of Babylon and Lysimachus, +in Phrygia. Antigonus, to concentrate +his forces, recalls his son, who had pushed +on to the borders of Macedonia. The cautious +Ptolemy, on the other hand, is afraid to invade +Syria; and, in consequence of a false report, that +Lysimachus had been defeated, retires full of +alarm, into Egypt.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">Battle of +Ipsus, +301.</div> + +<p>27. Great and decisive battle fought at Ipsus +in Phrygia, in the spring of 301, which costs Antigonus +his life, and annihilates his empire, as +the two conquerors divide it between themselves, +without taking any account of the absent confederates. +Asia Minor, as far as mount Taurus, +falls to the share of Lysimachus; and all the rest, +with the exception of Cilicia, which is given to +Plisthenes, Cassander's brother, is left to Seleucus.—Demetrius, +by the help of his navy, +escapes into Greece.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_231" id="Page_231">[Pg 231]</a></span></p> + +<div class="sidenote">Domestic organization +of the +monarchy.</div> + +<p>28. The almost unbroken series of wars which +had raged from the time of Alexander, must have +precluded the possibility of much being effected +with respect to domestic organization. It appears +to have been nearly, if not wholly, military. +Yet were the numerous devastations in some +measure compensated by the erection of new cities, +in which these princes vied with one another, +impelled partly by vanity to immortalize +their names, partly by policy to support their dominion, +most of the new settlements being military +colonies. Nevertheless this was but a sorry +reparation for the manifold oppressions to which +the natives were exposed by the practice of quartering +the army upon them. The spread of the +language and civilization of the Greeks deprived +them of all national distinction; their own languages +sinking into mere provincial dialects. +Alexander's monarchy affords a striking example +of the little that can be expected from a forced +amalgamation of races, when the price of that +amalgamation is the obliteration of national character +in the individuals.</p> + +<div class="sblockquot"><p><span class="smcap">Heyne</span>, <i>Opum regni Macedonici auctarum, attritarum et +eversarum, causæ probabiles; in Opusc.</i> t. iv. This collection +contains several other treatises on Grecian and Macedonian history, +which cannot be all separately enumerated.</p></div> + + + +<hr style="width: 25%;" /> +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_232" id="Page_232">[Pg 232]</a></span></p> + +<h2>THIRD PERIOD.</h2> + +<p class="cblockquot"><i>History of the kingdoms and states which arose upon the +dismemberment of the +Macedonian Monarchy after the battle of Ipsus.</i></p> + + +<p class="cblockquot">I. <span class="smcap">History of the Syrian empire under the Seleucidæ</span>, +B. C. 312—64.</p> + +<div class="sblockquot"><p><span class="smcap">Sources.</span> Neither for the history of the Syrian, nor for that +of the Egyptian and Macedonian kingdoms, has any eminent +writer been preserved. The fragments of the lost books of Diodorus, +and, from the time that these kingdoms became allies of +Rome, those of Polybius, several narratives of Livy, the Syriaca +of Appian, and a few of Plutarch's Lives, are the principal authorities; +too frequently we are obliged to rely upon the extracts +of Justin. For the history of the Seleucidæ, in consequence of +the political connection between these princes and the Jews, the +Antiquities of Josephus and the book of Maccabees become of +importance. Besides these authorities, the many coins that have +been preserved of these kings, afford much information respecting +their genealogy and chronology.</p> + +<p>Of modern publications on the subject, the principal work is</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Vaillant</span>, <i>Imperium Seleucidarum sive historia regum Syriæ</i>, +1681, 4to. The enquiry is principally grounded on coins, as is +the case with</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Froelich</span>, <i>Annales rerum et regum Syriæ</i>. Viennæ, 1754.</p></div> + +<div class="sidenote">Seleucus +Nicator,</div> + +<p>1. The kingdom of the Seleucidæ was founded +in Upper Asia by Seleucus Nicator. It was an +extensive empire; but, being composed of various +countries united only by conquest, it could possess +but little internal stability except what it derived +from the power of its rulers. That power fell +with the founder; and the transfer of the seat of<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_233" id="Page_233">[Pg 233]</a></span> +empire from the banks of the Tigris to Syria, entangled +the Seleucidæ in all the political disputes +of the western world, and facilitated the insurrection +of the upper provinces. The history of this +kingdom divides itself into the periods before and +after the war with Rome; although at the breaking +out of this war the seeds of its decline and +fall had already been sown.</p> + +<div class="sblockquot"><p>Seleucus received, 321, Babylon as his province; but after the +defeat of Eumenes was obliged to take to flight, 315, in order to +avoid subjection to the conqueror Antigonus. But his moderate +government had rendered him so popular, that after the victory +won by Ptolemy over Demetrius at Gaza, 312, he could safely +venture to return with only a few adherents to Babylon. In this +year commences the kingdom of the Seleucidæ.</p></div> + +<div class="sidenote">founds the kingdom of the Seleucidæ.<br /> + +B. C. 313.<br /> + +311.</div> + +<p>2. In the ten following years, and while Antigonus +was busied in Asia Minor, Seleucus laid +the foundation of his power over all Upper Asia, +with a facility to which the detestation excited +by the rigid government of Antigonus mainly contributed. +After his victory over Nicanor of +Media, all in that quarter declared spontaneously +for him; and the unsuccessful expedition of Demetrius +taught Antigonus himself, that it would +no longer be prudent to assert his claims. As +early as 307, Seleucus was in possession of all +the countries between the Euphrates, Indus, and +Oxus.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">Campaign +against +India,<br /> +305.</div> + +<p>3. Great campaign in India undertaken by Seleucus +against king Sandracottus. He penetrated +as far as the Ganges, and the close alliance he +formed with the Indian sovereign lasted a long +time after, and was kept up by embassies. The +great number of elephants which he brought back<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_234" id="Page_234">[Pg 234]</a></span> +with him was not the only advantage accruing +from this expedition; the intercourse with the +east seems to have been permanently reestablished.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">Seat of government +removed +into Syria,<br /> +301.</div> + +<p>4. By the battle of Ipsus Seleucus added to +his dominions the greater part of the territories +of Antigonus;—Syria, Cappadocia, Mesopotamia, +and Armenia. Unfortunately Syria now became +the head province, notwithstanding Cœle-Syria +and Phœnicia were left in the hands of Ptolemy. +How widely different would have been the course +of historic events, had the seat of empire remained +at Seleucia on the Tigris, and the Euphrates +continued to be the western boundary of +the Seleucidæ!</p> + +<p>5. Reciprocal relations between the several +kings, who now combine in forming a kind of political +system, in which continued exertions to +maintain a balance of power by alliance and marriage +are plainly discernible.</p> + +<div class="sblockquot"><p>Connection between Seleucus and Demetrius Poliorcetes, by +the marriage of the former with the beautiful Stratonice, daughter +of the latter; made with the view of counterbalancing a +similar connection between Ptolemy and Lysimachus; Lysimachus +and his son Agathocles having united themselves with two +daughters of Ptolemy.</p></div> + +<div class="sidenote">Long peace +in Asia,<br /> +301—283.</div> + +<p>6. The eighteen years of tranquillity enjoyed +by Asia after the battle of Ipsus, prove that Seleucus +was one of the few followers of Alexander +who had any genius for the arts of peace. He +either founded or embellished a vast number of +cities, the most important of which were the +capital, Antiochia in Syria, and the two Seleucias, +one on the Tigris, the other on the Orontes: the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_235" id="Page_235">[Pg 235]</a></span> +flourishing prosperity of several of these places +was the result of the restoration of eastern trade; +new channels for which appear to have been +opened at this period on the main streams of Asia, +and more particularly on the Oxus.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">The empire +divided into +satrapies.</div> + +<p>7. The home department of his empire was +organized into satrapies, of which there were +seventy-two. But Alexander's maxim, "to give +the satrapies to natives," was wholly forgotten by +his followers; and the Seleucidæ were not long +before they experienced the evil consequences of +swerving from that practice. Under such a prince +as Seleucus scarce any kingdom could of itself +fall to pieces; but the king himself paved the way +for the dismemberment of his empire, by ceding +<span class="sidenote">293.</span> +Upper Asia, together with his consort Stratonice, +to his son Antiochus; not, however, without the +previous approbation of the army.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">Conquest of Asia Minor.<br /> +282.<br /> +281.</div> + +<p>8. War with Lysimachus, kindled by ancient +jealousy, and now fomented by family feuds. The +battle of Curopedion cost Lysimachus his throne +and his life; and Asia Minor became a part of the +Syrian realm. But as Seleucus was crossing over +to Europe, to add Macedonia to his dominions, he +fell by the hand of an assassin, Ptolemy Ceraunus, +and with him the splendour of his kingdom was +extinguished.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">Antiochus +Soter,<br /> +281—262.</div> + +<p>9. The reign of his son, Antiochus I. surnamed +Soter, seemed not unprosperous, inasmuch as the +empire preserved its former extension; but in +any state founded upon conquest, the failure of +new attempts at an increase of territory is a sure +token of approaching ruin; and this was the case +here.—In such a state, the more immediately all<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_236" id="Page_236">[Pg 236]</a></span> +depends on the person of the ruler, the more +rapid and sensible are the effects of degeneration +in a family like that of the Seleucidæ.</p> + +<div class="sblockquot"><p>The late conquests of his father in Asia Minor entangled Antiochus +in new wars; although, by the marriage of his stepdaughter +Phila with Antigonus Gonatas, he ceded his claims on +Macedonia, 277.—Fruitless attempt at subjecting Bithynia, +279; the king of that country, Nicomedes, calls in the Gauls, +who had invaded Macedonia, and gives them a settlement in Galatia, +277, where they keep their footing, even after the victory +won over them by Antiochus, 275, and by their participation in +the wars, as mercenaries, become of importance.—The newly +risen state of Pergamus likewise thrives, at the expense of the +Syrian empire, in spite of Antiochus's attack, 263; and the inroad +into Egypt, for the purpose of supporting the rebel Magas, +is anticipated by Ptolemy II. 264.</p></div> + +<div class="sidenote">Antiochus Theus,<br /> +262—247.<br /> +Rise of the Parthian and Bactrian kingdoms.</div> + +<p>10. Antiochus II. surnamed Θεός. During his +reign the sway was in the hands of women; and +the diseased state of the interior of the empire +became palpable by the secession of various eastern +provinces, out of which arose the Parthian +and Bactrian kingdoms. The boundless luxury +of the court hurried on the decline of the ruling +family; having once begun to sink, it could not +without difficulty have retrieved its virtue independently +of the matrimonial connections now +constantly formed from within itself.</p> + +<div class="sblockquot"><p>Ascendancy of his stepsister and wife Laodice, and of his sister +Apame, relict of Magas; the latter involves him in war with +Ptolemy II. to vindicate her claims upon Cyrene; it ends by +Antiochus's marriage with Berenice, daughter of Ptolemy, and +his repudiation of Laodice, 260—252. Having, after the death +of Ptolemy, 247, put away Berenice and taken back Laodice; the +latter, distrusting his motives, cuts him off by poison.—The secession +of Parthia happened in consequence of the expulsion of +the Macedonian governor by Arsaces, founder of the house of the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_237" id="Page_237">[Pg 237]</a></span> +Arsacidæ: that of Bactria, on the other hand, was brought about +by the Macedonian governor himself, Theodotus, who asserted +his independence. (Concerning these two kingdoms, see below, +book iv. period iii. Dist. Kingdoms iv. parag. 4, 5.) At first, the +former of these kingdoms comprised but a part of Parthia; the +latter only Bactria, and, perhaps, Sogdiana; both, however, were +soon enlarged at the expense of the Seleucidæ.</p></div> + +<div class="sidenote">Seleucus +Callinicus,<br /> +247—227.</div> + +<p>11. Seleucus II. surnamed Callinicus. His +reign, twenty years in duration, is one unbroken +series of wars; in which the kingdom, already +enfeebled, was subverted, partly by the struggle +with Egypt, caused by the hatred between Laodice +and Berenice; partly by the jealousy of his +brother Antiochus Hierax; and partly by vain +attempts at recovering the upper provinces.</p> + +<div class="sblockquot"><p>Assassination of Berenice, and most unfortunate war thereby +kindled with Ptolemy Evergetes of Egypt, 247—244. The assistance +which Seleucus obtains from his junior brother, Antiochus, +governor of Asia Minor, induces Ptolemy to a truce, 243; +but another war ensues between the two brothers, in which Antiochus, +at first conqueror, is himself soon afterwards conquered +in his turn, 243—240; and during this contest, Eumenes of +Pergamus greatly increases his territory at the expense of Syria, +242.—His first campaign against Arsaces, who had formed an +alliance with the Bactrian king, ended in a defeat, 238, regarded +by the Parthians as the real epoch of the foundation of their +kingdom. In the second campaign, 236, he himself fell into the +hands of the Parthians, and remained a prisoner till the day of his +death, 227.</p></div> + +<div class="sidenote">Seleucus +Ceraunus, +227.<br /> +224.</div> + +<p>12. His elder son Seleucus III. surnamed Ceraunus, +on the point of taking the field against +Attalus king of Pergamus, was removed by poison. +But the dominion of the Seleucidæ was +reestablished in Asia Minor by his mother's fraternal +nephew, Achæus; and the crown ensured +to the younger brother Antiochus, governor of +Babylon.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_238" id="Page_238">[Pg 238]</a></span></p> + +<div class="sidenote">Antiochus +the Great,<br /> +224—187.</div> + +<p>13. The long reign of Antiochus III. surnamed +the Great, is not only the most eventful in Syrian +history, but likewise marks an epoch, by the +relations now commencing between Syria and +Rome.—To earn the title of <i>great</i> was a task of +no extreme difficulty in such a line of princes.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">Insurrection +in Media +and +Persia.<br /> +218.<br /> +220.</div> + +<p>14. Great power of Hermias the Carian, who +soon became so formidable to the young monarch, +that he was obliged to rid himself of him by murder. +The great stand made by the brothers, +Molo and Alexander, satraps of Media and Persia, +who probably had an understanding with +Hermias, threatened the king with the loss of all +the upper provinces: it ended in the defeat of +Molo, Hermias being at last no longer able to +hinder the king from marching against him in +person.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">War with +the Ptolemies: +insurrection +of Asia +Minor, 220.<br /> + +219.<br /> + +217.<br /> + +216.</div> + +<p>15. The intrigues of Hermias excited Achæus +to rebellion in Asia Minor: but Antiochus held +more important, first to execute the plan he +had previously traced, of ejecting the Ptolemies +from their possessions in Syria; great as the success +which at first attended this expedition, it +was completely traversed by the battle of Raphia.—Combining +with Attalus of Pergamus, Antiochus +then defeated Achæus, who, being shut up +in the citadel of Sardes, was treacherously delivered +into his hands.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">Campaign +in the upper +provinces,<br /> +214—205.<br /> + +210.<br /> + +206.</div> + +<p>16. Great campaign of Antiochus in the upper +provinces, in consequence of the seizure of Media +by Arsaces III.—Hostilities ended in a compact, +by which Antiochus agreed formerly to cede Parthia +and Hyrcania; Arsaces, on his side, pledging +himself to furnish assistance against Bactria.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_239" id="Page_239">[Pg 239]</a></span>—But +the war with Bactria was also followed by a +peace, leaving the king, Euthydemus, in possession +of his crown and dominions.—The expedition +now undertaken by Antiochus, in company with +Demetrius of Bactriana, against India, extended, +probably far up the country, and was attended +with important consequences to Bactriana. (See +below, history of Bactria, book iv. per. iii. Dist. +Kingdoms iv. parag. 5.)</p> + +<p>The result of these great expeditions was the +establishment of the supremacy of the Seleucidæ +in Upper Asia; those countries excepted which +had been formally resigned.</p> + +<div class="sblockquot"><p>On his return through Arachotus and Carmania, where he wintered, +he likewise undertook a naval expedition on the Persian +gulf: here Gerrha, in possession of its freedom, appears a flourishing +place of trade.</p></div> + +<div class="sidenote">War with Egypt,<br />203.</div> + +<p>17. Resumption of the plan against Egypt, +after the death of Ptolemy Philopator; and alliance +with Philip of Macedonia, then carrying on +war in Asia. Antiochus, it is true, attained his +end in the expulsion of the Ptolemies from their +possessions in Syria, Cœle-Syria, and Phœnicia; +but then, his success brought him in contact with +<span class="sidenote">203—198.</span> +Rome, an event of decisive importance to himself +and his successors.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">War with Rome.<br /> +197.<br /> +195.</div> + +<p>18. Growth of the disputes between the king +and Rome, proceeding from the conquest of the +major part of Asia Minor and the Thracian Chersonesus; +meanwhile Hannibal had taken refuge +at the Syrian court, and the probability daily increased +of a great league being formed against +Rome, although that power, after conquering Carthage, +201, and Macedonia, 197, had succeeded +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_240" id="Page_240">[Pg 240]</a></span>in winning over Greece even, by the magic spell +of <i>freedom</i>. But Antiochus ruined all: instead of +following Hannibal's advice, and attacking the +Romans on their own ground, he stood on the defensive, +and suffered himself to be invaded by +them in Asia. His defeat at Magnesia near +Mount Sipylus compelled him to accede to such +<span class="sidenote">190.</span> +conditions as Rome chose to dictate, and the +power of the Syrian empire was for ever broken.</p> + +<div class="sblockquot"><p>For the history of this war, see below in the Roman history. +Book v. per. ii. parag. 10, 11.</p></div> + +<div class="sidenote">Conditions +of peace +with Rome.</div> + +<p>19. The conditions of the peace were: 1st. +That Antiochus should evacuate Asia Minor; +(Asia cis Taurum.) 2nd. That he should pay +down 15,000 talents; and to Eumenes of Pergamus +four hundred. 3rd. That Hannibal and some +others should be delivered up, and the king's +younger son Antiochus, be given as an hostage.—The +loss of the surrendered countries was a consequence +of this peace, less disadvantageous to +the Syrian kings, than the use made of it by the +conquerors. By adding the greatest part of the +ceded territories to those of the kings of Pergamus, +the Romans raised up alongside of their enemy a +rival, whom they might at their own will use as a +political engine against him.—Rome took care +likewise that the stipulated sum should be paid +by instalments in twelve years, to the end that +Syria might be kept in a permanent state of dependence.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">Seleucus +Philopator,<br /> +187—176.</div> + +<p>20. Murder of the king, 187. The reign of his +elder son, Seleucus IV. surnamed Philopator, was +a period of tranquillity; peace arising from weakness.—Though +once he unsheathed his sword in<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_241" id="Page_241">[Pg 241]</a></span> +defence of Pharnaces king of Pontus, against Eumenes, +his fear of Rome soon compelled him to +restore it to the scabbard. He exchanged his son +for his brother at Rome; but fell a victim to the +ambition of his minister Heliodorus.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">Antiochus +Epiphanes,<br /> +176—164.</div> + +<p>21. Antiochus IV. surnamed Epiphanes. Educated +at Rome, he sought to combine the popular +manners of a Roman with the ostentatious luxury +of a Syrian; and thereby became an object of +universal hatred and contempt. Our information +respecting his history is too meagre to allow of our +deciding whether most of the evil reported of him, +in the Jewish accounts especially, may not be +exaggerated. At any rate, among all his faults, +we may still discern in him the germs of good +qualities.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">His war +against +Egypt,<br /> +172—168:</div> + +<p>22. War with Egypt, springing out of Ptolemy +Philometor's claims upon Cœle-Syria and Palestine. +Obscure as many parts are in the history +of this war yet it is evident that success attended +the arms of Antiochus, and that he would have +become master of Egypt had not Rome interfered.</p> + +<div class="sblockquot"><p>The pretext for war, on the Egyptian side, was, that those +provinces had by Antiochus III. been promised as a dowry to +Cleopatra, sister of Antiochus and the mother of Philometor: +Antiochus Epiphanes, on his side, laid claim to the regency of +Egypt, as uncle to the young king, who, however, was soon declared +of age.—Opening of the war, and victory won by Antiochus +at Pelusium, 171; in consequence of which Cyprus is betrayed +into his hands.—Pelusium is fortified with a view of insuring +the possession of Cœle-Syria, and of facilitating an irruption +into Egypt.—Another victory, 170, and Egypt subdued as +far as Alexandria. Philometor driven by a sedition out of Alexandria, +where his brother Physcon is seated on the throne, falls +into the hands of Antiochus, who concludes with him a most ad<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_242" id="Page_242">[Pg 242]</a></span>vantageous +peace, and takes his part against Physcon. Hence +siege is laid to Alexandria, 169; attended with no success. +Upon the retreat of Antiochus, Philometor, concluding a separate +peace with his brother, according to which both are to rule in +conjunction, is admitted into Alexandria. Antiochus, bitterly +enraged, now declares war against both brothers, who crave assistance +from Rome: he once more penetrates into Egypt, 168; +where the Roman ambassador, Popillius, assumes so lofty a tone, +that the Syrian king is glad to purchase peace by the surrender +of Cyprus and Pelusium.</p></div> + +<div class="sidenote">his intolerance:</div> + +<p>23. The religious intolerance of Epiphanes, +exhibited in his wish to introduce the Grecian +worship everywhere among the subjects of his +empire, is the more remarkable, as such instances +were less frequent in those times. This intolerance +seems to have taken its rise, not only in the +love of pomp, but in the cupidity of the king, who +by that means was enabled to appropriate to himself +the treasures of the temples, no longer inviolate, +since the defeat of his father by Rome. The +<span class="sidenote">167.</span> +consequent sedition of the Jews, under the Maccabees, +laid the foundation of the future independence +of that people, and contributed not a +little to weaken the Syrian kingdom.</p> + +<div class="sblockquot"><p>See below; History of the Jews, book iv. per. iv; Small +states Jews, parag. 6. The deep decay of the finances of the +Seleucidæ, palpable from the latter days of Antiochus the Great, +may be accounted for well enough, by the falling off of the revenue, +accompanied with increased luxury in the kings, (an instance +of which is furnished in the festivals celebrated by Antiochus +Epiphanes at Daphne, 166,) and in the vast presents constantly +sent to Rome, in addition to the tribute, for the purpose +of keeping up a party there.</p></div> + +<div class="sidenote">his death,<br /> +165.</div> + +<p>24. His expedition also into Upper Asia, Persis +especially, where great disorders were likewise +excited by the introduction of the Grecian reli<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_243" id="Page_243">[Pg 243]</a></span>gion, +had for its object not only the recovery of +Armenia, but the rifling of the temples. He died, +however, on his way to Babylon.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">Antiochus Eupator.<br /> + +164—161.</div> + +<p>25. The real heir to the throne, Demetrius, +being detained at Rome as an hostage, Epiphanes +was first succeeded by his son Antiochus V. surnamed +Eupator, a child nine years old. During +his short reign, the quarrels of his guardians, the +despotism of the Romans, the protracted war with +the Jews, and the commencing conquests of the +Parthians, reduced the kingdom of the Seleucidæ +to a powerless state.</p> + +<div class="sblockquot"><p>Contest between Lysias, regent in the absence of Epiphanes, +and Philip, appointed by the king, previously to his death, as +guardian of the young prince, terminated by the defeat of Philip, +162.—Eupator's right acknowledged at Rome, in order that the +guardianship might fall into the hands of the senate, who administer +the government by means of a commission sent over into +Syria, and completely deprive the king of all power of resistance. +Octavius, head of the commission, put to death, probably at the +instigation of Lysias.—While the Parthian king, Mithridates I. +is prosecuting his conquests at the expense of the Syrian kingdom +in Upper Asia, Demetrius secretly escapes out of Rome, +takes possession of the throne, and causes Eupator and Lysias to +be put to death, 161.</p></div> + +<div class="sidenote">Demetrius +Soter,<br /> +161—150.</div> + +<p>26. Demetrius I. surnamed Soter. He succeeded +in getting himself acknowledged at Rome, +on which all now depended. The attempts to +extend his power, by supporting Orofernes, the +pretender to the crown of Cappadocia, against +the king Ariarathes, had their origin partly in +family relations, but still more, as was the case +with almost all political transactions of those +times, in bribery. By this act he only drew upon +himself the enmity of the kings of Egypt and +Pergamus; as, moreover, he was hated by his sub<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_244" id="Page_244">[Pg 244]</a></span>jects +on account of his intemperance, the chances +of success were greatly in favour of the shameful +<span class="sidenote">154.</span> +usurpation of Alexander Balas, brought about +by Heraclidas the expelled governor of Babylon, +and backed by the yet more shameful conduct of +the Roman senate, who acknowledged his title to +the throne. The Syrian kingdom was now fallen +so low, that both king and usurper were obliged +to court the favour of the Jews under Jonathan, +hitherto regarded as rebels. In the second battle +Demetrius lost his life.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">Alexander +Balas,<br /> +150—145.</div> + +<p>27. The usurper Alexander Balas endeavoured +to confirm his power by a marriage with Cleopatra, +daughter of Ptolemy Philometor: but he +soon evinced himself more unworthy even than +his predecessor of wielding the sceptre. While +he abandoned the government to his favourite, +the detested Ammonius, the eldest remaining son +of Demetrius succeeds not only in raising a party +against the usurper, but even in prevailing on +Philometor to side with himself, and give him in +marriage Cleopatra, whom he takes away from +Balas. The consequence of this alliance with +<span class="sidenote">145.</span> +Egypt was the defeat and downfal of Balas, although +it cost Philometor his life.</p> + +<div class="sblockquot"><p>The account, that Philometor wished to conquer Syria for +himself, must probably be understood as meaning that he had +formed the design of recovering the ancient Egyptian possessions, +Cœle-Syria and Phœnicia. Otherwise, why should he +have given his daughter to a second pretender to the throne?</p></div> + +<div class="sidenote">Demetrius Nicator, 145—126.<br /> + +145.<br /> + +144.<br /> + +143.<br /> + +142.<br /> + +140—130.</div> + +<p>28. Demetrius II. surnamed Nicator, 145—141, +and for the second time, 130—126. The disbanding +of his father's mercenaries having roused +the indignation of the army, the cruelty of his +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_245" id="Page_245">[Pg 245]</a></span>favourite Lasthenes kindled a sedition in the capital, +which could not be quenched without the +assistance of the Jews, under their high priest and +military chieftain, Jonathan.—While affairs were +in this posture, Diodotus, subsequently called +Tryphon, a dependent of Balas, excited an insurrection, +by bringing forward Antiochus, the latter's +son, and even, with the help of Jonathan, +seating him on the throne of Antioch: soon after, +Tryphon, having by treachery got Jonathan into +his power, removed Antiochus by murder, and +assumed the diadem himself.—Notwithstanding +Demetrius kept his footing only in a part of Syria, +he was enabled to obey the call of the Grecian +colonists in Upper Asia, and support them against +the Parthians, who had overrun the country as +far as the Euphrates.—Although victorious in the +commencement of the contest, he was soon after +taken by the Parthians, and remained ten years +a prisoner, though treated meanwhile as a king.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">Antiochus of Sida.<br /> +139.<br /> +132.<br /> +131. +</div> + +<p>29. In order to maintain herself against Tryphon, +Cleopatra marries the younger, and better +brother, Antiochus of Sida, (Sidetes); he being +at first in alliance with the Jews,—who, however, +were soon after subdued—defeats and overthrows +Tryphon. Being now lord and master of Syria, +he undertakes a campaign against the Parthians; +at the commencement, befriended by the subjects +of the Parthians, he is successful, but soon afterwards +is attacked in winter quarters by those +very friends, and cut to pieces, together with all +his army.</p> + +<div class="sblockquot"><p>If the accounts of the wanton licentiousness of his army are +not exaggerations, they furnish the clearest proof of the military<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_246" id="Page_246">[Pg 246]</a></span> +despotism of those times. By continued pillage and extortion, +the wealth of the country had been collected in the hands of the +soldiers; and the condition of Syria must have been pretty nearly +the same as that of Egypt under the Mamluk sultans.</p></div> + +<div class="sidenote">Demetrius Nicator restored,<br /> +130—126.<br /> +126.</div> + +<p>30. Meanwhile Demetrius II. having escaped +from prison, again seated himself on the throne. +But being now still more overbearing than before, +and meddling in the Egyptian affairs, Ptolemy +Physcon set up against him a rival in the +person of Alexander Zebinas a pretended son of +Alexander Balas; by him he was defeated and +slain.</p> + +<div class="sblockquot"><p>The Parthian king Phraates II. had, at first, liberated Demetrius, +to whom his sister Rhodogune was united by marriage, in +order that, by appearing in Syria, he might oblige Antiochus to +retreat. Antiochus having fallen, Phraates would fain have recaptured +Demetrius, but he escaped.</p></div> + +<div class="sidenote">126—85.</div> + +<p>31. The ensuing history of the Seleucidæ is a +picture of civil wars, family feuds, and deeds of +horror, such as are scarcely to be paralleled. The +utmost verge of the empire was now the Euphrates; +all Upper Asia acknowledging the dominion +of the Parthians. The Jews, moreover, +having completely vindicated their independence, +the kingdom was consequently confined to Syria +and Phœnicia. So thoroughly decayed was the +state, that even the Romans—whether because +there was no longer anything to plunder, or because +they conceived it more prudent to suffer +the Seleucidæ to wear themselves out in mutual +quarrels—do not seem to have taken any account +<span class="sidenote">Syria becomes a Roman province, 64.</span> +of it, until, at the conclusion of the last war with +Mithridates, they thought proper formally to annex +it to their empire as a province.</p> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_247" id="Page_247">[Pg 247]</a></span></p> + +<div class="sblockquot"><p>War between Alexander Zebinas and the ambitious relict of +Demetrius, Cleopatra, who with her own hand murders her eldest +son Seleucus, B. C. 125, for pretending to the crown, which she +now gives to her younger son, Antiochus Gryphus; the new +king, however, soon saw himself compelled to secure his own life +by the murder of his mother, 122; Alexander Zebinas having +been the year before, 123, defeated and put to death. After a +peaceful rule of eight years, 122—114, Antiochus Gryphus is involved +in war with his half-brother Antiochus Cyzicenus, son of +Cleopatra by Antiochus Sidetes: it ends, 111, in a partition of +territory. But the war between the brothers soon burst out +anew, and just as this hapless kingdom seemed about to crumble +into pieces, Gryphus was murdered, 97.—Seleucus, the eldest of +his five sons, having beaten and slain Cyzicenus, 96; the eldest +son of the latter, Antiochus Eusebes, prosecuted the war against +the sons of Gryphus; Eusebes being at last defeated, 90, the +surviving sons of Gryphus fell to war among themselves, and the +struggle continued until the Syrians, weary of bloodshed, did +what they ought to have done long before, viz. made over the +sovereign power to Tigranes the king of Armenia, 85. Yet +Eusebes's widow, Selene, retained Ptolemais till 70; and her elder +son Antiochus Asiaticus, at the time that Tigranes was beaten +by Lucullus, in the Mithridatic war, took possession of some +provinces in Syria, 68; these were wrested from him after the +total defeat of Mithridates by Pompey, when Tigranes was +obliged to give up his claim, and Syria became a province of the +Roman empire, 64. Antiochus Asiaticus died 58; his brother +Seleucus Cybiosactes, having married Berenice, was raised to +the Egyptian throne, but murdered at her command, 57; and +thus the family of the Seleucidæ was completely swept away.</p></div> + + +<p class="cblockquot">II. <i>History of the Egyptian kingdom under the Ptolemies,</i> +323—30.</p> + +<div class="sblockquot"><p>The sources of this history are for the most part the same as +in the foregoing section; see above, p. 232; but unfortunately +still more scanty; for in the first place, less information can here +be derived from the Jewish writers; secondly, as on the coins +struck under the Ptolemies no continuous series of time is +marked, but only the year of the king's reign, they are by no +means such safeguards to the chronology as those of the Seleu<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_248" id="Page_248">[Pg 248]</a></span>cidæ. +With respect to some few events, important illustrations +are supplied by inscriptions.</p> + +<p>By modern writers, the history of the Ptolemies has been +composed under a form almost entirely chronological, and by no +means treated of in the spirit which it deserves.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Vaillant</span>, <i>Historia Ptolemæorum</i>, fol. Amstelodam. 1701. +Illustration by the aid of coins.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Champolion Figeac</span>, <i>Annales des Lagides, ou Chronologie +des Rois d'Egypte, successeurs d'Alexandre le Grand</i>. Paris, +1819, 2 vols. This treatise, which was honoured with a prize +by the Académie des Inscriptions, has by no means exhausted +the whole of the subject. See</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">J. Saint-Martin</span>, <i>Examen Critique de l'ouvrage de</i> <span class="smcap">M. Ch. +F.</span> <i>intitulé Annales des Lagides</i>. Paris, 1820.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Letronne</span>, <i>Recherches pour servir à l'histoire de l'Egypte +pendant la domination des Grecs et des Romains, tirées des inscriptions +Grecques et Latines, relatives à la chronologie, à l'etat +des arts aux usages civils et religieux de ce pays</i>. Paris, 1828. +It cannot be denied that the author has thrown a much clearer +light on the subjects mentioned in his title.</p></div> + +<div class="sidenote">Flourishing +state of +Egypt +under the +Ptolemies.</div> + +<p>1. Egypt, under the Ptolemies, fulfilled, and +perhaps more than fulfilled, the designs projected +by Alexander; it became not only a mighty +kingdom, but likewise the centre of trade, and of +science. The history of Egypt, however, confines +itself, almost solely, to that of the new capital, +Alexandria; the foundation of that city produced, +imperceptibly, a change in the national character, +which never could have been wrought by main +force. In the enjoyment of civil welfare and religious +freedom, the nation sunk into a state of +political drowsiness, such as could scarce have +been expected in a people who so often rose up +against the Persians.</p> + +<div class="sblockquot"><p>Alexandria, originally, was no doubt a military colony; it was +not long, however, before it became a general place of resort for +all nations, such as was scarcely to be met with in any other town +of that day. The inhabitants were divided into three classes;<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_249" id="Page_249">[Pg 249]</a></span> +<i>Alexandrines</i>, (that is to say, foreigners of all nations, who had +settled in the place; next to the Greeks, the Jews were, it appears, +the most numerous,) <i>Egyptians</i>, and <i>Mercenaries</i> in the +king's service. The Greeks and Macedonians divided into wards +(φυλας), constituted the citizens; they were under municipal +government; the others, such as the Jews, formed bodies corporate +according to their respective nations. The more important, +in so many respects, that Alexandria is for history, the more it +is to be regretted that the accounts respecting it, which have +reached us, are so far from satisfactory!—Concerning the topography +of ancient Alexandria:</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Bonamy</span>, <i>Description de la ville d'Alexandrie</i> in the <i>Mém. de +l'Académie des Inscript.</i> vol. ix. Compare:</p> + +<p>† <span class="smcap">J. L. F. Manso</span>, <i>Letters upon ancient Alexandria</i>, in his +<i>Vermischte Schriften</i>, vol. i.</p></div> + +<div class="sidenote">Ptolemy +Soter,<br /> +B. C. 323—284.<br /> + +321.<br /> + +307.</div> + +<p>2. Ptolemy I. surnamed Soter, the son of +Lagus, received Egypt for his share, at the first +division after the death of Alexander. Aware of +the value of his lot, he was the only one of +Alexander's successors that had the moderation +not to aim at grasping all. No doubt he was, by +the ambition of the other princes, entangled in +their quarrels, but his conduct was so cautious, +that Egypt itself was never endangered. Twice +attacked in that country, first by Perdiccas, afterwards +by Antigonus and Demetrius, he availed +himself successfully of his advantageous position, +and moreover, in this period, added to his dominion +several countries without Africa, such as +Phœnicia, Judæa, Cœle-Syria, and Cyprus.</p> + +<div class="sblockquot"><p>The possession of Phœnicia and Cœle-Syria, by reason of their +forests, was of indispensable necessity to Egypt as a naval power. +They frequently changed masters. The first occupation of those +provinces by the Egyptian government, occurred in 320, soon +after the rout of Perdiccas by Ptolemy's general Nicanor, who +took the Syrian satrap Laomedon prisoner, established his footing +in the whole of Syria, and placed garrisons in the Phœnician<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_250" id="Page_250">[Pg 250]</a></span> +cities. In 314 it was again lost to Antigonus, after his return +out of Upper Asia, and the siege of Tyre. Ptolemy having +defeated Demetrius at Gaza, 312, repossessed himself of those +countries, but soon after evacuated them on the appearance of +Antigonus, to whom they were ceded by the peace of 311. At +the conclusion of the last grand league against Antigonus, 303, +Ptolemy once more occupied them: but alarmed at a false report, +that Antigonus had gained a victory, he retreated into Egypt, +leaving nevertheless troops in the cities. After the battle of +Ipsus, 301, those countries were made over to him, and continued +in the hands of the Ptolemies until they were lost at the +second invasion of Antiochus the Great, 203.</p> + +<p>Cyprus, (see p. 154) like most other islands, acknowledged +submission to those who possessed the sovereignty of the sea, and +therefore could not escape the dominion of the Ptolemies. It +was taken possession of by Ptolemy as early as 313. Still the +separate cities of the islands preserved their kings, among whom +Nicocles of Paphos, having entered into a secret league with +Antigonus, was put to death, 310. After the great seafight, +307, Cyprus fell into the hands of Antigonus and Demetrius. +Subsequently to the battle of Ipsus, 301, it remained indeed at +first in the power of Demetrius; but that prince being gone over +to Macedonia, Ptolemy, 294, seized an opportunity of recovering +it, and the island from that time remained under the dominion +of Egypt. Availing themselves of their naval strength, the +Egyptian kings frequently exerted sovereign power over the +coasts of Asia Minor, especially Cilicia, Caria, and Pamphylia, +which appear to have absolutely formed a part of their territory +under the second Ptolemy. It is, however, hardly possible to +define with accuracy what were their real possessions in those +quarters.</p></div> + +<div class="sidenote">Cyrene and +Libya annexed +to +Egypt.</div> + +<p>3. Ptolemy likewise extends his territory within +Africa, by the capture of Cyrene; in consequence +of which Libya, or the neighbouring +countries betwixt Cyrene and Egypt, fell under +his dominion. It is probable, also, that even in +his reign the frontier of the Egyptian empire was +advanced into Æthiopia; but for this assertion we +have no positive authority.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_251" id="Page_251">[Pg 251]</a></span></p> + +<div class="sblockquot"><p>The fall of Cyrene was brought about by domestic broils: at +the time the place was besieged by Thimbron, a portion of the +exiled nobles fled to Ptolemy; the Egyptian prince commanded +that they should be reinstated by his general Ophellas, who took +possession of the town itself, 321. An insurrection in 312 was +quelled by Agis, Ptolemy's general: nevertheless it would appear +that Ophellas had almost established his independence, when, +by the treachery of Agathocles, with whom he had entered into a +league against Carthage, he perished, about 308. Cyrene was +now seized by Ptolemy, and given to his son Magas, who ruled +over it fifty years.</p></div> + +<div class="sidenote">Constitution +of the +government.</div> + +<p>4. With respect to the internal government of +Egypt, our information is far from complete. The +division into districts or nomes was continued; +subject perhaps, in some cases, to alterations. +The power of the king appears to have been unlimited; +the extreme provinces were administered +by governors, appointed by the sovereign; +similar officers were probably placed at the head +of the various districts of Egypt itself; but hardly +any document relative to the home department of +that country has reached our time. High public +situations, at least in the capital, appear exclusively +reserved to Macedonians or Greeks; no +Egyptian is ever mentioned as holding office.</p> + +<div class="sblockquot"><p>There were four magistrates at Alexandria: the Exegetes, +whose office was to provide for the wants of the city; the Chief +Judge; the Hypomnematographus—(Registrar of the archives?)—and the +Στρατηγὸς νυκτερινὸς, +no doubt, the supervisor of the +police, whose duty it was to watch over the peace of the city at +night. We have the express testimony of Strabo, that these +offices, which continued under the Romans, had already existed +under the kings; whether their establishment can be dated as +far back as the time of Ptolemy I. is a question that does not +admit of a solution.—The number of the districts or nomes appears +to have been augmented; probably with a political view, +in order that no governor or monarch should be invested with too +great a share of power.</p></div><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_252" id="Page_252">[Pg 252]</a></span></p> + +<div class="sidenote">The priest-caste +and +religion remain.</div> + +<p>5. Be that as it may, it is an undoubted fact, +that the ancient national constitution and administration +were not entirely obliterated. The +caste of priests, together with the national religion, +continued to exist; and though the influence +of the former was considerably diminished, +it did not entirely cease. A certain sort of +worship was, by appointed priests, paid to the +kings, both in their lifetime and after their death. +Memphis, though not the usual residence of the +court, remained the capital of the kingdom; there +the ceremony of coronation was performed; and +its temple of Phtha was still the head sanctuary. +What influence had not the religion of the Egyptians +upon that of the Greeks! It were difficult +to say which nation borrowed most from the +other.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">Character +of the first +of the Ptolemies.</div> + +<p>6. The regeneration of Egypt from the state of +general ruin into which she had been plunged, +and the permanent tranquillity she enjoyed during +nearly thirty years, the duration of the reign of +Ptolemy I.—at a time when the rest of the world +was harassed by continual wars,—must have +heightened her prosperity under so mild and beneficent +a ruler. But Ptolemy was certainly the +only prince who could have taken advantage of +these favourable circumstances. Though a soldier +by profession he was highly accomplished, +was himself a writer, and had a genius for all the +arts of peace, which he fostered with the open-handed +liberality of a king: while amidst all the +brilliant splendour of his court, he led himself the +life of a private individual.</p> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_253" id="Page_253">[Pg 253]</a></span></p><div class="sblockquot"><p>Increase of Alexandria by the importation of vast numbers of +colonists; especially Jews.—Erection of several superb buildings, +more particularly the Serapeum.—Measures taken for the extension +of trade and navigation.—The twofold harbour on the +sea, and on the lake Mareotis.—The Pharus built.</p></div> + +<div class="sidenote">Literature +encouraged.</div> + +<p>7. But what more than any thing else distinguished +Ptolemy from his contemporaries was his +regard for the interests of science. The idea of +founding the Museum sprung out of the necessities +of the age, and was suited to the monarchical +form of government now prevalent. Where +in those days of destruction and revolution could +the sciences have found a shelter, if not under +the protection of a prince? But under Ptolemy +they found more than a shelter, they found a rallying +point. Here accordingly the exact sciences +were perfected: and although the critic's art +which now grew up could not form a Homer or a +Sophocles, should <i>we</i>, had it not been for the +Alexandrines, be at present able to read either +Homer or Sophocles?</p> + +<div class="sblockquot"><p>Foundation of the Museum, (Society of the learned,) and of +the first library in Bruchium, (afterwards removed to the Serapeum;) +probably under the direction of Demetrius Phalereus. +A proper estimation of the services rendered by the Museum is +yet wanting: what academy in modern Europe, however, has +done so much?</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Heyne</span>, <i>De genio Sæculi Ptolemæorum</i>. <i>In Opuscul.</i> t. i.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Matter</span>, <i>Essai historique sur l'école d'Alexandrie</i>, 1820.</p></div> + +<div class="sidenote">Ptolemy +Philadelphus,<br /> +284—246.</div> + +<p>8. Ptolemy II. surnamed Philadelphus, son of +Berenice, the second wife of his father, had +ascended the throne in 286 as joint king. His +reign, which lasted thirty-eight years, was more +peaceful even than that of his predecessor, whose<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_254" id="Page_254">[Pg 254]</a></span> +spirit seemed to inspire him in every thing, save +that he was not a warrior: but, by that very +reason, the arts of peace, trade, and science were +promoted with the greater energy. In his reign +Egypt was the first power by sea, and one of the +first by land, in the world; and even though the +account given by Theocritus of its thirty-three +thousand cities may be regarded as the exaggeration +of a poet, it is very certain that Egypt +was in those days the most flourishing country in +existence.</p> + +<div class="sblockquot"><p>The commerce of Alexandria was divided into three main +branches: 1. The land-trade over Asia and Africa. 2. The sea-trade +on the Mediterranean. 3. The sea-trade on the Arabian +gulf, and Indian ocean.—With regard to the land-trade of Asia, +especially that of India carried on by caravans, Alexandria was +obliged to share it with various cities and countries: since one of +its chief routes traversed the Oxus, and Caspian, to the Black +sea; while the caravans, travelling through Syria and Mesopotamia, +spread for the most part among the seaports of Phœnicia +and Asia Minor.—The trade over Africa extended far west, and +still farther south. Westward it was secured by the close connection +between Cyrene and Alexandria; and no doubt followed +the same roads as in earlier times: of far greater importance was +that carried on with the southern countries, or Æthiopia, into the +interior of which they now penetrated, principally for the purpose +of procuring elephants. The navigation on the Arabian and +Indian seas had likewise for its immediate object the Æthiopian +trade, rather than the Indian.—The measures taken by Ptolemy +with this view, consisted partly in the building of harbours +(Berenice, Myos Hormos) on the Arabian gulf; partly in establishing +a caravan from Berenice to Coptos on the Nile, down +which latter the goods were further transmitted to their destination; +for the canal connecting the Red sea with the Nile, although, +perhaps, completed at this time, was nevertheless but +little used. The grand deposit for these wares was the lesser +harbour of Alexandria, united by a canal with the lake Mareotis, +which in its turn communicated by another canal with the Nile; +so that the account we receive of the lesser harbour being more<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_255" id="Page_255">[Pg 255]</a></span> +thronged and full of bustle than the larger one, need not excite +our surprise. With regard to the trade on the Mediterranean, it +was shared between Alexandria, Rhodes, Corinth, and Carthage. +The chief manufactories appear to have been those of cotton +stuffs, established in or near the temples.</p> + +<p>The best inquiry into the trade of Alexandria will be found in +<span class="smcap">J. C. D. De Schmidt</span>, <i>Opuscula, res maxime Aegyptiorum illustrantia</i>, +1765, 8vo.</p></div> + +<div class="sidenote">Revenue +of Egypt.</div> + +<p>9. It would be important to know what, in a +state like Egypt, was the system of imposts, +which under Philadelphus produced 14,800 silver +talents, (four millions sterling,) without taking into +account the toll paid in grain. In the extreme +provinces, such as Palestine, the taxes were annually +farmed to the highest bidder, a mode of +levy attended with great oppression to the people. +The case appears to have been very different with +regard to Egypt itself; the customs, however, +constituted the main branch of the revenue.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">Events of +the reign +of Philadelphus.</div> + +<p>10. The wars waged by Ptolemy II. were +limited to those against Antiochus II. of Syria, +and Magas of Cyrene, half-brother to the Egyptian +king; the former sprung out of the latter. +Luckily for Egypt, Ptolemy II. was of a weak +constitution, and by his state of health was incapacitated +from commanding his armies in person.—Under +his reign the first foundation was laid, +by means of reciprocal embassies, of that connection +with Rome which afterwards decided the fate +of Egypt.</p> + +<div class="sblockquot"><p>Magas had, after the defeat of Ophellas, received Cyrene, 308. +He had married Apame, daughter of Antiochus I., and in 266 +had raised the standard of rebellion with the intention of invading +Egypt itself, when an insurrection in Marmarica compelled him +to retreat; he contrived, notwithstanding, to prevail upon his<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_256" id="Page_256">[Pg 256]</a></span> +father-in-law to undertake an expedition against Egypt, which, +however, was frustrated by Philadelphus, 264. To terminate this +contest, Magas was about to unite his daughter Berenice with +the eldest son of Philadelphus; Apame, wishing to thwart the +negotiation, fled over to her brother, Antiochus II. whom, after +her husband's death, 258, she excited to a war against Egypt, +which closed in 252.—The embassy to Rome originated in the +victory won by the Romans over Pyrrhus, 273; it was answered +by another from the Romans, 272.</p></div> + +<div class="sidenote">Character +of Ptolemy +Philadelphus.</div> + +<p>11. The son inherited from his father all but +the simplicity of domestic life: under the reign of +Philadelphus, the court was first thrown open to +that effeminate luxury, which soon wrought the +destruction of the Ptolemies as it had previously +done that of the Seleucidæ; at the same time was +introduced the pernicious practice of intermarriages +in the same family, by which the royal +blood was more foully contaminated here even +than in Syria. Philadelphus set the first example, +by repudiating Arsinoe the daughter of Lysimachus, +and then marrying his own sister, likewise +named Arsinoe; this princess preserved her influence +over the king as long as she lived, although +she did not bring him an heir, but adopted the +children of her predecessor.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">Ptolemy +Evergetes,<br /> +246—221.</div> + +<p>12. Ptolemy III. surnamed Evergetes. Under +him, Egypt, from being merely mercantile, assumed +the character of a conquering state; notwithstanding +his warlike spirit, he was not uninspired +with that genius for the arts of peace peculiar +to his family. His conquests were directed +partly against Asia in the war with Seleucus II. +and extended as far as the borders of Bactria; and +partly, it is probable, against the interior of Ethiopia, +and the western coast of Arabia. Countries<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_257" id="Page_257">[Pg 257]</a></span> +so wealthy, and with which commerce had made +men so well acquainted, could hardly escape the +arms of such a formidable power as Egypt; yet +she seems to have made scarcely any other use +of this extension of territory, than to insure the +safety of her commercial routes.</p> + +<div class="sblockquot"><p>The main source of the history of Ptolemy Evergetes, is the +inscription on the monument erected by that prince at Adule +in Ethiopia: it contains a chronological list of his conquests, +a copy of which has been preserved to us by Cosmas Indicopleustes; +modern researches, however, have shown the probability +of its having consisted of two inscriptions, one referring +to Evergetes, the other to a later king of Abyssinia.—According +to this monument, Ptolemy inherited from his father, besides +Egypt itself, Libya, that is to say, western Africa as far as +Cyrene, Cœle-Syria, Phœnicia, Lycia, Caria, Cyprus, and the +Cyclades.—War with Seleucus Callinicus caused by the murder +of Berenice (see above, p. 237.); lasted until the ten years' truce, +246—240. During this war, he conquered the whole of Syria as +far as the Euphrates, and most of the maritime countries in Asia +Minor, from Cilicia to the Hellespont: an easy prey to a naval +power. Whether the conquest of the countries beyond the Euphrates, +Mesopotamia, Babylonia, Persis, Susiana, and Media +as far as Bactria, was effected in these four years, or not till between +240 and 230, is a question which cannot be determined +with certainty. If we may judge by the booty brought back, +this campaign was rather a foray than a regular expedition for +conquest, though Ptolemy, indeed, appointed governors in Cilicia +and Babylonia; yet the peculiar situation of affairs in Asia +at the time, Seleucus being at war with his brother Antiochus +Hierax, and the Parthian and Bactrian kingdoms being also in a +state of infant feebleness, afforded unusual opportunities for an +expedition of this sort.</p> + +<p>The southern conquests, so far as they may be referred to +Evergetes, were effected during the last period of his reign, in a +separate war. They comprised: 1st. The greatest part of modern +Abyssinia,—for as the catalogue of nations commences with +that of Abyssinia, it necessarily follows that Nubia had already +been subjected to Egypt.—The mountain range along the Arabian +gulf, the plain of Sennaar as far as modern Darfur, the lofty<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_258" id="Page_258">[Pg 258]</a></span> +chain of mountains to the south, beyond the fountains of the +Nile. All these conquests were made by the king in person; +and from those distant lands to Egypt, commercial roads were +opened. 2nd. The western coast of Arabia, from Leuke Kome +to the southern point of Arabia Felix, was conquered by his +generals and admirals: here, likewise, the security of the commercial +roads was established.</p> + +<p><i>Monumentum Adulitanum</i>, published in <span class="smcap">Fabricius</span>, <i>B. Græc.</i> +t. ii.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Montfaucon</span>, <i>Coll. Patr.</i> t. i. and in <span class="smcap">Chishull</span>, <i>Antiquit. +Asiaticæ</i>.</p> + +<p>The assertion that the monument bears two different inscriptions +is made by <span class="smcap">Salt</span>, in the narrative of his travels contained +in the <i>Travels of Lord Valentia</i>.</p></div> + +<p>13. Egypt was singularly blessed in having +three great kings, whose reigns filled one whole +century. A change now ensued; but that change +was brought about by the natural course of +events; in fact, it could scarcely be expected that +the court should remain untainted by such luxury +as must have prevailed in a city, which was the +main seat of trade, and the deposit of the treasures +of the richest countries.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">Ptolemy +Philopator,<br /> +221—234.</div> + +<p>14. Ptolemy IV. surnamed Philopator. A debauchee +and a tyrant, who, during the greater +portion of his reign, remained under the tutelage +of the crafty Sosibius, and, after the decease of +that individual, fell into the yet more infamous +hands of Agathocles and his sister Agathoclea. +Philopator being contemporary with Antiochus +the Great, the dangers that threatened Egypt +under such a reign seemed to be doubled; they +were, however, averted by the ill-deserved victory +of Raphia (see above, p. 238).</p> + +<div class="sidenote">Ptolemy +Epiphanes,<br /> +204—181.<br /> + +203.<br /> + +202.</div> + +<p>15. Agathocles and his sister would fain have +taken into their own hands the guardianship of +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_259" id="Page_259">[Pg 259]</a></span>his son Ptolemy V. surnamed Epiphanes, a child +only five years old; but the people having risen +up and made a terrible example of them, the +office of guardian was confided to the younger +Sosibius and to Tlepolemus. The reckless prodigality +of the former soon gave rise to a feud between +him and his colleague, who was at least +cunning enough to keep up appearances. Meanwhile +the critical posture in which the kingdom +was placed, by the attack of the enleagued kings +of Syria and Macedonia, compelled the nation to +defer the regency to Rome and the senate, who +had hitherto carefully cherished an amicable connection +with Egypt.</p> + +<div class="sblockquot"><p>The regency confided to M. Lepidus, 201, who hands over the +administration to Aristomenes of Acarnania. The sequel will +show how decidedly important this step was for the ulterior destinies +of Egypt. By the war of the Romans against Philip, and +their differences with Antiochus, Egypt was, no doubt, for the +present extricated from her embarrassment; but nevertheless in +198 she lost her Syrian possessions, notwithstanding Antiochus +III. had promised to give them as a dowry to Cleopatra, the affianced +bride, and subsequently the consort of the young king of +Egypt.</p> + +<p>To this time, or about 197, belongs the celebrated inscription +on the Rosetta stone, erected by the caste of priests as a tribute of +gratitude for past benefits, after the consecration of the king at +Memphis upon his coming of age: a monument important alike +for palæography, and for the knowledge of Egyptian administration.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Ameilhon</span>, <i>Eclaircissemens sur l'inscription Grecque du monument +trouvé à Rosette</i>. Paris, 1803.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Heyne</span>, <i>Commentatio de inscriptione Græca ex Aegypto Londinum +apportata</i>, in the <i>Commentat. Societ. Gotting.</i> vol. xv.</p></div> + +<div class="sidenote">Character +of Epiphanes.<br /> + +184.<br /> + +183.</div> + +<p>16. The hopes conceived of Epiphanes, were +grievously disappointed as he grew up to manhood. +His guardian Aristomenes fell a victim to +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_260" id="Page_260">[Pg 260]</a></span>his tyranny; nay, his cruelty drove even the patient +Egyptians to rebel, although the insurrections +were stilled by his counsellor and general +Polycrates. His reign happened during the period +in which Rome crushed the power of Macedonia +and Syria; and notwithstanding the close alliance +between Epiphanes and Antiochus III. the Romans +succeeded in holding the Egyptian king in +dependence; he was, however, in the twenty-eighth +year of his age, brought to an early grave +by intemperance and debauchery.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">Ptolemy +Philometor,<br /> +181—145.</div> + +<p>17. Of his two sons, the elder, a child five years +old, was his immediate successor; this prince, by +the title of Ptolemy VI. surnamed Philometor, ascended +the throne under the guardianship of his +mother Cleopatra, who fulfilled the duties of her +office to the satisfaction of all, until 173. But, +after her death, the regency having fallen into the +hands of Eulæus an eunuch, and Lenæus, these +individuals, asserting their claims to Cœle-Syria +and Phœnicia, engaged with Antiochus Epiphanes +in a war exceedingly detrimental to Egypt, until +Rome commanded peace to be made.</p> + +<div class="sblockquot"><p>Antiochus, after the victory of Pelusium, B. C. 171, and the +treacherous surrender of Cyprus, having possessed himself of +Egypt as far as Alexandria, a faction arose in the city; Philometor +was expelled, and his younger brother Physcon seated on +the throne, 170.—The exile Philometor fell into the power of +Antiochus, who compelled the fugitive to sign a separate peace, +highly injurious to the interests of Egypt. The articles were +not, however, ratified; Philometor secretly entering into an +agreement with his brother that they should both rule in common, +169. Antiochus having in consequence again made an inroad +into Egypt, the two kings addressed themselves for assistance +to the Achæans and to the Romans: the latter forthwith +despatched an embassy to Antiochus, commanding him to<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_261" id="Page_261">[Pg 261]</a></span> +evacuate the territory of their allies, which happened accordingly, +168.</p></div> + +<div class="sidenote">Disputes +between the +sons of +Epiphanes.</div> + +<p>18. In the contest, which soon afterwards ensued +between the two brothers, the younger was +driven out and sought a refuge at Rome; when a +partition of the kingdom between the princes was +determined upon: the senate, however, after due +consideration, refused to confirm the decision, so +that the disputes between the two kings were rekindled +and protracted, until the younger fell into +the power of the elder.</p> + +<div class="sblockquot"><p>In the first division, 164, Philometor received Egypt and +Cyprus; and the infamous Physcon had for his share Cyrene +and Libya. But, during his stay at Rome, Physcon, contrary to +all justice, obtained the promise of Cyprus; Philometor refusing +to give up that portion of his share, and Cyrene having risen up +against its king, Physcon ran the risk of losing the whole of his +dominions. In the war which, supported by Rome, he waged +against his brother, Physcon fell, 159, into the hands of Philometor, +who not only forgave him, but, leaving him in possession +of Cyrene and Libya, added some cities in the place of Cyprus, +and promised him his daughter in marriage.</p></div> + +<div class="sidenote">Philometor +interferes +in the affairs +of Syria.</div> + +<p>19. During the last period of his reign, Philometor +was almost exclusively busied with Syrian +affairs. He supported Alexander Balas against +Demetrius, and even gave him his daughter Cleopatra. +Nevertheless, he afterwards passed over +to the side of Demetrius, seated him on the +throne, gave him in marriage this same Cleopatra, +who had been taken away from Balas. But in +the battle in which Balas was overthrown, the +Egyptian king also received his death wound. +<span class="sidenote">145.</span> +He may be regarded as one of the good princes +of the Ptolemaic dynasty, especially if compared +with his brother.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_262" id="Page_262">[Pg 262]</a></span></p> + +<div class="sidenote">Ptolemy +Physcon,<br /> +145—117.</div> + +<p>20. His younger brother Ptolemy VIII. surnamed +Physcon, and likewise Evergetes II. a +monster both in a moral and a physical sense, +who had hitherto been king of Cyrene, now possessed +himself of the throne of Egypt by marrying +his predecessor's widow and sister, Cleopatra, +whom, however, after having murdered her son, +he repudiated for her daughter of the same name. +This prince accordingly, once more united the divided +kingdom; but at the same time that he was +purchasing the sanction of Rome by vile adulation, +he maintained himself at Alexandria by +means of military law, which soon converted the +city into a desert, and obliged him to attract +foreign colonists by large promises. Another +<span class="sidenote">130.</span> +bloody massacre, however, produced an insurrection +in the town, which compelled the king to flee +to Cyprus, the Alexandrines, meanwhile, raising +to the throne his repudiated wife Cleopatra. +Physcon, nevertheless, with the assistance of his +mercenaries, recovered the sceptre, and wielded +it to the day of his death.</p> + +<div class="sblockquot"><p>That a prince of such a character should nevertheless be a +friend to science, and himself an author, must ever be regarded +as a singular phenomenon; yet his exaction of manuscripts, and +his treatment of the learned, whole crowds of whom he expelled, +betray the despot.</p></div> + +<div class="sidenote">Ptolemy +Lathyrus, +116—81.<br /> + +116.<br /> + +107.<br /> + +89.<br /> + +88.</div> + +<p>21. His widow, the younger Cleopatra, to gratify +the Alexandrines, was obliged to place on the throne +the elder of her two sons, Ptolemy IX. surnamed +Lathyrus, who was living in a sort of banishment +at Cyprus: to the younger, Ptolemy Alexander +I. who was her favourite, she accordingly gave the +island of Cyprus. But Lathyrus not choosing to +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_263" id="Page_263">[Pg 263]</a></span>obey her in everything, she compelled him to exchange +Egypt for Cyprus, and gave the former to +her younger son. But neither was the new king +able to brook the tyranny of his mother: as she +threatened even his life, he saw no other means +of escape than to anticipate her design; but failing +in his project, he was obliged to take to flight, +and, after a vain attempt to recover the throne, +perished. The Alexandrines then reinstated in +the government his elder brother Lathyrus, who +ruled till the year 81, possessing both Egypt and +Cyprus.</p> + +<div class="sblockquot"><p>Revolt and three years' siege of Thebes in Upper Egypt, still +one of the most wealthy cities even in those days, but after its +capture almost levelled to the earth; about 86.—Complete separation +of Cyrenaica from Egypt: this province had been bequeathed +by Physcon as a separate branch-state to his illegitimate +son, Apion, 117; that prince, after a tranquil reign, bequeathed +it, in his turn, to the Romans, 96, who at first allowed it to retain +its independence.</p></div> + +<div class="sidenote">Obscure +period of +the history.<br /> +81—66.</div> + +<p>22. Lathyrus left one daughter born in wedlock, +Berenice, and two illegitimate sons, Ptolemy +of Cyprus and Ptolemy Auletes. Besides the +above, there was a lawful son of Alexander I. of +the same name as his father, and at that time residing +at Rome with the dictator Sylla. The following +history is obscured by clouds, which, +amid the contradiction of accounts, cannot be entirely +dispelled. Generally speaking, Egypt was +now a tool in the hands of powerful individuals at +Rome, who regarded it but as a financial speculation +whether they actually supported a pretender +to the Egyptian crown, or fed him with +vain hopes. All now saw that Egypt presented<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_264" id="Page_264">[Pg 264]</a></span> +a ripe harvest; but they could not yet agree by +whom that harvest should be reaped.</p> + +<div class="sblockquot"><p>The first successor of Lathyrus in Egypt was his legitimate +daughter Cleopatra Berenice, 81: at the end of six months, however, +Sylla, then dictator at Rome, sent his client Alexander II. +to Egypt, 80; that prince married Berenice, and with her ascended +the throne. Nineteen days after Alexander murdered his consort, +and, according to Appian, was himself about the same time cut +off by the Alexandrines, on account of his tyranny. We afterwards +hear, notwithstanding, of a king Alexander, who reigned +until 73, or, according to others, until 66; when, being driven +out of Egypt, he fled to Tyre, and called upon the Romans for +that aid, which probably through Cæsar's intercession, would +have been granted, had not the supplicant soon after died at the +place of his refuge. He is said to have bequeathed by will his +kingdom to Rome; and although the senate did not accept the +legacy, it does not appear to have formally rejected the offer; in +consequence of which, frequent attempts were made at Rome for +effecting the occupation.—Either, therefore, Appian's account +must be false, and this person was the same Alexander II. or he +was some other person bearing that name, and belonging to the +royal house.—Be this as it may, after the death of Lathyrus the +kingdom was dismembered: and one of his illegitimate sons, +Ptolemy, had received Cyprus, but that island was taken from +him, 57, and converted into a Roman province: the other, Ptolemy +Auletes, seems to have kept his footing either in a part of +Egypt, or in Cyrene, and was probably the cause of Alexander's +expulsion, at whose decease he ascended the throne; although +the Syrian queen Selene, sister to Lathyrus, asserted her son's +claims at Rome, as legitimate heir to the throne of Egypt. With +Cæsar's assistance, Auletes, however, succeeded in obtaining the +formal acknowledgment of his right at Rome, 59. But the measures +taken by the Romans with regard to Cyprus, gave rise to +a sedition at Alexandria, 57, in consequence of which Auletes, +being compelled to flee, passed over into Italy: or, perhaps, he +was ordered to take this step by the intrigues of some Roman +grandees, anxious of an opportunity to reinstate him. Pompey's +attempts, with this view, are thwarted by Cato, 56. Meanwhile +the Alexandrines placed Berenice, the eldest daughter of Auletes, +on the throne; she married first Seleucus Cybiosactes, as<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_265" id="Page_265">[Pg 265]</a></span> +being the lawful heir; and after putting that prince to death, +united herself to Archelaus, 57.—Actual restoration of Auletes +by the purchased assistance of Gabinius, the Roman governor of +Syria; and execution of Berenice, whose husband had fallen in +the war, 54. Not long after, this miserable prince, no less +effeminate than tyrannical, died, 51.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">J. R. Forster</span>, <i>Commentatio de successoribus Ptolemæi VII.</i> +Inserted in <i>Comment. Soc. Gotting.</i> vol. iii.</p></div> + +<div class="sidenote">Cleopatra,<br /> +51—31.</div> + +<p>23. Auletes endeavoured by his last testament +to insure the kingdom to his posterity, nominating +as his successor, under the superintendence of the +Roman nation, his two elder children. Ptolemy +Dionysos, then thirteen years old, and Cleopatra, +seventeen, who were to be united in wedlock: +his two younger children, Ptolemy Neoteros and +Arsinoe, he recommended to the Roman senate. +Notwithstanding these measures, Egypt would +not have escaped her fate upwards of twenty +years longer, had not the impending calamities +been diverted by the internal posture of affairs +at Rome, and still more by the charms and policy +of Cleopatra, who through her alliance with Cæsar +and Antony not only preserved but even aggrandized +her kingdom. From this time, however, +the history of Egypt is most closely implicated +with that of Rome.</p> + +<div class="sblockquot"><p>Feuds between Cleopatra and her brother, excited and fomented +by the eunuch Pothinus, in whose hands the administration +was: they lead to open war: Cleopatra, driven out, flees to +Syria, where she levies troops: Cæsar in pursuit of the conquered +Pompey arrives at Alexandria, and in the name of Rome, assumes +the part of arbitrator between the king and queen, but +suffers himself to be guided by the artifices of Cleopatra, 48. +Violent sedition in Alexandria, and Cæsar besieged in Bruchium, +the malcontent Pothinus having brought Achillas, the commander +of the royal troops into the city. The hard struggle in +which Cæsar was now engaged, demonstrates not only the bit<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_266" id="Page_266">[Pg 266]</a></span>terness +of the long rankling grudge of the Alexandrines against +Rome, but shows also how decisive, to the whole of Egypt, were +the revolutions of the capital. Ptolemy Dionysos having fallen +in the war, and Cæsar being victorious, the crown fell to Cleopatra, +47, upon condition of marrying her brother, when he +should be of age: but as soon as the prince grew to manhood, +and had been crowned at Memphis, she removed him by +poison, 44.</p></div> + +<div class="sidenote">Egypt becomes +a +Roman +province.</div> + +<p>24. During the life of Cæsar, Cleopatra remained +under his protection, and consequently in +a state of dependence. Not only was a Roman garrison +stationed in the capital city, but the queen +herself, together with her brother, were obliged to +visit him at Rome. After the assassination of +Cæsar, she took the side of the triumviri, not +without endangering Egypt, threatened by Cassius +who commanded in Syria; and after the +death of her brother, succeeded in getting them +to acknowledge as king, Ptolemy Cæsarion, a +son whom she pretended to have had by Cæsar.—But +the ardent passion conceived by Antony +for her person, soon after the discomfiture of the +republican party, now attached her inseparably +to his fortunes; which, after vainly attempting +to win over the victorious Octavius, she at last +shared.</p> + +<div class="sblockquot"><p>The chronology of the ten years in which Cleopatra lived, for +the most part, with Antony, is not without difficulty, but, according +to the most probable authorities, may be arranged in the +following manner. Summoned before his tribunal, on account of +the pretended support afforded by some of her generals to Cassius, +she appears in his presence at Tarsus, in the attire, and +with the parade, of Venus, 41; he follows her into Egypt. In +the year 40, Antony, called back to Italy by the breaking out of +the Perusine war, is there induced, by political motives, to +espouse Octavia; meanwhile Cleopatra abides in Egypt. In the +autumn of 37, she goes to meet him in Syria, where he was<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_267" id="Page_267">[Pg 267]</a></span> +making ready for the war against the Parthians, until then prosecuted +by his lieutenants; here she obtained at his hands Phœnicia—Tyre +and Sidon excepted,—together with Cyrene and +Cyprus; and in 36 went back to Alexandria, where she remained +during the campaign. The expedition ended, Antony +returned into Egypt and resided at Alexandria. From thence +it was his intention to attack Armenia in 35; this design, however, +he did not effect until 34, when, after taking the king prisoner, +he returned in triumph to Alexandria, and presented to +Cleopatra, or to his three children by her, all the countries of +Asia from the Mediterranean to the Indus, already conquered +or to be conquered. Preparing then to renew, in conjunction +with the king of Media, his attack on the Parthians, he is prevailed +upon by Cleopatra to break with Octavia, who was to +bring over troops to him, 38. A war between him and Octavius +being now unavoidable, the Parthian campaign already opened +is suspended, and Cleopatra accompanies Antony to Samos, 32, +where he formally repudiated Octavia. From hence she followed +him in his expedition against Octavius, which was decided +by the battle of Actium, fought September 2, 31.—Octavius +having pursued his enemy into Egypt, Alexandria was besieged, +30, and after Antony had laid violent hands on himself, +the place surrendered; and Cleopatra, not brooking to be dragged +a prisoner to Rome, followed the example of her lover, and procured +her own death.</p></div> + +<div class="sidenote">Flourishing +state of +Egypt.</div> + +<p>25. Even in this last period, Egypt appears to +have been the seat of unbounded wealth and effeminacy. +The line of infamous princes who had +succeeded to the third Ptolemy were unable to +destroy her prosperity. Strange, however, as this +seems, it may be easily accounted for when we +consider that the political revolutions scarcely +ever overstepped the walls of the capital, and that +an almost perpetual peace ruled in the country: +that Egypt was the only great theatre of trade; +and that that trade must have increased in the +same proportion as the spirit of luxury increased +in Rome, and in the Roman empire. The power<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_268" id="Page_268">[Pg 268]</a></span>ful +effects wrought on Egypt by the growth of +Roman luxury, are most convincingly demonstrated +by the state of that country when it had +become a Roman province; so far from the trade +of Alexandria decreasing in that period,—though +the city suffered in the first days after the conquest—it +subsequently attained an extraordinary +and gigantic bulk.</p> + + +<p class="cblockquot">III. <i>History of Macedonia and of Greece in general, from +the death of Alexander to the Roman conquest, B. C. +323—146.</i></p> + +<div class="sblockquot"><p>The sources for this history are the same as have been quoted +above: see p. 232. Until the battle of Ipsus, 301, Diodorus is +still our grand authority. But in the period extending from 301 +to 224, we meet with some chasms: here almost our only sources +are the fragments of Diodorus, a few of Plutarch's lives, and the +inaccurate accounts of Justin. From the year 224, our main +historian is Polybius; and even in those parts where we do not +possess his work in its complete form, the fragments that have +been preserved must always be the first authorities consulted. +Livy, and other writers on Roman history, should accompany +Polybius.</p> + +<p>Among modern books, besides the general works mentioned +above p. 1. we may here in particular quote:</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">John Gast, D. D.</span> <i>The History of Greece, from the accession +of Alexander of Macedon, till the final subjection to the +Roman power, in eight books.</i> London, 1782, 4to. Although +not a master-piece of composition, yet too important to be passed +over in silence.</p></div> + +<div class="sidenote">Extent of +Macedonia.</div> + +<p>1. Of the three main kingdoms that arose out +of Alexander's monarchy, Macedonia was the most +insignificant, not only in extent,—particularly as +till B. C. 286 Thrace remained a separate and +independent province,—but likewise in population +and wealth. Yet, being, as it were, the +head country of the monarchy, it was considered<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_269" id="Page_269">[Pg 269]</a></span> +to hold the first rank; and here at first resided +the power which, nominally at least, extended +over the whole. As early, however, as the year +311, upon the total extermination of Alexander's +family, it became a completely separate kingdom. +From that time its sphere of external operation +was for the most part confined to Greece, the history +of which, consequently, is closely interwoven +with that of Macedonia.</p> + +<div class="sblockquot"><p>Posture of affairs in Greece at Alexander's decease: Thebes +in ruins: Corinth occupied by a Macedonian garrison: Sparta +humiliated by the defeat she had suffered at the hands of Antipater +in her attempt at a revolt against Macedonia, under Agis +II. 333—331: Athens on the other hand flourishing, and although +confined to her own boundaries, still by her fame, and +her naval power, the first state in Greece.</p></div> + +<div class="sidenote">Antipater.<br /> +Lamian war,<br /> +B. C. 323.</div> + +<p>2. Although at the first division of the provinces, +Craterus, as civil governor, was united +with Antipater, the latter had the management of +affairs. And the termination, as arduous as it +was successful, of the Lamian war,—kindled immediately +after the death of Alexander, by the +Greeks, enthusiastic in the cause of freedom,—enabled +him to rivet the chains of Greece more +firmly than they had ever been before.</p> + +<div class="sblockquot"><p>The Lamian war—the sparks of which had been kindled by +Alexander's edict, granting leave to all the Grecian emigrants, +twenty thousand in number, nearly the whole of whom were in +the Macedonian interest, to return to their native countries,—was +fanned to a flame by the democratic party at Athens. Urged +by Demosthenes and Hyperides, almost all the states of central +and northern Greece, Bœotia excepted, took up arms in the cause; +and their example was quickly followed by most of those in Peloponnesus, +with the exception of Sparta, Argos, Corinth, and +the Achæans. Not even the Persian war produced such general +unanimity! The gallant Leosthenes headed the league.—Defeat +of Antipater, who is shut up in Lamia; Leosthenes, however,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_270" id="Page_270">[Pg 270]</a></span> +falls in the siege of that place, B. C. 323, and although Leonatus—who +with the view of ascending the throne by his marriage +with Cleopatra, had come to the assistance of the Macedonians—was +beaten and slain, 322, the Greeks were finally overwhelmed +by the reinforcements, brought to Antipater out of Asia, by +Craterus. And Antipater having fully succeeded in breaking +the league, and negotiating with each separate nation, was enabled +to dictate the terms. Most of the cities opened their gates +to Macedonian troops; besides this, Athens was obliged to purchase +peace through the mediation of Phocion and Demades, by +an alteration in her constitution,—the poorer citizens being excluded +from all share in the government, and for the most part +translated into Thrace—and by a pledge to deliver up Demosthenes +and Hyperides; whose place Phocion occupied at the +head of the state.—The Ætolians, the last against whom the +Macedonian wars were directed, obtained better terms than they +had ventured to expect, Antipater and Craterus being obliged to +hurry over to Asia in order to oppose Perdiccas.</p></div> + +<div class="sidenote">Olympias +retires to Epirus.<br /> + +Antipater dies, and +names Polysperchon +his successor,<br /> +320—316.</div> + +<p>3. That hatred which, even in the lifetime of +Alexander, had sprung up between Antipater and +Olympias, in consequence of his not permitting +the dowager queen to rule, induced her to withdraw +to Epirus; her rankling envy being still +more embittered by the influence of the young +queen Eurydice. See above, p. 224. Antipater, +dying shortly after his expedition against Perdiccas, +in which his colleague Craterus had fallen, +and he himself had been appointed regent, nominates +his friend, the aged Polysperchon, to succeed +him as regent and head guardian, to the exclusion +of his own son Cassander. Hence arose +a series of quarrels between the two, in which, +unfortunately for themselves, the royal family +were implicated and finally exterminated, Cassander +obtaining the sovereignty of Macedonia.</p> + +<div class="sblockquot"><p>Cassander having secured the interest of Antigonus and Ptolemy, +makes his escape to the former, 319: he had previously en<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_271" id="Page_271">[Pg 271]</a></span>deavoured +also to raise a party in Macedonia and Greece, particularly +by getting his friend Nicanor to be commander at Athens.—Measures +taken by Polysperchon to oppose him; in the first +place, he recalls Olympias out of Epirus, but the princess dares +not come without an army; in the next place, he nominates Eumenes +commander of the royal troops in Asia (see above, p. 225); +he likewise endeavours to gain the Grecian cities, by recalling +the Macedonian garrisons, and changing the governors set over +them by Antipater. These latter, however, were in most of the +cities too firmly established to suffer themselves thus to be deposed; +and even the expedition into Peloponnesus, undertaken +by Polysperchon to enforce his injunctions was attended but with +partial success.—In the same year occurs a twofold revolution in +Athens, whither Polysperchon had sent his son Alexander, nominally +for the purpose of driving out Nicanor, but virtually to +get possession of that important city. In the first place, Alexander +and Nicanor appearing to unite both for the attainment of +one and the same object, the democratic party rise up, and overthrow +the rulers, hitherto taken from Antipater's party, and +headed by Phocion, who is compelled to swallow poison: soon +after, however, Cassander occupies the city, excludes from the +administration all that possess less than ten mines, and places at +the head of affairs Demetrius Phalereus, who, from 318 to 307, +ruled with great prudence.—Not long after, Olympias returns +with an army from Epirus; the Macedonian troops of Philip +and Eurydice having passed over to her side, she wreaks her revenge +on the royal couple, and on the brother of Cassander, all of +whom she puts to death, 317. Cassander, nevertheless, having +obtained reinforcements in Peloponnesus, takes the field against +her; she is besieged in Pydna, where, disappointed in the hope +of being relieved either by Polysperchon or by Æacidas of Epirus, +both of whom were forsaken by their men, she is obliged to surrender, +316. Cassander, having caused her to be condemned by +the Macedonian people, has her put to death.</p></div> + +<div class="sidenote">Cassander.</div> + +<p>4. Cassander being now master, and, from +302, king of Macedonia, confirmed his dominion +by a marriage with Thessalonice, half-sister to +Alexander, and at the same time endeavoured to +corroborate as far as possible his authority in +Greece. Polysperchon and his son Alexander, +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_272" id="Page_272">[Pg 272]</a></span>it is true, still made head in Peloponnesus; but +the states without the peninsula, Ætolia excepted, +were all either allies of Cassander, or occupied +by Macedonian troops. +<span class="sidenote">314.</span> +After the defeat of the +league against Antigonus, in which Cassander +had borne a part, general peace was concluded, +with the proviso, that the Grecian cities should +be free, and that the young Alexander, when of +age, should be raised to the throne of Macedonia: +<span class="sidenote">311.</span> +this induced Cassander to rid himself both of the +young prince and his mother Roxana by murder: +but he thereby exposed himself to an attack from +Polysperchon, who, availing himself of the discontent +of the Macedonians, brought back Hercules, +the only remaining illegitimate son of Alexander. +Cassander diverted the storm by a new crime, +instigating Polysperchon to murder the young +Hercules, under promise of sharing the government: +Polysperchon, however, unable to possess +himself of the Peloponnesus which had been promised +him, appears to have preserved but little +influence. Cassander met likewise with formidable +opponents in the persons of Antigonus and +his son; and although delivered by the breaking +<span class="sidenote">308.</span> +out of the war with Ptolemy from the danger of +the first invasion of Greece by Demetrius, his +situation was more embarrassing at the second +irruption; from which, however, he was extricated +by the circumstance of Antigonus being obliged +<span class="sidenote">307.</span> +to recall his son, on account of the newly formed +league (see above, p. 230).</p> + +<div class="sblockquot"><p>Antigonus, on his return from Upper Asia, declares loudly +against Cassander, B. C. 314; despatches his general Aristodemus +to Peloponnesus, and frames a league with Polysperchon<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_273" id="Page_273">[Pg 273]</a></span> +and his son Alexander; the latter, however, Cassander succeeds +in winning over by a promise of the command in Peloponnesus. +Alexander was soon after murdered, but his wife Cratesipolis +succeeded him, and commanded with the spirit of a man. Meanwhile, +Cassander carried war against the Ætolians, who sided +with Antigonus, 313; but Antigonus, 312, having sent his general +Ptolemy into Greece with a fleet and army, Cassander lost +his supremacy. In the peace of 311, the freedom of all the +Grecian cities was stipulated; but this very condition became +the pretext of various and permanent feuds; and Cassander having +murdered the young king, together with his mother, drew +upon himself the arms of Polysperchon, who wished to place +Hercules on the throne, 310; but the pretender was removed in +the manner above described, 309.—Cassander now endeavouring +to reestablish his power over Greece, Demetrius Poliorcetes was +by his father sent into that country in order to anticipate Ptolemy +of Egypt, in the enforcement of the decree for the freedom +of the Greeks, 308; the result at Athens was the restoration of +democracy, and the expulsion of Demetrius Phalereus.—From +any further attack of Demetrius, Cassander was delivered by the +war which broke out between Antigonus and Ptolemy, (see +above, p. 229.) and had the leisure, once more, to strengthen his +power in Greece, until 302, when Demetrius arrived a second +time, and, as generalissimo of liberated Greece, pressed forward +to the borders of Macedonia; Demetrius was, however, recalled +by his father into Asia, and at the battle of Ipsus, 301, lost all +his dominions in that quarter of the world. Yet although Athens +closed her harbours against him, he still maintained his possessions +in Peloponnesus, and even endeavoured to extend them; +from thence, in 297, he sallied forth, and once more took possession +of his beloved Athens, and after driving out the usurper +Lachares, forgave her ingratitude.</p></div> + +<div class="sidenote">Cassander +dies, and +leaves the +throne to +his sons;</div> + +<p>5. Cassander survived the establishment of his +throne by the battle of Ipsus only three years: +and bequeathed Macedonia as an inheritance to +his three sons, the eldest of whom, Philip, shortly +after followed his father to the grave.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">Antipater +and Alexander.</div> + +<p>6. The two remaining sons, Antipater and +Alexander, soon worked their own destruction. +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_274" id="Page_274">[Pg 274]</a></span>Antipater having murdered his own mother Thessalonice, +on account of the favour she showed his +brother, was obliged to flee; he applied for help +to his father-in-law Lysimachus of Thrace, where +he soon after died. Meanwhile Alexander, fancying +that he likewise stood in need of foreign assistance, +addressed himself to Pyrrhus, king of +Macedonia, and to Demetrius Poliorcetes, both of +whom obeyed the call only with the expectation +of being paid. After various snares reciprocally +laid for each other, the king of Macedonia was +murdered by Demetrius, and with him the race +<span class="sidenote">295.</span> +of Antipater became extinct.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">Demetrius, +294—287.</div> + +<p>7. The army proclaimed Demetrius king; and +in his person the house of Antigonus ascended +the throne of Macedonia, and, after many vicissitudes, +established their power. His seven years' +reign, in which one project succeeded the other, +was a constant series of wars; and as he never +could learn how to bear with good fortune, his +ambition was at last his ruin.</p> + +<div class="sblockquot"><p>The kingdom of Demetrius comprised Macedonia, Thessaly, +and the greatest part of the Peloponnesus; he was also master +of Megara and Athens.—Twofold capture of Thebes, which had +been rebuilt by Cassander, 293, and 291; unsuccessful attempt +upon Thrace, 292. His war with Pyrrhus, 290, in whom men +fancied they beheld another Alexander, had already alienated +the affections of the Macedonians; but his grand project for the +recovery of Asia induced his enemies to get the start of him; +and the hatred of his subjects compelled him secretly to escape +to Peloponnesus, to his son Antigonus, 287. Athens, taking advantage +of his misfortunes, drove out the Macedonian garrison, +and, by the election of archons, reestablished her ancient constitution; +although Demetrius laid siege to the town, he allowed +himself to be pacified by Crates. Having once more attempted +to prosecute his plans against Asia, he was obliged, 286, to sur<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_275" id="Page_275">[Pg 275]</a></span>render +to Seleucus his father-in-law, who, out of charity, kept +him till the day of his death, 284.</p></div> + +<div class="sidenote">Pyrrhus of +Epirus,<br /> +287, +286.</div> + + +<p>8. Two claimants to the vacant throne now +arose, viz. Pyrrhus of Epirus and Lysimachus of +Thrace; but although Pyrrhus was first proclaimed +king, with the cession of half the dominions, +he could not, being a foreigner, support his +power any longer than the year 286, when he was +deposed by Lysimachus.</p> + +<div class="sblockquot"><p>The sovereigns of Epirus, belonging to the family of the +Æacidæ, were properly kings of the Molossi. See above, p. 150. +They did not become lords of all Epirus, nor consequently of any +historical importance, until the time of the Peloponnesian war. +After that period Epirus was governed by Alcetas I. about 384, +who pretended to be the sixteenth descendant from Pyrrhus, the +son of Achilles; Neoptolemus, father to Olympias, by whose +marriage with Philip, 358, the kings of Epirus became intimately +connected with Macedonia, <i>d.</i> 352; Arymbas, his brother, <i>d.</i> +342; Alexander I. son of Neoptolemus, and brother-in-law to +Alexander the Great; he was ambitious to be as great a conqueror +in the west as his kinsman was in the east, but he fell in +Lucania, 332. Æacides, son of Arymbas, <i>d.</i> 312. Pyrrhus II. +his son, the Ajax of his time, and, we might almost say, rather an +adventurer than a king. After uninterrupted wars waged in +Macedonia, Greece, Italy, and Sicily, he fell at last at the +storming of Argos, 272. He was followed by his son Alexander +II. in the person of whose successor, Pyrrhus III. 219, the +male line became extinct. Although the daughter of this last +prince, Deidamia, succeeded to the throne, the Epirots were not +long before they established a democratic government, which endured +till such time as they were, together with Macedonia and +the rest of Greece, brought under the Roman yoke, 146.</p></div> + +<div class="sidenote">Lysimachus.<br /> + +282.</div> + +<p>9. In consequence of the accession of Lysimachus, +Thrace, and for a short time even Asia +Minor, were annexed to the Macedonian kingdom. +But rankling hatred and family relations soon +afterwards involved Lysimachus in a war with<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_276" id="Page_276">[Pg 276]</a></span> +Seleucus Nicator, in which, at battle of Curopedion, +he lost both his throne and his life.</p> + +<div class="sblockquot"><p>Execution of the gallant Agathocles, eldest son of Lysimachus, +at the instigation of his step-mother Arsinoe: his widow Lysandra +and her brother Ptolemy Ceraunus, who had already been +driven out of Egypt by his step-mother Berenice, go over, followed +by a large party, to Seleucus, whom they excite to war.</p></div> + +<div class="sidenote">Seleucus.</div> + +<p>10. The victorious Seleucus, already lord of +Asia, now causing himself to be proclaimed likewise +king of Macedonia, it seemed as if that +country was again about to become the head seat +of the whole monarchy. But shortly after he +had crossed over into Europe, Seleucus fell by +the murderous hand of Ptolemy Ceraunus, who, +<span class="sidenote">281.</span> +availing himself of the treasures of his victim, and +of the yet remaining troops of Lysimachus, took +possession of the throne; by another act of treachery +he avenged himself of Arsinoe, his half-sister; +but just as he conceived himself securely +established, he lost both his crown and his life +by the irruption of the Gauls into Macedonia.</p> + +<div class="sblockquot"><p>The irruption of the Gauls, threatening desolation not only to +Macedonia but to the whole of Greece, took place in three successive +expeditions. The first under Cambaules, (probably 280,) +advanced no further than Thrace, the invaders not being sufficiently +numerous. The second in three bodies; against Thrace +under Ceretrius; against Pæonia under Brennus and Acichorius; +against Macedonia and Illyria under Belgius, 279. By the last-mentioned +chieftain Ptolemy was defeated; he fell in the contest. +In consequence, Meleager first, and Antipater subsequently, +were appointed kings of Macedonia; but both, on account +of incapacity, being soon afterwards deposed, a Macedonian +noble, Sosthenes, assumed the command, and this time liberated +his country. But the year 278 brought with it the main storm, +which spent its fury principally on Greece: Sosthenes was defeated +and slain: and although the Greeks brought all their<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_277" id="Page_277">[Pg 277]</a></span> +united forces into the field, Brennus and Acichorius burst into +Greece on two different sides, and pushed on to Delphi, the object +of their expedition; from hence, however, they were compelled +to retreat; and most of them were cut off by hunger, cold, +or the sword. Nevertheless a portion of those barbarians stood +their ground in the interior of Thrace, which, consequently, was +for the most part lost to Macedonia: another portion, consisting +of various hordes, the Tectosagæ, Tolistobii, and Trocmi, crossed +over to Asia Minor, where they established themselves in the +country called after them Galatia (see above, p. 236). Although +there can be no doubt that the Tectosagæ must have come from +the innermost parts of Gaul, the mode of attack demonstrates +that the main tide of invaders consisted of the neighbouring +races; and, in fact, in those days the countries from the Danube +to the Mediterranean and Adriatic were mostly occupied by +Gauls.—Greece, though she strained every nerve, and with the +exception of Peloponnesus, was united in one league, could scarcely +bring forward more than 20,000 men to stem the torrent.</p></div> + +<div class="sidenote">Antigonus +Gonnatas.</div> + +<p>11. Antigonus of Gonni, son to Demetrius, now +seated himself on the vacant throne of desolated +Macedon; he bought off his competitor, Antiochus +I. named Soter, by treaty and marriage. +Successfully as he opposed the new irruption of +the Gauls, he was dethroned by Pyrrhus, who, +<span class="sidenote">274.</span> +on his return from Italy, was a second time proclaimed +king of Macedonia. That prince, however, +having formed the design of conquering the +Peloponnesus, and, after an ineffectual attack on +Sparta, which was repelled with heroic gallantry, +wishing to take possession of Argos, fell at the +<span class="sidenote">272.</span> +storming of the latter place.</p> + +<div class="sblockquot"><p>Extraordinary as these frequent revolutions appear, they may +be easily accounted for by the mode of warfare in those days. +Every thing depended on the armies; and these were composed +of mercenaries, ever willing to fight against him they had defended +the day before, if they fancied his rival to be a more +valiant or fortunate leader. Since the death of Alexander, the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_278" id="Page_278">[Pg 278]</a></span> +Macedonian phalanx was no longer dependent on its captains, +but they on their men. The impoverishment of the countries, in +consequence of war, was such, that the soldier's was almost the +only profitable trade; and none prosecuted that trade more ardently +than the Gauls, whose services were ever ready for any +one who chose to pay for them.</p></div> + +<p>12. After the death of Pyrrhus, Antigonus +Gonnatas recovered the Macedonian throne, of +which he and his descendants kept uninterrupted +possession, yet not till after a violent contest with +Alexander, the son and successor of Pyrrhus. +But no sooner were they secure from foreign +rivals, than the Macedonian policy was again +directed against Greece, and the capture of +Corinth seemed to insure the dependence of the +whole country, when the formation of the Ætolian, +and the yet more important Achæan, league, +gave rise to relations entirely new, and of the +highest interest, even for the universal history of +the world. After so many storms, the sun of +Greece was about to set in all his splendour!</p> + +<div class="sblockquot"><p>The ancient confederacy of the twelve Achæan cities (see +above, p. 145.) had subsisted until the death of Alexander, but +was dissolved in the subsequent commotions; particularly when, +after the battle of Ipsus, 301, Demetrius and his son made Peloponnesus +the principal seat of their power. Some of these cities +were now garrisoned by those princes, while in others arose +tyrants, generally favourable to their interests. In 281, four +asserted their freedom and renewed the ancient federation; +which, five years afterwards, was gradually joined by the rest, +Antigonus being busied elsewhere, in consequence of his occupation +of the Macedonian throne. But the league did not become +formidable till the accession of foreign states. This took place, +in the first instance, with Sicyon, through the exertions of the +liberator of that town, Aratus, who now became the animating +spirit of the federation; and in 243 brought over Corinth, after +the expulsion of the Macedonian garrison, and Megara. Afterwards +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_279" id="Page_279">[Pg 279]</a></span> +the league gradually acquired strength, by the junction of +several Grecian cities, Athens among others, 229; and thereby +excited the jealousy of the rest. And as Aratus, who was more +of a statesman than a general, and possessed but little independence, +had in the very outset joined the party of Ptolemy II. the +league soon became involved in the disputes of the great powers, +and was too often but a mere tool in their hands. The main +principles on which it was founded were the following: 1. Complete +political equality of all the federate cities; in this respect +it essentially differed from all the earlier federations in Greece. +2. Unconditional preservation of the domestic government in +every one of the cities. 3. The meeting twice a year of deputies +from all the cities, at Ægium, and afterwards at Corinth; for +transacting all business of common interest, particularly foreign +affairs, and also for the purpose of electing the strategus, or military +leader and head of the union, and the ten demiurgi, or supreme +magistrates.—But what more than all contributed to exalt this +league, founded on pure liberty, was the virtue of Aratus, 213, +Philopœmen, 183, and Lycortas, 170; men who breathed into +it the spirit of union, until, enfeebled by Roman policy, it was +overthrown.</p> + +<p>† <span class="smcap">Breitenbauch</span>, <i>History of the Achæans and their league</i>, +1782.</p> + +<p>The Ætolian league was formed about 284, in consequence of +the oppressions of the Macedonian kings. The Ætolians had +likewise a yearly congress, panætolium, at Thermus; where they +chose a strategus and the apocleti, who constituted the state +council. They had, besides, their secretary, +γραμματεύς; +and supervisors, ἔφοροι, +whose particular functions are, however, matter +of doubt. This federation did not increase like the Achæan, +none but Ætolians being admitted. The more unpolished this +piratical nation remained, the more frequently it was used as the +tool of foreign, and particularly of Roman, policy.</p></div> + +<div class="sidenote">Demetrius +II. +243—233.</div> + +<p>13. Antigonus, in the latter part of his reign, +had recourse to various means, and more especially +to an alliance with the Ætolians, for the +purpose of counterpoising the Achæans. He died +in his eightieth year, and was succeeded by his +son, Demetrius II. who waged war upon the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_280" id="Page_280">[Pg 280]</a></span> +Ætolians, now, however, supported by the Achæans; +and endeavoured to repress the growth of +the latter, by favouring the tyrants of particular +cities. The remainder of the reign of this prince +is little more than a chasm in history.</p> + +<div class="sblockquot"><p>The vulgar assertion that this prince conquered Cyrene and +Libya, originates in a confusion of names; his uncle Demetrius, +son of Poliorcetes of Ptolemais, being mentioned by Plutarch as +king of Cyrene. The history of that town, from 258 to 142, is +enveloped in almost total darkness: cf. Prolog. Trogi, l. xxvi. ad +calcem Justini.</p></div> + +<div class="sidenote">Antigonus +Doson,<br /> +233—221.</div> + +<p>14. Demetrius's son Philip was passed over; +his brother's son, Antigonus II. surnamed Doson, +being raised to the throne. This king was occupied +the most of his time by the events in Greece, +where a very remarkable revolution at Sparta, +as we learn from Plutarch, had raised up a formidable +enemy against the Achæans; and so +completely altered the relative position of affairs, +that the Macedonians, from having been opponents, +became allies of the Achæans.</p> + +<div class="sblockquot"><p>Sketch of the situation of Spartan affairs at this period: the +ancient constitution still continued to exist in form; but the +plunder of foreign countries, and particularly the permission to +transfer landed estates, obtained by Epitadeus, had produced +great inequality of property. The restoration of Lycurgus's constitution +had, therefore, a twofold object; to favour the poor by +a new agrarian law and release from debts, and to increase the +power of the kings by repressing that of the ephori.—First attempt +at reform 244, by king Agis III; attended in the beginning +with partial success, but eventually frustrated by the +other king, Leonidas, and terminating in the extinction of Agis +and his family, 241. Leonidas, however, was succeeded, 236, +by his son Cleomenes, who victoriously defeated the plans of +Aratus to force Sparta to accede to the Achæan league, 227; +this king, by a forcible revolution, overthrew the ephori, and +accomplished the project of Agis, at the same time increasing<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_281" id="Page_281">[Pg 281]</a></span> +the Spartans by the admission of a number of periæci; and enforcing +the laws of Lycurgus referring to private life; but as in +a small republic a revolution cannot be confirmed without some +external war, he attacked the Achæans as early as 224; these +being defeated, implored, through Aratus, the help of Antigonus; +Cleomenes in consequence was, at the battle of Sellasia, 222, +obliged to yield to superior force, and with difficulty escaped +over to Egypt; while Sparta was compelled to acknowledge her +independence as a gift at the hands of Antigonus. Such was +the miserable success of this attempt made by a few great men +on a nation already degenerate. The quarrels between the ephori +and king Lycurgus and his successor Machanidas, placed Sparta +in a state of anarchy, which ended, 207, in the usurpation of the +sovereign power by one Nabis, who destroyed the ancient form +of government. Let him who would study great revolutions +commence with that just described; insignificant as it is, none +perhaps furnishes more instructive lessons.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Plutarchi</span> <i>Agis et Cleomenes</i>. The information in which +is principally drawn from the Commentaries of Aratus.</p></div> + +<div class="sidenote">Philip II. +221—179.</div> + +<p>15. Philip II. son of Demetrius. He ascended +the throne at the early age of sixteen, endowed +with many qualities, such as might, under favourable +circumstances, have formed a great prince. +Macedonia had recruited her strength during a +long peace; and her grand political aim, the supremacy +of Greece, secured by the connection of +Antigonus with the Achæans, and by the victory +of Sellasia, seemed to be already within her grasp. +But Philip lived in a time when Rome was pursuing +her formidable plans of aggrandizement: +the more vigorous and prompt his efforts were to +withstand that power, the more deeply was he +entangled in the new maze of events, which embittered +the rest of his life, and at last brought +him to the grave with a broken heart, converted +by misfortune into a despot.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">War of the +two leagues,<br /> +221—217.</div> + +<p>16. The first five years of Philip were occupied +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_282" id="Page_282">[Pg 282]</a></span>by his participation in the war between the +Achæans and Ætolians, called the war of the two +leagues; notwithstanding the treachery of his +minister Apellas and his dependents, the prince +was enabled to dictate the conditions of peace, +according to which both parties were to remain +in possession of what they then had. The conclusion +of this peace was hastened by the news +of Hannibal's victory at Thrasymenus, Philip being +then instigated to form more extensive projects +by Demetrius of Pharus, who had fled before the +Romans, and soon acquired unlimited influence +with the Macedonian king.</p> + +<div class="sblockquot"><p>The war of the two leagues arose out of the piracies of the +Ætolians on the Messenians, the latter of whom the Achæans +undertook to protect, 221. The errors committed by Aratus +compelled the Achæans to have recourse to Philip, 220; whose +progress, however, was for a long time impeded by the artifices +of Apellas's faction, who wished to overthrow Aratus. The +Acarnanians, Epirots, Messenians, and Scerdilaidas of Illyria, +(who, however, soon after declared against Macedonia,) combined +with Philip and the Achæans; the Ætolians, on the other +hand, commanded by their own general, Scopas, had for their +allies the Spartans and Eleans.—The most important consequence +of this war for Macedonia was, that she began again to +be a naval power.—About the same time a war broke out between +the two trading republics of Byzantium and Rhodes (the +latter supported by Prusias I. of Bithynia) insignificant in itself, +but which, as a commercial war, originating in the duties imposed +by the Byzantines, was the only one of its kind in this +age, 222. The Rhodians, so powerful in those days by sea, compelled +their adversaries to submit.</p></div> + +<div class="sidenote">Negotiations +between +Philip +and +Hannibal, +214.</div> + +<p>17. The negotiations between Philip and Hannibal +concluded with an alliance, in which reciprocal +help was promised towards annihilating +Rome. But Rome contrived to excite so many +foes against Philip on the borders of his own<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_283" id="Page_283">[Pg 283]</a></span> +kingdom, and availed herself so skilfully of her +naval power, that the execution of this plan was +prevented until it became possible to attack the +Macedonian king in Greece; where he had made +himself many enemies, by the domineering tone +he had assumed towards his allies at the time +that, sensible of his power, he was about to enter +upon a wider sphere of action.</p> + +<div class="sblockquot"><p>Commencement of hostilities by Rome, against Philip: immediately +that the alliance of Philip and Hannibal was known, a +squadron with troops on board was stationed off the coast of +Macedonia, by which the king himself was defeated at Apollonia, +214.—Alliance of Rome with the Ætolians, joined likewise +by Sparta and Elis, Attalus king of Pergamus, and Scerdilaidas +and Pleuratus, kings of Illyria, 211. On Philip's side were the +Achæans, with whom Philopœmen more than supplied the loss +of Aratus, occasioned, 213, by the Macedonian king; to them +were joined the Acarnanians and Bæotians.—Attacked on every +side, Philip successfully extricated himself from his difficulties; +in the first place, he compelled the Ætolians, who had been +abandoned by Attalus and Rome, to accept separate terms, +which, shortly after, Rome, consulting her own convenience, +converted into a general peace, inclusive of the allies on either +side, 204.</p></div> + +<div class="sidenote">War with +Attalus, +203—200.</div> + + +<p>18. New war of Philip against Attalus and the +Rhodians, carried on for the most part in Asia +Minor; and his impolitic alliance with Antiochus +III. to attack Egypt. But can Philip be blamed +for his endeavours to disarm the military servants +of the Romans? Rome, however, did not grant +him time to effect his designs; the Macedonian +king was taught at Chios, by woeful experience, +<span class="sidenote">202.</span> +that his navy had not increased proportionably +with that of the Rhodians.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">War with +Rome, +200—197.</div> + +<p>19. The war with Rome suddenly hurled the +Macedonian power from its lofty pitch; and by +laying the foundation of Roman dominion in the +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_284" id="Page_284">[Pg 284]</a></span>east, wrought a change in almost all the political +relations of that quarter. The first two years of +the war showed pretty evidently, that mere force +<span class="sidenote">198.</span> +could scarcely overturn the Macedonian throne. +But T. Quintius Flaminius stepped forward; with +the magic spell of freedom he intoxicated the +Greeks; Philip was stripped of his allies; and +the battle of Cynoscephalæ decided everything. +<span class="sidenote">197.</span> +The articles of the peace were: 1. That all Grecian +cities in Europe and Asia should be independent, +and Philip should withdraw his garrisons. +2. That he should surrender the whole of +his navy, and never afterwards keep more than +500 armed men on foot. 3. That he should not, +without previously informing Rome, undertake +any war out of Macedonia. 4. That he should +pay 1,000 talents by instalments, and deliver up +his younger son Demetrius as an hostage.</p> + +<div class="sblockquot"><p>The Roman allies in this war were: the Ætolians, Athenians, +Rhodians, the kings of the Athamanes, Dardanians, and Pergamus.—The +Achæans at the beginning sided with Philip, but +were subsequently gained over by Flaminius. See below, in the +Roman History.</p></div> + +<div class="sidenote">196.</div> + +<p>20. Soon after, the freedom of Greece was +solemnly proclaimed at the Isthmian games by +Flaminius: but loud as the Greeks were in their +exultations, this measure served merely to transfer +the supremacy of their country from Macedonia +to Rome: and Grecian history, as well as the +Macedonian, is now interwoven with that of the +Romans. To foster quarrels between the Greek +states, with the especial view of hindering the +Achæans from growing too formidable, now became +a fundamental principle at Rome; and<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_285" id="Page_285">[Pg 285]</a></span> +Roman and anti-Roman parties having quickly +arisen in every city, this political game was easily +played.</p> + +<div class="sblockquot"><p>Flaminius even took care that the Achæans should have an +opponent in the person of Nabis, although under the necessity of +waging war against him previous to his return into Italy, 194.—In +192, war between Nabis and the Achæans; followed after +the murder of Nabis, at the hands of the Ætolians, by the accession +of Sparta to the Achæan league.—But about the same time +Greece once more became the theatre of foreign war; Antiochus +having firmly seated himself in the country, and enleagued +himself with several tribes, but more particularly the Ætolians, +inspired with bitter and long-standing hatred against the +Romans. These last, however, after the expulsion of Antiochus +from Greece, 191, paid dearly for their secession; nor was peace +granted them by Rome till after long and unsuccessful supplications, +189.</p></div> + +<div class="sidenote">Fate of +Philip.</div> + + +<p>21. While war was pending between the Romans +and Antiochus, Philip, in the character of +one of the numerous allies of Rome, ventured to +increase his territory at the expense of the Athamanes, +Thracians, and Thessalians. To keep +him in good humour he was permitted to effect +those conquests; but after the termination of +the war the oppression of Rome became so galling, +<span class="sidenote">190.</span> +that it could not be otherwise than that all +his thoughts should centre in revenge, and all his +exertions be directed towards the recovery of +power. Meanwhile the violent measures adopted +for repeopling his exhausted kingdom—such is +the punishment of ambition which usually awaits +even the victorious!—the transplantation of the +inhabitants of whole cities and countries, and the +consequent and unavoidable oppression of several +of his neighbours, excited universal complaints; +and where was the accuser of Philip to whom +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_286" id="Page_286">[Pg 286]</a></span>Rome would not now lend a ready ear?—His +younger son, Demetrius, the pupil of Rome, and +<span class="sidenote">183.</span> +by her intended, it is probable, to succeed to the +crown, alone diverted the impending fate of Macedonia. +But after the return of that prince from +his embassy, the envy of his elder and bastard +brother, Perseus, grew into an inveterate rancour, +such as could not be quenched but by the death +<span class="sidenote">181.</span> +of the younger. The lot of Philip was indeed +hard, compelled as a father to judge between his +two sons; but the measure of human woe was +filled, when after the death of his favourite child +he discovered that he was innocent; are we to +wonder that sorrow should soon have hurried him +<span class="sidenote">179.</span> +to a premature grave!</p> + +<div class="sidenote">Roman policy +against +the Achæan +league.<br /> +189.<br /> +183.</div> + +<p>22. The same policy which was observed by +the Romans towards Philip, they pursued towards +the Achæans, with whom, since the termination +of the war with Antiochus, they had assumed a +loftier tone; and this artful game was facilitated +by the continual quarrels among the Greeks themselves. +Yet the great Philopœmen, worthy of a +better age, maintained the dignity of the league +at the very time that the Romans presumed to +speak as arbitrators. After his decease they +found it easy to raise a party among the Achæans +themselves, the venal Callicrates offering his services +for that purpose.</p> + +<div class="sblockquot"><p>The Achæans was continually embroiled either with Sparta or +with Messene: the grounds of difference were, that in both of +those states there were factions headed by persons who, out of +personal motives, and for the most part hatred to Philopœmen, +wished to secede from the league; on the other hand, the prevailing +idea among the Achæans was, that this league ought to +comprise the whole of the Peloponnesus. In the war against the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_287" id="Page_287">[Pg 287]</a></span> +Messenians, 183, Philopœmen, at the age of seventy, was taken +prisoner by the enemy and put to death.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Plutarchi</span>, <i>Philopœmen</i>. Nearly the whole of which is compiled +from the lost biography of Polybius.</p></div> + +<div class="sidenote">Perseus, +179—168.</div> + +<p>23. The last Macedonian king, Perseus, had +inherited his father's perfect hatred of the Romans, +together with talents, if not equal, at least +but little inferior. He entered into the speculations +of his predecessor, and the first seven years +of his reign was occupied in constant exertions +to muster forces against Rome; with this view +he called the Bastarnæ out of the north, in order +to settle them in the territories of his enemies the +Dardanians; he endeavoured to form alliances +with the kings of Illyria, Thrace, Syria, and Bithynia; +above all, he strove by negotiations and +promises to reestablish the ancient influence of +Macedonia in Greece.</p> + +<div class="sblockquot"><p>The settlement of the Bastarnæ (probably a German race, resident +beyond the Danube) in Thrace and Dardania, in order +with them to carry war against the Romans, was one of the plans +traced out by Philip, and now partially executed by Perseus.—In +Greece the Macedonian party, which Perseus formed chiefly +out of the great number of impoverished citizens in the country, +would probably have gained the upper hand, had not the fear inspired +by Rome, and the active vigilance of that power, interposed +an effectual bar. Hence the Achæans, apparently at least, +remained on the Roman side; the Ætolians, by domestic factions, +had worked their own destruction; the case was the same +with the Acarnanians; and the federation of the Bœotians had +been completely dissolved by the Romans, 171. On the other +hand, in Epirus the Macedonian party was superior; Thessaly +was occupied by Perseus; several of the Thracian tribes were +friendly to him; and in king Gentius he found an ally who +might have been highly useful, had not the Macedonian prince, +by an ill-timed avarice, deprived himself of his assistance.</p></div> + +<div class="sidenote">Defeat at Perseus at +Pidna.</div> + +<p>24. The commencement of open hostilities was +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_288" id="Page_288">[Pg 288]</a></span>hastened by the bitter hatred existing between +Perseus and Eumenes, and by the intrigues of +the latter at Rome. Neglect of the favourable +moment for taking the field, and the defensive +system, skilfully in other respects as it was +planned, caused the ruin of Perseus, as it had +done that of Antiochus. Nevertheless he protracted +<span class="sidenote">172—168.</span> +the war to the fourth year, when the battle +of Pidna decided the fate both of himself and +his kingdom.</p> + +<div class="sblockquot"><p>Miserable condition of Perseus until his capture at Samothrace; +and afterwards until his death at Rome, 166.</p></div> + +<p>25. According to the system at that period followed +by Rome, the conquered kingdom of Macedonia +was not immediately converted into a province; +it was first deprived of all offensive power, +by being republicanized and divided into four +districts, wholly distinct from one another, and +bound to pay Rome half the tribute they were +before wont to furnish to their kings.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">Fall of the +Achæan +league.</div> + +<p>26. It was in the natural order of things that +the independence of Greece, and more especially +that of the Achæan league, should fall with Perseus. +The political <i>inquisition</i> of the Roman commissaries +not only visited with punishment the declared +partizans of Macedonia; but even to have +stood neutral was a crime that incurred suspicion. +Rome, however, amid the rising hatred, did not +deem herself secure until by one blow she had +rid herself of all opponents of any importance. +Above a thousand of the most eminent of the +Achæans were summoned to Rome to justify +themselves, and there detained seventeen years +<span class="sidenote">Callicrates, 167—150.</span> +in prison without a hearing. While at the head<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_289" id="Page_289">[Pg 289]</a></span> +of the league, stood the man who had delivered +them up, Callicrates, (<i>d.</i> 150.) a wretch who could, +unmoved, hear "the very boys in the streets taunt +him with treachery."—A more tranquil period, it +is true, now ensued for Greece, but it was the +result of very obvious causes.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">Greece becomes +a +Roman +province, +150—148.</div> + +<p>27. The ultimate lot both of Macedon and +was decided by the system now adopted +at Rome, that of converting the previous dependence +of nations into formal subjection. The insurrection +of Andriscus in Macedonia, an individual +who pretended to be the son of Perseus, was +quelled by Metellus, the country being constituted +a Roman province; two years afterwards, at +the sack of Corinth, vanished the last glimmer of +Grecian freedom.</p> + +<div class="sblockquot"><p>The last war of the Achæans arose out of certain quarrels with +Sparta, 150, fomented by Diæus, Critolaus, and Damocritus, who +had returned bitterly enraged from the Roman prison; in these +disputes Rome interfered, with the design of wholly dissolving +the Achæan league. The first pretext that offered for executing +this scheme was the ill-treatment of the Roman ambassadors at +Corinth, 148; war, however, still raging with Carthage and +Andriscus, the Romans preserved for the present a peaceful tone. +But the party of Diæus and Critolaus would have war; the +plenipotentiaries of Metellus were again insulted, and the +Achæans declared war against Sparta and Rome. In the very +same year they were routed by Metellus, and their leader Critolaus +fell in the engagement; Metellus was replaced in the +command by Mummius, who defeated Diæus the successor of +Critolaus, took Corinth and razed it to the ground, 146. The +consequence was, that Greece, under the name of Achaia, became +a Roman province, although to a few cities, such as Athens, for +instance, some shadow of freedom was still left.</p></div> +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_290" id="Page_290">[Pg 290]</a></span></p> + +<p class="cblockquot">IV. <i>History of some smaller or more distant Kingdoms +and States erected out of the Macedonian monarchy.</i></p> + +<div class="sblockquot"><p><span class="smcap">Sources.</span> Besides the writers enumerated above, (see p. 232.) +Memnon, an historian of Heraclea in Pontus, deserves particular +mention in this place, (see p. 162): some extracts from his work +have been preserved to us by Photius, Cod. 224. In some individual +portions, as, for instance, in the Parthian history, Justin<a name="FNanchor_A_4" id="FNanchor_A_4"></a><a href="#Footnote_A_4" class="fnanchor">[a]</a> +is our main authority; as are likewise Ammianus Marcellinus, +and the extracts from Arrian's <i>Parthica</i>, found in Photius. The +coins of the kings are also of great importance; but unfortunately +Vaillant's Essay shows, that even with their assistance the chronology +still remains in a very unsettled state. For the Jewish +history, Josephus (see p. 35.) is the grand writer: of the Books +of the Old Testament, those of Ezra and Nehemiah, together +with the Maccabees, although the last are not always to be depended +upon.</p> + +<p>The modern writers are enumerated below, under the heads of +the different kingdoms. Much information is likewise scattered +about in the works on ancient numismatics.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_A_4" id="Footnote_A_4"></a><a href="#FNanchor_A_4"><span class="label">[a]</span></a> As Justin did no more than extract from Trogus Pompeius, a question +presents itself of great consequence to various portions of ancient history; what +authorities did Trogus Pompeius follow? The answer will be found in two +treatises by <span class="smcap">A. L. L. Heeren</span>: <i>De fontibus et auctoritate Trogi Pompeii, ejusque +epitomatoris Justini</i>, inserted in <i>Comment. Soc. Gott.</i> vol. 15.</p></div> + +<div class="sidenote">Smaller +states rising +out of Alexander's +empire.</div> + +<p>1. Besides the three main empires into which +the monarchy of Alexander was divided, there +likewise arose in those extensive regions several +branch kingdoms, one of which even grew in time +to be among the most powerful in the world. To +these belong the kingdoms of, 1. Pergamus. +2. Bithynia. 3. Paphlagonia. 4. Pontus. 5. Cappadocia. +6. Great Armenia. 7. Little Armenia. +8. Parthia. 9. Bactria. 10. Jewish state subsequent +to the Maccabees.</p> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_291" id="Page_291">[Pg 291]</a></span></p> +<div class="sblockquot"><p>We are acquainted with the history of these kingdoms, the +Jewish state alone excepted, only so far forth as they were implicated +in the concerns of the greater empires; of their internal +history we know little, often nothing. With respect to many of +them, therefore, little more can be produced than a series of +chronological data, indispensable, notwithstanding, to the general +historian.</p></div> + +<div class="sidenote">Kingdom of +Pergamus,<br /> +B. C. 283—133.</div> + +<p>2. The kingdom of Pergamus, in Mysia, arose +during the war between Seleucus and Lysimachus. +It owed its origin on the one hand to the +prudence of its rulers, the wisest of whom luckily +reigned the longest; and, on the other, to the +weakness of the Seleucidæ: for its progressive +increase it was indebted to the Romans, who in +aggrandizing the power of Pergamus acted with a +view to their own interest. History exhibits +scarcely one subordinate kingdom whose princes +took such skilful advantage of the political circumstances +of the times; and yet they earned +still greater renown by the anxiety they showed, +in rivalling the Ptolemies, to foster the arts of +peace, industry, science, architecture, sculpture, +and painting. How dazzling the splendour with +which the small state of Pergamus outshines +many a mighty empire!</p> + +<div class="sblockquot"><p>Philetærus, lieutenant of Lysimachus, in Pergamus, asserts +his independence; and maintains possession of the citadel and +town, 283—263. His nephew, Eumenes I. 263—241, defeats +Antiochus I. at Sardes, 263, and becomes master of Æolis and +the circumjacent country. His nephew, Attalus I. 241—197, +after his victory over the Galatians, 239, becomes king of Pergamus: +a noble prince, and one whose genius and activity embraced +everything. His wars against Achæus brought him in +alliance with Antiochus III. 216. Commencement of an alliance +with Rome, arising out of his participation in the Ætolian league +against Macedon, 211, in order to thwart Philip's project of conquest. +Hence, after Philip's irruption into Asia, 203, participa<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_292" id="Page_292">[Pg 292]</a></span>tion +on the side of Rome, in the Macedonian war. His son Eumenes +II. the inheritor of all his father's great qualities succeeds +him, 197—158. As a reward for his assistance against Antiochus +the Great, the Romans presented him with almost all the +territories possessed by the vanquished king in Asia Minor, +(Phrygia, Mysia, Lycaonia, Lydia, Ionia, and a part of Caria,) +which thereafter constituted the kingdom of Pergamus; this +prince extended his frontiers, but lost his independence. In the +war with Perseus he was scarce able to preserve the good will of +the senate, and therewith his kingdom. His brother, Attalus II. +158—138, a more faithful dependent of Rome, took part in +nearly all the concerns of Asia Minor, more especially Bithynia. +His nephew, Attalus III. 138—133, a prince of unsound mind, +bequeathed his kingdom to the Romans, who, after vanquishing +the lawful heir, Aristonicus, 130, took possession of it, annexing +it to their empire, under the shape of a province called Asia.—Great +discoveries and vast establishments made at Pergamus. +Rich library; subsequently transferred by Antony to Alexandria, +as a present for Cleopatra. Museum. Discovery of parchment, +an invaluable auxiliary to the preservation of works of literature.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Choiseuil Gouffier</span>, <i>Voyage pittoresque de la Grèce</i>, vol. +ii. 1809. Containing excellent observations, both on the monuments +and history of Pergamus, as well as on those of all the +neighbouring coasts and islands.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Sevin</span>, <i>Recherches sur les rois de Pergame</i>, inserted in the +<i>Mém. de l'Acad. des Inscript.</i> vol. xii.</p> + +<p>From the fall of Tyre and the unsuccessful attempt of Demetrius, +B. C. 307, to the establishment of Roman dominion in the +east, 300—200, was the brilliant period of Rhodes; alike important +for political wisdom, naval power, and extensive trade. +At the head of the senate (βουλὴ) were presidents, +(πρυτανεῖς,) +who went out of office every half year, and were honoured with +precedence in the meetings of the commons. Friendship with +all, alliance with none, was the fundamental maxim of Rhodian +policy, until subverted by Rome. Thus was preserved the dignity +of the state, together with its independence and political +activity—where do we not meet with Rhodian embassies?—and +permanent splendour, resulting from the cultivation of arts and +sciences. What proofs of general commiseration did not Rhodes +enjoy after that dreadful earthquake, which threw down even the +famous colossus, 227! Long did her squadrons command the +Ægæan; over that sea, the Euxine, and the western parts of the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_293" id="Page_293">[Pg 293]</a></span> +Mediterranean as far as Sicily, her commerce extended, consisting +in the rich exchange of commodities between three quarters +of the globe. Her revenue proceeded from the customs, and was +abundant; until, blinded by avarice, she sought to obtain at +Peræa a territory on the mainland; an ambition of which the +Romans availed themselves to her detriment, by presenting her +with Lycia and Caria, 190. And yet did this republic outlive that +of Rome! Great, indeed, is the chasm left in general history by +the loss of the internal history of this island!</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">P. D. Ch. Paulsen</span>, <i>Commentatio exhibens Rhodi descriptionem +Macedonica ætate, Gottingæ</i>, 1818. A prize essay.</p></div> + +<p>3. The other small kingdoms of Asia Minor are +fragments rather of the Persian than of the Macedonian +monarchy; for Alexander's march following +another direction, they were not formally +subjugated by that conqueror. The lines of their +kings are generally traced back to an early period +of the Persian age; but, properly speaking, their +rulers in those days were nothing more than viceroys: +selected indeed, for the most part, from the +royal family, they bore the title of princes, and, +in the gradual decline of the empire, not unfrequently +threw up their allegiance. Nevertheless +these kingdoms do not appear as really independent +until after the time of Alexander. Connected +with the Grecian republics Heraclea, Sinope, +Byzantium, etc. they formed, both in the +Macedonian and Roman ages, a system of small +states, often distracted by internal wars, and still +oftener mere tools in the hands of the more +powerful.</p> + +<div class="sblockquot"><p>1. <i>Bithynia.</i> As early as the Persian period, mention is made +of two kings in Bithynia, Dydalsus and Botyras. The son of +the latter, Bias, B. C. 378—328, made head against Caranus, +one of Alexander's generals; as did also his son Zipœtas, <i>d.</i> 281, +against Lysimachus.—Lycomedes I. <i>d.</i> 248. He called the Gauls<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_294" id="Page_294">[Pg 294]</a></span> +over from Thrace, 278, and with their assistance deposed his +brother Zipœtas; the Gauls in consequence kept their footing in +Galatia, and were for a long time an object of terror to Asia +Minor. Zelas, <i>d.</i> about 232; established his dominion after a +war with his half-brothers. Prusias I. son-in-law and ally of +Philip II. of Macedon, <i>d.</i> 192. He sided with the Rhodians +in the commercial war against Byzantium, 222, (see above, +p. 282.) and directed his arms, 196, against Heraclea, a Grecian +city in Bithynia, with a respectable territory along shore. Prusias +II. waged war against Eumenes II. at the instigation of +Hannibal, who had fled to his court, 184; he was subsequently +about to deliver up the fugitive to the Romans; had not Hannibal +put a period to his existence, 183: this king likewise waged +war against Attalus II. 153; in both these contests Rome acted +as mediator. Prusias, who had the meanness to style himself a +freedman of the Romans, was dethroned by his own son, Nicomedes +II. <i>d.</i> 92; a confederate of Mithridates the Great, with +whom, nevertheless, he afterwards fell out concerning the appropriation +of Paphlagonia and Cappadocia. Nicomedes was murdered +by his son Socrates, who was, however, compelled to flee; +in consequence of which Nicomedes III. succeeded to the crown. +Deposed by Mithridates, who supported his half-brother Socrates, +he was reinstated by Rome, 90. Having, however, at the instigation +of the Romans, 89, attacked Mithridates, he was defeated +and expelled in the first Mithridatic war, now kindled; but in +the peace of 85, he was again reinstated by Sulla. At his death, +75, he bequeathed Bithynia to the Romans; and this legacy gave +rise to the third Mithridatic war.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Vaillant</span>, <i>Imperium Arsacidarum</i>, vol. ii. See below.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Sevin</span>, <i>Recherches sur les rois de Bithynie</i>; inserted in the +<i>Mém. de l'Académie des Inscript.</i> vol. xii.</p> + +<p>2. <i>Paphlagonia.</i> Even in the Persian age, the rulers of this +country were but nominally subject. After Alexander's death, +B. C. 323, it fell into the hands of the kings of Pontus; it was, +however, subsequently, again ruled by its own monarchs; among +whom we hear of Morzes, about 179; Pylæmenes I. about 131: +who assisted the Romans in the war against Aristonicus of Pergamus.—Pylæmenes +II. <i>d.</i> before 121; who is said to have bequeathed +his kingdom to Mithridates V. of Pontus. Hence +Paphlagonia came to be implicated in the fortunes of Pontus, +(see just below,) until after the fall of Mithridates the Great, 63,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_295" id="Page_295">[Pg 295]</a></span> +that kingdom was converted into a province, with the exception +of one of the southern districts, to which the Romans left some +shadow of freedom.</p> + +<p>3. <i>Pontus.</i> The later kings of this country derived their origin +from the family of the Achæmenidæ, or house of Persia. In the +Persian age they remained dependent or tributary princes: and +as such we must consider Artabazes, son of Hystaspes, <i>d.</i> 480, +Mithridates I. <i>d.</i> 368, and Ariobarzanes, <i>d.</i> 337, mentioned as +the earliest kings of Pontus. Mithridates II. surnamed Ctistes, +<i>d.</i> 302, was one of the first to acknowledge subjection to Alexander; +after the death of the conqueror he sided with Antigonus, +who treacherously caused him to be murdered. His son, Mithridates +III. <i>d.</i> 266, (the Ariobarzanes of Memnon,) not only maintained +himself after the battle of Ipsus against Lysimachus, but +likewise possessed himself of Cappadocia and Paphlagonia. Mithridates +IV. father-in-law to Antiochus the Great, waged an unsuccessful +war against Sinope. The year of his death is undetermined, +Pharnaces, <i>d.</i> about 156. He conquered Sinope 183; +and that town then became the royal residence. War with Eumenes +II. whom Rome had made so powerful, and with his allies; +terminated by a treaty, according to which Pharnaces ceded +Paphlagonia, B. C. 179. Mithridates V. <i>d.</i> about 121. He was +an ally of the Romans, from whom, after the defeat of Aristonicus +of Phrygia, he contrived to obtain Great Phrygia. Mithridates +VI. surnamed Eupator, about 121—64. He bore the title of +Great, an epithet to which he was as fully entitled as Peter I. in +modern history; indeed he resembled the Russian prince in +almost everything except in good fortune. His reign, although +of the highest importance to general history, is, particularly in +the portion previous to the wars with Rome, replete with chronological +difficulties.—At the age of twelve years he inherits from +his father not only Pontus, but likewise Phrygia, and a reversionary +title to the throne of Paphlagonia, vacated by the death +of Pylæmenes II.—During his nonage, 121—112, while by +voluntarily inuring himself to hardships, he contrived to elude +the treacherous hostility of his guardians, Rome deprived him of +Phrygia. His conquests in Colchis and on the eastern side of +the Black sea, 112—110.—Commencement of the Scythian wars. +Called by the Greeks of Crimea to their assistance, he expelled +the Scythians; subjected several insignificant Scythian princes +on the mainland; and entered into alliances with the Sarmatic<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_296" id="Page_296">[Pg 296]</a></span> +and even Germanic races as far as the Danube, 108—105, having +already a view to the invasion of Italy from the north.—This war +ended, he travels over Asia, (Asia Minor?) about 104—103.—At +his return, after punishing with death his faithless sister and wife, +Laodice, he makes good his pretensions to Paphlagonia, which he +divides with Nicomedes II. 102. The Roman senate demanding +the restoration of that province, Mithridates not only refuses to +accede, but likewise takes possession of Galatia; meanwhile Nicomedes +places on the throne of Paphlagonia one of his own sons, +whom he gives out to be a son of Pylæmenes II. and denominates +Pylæmenes III.—Rupture with Nicomedes II. 101; the +subject of dispute, Cappadocia, which, after removing the king, +Ariarathes VII. his brother-in-law, with the assistance of Gordius, +Mithridates himself now wished to possess; he is anticipated, +however, by Nicomedes II. who marries Laodice, Ariarathes's +widow.—Mithridates, notwithstanding, expels his rival, under +pretence of holding the kingdom for his sister's son, Ariarathes +VIII. whom at the end of a few months he puts to death at a +private conference, 94; he defeats the brother of the murdered +prince, Ariarathes IX. and then places on the throne, under the +name of Ariarathes X. his own son, who is given out to be a third +son of Ariarathes VII; in opposition to whom Nicomedes sets up +another pretended Ariarathes. The Roman senate, meanwhile, +declare both Paphlagonia and Cappadocia free, B. C. 92; attending, +however, to the desires of the Cappadocians, they sanction +the election of Ariobarzanes to the crown; and he is put in possession +of the kingdom by Sylla, as proprætor of Cilicia, likewise +in 92.—Mithridates, on the other hand, forms an alliance with +the king of Armenia, Tigranes, to whom he gives his daughter in +marriage; and employs him in expelling Ariobarzanes.—He +himself, after the death of Nicomedes II. 92, supports the claims +of the deceased king's exiled son, Socrates Chrestus, against the +bastard Nicomedes III. and in the mean time takes possession of +Paphlagonia. Nicomedes and Ariobarzanes are reinstated by a +Roman embassy, 90, Mithridates, in order to gain time against +Rome, causing Socrates to be put to death. The hostilities of +Nicomedes, instituted by Rome, gave rise to the first Roman war, +89—85, carried on in Asia and Greece, and brought to a conclusion +by Sylla. By the peace of 85, Mithridates restores Bithynia, +Cappadocia, and Paphlagonia.—War with the revolted +Colchians and Bosporans, 84.—Second war with Rome brought<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_297" id="Page_297">[Pg 297]</a></span> +about by the Roman governor, Murena, 83—81. Mithridates +hereupon appoints his son, Machares, king of Bosporus, (Crimea,) +whom he afterwards himself causes to be put to death, 66; he +was likewise, in all probability, the instigator of the migration of +the Sarmatæ out of Asia into Europe, in order to maintain his +conquests in that quarter, about 80. Fresh disputes with Rome +about Cappadocia, of which Tigranes takes possession, and third +war with Rome, 75—64. The contest ended in the downfal of +Mithridates, caused by the treachery of his son Pharnaces; +Pontus became a Roman province; although the Romans, in the +sequel, appointed over a portion of the country princes from the +royal house, Darius, Polemo I. Polemo II. until Nero reduced +it again wholly to the state of a province.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Vaillant</span>, <i>Imperium Achæmenidarum</i> in his <i>Imperium Arsacidarum</i>, +tom. ii. With the assistance of the coins.</p> + +<p>For the history of Mithridates the Great, previously treated +without sufficient chronological accuracy, see <span class="smcap">De Brosses</span>, <i>Histoire +de la Rép. Romaine</i>, and more especially</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Joan. Ernst. Woltersdorf</span>, <i>Commentatio vitam Mithridatis +Magni, per annos digestam, sistens; præmio ornata ab A. Phil. +Ord. Gottingæ:, A</i>. 1812.</p> + +<p>4. <i>Cappadocia.</i> Until the time of Alexander this country +remained a province of the Persian empire, although the governors +occasionally made attempts at insurrection. The ruling family +was here likewise a branch of the royal house; Ariarathes I. was +particularly distinguished about B. C. 354. The prince contemporary +with Alexander was Ariarathes II. who, being attacked +by Perdiccas and Eumenes, fell in the contest, 322. Nevertheless, +his son, Ariarathes III. supported by the Armenians, recovered +the sceptre about 312. The son of this king, Ariaramnes, +formed a matrimonial connection with the Seleucidæ, uniting his +son Ariarathes IV. with the daughter of Antiochus Θεός. Ariarathes +IV. during his lifetime, associated in the government his son +Ariarathes V. <i>d.</i> 162. who married Antiochis, daughter to Antiochus +the Great: this princess, finding herself at first barren, +procured two supposititious sons, one of whom, Orophernes, subsequently +wrested the sceptre from the legitimate and later born +son, Ariarathes VI. but was afterwards expelled by the rightful +heir, 157. In the war against Aristonicus of Pergamus, 131, he +fell, as an ally of the Romans, leaving behind him six sons; five of +whom were cut off by his ambitious relict Laodice; the sixth<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_298" id="Page_298">[Pg 298]</a></span> +however, Ariarathes VII. ascended the throne, and was married +to Laodice, sister of Mithridates the Great, at whose instigation +he was murdered by Gordius, under pretence of placing on the +throne his sister's son, Ariarathes VIII; this last prince was soon +after treacherously put to death by Mithridates, 94, and his brother +Ariarathes IX. defeated 93, died of a broken heart; Mithridates +then placed on the throne his own son, Ariarathes X. a lad +eight years old. The independence of Cappadocia having meanwhile +been proclaimed at Rome, the inhabitants of the country, +in order to preclude domestic broils, themselves elect a king, appointing +to that dignity Ariobarzanes I. who was installed by +Sylla, 92, and, backed by the Romans, kept his footing in the +Mithridatic wars. In 63 he made the crown over to his son, +Ariobarzanes II. who was slain by the army of Brutus and Cassius, +43, as was his brother, Ariobarzanes III. 34, by Mark +Antony; Antony then appointed Archelaus to be king, who enticed +to Rome by Tiberius, A. D. 17, was there assassinated; +and Cappadocia then became a Roman province.</p> + +<p>5. <i>Armenia</i> was a province of the Syrian empire until the defeat +of Antiochus the Great by Rome, 190. That defeat was +followed by the accession of Antiochus's lieutenants, Artaxias +and Zariadras; and now arose the two kingdoms of Armenia +Major and Armenia Minor (the latter on the west bank of the +Upper Euphrates). In Armenia Major the family of Artaxias +kept possession of the throne, under eight (according to others +<i>ten</i>) consecutive kings, until B. C. 5.—The only remarkable +prince of this line was Tigranes I. 95—60, son-in-law and ally +of Mithridates the Great, and lord of Asia Minor, Cappadocia, +and Syria. He was, however, at the peace of 63, obliged to give +up all, so that Armenia was dependent on the Romans, and remained +so until B. C. 5, when it became the object of contention +between the Romans and Parthians, being ruled at intervals by +kings appointed by both parties, who endeavoured thereby to +protect their own provinces. Finally, in A. D. 412, Armenia became +a province of the new Persian empire.—In Asia Minor the +descendants of Zariadras ruled dependently on Rome; after its +defection under Mithridates the Great it usually formed part of +some one of the neighbouring kingdoms, until in the reign of +Vespasian it was converted into a province of the Roman empire.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Vaillant</span>, <i>Elenchus regum Armeniæ Majoris</i>, in his <i>Hist. +Imp. Arsacidarum</i>.</p></div><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_299" id="Page_299">[Pg 299]</a></span></p> + +<div class="sidenote">Bactrian +and Parthian +empires.</div> + +<p>4. Besides the above small kingdoms, two +mighty empires arose in Inner Asia, both out +of Alexander's monarchy, and at the same time: +these were the Parthian and the Bactrian; each +having previously constituted a part of the empire +of the Seleucidæ, from which they seceded under +Antiochus II. The Parthian kingdom, or that of +the Arsacidæ, B. C. 256—A. D. 226, at the maximum +of its extension, comprised the countries +between the Euphrates and Indus. Its history, +so far as we are acquainted with it, is divided +into four periods (see below); but unfortunately +our information is so imperfect respecting all that +relates to the Parthians, except their wars, that +even the most important particulars are beyond +the reach of conjecture.</p> + +<div class="sblockquot"><p>Main facts in the history and constitution of the Parthian kingdom. +<i>a.</i> Like the ancient Persian empire, the Parthian arose out +of the conquests made by a rude mountain race of Central Asia, +whose Scythian (probably Tatarian) origin, betrayed itself even in +later times by their speech and mode of life: their conquests, +however, were not effected with the same rapidity as those of the +Persians. <i>b.</i> This empire increased at the expense of the Syrian +in the west, and of the Bactrian in the east; but its dominion was +never permanently established beyond the Euphrates, Indus, and +Oxus. <i>c.</i> The wars with Rome, commencing in B. C. 53, and +springing out of disputes for the possession of the Armenian +throne, were for a long time unfortunate for the Romans. Success +did not accompany the arms of Rome until she had discovered the +art of raising her own parties within the kingdom itself, by lending +her support to pretenders, an art rendered comparatively easy, +by the unfavourable situation of the Parthian capital Seleucia +and the neighbouring town of Ctesiphon, the real head quarters +of the court. <i>d.</i> The empire was indeed divided into satrapies, +eighteen of which are enumerated; nevertheless it comprised +likewise several small kingdoms, which preserved their own<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_300" id="Page_300">[Pg 300]</a></span> +rulers, only that they were tributary, such, for instance, as Persis, +etc. The Græco-Macedonian settlements were also in possession +of great privileges, and of their own civic governments; +Seleucia more especially, where the coins of the Parthian sovereigns +were struck. <i>e.</i> The constitution was monarchal-aristocratic, +something like that of the Poles, in the period of the +Jagellons. At the king's side sat a supreme state council, (<i>senatus</i>, +in all probability what was called the <i>megistanes</i>,) who had +the power of deposing the king, and the privilege, it is supposed, +of confirming his accession previous to the ceremony of coronation, +performed by the field-marshals (<i>surenas</i>). The right of +succession was only so far determined as belonging to the house +of the Arsacidæ; the many pretenders to which this uncertainty +gave rise, produced factions and domestic wars, doubly injurious +to the empire when fomented and shared by foreigners. <i>f.</i> With +regard to Asiatic commerce, the Parthian supremacy was of importance, +inasmuch as it interrupted the direct intercourse between +the western and eastern countries: it being a maxim of +the Parthians not to grant a passage through their country to any +stranger. This destruction of the trade occurs in the third period +of the empire, being a natural result of the many wars with +Rome, and the distrust thence ensuing. The East India trade, +in consequence, took another road through Palmyra and Alexandria, +which were indebted to it for their splendour and prosperity. +<i>g.</i> It is probable that this was the reason why excessive +luxury took a less hold on the Parthians than on the other ruling +nations of Asia, notwithstanding their predilection for Grecian +manners and literature, at that time generally prevalent throughout +the east.</p> + +<p><i>Line of the kings.</i> I. Syrian period; that of reiterated wars +with the Seleucidæ, until 130. Arsaces I. 256—253, founder of +the Parthian independence, by procuring the death of the Syrian +viceroy, Agathocles, to which he was instigated by the insult +offered to his brother Tiridates. Arsaces II. (Tiridates I.) brother +of the foregoing, <i>d.</i> 216. He possessed himself of Hyrcania, +about 244, confirmed the Parthian power by a victory on Seleucus +Callinicus, 238, whom he took prisoner, 236. Arsaces III. +(Artabanus I.) <i>d.</i> 196. In his reign occurred the unsuccessful +attempt of Antiochus III. who, in the treaty of 210, was obliged +to renounce all claims on Parthia and Hyrcania, in return for +which Arsaces lent his assistance to Antiochus in the war against<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_301" id="Page_301">[Pg 301]</a></span> +Bactria. Arsaces IV. (Priapatius,) <i>d.</i> about 181. Arsaces V. +(Phraates I.) <i>d.</i> about 144; he conquered the Mardians on the +Caspian. His brother, Arsaces VI. (Mithridates I.) <i>d.</i> 136. He +raised the hitherto confined kingdom of Parthia to the rank of a +mighty empire, having, after the decease of Antiochus Epiphanes, +164, by the capture of Media, Persis, Babylonia, and other +countries, extended the frontiers westward to the Euphrates, and +eastward to the Hydaspes, beyond the Indus. The invasion of +Demetrius II. of Syria, supported by an insurrection of the conquered +races, ended, 140, in the capture of the aggressor. Arsaces +VII. (Phraates II.) <i>d.</i> about 127. Invasion of Antiochus +Sidetes, 132, who was at first successful, but being soon afterwards +cut off together with his whole army, 131, the Parthian +empire was for ever freed from the attacks of the Syrian kings.</p> + +<p>II. Period of the eastern nomad wars; from 130—53. After +the fall of the Bactrian empire, which had hitherto formed the +eastern rampart of the Parthians, violent wars took place with +the nomad tribes of Central Asia (Scythæ, Dahæ, Tochari, etc.) +in which Arsaces VII. was slain. Arsaces VIII. (Artabanus II.) +shared the same fate about 124. Arsaces IX. (Mithridates II.) +<i>d.</i> 87. This prince appears to have restored tranquillity to the +east after bloody wars; he met, however, with a powerful rival +in Tigranes I. of Armenia. In his reign occurred the first transactions +between the Parthians and Romans, 92, Sylla being proprætor +of Cilicia. Arsaces X. (Mnasciras,) <i>d.</i> about 76, waged +a long war for the succession with his follower on the throne, the +septuagenarian, Arsaces XI. (Sinatroces,) <i>d.</i> about 68. Unsuccessful +war with Tigranes I. In consequence of civil wars, and of +that with Tigranes, together with the formidable power of Mithridates +the Great, the Parthian empire was now greatly weakened. +Arsaces XII. (Phraates III.) <i>d.</i> 60, contemporary with the third +Mithridatic war. Although both parties eagerly courted his alliance, +and he himself was engaged in the contest with Tigranes, +he, notwithstanding, observed an armed neutrality, and made the +Parthian empire continue to be respected as far as the Euphrates. +Neither Lucullus nor Pompey durst attack him. The fall of +Mithridates and of his empire, 64, constitutes, however, an epoch +in the Parthian history, the Romans and Parthians having now +become immediate neighbours.—Arsaces XIII. (Mithridates II.) +<i>d.</i> 54, deposed after several wars, by his younger brother Orodes,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_302" id="Page_302">[Pg 302]</a></span> +and at last put to death, after the capture of Babylonia, where +he had taken refuge.</p> + +<p>III. Roman period; from B. C. 53, to A. D. 226; comprising +the wars with Rome. Arsaces XIV. (Orodes I.) <i>d.</i> 36. In his +reign the first war with Rome, caused by the invasion of Crassus; +it ends in the annihilation of the invading army and general, +53. In consequence of this victory the Parthians acquired such +preponderance, that during the civil wars they were frequently +masters on this side of the Euphrates, and in 52—51 proceeded +to attack Syria.—In the war between Pompey and Cæsar they +sided with the former, and thus furnished the latter with a pretext +for his Parthian expedition, which, however, was prevented +by his murder in 44; again in the war between the triumviri +and Brutus and Cassius, 42, they took the republican side. After +the defeat of Brutus and Cassius, the Parthians, at the instigation +of the Roman general and ambassador Labienus, and commanded +by him and Pacorus, (eldest son to Arsaces,) spread over the +whole of Syria and Asia Minor, 40; but, after violent exertions, +were driven back by Ventidius, Antony's general, 39, 38; Pacorus +lost his life, and his father died of grief. Arsaces XV. +(Phraates IV.) <i>d.</i> A. D. 4, contemporary of Augustus. He confirmed +his power by murdering his brothers and their dependents; +his views were likewise furthered by the failure of Antony's +expedition, B. C. 36, which ended pretty nearly in the +same manner as that of Crassus. The remainder of his reign +was disturbed by a pretender to the throne, Tiridates, who, after +his defeat, 25, found an asylum at the court of Augustus. The +threatened attack of Augustus was diverted by Phraates's restoration +of the standards taken from Crassus, 20; a dispute, +however, subsequently arose respecting the possession of the Armenian +throne, A. D. 2, on which account Caius Cæsar was despatched +into Asia, and accommodated matters by a treaty. The +ultimate fate both of the king and the empire was principally +decided by a female slave, Thermusa, sent as a present from Augustus; +this woman, wishing to ensure the succession to her own +son, prevailed upon the king to send his four sons to Rome as +hostages, under the pretext of anticipating domestic troubles, 18.—A +practice which from that time became frequent, the Parthian +kings thinking it a convenient mode of ridding themselves of +dangerous competitors, while the Romans knew how to make the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_303" id="Page_303">[Pg 303]</a></span> +proper use of them.—Thermusa's son having grown up, she removed +the king, and seated Phraataces on the throne, under the +name of Arsaces XVI; he was, however, put to death by the +Parthians, A. D. 4; and the crown given to one of the Arsacidæ, +Orodes II, (Arsaces XVII.) who was, however, immediately afterwards +slain by reason of his cruelty. In consequence, Vonones +I. the eldest of the sons of Phraates sent to Rome, was +called back and placed on the throne (Arsaces XVIII.); but +that prince having brought with him Roman customs and luxury, +was expelled, A. D. 14, with the assistance of the northern nomads, +by Artabanes III. (Arsaces XIX.) <i>d.</i> 44, a distant relation: +the fugitive took possession of the vacant throne of Armenia, +but was soon after driven from thence likewise by his rival. +Tiberius took advantage of the consequent disorders to send Germanicus +into the east, A. D. 17, from whence he was never to return. +The remainder of the reign of Artabanus was very stormy, +Tiberius on the one hand taking advantage of the factions +between the nobles to support pretenders to the crown; the +revolts of the satraps, on the other hand, giving proof of the declension +of the Parthian power. After his death war raged between +his sons; the second, Vardanes, (Arsaces XX.) <i>d.</i> 47, +made good his pretensions to the crown, and took North Media, +(Atropatene;) he was succeeded by his elder brother Gotarzes, +(Arsaces XXI.) <i>d.</i> 50, to whom Claudius unsuccessfully opposed +Meherdates, educated as an hostage at Rome. Arsaces XXII. +(Vonones II.) succeeded, after a reign of a few months, by Arsaces +XXIII. (Vologeses I.) <i>d.</i> 90. The possession of the Armenian +throne, given by this prince to his brother Tiridates, by the +Romans to Tigranes, grandson of Herod the Great, excited a +series of disputes, which began so early as the reign of Claudius, +A. D. 52, and under Nero broke out into open war, waged with +some success on the Roman side by Corbulo, 56—64, and closed +by Tiridates going, after the death of Tigranes, to Rome, and +there accepting the crown of Armenia as a gift at the hands of +Nero, 65. Arsaces XXIV. (Pacorus,) <i>d.</i> 107, contemporary with +Domitian. All that we know of him is, that he embellished the +city of Ctesiphon. Arsaces XXV. (Cosroes,) <i>d.</i> about 121. The +claims to the throne of Armenia implicated him in a war with +Trajan, 114, during which Armenia, together with Mesopotamia +and Assyria, were converted into Roman provinces. Trajan's +consequent and successful inroad into the interior parts of the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_304" id="Page_304">[Pg 304]</a></span> +Parthian dominions, 115—116, followed by the capture of Ctesiphon, +and the appointment of Parthamaspates as king, appears +to have been facilitated by the domestic commotions and civil +wars which had for a long time harassed the empire. Nevertheless, +in the following year, 117, Hadrian was compelled to give +up all the conquered country; the Euphrates was again acknowledged +as the boundary; Parthamaspates was appointed king of +Armenia; and Cosroes, who had taken refuge in the upper satrapies, +was reinstated on the throne, of which he seems ever after +to have kept quiet possession. Arsaces XXVI. (Vologeses II.) +<i>d.</i> 149. Parthia under his reign, and Rome under that of Antoninus +Pius, remained on good terms. Arsaces XXVII. (Vologeses +III.) <i>d.</i> 191. Under the reign of this king, the contemporary +of Marcus Aurelius and L. Verus, the war with Rome was +again kindled, 161, by Verus, and carried on in Armenia and +Syria; Cassius, the legate of Verus, at last got possession of +Seleucia, and demolished that city, 165.—Arsaces XXVIII. +(Ardawan or Vologeses IV.) <i>d.</i> 207. This king having taken +the part of Pescenninus Niger, in the war between him and Septimius +Severus, was, after the defeat of his friend, 194, routed in +a war with Septimius Severus, 197, and the chief towns of Parthia +were sacked by the invaders. He is, without authority, represented +as succeeded by a Pacorus, who took the name of Arsaces +XXIX.: his real successor, however, appears to have been Arsaces +XXIX. (Vologeses V.) <i>d.</i> 216. Domestic wars among his +sons, fomented by Caracalla. Arsaces XXX. (Artabanus IV.) +At the beginning of his reign, this prince likewise was contemporary +with Caracalla, who, in order to pick a quarrel, demanded +his daughter in marriage; according to some, Arsaces refused +her, in consequence of which the Roman emperor undertook a +campaign into Armenia; according to others, Arsaces having assented, +and escorted his daughter to Caracalla, was, by an abominable +stroke of treachery, cut off, together with all his train, +A. D. 216. Caracalla having been murdered, 217, his successor, +Macrinus, signed a peace with the Parthians. But Arsaces subsequently +raised his brother Tiridates to the throne of Armenia; +this act spurred the Persian Artaxerxes, son of Sassan, to rebellion; +the Parthian king, defeated in three battles, fell in the last, +thus putting a period to the family and dominion of the Arsacidæ, +226, and Artaxerxes became the founder of the New Persian +kingdom, or that of the Sassanidæ. The revolution was +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_305" id="Page_305">[Pg 305]</a></span> +accompanied not only with a change of dynasty, but with a total +subversion of the constitution.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Vaillant</span>, <i>Imperium Arsacidarum et Achæmenidarum</i>, Paris, +1725, 2 vols. 4to. The first part comprises the Arsacidæ; the +second the kings of Bithynia, Pontus, and Bosporus. It is an +attempt, not altogether faultless, to arrange the series of kings, +by the assistance of coins.</p> + +<p>† <span class="smcap">C. F. Richter</span>, <i>Historico-critical essay upon the dynasties +of the Arsacidæ and Sassanidæ, according to the Persian, Grecian, +and Roman authorities</i>. A prize essay. Leipzic, 1804. +A comparative research into the eastern and western sources. +The chronology in the above sketch has been corrected by this +work, in conjunction with</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Th. Chr. Tychsen</span>, <i>Commentationes de Nummis Persarum et +Arsacidarum</i>; inserted in <i>Commentat. Nov. Soc. Sc. Gotting.</i> +vol. i. iii.</p></div> + +<div class="sidenote">Bactria.</div> + +<p>5. The Bactrian kingdom arose nearly at the +same time as the Parthian, 254; its origin, however, +was of a different nature,—the independence +of this state being asserted by the Grecian +governor, who was consequently succeeded by +Greeks;—its duration likewise was much shorter, +extending only from B. C. 254 to B. C. 126. +Scarce any fragments have been preserved of the +history of this empire, the borders of which appear +at one time to have extended to the banks +of the Ganges, and the frontiers of China.</p> + +<div class="sblockquot"><p>Founder of the empire, Diodatus or Theodotus I. B. C. 254; +he threw off his allegiance to the Syrian king, under Antiochus +II. He appears to have been master not only of Bactria, but +also of Sogdiana. He likewise threatened the Parthians; after +his decease, 243, his son and successor, Theodotus II. signed a +treaty and alliance with Arsaces II. but was nevertheless deprived +of his crown by Euthydemus of Magnesia, about 221. Antiochus +the Great, at the conclusion of the Parthian war, directed his +arms against Euthydemus, 209—206; the contest ended in a +peace, by which Euthydemus, after delivering up his elephants,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_306" id="Page_306">[Pg 306]</a></span> +was not only left in possession of the crown, but was allied to the +Syrian family by the marriage of his son Demetrius with a +daughter of Antiochus. Demetrius, though a great conqueror, +does not seem to have been king of Bactria; his dominions comprised, +it is probable, North India and Malabar, whose history +now becomes closely connected with that of Bactria, although +consisting only of mere fragments. The throne of Bactria fell to +Apollodotus, and after him to Menander, who extended his conquests +as far as Serica, while Demetrius was establishing his dominion +in India, [as sovereign of which country he is represented +in a medal lately discovered,] and where, about this time, several +Greek states appear to have existed, perhaps ever since the expedition +of Antiochus III. 205. Menander was succeeded, about +181, by Eucratidas, under whose reign the Bactrian empire attained +its greatest extension; after defeating the Indian king, +Demetrius, who had been the aggressor, he, with the assistance +of the Parthian conqueror, Mithridates, (Arsaces VI.) annexed +India to his own empire, 148. On his return, he was murdered +by his son; the same, probably, that is mentioned afterwards by +the name of Eucratidas II. He was the ally of Demetrius II. of +Syria, and the main instigator of his expedition against the Parthians, +142; Demetrius being defeated by Arsaces VI. Eucratidas +was, in consequence, deprived of a portion of his territory; +overpowered soon after by the nomad races of Central Asia, the +Bactrian empire fell to the ground, and Bactria itself, together +with the other countries on this side of the Oxus, became a prey +to the Parthians.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Th. Sieg. Bayer</span>, <i>Historia regni Græcorum Bactriani</i>. Petropol. +1738, 4to. The few remaining fragments are in this work +collected with industry and arranged with skill.</p> + +<p>[<span class="smcap">Tod</span>, <i>Account of Greek, Parthian, and Hindu Medals</i>, in +<i>Transactions of the R. Asiatic Society</i>, vol. i. part ii, p. 316.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Tychsen</span>, <i>De Nummis Græcis et Barbaris in Bochara nuper +retectis</i>, in <i>Comment. Nov. Soc. Sc. Gotting.</i> vol. vi.]</p></div> + +<div class="sidenote">Kingdom of +the Jews.</div> + +<p>6. The restored kingdom of the Jews was likewise +a fragment of the Macedonian monarchy; +and although it ranked only with the smaller +states, its history in various respects deserves our +attention, few nations having had so powerful an<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_307" id="Page_307">[Pg 307]</a></span> +influence on the progress of human civilization. +The foundation of the independence of the Jews +was not, it is true, laid before the year 167; +yet their domestic constitution had previously +assumed its main features, and their history, +reckoning from the return of the Babylonian captivity, +accordingly divides itself into four periods: +1. Under the Persian supremacy, 536—323. 2. +Under the Ptolemies and Seleucidæ, 323—167. +3. Under the Maccabees, 167—39. 4. Under +the Herodians and Romans, B. C. 39. to A. D. 70.</p> + +<div class="sblockquot"><p>First period under the Persians. By permission from Cyrus, +a colony of Jews belonging to the tribes of Benjamin, Judah, and +Levi, returned to the land of their forefathers, 536: this colony, +headed by Zorobabel, of the ancient royal family, and the high +priest Joshua, consisted of about 42,000 souls; the far more important +and wealthy portion of the nation preferred to remain on +the other side of the Euphrates, where they had been settled for +seventy years, and continued to be a numerous people. The new +settlers found it difficult to keep their footing, principally in consequence +of differences, produced by the intolerance they themselves +evinced at the building of the temple, with their neighbours +and kinsmen the Samaritans, to whom the colony was only a +cause of expense. The Samaritans, subsequently, having erected +a separate temple at Garizim, near Sichem, about 336, not only +separated completely, but laid the foundation of an inveterate +hatred between the two nations. Hence the prohibition to rebuild +the city and temple, brought about by their means, under +Cambyses, 529, and Smerdis, 522, and not taken off until 520, +in the reign of Darius Hystaspes. The new colony did not receive +a permanent internal constitution till the time of Ezra and +Nehemiah; both brought in fresh colonists, the former in 478, +the latter in 445. The country was under the dominion of the +satraps of Syria; but in the increasing domestic declension of the +Persian empire, the high priests gradually became the virtual +rulers of the nation. Nevertheless, even at the time of Alexander's +conquest, 332, the Jews seem to have manifested proofs of +fidelity to the Persians.</p> +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_308" id="Page_308">[Pg 308]</a></span></p> +<p>Second period under the Ptolemies and Seleucidæ, 323—167. +After the death of Alexander, Palestine, in consequence of its +situation, generally shared the fate of Phœnicia and Cœle-Syria, +(see above, p. 249.) being annexed to Syria.—Capture of Jerusalem, +and transplantation of a vast colony of Jews to Alexandria +by Ptolemy I. 312; from thence they spread to Cyrene, and +gradually over the whole of North Africa, and even into Æthiopia. +From 311—301 the Jews remained, however, subject to +Antigonus. After the overthrow of his empire, they remained, +301—203, under the dominion of the Ptolemies; the most conspicuous +of their high priests during this interval were Simon the +Just, <i>d.</i> 291, and afterwards his son, Onias I. <i>d.</i> 218, who, by +withholding the tribute due to Ptolemy III. exposed Judæa to +imminent danger.—In the second war of Antiochus the Great +against Egypt, 203, the Jews, of their own free will, acknowledged +themselves his subjects, and assisted in driving out the +Egyptian troops, who, under their general, Scopas, had again +possessed themselves of the country, and the citadel of Jerusalem, +198. Antiochus confirmed the Jews in the possession of all their +privileges; and although he promised their country, together +with Cœle-Syria and Phœnicia, to Ptolemy Epiphanes, as the +future dowry of his daughter, Judæa still remained under the +Syrian supremacy; except that the revenue was for a time divided +between the Syrian and Egyptian kings.—The high priests +and self-chosen ethnarchs or alabarchs were at the head of the +people; and we now find mention made for the first time of a +senate, or the sanhedrim. But the rout of Antiochus the Great +by the Romans was also the remote cause of the subsequent misfortunes +of the Jews. The consequent dearth of money in which +the Syrian kings found themselves, and the riches of the temple +treasures, the accumulation of the sacred income and gifts, made +the office of high priest an object of purchase under Antiochus +Epiphanes: hence arose quarrels between the pontifical families, +and out of those sprung factions, which Antiochus Epiphanes was +desirous to turn to his own account, by the introduction of Grecian +institutions among the Jews, in order thereby to promote the +subjection of that people, now raised by its privileges almost to +the rank of a state within that of Syria. Deposition of the high +priest, Onias III. 175; his brother Jason having obtained the +mitre by purchase, and the introduction of Grecian customs: +Jason, however, was in his turn supplanted by his brother Mene<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_309" id="Page_309">[Pg 309]</a></span>laus, +172. During the civil war arising out of these events, Antiochus +Epiphanes, at that time conqueror in Egypt, (see above, +p. 241.) takes possession of Jerusalem, 170, being provoked by +the behaviour of the Jews to Menelaus, the high priest of his own +appointment: the consequent oppression of the Jews, who now +were to be Hellenized by main force, soon occasioned the rise +under the Maccabees.</p> + +<p>Third period under the Maccabees, 167—39. Commencement +of the rebellion against Antiochus IV. brought about by the +priest Mattathias, 167, who was almost immediately succeeded, +166—161, by his son Judas Maccabæus. Supported by the +fanaticism of his party, Judas defeats in several battles the generals +of Antiochus, who was absent in Upper Asia, where he died, +164; the Jewish leader is even said to have been favoured by +Rome. The primary object of the insurrection was not, however, +political independence; they fought only for religious freedom. +Under Antiochus V. the sedition continued successful, both +against the Syrian king and the high priest Alcimus, his creature, +163; Judas having died soon after his defeat by Demetrius I. +was succeeded by his brother Jonathan, 161—143. The death +of the high priest, Alcimus, 160, opened the path of Jonathan to +that office, which he received in the ensuing war between Demetrius +I. and Alexander Balas, 143, (see above, p. 244, 245.) both +rivals courting his alliance: Jonathan sided with Balas, and consequently, +from being merely the leader of a party, came to be +head of the nation, which still, nevertheless, continued to pay +tribute to the kings. Notwithstanding the favour he had shown +to Balas, after the overthrow of that pretender, he was confirmed +in his dignity by Demetrius I. 145; to whose assistance he +marched at the subsequent great revolt in Antioch. Jonathan +however, in 144, passed over to the side of the usurper, Antiochus, +the son of Balas, (see above, p. 245.) and was by embassy +presented with the friendship of the Romans in the same year, +but by the treachery of Tryphon was taken and put to death, +143. His brother and successor, Simon, 143—135, having declared +against Tryphon, was by Demetrius II. not only confirmed +in his dignity, but excused from paying tribute; he likewise received +the title of prince, (ethnarch;) and appears to have struck +coins. After the capture of Demetrius, Antiochus Sidetes allowed +Simon to remain in possession of those privileges so long as he +stood in need of his assistance against Tryphon; but after the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_310" id="Page_310">[Pg 310]</a></span> +death of that usurper, he caused him, 130, to be attacked by +Cendebæus, who was defeated by the sons of Simon. Simon +having been murdered by his son-in-law, Ptolemæus, who aspired +to the government, 135, was succeeded by his son, John Hyrcanus, +135—107, who was compelled again to acknowledge submission +to Antiochus Sidetes; but after the defeat and death of +that prince by the Parthians, 130, he asserted his entire independence. +The deep decline of the Syrian kingdom, the constant +civil wars by which it was distracted, and the renewed league +with the Romans, not only enabled Hyrcanus easily to maintain +his independence, but likewise to increase his territory, by the +conquest of the Samaritans and Idumæans. But with him ended +the heroic line. Scarcely was he delivered from foreign oppression, +when domestic broils arose; the Pharisees and Sadducees +had hitherto been mere religious sects, but were converted into +political factions by Hyrcanus, who, offended with the Pharisees, +probably in consequence of their wish to separate the pontifical +and princely offices, went over to the Sadducees; the former sect, +the orthodox, were as usual supported by the many; the latter, +the innovators, in consequence of the laxity of their principles, +were favoured by the wealthy. Hyrcanus's eldest son, the cruel +Aristobulus, 107, assumed the royal title, but soon after dying, +106, was succeeded by his younger brother, Alexander Jannæus, +106—79. His reign was an almost unbroken series of insignificant +wars with his neighbours, this prince wishing to play the +conqueror; and having likewise had the imprudence to irritate +the powerful party of the Pharisees, these made him the object +of public insult, and excited a tumult, 92, which was followed +by a bloody civil war which lasted six years. Jannæus, it is +true, maintained himself during the struggle; but the opposite +party was so far from being annihilated, that, at his death, when +passing over his sons, the feeble Hyrcanus (who possessed the +pontifical dignity) and the ambitious Aristobulus, he bequeathed +the crown to his widow Alexandra, it was with the understanding +that she should join the party of the Pharisees: during her reign, +therefore, 79—71, the Pharisees held the reins of government, +and left her only the name. Provoked at this, Aristobulus, +shortly before the death of the queen, endeavoured to obtain +possession of the throne, and ultimately obtained his ends, notwithstanding +Alexandra nominated Hyrcanus to be her successor. +Hyrcanus, at the instigation of his confidant, the Idumæan Anti<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_311" id="Page_311">[Pg 311]</a></span>pater, +who was the progenitor of the Herodians, and assisted by +the Arabian prince Aretas, waged war against his brother, 65, and +shut him up in Jerusalem: but the Romans were arbitrators, +and Pompey, then all-powerful in Asia, decided for Hyrcanus, +64; the party of Aristobulus, however, refusing to accede, the +Roman general took possession of Jerusalem; made Hyrcanus +high priest and prince, under condition that he should pay tribute; +and took as prisoners to Rome Aristobulus and his sons, +who, however, subsequently escaped and caused great disturbances. +The Jewish state being now dependent on Rome, remained +so, and the yoke was confirmed by the policy of Antipater +and his sons, who followed the general maxim of entire devotion +to Rome, in order thereby to succeed in wholly removing the +reigning family. As early as 48, Antipater was appointed procurator +of Judea by Cæsar, whom he had supported at Alexandria, +and his second son Herod, governor in Galilee, soon became sufficiently +powerful to threaten Hyrcanus and the sanhedrim, 45. +He gained the favour of Antony, and thus maintained himself +amid the tempests which, after the assassination of Cæsar, 44, +shook the Roman world, powerful as the party opposed to him +were: that party, however, at last, in lieu of the ill-fated Hyrcanus, +the only surviving son of Aristobulus, placed Antigonus at +their head, and, assisted by the Parthians, then flourishing in +power, seated him on the throne, 39. Herod having fled to +Rome, not only met with a gracious reception at the hands of the +triumviri, but was by them appointed king.</p> + +<p>Fourth period under the Herodians, B. C. 39 to A. D. 70. +Herod the Great, B. C. 39 to A. D. 1. put himself in possession +of Jerusalem and all Judæa, B. C. 37, and confirmed his power +by marrying Mariamne of the house of the Maccabees. Notwithstanding +his severity shown to the party of Antigonus, and +the house of the Maccabees, the total extinction of which Herod +deemed necessary for his own safety; yet so greatly did the +wasted country stand in need of peace, that for that very reason +his reign may be said to have been a happy one. Availing himself +of the liberality of Augustus, whose favour he contrived to +obtain after the defeat of Anthony, B. C. 31, Herod gradually +increased the extent of his kingdom, which at last comprised +Judæa, Samaria, Galilee, and beyond the Jordan, Peræa, Ituræa, +and Trachonitis, (that is to say, the whole of Palestine,) together +with Idumæa; from these countries he derived his income with<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_312" id="Page_312">[Pg 312]</a></span>out +being obliged to pay any tribute. The deference consequently +shown by Herod to Rome, was but the effect of a natural policy, +and his conduct in that respect could be objected to him only by +bigoted Jews. To his whole family, rather than to himself individually, +are to be attributed the executions which took place +among its members; happy had it been if the sword had smitten +none but the guilty and spared the innocent. In the last year +but one of his reign is placed the birth of Christ (according to +the usually adopted computation, made in the sixth century by +Dionysius Exiguus. But the more accurate calculations of modern +chronologists show that the real date of the Saviour's birth was +probably four years earlier).—According to his will, with some +few alterations made by Augustus, his kingdom was divided +among his three surviving sons; Archelaus, as ethnarch, receiving +the greater moiety, Judæa, Samaria, and Idumæa; the two +others, as tetrarchs, Philip a part of Galilee and Trachonitis, Antipas +the other part of Galilee, and Peræa, together with Ituræa; +subsequently to which division, the various parts did not, in consequence, +all share the same fate.—Archelaus, by misgovernment, +soon lost his portion, A. D. 6; Judæa and Samaria were +consequently annexed as a Roman province to Syria, and placed +under procurators subordinate to the Syrian governors: among +these procurators, the most famous is Pontius Pilate, about A. D. +27—36, under whom the founder of our religion appeared and +suffered, not as a political—although accused of being so—but as +a moral reformer. On the other hand, Philip retained his tetrarchy +until the day of his death, A. D. 34, when his country +had the same lot with Judæa and Samaria. Soon after, that is +to say, in A. D. 37, it was, however, given by Caligula, with the +title of king, to Agrippa, (grandson of Herod by Aristobulus,) as +a recompense for his attachment to the family of Germanicus; +and when Antipas, who wished to procure a similar favour for +himself but instead of it, was deposed, 39, Agrippa received his +tetrarchy also, 40, and soon afterwards, by the possession of the +territory which had belonged to Archelaus, became master of the +whole of Palestine. Agrippa having died in A. D. 44, the whole +country being appended to Syria, became a Roman province, and +received procurators, although Chalcis, 49, and subsequently also, +53, Philip's tetrarchy, were restored as a kingdom to his son +Agrippa II. <i>d.</i> 90. The oppression of the procurators, and of +Gessius Florus in particular, who obtained the office, A. D. 64, +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_313" id="Page_313">[Pg 313]</a></span> +excited the Jews to rebellion, which, 70, ended in the capture +and destruction of their city and temple by Titus. The spread +of the Jews over the whole civilized world of that time, although +previously commenced, was by this event still further increased; +and at the same time the extension of Christianity was prepared +and facilitated. Even after the conquest, Jerusalem not only +continued to exist as a city, but was also still considered by the +nation as a point of union; and the attempt, under Adrian, to +establish a Roman colony there, produced a fearful sedition.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Basnage</span>, <i>Histoire des Juifs depuis J. C. jusqu' à present</i>. +La Haye, 1716, 15 vols. 12mo. The first two parts only, properly +speaking, belong to this period; but the others likewise +contain several very valuable historical researches.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Prideaux</span>, <i>The Old and New Testament connected in the +history of the Jews and their neighbouring nations</i>. Lond. 1714, +2 vols. This work, together with that above quoted, have always +been esteemed the grand books on the subject. The French +translation of Prideaux's Connection is, by its arrangement, more +convenient for use than the original: this translation was published +at Amsterdam, 1722, 5 vols. 8vo. under the title of <span class="smcap">Prideaux</span>, +<i>Histoire des Juifs et des peuples voisins depuis la décadence +des Royaumes d'Israel et de Juda, jusqu' à la mort de J. C.</i></p> + +<p>† <span class="smcap">J. D. Michaelis</span>, <i>Translation of the Books of Esdras, Nehemiah, +and Maccabees</i>, contains in the observations several historic +discussions of high importance.</p> + +<p>† <span class="smcap">J. Remond</span>, <i>Essay towards a history of the spread of Judaism, +from Cyrus to the total decline of the Jewish state</i>. +Leipzig, 1789. The industrious work of a young scholar.</p> + +<p>To the works enumerated p. 34, 35, must be added, for the +more ancient history of the Jews:</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">J. L. Bauer</span>, <i>Manual of the history of the Hebrew nation, +from its rise to the destruction of its state</i>. Nuremberg, 1800, +2 parts, 8vo. As yet the best critical introduction, not only to +the history, but also to the antiquities of the nation.</p> + +<p>† In the works of <span class="smcap">J. J. Hess</span>, belonging to this subject, namely, +<i>History of Moses</i>; <i>History of Joshua</i>; <i>History of the Rulers +of Judah</i>, 2 parts; <i>History of the Kings of Judah and Israel</i>: +the history is throughout considered in a theocratic point of +view.</p></div> + + + +<hr style="width: 100%;" /> +<h1><a name="FIFTH_BOOK" id="FIFTH_BOOK"></a>FIFTH BOOK.</h1> +<h3>HISTORY OF THE ROMAN STATE.</h3> +<hr style="width: 100%;" /> +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_314" id="Page_314">[Pg 314]</a></span></p> +<p class="cblockquot"><i>Introductory remarks on the Geography of Ancient Italy.</i></p> + + +<div class="sidenote">General +outline of +Italy.</div> + +<p>Italy constitutes a peninsula, bounded on the +north by the Alps, on the west and south by the +Mediterranean, and on the east by the Adriatic +sea. Its greatest length from north to south is +600 geogr. miles; its greatest breadth, taken at +the foot of the Alps, is 320 geogr. miles; but that +of the peninsula, properly so called, is not more +than 120 geogr. miles. Superficial contents, +81,920 sq. geogr. miles. The principal mountain +range is that of the Apennines, which, diverging +occasionally to the west, or east, stretch +from north to south through Central and Lower +Italy. In the earlier times of Rome, these mountains +were covered with thick forests. Main +streams: the Padus (Po) and the Athesis, (Adige,) +both of which discharge their waters in the Adriatic; +and the Tiberis, (Tiber,) which falls into +the Mediterranean. The soil, particularly in the +plains, is one of the most fertile in Europe; on +the other hand, many of the mountain tracts +admit but of little cultivation. In that period +when the Mediterranean was the grand theatre +of trade, Italy, by her situation, seemed destined +to become the principal mart of Europe; but she<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_315" id="Page_315">[Pg 315]</a></span> +never in ancient times availed herself sufficiently +of this advantage.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">Divisions +of Italy.</div> + +<p>It is divided into <i>Upper</i> Italy, from the Alps to +the small rivers of Rubicon and Macra; (this +part, however, of Italy, until presented with the +right of citizenship under Cæsar, was, according +to the Roman political geography, considered as +a province;) into <i>Central</i> Italy, from the Rubicon +and the Macra down to the Silarus and Frento; +and into <i>Lower</i> Italy from those rivers to the +southern land's end.</p> + + +<p class="center">I. <i>Upper Italy comprises the two countries, Gallia Cisalpina +and Liguria.</i></p> + +<div class="sidenote">Cisalpine +Gaul.</div> + +<p>1. Gallia Cisalpina, or Togata, in contradistinction +to Gallia Transalpina. It bears the name +of Gallia, in consequence of being for the most +part occupied by Gallic races. This country is +one continuous plain, divided by the Padus into +two parts, the northernmost of which is therefore +denominated Gallia Transpadana, (inhabited by +the Taurini, Insubres, and Cenomani,) while the +southern part (inhabited by the Boii, Senones, +and Lingones) is known by the name of Gallia +Cispadana. Various streams contribute to swell +the Padus; from the north the Duria, (Durance,) +the Ticinus, (Tessino,) the Addua, (Adda,) the +Ollius, (Oglio,) the Mintius, (Minzio,) and several +less important rivers; from the south, the Tanarus, +(Tanaro,) the Trebia, etc. The Athesis, +(Adige,) the Plavis, (Piave,) and a number of +smaller mountain streams, roll their waters directly +into the Adriatic.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_316" id="Page_316">[Pg 316]</a></span></p> + +<p>The cities in Gallia Cisalpina were, generally +speaking, Roman colonies; and most of them +have preserved to this day their ancient names. +Among these are reckoned in Gallia Transpadana, +principally, Tergeste, Aquileia, Patavium, (Padua,) +Vincentia, Verona, all east of the Athesis; +Mantua, Cremona, Brixia, (Brescia,) Mediolanum, +(Milan,) Ticinum, (Pavia,) and Augusta +Taurinorum, (Turin,) all west of the Athesis. In +Gallia Cispadana we meet with Ravenna, Bononia, +(Bologna,) Mutina, (Modena,) Parma, Placentia, +(Piacenza). Several of the above places +received municipal rights from the Romans.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">Liguria.</div> + +<p>2. Liguria. This country deduced its name +from the Ligures, one of the old Italic tribes: it +extended from the river Varus, by which it was +divided from Gallia Transalpina, down to the +river Macra; northward it extended to the Padus, +and comprised the modern territory of Genoa.—Cities: +Genua, an extremely ancient place; Nicæa, +(Nice,) a colony of Massilia; and Asta, +(Asti.)</p> + + +<p class="center">II. <i>Central Italy comprises six countries; Etruria, Latium, +and Campania on the west; Umbria, Picenum, +and Samnium on the east.</i></p> + +<div class="sidenote">Etruria.</div> + +<p>1. Etruria, Tuscia, or Tyrrhenia, was bounded +north by the Macra, which divided it from Liguria; +south and east by the Tiberis, which separated +it from Latium and Umbria. Main river, +the Arnus, (Arno). It is for the most part a +mountainous country; the seashore only is level. +This country derives its name from the Etrusci,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_317" id="Page_317">[Pg 317]</a></span> +a very ancient people, composed, it is probable, +of an amalgamation of several races, and even +some early Grecian colonies, to which latter they +were indebted, not indeed for all their arts, but +for that of writing; to commerce and navigation +the Etrusci were indebted for their opulence +and consequent splendour. Cities: between the +Macra and Arnus, Pisæ, (Pisa,) Florentia, Fæsulæ; +between the Arnus and Tiberis, Volaterræ, +(Volterra,) Volsinii, (Bolsena,) on the Lacus Volsiniensis, +(Lago di Bolsena,) Clusium, (Chiusi,) +Arretium, (Arrezzo,) Cortona, Perusia, (Perugia,) +in the neighbourhood of which is the Lacus Thrasimenus, +(Lago di Perugia,) Falerii, (Falari,) and +the wealthy city of Veii. Each of the above +twelve cities had its own individual ruler, <i>lucumo</i>; +although frequent associations were formed among +them, yet no firm and lasting bond seems to have +united the nation into one.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">Latium.</div> + +<p>2. Latium, properly the residence of the Latini, +from the Tiberis north, to the promontory of Circeii, +south; hence that country was likewise denominated +Latium Vetus. Subsequently, under +the name of Latium was likewise reckoned the +country from Circeii, down to the river Liris, +(Latium Novum;) so that the boundaries came to +be, north, the Tiberis, south, the Liris: the seat +of the Latins, properly speaking, was in the fruitful +plain extending from the Tiber to Circeii; +around them, however, dwelt various small tribes, +some eastward, in the Apennines, such as the +Hernici, Sabini, Æqui, and Marsi; others southward, +such as the Volsci, Rutuli, and Aurunci.—Rivers: +the Anio (Teverone) and Allia, which<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_318" id="Page_318">[Pg 318]</a></span> +fall into the Tiber, and the Liris, (Garigliano,) +which empties itself into the Mediterranean. Cities +in Latium Vetus: Rome, Tibur, Tusculum, +Alba Longa, Ostia, Lavinium, Antium, Gabii, Velitræ, +the capital of the Volsci, and several smaller +places. In Latium Novum: Fundi, Terracina, +or Anxur, Arpinum, Minturnæ, Formiæ.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">Campania.</div> + +<p>3. Campania. The country lying between the +Liris, north, and the Silarus, south. One of the +most fruitful plains in the world, but at the same +time greatly exposed to volcanic eruptions. Rivers: +the Liris, the Vulturnus, (Voltorno,) the +Silarus, (Selo). Mountain: Vesuvius. Campania +derived its name from the race of the Campani. +Cities: Capua the principal one; and also Linternum, +Cumæ, Neapolis, Herculaneum, Pompeii, +Stabiæ, Nola, Surrentum, Salernum, etc.</p> + + +<p class="center"><i>The three eastern countries of Central Italy are as follows</i>:</p> + +<div class="sidenote">Umbria.</div> + +<p>1. Umbria. It is bounded, north, by the river +Rubico, south, by the river Æsis, (Gesano,) dividing +it from Picenum, and by the Nar, (Nera,) dividing +it from the Sabine territory. It is for the +most part plain. The Umbrian race had in early +times spread over a much larger portion of Italy. +Cities: Ariminium, (Rimini,) Spoletium, (Spoleto,) +Narnia, (Narni,) and Ocriculum, (Otriculi.)</p> + +<div class="sidenote">Picenum.</div> + +<p>2. Picenum. Bounded, north, by the Æsis, +south, by the Atarnus, (Pescara.) The people are +called Picentes. This country consists in a fertile +plain. Cities: Ancona and Asculum Picenum, +(Ascoli.)<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_319" id="Page_319">[Pg 319]</a></span></p> + +<div class="sidenote">Samnium.</div> + +<p>3. Samnium, the name of a mountain tract extending +from the Atarnus, north, to the Frento, +south; although that country reckoned among its +inhabitants, not only the rude and powerful Samnites, +but also several less numerous races; for +instance, the Marrucini and Peligni in the north, +the Frentani in the east, and the Hirpini in the +south. Rivers: the Sagrus and the Tifernus. +Cities: Allifæ, Beneventum, and Caudium.</p> + + +<p class="center">III. <i>Lower Italy, or Magna Grecia, comprised four countries; +Lucania and Bruttium on the western side, Apulia +and Calabria on the eastern.</i></p> + +<div class="sidenote">Lucania.</div> + +<p>1. Lucania. Boundaries: north, the Silarus, +south, the Laus. For the most part a mountain +tract. It derived its name from the race of the +Lucani, a branch of the Ausones, or chief nation +of Lower Italy. Cities: Pæstum, or Posidonia, +still renowned for its ruins, and Helia, or Velia.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">Bruttium.</div> + +<p>2. Bruttium, (the modern Calabria,) or the +western tongue of land from the river Laus to the +southern land's end at Rhegium. The river +Brandanus constitutes the eastern frontier. A +mountainous country, deriving its name from the +Bruttii, (a half savage branch of the Ausones,) +who dwelt in the mountains, while the seashores +were occupied by Grecian settlements. Cities: +Consentia, (Cosenza,) Pandosia, Mamertum, and +Petilia. (Concerning the Greek colonies see +above p. 155.)</p> + +<div class="sidenote">Apulia.</div> + +<p>3. Apulia. The country ranging along the +eastern coast, from the river Frento to the commencement +of the eastern tongue of land; an ex<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_320" id="Page_320">[Pg 320]</a></span>tremely +fertile plain, and particularly adapted to +grazing cattle. Rivers: the Aufidus (Ofanto) and +the Cerbalus. This country is divided into two +parts by the Aufidus, the northern called Apulia +Daunia, the southern called Apulia Peucetia. Cities: +in Apulia Daunia; Sipontum and Luceria: +in Apulia Peucetia; Barium, Cannæ, and Venusia.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">Calabria.</div> + +<p>4. Calabria or Messapia, the smaller eastern +tongue of land, which terminates in the promontory +of Iapygium. Cities: Brundusium (Brindisi) +and Callipolis (Gallipoli). Concerning Tarentum +and other Grecian colonies, see above, p. 155.</p> + +<p>Three large islands are likewise reckoned as +appertaining to Italy: they are Sicily, Sardinia, +and Corsica. According to the political geography +of the Romans they were, however, considered +as provinces. Although the above islands +were, along the coast, occupied by aliens, the aboriginals, +under their own kings, maintained a +footing in the inland parts; among these the Siculi, +said to have migrated from Italy, were the +most celebrated; they remained in Sicily, and +gave their name to the whole island. Concerning +the cities, the more important of which were, +some of Phœnician, but the most part of Grecian, +origin, see above, p. 30, and p. 155, sqq.</p> + + + +<hr style="width: 25%;" /> +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_321" id="Page_321">[Pg 321]</a></span></p> +<h2>FIRST PERIOD.</h2> + + +<p class="iblockquot2"><i>From the foundation of Rome to the conquest of Italy and +the commencement of the wars with Carthage, B. C. 754—264, +or A. U. C. 1—490.</i></p> + +<div class="sblockquot"> +<p><span class="smcap">Sources.</span> The most copious author, and, if we except his +system of deducing everything connected with Rome from +Greece, the most critical of all those who have written on the +earlier history of Rome and Italy, is Dionysius Halicarnassensis, +in his <i>Archæologia</i>: of this work only the first eleven books, +reaching down to the year 443, have been preserved; to these, +however, must be added the fragments of the nine following +books, xii—xx. discovered in 1816, and published by the Abbate +Mai of Milan. Next to Dionysius is Livy, who as far as lib. iv, +c. 18, is our main authority, till B. C. 292. Of the Lives of +Plutarch the following belong to this period, Romulus, Numa, +Coriolanus, Poplicola and Camillus; which for the knowledge +and criticism they display, are perhaps more important even than +Livy and Dionysius, see <span class="smcap">A. H. L. Heeren</span>, <i>De fontibus et auctoritate +vitarum Plutarchi</i>, inserted in <i>Comment Recentiores Soc. +Scient. Gott. Comment. I. II. Græci, III. IV. Romani</i>; reprinted +also as an appendix to the editions of Plutarch by Reiske +and Hutten, <i>Gottingen</i>, 1821, <i>ap. Dieterich</i>. The sources of the +most ancient Roman history were extremely various in kind. +The traditions of the Fathers were preserved in historical ballads; +(no mention is ever made of any grand epic poem;) and in this +sense there existed a bardic history; by no means, however, +wholly poetic, for even the traditions of Numa's Institutes are +without the characteristics of poetry. The art of writing was in +Italy of earlier origin than the city of Rome; how far, consequently, +the public annals, such as the <i>Libri Pontificum</i>, extended +back in early time remains undetermined. Several of +the memorials are, beyond a doubt, mere family records, whether +preserved by vocal tradition or in written documents. To the +above must be added monuments, not only buildings and works +of arts, but also treaties engraved on tables; of which, nevertheless, +too little use seems to have been made. The Romans having +learnt the art of writing from the Greeks, their history was as<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_322" id="Page_322">[Pg 322]</a></span> +frequently written in Greek as in Latin; and that not only by +Greeks, such as, in the first place, Diocles of Peparethus, but +likewise by Romans, such as Fabius Pictor, at an early period. +From these last sources Dionysius and Livy compiled. The +more ancient Roman history given by these authorities rests, +therefore, in part, but by no means entirely, on tradition and +poetry; still further amplified by the rhetoric style, that of the +Greeks more especially. At what epoch the Roman history lays +aside the poetic character can hardly be determined with certainty; +it may be traced even in some parts of the period extending +from the expulsion of the kings to the conquest by the +Gauls.—For the purposes of chronology, great importance attaches +to the <i>fasti Romani</i>, contained partly in inscriptions, (<i>fasti +Capitolini</i>,) partly in manuscripts. They have been collected +and restored by Pighius, Noris Sigonius, etc. in <span class="smcap">Grævii</span>, <i>Thes. +A. R.</i> vol. xi.; likewise in <span class="smcap">Almeloveen</span>, <i>Fast. Rom.</i> I. II. +Amstel. 1705, etc.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Pighii</span> <i>Annales Romanorum</i>. Antwerp, 1615, fol. 2 vols. +An essay towards a chronological arrangement; it reaches down +to Vitellius.</p> + +<p>The Roman history has been copiously treated of by the moderns +in many works besides those on universal ancient history +before enumerated, (p. 2.). We shall mention only the more important.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Rollin</span>, <i>Histoire Romaine, Depuis la foundation de Rome +jusqu' à la bataille d'Actium</i>. 13 vols. 8vo. Paris, 1823, édit. +revue par Letronne. This history, which extends to B. C. 89, +has been continued and terminated by <span class="smcap">Crevier</span>. Although the +critical historian might suggest much that is wanting in this +work, it nevertheless contributed to advance the study.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Ed. Ferguson</span>, <i>The History of the Progress and Termination +of the Roman Republic</i>. London, 1783, 4to. On the whole, +the best work on the history of the Roman republic; it has superceded +the earlier work of <span class="smcap">Goldsmith</span>.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">P. Ch. Levesque</span>, <i>Histoire de la République Romaine</i>, 3 vols. +Paris, 1807. He who would still wish to admire with blind enthusiasm +the glory of ancient Rome, had better not read this +work.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">B. G. Niebuhr</span>, <i>Roman History</i>.</p> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_323" id="Page_323">[Pg 323]</a></span></p> + +<p>Rather criticism than history; the author seems to be perpetually +endeavouring to overthrow all that has hitherto been admitted. +The spirit of acuteness is not always that of truth; and +men do not so lightly assent to the existence of a constitution +which not only is contrary to the broad view of antiquity—inferences +drawn from some insulated passages not being sufficient to +overturn what is corroborated by all the others—but likewise, according +to the author's own avowal, stands opposed to all analogy +in history. But truth gains even where criticism is wrong; and +the value of some deep researches will not for that reason be +overlooked.—Consult on this subject:</p> + +<p>† <span class="smcap">W. Wachsmuth</span>, <i>Researches into the more Ancient History +of Rome</i>. Halle, 1819.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">C. F. Th. Lachmann</span>, <i>Commentatio de fontibus T. Livii in +prima Historiarum Decade</i>. Gottingæ, 1821. A prize essay.</p> + +<p>For the works upon the Roman constitution see below, at the +end of this and at the beginning of the third period.</p> + +<p>Abundance of most important writings upon Roman antiquities +will be found in the great collections:</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Grævii</span> <i>Thesaurus Antiquitatum Romanarum</i>. Lugd. Batav. +1694, sq. 12 vols. fol. and likewise in</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Salengre</span>, <i>Thesaurus Antiquitatum Romanarum</i>. Venet. +1732, 3 vols. fol.</p> + +<p>Many excellent papers, particularly in</p> + +<p><i>Mémoires de l'Académie des Inscriptions</i>.</p> + +<p>With the exception of <span class="smcap">Nardini</span>, <i>Roma Vetus</i>, inserted in +<span class="smcap">Grævii</span> <span class="smcap">Thes. A. R.</span> t. iv. the best work on the topography of +ancient Rome is</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Venuti</span>, <i>Descrizione Topografica delle Antichità di Roma</i>. +P. I. II. Roma, 1763; and especially the new edition of that +work by <span class="smcap">Visconti</span>, 1803. There is also:</p> + +<p>† <span class="smcap">S. H. L. Adler</span>, <i>Description of the city of Rome</i>. Altona, +1781, 4to.</p> + +<p>The best representation of the monuments of ancient Rome +will be found in</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Piranesi</span>, <i>Antichità di Roma</i>, 3 vols. fol.</p> +</div> + + +<div class="sidenote">General +characteristic +of Roman +history.</div> + +<p>1. In certain respects, the history of Rome is +always that of one town, inasmuch as until the +period of the Cæsars, the city continued mistress<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_324" id="Page_324">[Pg 324]</a></span> +of her extensive territory. The main parts of the +internal constitution of Rome were formed during +this first period; which, considered in an historical +point of view, can hardly be said to be void +of interest. Whether every fundamental institution +had its origin precisely at the epoch to which +it is attributed, is a question of little importance; +it is sufficient to observe, that they certainly arose +in this period; and that the steps by which the +constitution was developed are, upon the whole, +determined beyond the possibility of a doubt.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">Romans +of Latin +origin.</div> + +<p>2. Exaggerated and embellished as the most +ancient traditions of the Romans respecting their +origin may be, they all agree in this, that the +Romans belonged to the race of the Latini, and +that their city was a colony of the neighbouring +Alba Longa. Long before this the custom seems +to have obtained with the Latini, of extending the +cultivation of their country by colonies.</p> + +<div class="sblockquot"><p>The primitive history of Rome is as difficult to reduce to pure +historic truth as that of Athens, or any other city of antiquity; +this proceeds from its being principally founded on traditions, +handled by poets and rhetoricians, and likewise differing from +one another; as may be seen in Plutarch's Romulus. As the +knowledge of those traditions, such as they are found in Dionysius +and Livy, attaches to so many other subjects, it would be +improper to pass them over in silence; and that they contained +truths as well as poetic fictions is proved most evidently by the +political institutions of which they narrate the origin, and which +certainly reached back to those times. To attempt to draw a +line of demarcation between mythical and historic times would +be to mistake the real nature of mythology.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">L. de Beaufort</span>, <i>Sur l'incertitude des cinq premiers siècles de +l'histoire Romaine</i>, nouv. éd. à la Haye, 1750, 2 vols. 8vo. Every +thing that can be said against the credibility of the primitive +Roman history has been developed by Beaufort with abundant, +and often with laboured, acuteness.</p></div><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_325" id="Page_325">[Pg 325]</a></span></p> + +<div class="sidenote">Kings of +Rome.</div> + +<p>3. During the first two hundred and forty-five +years subsequent to its foundation this city was +under the rule of governors, denominated kings; +these, however, were not hereditary, still less +were they invested with unlimited power, although +they exerted themselves to become both +perpetual and absolute. On the contrary, in this +period was framed a municipal constitution, demonstrative +of the existence, even at this early +date, of a considerable degree of political civilization; +in its principal parts this constitution was, +no doubt,—as in every colony,—copied from that +of the mother city. Its principal features were: +<i>a.</i> Establishment and internal organization of the +senate. <i>b.</i> Establishment and progress of the +patrician or hereditary nobility, which, supported +by the privilege of administering the sacred affairs, +and by the introduction of family names, +quickly formed, in opposition to the plebeians, a +political party ever growing in power, although +not, therefore, a mere sacerdotal caste. <i>c.</i> Organization +of the people (<i>populus</i>), and modes of +popular assembly (<i>comitia</i>), founded thereupon; +besides the original division according to heads +into <i>tribus</i> and <i>curiæ</i>, another was subsequently +introduced according to property into <i>classes</i> and +<i>centuriæ</i>, out of which, besides the more ancient +<i>comitia curiata</i>, arose the very artificially constructed +<i>comitia centuriata</i>. <i>d.</i> Religious institutions, +(<i>religiones</i>,) which being most closely connected +with the political constitution, formed a +state religion, by means of which everything in +the state was attached to determined forms, and +received a higher sanction. Nor must we omit +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_326" id="Page_326">[Pg 326]</a></span><i>e.</i> the relations in private life established by law, +the clientship, marriage, and especially paternal +authority. In consequence of those domestic relations, +a spirit of subordination and discipline, +from the earliest times, pervaded the people; and +to that spirit the Romans were indebted for the +glory to which they attained.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">Destruction +of Alba +Longa.</div> + +<p>4. Notwithstanding many little wars with their +immediate neighbours the Sabines, Æqui, and +Volsci, together with various cities of the Etrusci, +and even with the Latins themselves, Rome added +but little to her territory: nevertheless she took +the first step towards her aggrandizement; from +the time of the destruction of Alba Longa, she +aimed at being the head of the collected cities of +the Latins, and finally attained the object of her +ambition.</p> + +<div class="sblockquot"><p>Line of kings. Romulus, 754—717. First establishment of +the colony; augmentation in the number of the citizens, produced +by the establishment of an asylum, and an union with +part of the Sabines. Numa Pompilius, <i>d.</i> 679. By representing +this prince as the founder of the religion of the Roman state, +that religion received the high sanction of antiquity. Tullus +Hostilius, <i>d.</i> 640. The conquest and destruction of Alba lays +the foundation of Roman supremacy in Latium. Ancus Martius, +<i>d.</i> 618. He extends the territory of Rome to the sea; the +foundation of the port of Ostia proves that Rome already applied +to navigation, the object of which was perhaps as yet rather +piracy than trade. Tarquinius Priscus, <i>d.</i> 578. A Grecian by +descent. Under his conduct Rome was already able to enter the +field against the confederate Etrusci. Servius Tullius, <i>d.</i> 534. +The most remarkable in the line of Roman kings. He placed +Rome at the head of the confederacy of the Latins, which he +confirmed by <i>communia sacra</i>. On his new division of the +people according to property were raised the highly important +institutions of the <i>census</i> and <i>comitia centuriata</i>. The necessity +of this measure is demonstrative of the great and increasing +prosperity of the Roman citizens; there can be no doubt, how<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_327" id="Page_327">[Pg 327]</a></span>ever, +that by its adoption the frame of the republic was already +completed. Tarquinius Superbus, (the tyrant,)—509. This individual, +having taken forcible possession of the throne as nephew +to Priscus, endeavoured to confirm his power by a close connection +with the Latins and Volsci; by this, as well as by his tyranny, +he offended both the patrician and plebeian parties. His +deposition, and the consequent reformation of the government, +were however, properly speaking, brought about by the ambition +of the patricians.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Algarotti</span>, <i>Saggio sopra la durata de' regni de' rè di Roma</i>. +(Op. t. iii.) Chronological doubts. Can the raising of difficulties +deserve the name of criticism?</p></div> + +<div class="sidenote">Consular +government, +B. C. 509.</div> + +<p>5. The only direct consequence to the internal +constitution of Rome, proceeding from the abolition +of royalty was, that that power, undetermined +as it had been while in the hands of the kings, +was transferred to two consuls, annually elected. +Meanwhile the struggle for liberty, in which the +new republic was engaged with the Etrusci and +Latins, contributed much to arouse the republican +spirit which henceforward was the main +feature of the Roman character—the evils of popular +<span class="sidenote">498.</span> +rule being in times of need remedied by the +establishment of the dictatorship. The party, +however, which had deposed the ruling family, +took wholly into their own hands the helm of +state; and the oppression of these aristocrats, +shown principally towards their debtors, who had +become their slaves, (<i>nexi</i>,)—notwithstanding +<span class="sidenote">507.</span> +the <i>lex de provocatione</i> established by Valerius Poplicola, +ensuring to the people the highest judicial +power—was so galling, that after the lapse of a +few years it gave rise to a sedition of the commons, +(<i>plebis</i>,) the consequence of which was the +establishment of annually elected presidents of the people +<span class="sidenote">493.</span>(<i>tribuni plebis</i>).</p> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_328" id="Page_328">[Pg 328]</a></span></p> +<div class="sblockquot"><p>First commercial treaty with Carthage, 508, in which Rome +appears certainly as a free state, but not yet as sovereign of all +Latium; the most important monument of the authenticity of +the earlier Roman history.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Heyne</span>, <i>Fœdera Carthaginiensium cum Romanis super navigatione +et mercatura facta</i>: contained in his Opusc. t. iii. Cf. +† <span class="smcap">A. H. L. Heeren</span>, <i>Ideas</i>, etc. Appendix to the second vol.</p></div> + +<div class="sidenote">Rise of the +Roman +constitution.</div> + +<p>6. The further development of the Roman constitution +in this period, hinges almost wholly on +the struggle between the new presidents of the +commons and the hereditary nobility; the tribunes, +instead of confining themselves to defend +the people from the oppression of the nobles, soon +began to act as aggressors, and in a short time +so widely overstepped their power, that there remained +no chance of putting an end to the struggle +but by a complete equalization of rights. A +long time elapsed ere this took place; the aristocracy +finding a very powerful support both in +the clientship and in the religion of the state, +operating under the shape of auspices.</p> + +<div class="sblockquot"><p>Main facts of the contest: 1. In the trial of Coriolanus the +tribunes usurp the right of summoning some patricians before +the tribunal of the people.—Hence arise the <i>comitia tributa</i>; +that is to say, either mere assemblies of the commons, or assemblies +so organized that the commons had the preponderance. +This institution gave the tribunes a share in the legislation, +subsequently of such high importance, those officers being allowed +to lay proposals before the commons. 2. More equitable distribution +among the poorer classes of the lands conquered from the +neighbouring nations, (the most ancient <i>leges agrariæ</i>,) suggested +by the ambitious attempts of Cassius, 486. 3. Extension of the +prerogatives of the <i>comitia tributa</i>, more especially in the election +of the tribunes, brought about by Volero, 472. 4. Attempts +at a legal limitation of the consular power by Terentillus, (<i>lex +Terentilla</i>,) 460, which, after a long struggle, at last leads to +the idea of one common written code, 452, which is likewise<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_329" id="Page_329">[Pg 329]</a></span> +realized in spite of the opposition at first made by the patricians.</p> + +<p>† <span class="smcap">Chr. F. Schulze</span>, <i>Struggle between the Democracy and +Aristocracy of Rome, or History of the Romans from the Expulsion +of Tarquin to the Election of the first Plebeian Consul</i>. +Altenburgh, 1802, 8vo. A most satisfactory development of this +portion of Roman history.</p></div> + +<div class="sidenote">Code of the +twelve tables.</div> + +<p>7. The code of the twelve tables confirmed the +ancient institutions, and was in part completed by +the adoption of the laws of the Greek republics, +among which Athens in particular is mentioned, +whose counsels were requested by a special deputation. +In this, however, two faults were committed; +not only were the commissioners charged +with drawing up the laws elected from the patricians +<i>alone</i>, but they were likewise constituted +sole magistrates, with <i>dictatorial</i> power, (<i>sine provocatione</i>;) +whereby a path was opened to them +for an usurpation, which could be frustrated only +by a sedition of the people.</p> + +<div class="sblockquot"><p>Duration of the power of the Decemviri, 451—447. The +doubts raised as to the deputation sent to Athens are not sufficient +to invalidate the authenticity of an event so circumstantially +detailed. Athens, under Pericles, was then at the head of +Greece; and, admitting the proposed design of consulting the +Greek laws, it was impossible that Athens should have been +passed over. And indeed, why should it be supposed, that a +state which fifty years before had signed a commercial treaty +with Carthage, and could not be unacquainted with the Grecian +colonies in Lower Italy, might not have sent an embassy into +Greece?</p> + +<p>The yet remaining fragments of the code of the twelve tables +are collected and illustrated in <span class="smcap">Bachii</span> <i>Hist. Jurisprudentiæ Romanæ</i>; +and in several other works.</p></div> + +<div class="sidenote">Its enactments.</div> + +<p>8. By the laws of the twelve tables the legal +relations of the citizens were the same for all; but +as that code seems to have contained very little<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_330" id="Page_330">[Pg 330]</a></span> +in reference to any peculiar constitution of the +state, the government not only remained in the +hands of the aristocrats, who were in possession +of all offices, but the prohibition, according to the +new laws of marriage between patricians and plebeians, +appeared to have raised an insurmountable +barrier between the two classes. No wonder, +then, that the tribunes of the people should +have immediately renewed their attacks on the +patricians; particularly as the power of those popular +leaders was not only renewed, but even +augmented, as the only limit to their authority +was the necessity of their being unanimous in +their acts, while each had the right of a negative.</p> + +<div class="sblockquot"><p>Besides the other laws made in favour of the people at the renewal +of the <i>tribunicia potestas</i>, 446, that which imported <i>ut +quod tributim plebes jussisset, populum teneret</i>, frequently renewed +in subsequent times, and meaning, in modern language, +that the citizens constituted themselves, must, it would appear, +have thrown the supreme power into the hands of the people; +did not the Roman history, like that of other free states, afford +examples enough of the little authority there is to infer from the +enactment of a law that it will be practically enforced.</p></div> + +<div class="sidenote">Dissensions +between patricians +and +plebeians.</div> + +<p>9. The main subjects of the new dissensions +between patricians and plebeians, excited by the +tribune Canuleius, were now the <i>connubia patrum +cum plebe</i>, and the exclusive participation of the +patricians in the consulship, of which the tribunes +demanded the abolition. The repeal of the former +law was obtained as early as 445, (<i>lex Canuleia</i>;) +the right of admission to the consulship was +not extended to the Plebeians, till after a struggle +annually renewed for eighty years; during which, +when, as usually was the case, the tribunes forbade +the military enrolment, recourse was had to +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_331" id="Page_331">[Pg 331]</a></span>a transfer of the consular power to the yearly +elected commanders of the legions; a place to +which plebeians were entitled to aspire, (<i>tribuni +militum consulari potestate.</i>)—Establishment of the +<span class="sidenote">Censors.</span> +office of <small>CENSORS</small>, designed at first for nothing +more than to regulate the taking of the census, +and invested with no higher authority than what +that required, but who soon after, by assuming +to themselves the <i>censura morum</i>, took rank +among the most important dignitaries of the +state.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">Petty wars.</div> + +<p>10. Meanwhile Rome was engaged in wars, +insignificant but almost uninterrupted, arising out +of the oppression, either real or imaginary, which +she exercised as head of the neighbouring federate +cities, (<i>socii</i>,) comprising not only those of the +Latins, but likewise, after the victory of lake Regillus, +those of the other nations: the cities embraced +every opportunity of asserting their independence, +and the consequent struggles must +have depopulated Rome, had not that evil been +diverted by the maxim of increasing the complement +of citizens by admitting the freedmen, and +not unfrequently even the conquered, to the enjoyment +of civic privileges. Little as these feuds, +abstractedly considered, deserve our attention, +they become of high interest, inasmuch as they +were not only the means by which the nation +was trained to war, but also led to the foundation +of that senatorial power, whose important +consequences will be exhibited hereafter.</p> + +<div class="sblockquot"><p>Among these wars attention must be directed to the last, +that against Veii, the richest city in Etruria; the siege of that +place, which lasted very nearly ten years, 404—395, gave rise<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_332" id="Page_332">[Pg 332]</a></span> +to the introduction among the Roman military of winter campaigning, +and of pay; thus, on the one hand, the prosecution of +wars more distant and protracted became possible, while on the +other the consequences must have been the levy of higher taxes, +(<i>tributa</i>).</p></div> + +<div class="sidenote">Rome burnt +by the +Gauls.</div> + +<p>11. Not long after, however, a tempest from the +north had nearly destroyed Rome. The Sennonian +Gauls, pressed out of northern Italy through +Etruria, possessed themselves of the city, the +capitol excepted, and reduced it to ashes; an +event which made so deep an impression on the +minds of the Romans, that few other occurrences +in their history have been more frequently the object +of traditional detail. Camillus, then the deliverer +of Rome, and in every respect one of the +chief heroes of that period, laid a double claim to +the gratitude of his native city, by overruling, +after his victory, the proposal of a general migration +to Veii.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">Feuds revived.</div> + +<p>12. Scarcely was Rome rebuilt ere the ancient +feuds revived, springing out of the poverty of the +citizens, produced by an increase of taxation consequent +on the establishment of military pay, and +by the introduction of gross usury. The tribunes, +Sextius and Licinius, by prolonging their term of +office to five years, had established their power; +while Licinius, by an agrarian law, decreeing that +no individual should hold more than five hundred +<i>jugera</i> of the national lands, had ensured the popular +favour; so that at last they succeeded in +<span class="sidenote">A consul chosen from the commons.</span> +obtaining, that one of the consuls should be chosen +from the commons; and although the nobility, by +the nomination of a prætor from their own body, +and of <i>ædiles curules</i>, endeavoured to compensate<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_333" id="Page_333">[Pg 333]</a></span> +for the sacrifice they were obliged to make, yet +the plebeians having once made good a claim to +the consulship, their participation in the other +magisterial offices, (the dictatorship, 353, the censorship, +348, the prætorship, 334,) and even the +priesthood, (300,) quickly followed as a matter of +course. Thus at Rome the object of political +equality between commons and nobles was attained; +and although the difference between the +patrician and plebeian families still subsisted, +they soon ceased to form political parties.</p> + +<div class="sblockquot"><p>A second commercial treaty entered into with Carthage, 345, +demonstrates that even at this time the navy of the Romans was +anything but contemptible; although its principal object as yet +was mere piracy. Roman squadrons of war however appear +more than once within the next forty years.</p></div> + +<div class="sidenote">Samnite +war.</div> + +<p>13. Far more important than any wars in which +Rome had hitherto been engaged, were those +soon about to commence with the Samnites. In +former contests the object of Rome had been to +establish her supremacy over her immediate +neighbours; but in these, during a protracted +contest of fifty years, she opened a way to the +subjugation of Italy, and laid the foundation of +her future greatness.</p> + +<div class="sblockquot"><p>Commencement of the wars against the Samnites, the Campanians +having called the Romans to their assistance against that +nation, 343. These wars, carried on with vigorous exertion and +various success, lasted, with but short intermissions, till 290. +This is the true heroic age of Rome, ennobled by the patriotic +valour of Decius Mus, (father and son, both voluntary victims,) +Papirius Cursor, Q. Fabius Maximus, etc. The consequences of +this struggle were: <i>a.</i> The Romans learnt the art of mountain +warfare, and thereby for the first time acquired a peculiar system +of military tactics; not, however, till they had been, 321, obliged +to pass under the <i>furcas Caudinas</i>. <i>b.</i> Their relations were<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_334" id="Page_334">[Pg 334]</a></span> +more firmly established with their neighbours the Latins and +Etrurians, by the complete conquest of the former, 340, and by +repeated victories over the latter, more especially in 308. <i>c.</i> +Great national federations having arisen in Italy, particularly +during the last period of the Samnite wars, the Romans entered +into connection with the more distant nations of the country; +with the Lucanians and Apulians, by the first league, 323, with +the Umbri, from the year 308; and although the nature of this +connection frequently varied, the different nations were perpetually +struggling for independence, and were consequently at enmity +with Rome. In this period, moreover, commenced the +practical illustration of the leading ideas of Rome upon the political +relations in which she placed the conquered with regard to +herself.</p></div> + +<div class="sidenote">War against +the Tarentines, +who +are assisted +by Pyrrhus.</div> + +<p>14. After the subjection of the Samnites, Rome, +wishing to confirm her dominion in Lower Italy, +was thereby, for the first time, entangled in war +with a foreign prince; the Tarentines, too feeble +to maintain alone their footing against the Romans, +called Pyrrhus of Epirus to their assistance. +He came, indeed, but not so much to further the +views of the Tarentines as to advance his own; +but even in victory, he learnt by experience that +the Macedonian tactics gave him but a slight preponderance, +which the Romans soon transferred +to their own side, exhibiting the truth of the principle, +that a good civic militia, sooner or later, +will always get the upper hand of mercenary +troops.</p> + +<div class="sblockquot"><p>The idea of calling upon Pyrrhus for assistance was the more +natural, as the predecessor of that prince, Alexander I. (see +above p. 275.) had endeavoured, but without success, to effect +conquests in Lower Italy. In the first war with Pyrrhus, 280—278, +two battles were fought, the first at Pandosia, 280, the other +at Asculum, 279; in both of which Rome was unsuccessful. +But Pyrrhus, after crossing over into Sicily, 278, (see above, p. +173, 174.) once more returned into Italy, 275, when he was de<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_335" id="Page_335">[Pg 335]</a></span>feated +by the Romans at Beneventum, and compelled to evacuate +Italy, leaving a garrison at Tarentum. That city, however, soon +afterwards, 272, fell into the hands of the Romans, whose dominion +was consequently extended to the extremity of Lower Italy.</p></div> + +<div class="sidenote">Roman colonies.</div> + +<p>15. The chief means to which, even from the +earliest times, the Romans had recourse for the +foundation of their dominion over the conquered, +and at the same time for the prevention of the too +great increase of the needy classes at Rome, was +the establishment of colonies of their own citizens, +which, being settled in the captured cities, served +likewise as garrisons. Each colony had its own +distinct internal constitution, modelled, for the +most part, upon that of the mother city itself; +hence to keep the colonies in perfect dependence +naturally became an object of Roman policy. +This colonial system of the Romans, necessarily +and spontaneously arising out of the rude custom +of bereaving the conquered of their lands and +liberty, assumed its main features in the Samnite +war, and gradually embraced the whole of Italy. +Closely connected with this system was the construction +of military highways, (<i>viæ militares</i>,) one +of which, the Appian Way, was constructed so +early as 312, and to this day remains a lasting +monument of the greatness of Rome at that +period.</p> + +<div class="sblockquot"><p>Even at the time of Hannibal's invasion, the number of Roman +colonies amounted to 53: but several which had been settled +returned to the mother city.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Heyne</span>, <i>De Romanorum prudentia in coloniis regendis</i>: inserted +in <i>Opusc.</i> vol. iii. Cf. <i>Prolusiones de veterum coloniarum +jure ejusque causis</i>, in his <i>Opusc.</i> vol. i.</p></div> + +<div class="sidenote">Relations +between +Rome and +the Italian +nations.</div> + +<p>16. But the relations existing between Rome +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_336" id="Page_336">[Pg 336]</a></span>and the Italian nations were extremely various in +kind. 1. A few cities and nations enjoyed the +full privileges of Roman citizenship; in some instances, +however, without the right of voting in +the <i>comitia</i> (<i>municipia</i>). 2. The privileges of the +colonies (<i>jus coloniarum</i>) were of a more restricted +nature; the colonists were indeed in possession +of their own civic government, but had no further +share whatever either in the <i>comitia</i> or magistracies +of Rome. The other inhabitants of Italy +were either federates (<i>socii, fœdere juncti</i>) or subjects +(<i>dedititii</i>). The first (<i>a</i>) preserved their internal +form of government; but on the other hand +(<i>b</i>) were obliged to furnish tribute and auxiliary +troops (<i>tributis et armis juvare rempublicam</i>). +Their further relation with Rome depended upon +the terms of the league. The most advantageous +of these terms were 3. in favour of the Latins, +although each of their cities had its own separate +league (<i>jus Latii</i>;) as 4. the rest of the Italian +nations had their <i>jus Italicum</i>. On the other +hand, 5. the subjects, <i>dedititii</i>, were deprived of +their internal constitutions, and were governed +by Roman magistrates, (<i>præfecti</i>,) annually renewed.</p> + +<div class="sblockquot"><p><span class="smcap">C. Sigonius</span>, <i>De antiquo jure civium Romanorum</i>; and his +treatise <i>De antiquo jure Italiæ</i>, inserted both in his <i>Opera</i> and +in <span class="smcap">Grævii</span> <i>Thes. Ant. Rom.</i> t. ii. contain the most learned researches +on the details of these relations.</p></div> + +<div class="sidenote">The Roman +constitution +a democracy.</div> + +<p>17. The internal constitution of Rome itself, +now completed, bore the character of a democracy, +inasmuch as equality of rights existed both +for nobles and commons. Yet this democracy was +modified by expedients so various and wonderful<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_337" id="Page_337">[Pg 337]</a></span>—the +rights of the people, of the senate, of the +magistrates, fitted so nicely into each other, and +were so firmly supported by the national religion, +connecting every thing with determinate forms—that +there was no reason, at that time, to fear the +evils either of anarchy, or, what is much more +astonishing when we consider the warlike character +of the people, those of military despotism.</p> + +<div class="sblockquot"><p>The rights of the people consisted in the legislative power, so +far as fundamental national principles were concerned, and in the +election of the magistrates. The distinction between the <i>comitia +tributa</i> (as independent of the senate) and the <i>comitia centuriata</i> +(as dependent on the senate) still existed as to form, but +had lost all its importance, the difference between patricians and +plebeians being now merely nominal, and the establishment of +the <i>tribus urbanæ</i>, 303, excluding the too great influence of the +people (<i>forensis factio</i>) upon the <i>comitia tributa</i>. The rights of +the senate consisted in administering and debating all transitory +national affairs, whether foreign relations, (war and peace only +excepted, in which the consent of the people was requisite,) +financial concerns, or matters regarding domestic peace and security. +But the manner in which the senate was supplied must +have made it the first political body at that time in the world. +The rights and rank of magistrates were founded on their greater +or lesser <i>auspicia</i>, no public affair being entered upon except +<i>auspicato</i>. Consequently he only who was in possession of the +former could hold the highest civic and military power; (<i>imperium +civile et militare; suis auspiciis rem gerere</i>;) as dictator, +consul, prætor; such was not the case with those who had only +the lesser <i>auspicia</i>. The union of civil and military power in +the person of the same individual was not without its inconveniences, +but military despotism was in some measure guarded +against by the prohibition of any magistrate possessing military +command within Rome itself. We must not dismiss this subject +without observing, that as the Roman constitution arose merely +out of practice, there never having been any completely written +charter, we cannot expect that all the details should be clearly +ascertained; to attempt, therefore, in default of such authority, +to describe all the minutiæ would be the surest way to fall into +error.</p> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_338" id="Page_338">[Pg 338]</a></span></p> +<p>Of the numerous works on the Roman constitution and on +Roman antiquities, we shall mention:</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">De Beaufort</span>, <i>La République Romaine, ou plan général de +l'ancien gouvernement de Rome</i>. La Haye, 1766, 2 vols. 4to. +A most copious work, and one of the most solid in regard to the +matters discussed; although it does not embrace the whole of the +subject.</p> + +<p><i>Histoire critique du gouvernement Romain</i>; Paris, 1765. +Containing some acute observations.</p> + +<p><i>Du Gouvernement de la republique Romaine</i>, <i>par</i> <span class="smcap">A. Ad. de +Texier</span>, 3 vols. 8vo. Hamburg, 1796. This contains many +enquiries peculiar to the writer.</p> + +<p>Some learned researches respecting the principal points of the +Roman constitution, as <span class="smcap">Sigonius</span> and <span class="smcap">Gruchius</span> <i>de comitiis Romanorum</i>, +<span class="smcap">Zamocius</span> <i>de Senatu Romano</i>, etc. will be found collected +in the first two vols, of <span class="smcap">Grævius</span>, <i>Antiq. Roman.</i></p> + +<p>For the popular assemblies of the Romans, an antiquarian +essay by Chr. Ferd. Schulze, Gotha, 1815, chiefly according to +Niebuhr, may be consulted.</p> + +<p>Among the numerous manuals of Roman antiquities, <span class="smcap">Nieuport</span>, +<i>explicatio rituum Romanorum, ed. Gesner</i>. Berol. 1743, +promises at least as much as it performs. Of those which profess +to treat of Roman antiquities in general, none have yet risen +above mediocrity. Jurisprudence, however, has been much more +successfully handled. We cite the two following excellent compendiums:</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Bachii</span>, <i>Historia Jurisprudentiæ Romanæ</i>. Lips. 1754. +1796.</p> + +<p>† <span class="smcap">C. Hugo</span>, <i>Elements of the Roman Law</i>; 7th edit. Berlin, +1820.</p></div> + +<hr style="width: 25%;" /> +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_339" id="Page_339">[Pg 339]</a></span></p> +<h2>SECOND PERIOD.</h2> + +<p class="iblockquot2"><i>From the commencement of the war with Carthage to the +rise of the civil broils under the Gracchi, B. C. 264—134. +Year of Rome, 490—620.</i></p> + + +<div class="sblockquot"><p><span class="smcap">Sources.</span> The principal writer for this highly interesting +period, in which was laid the foundation of the universal dominion +of Rome, is Polybius as far as the year 146, not only in the +complete books preserved to us, which come down to 216, but +also in the fragments. He is frequently followed by Livy, lib. +xxi—xlv. 218—166. Appian, who comes next, does not confine +himself merely to the history of the war; Florus gives us only an +abridgement. The lives of Plutarch which relate to this portion +of history, are <span class="smcap">Fabius Maximus</span>, <span class="smcap">P. Æmilius</span>, <span class="smcap">Marcellus</span>, +<span class="smcap">M. Cato</span>, and <span class="smcap">Flaminius</span>.</p> + +<p>Of modern writers we dare only mention one:—and who is +worthy to be ranked beside him?</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Montesquieu</span>, <i>Considerations sur les causes de la grandeur +et de la décadence des Romains</i>.</p></div> + + +<p>1. The political division of Italy laid the foundation +for the dominion of Rome in that country; +the want of union and political relations in the +world paved the way to her universal empire. +The first step cost her much, the succeeding followed +<span class="sidenote">Struggle between Carthage and Rome;</span> +easily and rapidly; and the history of the +struggle between Rome and Carthage only shows +on a larger scale what the history of Greece exhibits +on a smaller. The whole of the following +history confirms the fact, that two republics cannot +exist near each other, without one being destroyed +<span class="sidenote">its extent.</span> +or subjected: but the vast extent of this +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_340" id="Page_340">[Pg 340]</a></span>struggle, the important consequences which followed, +together with the wonderful exertions +made, and the great men engaged on both sides, +gave it an interest which cannot be found in that +<span class="sidenote">State of the two parties.</span> +of any other nations. Though the power and resources +of both states were nearly equal in appearance, +they were widely different in quality +and circumstances. Carthage, besides her dominion +over the seas, had also a better furnished +treasury, by which she was enabled to enlist into +her service as many <i>mercenaries</i> as she pleased: +Rome, on the contrary, <i>strong in herself</i>, had all +the advantages possessed by a nation of warriors +over one partly commercial, partly military.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">The first +war of twenty-three +years, B. C. +264—241.</div> + +<p>2. The first war of twenty-three years between +the two republics, arose from very slight causes: +it soon, however, became a struggle for the possession +of Sicily, which in the end naturally extended +itself to the dominion of the sea. Rome, +by the aid of her newly-built fleet, having obtained +for some time this power, was enabled to +attack Africa, and succeeded in driving the Carthaginians +from Sicily.</p> + +<div class="sblockquot"><p>The occupation of Messina by the Romans, 264, gave rise to +this war. The defection of Hiero king of Syracuse from the +side of Carthage, and his joining the Romans, first gave the latter +the idea of expelling the Carthaginians from the island. The +victory near Agrigentum, and capture of that city in 262, seemed +to facilitate the execution of this project: it also convinced the +Romans of the necessity of their having a naval power. We +shall the less wonder at their forming a fleet in Italy, where wood +was then plentiful, if we remember their previous experience in +naval affairs; these were not the first vessels of war which they +constructed, but only the first large ones which they built upon +a Carthaginian model. The first naval victory of the Romans +under Duilius, by the aid of grappling machines, 260. The<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_341" id="Page_341">[Pg 341]</a></span> +project then conceived of carrying the war into Africa was one of +the great ideas of the Romans, and from that time it became a +ruling maxim of the state, to attack the enemy in his own territory. +The second and very remarkable naval victory of the Romans, +257, opened the way for them to Africa, and shows their +naval tactics in a very brilliant light: but the unfortunate issue +of their expedition to Africa, restored the equilibrium; and the +struggle for the dominion of the sea became the more obstinate, +as success did not altogether favour one party. The result of the +contest appears to have turned upon the possession of the eastern +promontories of Sicily, Drepanum, and Lilybæum, which were +in a manner the bulwarks of the Carthaginians, and seemed impregnable +since Hamilcar Barca had taken the command of them, +247. The last naval victory of the Romans, however, under the +consul Lutatius, 241, having cut off the communication between +Sicily and Carthage, and the finances of both parties being completely +exhausted, a peace was concluded upon the conditions: +1. That the Carthaginians should evacuate Sicily and the small +islands adjacent. 2. That they should pay to Rome, by instalments +in ten years, for the expenses she had been at in carrying +on the war, the sum of 2,200 talents. 3. That they should not +make war against Hiero king of Syracuse.</p></div> + +<p>3. The issue of this war placed the political +connections of Rome in a new situation, and necessarily +extended her influence abroad. The +length of the war and the manner of its conclusion +had, moreover, inspired a national hatred, +such as is only found in republics; the conviction +also that they could not remain independent of +one another, must have become much more striking, +as the points of contact had greatly increased +since the beginning of the war. Who does not +know the arrogance of a republic after the first +essay of her power has been crowned with success! +Rome gave a striking example of this by +her invasion of Sardinia in the midst of peace. +<span class="sidenote">Effect of these successes on the constitution.</span> +These successes had also a sensible effect on the +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_342" id="Page_342">[Pg 342]</a></span>Roman constitution. For although in appearance +its form was not in the least changed, yet the +power of the senate now acquired that preponderance +which the ruling authority of a republic +never fails to do after long and successful wars.</p> + +<div class="sblockquot"><p>Origin and nature of the governments of the first Roman provinces, +in part of Sicily and in Sardinia.</p></div> + +<div class="sidenote">Chastisement +of the +Illyrian pirates.</div> + +<p>4. An opportunity was soon afforded the Romans, +in the Adriatic sea, of making use of their +superior naval power, in chastising the pirates of +Illyria under their queen Teuta. By effecting +this, they not only secured their authority over +that sea, but at the same time formed their first +political relations with the Grecian states; relations +which soon afterwards became of great importance.</p> + +<div class="sblockquot"><p>Commencement of the first Illyrian war, 230, which ended with +the subjugation of Teuta, 226. The war, however, again broke out, +222, against Demetrius of Pharus, who conceived himself inadequately +rewarded by Rome for the services he had rendered her +in the preceding war. The Romans found him a much more +dangerous adversary than had been expected, even after his expulsion +and flight to Philip, 220, (see above, p. 282.) Throughout +this war, Rome appeared as the deliverer of the Grecian +states, which had suffered extremely from the plunder of these +freebooters; Corcyra, Apollonia, and other cities placed themselves +formally under her protection, while the Achæans, Ætolians, +and Athenians vied with each other in showing their gratitude.</p></div> + +<div class="sidenote">Relations +with +Greece.</div> + +<p>5. In the mean time, while Carthage endeavoured +to make up for the loss of Sicily and Sardinia by +extending her Spanish dominions, which the +jealousy of Rome restrained her from carrying +beyond the Ebro (p. 84.), Rome herself had a +new war to maintain against her northern neigh<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_343" id="Page_343">[Pg 343]</a></span>bours +the Gauls, which ended after a violent contest +with the establishment of her authority over +the north of Italy.</p> + +<div class="sblockquot"><p>From the first Gallic war to the burning of Rome, 390, the +Gauls had repeated their attacks in 360 and 348, even to the +conclusion of the peace in 336. But in the latter part of the +Samnite war, a formidable confederacy having taken place among +the Italian tribes, some of the Gauls enlisted as mercenaries in +the service of the Etruscans, while others allied themselves to +the Samnites. This led them to take part in these wars in 306, +302, and 292, until they were obliged, together with the Etruscans, +to sue for peace in 284, before which time the Romans had +sent a colony into their country, near Sena. This peace lasted +till 238, when it was disturbed by the incursion of the transalpine +Gauls; without, however, their coming to any war with Rome. +But in 232, the proposition of Flaminius the tribune, (<i>lex Flaminia</i>), +to divide the lands conquered from the Senones, became +the cause of new disturbances. Upon this occasion, the Gauls +entered into an alliance with their transalpine countrymen, the +Gæsates on the Rhone, who had been accustomed to engage as +mercenaries. These having crossed the Alps, the dreadful war +of six years (226—220) began, in which, after defeating the +Gauls near Clusium, 225, the Romans pursued them into their +own territory, and encamped upon the Po, 223. The Gauls +having been again completely overthrown by Marcellus, were +obliged to sue for peace; when the Roman colonies of Placentia +and Cremona were established. The number of men capable of +bearing arms in all Italy subject to the Romans during this war +amounted to 800,000.</p></div> + +<div class="sidenote">Hannibal +takes the +command +in Spain,</div> + + +<p>6. Before this storm was totally appeased, in +which it is probable that Carthaginian policy was +not altogether inactive, Hannibal had obtained the +chief command in Spain. From the reproach of +having first begun the war, he and his party +cannot be cleared; Rome, in the situation she +then was, could hardly desire it; he however +who strikes the first blow is not always the real +aggressor. The plan of Hannibal was the de<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_344" id="Page_344">[Pg 344]</a></span>struction +of Rome; and by making Italy the +<span class="sidenote">and makes Italy the seat of war.</span> +principal seat of the war, he necessarily turned +the scale in his favour; because Rome, obliged +to defend herself, left to him all the advantages +of attack. The preparations she made for defence, +show that it was not believed possible he +could execute his enterprise by the route which +he took.</p> + +<div class="sblockquot"><p>The history of this war, 218—201, of which no later transaction +has been able to destroy the interest, is divided into three +parts: the history of the war in Italy; the contemporary war in +Spain; and from 203, the war in Africa. Hannibal's invasion +of Italy in the autumn, 218—engagement near the river Ticinus +and the battle of Trebia, in the same year. Battle near the lake +Thrasymenus in the spring, 217. Seat of the war transferred +to Lower Italy, and the defensive system of the dictator Fabius +until the end of the year. Battle of Cannæ, 216, followed by +the conquest of Capua and the subjection of the greater part of +Lower Italy. The defensive mode of warfare afterwards adopted +by the Carthaginian, arose partly from his desire to form a junction +with his brother Asdrubal and the Spanish army, and partly +from his expectation of foreign support by means of alliances, +with Syracuse, after the death of Hiero, 215, and with Philip of +Macedon, 216. These hopes, however, were frustrated by the +Romans.—Syracuse was besieged and taken, 214—212, (see +above, p. 174.) and Philip kept employed in Greece, (see above, +p. 282.) In addition to this, the Romans retook Capua, notwithstanding +the audacious march of Hannibal towards Rome, +211, and he had now no succour left except the reinforcement +which Asdrubal was bringing from Spain. The latter, however, +was attacked immediately upon his arrival in Italy, near Sena, +by the consuls Nero and Livius, and left dead on the field, 207. +From this time the war in Italy became only of secondary importance, +as Hannibal was obliged to act on the defensive in +Bruttium.</p> + +<p><i>The Course of Hannibal over the Alps ascertained</i>, by <span class="smcap">J. +Whittaker</span>. London, 1794, 2 vols. 8vo. The author endeavours +to prove that the passage of Hannibal was over the great +St. Bernard, and criticises the opinions of other writers.</p> +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_345" id="Page_345">[Pg 345]</a></span></p> +<p>[We may likewise mention the learned treatise:—</p> + +<p><i>A Dissertation on the Passage of Hannibal over the Alps.</i> +By <span class="smcap">H. L. Wickham</span>, M. A. and the Rev. <span class="smcap">J. A. Cramer</span>, M. A. +second edition, Oxon.]</p> + +<p>The war in Spain began nearly about the same time between +Asdrubal and the two brothers, Cn. and P. Cornelius Scipio, +and was continued, with various success, till the year 216, the +issue depending much upon the disposition of the Spaniards +themselves. The plan of Carthage after the year 216, was to +send Asdrubal with the Spanish army into Italy, and to supply +its place by an army from Africa; two victories, however, gained +by the Scipios near the Ebro, 216, and the Illiberis, 215, prevented +this from being effected, till at last both fell under the +superior power and cunning of the Carthaginians, 212. But the +arrival of the youthful P. Cornelius Scipio, who did not appear +merely to his own nation as an extraordinary genius, entirely +changed the face of affairs, and the fortunes of Rome soon became +attached to his name, which alone seemed to promise victory. +During his command in Spain, 210—206, he won over +the inhabitants while he defeated the Carthaginians, and for the +furtherance of his great design, contracted an alliance with Syphax +in Africa, 206. He was unable, however, to prevent the +march of Asdrubal into Italy, 208, which nevertheless rendered +it an easy task for him to subdue all Carthaginian Spain as far +as Gades, 206, and thus procured him the consular dignity at his +return, 205.</p> + +<p>The carrying of the war into Africa by Scipio, notwithstanding +the opposition of the old Roman generals, and the desertion +of Syphax, who at the persuasion of Sophonisba again went over +to the Carthaginians (whose loss however was well repaid by +Masinissa, whom Scipio had won over to his side in Spain), was +followed by an important consequence; for after he had gained +two victories over Asdrubal and Syphax, 203, and taken the +latter prisoner, the Carthaginians found it necessary to recall +Hannibal from Italy, 202; and the battle of Zama terminated +the war, 201. The following were the conditions of peace: +1. That the Carthaginians should only retain the territory in +Africa annexed to their government. 2. That they should give +up all their ships of war, except ten triremes, and all their elephants. +3. That they should pay, at times specified, 10,000 +talents. 4. That they should commence no war without the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_346" id="Page_346">[Pg 346]</a></span> +consent of Rome. 5. That they should restore to Masinissa all +the houses, cities, and lands that had ever been possessed by +himself or his ancestors.—The reproach usually cast upon the +Carthaginians, of having left Hannibal unsupported in Italy, in +a great measure vanishes, if we remember the plan formed in +216, to send the Spanish army into Italy, and to replace it by +an African one: a plan formed with much ability, and followed +with as much constancy. We may add to this, that the Barcine +faction maintained its influence in the government even to the +end of the war. But why they, who by the treaty of peace gave +up five hundred vessels of war, suffered Scipio to cross over +from Sicily, without sending one to oppose him, is difficult to +explain.</p></div> + +<div class="sidenote">Power of +Rome increased +by +the war.</div> + +<p>7. Notwithstanding her great loss of men, and +the devastation of Italy, Rome felt herself much +more powerful at the end of this war than at the +beginning. Her dominion was not only established +over Italy, but extensive foreign countries +had been brought under it; her authority over the +seas was rendered secure by the destruction of the +naval power of the Carthaginians. The Roman +<i>form</i> of government, it is true, underwent no +change, but its <i>spirit</i> much, as the power of the +senate became almost unlimited; and although +the dawn of civilization had broken over Rome, +since her intercourse with more civilized foreigners, +the state still remained altogether a nation +of warriors. And now, for the first time, +appears in the page of history the fearful phenomenon +<span class="sidenote">She becomes a military republic.</span> +of a great military republic; and the history +of the next ten years, in which Rome overthrew +so many thrones and free states, gives a +striking proof, that such a power is the natural +enemy to the independence of all the states within +the reach of her arms. The causes which led +Rome from this time to aspire after the dominion +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_347" id="Page_347">[Pg 347]</a></span>of the world are to be found neither in her geographical +situation, which for a conquering power +by land seemed rather unfavourable; nor in the +inclination of the people, who were opposed to +the first war against Philip; but singly and entirely +in the spirit of her government. The means, +however, whereby she obtained her end, must +not be sought for merely in the excellence of her +armies and generals, but rather in that uniform, +sharp-sighted, and dexterous +<span class="sidenote">Her policy.</span> +policy, by which +she was enabled to frustrate the powerful alliances +formed against her, notwithstanding the +many adversaries who at that time sought to form +new ones. But where could be found such another +council of state, embodying such a mass +of practical political wisdom, as the Roman senate +must have been from the very nature of its organization? +All this, however, would not have been +<span class="sidenote">State of the rest of the world.</span> +sufficient to have subjugated the world, if the +want of good government, the degeneracy of the +military art, and an extremely corrupt state of +morals among both rulers and people, in foreign +states, had not seconded the efforts of Rome.</p> + +<div class="sblockquot"><p>View of the political state of the world at this period. In +the west, Sicily (the whole island after 212), Sardinia, and Corsica, +from the year 237, and Spain, divided into citerior and +ulterior (the latter rather in name than in fact), had become +Roman provinces 206; the independence of Carthage had been +destroyed by the last peace, and her subordination secured by +the alliance of Rome with Masinissa; Cisalpine Gaul, formed +into a province, served as a barrier against the inroads of the +more northern barbarians. On the other side, in the east, the +kingdom of Macedonia, and the free states of Greece, forming +together a very complicated system, had opened a connection +with Rome since the Illyrian war, 230, and Philip's alliance +with Hannibal, 214. Of the three powers of the first rank,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_348" id="Page_348">[Pg 348]</a></span> +Macedonia, Syria, and Egypt, the two former were allied against +the latter, who, on her part, maintained a good understanding +with Rome. The states of secondary rank were, those of the Ætolian +league, the kings of Pergamus, and the republic of Rhodes, +with some smaller, such as Athens: these had allied themselves +to Rome since the confederacy against Philip, 211. The +Achæan league, on the contrary, was in the interests of Macedonia, +which Rome always endeavoured to attach to herself, in +order to make head against those of the first rank.</p></div> + +<div class="sidenote">War +against +Philip, +200.<br /> + +T. Quintius +Flaminius, +198,<br /> + +lays the +foundation +of Roman +power in the +east.<br /> + +179.<br /> + +198.</div> + +<p>8. A declaration of war against Philip, notwithstanding +the opposition of the tribunes of the people, +and an attack upon Macedonia itself, according +to the constant maxim of carrying the war +into the enemy's country, immediately followed. +They could not, however, drive Philip so soon +from the fastnesses of Epirus and Thessaly, which +were his bulwarks. But Rome possessed in T. +Quintius Flaminius, who marched against Philip +as the deliverer of Greece, a statesman and general +exactly fitted for a period of great revolutions. +By the permanency of his political influence +he became indeed the true founder of the +Roman power in the east. Who could better +cajole men and nations, while they were erecting +altars to him, than T. Quintius? So artfully indeed +did he assume the character of a great +genius, such as had been given by nature to +Scipio, that he has almost deceived history itself. +The struggle between him and Philip consisted +rather in a display of talents in political stratagem +and finesse than in feats of arms: even before the +battle of Cynoscephalæ had given the finishing +stroke, the Romans had already turned the balance +in their favour, by gaining over the Achæan +league.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_349" id="Page_349">[Pg 349]</a></span></p> + +<div class="sblockquot"><p>The negotiations between Rome and Macedonia, from the +year 214, give the first striking examples of the ability and +address of the Romans in foreign policy; and they are the more +remarkable, as the treaty with the Ætolians and others, 211 (see +above, p. 283), was the remote cause of the transactions which +afterwards took place in the east. The peculiar system adopted by +the Romans, of taking the lesser states under their protection as +allies, must always have given them an opportunity of making +war on the more powerful whenever they chose. This in fact +happened in the present case, notwithstanding the peace concluded +with Philip, 204. The chief object of the Romans in +this war, both by sea and land, was to drive Philip completely +out of Greece. The allies on both sides, and the conditions of +peace, were similar to those concluded with Carthage (see above, +p. 284). The destruction of the naval power of her conquered +enemies became now a maxim of Roman policy in making peace; +and she thus maintained the dominion of the seas without any +great fleet, and without losing the essential character of a dominant +power by land.</p></div> + +<p>9. The expulsion of Philip from Greece brought +that country into a state of dependence upon +Rome; an event which could not have been better +secured than by the present of liberty which T. +Quintius conferred upon its inhabitants at the +Isthmian games. The system of surveillance, +which the Romans had already established in the +west over Carthage and Numidia, was now adopted +in the east over Greece and Macedonia. Roman +commissioners, under the name of ambassadors, +were sent into the country of the nations in alliance, +and were the principal means by which this +system of espionage was carried on. These however +did not fail to give umbrage to the Greeks, +particularly to the turbulent Ætolians; more especially +as the Romans seemed in no hurry to withdraw +their troops from a country which they had +declared to be free.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_350" id="Page_350">[Pg 350]</a></span></p> + +<div class="sblockquot"><p>Liberty was expressly granted to the state which had taken +the part of Philip, namely, to the Achæans; to the others it was +naturally understood to belong. It was nevertheless three years, +194, before the Roman army evacuated Greece and withdrew +from the fortified places. The conduct of T. Quintius during +this period fully shows what he was. The Greeks indeed had +much want of such a guardian if they wished to remain quiet: +his conduct, however, in the war against Nabis, 195, shows that +he had not really at heart the tranquillity of Greece.</p></div> + +<div class="sidenote">War with +Syria.</div> + + +<p>10. The treaty of peace with Philip contained +the seeds of a new and greater war with Syria; +but though this seemed inevitable at that time, +it did not break out till six years afterwards; and +in but few periods of the history of the world is +so great a political crisis to be found, as in this +short interval. The fall of Carthage and Macedonia +had shown the rest of the world what it +had to expect from Rome; and there was no +lack of great men sufficiently endowed with courage +and talents to resist her. +<span class="sidenote">Danger of a formidable league against Rome;</span> +The danger of a formidable league between Carthage, Syria, and +perhaps Macedonia, was never so much to be +feared, as when Hannibal, now at the head of +affairs, laboured to effect it with all the zeal which +his hatred of Rome could inspire; and they might +calculate with certainty beforehand on the accession +of many smaller states. Rome, however, by +<span class="sidenote">which she frustrates.</span> +her equally decided and artful policy procured +Hannibal's banishment from Carthage, amused +Philip by granting him some trifling advantages, +and gained over the smaller states by her ambassadors. +By these means, and by taking advantage +of the intrigues in the court of Syria, she +prevented this coalition from being formed. Antiochus +was therefore left without assistance in<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_351" id="Page_351">[Pg 351]</a></span> +Greece, except from the Ætolians, and a few other +unimportant allies; while Rome drew from hers, +especially the Rhodians and Eumenes, advantages +of the greatest consequence.</p> + +<div class="sblockquot"><p>The first cause of contention between Rome and Antiochus +was the liberty of Greece, which the former wished to extend to +the Grecian cities of Asia, and to those in particular which had +belonged to Philip, and afterwards to Antiochus; while the latter +contended, that Rome had no right to intermeddle with the affairs +of Asia. The second cause of dispute was the occupation +of the Thracian Chersonesus by Antiochus, 196, in right of some +ancient pretensions; and Rome, on her part, would not tolerate +him in Europe. This quarrel therefore commenced as early as +196, but did not become serious till the year 105, when in consequence +of Hannibal's flight to Antiochus, together with the +turbulence and excitement of the Ætolians, whose object it was +to embroil the rival powers, the political horizon was completely +overcast. What a fortunate thing it was for Rome that such +men as Hannibal and Antiochus could not understand each +other!</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Heyne</span>, <i>de fœderum ad Romanorum opes imminuendas initorum +eventis eorumque causis; in Opusc.</i> vol. iii.</p></div> + + +<p>11. This war was much sooner brought to a +termination than the Macedonian, owing to the +<span class="sidenote">191.</span> +half-measures adopted by Antiochus. +After having been driven from Greece by Glabrio, and +after two naval victories had opened to the Romans +the way to Asia, he felt inclined to act on +the defensive; but in +<span class="sidenote">Battle of Magnesia, 192.</span> +the battle near Magnesia at +the foot of Mount Sipylus, L. Scipio gathered the +laurels which more properly belonged to Glabrio. +The total expulsion of Antiochus from Asia Minor, +even before this victory, had been the chief object +of the war. +<span class="sidenote">Conditions of peace.</span> +The conditions of peace (see above, p. 284.) were such, as not only weakened +Antiochus, but reduced him to a state of dependence.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_352" id="Page_352">[Pg 352]</a></span></p> + +<div class="sblockquot"><p>During this contest in the east, a sanguinary war was going on +in the west; from the year 201 in Spain, where the elder Cato +commanded; and from 193 in Italy itself, against the Ligurians. +Whatever may be said upon the means made use of by Rome to +increase the number of her citizens, it will always be difficult to +comprehend, not only how she could support all these wars without +being thereby weakened, but how at the same time she could +found so many colonies!</p></div> + +<div class="sidenote">Moderation +of Rome.</div> + + +<p>12. Even after the termination of this war, +Rome refrained with astonishing moderation from +appearing in the light of a conqueror: it was only +for the liberty of Greece, and for her allies, that +she had contended! Without keeping a foot of +land for herself, she divided, with the exception +of the free Grecian cities, the conquered Asia +Minor between Eumenes and the Rhodians; +the manner, however, in which she dealt with +the Ætolians, who after a long supplication for +peace were obliged to buy it dearly, shows that +she also knew how to treat unfaithful allies. The +<span class="sidenote">War against the Gauls in Asia Minor, 189.</span> +war against the Gauls in Asia Minor was not less +necessary for the preservation of tranquillity in +that country, than it was injurious to the morals +and military discipline of the Roman army. They +here learned to levy contributions.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">200—190.<br /> +Rome the arbitress of the world.</div> + +<p>13. Thus, within the short space of ten years, +was laid the foundation of the Roman authority +in the east, and the general state of affairs entirely +changed. If Rome was not yet the ruler, +she was at least the arbitress of the world from +the Atlantic to the Euphrates. The power of the +three principal states was so completely humbled, +that they durst not, without the permission of +Rome, begin any new war; the fourth, Egypt, +had already, in the year 201, placed herself under<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_353" id="Page_353">[Pg 353]</a></span> +the guardianship of Rome; and the lesser powers +followed of themselves: esteeming it an honour +to be called the <i>allies of Rome</i>. With this name +the nations were lulled into security, and brought +under the Roman yoke; the new political system +of Rome was founded and strengthened, partly +by exciting and supporting the weaker states +against the stronger, however unjust the cause +of the former might be, and partly by factions +which she found means to raise in every state, +even the smallest.</p> + +<div class="sblockquot"><p>Although the policy of Rome extended itself everywhere by +means of her commissioners, or ambassadors, yet she kept a +more particular guard against Carthage by favouring Masinissa +at her expense, against the Achæan league by favouring the +Spartans, and against Philip of Macedon by favouring every one +who brought any complaint against him (see above, p. 285).</p></div> + +<p>14. Although these new connections and this +intercourse with foreign nations greatly aided the +diffusion of knowledge and science, and was followed +by a gradual improvement in her civilization, +yet was it nevertheless, in many respects, +detrimental to the internal state of Rome. The +introduction of the scandalous Bacchanalia, which +were immediately discovered and forbidden, shows +how easily great vices may creep in among a +people who are only indebted for their morality to +their ignorance. Among the higher classes also +the spirit of intrigue manifested itself to an astonishing +degree; particularly by the attacks directed +against the Scipios by the elder Cato, +whose restless activity became the instrument of +his malignant passions. The severity of his censorship +did not repair the evils caused by his immorality +and pernicious politics.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_354" id="Page_354">[Pg 354]</a></span></p> + +<div class="sblockquot"><p>Voluntary exile of Scipio Africanus to Linternum, 187. He +dies there, 183, the same year in which Hannibal falls under the +continued persecution of Rome. His brother Scipio Asiaticus is +also unable to escape a trial and condemnation, 185. One would +have expected a sensible effect from the exile of these two great +men; but, in a state where the ruling power is in the hands of a +body like what the Roman senate was, the change of individuals +is but of little consequence.</p></div> + +<div class="sidenote">New broils with Philip, 185.<br /> +His death, 179.</div> + +<p>15. Fresh disputes arose, as early as 185, with +Philip of Macedon, who soon found that they had +spared him no longer than it suited their own +convenience. Although the intervention of Philip's +youngest son, upon whom the Romans had +formed some design, prevented the powers from +coming to an immediate rupture, and war was +still further delayed by Philip's death, yet the +national hatred descended to his successor, and +continued to increase, notwithstanding an alliance +concluded with him, until the +<span class="sidenote">Open war, 172.</span> +war openly broke out (see above, p. 287).</p> + +<div class="sblockquot"><p>The first circumstance which gave umbrage to Philip was the +small portion they permitted him to conquer in Athamania and +Thessaly during the war against Antiochus. But what sharpened +his animosity, much more than the object in dispute, was the +conduct of the Roman commissioners, before whom he, the king, +was called upon to defend himself as an accused party, 184. +The exclamation of Philip, that "the sun of every day had not +yet set," showed his indignation, and at the same time betrayed +his intention. The interval previous to the breaking out of the +war was anything rather than a time of peace for Rome; for +besides that the Spanish and Ligurian wars continued almost +without intermission, the revolts which broke out in Istria, 178, +and in Sardinia and Corsica, 176, produced much bloodshed.</p></div> + +<div class="sidenote">Second Macedonian +war, ends +with the +ruin of +the kingdom, +168.</div> + +<p>16. In the second Macedonian war, which +ended with the destruction of Perseus and his +kingdom (see above, p. 288), it required the ac<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_355" id="Page_355">[Pg 355]</a></span>tive +efforts of Roman policy to prevent a powerful +confederacy from being formed against her; as +Perseus used all his endeavours to stimulate, not +only the Grecian states, and Thrace and Illyria, +but also Carthage and Asia, to enter into alliance +with him. Where was it that Rome did not at +this crisis send her ambassadors? She did not, +indeed, succeed so far as to leave her enemy quite +alone, but prepared new triumphs for herself over +the few allies she left him. The devastated Epirus, +and Gentius king of Illyria, suffered dearly for the +assistance they had lent him; the states also which +had remained neuter, the Rhodians and Eumenes, +were made to feel severely that they were the +mere creatures of Rome.</p> + +<div class="sblockquot"><p>Beginning of the Macedonian war, 171, before Rome was prepared; +a deceitful truce, which raised the indignation even of +the elder senators, was the means resorted to for gaining time. +Notwithstanding this, the war at first, 170 and 169, was favourable +to Perseus; but he wanted resolution and judgment to +enable him to turn his advantages to account. In 168, Paulus +Æmilius, an old general, against the usual custom of the Romans, +took the command. Bloody and decisive battle near Pydna, +June 22, 168. So completely may one day overturn a kingdom +which has only an army for its support! Contemporary with this +war, and highly fortunate for Rome, was the war of Antiochus +Epiphanes with Egypt. No wonder that Rome did not, till 168, +through Popilius, command peace between them! (See above, +p. 261.)</p></div> + +<div class="sidenote">Its consequences.</div> + +<p>17. The destruction of the Macedonian monarchy +was attended with consequences equally +disastrous to the conquerors and the conquered. +To the first it soon gave the notion of becoming +the masters of the world, instead of its arbiters; +and it exposed the latter, for the next twenty<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_356" id="Page_356">[Pg 356]</a></span> +years, to all the evils inseparable from such a +catastrophe. The system of politics hitherto pursued +by Rome could not last much longer; for if +nations suffered themselves to be brought under +the yoke by force, it was not to be expected that +they would long be held in dependence under the +specious name of liberty. But the state of things +after this war was such as contributed to hasten a +change in the form of the relations which existed +between Rome and her allies.</p> + +<div class="sblockquot"><p>The republican constitution given to the already ruined and +devastated Macedonians (see above, p. 288.) and Illyrians, and +which, according to the decree of the senate, "showed to all +people that Rome was ready to bestow liberty upon them," was +granted upon such hard conditions, that the enfranchised nation +soon used every endeavour to procure themselves a king. Greece +however suffered still more than Macedonia. Here, during the +war, the spirit of faction had risen to the highest pitch; and the +arrogant insolence of the Roman party, composed for the most +part of venal wretches, was so great, that they persecuted not +only those who had espoused an opposite faction, but even those +who had joined no faction at all. Rome nevertheless could not +believe herself secure, until she had destroyed, by a cruel artifice, +all her adversaries (see above, p. 288).</p></div> + +<p>18. Entirely in the same spirit did Rome proceed +against the other states from whom she had +anything to fear. These must be rendered defenceless; +and every means of effecting that purpose +was considered justifiable by the senate. +The quarrels between the successors to the throne +of Egypt were taken advantage of to cause dissensions +in that kingdom (see above, p. 260); +while Syria was retained in a state of tutelage, +by keeping the rightful heir to the throne at +Rome; and its military power neutralized by +means of their ambassadors (see above, p. 243).<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_357" id="Page_357">[Pg 357]</a></span></p> + +<p>19. From these facts we may also conclude, +that the injuries now meditated against Carthage +were not separate projects, but rather formed part +of the general system of Roman policy at this +period, although particular events at one time retarded +their execution, and at another hastened it. +History, in recounting the incredibly bad treatment +which Carthage had to endure before her +fall, seems to have given a warning to those nations +who can take it, of what they may expect +from the domination of a powerful republic.</p> + +<div class="sblockquot"><p>Cato was chief of the party which sought the destruction of +Carthage, both from a spirit of envy against Scipio Nasica, whom +he hated for his great influence in the senate; and because, when +ambassador to Carthage, he thought they did not treat him with +sufficient respect. But Masinissa's victory, 152 (see above, +p. 88), and the defection of Utica, brought this project into immediate +play. Beginning of the war, 150, the Carthaginians +having been previously inveigled out of their arms. The city, +however, was not captured and destroyed till 146, by P. Scipio +Æmilianus. The Carthaginian territory, under the name of +Africa, was then made a Roman province.</p></div> + +<div class="sidenote">A new war +with Macedonia +and +Greece.</div> + +<p>20. During this third war with Carthage, hostilities +again broke out in Macedonia, which +brought on a new war with Greece, and entirely +changed the state of both these countries. In +Macedonia, an impostor named Andriscus, who +pretended to be the son of Philip, placed himself +at the head of that highly disaffected people, +assumed the name of Philip, and became, particularly +<span class="sidenote">148.</span> +by an alliance with the Thracians, very +formidable to the Romans, until overcome by +Metellus. Rome wishing to take advantage of +this crisis to dissolve the Achæan league, the +Achæan war broke out (see above, p. 289). This +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_358" id="Page_358">[Pg 358]</a></span>war was begun by Metellus, and terminated by +Mummius with the +<span class="sidenote">Terminated by the destruction of Corinth, 146.</span> +destruction of Corinth. By +reducing both Macedonia and Greece to the form +of provinces, Rome now gave evident proof that +no existing relations, nor any form of government, +can prevent nations from being subjugated by a +warlike republic, whenever circumstances render +it possible.</p> + +<div class="sblockquot"><p>It might have been expected, that the destruction of the two +first commercial cities in the world, in the same year, would have +been followed by important consequences to the course of trade; +but the trade of Carthage and Corinth had already been drawn +to Alexandria and Rhodes, otherwise Utica might, in some respects, +have supplied the place of Carthage.</p></div> + +<div class="sidenote">War in Spain, 146.<br /> +140.<br /> +133.</div> + +<p>21. While Rome was thus destroying thrones +and republics, she met in Spain with an antagonist—a +simple Spanish countryman named Viriathus—whom, +after six years' war, she could only +rid herself of by assassination. The war, nevertheless, +continued after his death against the Numantines, +who would not be subjected, but were +at last destroyed by Scipio Æmilianus.</p> + +<div class="sblockquot"><p>The war against the Spaniards, who of all the nations subdued +by the Romans defended their liberty with the greatest obstinacy, +began in the year 200, six years after the total expulsion +of the Carthaginians from their country, 206. It was exceedingly +obstinate, partly from the natural state of the country, which was +thickly populated, and where every place became a fortress; +partly from the courage of the inhabitants; but above all, owing +to the peculiar policy of the Romans, who were wont to employ +their allies to subdue other nations. This war continued, almost +without interruption, from the year 200 to 133, and was for the +most part carried on at the same time in Hispania Citerior, where +the Celtiberi were the most formidable adversaries, and in Hispania +Ulterior, where the Lusitani were equally powerful. Hostilities +were at the highest pitch in 195, under Cato, who reduced<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_359" id="Page_359">[Pg 359]</a></span> +Hispania Citerior to a state of tranquillity 185—179, when +the Celtiberi were attacked in their native territory; and 155—150, +when the Romans in both provinces were so often beaten, +that nothing was more dreaded by the soldiers at home than to +be sent there. The extortions and perfidy of Servius Galba +placed Viriathus, in the year 146, at the head of his nation, the +Lusitani: the war, however, soon extended itself to Hispania +Citerior, where many nations, particularly the Numantines, took +up arms against Rome, 143. Viriathus, sometimes victorious and +sometimes defeated, was never more formidable than in the +moment of defeat; because he knew how to take advantage of +his knowledge of the country, and of the dispositions of his countrymen. +After his murder, caused by the treachery of Cæpio, +140, Lusitania was subdued; but the Numantine war became +still more violent, and the Numantines compelled the consul +Mancinus to a disadvantageous treaty, 137. When Scipio, in +the year 133, put an end to this war, Spain was certainly tranquil; +the northern parts, however, were still unsubdued, though +the Romans penetrated as far as Galatia.</p></div> + +<div class="sidenote">Attalus III. +leaves his +kingdom to +the Romans.<br /> + +133—130.</div> + +<p>22. Towards the end of this period, the Romans +obtained at a much cheaper rate the possession +of one of their most important provinces; +for the profligate Attalus III. king of Pergamus, +bequeathing them the whole of his kingdom (on +what account is uncertain, see above, p. 292.), +they immediately took possession of it, and kept +in spite of the resistance of the legitimate heir +Aristonicus, merely ceding, as a recompense, +Phrygia to Mithridates V. king of Pontus. Thus, +by a stroke of the pen, the largest and finest part +of Asia Minor became the property of Rome. +If this extraordinary legacy was the work of +Roman policy, she paid dearly enough, in the +long run, for this accession to her power and +riches, by the destruction of her morals, and the +dreadful wars to which this legacy gave rise +under Mithridates.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_360" id="Page_360">[Pg 360]</a></span></p> + +<div class="sidenote">Roman +provinces.</div> + + +<p>23. The foreign possessions of Rome, besides +Italy, comprised at this time under the name of +provinces, a name of much higher signification +in the Latin language than in any other, Hispania +Citerior and Ulterior, Africa (the territory of Carthage), +Sicily, Sardinia and Corsica, Liguria, and +Cisalpine Gaul, in the west; and in the east, +Macedonia, Achaia, and Asia (territory of Pergamus). +The inhabitants of these countries were +<span class="sidenote">How governed.</span> +entirely subject to Rome. The administration +of them was carried on by those who had enjoyed +the office of consul, and by prætors, subordinate +to whom were the quæstors, or collectors +of the revenue. The highest military and +civil powers were united in these governors; a +principal cause of that horrible oppression which +was soon felt. Troops were always kept up in +the provinces; and the Latin language everywhere +introduced (except only where Greek was +spoken), that the inhabitants might be made as +much like Romans as possible.</p> + +<div class="sblockquot"><p>Till nearly the end of this period, prætors were expressly appointed +to each province. It was not till after the origin of the +<i>quæstiones perpetuæ</i>, that it became the custom for the prætors +who had vacated office, to succeed to the provinces (<i>proprætores</i>), +a principal cause of the degeneracy of the Roman constitution.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">C. Sigonius</span>, <i>de Antiquo jure provinciarum in Grævii Thes. +Antiq. Rom.</i> vol. ii.</p></div> + +<div class="sidenote">Roman revenue.</div> + +<p>24. The acquisition of these rich countries +naturally had great influence in augmenting the +revenue of the Romans. Though Rome was not +indeed a state, like Carthage, altogether dependent +upon finances, yet she kept these ad<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_361" id="Page_361">[Pg 361]</a></span>justed +in a wonderful manner; a spirit of nice +order being observed in this as well as in every +other department of her administration. If in +extraordinary emergencies recourse were had to +native loans, to a change in the value of money, +or a monopoly of salt, order was soon restored; +while the booty obtained from conquered countries +was also a great source of the public income +so long indeed as it was reserved for the state, +and did not become the prey of the generals.</p> + +<div class="sblockquot"><p>Sources of the Roman revenue (<i>vectigalia</i>) were: 1. Tribute +<i>a.</i> from the Roman citizens; that is to say, a property-tax imposed +by the senate according to the urgency of the case (which, +however, was remitted, for a long time, after the war with Perseus, +168, being no longer necessary). <i>b.</i> Tribute of the allies +(<i>socii</i>) in Italy: which seems also to have been a property-tax; +differing in different places. <i>c.</i> Tribute of the provinces: in +some a heavy poll-tax, in others taxes on property; in all, however, +they were paid in natural productions, mostly ordinary, +though sometimes extraordinary, as well for the salary of the +governor as for the supply of the capital. 2. The revenue from +the national domains (<i>ager publicus</i>), both in Italy (especially +Campania) and in the provinces; the tythes (<i>decumæ</i>) of which +were paid by means of leases for four years, granted by the censors. +3. The revenue from the customs (<i>portoria</i>), collected in +the seaports and frontier towns. 4. The revenue arising from +the mines (<i>metalla</i>), particularly the Spanish silver mines; the +proprietors of which were obliged to pay a duty to the state. +5. The duty upon enfranchised slaves (<i>aurum vicesimarium</i>). +All receipts flowed into the national treasury, the <i>ærarium</i>; all +outgoings were exclusively ordered by the senate; and the people +were consulted as little with regard to them as they were respecting +the imposts. The officers employed were the <i>quæstores</i>, +under whom were the <i>scribæ</i>, divided into <i>decurias</i>, who, though +certainly subordinate, had nevertheless great influence. Their +services, as they were not yearly changed, must have been indispensable +to the <i>quæstores</i> for the time being; and the whole +management of affairs, at least in detail, must have fallen into +their hands.</p> +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_362" id="Page_362">[Pg 362]</a></span></p> +<p>Upon the finances of Rome, the best work at present is:—</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">P. Burmanni</span>, <i>Vectigalia Populi Romani</i>. Leyden, 1734, +4to.</p> + +<p>Two excellent treatises have since appeared in German upon +this subject:—</p> + +<p>† <span class="smcap">D. H. Hegewisch</span>, <i>Essay upon Roman Finances</i>. Antona, +1804, and</p> + +<p>† <span class="smcap">R. Bosse</span>, <i>Sketch of the System of Finance in the Roman +State</i>. Brunswick, 1803, 2 parts. Both include the periods of +the republic and the monarchy.</p></div> + + + +<hr style="width: 25%;" /> +<h2>THIRD PERIOD.</h2> + +<p class="iblockquot2"><i>From the beginning of the civil broils under the Gracchi, +to the fall of the republic. B. C. 134—30. Year of +Rome, 620—724.</i></p> + + +<div class="sblockquot"><p><span class="smcap">Sources.</span> Concerning the first half of this important period +of the republic, down to the time of Cicero, we are sadly in +want of precise information. Not one of the contemporary +writers has been preserved to us, nor indeed any one of the +later historians who have compiled a history of the whole period. +<span class="smcap">Appian</span>, <i>de Bellis Civilibus</i>; <span class="smcap">Plutarch</span>, in his <i>Lives of the +Gracchi</i>; and the spirited <i>Compendium</i> of <span class="smcap">Vel. Paterculus</span>, +are, for this portion, our principal authorities; and even the imperfect +summaries of the lost books of Livy, so masterly supplied +by Freinshemius here become of importance. For the times +which follow, the <i>Jugurtha</i> and <i>Cataline</i> of Sallust, are two excellent +historical cabinet pieces, and become the more valuable +for the insight they at the same time give us of the internal condition +of Rome. His great work, however, <i>The Histories</i>, is, +with the exception of a few precious fragments, unfortunately +lost. For the times of <span class="smcap">Cæsar</span> and <span class="smcap">Cicero</span>, we have the <i>Commentaries</i> +of the first, and the <i>Orations</i> and <i>Letters</i> of the latter; +both fertile sources of information. What is left us of <span class="smcap">Dio Cassius's</span> +<i>History</i>, begins with the year 69 before Christ. Of <span class="smcap">Plu<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_363" id="Page_363">[Pg 363]</a></span>tarch's</span> +<i>Lives</i>, besides those of the Gracchi, the following are +connected with this period: <span class="smcap">C. Marius, Sylla, Lucullus, +Crassus, Sertorius, Cato of Utica, Cicero, Brutus</span>, and +<span class="smcap">Antonius</span>. Upon the sources for these lives, see my treatises +cited above, p. 321.</p> + +<p>Among the moderns, the greater part of this period is particularly +treated of by:—</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">De Brosses</span>, <i>Histoire de la République Romaine dans le +cours du VII<sup>e</sup> Siècle par Salluste</i>, à Dijou, 1777, 3 vols. 4to.</p> + +<p>In German by <span class="smcap">J. C. Schleuter</span>, 1790, etc. with remarks, +4 vols. The editor of this capital work had an idea of translating +Sallust, and supplying what is lost. It contains, besides +a translation of Jugurtha and Cataline, the period between both, +of which Sallust treats in his <i>Histories</i>: that is, from Sylla's +abdication, B. C. 79—67; and is equally important for its own +merits and for the period to which it belongs.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Vertot</span>, <i>Histoire des révolutions arrivées dans le gouvernement +de la République Romaine</i>. Paris, 1796, 6 vols. 12mo. Although +this justly esteemed work includes the foregoing period, +it is particularly valuable for the present.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Mably</span>, <i>Observations sur les Romains</i>. Genève, 1751, 2 vols. +8vo. A survey of the internal history; ingenious, but as superficial +as the <i>Observations sur les Grecs</i> by the same author.</p></div> + +<div class="sidenote">Civil wars.<br /> + +Power of the senate creates an aristocracy,<br /> + +which is opposed by the tribunes of the people.</div> + +<p>1. The foregoing period is composed of the +history of foreign wars alone; in this, on the contrary, +Rome appears in a continual state of internal +commotion. And if foreign hostilities interrupt +this state of things for a short time, it is +only that it may be renewed with more violence, +till at last it ends in a furious civil war. As the +almost boundless power of the senate had laid +the foundation of an exceedingly hateful family +aristocracy, against which the tribunes of the +people arrayed themselves, in the character of +powerful demagogues, there arose a new struggle +between the aristocratic and democratic parties, +which almost immediately grew into two powerful<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_364" id="Page_364">[Pg 364]</a></span> +factions. This contest, from its extent and its +consequences, soon became much more important +than the ancient one between the patricians and +the plebeians.</p> + +<div class="sblockquot"><p>This family aristocracy gradually arose from the power of the +magistrates, who now not only enjoyed a very high political importance, +but, by the government of the provinces, acquired +immense wealth. The present aristocracy, then, consisted of the +ruling families (<i>nobiles</i>) concentrated in the senate. The struggle +with the opposite party, the people (<i>plebs</i>), became so much the +more violent in consequence of the great abuses which had +crept into the administration, particularly in the division of the +lands of the republic; the ruling families securing to themselves +the fruits of all the victories and conquests, while the power of +the democracy, by the vast accumulation of people (without the +means of livelihood, although voting in the <i>comitia</i>), especially +of enfranchised slaves, who, though strangers, mostly without +power or property, formed, nevertheless, the greater part of +what was then called the Roman people.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">G. Al. Ruperti</span>, <i>Stemmata gentium Romanarum</i>. Goett. +1795, 8vo. Almost indispensable for obtaining a clear insight +into the history of the Roman families, and of course into that +of the state.</p></div> + +<div class="sidenote">First disturbances +under T. S. +Gracchus. +B. C. 133.<br /> + +He desires +to relieve +the distress +of the lower +orders, +and dies in +the attempt:</div> + + +<p>2. Commencement of the disturbances under +the tribunate of Tib. Sempronius Gracchus, whom +former connections had long made the man of the +people. His desire was to relieve the distress +of the lower orders; and the means whereby he +hoped to do this was a better division of the +lands of the republic, now almost exclusively in +the hands of the aristocracy. His reform, therefore, +naturally led at once to a struggle with that +party. Tib. Gracchus however soon found, by +experience, that a demagogue cannot stop where +he would, however pure his intentions may be +at first; and no sooner had he obtained a pro<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_365" id="Page_365">[Pg 365]</a></span>longation +of his term of office, in opposition to +the usual custom, than he fell a sacrifice to his +undertaking.</p> + +<div class="sblockquot"><p>The first agrarian law of Gracchus was confirmed by the +people, notwithstanding the fruitless opposition of his colleague +Octavius, who was deposed; it decreed, that no person should +possess above five hundred acres of land, nor any child above half +that quantity. This law was, in fact, only a renewal of the +ancient <i>lex Licinia</i>; in the condition, however, in which Rome +now was, it bore much harder upon the property usurped by the +great families, than it did in former times. Appointment of +a committee for dividing the national lands, and for enquiring +also at the same time which were the property of the state (<i>ager +publicus</i>) and which were not. New popular propositions of the +elder Gracchus, especially that for the division of the treasures +left by king Attalus of Pergamus, with the view of securing his +continuance in office; great insurrection of the aristocratic party +under Scipio Nasica, and murder of Tiberius Gracchus, on the +day of electing the new tribunes of the people.</p></div> + +<div class="sidenote">his fall does +not destroy +his party.</div> + + +<p>3. The fall of the chief of the new party, +however, occasioned any thing rather than its destruction. +Not only was there no mention of an +abrogation of the agrarian law, but the senate +was obliged to allow the place in the commission, +which had become vacant by the death of Gracchus, +to be filled up; and Scipio Nasica himself +was sent out of the way, under the pretext of an +embassy to Asia. The party of the senate did, +<span class="sidenote">132.</span> +indeed, find a powerful support for a short time +in the return of Scipio Æmilianus (<i>d.</i> 129) from +Spain; but its greatest support was found in the +difficulties of the law itself, which prevented its +execution.</p> + +<div class="sblockquot"><p>Great revolt of the slaves in Sicily under Eunus, 134—131. +This contributed not a little to keep alive the dissensions, as it +showed the necessity of a reform.</p></div><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_366" id="Page_366">[Pg 366]</a></span></p> + +<div class="sidenote">The tribunes +endeavour +to +increase +their power. +130.</div> + +<p>4. Evident endeavours of the tribunes of the +people to increase their power, Gracchus having +now awakened them to a sense of it. Not satisfied +with a seat and voice in the senate, Carbo +wished that the renewing of their dignity should +be passed into a law. By the removal, however, +of the chiefs of the lower party, upon honourable +pretexts, new troubles were put off for some +years.</p> + +<div class="sblockquot"><p>First establishment of the Roman power in Transalpine Gaul +by M. Fulvius Flaccus, on the occasion of his being sent to the +assistance of Massilia, 128. Southern Gaul became a Roman +province as early as 122, in consequence of the defeat of the +Allobrogi and Averni by Q. Fabius, who had been sent against +them to support the Ædui, the allies of Rome. Capture of the +Balearian isles by Metellus, 123. Quæstorship of C. Gracchus +in Sicily, 128—125.</p></div> + +<div class="sidenote">C. Gracchus.</div> + +<p>5. These palliative remedies, however, availed +nothing after the return of C. Gracchus from +Sicily with a full determination to tread in the +footsteps of his brother. Like him, it is true, +he fell a victim to his enterprise; but the storm +that he raised during the two years of his tribunate +fell so much the more heavily, as the +popular excitement was more general, and from +his possessing more of the shining talents necessary +to form a powerful demagogue than his +brother.</p> + +<div class="sblockquot"><p>First tribunate of C. Gracchus, 123. Renewal of the agrarian +law, and rendering its provisions more strict. Nevertheless, as +he increased the fermentation by his popular measures and by +acting the demagogue, and obtained the renewal of the tribunate +for the following year, 122, he so far extended his plan, as to +render it not only highly dangerous to the aristocracy, but even +to the state itself. Establishment of distributions of corn to the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_367" id="Page_367">[Pg 367]</a></span> +poor people. Plan for the formation of the knights (<i>ordo equestris</i>) +into a political body, as a counterbalance to the senate, by +conferring on it the right of administering justice, (<i>judicia</i>,) +which was taken from the senate. Still more important project +of granting to the Italian allies the privileges of Roman citizenship; +and also the formation of colonies, not only in Campania, +but also out of Italy, in Carthage. The highly refined policy of +the senate, however, by lessening this man of the people in the +eyes of his admirers, through the assistance of the tribune Livius +Drusius, prevented his complete triumph; and, once declining, +Gracchus soon experienced the fate of every demagogue, whose +complete fall is then irretrievable. General insurrection, and +assassination of C. Gracchus, 121.</p></div> + +<div class="sidenote">Victory of +the aristocratic +faction.</div> + +<p>6. The victory of the aristocratic faction was +this time not only much more certain and bloody, +they turned the advantages it gave them to +such good account, that they eluded the agrarian +law of Gracchus, and indeed, at last, completely +abrogated it. But the seeds of discord already +disseminated, especially among the Italian allies, +could not be so soon checked, when once the +subjects of these states had conceived the idea +that they were entitled to a share in the government. +How soon these party struggles might +be renewed, or indeed a civil war break out, depended +almost entirely upon foreign circumstances, +and the chance of a bolder leader being +found.</p> + +<div class="sblockquot"><p>Agrarian law evaded: at first by repealing an act which prohibited +the transfer of the national lands already divided, whereby +the patricians were enabled to buy them again;—afterwards by +the <i>lex Thoria:</i> complete stop put to all further divisions, a land-tax, +to be distributed among the people, being instituted in its +stead; but even this latter was very soon annulled.</p> + +<p>† <span class="smcap">D. H. Hegewisch</span>, <i>History of the Civil Wars of the +Gracchi</i>. Altona, 1801.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_368" id="Page_368">[Pg 368]</a></span></p> + +<p>† <i>History of the Revolution of the Gracchi in my Miscellaneous +Historical Works.</i> Vol. iii. 1821.</p></div> + +<div class="sidenote">Effects of +this party-spirit +in +corrupting +the nation.</div> + +<p>7. Visible effects of this party spirit upon +public morals, which now began to decline the +more rapidly, in proportion to the increase of +foreign connections. Neither the severity of the +censorship, nor the laws against luxury (<i>leges +sumtuariæ</i>), nor those which now became necessary +against celibacy, could be of much service in +this respect. This degeneracy was not only to be +found in the cupidity of the higher ranks, but also +in the licentiousness of the lower orders.</p> + +<div class="sblockquot"><p>Luxury in Rome was first displayed in the public administration +(owing to the excessive accumulation of wealth in the treasury, +especially during the Macedonian wars) before it infected +private life; and the avarice of the great long preceded the latter. +The sources from whence they satisfied this passion were found +in the extortions of the governors of provinces, their great power, +and the distance from Rome rendering the <i>leges repetundarum</i> of +but little effect. Probably the endeavours of the allied princes +and kings to gain a party in the senate was a still more fruitful +source, as they could obtain their end only by purchase, and so +gave a new impulse to the cupidity and intriguing disposition of +the members of that council. But private luxury requires everywhere +some time to ripen. It attained its height immediately +after the Mithridatic wars.</p> + +<p>† <span class="smcap">D. Meiner</span>, <i>History of the Corruption of the Morals and +Constitution of the Romans</i>. Leips. 1782.</p> + +<p>† <span class="smcap">Meierotto</span>, <i>Morals and Manners of the Romans at different +periods of the Republic</i>. Berlin, 1776. Which considers +the subject in several points of view.</p> + +<p>† <span class="smcap">C. A. Bottiger</span>, <i>Sabina, or, morning scenes at the toilette +of a rich Roman lady</i>. Leips. 1806, 2 vols. A true and lively +description of the luxury of the Roman ladies, but principally at +its most brilliant period. It has been translated into French.</p></div> + +<div class="sidenote">The African +war against +Jugurtha. +118—106.</div> + + +<p>8. This corruption was manifested in a striking +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_369" id="Page_369">[Pg 369]</a></span>manner in the next great war that Rome entered +into, which was in Africa, against Jugurtha of +Numidia, the adopted grandson of Masinissa; +and soon after against his ally Bocchus of Mauritania. +This war, kindled and maintained by the +avarice of the Roman nobles, which Jugurtha had +already had an opportunity of knowing at the +siege of Numantia, paved the way to the aggrandizement of +<span class="sidenote">C. Marius</span> +C. Marius, a new demagogue, who, +being also a formidable general, did much more +harm to the state than even the Gracchi.</p> + +<div class="sblockquot"><p>Commencement of the quarrel of Jugurtha with the two sons +of Micipsa, and assassination of Hiempsal, one of them, 118.—When +the other, Adherbal, arrived at Rome, 117, the party of +Jugurtha had already succeeded, and obtained a partition of the +kingdom. New attack upon Adherbal, who is besieged in Cirta, +and, notwithstanding the repeated embassies of Rome to Jugurtha, +is compelled to surrender, and is put to death, 112. The +tribune C. Memmius constrains the senate to declare war against +Jugurtha; but Jugurtha purchases a peace of the consul Calpurnius +Piso, 111.—Nevertheless Memmius hinders the ratification +of the peace, and Jugurtha is required to justify himself at +Rome. He would probably, however, have bought his acquittal, +if the murder of his kinsman Massiva, 110, by the help of Bomilcar, +had not rendered it impossible. The war is renewed +under the consul Sp. Albinus and his brother Aulus, 110, but with +very little success, until the incorruptible Q. Metellus took the +command, 109, who would have put an end to it, notwithstanding +the great talents now displayed as a general by Jugurtha, +and his alliance with Bocchus, 108, had he not been supplanted +by Marius, who obtains the consulship by his popularity, 107. +Marius is obliged to have recourse to perfidy to get Jugurtha +into his hands, who is betrayed by Bocchus, 106. Numidia is +divided between Bocchus and two grandsons of Masinissa, +Hiempsal and Hiarbas.</p></div> + +<div class="sidenote">obtains the +consulate;</div> + + +<p>9. The elevation of Marius to the consulate not +only humbled the power of the aristocracy, but +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_370" id="Page_370">[Pg 370]</a></span>also showed, for the first time, that the way was +open to a man of low birth (<i>homo novus</i>) to the +highest offices; the method, however, which he +had taken to form his army, entirely against the +Roman custom, that is, of composing it of the +lower orders (<i>capite censis</i>) must have rendered +him doubly formidable. Nevertheless, he would +scarcely have effected so great a change in the +constitution, if a new and terrible war had not +rendered his services indispensable:—this was +<span class="sidenote">defeats the Cimbri and Teutones;</span> +the threatened invasion of the Cimbri and Teutones +the most powerful nations of the north, +during which a new and violent rebellion of the +slaves was raging in Sicily:—for after the defeat +of so many Roman armies, the people believed +that no one but the conqueror of Jugurtha could +save Italy; and Marius knew so well how to turn +this to account, that he remained consul during +four successive years.</p> + +<div class="sblockquot"><p>The Cimbri, or Cimmerians, probably a nation of German +origin, from beyond the Black sea, originated a popular migration +which extended from thence as far as Spain. Their march was +perhaps occasioned, or accelerated, by the Scythian war of +Mithridates; and their course, like that of most nomad races, +was from east to west along the Danube. They had already, in +113, defeated the consul Papirius Carbo, near Noreia in Styria. +In their progress towards the west they were joined by German, +Celtic, and Helvetic tribes (the <i>Teutones</i>, <i>Ambrones</i>, and <i>Tigurians</i>).—Attack +Roman Gaul, 109, where they demand settlements +and defeat Junius Silanus the consul.—Defeat of L. +Cassius Longinus and M. Aurelius Scaurus, 107.—Great defeat +of the Romans in Gaul, 105, occasioned by the disagreement of +their generals, the consuls, Cn. Manlius and Q. Servius Cæpio. +Marius obtains the command, and remains consul from 104—101. +The migrations of the Cimbri—a part of whom reach the Pyrenees, +but are driven back by the Celtiberians, 103—give Marius<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_371" id="Page_371">[Pg 371]</a></span> +time to complete his army. In 102, after dividing themselves, +they first attempted to penetrate into Italy: the Teutones +through Provence, and the Cimbri by Tyrol.—Great defeat and +slaughter of the Teutones by Marius, near Aix, 102.—The Cimbri, +on the contrary, effect an invasion and make progress till +Marius comes to the help of Catulus. Great battle and defeat of +the Cimbri near the Po, July 30, 101.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">J. Muller</span>, <i>Bellum Cimbricum</i>. Tigur, 1772. A youthful +essay of that celebrated historian. Compare</p> + +<p>† <span class="smcap">Mannert</span>, <i>Geography,</i> etc. part iii.</p></div> + +<div class="sidenote">buys his +sixth consulate.</div> + +<p>10. Although during this war the power of the +popular party had sensibly increased, yet the +storm did not break out until Marius <i>bought</i> +his sixth consulate. Now, even in Rome itself, +he wished to avenge himself upon his +enemies; and what could the senate do, when it +had at its head a demagogue in the consul himself?—His +league with the tribune Saturnius, and +the prætor Glaucias, forming already a true triumvirate, +would have overthrown the republic +after the expulsion of Metellus, if the unbridled +licentiousness of the rabble connected with his +allies had not obliged him to break with them, +lest he should sacrifice the whole of his popularity.</p> + +<div class="sblockquot"><p>The measures of this cabal, who wished to appear as if treading +in the steps of the Gracchi, were principally directed against +Q. Metellus, the chief of the party of the senate, and who, since +the African war, had been the mortal foe of Marius. After the +exile of Metellus, occasioned by his opposition to a new agrarian +law, this faction usurped the rights of the people, and lorded it +in the committees; until, at a new election of consuls, a general +revolt, favoured by Marius himself, took place of all the well-disposed +citizens against them; Saturnius and Glaucias were +besieged in the capitol, forced to surrender, and executed. The<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_372" id="Page_372">[Pg 372]</a></span> +return of Metellus from his voluntary exile soon followed, 92, +much against the will of Marius, who was obliged to retire into +Asia.</p></div> + +<div class="sidenote">98—91.</div> + +<p>11. The few years of tranquillity which Rome +now enjoyed, brought to maturity many benefits +and many evils, the seeds of which had been +already sown. On one hand the rising eloquence +of Antonius, Crassus, and others, was employed +with effect against the oppressors of the provinces +in the state trials (<i>questiones</i>); and some +generous spirits used all their endeavours to heal +the wounds of Sicily, Asia, and other provinces, by +a better administration; while, on the other hand, +the power of the <i>ordo equestris</i> became a source of +much abuse: for besides their right to sit in the +tribunals (<i>judiciis</i>), which C. Gracchus had conferred +upon them, they had also obtained the +farming of the leases, and thereby the collection +of the revenue in the provinces; by which means +they were enabled not only to oppose every reform +that was attempted in the latter, but even +at Rome to hold the senate in a state of dependence. +The struggle which now arose between +them and the senate respecting the <i>judicia</i> +(or right to preside in the tribunal), was one of +the most fatal to the republic, as this right was +abused by them for the purpose of satisfying their +personal rancour, and oppressing the greatest +men. The tribune M. Livius Drusus the younger, +it is true, wrested from them half their power; +but, alas! the manner in which he did it kindled +into a flame the fire which had been smouldering +from the time of the Gracchi.</p> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_373" id="Page_373">[Pg 373]</a></span></p><div class="sblockquot"><p>Acquisition of Cyrene by the testament of king Apion, 97; +notwithstanding which it maintained its independence, although +probably by paying a tribute. Adjustment of the differences +between the kings of Asia Minor by the prætor Sylla, 92 (see +above, p. 294).</p></div> + +<div class="sidenote">War of the +allies, +91—88.</div> + +<p>12. Revolt of the Italian tribes, who desire to +obtain the right of Roman citizens; whereupon +the bloody <i>war of the allies</i> ensues. Although +the oppression of Rome had been preparing this +war for a long time, yet it was an immediate +consequence of the intrigues of the Roman demagogues, +who since the law of the younger +Gracchus, had, with the view of making themselves +popular, continually flattered the allies +with the hope of sharing the privileges of Roman +citizenship. It was however soon seen, that the +allies were not at a loss among themselves for +leaders, capable of forming great plans and executing +them with vigour. Italy was about to +become a republic, with Corfinium for its capital +instead of Rome. Neither could Rome have +saved herself from such an event, but by gradually +permitting the allies to enjoy the complete +freedom of the city.</p> + +<div class="sblockquot"><p>After the civil wars of the Gracchi, large bands of the allies +were continually flocking to Rome. These were in the pay of the +demagogues, whom the <i>lex Licinia</i>, 95, had banished from Rome, +and thereby laid the foundation of the revolt. From that time +the conspiracy among these tribes began, and attained without +interruption such a degree of maturity, that the carelessness of +Rome can only be accounted for from the party fury which then +existed, and which the <i>lex Varia</i>, 91, enacted against the promoters +of rebellion, served only to inflame the more. The murder +of the tribune Livius Drusus, 91, a very ambiguous character, +brought the affair to an open rupture. In this alliance were +the Marsi, Picentes, Peligni, Marrucini, Frentani, the Samnites, +who played a principal part, the Hirpini, Apuli, and the Lu<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_374" id="Page_374">[Pg 374]</a></span>cani. +In this war, which was so much the more bloody, as it was +mostly composed of separate contests and sieges, especially of the +Roman colonies, Cn. Pompeius the elder, L. Cato, Marius, and, +above all, Sylla, particularly distinguished themselves on the side +of the Romans; and among the generals of the allies Pompadias, +C. Papius, etc.—Concession of the freedom of the city, first to +such allies as remained faithful, the Latins, Umbrians, etc. by +the <i>lex Julia</i>, 91; afterwards, by degrees, to the remainder by +the <i>lex Plotia</i>. Some, nevertheless, still continued in arms.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Heyne</span>, <i>de Belli Socialis causis et eventu, in Opusc.</i> t. iii.</p></div> + +<p>13. The war now just ended, essentially changed +the constitution of Rome, as she no longer remained, +as hitherto, the exclusive head of the +whole state; and although the new citizens were +only formed into eight tribes, yet their influence +must soon have been felt in the committees, on +account of the readiness with which they promoted +factions. Besides this, the long-cherished +private hatred between Marius and Sylla was +greatly strengthened by this war, as Sylla's fame +was considerably raised thereby, while that of +Marius was proportionably diminished. An opportunity +was only wanted, like that which the +first Pontine war soon furnished, to stir up a new +civil war, which threatened to destroy the liberty +of Rome.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">Alliance of +Marius with +Sulpicius +against +Sylla, +88.</div> + +<p>14. Alliance of Marius with the tribune Sulpicius, +with the view of wresting from Sylla the +command of the forces against Mithridates, already +conferred upon him by the senate. The +ease with which Sylla, at the head of an army on +which he could depend, expelled the chiefs of +this party, seems to have left him ignorant of the +fact, that the party itself was not thereby destroyed. +However judicious may have been his<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_375" id="Page_375">[Pg 375]</a></span> +other measures, the elevation of Cinna to the consulship +was an error in policy of which Italy had +still more reason to repent than himself. How +much blood might have been spared if Sylla had +not unseasonably wished to become popular!</p> + +<div class="sblockquot"><p>Proposition of Sulpicius for an indiscriminate distribution of +the new citizens and freemen among all the tribes of Italy, +that he might thereby gain a strong party in his favour, which, +by a violent assembly of the people, transfers the command from +Sylla to Marius. March of Sylla upon Rome, and expulsion of +Marius, who, by a series of adventures almost surpassing belief, +escapes to Africa and is proscribed with his son and ten of his +partisans. Reestablishment of the power of the senate, whose +number is made up by three hundred knights. Sylla, after +having caused his friend C. Octavius and his enemy L. Cinna to +be elected consuls, hastens back to Greece.</p></div> + +<div class="sidenote">First war against Mithridates. 89—85.<br /> + +His great power:<br /> + +that of Rome divided.</div> + +<p>15. First war against Mithridates the Great. +Sylla gains several victories over that king's +generals in Greece; wrests from him all his +conquests, and restricts him to his hereditary dominions. +Rome since the time of Hannibal had +met with no such powerful opponent as the king +of Pontus, who in a few months had become +master of all Asia Minor, Macedonia, and Greece, +and threatened even Italy itself; we must besides +consider, that the war on the side of Rome was +carried on in a manner altogether different from +that of any previous one; as Sylla, after the victory +of the opposite party, being himself proscribed +in Rome, was obliged to continue it with +his own army, and his own private resources. +The unfortunate countries which were the theatre +of this war, felt as many calamities during the +struggle, as Italy was doomed to suffer after its +close.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_376" id="Page_376">[Pg 376]</a></span></p> + +<div class="sblockquot"><p>Commencement of the war by Mithridates before the termination +of that of the allies, 89, by taking possession of Cappadocia +and Paphlagonia. He was not less formidable by his alliance +with the tribes along the Danube, and his navy, than by his land +forces; and the irritation of the people of Asia against Rome +rendered his enterprise still more easy. Double victory over +Nicomedes king of Bithynia and the Roman general M. Aquilius, +followed by the conquest of all Asia Minor except the isle of +Rhodes. Massacre of all the Roman citizens in the states of +Asia Minor. Expedition of the king's army into Greece, under +the command of his general Archelaus, who makes Athens the +theatre of the war, 88. Siege and capture of that unfortunate +town by Sylla, 1st March, 87. Repeated great defeats of +Mithridates's army under the command of Archelaus, near Chalcis, +and afterwards near Orchomenus, by Sylla, 86, whose general +plan was formed upon the entire destruction of his enemies. +Negotiations for peace commenced by Archelaus, and finally +settled at a personal conference between Sylla and Mithridates. +The adverse party in Rome, however, had in the mean time sent +a new army into Asia Minor, to act as well against Sylla as +against Mithridates, under the command of L. Valerius Flaccus, +who, however, is assassinated by his lieutenant Fimbria. The +latter gains some advantages over the king, but, being shut up +by Sylla, kills himself. Owing to the licentiousness of his army, +which Sylla dared not restrain; and the heavy contributions exacted +by him in Asia Minor after the peace, in order to carry +on the war in Italy, 84; together with the bodies of pirates +formed out of the fleet disbanded by Mithridates, these unfortunate +countries were almost ruined; the opulent cities more +especially.</p></div> + +<div class="sidenote">New revolution in Rome<br /> +under Cinna and Marius.</div> + +<p>16. But during this war a new revolution took +place in Rome, which not only overthrew the +order reestablished by Sylla, but also, by the +victory of the democratic faction under Cinna and +Marius, gave rise to a wild anarchy of the people, +and which the death of Marius, alas, too late for +Rome! only rendered more destructive; as the +leaders themselves could no longer restrain the +savage hordes of their own party. However<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_377" id="Page_377">[Pg 377]</a></span> +dreadful the prospect of the return of Sylla might +seem, it was nevertheless the only hope that +remained for all those who had not joined the +popular faction, or had not some connection with +its leaders.</p> + +<div class="sblockquot"><p>Revolt of Cinna, brought on by the proscriptions, soon after +the departure of Sylla; Cinna, by distributing the new citizens +into all the tribes, hoped to raise himself a party; but C. Octavius, +at the head of the senate and ancient citizens, drove him +from Rome, and forced him to give up the consulship, 87. He +however soon raised a powerful army in Campania, and recalled Marius +from exile. Capture and pillage of Rome, already weakened +by famine, and horrible massacre of the inhabitants; after which +Marius and Cinna name themselves consuls and banish Sylla. +Death of Marius, 13th Jan. 86. C. Papirius Carbo succeeds him +in the consulship. The mediation of the senate is useless, as the +chiefs of both parties can only hope for security by the annihilation +of their adversaries. The murder of Cinna by his own soldiers, +84, entirely deprives the dominant faction of a competent leader. +Neither the cowardly Carbo, although he remained consul alone, +nor the stupid Norbanus, nor the youth C. Marius (the son), had +sufficient personal authority for that purpose; and Sertorius +leaves Italy in good time to kindle a new flame in Spain.</p></div> + +<div class="sidenote">Sylla's return, +and +bloody civil +war, +83.</div> + +<p>17. Return of Sylla to Italy, and a terrible +civil war, which ends only with the extermination +of the democratic faction, and his own elevation +to the perpetual dictatorship. Although his enemies +had so much advantage over him in point of +numbers, yet their party was so little consolidated, +that he with his veterans could not fail to +obtain an easy victory. The slaughter during this +war fell for the most part upon the Italian tribes, +who had joined the party of Marius, and this +afforded Sylla the means of giving settlements to +his own soldiers; but most of the horrors of this +revolution which fell to the share of Rome, were +reserved till the day of victory was past. +<span class="sidenote">Sylla's proscription.</span> +Sylla's<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_378" id="Page_378">[Pg 378]</a></span> +proscription, which should only have punished his +personal enemies, was the signal for a general +massacre, as every one took that opportunity to +rid himself of his private foes; and avarice did as +much as vengeance. Who in these days, so terrible +to Italy, was sure of his life or property? +And yet, when we consider the dreadful circumstances +which attended the foregoing dominion of +the people, deduct all that was done without +Sylla's knowledge, and consider how much he was +obliged to do in order to satisfy his army, we +shall find it difficult to say how far he deserves +the reproach of wanton cruelty.</p> + +<div class="sblockquot"><p>Sylla's arrival; victory over Norbanus immediately after, and +seduction of the army of the consul Scipio, 82. After this +almost every person of distinction declared in his favour, and the +young Pompey having brought to him an army which he had +himself raised, his party acquired more consideration, and himself +more power. Victory over the younger Marius, near Sacriportum, +who throws himself into Præneste, where he is besieged. +But the great and decisive battle gained before the gates of +Rome, over the Samnites under the command of Telisinus, is +followed by the fall of Præneste and the capture of Rome. +After the proscription which immediately ensued, Sylla is created +perpetual dictator, and secures his power in Rome by the emancipation +of ten thousand slaves, whose masters he had proscribed; +and in Italy by colonies of his veterans, whom he establishes at +the expense of his enemies.</p></div> + +<div class="sidenote">Reform in +the constitution: +81—79.<br /> + +power of the senate restored.<br /> + +Sylla's abdication, 79.</div> + +<p>18. Great reform in the constitution during the +two years' dictatorship of Sylla. The aristocracy +of the senate, which he filled up with knights, +was not only reestablished, but he also stopped +the sources from which the great disorders of the +democracy had hitherto proceeded. It seems +probable that his natural indolence, which led<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_379" id="Page_379">[Pg 379]</a></span> +him to prefer a life of luxurious ease to one of +laborious activity, when he was no longer spurred +to the latter by his passions, was the chief cause +of his voluntary abdication. He had, however, +the great advantage over Marius, of not being the +sport of his own feelings. The conduct of Sylla, +indeed, was so consistent throughout, that it satisfactorily +shows he knew very well what was his +ultimate aim—which Marius never did.</p> + +<div class="sblockquot"><p>Internal regulations of Sylla by the <i>leges Corneliæ</i>. 1. Law +to restrain the influence of the tribunes, by taking from them +their legislative power. 2. Law respecting the succession to the +magistracy; the number of prætors fixed to eight, and the quæstors +to twenty. 3. <i>Lex de majestate</i>, especially to limit the +power of the governors of provinces, and to abolish their exactions. +4. <i>Lex de judiciis</i>, whereby the <i>judicia</i> were again restored to the +senate. 5. Several police regulations, <i>de sicariis</i>, <i>de veneficiis</i>, +etc. for the preservation and tranquillity of Rome, upon which +everything depended. 6. The <i>lex de civitate</i>, taking from the +Latins and several Italian cities and tribes the privileges of +Roman citizens, upon which they set so much store, although +we scarcely know in what they consisted. <i>Foreign wars</i>: War +in Africa against the leaders of the democratic faction, Cn. Domitius +and king Hiarbas, which is ended by a triumph to Pompey, +80. Second war against Mithridates begun by Murena, +in hopes of obtaining a triumph, to whom Archelaus came over; +but which, under the command of Sylla, terminates in an accommodation.</p></div> + +<div class="sidenote">A state like +Rome exposed +to +convulsions.</div> + +<p>19. Nevertheless it was impossible that the +enactments of Sylla should be long observed; as +the evil lay too deep to be eradicated by laws. +A free state like that of Rome, with no middle +class, must, from its nature, be exposed to continual +convulsions, and these will be more or less +violent in proportion to its greatness. Besides, +as in the last revolution almost all property had<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_380" id="Page_380">[Pg 380]</a></span> +changed hands, there was spread over all Italy a +powerful party, who desired nothing so much as +<span class="sidenote">Counter-revolution desired by many.</span> +a counter-revolution. And to this we may add, +that there were many young men, such as Lucullus, +Crassus, and above all Pompey, who had +opened to themselves a career during the late +troubles, which they would scarcely yet wish to +bring to a close. It will not then appear strange, +that immediately after the death of Sylla († 88), a +<span class="sidenote">Æmilius Lepidus.</span> +consul, M. Æmilius Lepidus, should form the design +of becoming a second Marius; a design which +could only be frustrated by the courage and activity +of such a patriotic citizen as Q. Lutatius +Catulus, his colleague.</p> + +<div class="sblockquot"><p>Attempt of Lepidus to rescind the acts of Sylla, 78. Defeated, +first before Rome and again in Etruria, by Catulus and Pompey, +77, after which he dies in Sardinia.</p></div> + +<div class="sidenote">Civil war of Sertorius in Spain.<br /> + +77—72.</div> + +<p>20. But much more dangerous for Rome might +have been the civil war kindled by Sertorius in +Spain, if the plan of that exalted republican to +invade Italy had succeeded. Even Pompey himself, +after a six years' struggle, would hardly have +prevented it, had it not been for the worthlessness +of the Roman vagabonds who surrounded +him, and his assassination by Perpenna. The +rapid termination of the war after the fall of its +conductor, is a circumstance much more creditable +to Sertorius than to the conqueror Pompey.</p> + +<div class="sblockquot"><p>The forces of Sertorius in Spain, consisted not only of the +party of Marius which he had collected, but more essentially of +the Spaniards, particularly the Lusitanians, whom he had inspired +with an unbounded confidence in himself. Very variable +success of the war against Metellus and Pompey, who receive +but very little support from Rome, 77—75. Negotiation of Ser<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_381" id="Page_381">[Pg 381]</a></span>torius +with Mithridates the Great, and interchange of embassies +without any important result, 75. Sertorius assassinated by +Perpenna, 72.</p></div> + +<div class="sidenote">The third +Mithridatic +war; combined +with +the servile +war, and +that of the +pirates,</div> + + +<p>21. Before, however, the flame of war was +totally extinguished in the west, Mithridates +kindled a new and much fiercer one in the east; +at the same time a war of slaves and gladiators +was raging with terrible fury in Italy itself; and +whole fleets of pirates not only ravaged the Italian +coasts, but threatened Rome herself with a famine, +and obliged her to have recourse to a mode +of naval warfare altogether peculiar. All these +enemies were not without intelligence with one +another; and colossal as was the power of the republic +at that time, and rich as Rome was in distinguished +men, it seems probable that the storm +<span class="sidenote">threatens the downfal of Rome.</span> +which beat on every side between 75—71, would +have razed her to the ground, if a stricter alliance +could have been formed between Sertorius, Spartacus, +and Mithridates. But the great difficulty +of communication which at that time existed, and +without which probably a republic such as the +Roman never could have been formed, proved of +more assistance at this crisis than at any other.</p> + +<div class="sblockquot"><p>The third Mithridatic war, occasioned by the will of Nicomedes +king of Bithynia, who had bequeathed his kingdom to +Rome (see above, p. 294), was carried on in Asia Minor, first by +Lucullus, 74—67, and afterwards by Pompey, 66—64. Mithridates, +being better prepared, had already concluded an alliance +with Sertorius in Spain, 75. But the deliverance of Cyzicus by +Lucullus, 73, and the defeat of the king's fleet, intended to act +against Italy, not only frustrated all his original plans, but were +followed by the occupation of his own dominions, 72 and 71, by +the enemy, notwithstanding a new army which Mithridates collected, +mostly from the nomad hordes of Northern Asia. Flight<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_382" id="Page_382">[Pg 382]</a></span> +of Mithridates to Tigranes, 71, who positively refused to deliver +him up, and formed an alliance with him, 70; while the Parthian, +Arsaces XII. held both parties in suspense by negotiations. +Victory of Lucullus over the allied sovereigns, near Tigranocerta, +69, and Artaxata, 68; but the mutinies which now +broke out among his troops not only hindered him from following +up these advantages, but turned the scale so much in Mithridates's +favour, that in 68 and 67 he quickly regained almost all his +dominions, even while the Roman commissioners were on their +route to take possession of them. Lucullus, by his reform in the +finances of Asia Minor, raises a powerful party against himself in +Rome, and thereby loses his command.</p></div> + +<div class="sidenote">The servile +war, +73—71.</div> + + +<p>22. The war of the slaves and gladiators, which +happened nearly at the same time, was, from the +theatre of action being in its neighbourhood, +equally dangerous to Rome; it became still more +terrible from the violence with which these outraged +beings sought to revenge their wrongs, and +more formidable from the talents of their leader, +Spartacus; and the conclusion of this struggle +seemed, therefore, of so much importance to +Rome, that it gave +<span class="sidenote">terminated by Crassus.</span> +M. Crassus a much higher influence +in the state than he could ever have obtained +by his riches alone.</p> + +<div class="sblockquot"><p>Commencement of this war by a number of runaway gladiators, +who, being strengthened by an almost general revolt of the +slaves in Campania, 73, soon became very formidable. The defeat +of four generals, one after the other, throws open to Spartacus +the road to the Alps, and enables him to leave Italy; but +the greediness of booty manifested by his hordes, who wished to +plunder Rome, obliged him to return. Crassus takes the command +and rescues Rome, 72; upon which Spartacus retires into +Lower Italy, hoping to form a junction with the pirates, and to +carry the war into Sicily, but is deceived by them, 71. His +complete overthrow near the Silarus, 71. Pompey, then returning +from Spain, finds means to seize a sprig of the laurel chaplet +which by right should have adorned only the brow of Crassus;<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_383" id="Page_383">[Pg 383]</a></span> +hence arises a misunderstanding between these two commanders, +during their consulate, 70, which threatened to be dangerous +to the state.</p></div> + +<div class="sidenote">The war +against the +pirates;</div> + + +<p>23. The war against the pirates of Sicily and +Isauria was not only very important in itself, but +still more so in its consequences. It procured +for Pompey a legal power such as no Roman general +had ever before enjoyed; and the quick and +glorious manner in which he brought it to a close, +opened for him the way to the great object of his +<span class="sidenote">terminated by Pompey.</span> +ambition—the conduct of the war in Asia against +Mithridates.</p> + +<div class="sblockquot"><p>The extraordinary power acquired by these pirates was owing +partly to the great negligence of the Romans in sea affairs, (see +page 340), partly to the war against Mithridates, who had taken +the pirates into his pay, and partly also to the Roman oppressions +in Asia Minor. War had been undertaken against them as early +as 75, by P. Servilius; but his victories, though they procured +him the title of <i>Isauricus</i>, did them but little harm. They were +to be dreaded, not only for their piracies, but because they also +offered an easy means of communication between the other enemies +of Rome from Spain to Asia. The new attack of the prætor +M. Antonius upon Crete, proved a complete failure; but it was +the cause of that hitherto independent island being again attacked, +68, by Metellus, and reduced to a Roman province, 67. +Pompey takes the command against the pirates with extraordinary +privileges, obtained for him by Gabinius, and finishes the +war in forty days, 67.</p></div> + +<div class="sidenote">Fall of Mithridates.</div> + +<p>24. After these triumphs over so many enemies, +Mithridates was the only one which now remained; +and Pompey had here again the good +fortune to conclude a struggle already near its +end; for notwithstanding his late success, Mithridates +had never been able completely to recover +himself. His fall undoubtedly raised the power<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_384" id="Page_384">[Pg 384]</a></span> +of Rome in Asia Minor to its highest pitch; but +it brought her, at the same time, into contact +with the Parthians.</p> + +<div class="sblockquot"><p>Pompey obtains the conduct of the war against Mithridates +with very extensive privileges, procured for him by the tribune +Manilius (<i>lex Manilia</i>), notwithstanding the opposition of Catulus, +67. His victory by night, near the Euphrates, 66. Subjection +of Tigranes, while Mithridates flies into the Crimea, 65, +whence he endeavours to renew the war. Campaign of Pompey +in the countries about the Caucasus, 65; he marches thence into +Syria, 64. Mithridates kills himself in consequence of the defection +of his son Phraates, 63. Settlement of Asiatic affairs +by Pompey: besides the ancient province of Asia, the maritime +countries of Bithynia, nearly all Paphlagonia and Pontus, are +formed into a Roman province, under the name of Bithynia; +while on the southern coast Cilicia and Pamphylia form another +under the name of Cilicia; Phœnicia and Syria compose a third, +under the name of Syria. On the other hand, Great Armenia +is left to Tigranes; Cappadocia to Ariobarzanes; the Bosphorus +to Pharnaces; Judæa to Hyrcanus (see page 310); and some +other small states are also given to petty princes, all of whom +remain dependent on Rome. The tribes inhabiting Thrace during +the Mithridatic war, were first defeated by Sylla, 85, and their +power was afterwards nearly destroyed by the proconsuls of Macedonia: +as by Appius, in 77; by Curio, who drove them to +the Danube, 75—73; and especially by M. Lucullus, while his +brother was engaged in Asia. Not only the security of Macedonia, +but the daring plans of Mithridates rendered this necessary.</p></div> + +<div class="sidenote">State of Rome;<br /> +changes in her constitution;<br /> +the restoration of the power of the tribunes.</div> + +<p>25. The fall of Mithridates raised the republic +to the highest pitch of her power: there was no +longer any foreign foe of whom she could be +afraid. But her internal administration had undergone +great changes during these wars. Sylla's +aristocratic constitution was shaken by Pompey, +in a most essential point, by the reestablishment +of the power of the tribunes, which was done because +neither he nor any leading men could ob<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_385" id="Page_385">[Pg 385]</a></span>tain +their ends without their assistance. It was +by their means that Pompey had procured such +unlimited power in his two late expeditions, that +the existence of the republic was thereby endangered. +It was, however, a fortunate circumstance +for Rome, that Pompey's vanity was sufficiently +gratified by his being at the head of affairs, where +he avoided the appearance of an oppressor.</p> + +<div class="sblockquot"><p>Reiterated attempts of the tribune Sicinius to annul the constitution +of Sylla defeated by the senate, 76. But as early as +75 Opimius obtained that the tribunes should not be excluded +from honourable offices, and that the judgments (<i>judicia</i>) should +be restored to the knights (<i>equites</i>). The attempts of Licinius +Macer, 72, to restore the tribunes to all their former powers, +encountered but a short opposition; and their complete reestablishment +was effected by Pompey and Crassus during their consulate, +in 70.</p></div> + +<div class="sidenote">This victory +of the democrats +leads to an +oligarchy. +70.<br /> + +Catiline's conspiracy.</div> + + +<p>26. This victory of the democratic faction, however, +in consequence of the use made of it by +some leading men, necessarily led the way to an +oligarchy, which after the consulate of Pompey +and Crassus became very oppressive. Catiline's +conspiracy, which was not matured till after several +attempts, would have broken up this confined +aristocracy, and placed the helm of state +in the hands of another and still more dangerous +faction: a faction composed in part of needy profligates +and criminals dreading the punishment +of their crimes, and partly of ambitious nobles. +It occasioned a short civil war; but procured +<span class="sidenote">Cicero.</span> +Cicero a place in the administration. With what +pleasure do we forgive the little weaknesses and +failings of one so gifted with talents and great +virtues! of one who first taught Rome, in so<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_386" id="Page_386">[Pg 386]</a></span> +many ways, what it was to be great in the robe +of peace!</p> + +<div class="sblockquot"><p>Catiline's first conspiracy, in which Cæsar and Crassus seem +to have been implicated, 66, as well as in the second, 65: failure +of the former by chance—of the latter through Piso's death. +The third broke out in 64, as well in Rome, where the conspirators, +having no armed force, were soon suppressed by the vigilance +and activity of Cicero, 63, as in Etruria, where a victory +of the proconsul Antonius over Catiline, who was left dead on +the field, concluded it, 62.</p></div> + +<div class="sidenote">Effects of +the Asiatic +war on the +Roman +manners.</div> + + + + + + +<p>27. The suppression of this conspiracy, however, +did not stay the effect which the recently +concluded Asiatic war had upon Roman manners. +The luxury of the east, though united with +Grecian taste, which had been introduced among +the great by Lucullus; the immense riches poured +into the treasury by Pompey; the tempting examples +of unlimited power, which single citizens +had already exercised; the purchase of the +magistracy by individuals, in order, like Verres, +after the squandering of millions, to enrich themselves +again in the provinces; the demands of +the soldiers upon their generals; and the ease +with which an army might be raised by him who +had only money enough to pay it; all these circumstances +must have foreboded new and approaching +convulsions, even if the preceding +storms in this colossal republic, in which we +must now judge of virtues and vices, as well as +of riches and power, by a very magnified standard, +had not formed +<span class="sidenote">Great men of this period: Cato.</span> +men of that gigantic character +they did:—men like Cato, who struggled +alone to stem the impetuous torrent of the revolution, +and was sufficiently powerful to retard its +progress for a time; or, like +<span class="sidenote">Pompey.</span> +Pompey, who by +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_387" id="Page_387">[Pg 387]</a></span>good fortune and the art of acquiring influence, +arose to a degree of authority and power never +before attained by any citizen of a free state; or, +like +<span class="sidenote">Crassus.</span> +Crassus, "who only considered him as rich +that could maintain an army by his own private +means," founding their pretensions on wealth; or, +finally, like the aspiring and now powerful +<span class="sidenote">Cæsar.</span> +Cæsar, +whose boundless ambition could only be surpassed +by his talents, and courage, "who would +rather be the first in a village than the second +in Rome." The return of Pompey from Asia, +threatening the senate with a new dictator, appeared +an eventful moment.</p> + +<div class="sblockquot"><p>Attempt of Pompey, through the tribune Metellus Nepos, to +be allowed to return to Rome at the head of his army, frustrated +by the firmness of Cato, 62.</p></div> + +<div class="sidenote">Pompey's +return revives +the +struggle between +him +and the senate, +61.</div> + + +<p>28. The arrival of Pompey in Rome renewed +the struggle between the senate and that powerful +general, although he had disbanded his army on +landing in Italy. The ratification of his management +of affairs in Asia, which was the chief point +of contention, was opposed by the leading men of +the senate, Cato, the two Metelli, and Lucullus, +which induced Pompey to attach himself entirely +to the popular party, by whose means he hoped +to obtain his end; +<span class="sidenote">Cæsar's return from Lusitania, 61.</span> +Cæsar's return, however, from +his province of Lusitania, entirely changed the +face of affairs.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">Triumvirate +of Cæsar, +Pompey, +and Crassus, +60.<br /> + +Cæsar's +consulate, +59,<br /> + +obtains him +the government +of the +two Gauls +and Illyria +for five +years.</div> + +<p>29. Close union between Cæsar, Pompey, and +Crassus; that is, a secret alliance, formed by the +interposition of Cæsar. That which formed the +height of the ambition of Pompey and Crassus +was only regarded by Cæsar as the means by +which he might be able to effect his. His con<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_388" id="Page_388">[Pg 388]</a></span>sulate—a +kind of dictatorship under the mask of +great popularity—necessarily paved the way to +his future career, as by giving him the government +of the two Gauls and Illyria for five years, +it opened a wide field for conquest, and gave him +an opportunity of forming an army devoted to his +will.</p> + +<div class="sblockquot"><p>Cæsar's abode and campaign in Gaul from the spring of 58 till +the end of the year 50. By arresting the emigration of the Helvetians, +and by the expulsion of the Germans, under Ariovistus, +from Gaul, 58, Cæsar gained an opportunity of intermeddling in +the internal affairs of that country, and afterwards of subduing +it, which was completed by his victory over the Belgæ, 57, and +the Aquitani, 56; so that Cæsar was at liberty to undertake his +several expeditions, as well in Britain, 55 and 54, as in Germany, +54 and 53. But the repeated revolts of the Gauls, 53—51, +especially under Vercingetorix, 52, occasioned a war no less obstinate +than their first conquest. Roman policy continued the +same throughout. The Gauls were subdued, by the Romans appearing +as <i>their deliverers</i>; and in the country they found allies +in the Ædui, Allobroges, etc.</p></div> + +<p>30. The triumvirate, in order to establish their +power upon a solid foundation, took care, by the +management of the tribune Clodius, to get rid of +the leaders of the senate, Cato and Cicero, before +the departure of Cæsar; and this they did by +giving the former a kingdom to govern, and by +procuring the banishment of the latter. They +must however soon have discovered, that so bold +a demagogue as Clodius could not be used as a +mere machine. And, indeed, after Cæsar's departure +he raised himself so much above the triumvirs, +that Pompey was soon obliged, for his +own preservation, to permit Cicero to return from +exile, which could only be effected by the most +violent efforts of the tribune Milo. The power of<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_389" id="Page_389">[Pg 389]</a></span> +Clodius, however, was but little injured thereby, +although Pompey, to put a stop to the source of +these disorders, and revive his own popularity, +procured the nomination of himself as <i>præfectus +annonæ</i>, or superintendent of provisions.</p> + +<div class="sblockquot"><p>Exile of Cicero, the greater part of which he spent in Macedonia, +from April, 58, till 4th Sept. 57. Ptolemy king of Cyprus +deposed, and that island reduced to a Roman province by +Cato, on the proposition of Clodius, 57 (see page 264). The +personal dislike of Clodius and the riches of the king were the +causes that brought upon him this misfortune.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Middleton's</span> <i>Life of Cicero</i>, 2 vols. 8vo. This work is almost +a complete history of Rome during the age of Cicero; for +whom the writer discovers an undue partiality.</p> + +<p>† <span class="smcap">M. Tullius Cicero</span>, <i>all his Letters translated, in chronological +order, and illustrated with notes</i>, by <span class="smcap">C. M. Wieland</span>. +Zurich, 1808. With a preliminary view of the life of Cicero. +Of all Germans the writings of Wieland, whether original or +translations (and to which can we give the preference?) afford +the most lively insight into Greek and Roman antiquity at various +periods. What writer has so truly seized its spirit, and +placed it so faithfully and elegantly before his readers? His +labours on the Letters of Cicero (whose foibles he exposes with +a rigorous and unflinching hand) serve to make us much better +acquainted with Rome, as it then was, than any Roman history.</p></div> + +<div class="sidenote">Jealousy of +the triumvirate.</div> + +<p>31. A jealousy arises between the triumvirate, +as Cæsar, though absent, still found means to +keep up his party at Rome in such watchful activity, +that Pompey and Crassus considered it +impossible to maintain their own influence, except +by procuring such concessions as had been +made to him. Harmony once more restored by +an accommodation at Lucca, as the parties found +it necessary to preserve a good understanding +with each other.</p> + +<div class="sblockquot"><p>The terms of this accommodation were; that Cæsar should +have his government prolonged for another five years; and that +Pompey and Crassus should enjoy the consulship for the ensuing<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_390" id="Page_390">[Pg 390]</a></span> +year, the former receiving the provinces of Spain and Africa; +and the latter that of Syria, for the purpose of carrying on a war +against the Parthians. In proportion as these conditions were +kept secret, there remained less secrecy respecting the alliance +itself.</p></div> + +<div class="sidenote">Second +consulate of +Pompey +and Crassus, +55.</div> + +<p>32. Second consulate of Pompey and Crassus. +It was only amidst violent storms that they could +effect their purposes; as it depended upon which +faction should first gain or keep possession of the +forum. The resistance they met with from the +inflexible disposition of Cato, who in his austere +virtue alone found means to secure himself a +powerful party, shows how unfairly those judge +who consider the power of the triumvirate as unlimited, +and the nation as entirely corrupted.</p> + +<div class="sblockquot"><p>Campaign of Crassus against the Parthians, undertaken at his +own expense, 54. Instead, however, of gathering laurels like +Cæsar, he and his whole army were completely overthrown in +Mesopotamia, 53; and the Parthians from this time maintain a +powerful preponderance in Asia (see above, p. 302).</p></div> + +<div class="sidenote">Pompey +aspires to +become +head of the +republic;</div> + +<p>33. As the triumvirate by this failure of Crassus +was reduced to a duumvirate, Pompey (who remained +in Rome, and governed his provinces by +lieutenants), in the midst of continual domestic +broils, which he cunningly took care to foment, +was evidently aiming to become the acknowledged +head of the senate and republic. The +idea that a dictator was necessary prevailed more and more +<span class="sidenote">53.</span> +during an anarchy of eight months, in +which no appointment of a consul could take +place; and notwithstanding the opposition of +Cato, Pompey succeeded, after a violent commotion, +in which Clodius was murdered by Milo, in +getting himself nominated +<span class="sidenote">is appointed sole consul, 52.</span> +sole consul; a power +equal to that of dictator.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_391" id="Page_391">[Pg 391]</a></span></p> + +<div class="sblockquot"><p>Consulate of Pompey, 52, in which, at the end of seven months, +he took as colleague his father-in-law Metellus Scipio. The government +of his provinces, which afterwards became the chief +seat of the republicans, is prolonged for five years.</p></div> + +<div class="sidenote">Civil war +inevitable.</div> + +<p>34. From this time civil war became inevitable; +for not only the chiefs of the parties, but +also their adherents desired it. The approach of +the time when Cæsar's command would expire, +necessarily hastened the crisis. Could it be supposed +that the conqueror of Gaul would return +to a private life, and leave his rival at the head of +the republic? The steps taken on both sides +towards an accommodation were only made to +escape the odium which would attach to him who +struck the first blow. But Pompey unfortunately +could never understand his opponent, who did all +himself, all completely, and all alone. The brilliant +light in which Pompey now appeared, as +<i>defender of the republic</i>, delighted him so much, +that it made him forget what belonged to its defence; +while Cæsar avoided, with the greatest +care, every appearance of usurpation. The friend, +the protector of the people against the usurpations +of their enemies, was the character which +he now chose to assume.</p> + +<div class="sblockquot"><p>Commencement of the contest upon Cæsar's demand to be +allowed to hold the consulship while absent, 52. Cæsar, by the +most lavish corruption, had increased his adherents in Rome, +gained the tribunes, and among them especially the powerful +speaker C. Curio (whom he did not think too dearly purchased +at the price of about half a million sterling); by this man it was +suggested to Cæsar that he should give up his command, and +leave a successor to be appointed in his place, 51, if Pompey +would do the same: a proposition which created a prejudice +much in his favour. Repeated, but insincere offers of both parties +for an accommodation, 50, till at last a decree of the senate<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_392" id="Page_392">[Pg 392]</a></span> +was passed, Jan. 7, 49, by which Cæsar was commanded "to +disband his army under the penalty of being declared an enemy +to the republic," without regard to the intercessions of the tribunes, +whose flight to him gave an appearance of popularity to his +party. Cæsar crosses the Rubicon, the boundary of his province.</p></div> + +<div class="sidenote">Civil war +between +Cæsar and +Pompey.</div> + +<p>35. The civil war now about to break out, +seemed likely to spread over nearly all the countries +of the Roman empire; as Pompey, finding +it impossible to maintain himself in Italy, had +chosen Greece for the principal theatre of the +war; while his lieutenants, with the armies under +their command, occupied Spain and Africa. +Cæsar, by the able disposition of his legions, was +everywhere present, without exciting beforehand +any suspicion of his movements. A combination +of circumstances, however, carried the war into +Alexandria, and even as far as Pontus; indeed it +might be called rather a series of six successive +wars than merely one, all of which Cæsar, by +flying with his legions from one quarter of the +world to the other, ended, within five years, victoriously +and in person.</p> + +<div class="sblockquot"><p>Rapid occupation of Italy in sixty days (when the troops +under Domitius surrendered at Corfinus), which, as well as +Sicily and Sardinia, were subdued by Cæsar almost without opposition; +Pompey, with his troops and adherents, having crossed +over to Greece. Cæsar's first campaign in Spain against Pompey's +generals, Afranius and Petreius, whom he forces to surrender; +this, however, is counterbalanced by the loss of the legions under +Curio in Africa. In December, 49, however, Cæsar is again in +Italy, and named dictator, which he exchanges for the consulate. +Spirited expedition into Greece with the ships he had been previously +collecting together, Jan. 4, 49. Unfortunate engagement +at Dyrrachium. Removal of the war into Thessaly, and decisive +battle of Pharsalia, July 20, 48, after which Pompey flies to +Alexandria, where he is killed on his landing. Cæsar arrives +three days after him at Alexandria.</p></div><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_393" id="Page_393">[Pg 393]</a></span></p> + +<div class="sidenote">Cæsar again +dictator.</div> + +<p>36. Cæsar, after the victory of Pharsalia, again +nominated dictator, with great privileges. The +death of Pompey, however, does not destroy his +party; and the six months' war of Alexandria, +as well as the expedition into Pontus against +Pharnaces, gave them time to rally their forces +both in Africa under Cato, and in Spain under +the sons of Pompey.</p> + +<div class="sblockquot"><p>During the Alexandrine war (see above, p. 266) and the expedition +against Pharnaces, the son of Mithridates,—who had +obtained the kingdom of his father, but was slain by Cæsar immediately +after his arrival, 47,—great disorders had broken out +in Rome, caused by the tribune Dolabella's flattering the people +with the abolition of debts (<i>novæ tabulæ</i>), notwithstanding the +military power of M. Antony, whom Cæsar had sent to Rome as +master of the horse (<i>magister equitum</i>), as this abandoned sensualist +at first actually favoured the projects of the tribune. +Cæsar's return to Rome, December, 47, put an end, it is true, to +these disorders; but the increase of the opposite party in Africa, +and an insurrection among his soldiers, obliged him to set out +for Africa immediately, January, 46. Victory near Thapsus +over Scipio and Juba; after which Cato kills himself at Utica. +Numidia, the kingdom of Juba, becomes a Roman province. +Cæsar after his return to Rome in June, is only able to stay +there four months, as, before the end of the year, he is obliged to +set out for Spain to crush the dangerous efforts of Pompey's two +sons. Bloody battle at Munda, March, 45, after which Cneius is +killed, but Sextus escapes to the Celtiberians.</p></div> + +<div class="sidenote">Enquiry into +the views +of Cæsar.</div> + +<p>37. Nothing seems more evident than that +Cæsar did not, like Sylla, overthrow the republic +for the purpose of reestablishing it; and it is +perhaps impossible to say what could be the final +views of a childless usurper, who throughout his +whole career, seemed only to be guided by an inordinate +ambition, springing from a consciousness +of superior powers, and to satisfy which, no means +seemed to him difficult or unlawful. The period<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_394" id="Page_394">[Pg 394]</a></span> +of his dictatorship was so short, and so much interrupted +by war, that his ultimate plans had not +time for their development. He endeavoured to +establish his dominion by popular measures; and +although his army must still have been his main +support, yet no proscription was granted to satisfy +it. The reestablishment of order in the distracted +country of Italy, and particularly in the +capital, was his first care; and he proposed to +follow that by an expedition against the powerful +Parthian empire. His attempts, however, to obtain +the diadem, seemed to place it beyond a +doubt that he wished to introduce a formal monarchy. +But the destruction of the form of the +republic was shown to be more dangerous than +the overthrow of the republic itself.</p> + +<div class="sblockquot"><p>The following were the honours and privileges granted to +Cæsar by the senate. After the battle of Pharsalia, 48, he was +nominated dictator for one year and consul for five years; and +obtained the <i>potestas tribunicia</i>, as well as the right of making +war and peace, the exclusive right of the committees, with the +exception of the tribunes, and the possession of the provinces. +The dictatorship was renewed to him, 47, for ten years, as well +as the <i>præfectura morum</i>, and was at last, 145, conferred upon +him for ever, with the title of <i>imperator</i>. Although Cæsar thus +became absolute master of the republic, it appears to have been +done without laying aside the republican forms.</p></div> + +<div class="sidenote">Conspiracy +formed against +him, +44. +by Brutus, +Cassius, etc.<br /> + +His Death, March 15.</div> + +<p>38. Conspiracy against Cæsar, formed by Brutus +and Cassius, and terminating in the death of +Cæsar. Men so exalted as were the chiefs of +this plot, easily understand one another; and it +was quite in accordance with their character not +to meditate upon the consequences of their deed. +Cæsar's death was a great misfortune for Rome. +Experience soon showed that the republic could<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_395" id="Page_395">[Pg 395]</a></span> +not be reestablished thereby; and his life might +probably have spared the state some of those calamities +which now, by its change to a monarchy, +became unavoidable.</p> + +<div class="sblockquot"><p>We still want a discriminating life of Cæsar, who in modern +times has been as extravagantly praised as Alexander has been +unjustly censured. As generals and conquerors, both were +equally great—and little; as a man, however, the Macedonian, +in the brilliant period of his life, to which Cæsar never attained, +was superior; to the great political ideas which developed themselves +in Alexander, we know of none corresponding in Cæsar; +who knew better than any how to attain dominion, but little of +preserving it.</p> + +<p><i>Histoire de la Vie de Jules Cæsar</i>, <i>par</i> <span class="smcap">M. de Bury</span>, Paris, +1758, 2 vols. 8vo.</p> + +<p>† <i>Life of C. Julius Cæsar</i>, <i>by</i> <span class="smcap">A. G. Meissner</span>, <i>continued by</i> +J. Ch. L. Haken, 1811, 4 parts. At present the best.</p> + +<p><i>Caius Julius Cæsar, from original sources</i>, <i>by</i> <span class="smcap">Professor +Söltl</span>. A short biography, judiciously executed.</p></div> + +<div class="sidenote">Amnesty +declared; +but not approved +by +Antony and +Lepidus.</div> + +<p>39. Notwithstanding the amnesty at first declared, +the funeral obsequies of Cæsar soon +showed, that peace was of all things the least +desired by his generals, M. Antony and M. Lepidus, +now become the head of his party; and the +arrival of Cæsar's nephew, C. Octavius (afterwards +Cæsar Octavianus), whom he had adopted +in his will, rendered affairs still more complicated, +as every one strove for himself; Antony's particular +object being to raise himself into Cæsar's +place. However earnestly they sought to gain +the people, it was in fact the legions who decided, +and the command of them depended, for +the most part, upon the possession of the provinces. +We cannot therefore wonder, that while +they sought to revenge the murder of Cæsar, this<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_396" id="Page_396">[Pg 396]</a></span> +became the chief cause of the struggle, and in a +few months led to a civil war.</p> + +<div class="sblockquot"><p>At the time of Cæsar's death, M. Antonius was actual consul, +and Dolabella consul-elect; M. Lepidus <i>magister equitum</i> (master +of the horse); M. Brutus and Cassius, prætors (the first, +<i>prætor urbanus</i>). Cæsar had given to the former the province +of Macedonia, and to the latter that of Syria, which had been +confirmed to them by the senate. M. Lepidus had been nominated +to Transalpine, and D. Brutus to Cisalpine Gaul. But +soon after the murder of Cæsar, Antony obtained, by a decree +of the people, Macedonia for himself, and Syria for his colleague +Dolabella, with whom he had formed a close connection; instead +of which the senate decreed to Cassius Cyrene, and to Brutus, +who now had the important charge of supplying Rome with +provisions, Crete. But soon after (June 1, 44), Antony desired, +by a new change, to obtain Cisalpine Gaul for himself, and +Macedonia for his brother C. Antony, both of which he procured +from the people.</p></div> + +<div class="sidenote">Antony endeavours +to +establish +himself in +Cisalpine +Gaul.</div> + +<p>40. As M. Antony sought by force to establish +himself in Cisalpine Gaul, and D. Brutus refused +to give it up to him, and retired into Mutina, a +short, indeed, but very bloody civil war arose, +(<i>bellum mutinense</i>.) The eloquence of Cicero had +caused Antony to be declared an enemy of the +republic; and the two new consuls, Hirtius and +Pansa, together with Cæsar Octavianus, were +sent against him. The defeat of Antony compelled +him to seek refuge beyond the Alps with +Lepidus; but the two consuls being slain, Octavianus +at the head of his legions was too importunate +to be refused the consulship, and soon +convinced the defenceless senate, how impossible +it was to reestablish the commonwealth by their +powerless decrees. The employment, moreover, +of the <i>magistratus suffecti</i>, which soon after arose, +was in itself a sufficient proof that it was now no<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_397" id="Page_397">[Pg 397]</a></span> +more than the shadow of what it had formerly +been.</p> + +<div class="sblockquot"><p>The Mutine war begins in December, 44, and closes with the +defeat of Antony at Mutina, April 14, 43. Octavius obtains the +consulate, Sept. 22.</p></div> + +<div class="sidenote">Formation +of a triumvirate +by C. +Octavianus, +M. Antony, +and Lepidus.</div> + +<p>41. Octavianus, deserting the party of the +senate, enters into a secret negotiation with Antony +and Lepidus; the consequence of which is +a meeting of the parties at Bononia, and the formation +of a new triumvirate. They declare +themselves the chiefs of the republic for five +years, under the title of <i>triumviri reipublicæ constituendæ</i>; +and dividing the provinces among themselves +according to their own pleasure, they make +the destruction of the republican party their principal +object. A new proscription in Rome itself, +and a declaration of war against the murderers of +Cæsar, were the means by which they proposed +to effect it.</p> + +<div class="sblockquot"><p>The agreement of the triumvirate was concluded Nov. 27, 43, +after which the march of the triumvirs upon Rome gives the +signal for the massacre of the proscribed, which soon extends all +over Italy, and in which Cicero perishes, Dec. 7. The cause of +this new proscription was not party hatred alone, but was as +much, perhaps more, owing on the one hand to the want of +money for carrying on the war they had undertaken, and on the +other to a desire of satisfying the turbulent demands of the legions. +Where is to be found a time so full of terror as this, when +even tears were forbidden?</p></div> + +<div class="sidenote">Civil war +between the +oligarchy +and republicans.</div> + +<p>42. The civil war, now on the eve of breaking +out, may be considered therefore as a war between +the oligarchy and the defenders of the +republic. The Roman world was, as it were, +divided between the two; and although the former +had possession of Italy, and the western pro<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_398" id="Page_398">[Pg 398]</a></span>vinces, +that advantage seemed counterbalanced to +the chiefs of the opposite party by the possession +of the eastern countries, and the naval power of +Sextus Pompey, which seemed to assure them +the dominion of the sea.</p> + +<div class="sblockquot"><p>M. Brutus had taken possession of his province of Macedonia +as early as the autumn of 44; while Cassius, on the contrary, +had to contend for that of Syria with Dolabella, who by the +murder of the proconsul Trebonius had possessed himself of Asia. +Being, however, for this offence, declared an enemy by the +senate, and shut up in Laodicea by Cassius, he killed himself, +June 5, 43. From this time Brutus and Cassius were masters +of all the eastern provinces, at whose expense they maintained +their troops, though not without much oppression. S. Pompey, +after the victory of Munda, 45, having secreted himself in Spain, +and afterwards become a chief of freebooters, had grown very +powerful; when the senate, after Cæsar's assassination, having +made him commander of the sea-forces, he with them took possession +of Spain, and, after the conclusion of the triumvirate, of +Sicily, and then, very soon after, of Sardinia and Corsica. It was +a great thing for the triumvirate, that C. Pompey did not know +how to reap half the profit he might have done from his power +and good fortune.</p></div> + +<div class="sidenote">Its seat in +Macedonia.</div> + +<p>43. Macedonia became the theatre of the new +civil war, and together with the goodness of their +cause, superior talents, and greater power both +by land and sea, seemed combined to ensure the +victory to Brutus and Cassius. But in the decisive +battle at Philippi, fortune played one of her +most capricious tricks, and with the two chiefs +fell the last supporters of the republic.</p> + +<div class="sblockquot"><p>Double battle at Philippi towards the close of the year 42; +voluntary death of Cassius after the first, and of Brutus after the +second engagement.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Plutarchi</span> <i>Vita Bruti</i>; from the narratives of eyewitnesses.</p></div> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_399" id="Page_399">[Pg 399]</a></span></p> +<div class="sidenote">Quarrels of +the oligarchy +among +themselves.</div> + + +<p>44. The history of the eleven years intervening +between the battle of Philippi and that of Actium, +is little more than an account of the quarrels +of the oligarchy among themselves. The most +subtle was, in the end, victorious; for M. Antony +possessed all the sensuality of Cæsar, without +his genius: and the insignificant Lepidus +soon fell a sacrifice to his own vanity and weakness. +While Antony went into Asia to arrange +the affairs of the eastern provinces, and from +thence with Cleopatra to Alexandria, Octavianus +returned to Rome. But the famine which then +reigned in that city through Pompey's blockade +of the seacoast; the misery spread throughout +Italy by the wresting of patrimonial lands from +the proprietors to distribute among the veterans; +and the insatiable covetousness of the latter rendered +his situation as dangerous now as it had +<span class="sidenote">Fulvia causes a civil war;</span> +been before the war. Besides all this, the hatred +of the enraged consort of Antony, who had entered +into an alliance with her brother-in-law, the +consul L. Antony, brought on, towards the end +of the year, a civil war, which ended with the +surrender and burning of Perusium, in which L. +Antony had shut himself up, and which was +already much weakened by famine.</p> + +<div class="sblockquot"><p>The <i>bellum Perusinum</i> lasted from the end of the year 41 till +April, 40.</p></div> + +<div class="sidenote">40.</div> + +<p>45. This war, however, had nearly led to one +still greater; for M. Antony, as the enemy of +Octavianus, had come to Italy in order to assist +his brother, and with the intention of forming an +alliance with S. Pompey against the former. But +fortunately for the world, not only was harmony<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_400" id="Page_400">[Pg 400]</a></span> +restored between the triumvirs, but on account of +the great famine which prevailed at Rome, a +peace was also concluded with Pompey, although +it lasted but a very short time.</p> + +<div class="sblockquot"><p>The principal object of the peace between the triumvirs was a +new division of the provinces, by which the city of Scodra in +Illyria was fixed upon as the boundary. Antony obtained all the +eastern provinces; Octavianus all the western; and Lepidus +Africa. Italy remained in common to them all. The marriage +of Antony with Octavia, Fulvia being dead, was intended to cement +this agreement. In the peace concluded with S. Pompey +at Misenum, he obtained the islands of Sicily, Sardinia, and Corsica, +and the promise of Achaia.</p></div> + +<div class="sidenote">Pompey recommences +the war;<br /> + +which +causes his +destruction, +38; and +Lepidus's +expulsion, +39.</div> + +<p>46. Pompey, however, was not long in finding +that an alliance between him and the triumvirs +would only end in his own destruction; and the +war which he soon commenced, and which Octavianus +could not bring to a close but with the +assistance of Agrippa, was of so much the more +importance, as it not only decided the fate of +Pompey, but by leading to dissensions, and the +expulsion of Lepidus, reduced the triumvirate to +a duumvirate.</p> + +<div class="sblockquot"><p>After a doubtful engagement at sea, 38, and the formation of +a new fleet, Pompey was attacked on all sides at the same time; +Lepidus coming from Africa, and Antony sending also some +ships. Final overthrow of Pompey, who flies to Asia and there +perishes.—Lepidus wishing to take possession of Sicily, Octavianus +gains over his troops, and obliges him to retire from the +triumvirate.</p></div> + +<div class="sidenote">Foreign +wars prevent +Augustus +and Antony +from +coming to +an open +rupture.<br /> + +35—33.<br /> + +Antony offends +Rome +and +divorces +Octavia, 32.</div> + +<p>47. The foreign wars in which Octavianus as +well as Antony were engaged in the following +years, prevented for some time their mutual +jealousy from coming to an open rupture. Octavianus, +to tame his unruly legions, employed them +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_401" id="Page_401">[Pg 401]</a></span>with some success against the nations of Dalmatia +and Pannonia; whilst Antony undertook an expedition +against the powerful Parthians and their +neighbours. But in offending Rome by his conduct +in these wars, he only armed his opponent +against himself; and his formal separation from +Octavia, loosened the only tie which had hitherto +held together the two masters of the world.</p> + +<div class="sblockquot"><p>After his first stay in Alexandria, 41, Antony returned to Italy, +40, and then, having made peace with Octavianus, he carried his +new wife Octavia with him into Greece, where he remained till +the year 37. Although his lieutenant Ventidius had fought with +success against the Parthians, who had invaded Syria (see +above, p. 302.), Antony determined to undertake an expedition +against them himself, 36. But although in alliance with +Artavasdes king of Armenia (whom he soon after accused of +treachery), in seeking to effect an entrance into Parthia, by +passing through Armenia and Media, a different route from that +taken by Crassus, he was very nearly meeting with the same +fate, and the expedition completely failed. He then revenged +himself upon Artavasdes, who fell into his hands in a fresh expedition +which he made, 34, and deprived him of his kingdom. +After his triumphal entrance into Alexandria, he made a grant +of this as well as other countries to Cleopatra and her children. +(See above, p. 267.) In 33, he intended to renew his expedition +against the Parthians, in alliance with the king of Media; but +having, at the instigation of Cleopatra, ordered Octavia to return +home, when she had already come as far as Athens on her way to +meet him, Octavianus and Antony reciprocally accused each other +before the senate, and war was declared at Rome, though only +against Cleopatra.</p></div> + +<div class="sidenote">Greece the +seat of war +between +Antony and +Octavianus.<br /> + +Antony defeated at Actium, 2d. Sept. 31;<br /> + +his death, 30, +leaves Octavianus +without a +rival.</div> + +<p>48. Greece became again the theatre of war; +and although the forces of Antony were most +considerable, yet Octavianus had the advantage +of having, at least in appearance, the better +cause. The naval victory of Actium decided for +Octavianus, who could scarcely believe it, till he +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_402" id="Page_402">[Pg 402]</a></span>found that Antony had forsaken his fleet and +army, the latter of which surrendered without +striking a blow. The capture of Egypt followed, +(see above, p. 267.) and that country was reduced +to a Roman province; the death of Antony and +Cleopatra ended the war, and left Octavianus +absolute master of the republic.</p> + +<div class="sblockquot"><p>The history of the last days of Antony, principally after his +decline, having been written under the rule of his enemies, must +be received with that mistrust which all such histories require. +It has furnished abundant matter for the retailers of anecdote. +The history of Cleopatra rests partly on the accounts of her physician +Olympus, of which Plutarch made use.</p></div> + + + +<hr style="width: 25%;" /> +<h2>FOURTH PERIOD.</h2> + +<p class="iblockquot2">HISTORY OF THE ROMAN STATE AS A MONARCHY TO THE +OVERTHROW OF THE WESTERN EMPIRE. B. C. 30.—A. C. +476.</p> + + +<p class="iblockquot2"><i>Geographical outline. View of the Roman empire and +provinces, and other countries connected with it by war +or commerce.</i></p> + +<div class="sidenote">Boundaries +of the Roman +empire.</div> + +<p>The ordinary boundaries of the Roman empire, +which, however, it sometimes exceeded, were in +Europe the two great rivers of the Rhine and +Danube; in Asia, the Euphrates and the sandy +desert of Syria; in Africa likewise, the sandy +regions. It thus included the fairest portions of +the earth, surrounding the Mediterranean sea.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_403" id="Page_403">[Pg 403]</a></span></p> + +<div class="sidenote">European countries: Spain.</div> + +<p><span class="smcap">European countries</span>: I. Spain (Hispania). +Boundaries: on the east the Pyrenees, on the +south, north, and west, the sea. Principal rivers: +the Minius (Minho), Durius (Douro), Tagus +(Tejo), Anas (Guadiana), Bætis (Guadalquiver), +which flow into the Atlantic; and the Iberus +(Ebro), which falls into the Mediterranean. +Mountains: besides the Pyrenees, the Idubeda +along the Iberus, Orospeda (Sierra Morena). +<span class="sidenote">Lusitania.</span> +Divided into three provinces. +1. Lusitania: +northern boundary the Durius, southern, the +Anas. Principal tribes: Lusitani, Turdetani. +Principal town: Augusta Emerita. +<span class="sidenote">Bætica.</span> +2. Bætica: +boundaries on the north and west the Anas, on +the east the mountains of Orospeda. Principal +tribes: Turduli, Bastuli. Principal towns: Corduba +(Cordova), Hispalis (Seville), Gades (Cadiz), +Munda. +<span class="sidenote">Tarraconensis.</span> +3. Tarraconensis, all the remainder of +Spain. Principal tribes: Callæci, Astures, Cantabri, +Vascones, in the north; Celtiberi, Carpetani, +Ilergetes, in the interior; Indigetes, Cosetani, +etc. on the Mediterranean. Chief towns: +Tarraco (Tarragona), Cartago Nova (Carthagena), +Toletum (Toledo), Ilerda (Lerida); Saguntum +and Numantia (Soria) were already destroyed. +<span class="sidenote">Balearic isles.</span> +The Balearic isles, Major (Majorca), and Minor +(Minorca), were considered as belonging to +Spain.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">Transalpine Gaul:</div> + +<p>II. Transalpine Gaul. Boundaries: on the +west the Pyrenees; on the east the Rhine, and a +line drawn from its source to the little river +Varus, together with that river itself; on the +north and south the sea. Principal rivers: the +Garumna (Garonne), Liger (Loire), Sequana +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_404" id="Page_404">[Pg 404]</a></span>(Seine), and Scaldis (Scheldt), which empty +themselves into the ocean; the Rhodanus (Rhone), +which is increased by the Arar (Saone), and falls +into the Mediterranean; and the Mosella (Moselle) +and Mosa (Meuse), which flow into the +Rhine. Mountains: besides the Alps, the Jura, +Vogesus (Vosge), and Cebenna (Cevennes). +Divided into four provinces. +<span class="sidenote">Gallia Narbonensis.</span> +1. Gallia Narbonensis, +or Braccata. Boundaries: on the west +the Pyrenees, on the east the Varus, on the north +the Cevennian mountains. Principal tribes: +Allobroges, Volcæ, Calyes. Principal towns: +Narbo (Narbonne), Tolosa (Toulouse), Nemausus +(Nîmes), Massilia (Marseilles), Vienna. +<span class="sidenote">Gallia Celtica.</span> +2. Gallia Lugdunensis, or Celtica. Boundaries: to the +south and west the Liger (Loire), to the north the +Sequana, to the east the Arar. Principal tribes: +Ædui, Lingones, Parisii, Cenomani, etc. all of +Celtic origin. Principal towns: Lugdunum +(Lyons), Lutetia Parisiorum (Paris), Alesia +(Alise). +<span class="sidenote">Gallia Aquitanica.</span> +3. Gallia Aquitanica. Boundaries: the +Pyrenees on the south, the Liger on the north +and east. Principal tribes: Aquitani (of Iberian +origin), Pictones, Averni, etc. of Celtic descent. +Principal towns: Climberis, Burdegala (Bourdeaux). +<span class="sidenote">Gallia Belgica.</span> +4. Gallia Belgica. Boundaries: on the +north and east the Rhine, on the west the Arar, +on the south the Rhodanus as far as Lugdunum, +so that it comprised at first the countries bordering +on the Rhine and Helvetia. The latter, +however, were afterwards separated from it under +the names of Germania Inferior and Superior. +Principal tribes: Nervii, Bellovaci, etc. in the +north, of Belgic origin; Treviri, Ubii, of Ger<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_405" id="Page_405">[Pg 405]</a></span>man +origin; Sequani, Helvetii, in the interior, +of Celtic origin. Principal towns: Vesentio +(Besançon), Verodunum (Verdun), etc. Along +the Rhine in Germania Inferior: Colonia Agrippina +(Cologne). In Germania Superior: Mogontiacum +(Mayence, or Mentz), and Argentoratum +(Strasburg).</p> + +<div class="sidenote">Cisalpine +Gaul.</div> + +<p>III. Gallia Cisalpina, or Togata (Lombardy, +see above, p. 315). But as from the time of +Cæsar the inhabitants enjoyed all the privileges +of Roman citizens, it may be reckoned as forming +part of Italy.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">Sicily.</div> + +<p>IV. Sicilia; divided into Syracuse and Lilybæum.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">Sardinia, +Corsica.</div> + +<p>V. Sardinia and Corsica, see above, p. 320.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">British +islands.</div> + +<p>VI. The Insulæ Britannicæ (British islands); +but of these, only England and the southern part +of Scotland were reduced into a Roman province +in the time of Nero, under the name of Britannia +Romana. Principal rivers: Tamesis (Thames) +and Sabrina (Severn). Cities: Eboracum (York) +in the north, Londinum (London) in the south. +Into Scotland, Britannia Barbaria, or Caledonia, +the Romans often penetrated, but without being +ably completely to conquer it; and as for Hibernia, +Ierne (Ireland), it was visited by Roman +merchants, but never by Roman legions.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">Countries +south of the +Danube: +Vindelicia.</div> + +<p>VII. The countries south of the Danube, +which were subdued under Augustus and formed +into the following provinces: 1. Vindelicia. +Boundaries: on the north the Danube, on the +east the Ænus (Inn), on the west Helvetia, on +the south Rhætia. Principal tribes: Vindelici, +Brigantii, etc. Principal towns: Augusta Vin<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_406" id="Page_406">[Pg 406]</a></span>delicorum +(Augsburg), Brigantia (Bregenz). +<span class="sidenote">Rhætia.</span> +2. Rhætia. Boundaries: on the north Vindelicia, +on the east the Inn and the Salza, on the south +the chain of the Alps from Lacus Verbanus (Lago +Maggiore) to Belinzona, on the west Helvetia. +Principal tribe: Rhæti. Principal towns: Curia +(Chur), Veldidena (Wilden), Tridentum (Trent). +<span class="sidenote">Noricum.</span> +3. Noricum. Boundaries: on the north the +Danube, on the west the Ænus, on the east the +mountain Cetius (Kahlenberg), and on the south +the Julian Alps and the Savus (Save). Principal +tribes: Boii. Cities: Jovavum (Salzburg), +Boiodurum (Passau). +<span class="sidenote">Pannonia Superior.</span> +4. Pannonia Superior. +Boundaries: on the north and east the Danube, +on the south the Arrabo (Raab), on the west the +mountain Cetius. Cities: Vindobona (Vienna), +Caruntum. +<span class="sidenote">Pannonia Inferior.</span> +5. Pannonia Inferior. Boundaries: +on the north the Arrabo, on the east the Danube, +on the south the Savus. Cities: Taurunum (Belgrade), +Mursa (Esseg), and Sirmium. +<span class="sidenote">Mœsia Superior.</span> +6. Mœsia +Superior. Boundaries: on the north the Danube, +on the south Mount Scardus, or Scodrus, on the +west Pannonia, on the east the river Cebrus +(Ischia). Cities: Singidunum (Semlin), and +Naissus (Nissa). +<span class="sidenote">Mœsia Inferior.</span> +7. Mœsia Inferior. Boundaries: +on the north the Danube, on the west the +Cebrus, on the south mount Hæmus (the Balkan), +and on the east the Pontus Euxinus. Cities: +Odessus (Varna), Tomi (Tomisvar).</p> + +<div class="sidenote">Illyricum.</div> + +<p>VIII. Illyricum, in its most extensive signification, +comprised all the provinces south of the +Danube, together with Rhætia and Dalmatia: +but Illyricum Proper comprehends only the lands +along the coast of the Adriatic, from Rhætia in<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_407" id="Page_407">[Pg 407]</a></span> +Italy to the river Drinus, and easterly to the +Savus. Principal towns: Salona, Epidaurus +(near the present Ragusa), Scodra (Scutari).</p> + +<div class="sidenote">Macedonia.</div> + +<p>IX. Macedonia. Boundaries: on the north +mount Scodrus, on the south the Cambunian +mountains, on the west the Adriatic, and on the +east the Ægean sea. Rivers: the Nestus, Strymon, +and Halyacmon, which fall into the Ægean +sea, and the Apsus and Aöus, which fall into the +Adriatic. Principal tribes: Pæones in the north, +Pieres and Mygdones in the south. Principal +towns: Pydna, Pella, Thessalonica, Philippi, +with other Greek colonies (see above, p. 164). +Dyrrachium and Apollonia on the western coast.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">Thrace.</div> + +<p>X. Thrace had for some time kings of her own, +though dependent on Rome, and was first reduced +to a Roman province under Claudius. +Boundaries: on the north Mount Hæmus, on +the west the Nestus, on the south and east the +sea. River: Hebrus. Principal tribes: Triballi, +Bessi, and Odrysæ. Cities: Byzantium, Apollonia, +Berœa.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">Achaia.</div> + +<p>XI. Achaia (Greece), see above, p. 131.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">Dacia.</div> + +<p>XII. To the north of the Danube the province +of Dacia was brought under the Roman empire +by Trajan. Boundaries: on the south the Danube, +on the west the Tibiscus (Theiss), in the +east the Hierasus (Pruth), in the north the +Carpathian mountains. Principal tribe: Daci. +Chief cities; Ulpia Trajana and Tibiscum.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">Asiatic +provinces. +Asia Minor.</div> + +<p><span class="smcap">Asiatic provinces</span>: I. Asia Minor contained +the provinces: 1. Asia (see above, p. 293). +2. Bithynia, together with Paphlagonia and part +of Pontus. 3. Cilicia, with Pisidia (see above, +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_408" id="Page_408">[Pg 408]</a></span>p. 18.) +<span class="sidenote">Syria. Isle of Cyprus.</span> +II. Syria and Phœnicia. III. The isle +of Cyprus. Several other states, likewise dependent, +still preserved their kings: as, Judæa +(became a Roman province, A. D. 44.), Commagene +(province A. D. 70, and, together with +Judæa, added to Syria), Cappadocia (province +A. D. 17), Pontus (completely a province under Nero). +<span class="sidenote">Free states.</span> +Free states at this time: Rhodes, Samos +(provinces A. D. 70), and Lycia (province A. D. +43). Beyond the Euphrates, Armenia and Mesopotamia +were reduced to provinces by Trajan, +but, as early as the time of Adrian, were abandoned.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">African +provinces. +Egypt. +Cyrenaica. +Africa. +Mauritania.</div> + +<p><span class="smcap">African provinces.</span> I. Egypt. II. Cyrenaica, +with the isle of Crete. III. Africa, Numidia +(see above, p. 47). Mauritania still had +its separate king, but he was set aside, A. D. 41, +and the country divided into two provinces: +1. Mauritania Cæsariensis. Boundaries: on the +east the river Ampsaga, on the west the Mulucha. +Principal places: Igilgilis and Cæsaria. +2. Mauritania Tingitana, from the river Mulucha +to the Atlantic ocean. Capital: Tingis.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">States on +the borders. +Germany.</div> + +<p>Principal states on the borders of the empire: +I. Germania. Boundaries: on the south the Danube, +on the north the sea, on the west the Rhine, +on the east undetermined, though the Vistula is +generally regarded as such. Principal rivers: +the Danubius, Rhenus (Rhine), Albis (Elbe), +Visurgis (Weser), Viadrus (Oder), and the Vistula; +the Lupias (Lippe) and Amisia (Ems) are +likewise frequently mentioned. Mountains and +forests: the Hercynian forest, a general name for +the forest mountains, particularly of eastern Ger<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_409" id="Page_409">[Pg 409]</a></span>many. +Melibocus (the Hartz), Sudetus (the +Thuringian forest); the forest of Teutoburg, to +the south of Westphalia, etc. It would be useless +to seek for a general political division, or for +the cities, of ancient Germany; we can only +point out the situation of the principal tribes. It +is necessary, however, to precede this by two +observations: 1. The same territory, in the tide of +forcible emigration and conquest, and particularly +after the second century, often changed its inhabitants. +2. The names of some of the principal +tribes often became that of a confederacy. The +principal tribes in the period of Augustus were, +in northern Germany; the Batavi in Holland; +the Frisii in Friesland; the Bructeri in Westphalia; +the lesser and larger Chauci in Oldenburg +and Bremen; the Cherusci, likewise the +name of a confederation, in Brunswick; the Catti +in Hesse. In southern (central) Germany: the +Hermunduri in Franconia; the Marcomanni in Bohemia. +<span class="sidenote">Alemanni.</span> +The Alemanni, not the name of a +single tribe, but of a confederation, are first mentioned +in the third century: in the period of +Augustus these tribes, and the principal of those +of eastern Germany, which gradually became +known, were included under the general name of +<span class="sidenote">Suevi.</span> +Suevi.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">Scandinavia.</div> + +<p>The northernmost countries of Europe were +considered as isles of the German ocean, and +therefore regarded as belonging to Germany. +They were Scandinavia, or Scandia (southern +Sweden), Nerigon (Norway), and Eningia, or +probably Finningia (Finland). The northernmost +island was called Thule.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_410" id="Page_410">[Pg 410]</a></span></p> + +<div class="sidenote">Sarmatia.</div> + +<p>The north of Europe, from the Vistula to the +Tanais (Don), was comprised under the general +name of Sarmatia; but beyond the territory +about the Danube, and especially Dacia (see +above, p. 407), they were only in a slight degree +acquainted with the coast of the Baltic, by the +amber trade.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">Parthia.</div> + +<p>In Asia the Roman empire was bounded by +Great Armenia (see above, p. 19, and 299), the +Parthian empire from the Euphrates to the Indus +(see above, p. 19—22), and the peninsula of +Arabia (see above, p. 19).</p> + +<div class="sidenote">India.</div> + +<p>Eastern Asia, or India, became known to the +Romans by a commercial intercourse carried +on between them, and which began soon after +the conquest of Egypt. It was divided into +India on this side the Ganges, that is: 1. The +territory between the Indus and Ganges; 2. The +peninsula on this side, the western coast of which +in particular (Malabar), was very well known; +and, 3. The island of Taprobana (Ceylon), +and India beyond the Ganges, to which also the +distant Serica belonged: but of all these countries +they had but a very imperfect knowledge.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">Africa.</div> + +<p>The boundaries of Africa were Æthiopia above +Egypt, and Gætulia and the great sandy desert +of Libya, above the other provinces.</p> + + +<hr style='width: 25%;' /> +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_411" id="Page_411">[Pg 411]</a></span></p> + +<h2>FIRST SECTION.</h2> + +<p class="cblockquot"><i>From Augustus Cæsar to the death of Commodus, +B. C. 30. A. C. 193.</i></p> + +<div class="sblockquot"><p><span class="smcap">Sources.</span> For the whole of this period <span class="smcap">Dion Cassius</span>, +lib. li—lxxx, is our historian; though of his last twenty books +we have only the abridgment of Xiphilinus. For the history +of the emperors from Tiberius to the beginning of Vespasian's +reign, the principal writer is <span class="smcap">Tacitus</span>, in his <i>Annals</i>, A. C. +14—63; (of which, however, part of the history of Tiberius, +32—34, all of Caligula and the first six years of Claudius, 37—47, +as well as the last year and a half of Nero, are unfortunately +lost); and in his <i>History</i>, of which scarcely the first three years, +69—71, are come down to us. <span class="smcap">Suetonius's</span> <i>Lives of the Cæsars</i>, +down to Domitian, are so much the more valuable, because +in a state like the Roman it becomes of importance to know the +character and domestic life of the ruling men. For the reigns of +Augustus and Tiberius the <i>History</i> of <span class="smcap">Velleius Paterculus</span> +is not of less consequence, although written in a court-like tone. +The sources for the history of the separate Cæsars will be given +as we come to them.</p> + +<p>The following are the labours of modern writers:</p> + +<p><i>Histoire des Empereurs et des autres Princes qui ont régné +dans les six premiers siècles de l'Eglise</i>, <i>par</i> <span class="smcap">M. Lenain de +Tillemont</span>. à Bruxelle, 1707, 5 vols. 8vo. (An earlier edition +in 4to. 1700, 4 vols.) The work of Tillemont has some worth +as a laborious compilation, but is superseded in its execution by +the following:</p> + +<p><i>Histoire des Empereurs Romains, depuis Auguste jusqu' à +Constantin</i>, <i>par</i> <span class="smcap">M. Crevier</span>. Paris, 1749, 12 vols. 8vo. +[Translated into English.] A continuation of Rollin's Roman +History (see above, p. 318), quite in the spirit of that writer, +and by one of his school.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Dr. Goldsmith's</span> <i>Roman History, from the foundation of the +city of Rome to the destruction of the western empire</i>. London, +1774, 2 vols. 8vo. Rather a sketch than a detailed history (see +above, p. 321, sqq.).</p> +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_412" id="Page_412">[Pg 412]</a></span></p> +<p>† <i>History of Rome under the Emperors, and of the contemporary +nations</i>, <i>by</i> <span class="smcap">M. D. G. H. Hubler</span>. Fryburg, 1803, +3 parts. Continuation of the work cited p. 2: it reaches down +to Constantine.</p></div> + +<div class="sidenote">Augustus +Cæsar +B. C. 30—A. +C. 14.</div> + +<p>1. Octavianus Cæsar, on whom the senate +conferred the honourable title of Augustus, which +they periodically renewed, and which descended +to his successors, possessed the sole dominion +of the empire during forty-four years. The +government, notwithstanding the great revolutions +by which the republic had been converted +into a monarchy, was not yet, either in fact or +in form, altogether a despotic one. The private +interest of the ruler required that the republican +form should be preserved to the utmost, as without +that he could not make an entire change; +and the rest of his history sufficiently shows, +that the cruelty with which he may be reproached +in the early part of his career, was +rather owing to circumstances than to his natural +disposition. But during a reign so long, so +tranquil, and so fortunate, could it be otherwise +than that the republican spirit which at the beginning +existed only in a few individuals, should +evaporate of itself!</p> + +<div class="sblockquot"><p>The forms under which Augustus held the different branches +of supreme power (dictatorship excepted) were;—the consulate, +which, till B. C. 21, was annually renewed; and the <i>potestas +consularis</i>, which, in B. C. 19, was settled on him for ever;—the +<i>tribunicia potestas</i>, which was, 30, granted him for ever, +rendered his person sacred (<i>sacrosancta</i>), and prepared the way +to the <i>judicia majestatis</i> (accusations of high treason). As <i>imperator</i>, +31, he continued commander of all the forces, and obtained +the <i>imperium proconsulare</i> (proconsular power) in all the +provinces. He assumed the <i>magistratura morum</i> (censorship), +19; and became <i>pontifex maximus</i> (high priest), 13. To avoid<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_413" id="Page_413">[Pg 413]</a></span> +all appearances of usurpation, Augustus at first accepted the +sovereign power only for ten years, and afterwards had it renewed +from time to time, for ten or five years, which, at a later +period, gave rise to the <i>sacra decennalia</i>.</p></div> + +<div class="sidenote">The senate.</div> + +<p>2. The senate, indeed, remained a permanent +council of state, and Augustus himself endeavoured +to increase its authority by more than one +purification (<i>lectio</i>); but the connection between +him and that assembly seemed of a very fragile +nature, as it was undetermined, and could not at +this time be settled, whether Augustus was over +the senate, or the senate over Augustus. All +matters of state could not be brought before the +senate, as even the most important often required +secrecy. It naturally followed, that a prince, +as yet without a court, and who had no proper +minister, but only his friends and freedmen, +should consult with those whom he thought most +worthy his confidence, a Mæcenas, or an Agrippa, +etc. Hence afterwards was formed the secret +council of state (<i>consilium secretum principis</i>). +Among the republican magistrates the highest +lost most; and as so much now depended upon +the preservation of peace in the capital, the offices +of præfect of the city (<i>præfectus urbis</i>) and præfect +of provisions (<i>præfectus annonæ</i>) were not only +made permanent, but became, especially the +former, the principal offices in the state.</p> + +<div class="sblockquot"><p>The spirit of monarchy shows itself in nothing more than in its +strict distinction of ranks; hence, therefore, the magistrates, +especially the consuls, lost nothing. Hence also the long-continued +custom of nominating under-consuls (<i>consules suffecti</i>,) +which in time became merely a formal assumption of the <i>ornamenta +consularia et triumphalia</i> (consular and triumphal ornaments). +Other offices were created for the purpose of rewarding +friends and dependents.</p></div><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_414" id="Page_414">[Pg 414]</a></span></p> + +<div class="sidenote">Introduction +of +standing +armies.</div> + +<p>3. The introduction of standing armies, already +long prepared, naturally followed a dominion acquired +by war; and became, indeed, necessary +to guard the frontiers and preserve the newly-made +conquests; the establishment of the guards +and militia of the city (<i>cohortes prætorianæ</i> and +<i>cohortes urbanæ</i>) were measures equally necessary +for the security of the capital and the throne. +The creation of <i>two</i> prætorian præfects, however, +instead of <i>one</i>, diminished for the present the +great importance of that office.</p> + +<div class="sblockquot"><p>Distribution of the legions over the provinces in <i>castra stativa</i> +(fixed camps), which soon grew into cities, especially along the +Rhine, the Danube, and the Euphrates (<i>legiones Germanicæ, +Illyricæ, et Syriacæ</i>). Fleets also were stationed at Misenum +and Ravenna.</p></div> + +<div class="sidenote">The provinces +divided +between +the +emperor +and the +senate.</div> + +<p>4. The government, as well as the administration +and revenue of the provinces, Augustus willingly +divided with the senate; keeping to himself +those on the frontiers (<i>provinciæ principis</i>,) in +which the legions were quartered, and leaving +to that assembly the others (<i>provinciæ senatûs</i>). +Hence his deputies (<i>legati</i>, lieutenants) exercised +both civil and military authority in his name; +while those of the senate, on the contrary (<i>proconsules</i>), +only administered in civil affairs. Both +were, in general, attended by commissioners (<i>procuratores +et quæstores</i>). The provinces were unquestionably +gainers by this new arrangement, +not only because their governors were more carefully +looked after, but because they were paid by +the state.</p> + +<div class="sblockquot"><p>The fate of the provinces naturally depended, in a great degree, +upon the disposition of the emperor and governor; but there was +also an essential difference between the provinces of the emperor<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_415" id="Page_415">[Pg 415]</a></span> +and those of the senate (<i>provinciæ principis et senatûs</i>): in the +latter there was no military oppression as there was in the former; +and to that may be ascribed the flourishing state of Gaul, +Spain, Africa, etc.</p></div> + +<div class="sidenote">Finances:<br /> + +the private and military chest of the emperor; the state chest<br /> + +swallowed up by the former.</div> + +<p>5. There is little doubt but that the finances +of the treasury remained, upon the whole, much +the same as before; but in its internal administration +Augustus made many alterations, of which +we have but a very imperfect knowledge. Of +course there would be at first an obvious difference +between the privy and military chest of the +emperor (<i>fiscus</i>), which was at his immediate disposal, +and the state chest (<i>ærarium</i>) which he +disposed of indirectly through the senate, though +it must afterwards follow as a natural consequence +of increasing despotism, that the latter +should progressively become merged in the former.</p> + +<div class="sblockquot"><p>The great disorder into which the treasury had been thrown +during the civil wars, and especially by giving away the state +lands in Italy to the soldiers, together with the heavy sums required +for the maintenance of the standing army now established, +must have rendered it much more difficult for Augustus to +accomplish the reform he so happily executed; and in which it +seems to have been his chief aim to place everything, as far as +possible, upon a solid and lasting foundation. The principal +changes which he made in the old system of taxation seem to +have been: 1. That the tithes hitherto collected in the provinces +should be changed into a fixed quota, to be paid by each individual. +2. The customs, partly by reestablishing former ones, and +partly by imposing new ones as well as an excise (<i>centesima +rerum venalium</i>), were rendered more productive. The possession +of Egypt, which was the depôt of nearly all the commerce of +the east, rendered the customs at this time of great importance +to Rome. 3. All the state lands in the provinces were, by degrees, +changed into crown lands. Of the new taxes the most +considerable were the <i>vigesima hereditatum</i> (the twentieth of inheritances), +though with important restrictions; and the fines<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_416" id="Page_416">[Pg 416]</a></span> +upon celibacy by the <i>lex Julia Poppæa</i>.—The greater part of +these state revenues most likely flowed, from the very first, into +the <i>fiscus</i>: that is, the whole revenues of the <i>provinciæ principis</i>, +as well as of those parts of the <i>provinciæ senatûs</i> which were appropriated +to the maintenance of the troops; the revenues arising +from the crown domains; the <i>vigesima</i>, etc. To the <i>ærarium</i> (now +under three <i>præfecti ærarii</i>) remained a part of the revenues of +the <i>provinciæ senatûs</i>, the customs and the fines. Thus it appears +that Augustus was master of the finances, of the legions, +and thereby of the empire.</p> + +<p>See above, p. 362, the writings of <span class="smcap">Hegewisch</span> and <span class="smcap">Bosse</span>.</p></div> + +<div class="sidenote">Extension +of the empire:<br /> + +Spain and Gaul, 25.<br /> + +20.<br /> + +Countries south of the Danube, 15—35.<br /> + +29.<br /> + +24.</div> + +<p>6. The extension of the Roman empire under +Augustus was very considerable; being generally +of such a nature as conduced to the security +of the interior, and to the safeguard of the +frontiers. The complete subjugation of northern +Spain, and western Gaul, secured the frontiers +on that side; as did the threatened but never-executed +expedition against the Parthians, and +the one actually undertaken against Armenia, +A. C. 2. But the most important conquest in +this quarter was that of the countries south of the +Danube, viz. Rhætia, Vindelicia, and Noricum, as +well as Pannonia, and afterwards Mœsia. To +counterbalance these, the expedition against Arabia +Felix completely failed; and that against +Æthiopia was of no further consequence than to +strengthen the frontiers.</p> + + +<p>7. All these conquests together, however, did +not cost the Romans so much as their fruitless +attempt to subjugate Germany, first, by the sons-in-law +of Augustus, Drusus and Tiberius Nero, +and afterwards by the son of the former, Drusus +<span class="sidenote">Unsuccessful attempt to subdue Germany.</span> +Germanicus. Whether or not this undertaking +was a political fault, must always remain a problem, +as it is now impossible to say how far<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_417" id="Page_417">[Pg 417]</a></span> +the security of the frontiers could be preserved +without it.</p> + +<div class="sblockquot"><p>Rome commenced her hostile attack upon Germany under +the command of Drusus, B. C. 12; Lower Germany (Westphalia, +Lower Saxony, and Hesse) being in general the theatre of the +war: while the Lower Rhine was attacked both by sea and land +at the mouths of the Ems, the Weser, and the Elbe, on account +of the great assistance afforded the Romans by their alliance with +the nations on the coasts, the Batavi, Frisii, and Chauci. The +intrepid Drusus, in his second expedition, 10, penetrated as far +as the Weser, and, 9, even as far as the Elbe, but died on his +return. His successors in the command (Tiberius, 9—7, Domitius, +Ænobarbus, 7—2, M. Vinicius, 2—A. C. 2, then again Tiberius, +A. C. 2—4, who was followed by Quintilius Varus, A. C. +5—9,) endeavoured to build on the foundation laid by Drusus, +and, by erecting forts and introducing the Roman language and +laws, gradually to reduce into a province the part of Germany +they had already subdued; but the craftily organized revolt of +the young Arminius (Hermann,) a prince of the Cherusci, son +of Siegmar, and son-in-law of Segestes, a friend of the Romans, +together with the defeat of Varus and his army in the Teutoburg +wald, or forest, near Paderborn, A. C. 9, rescued Germany +from slavery, and its language from annihilation. It moreover +taught the conquerors (what they never forgot) that the legions +were not invincible. Augustus immediately despatched Tiberius, +who had just quelled a furious insurrection in Pannonia, together +with Germanicus, to the Rhine; but these confined themselves +to simple incursions, till Germanicus, A. C. 14—16, again +carried his arms further into the country, and certainly penetrated +as far as the Weser. Yet, notwithstanding his victory +near Idistavisus (Minden), the loss of his fleet and part of his +army by a tempest on his return, and the jealousy of Tiberius at +his victory, obliged him to give up his command. From this +time the Germans were left at rest in this quarter.</p> + +<p>† <span class="smcap">Mannert</span>, <i>Geography of the Greeks and Romans</i>, part iii.</p></div> + +<div class="sidenote">Reign of +Augustus, a +brilliant +period for +Rome.</div> + +<p>8. The long, and for Italy itself, peaceable +reign of Augustus, has generally been considered +a fortunate and brilliant period of Roman history; +and, when compared with the times which pre<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_418" id="Page_418">[Pg 418]</a></span>ceded +and followed, it certainly was so. Security +of person and property were reestablished; +the arts of peace flourished under the benign patronage +of Augustus and his favourite Mæcenas; +and we may add, that, as the formal restoration of +the republic would only have been the signal for +new commotions, the government of Augustus, if +not the very best, was, at least, the best that +Rome could then bear. Should it be said his +private life was not blameless, it may be replied, +that he inflexibly maintained an outward decency, +to which, indeed, he sacrificed his only daughter; +and if laws could have bettered the public morals, +there was no lack of decrees for that purpose.</p> + +<div class="sblockquot"><p>Among his most important laws to this end are, the <i>lex Julia +de adulteriis</i> and the <i>lex Papia Poppæa</i> against celibacy. The +latter excited many murmurs.</p></div> + +<div class="sidenote">Augustus's family.<br /> + +Livia.<br /> + +B. C. 23.<br /> + +Julia married to Agrippa, 17.<br /> + +12.<br /> + +6—A. C. 9.<br /> + +A. C. 2.<br /> + +2—4.<br /> + +Tiberius adopted by Augustus 4.</div> + +<p>9. Nearly all that remains of the history of +Augustus, is an account of his domestic troubles; +the most unhappy family being that of the emperor. +The influence of Livia, his second wife, +was very great, but does not seem to have been +perverted to any worse purpose than raising her +sons, Tiberius and Drusus, to the throne. The +naturally unsettled state of the succession, in a +government such as that of Rome now was, became +much increased by circumstances. After +the untimely death of his nephew and son-in-law +Marcellus, whom he had adopted, his widow Julia, +the only child of Augustus by his wife Scribonia, +was married to Agrippa. The two eldest sons of +this marriage, C. and L. Cæsar, were adopted, +upon the death of their father, by the emperor, +who showed so much fondness towards them as +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_419" id="Page_419">[Pg 419]</a></span>they grew up, that Tiberius, who in the mean +time had married their mother, Julia,—afterwards +banished by Augustus for her licentious conduct—left +the court in disgust. The death of the two +young princes, however, again revived the hopes +of Tiberius, who was adopted by Augustus upon +the condition that he should also adopt Drusus +Germanicus, the son of his deceased brother +Drusus; after which Augustus, with the consent +of the senate, formally associated him with himself +in the government, making him an equal +partner in the imperial privileges: called by his +successors, <i>lex regia</i>.</p> + +<div class="sblockquot"><p><i>Marmor Ancyranum</i>; or, inscriptions in the temple of Augustus +at Ancyra. A copy of the account given of his government, +which Augustus latterly caused to be set up at Rome as a +public memorial: unfortunately much mutilated. It is to be +found in <span class="smcap">Chishull</span>, <i>Antiq. Asiatic</i>.</p> + +<p><i>Memoirs of the Court of Augustus, by</i> <span class="smcap">Thomas Blackwell</span>. +London, 1760, 3 vols. 4to. divided into fifteen books. The last +vol. was published after the death of the author, by <span class="smcap">Mr. Mills</span>. +The last two books of this prolix work contain a description of +the contemporary affairs of Augustus; the others go back to +earlier times. A just appreciation of Augustus requires a previous +critical examination of the sources from which Suetonius +has drawn the materials for his biography.</p> + +<p><i>Histoire des triumvirats augmentée de l'histoire d'Auguste, +par</i> <span class="smcap">Larry</span>. Trevoux, 1741, 4 parts, 8vo. The last part of +this simple narrative contains the history of Augustus from the +death of Catiline.</p></div> + +<div class="sidenote">August 14, 19—March 16, 37.<br /> + +Changes in the constitution:<br /> + +power of the <i>comitia</i> reduced;<br /> + +despotism introduced by the <i>judicia majestatis</i>;<br /> + +degraded character of the senate.</div> + +<p>10. The reign of Tiberius Claudius Nero, or, as +he was called after his adoption, Augustus Tiberius +Cæsar, from his fifty-sixth to his seventy-eighth +year, changed rather the spirit than the form of +the Roman constitution. He succeeded quietly to +the vacant throne at Rome, although the legions +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_420" id="Page_420">[Pg 420]</a></span>in Pannonia, and still more in Germany, felt that +they could make emperors. Under him the <i>comitia</i>, +or assemblies of the people, were reduced +to a mere shadow; as he transferred their duties +to the senate, which also became the highest +tribunal for the state crimes of its own members: +this assembly, however, had now been so much +accustomed to obey the will of the prince, that +everything depended on his personal character. +Tiberius founded his despotism upon the <i>judicia +majestatis</i>, or accusations of high treason, now +become an engine of terror, the senate also +sharing his guilt with a pusillanimity and servility +which knew no bounds. This degraded +assembly, indeed, from the moment that it ceased +to be the ruling authority of a free state, necessarily +became the passive instrument of the most +brutal tyranny. Notwithstanding the military +talents and many good qualities of Tiberius, his +despotic character had been formed long before +his fifty-sixth year, when he mounted the throne; +although exterior circumstances prevented him +from entirely throwing off the mask which he +had hitherto worn.</p> + +<div class="sblockquot"><p>The foundation of the <i>judicia majestatis</i>, which soon became +so terrible by the unfixed state of crime, had been laid during +the reign of Augustus by the <i>lex Julia de majestate</i>, and the +<i>cognitiones extraordinariæ</i>, or commissioners appointed to take +cognizance of certain crimes; it was, however, the abuse of them +by Tiberius and his successors, which rendered them so dreadful.</p></div> + +<div class="sidenote">Ruin of +Germanicus +and his +family.</div> + + +<p>12. The principal object of Tiberius's suspicion, +and therefore of his hate, was Germanicus, a +man almost adored by the army and the people. +This brave general he soon recalled from Ger<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_421" id="Page_421">[Pg 421]</a></span>many, +and sent into Syria to quell the disorders +of the east. After having successfully put an end +to the commotions which called him there, he +<span class="sidenote">A. C. 19.</span> +was poisoned by the contrivances of Cn. Piso +and his wife; and even that did not shelter the +numerous family which he left behind, with his +widow Agrippina, from persecution and ruin.</p> + +<div class="sblockquot"><p>The expeditions of Germanicus in the east not only gave a +king to Armenia, but also reduced Cappadocia and Commagene +to Roman provinces, A. C. 17.</p> + +<p><i>Histoire de Cæsar Germanicus, par</i> M. L. D. B. [<small>EAUFORT</small>]. +à Leyden, 1741. An unpretending chronological narrative.</p></div> + +<div class="sidenote">L. Ælius +Sejanus, the cruel minister of Tiberius;<br /> + +23—31.<br /> + +Tiberius retires to Capreæ, 26.<br /> + +Fall of Sejanus attended with great carnage, 31.<br /> + +Tiberius becomes a despotic monster.</div> + +<p>13. Rome, however, soon experienced to her +cost the powerful ascendancy which L. Ælius +Sejanus, the præfect of the prætorian guard, had +acquired over the mind of Tiberius, whose unlimited +confidence he possessed the more, as he +enjoyed it without a rival. The eight years of his +authority were rendered terrible not only by the +cantonment of his troops in barracks near the +city (<i>castra prætoriana</i>), but (having first persuaded +Tiberius to quit Rome for ever, that he +might more securely play the tyrant in the isle of +Capreæ) by his endeavouring to open a way for +himself to the throne by villanies and crimes without +number, and by his cruel persecution of the +family of Germanicus. The despotism he had +introduced became still more dreadful by his +own fall, in which not only his whole party, but +every one that could be considered as connected +with it, became involved. The picture of the +atrocious despotism of Tiberius is rendered doubly +disgusting by the horrid and unnatural lust which +he joined to it in his old age.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_422" id="Page_422">[Pg 422]</a></span></p> + +<div class="sblockquot"><p>Tiberius's misfortune was, that he came too late to the throne. +His early virtues made no compensation for his later cruelties. +It is properly the former which Vel. Paterculus praises, whose +flattery of Tiberius, in whose reign he flourished, is more easily +justified than his praise of Sejanus.</p></div> + +<div class="sidenote">Caligula, +March 16, +37—Jan. +24, 41.</div> + +<p>14. At the age of twenty-five Caius Cæsar +Caligula, the only remaining son of Germanicus, +ascended the throne; but the hopes which had +been formed of this young prince were soon +wofully disappointed. His previous sickness and +debaucheries had so distorted his understanding, +that his short reign was one tissue of disorder +and crime. Yet he did still more harm to the +state by his besotted profusion than by his tiger-like +cruelty. At length, after a career of nearly +four years, he was assassinated by Cassius +Chærea and Cornelius Sabinus, two officers of +his guard.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">Claudius, +Jan. 24, 21—Oct. +13, +54.<br /> + +the weak tool of his wives and freedmen.<br /> + +Messalina;<br /> + +Agrippina procures the throne for her son, with the +assistance of Burrhus, and<br /> + +50.<br /> + +poisons Claudius, 54.</div> + +<p>15. His uncle Tiberius Claudius Cæsar, who, +at the age of fifty, succeeded him, was the first +emperor raised to the throne by the guards; +a favour which he rewarded by granting them a +<i>donative</i>. Too weak to rule of himself, almost +imbecile from former neglect, profligate, and cruel +from fear, he became the tool of the licentiousness +of his wives and freedmen. Coupled with +the names of Messalina and Agrippina, we now +hear, for the first time in Roman history, of a +Pallas and a Narcissus. The dominion of Messalina +was still more hurtful to the state by her +rapacious cupidity, to which everything gave +way, than by her dissolute life; and the blow +which at last punished her unexampled wantonness, +left a still more dangerous woman to supply +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_423" id="Page_423">[Pg 423]</a></span>her place. This was Agrippina, her neice, widow +of L. Domitius, who joined to the vices of her +predecessor a boundless ambition, unknown to +the former. Her chief aim was to procure the +succession for Domitius Nero, her son by a former +marriage—who had been adopted by Claudius, +and married to his daughter Octavia—by setting +aside Britannicus, the son of Claudius; and this +she hoped to effect, by poisoning Claudius, having +already gained Burrhus, by making him <i>sole</i> præfect +of the prætorian guard. Notwithstanding +the contentions with the Germans and Parthians +(see above, p. 303) were only on the frontiers, +the boundaries of the Roman empire were in +many countries extended.</p> + +<div class="sblockquot"><p>Commencement of the Roman conquests in Britain (whither +Claudius himself went) under A. Plautius, from the year A. C. +43. Under the same general, Mauritania, A. C. 42, Lycia, 43, +Judæa, 44 (see above, p. 312), and Thrace, 47, were reduced to +Roman provinces. He also abolished the præfectures which had +hitherto existed in Italy.</p></div> + +<div class="sidenote">Nero, Oct. +13, 54—June +11, +68.<br /> + +His education +and +character.</div> + + +<p>16. Nero Claudius Cæsar, supported by Agrippina +and the prætorian guard, succeeded Claudius +at the age of seventeen. Brought up in the +midst of the blackest crimes, and, by a perverted +education, formed rather for a professor of music +and the fine arts than for an emperor, he ascended +the throne like a youth eager for enjoyment; and +throughout his whole reign his cruelty appears +subordinate to his fondness for debaucheries and +revelry. The unsettled state of the succession +first called into action his savage disposition; and +after the murder of Britannicus the sword fell +<span class="sidenote">Destroys Britannicus and all the Julian family: +his vanity also makes him cruel.</span> +in regular order upon all those who were even +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_424" id="Page_424">[Pg 424]</a></span>remotely connected with the Julian family. His +vanity as a performer and composer excited in an +equal degree his cruelty; and as, among all tyrants, +every execution gives occasion for others, +we need not wonder at his putting to death every +one that excelled him. His connection, however, +in the early part of his reign, with Agrippina, +Burrhus, and Seneca, during which he introduced +some useful regulations into the treasury, kept him +within the bounds of decency. But Poppæa Sabina +having driven him on to +<span class="sidenote">murders his wife and mother;</span> +the murder of his mother and his wife Octavia, and Tigellinus being +made his confident, he felt no longer restrained +by the fear of public opinion. The executions of +individuals, nearly all of which history has recorded, +was not, perhaps, upon the whole, the greatest evil; +<span class="sidenote">plunders the provinces to support his profligacy.</span> +the plunder of the provinces, not +only to support his own loose and effeminate +pleasures, but also to maintain the people in a +continual state of intoxication, had nearly caused +the dissolution of the empire. The last years of +Nero were marked by a striking and undoubted +insanity, which displayed itself in his theatrical +performances, and even in the history of his fall. +<span class="sidenote">A. C. 68.</span> +It appears that both around and upon a throne +like that of Rome, heroes were formed for vice +as well as virtue!</p> + +<div class="sblockquot"><p>Discovery of the conspiracy of Piso, 65, and the revolt of Julius +Vindex in Celtic Gaul, 68, followed by that of Galba in +Spain, who is there proclaimed emperor, and joined by Otho, in +Lusitania. Nevertheless, after the defeat of Julius Vindex in +Upper Germany, by the lieutenant Virginius Rufus, these insurrections +seemed quelled, when the prætorian guard, instigated +thereto by Nymphidius, broke out into rebellion in Rome itself. +Flight and death of Nero, June 11, 68. Foreign wars during<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_425" id="Page_425">[Pg 425]</a></span> +his reign: in Britain (occasioned by the revolt of Boadicea), +great part of which was subdued and reduced to a Roman province, +by Suetonius Paulinus; in Armenia, under the command +of the valiant Corbulo, against the Parthians (see above, p. 303); +and in Palestine against the Jews, 66. Great fire in Rome, +64, which gives rise to the first persecution against the Christians.</p> + +<p>The principal cause why the despotism of Nero and his predecessors +was so tamely submitted to by the nation, may undoubtedly +be found in the fact, that the greater part of it was +fed by the emperors. To the monthly distributions of corn were +now added the extraordinary <i>congiaria</i> and <i>viscerationes</i> (supplies +of wine and meat). The periods of tyranny were very +likely the golden days of the people.</p></div> + +<div class="sidenote">Extinction +of the Julian +family +causes +many troubles.</div> + + +<p>17. By the death of Nero the house of Cæsar +became extinct, and this gave rise to so many +commotions, that in somewhat less than two years, +four emperors by violence obtained possession of +the throne. The right of the senate to name, or +at least to confirm, the successors to the throne, +was still indeed acknowledged; but as the armies +had found out that they could create emperors, +the power of the senate dwindled into an +empty ceremony. +<span class="sidenote">Galba, June 11, 68—Jan. 15, 69.</span> +Servius Sulpicius Galba, now +seventy-two years of age, having been already +proclaimed emperor by the legions in Spain, and +acknowledged by the senate, gained possession +of Rome without striking a blow, the attempt of +Nymphidius having completely failed, and Virginius +Rufus voluntarily submitting to him. +Galba, however, having given offence both to the +<span class="sidenote">killed by the prætorian guard.</span> +prætorian guard and the German legions, was +dethroned by the guards, at the instigation of his +former friend Otho, at the very time when he +thought he had secured his throne by adopting<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_426" id="Page_426">[Pg 426]</a></span> +the young Licinius Piso, and had frustrated the +hopes of Otho.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">Otho, Jan. +69—April +16.</div> + +<p>18. M. Otho, aged thirty-seven, was indeed acknowledged +emperor by the senate, but wanted +the sanction of the German legions, who, proclaiming +their general, A. Vitellius, emperor, invaded +Italy. Otho marches against him, but +after the loss of the battle of Bedriacum kills +himself—whether from fear or patriotism, remains +uncertain.</p> + +<div class="sblockquot"><p>The special sources for the history of Galba and Otho, are +their <i>Lives</i> by <span class="smcap">Plutarch</span>.</p></div> + +<div class="sidenote">Vitellius, +April 16, +Dec. 20, +69.</div> + +<p>19. Vitellius, in his thirty-seventh year, was +acknowledged emperor not only by the senate, +but likewise in the provinces; his debaucheries +and cruelty, however, together with the licentiousness +of his troops, having rendered him +odious at Rome, the Syrian legions rebelled and +proclaimed their general, +<span class="sidenote">Vespasian proclaimed emperor.</span> +T. Flavius Vespasian, +emperor, who, at the solicitation of the powerful +Mutianus, governor of Syria, accepted the imperial +diadem. The troops on the Danube declaring +for him shortly after, and marching into Italy +under their general Antonius Primus defeated +the army of Vitellius at Cremona. Vitellius was +immediately hurled from the throne, though not +till after some blood had been spilt by the commotions +that took place at Rome, in which Flavius +Sabinus, the brother of Vespasian, was slain, and +the capitol burnt.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">Vespasian, +Dec. 20, 69—June +24, +79.</div> + + +<p>20. Flavius Vespasian ascended the throne in +his fifty-ninth year, and became thereby the +founder of a dynasty which gave three emperors +to Rome. The state, almost ruined by profusion, +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_427" id="Page_427">[Pg 427]</a></span>civil war, and successive revolutions, found in +Vespasian a monarch well suited to its unhappy +condition. He endeavoured, as far as he could, +to determine the relations between +<span class="sidenote">Fixes the power of the senate;</span> +himself and the senate; while, by a decree, he restored to it +all the rights and privileges which had been conferred +upon it by his predecessors of the family of +Cæsar, and settled and added some others (<i>lex +regia</i>). He made a thorough reform in the +<span class="sidenote">improves the treasury;</span> +completely-exhausted +treasury, which he recruited in +part by reducing the countries Nero had made +free, together with some others, into provinces; +partly by restoring the ancient customs, by increasing +others, and by imposing new ones: without +this it would have been impossible for him to +have reestablished the discipline of the army. +<span class="sidenote">founds public buildings, and promotes education; banishes the Stoics;</span> +His liberality in the foundation of public buildings, +as well in Rome as in other cities; and the +care with which he promoted education, by granting +salaries to public teachers, are sufficient to +free him from the reproach of avarice; and although, +on account of their dangerous opinions, +he banished the Stoics (who since the time of +Nero had become very numerous, and retained +nearly all the principles of republicanism), the annulling of the +<span class="sidenote">and annuls the <i>judicia majestatis</i>.</span> +<i>judicia majestatis</i> and the restoration +of the authority of the senate show how far +he was from being a despot.</p> + +<div class="sblockquot"><p>Rhodes, Samos, Lycia, Achaia, Thrace, Cilicia, and Commagene, +were brought by Vespasian into the condition of provinces. +Foreign wars: that against the Jews, which ended with the destruction +of Jerusalem, A. C. 70; and a much greater war +against the Batavians and their allies under Civilis, who during +the late civil wars, sought to shake off the Roman yoke, 69; but +were reduced to an accommodation by Cerealis, 70. Expeditions<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_428" id="Page_428">[Pg 428]</a></span> +of Agricola in Britain, 78—85, who not only subdued all England, +and introduced the Roman manners and customs, but also +attacked and sailed round Scotland.</p> + +<p><i>D. Vespasianus, sive de vita et legislatione T. Flavii Vespasiani +Imp. commentarius, auctore</i> <span class="smcap">A. G. Cramer</span>. Jenæ, 1785. +An excellent enquiry, with illustrations of the fragments of the +<i>lex regia</i>. The second part, <i>de legislatione</i>, contains a learned +commentary upon the <i>senatus consulta</i>, during his reign.</p></div> + +<div class="sidenote">Titus, +June 27, +79—Sept. +13, 81.</div> + +<p>21. His eldest son, Titus Flavius Vespasian, +who in the year 70 had been created Cæsar, and +reigned from his thirty-ninth to his forty-second +year, gives us the rare example of a prince becoming +better on the throne. His short and benevolent +reign was, indeed, only remarkable for +its public calamities: an eruption of mount Vesuvius, +overwhelming several cities, was followed +by a destructive fire, and +<span class="sidenote">Dreadful fire and plague, 79.</span> +a dreadful plague at +Rome. His early death secured him the reputation +of being, if not the happiest, at least the best +of princes.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">Domitian, +Sept. 13, 81—Sept. +18, +96.<br /> + +a complete and cruel despot;<br /> + +unsuccessful in war;<br /> + +raises the soldiers' pay;<br /> + +employs informers.</div> + +<p>22. His younger brother and successor, L. +Flavius Domitian, who reigned from his thirtieth +to his forty-fifth year, gives an example quite opposite +to that of Titus: beginning with justice +and severity, he soon degenerated into the completest +despot that ever swayed the Roman sceptre. +His cruelty, joined to an equal degree of pride, +and nourished by suspicion and jealousy, made +him the enemy of all who excelled him by their +exploits, their riches, or their talents. The mortifications +to which his pride must have been subjected +in consequence of his unsuccessful wars +against the Catti, and more particularly the Daci, +increased his bad disposition. His despotism +was founded upon his armies, whose pay he aug<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_429" id="Page_429">[Pg 429]</a></span>mented +one fourth; and that he might not thereby +diminish the treasury, as he had too much +done at first, he multiplied the <i>judicia majestatis</i>, +rendering it still more terrible by the employment +of secret informers (<i>delatores</i>), in order, by +confiscations, to augment the wealth of his private +treasury (<i>fiscus</i>). By confining his cruelty +chiefly to the capital, and by a strict superintendence +over the governors of provinces, Domitian +prevented any such general disorganization of the +empire as took place under Nero. His fall confirmed +the general truth, that tyrants have little +to fear from the people, but much from individuals +who may think their lives in danger.</p> + +<div class="sblockquot"><p>The foreign wars during this reign are rendered more worthy +of remark by being the first in which the barbarians attacked the +empire with success. Domitian's ridiculous expedition against +the Catti, 82, gave the first proof of his boundless vanity; as did +the recall of the victorious Agricola, 85, from Britain, of his jealousy. +His most important war was that against the Daci, or +Getæ, who, under their brave king Dercebal, had attacked the +Roman frontiers; this again occasioned another with their neighbours, +the Marcomanni, Quadi, and Jazygi, 86—90, which +turned out so unfortunate for Rome, that Domitian was obliged +to purchase a peace of the Daci by paying them an annual +tribute.</p></div> + +<div class="sidenote">Nerva, +Jan. 24, 96—Jan. +27, 98.<br /> +his reign +the dawn of +a happy +period.</div> + +<p>23. M. Cocceius Nerva, aged about seventy +years was raised to the throne by the murderers +of Domitian; and now, at last, seemed to break +forth the dawn of a more happy period for the +empire. The preceding reign of terror completely +ceased at once; and he endeavoured to +impart fresh vigour to industry, not only by diminishing +the taxes, but also by distributing lands +to the poor. The insurrection of the guards cer<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_430" id="Page_430">[Pg 430]</a></span>tainly +cost the murderers of Domitian their lives; +but it was at the same time the cause of Nerva's +securing the prosperity of the empire after his +death, by the adoption of Trajan.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">Trajan, +Jan. 24, 98—Aug. 11, 117.<br /> + +the best of +the Roman +monarchs.<br /> + +Restores the Roman constitution;<br /> + +his frugality and liberality;<br /> + +conquers Dacia,<br /> + +Armenia, Mesopotamia, and part of Arabia.</div> + +<p>24. M. Ulpius Trajan (after his adoption, Nerva +Trajan), a Spaniard by birth, governed the empire +from his forty-second to his sixty-second +year. He was the first foreigner who ascended +the Roman throne, and at the same time the first +of their monarchs who was equally great as a +ruler, a general, and a man. After completely +abolishing the <i>judicia majestatis</i>, he made the restoration +of the <i>free Roman constitution</i>, so far as +it was compatible with a monarchical form, his +peculiar care. He restored the elective power to +the <i>comitia</i>, complete liberty of speech to the senate, +and to the magistrates their former authority; +and yet he exercised the art of ruling to a +degree and in a detail which few princes have +equalled. Frugal in his expenses, he was nevertheless +splendidly liberal to every useful institution, +whether in Rome or the provinces, as well +as in the foundation of military roads, public monuments, +and schools for the instruction of poor +children. By his wars he extended the dominion +of Rome beyond its former boundaries; subduing, +in his contests with the Daci, their country, +and reducing it to a Roman province; as he likewise +did, in his wars against the Armenians and +Parthians, Armenia, Mesopotamia, and part of +Arabia. Why was so great a character disfigured +by an ambition of conquest?</p> + +<div class="sblockquot"><p>The first war against the Daci, in which the shameful tribute +was withdrawn and Dercebal reduced to subjection, lasted from<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_431" id="Page_431">[Pg 431]</a></span> +101—103. But as Dercebal again rebelled, the war was renewed +in 105, and brought to a close in 106, when Dacia was +reduced to a Roman province, and many Roman colonies established +therein. The war with the Parthians arose from a dispute +respecting the possession of the throne of Armenia (see +above, p. 304), 114—116: but although Rome was victorious +she gained no permanent advantage thereby.</p> + +<p>The especial source for the history of Trajan is the <i>Panegyricus</i> +of <span class="smcap">Pliny the Younger</span>; the correspondence, however, of +the same writer, while governor of Bithynia, with the emperor, +affords us a much deeper insight into the spirit of his government: +<span class="smcap">Plinii</span> <i>Epist.</i> lib. x. Who can read it without admiring +the royal statesman?</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Rittershusii</span> <i>Trajanus in lucem reproductus</i>. Ambegæ, +1608. A mere collection of passages occurring in ancient authors +respecting Trajan.</p> + +<p><i>Res Trajani Imperatoris ad Danubium Gestæ, auctore</i> <span class="smcap">Conrad +Mannert</span>. Norimb. 1793: and</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Joh. Christ. Engel</span>, <i>Commentatio de Expeditionibus Trajani +ad Danubium, et origine Valachorum</i>. Vindob. 1794.—Both +learned dissertations, written for the prize offered by the +Royal Society of Gottingen; the first of which obtained the +prize, and the other the <i>accessit</i>, i. e. was declared second best.</p></div> + +<div class="sidenote">Adrian.</div> + +<p>25. By the contrivances of Plotina, his wife, +Trajan was succeeded by his cousin and pupil, +whom he is said also to have adopted, P. Ælius +Adrian, who reigned from his forty-second to his +sixty-third year. He was acknowledged at once +by the army of Asia, with which he then was, +and the sanction of the senate followed immediately +after. He differed from his predecessor +in that his chief aim was the preservation of +peace; on which account he gave up (rare moderation!), +directly after his accession, the newly +conquered provinces of Asia, Armenia, Assyria, +and Mesopotamia, and so put an end to the Par<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_432" id="Page_432">[Pg 432]</a></span>thian +war (see above, p. 304.) He retained, +though with some unwillingness, that of Dacia, +because otherwise the Roman colonies would +have become exposed. He well made up for his +pacific disposition, however, in seeking, by a general +and vigorous reform in the internal administration, +and by restoring the discipline of the +army, to give greater solidity to the empire. For +that purpose he visited successively all the provinces +of the Roman empire; first the eastern, +and afterwards the western; making useful regulations +and establishing order wherever he came. +He improved the Roman jurisprudence by the +introduction of the <i>edictum perpetuum</i>. Passionately +fond of and well instructed in literature and +the fine arts, he gave them his liberal protection, +and thus called forth another Augustan age. +Upon the whole, his reign was certainly a salutary +one for the empire; and for any single acts +of injustice of which he may be accused, he fully +compensated by his choice of a successor. After +having first adopted L. Aurelius Verus (afterwards +Ælius Verus), who fell a sacrifice to his debaucheries, +he next adopted T. Aurelius Antoninus +(afterwards T. Ælius Adrianus Antoninus Pius), +upon condition that he should again adopt M. +Aurelius Verus (afterwards M. Aurelius Antoninus), +and L. Cesonius Commodus (afterwards L. +Verus), the son of Ælius Verus.</p> + +<div class="sblockquot"><p>During his reign a great revolt broke out in Judæa, under +Barcochab, 132—135, occasioned by the introduction of pagan +worship into the Roman colony of <i>Ælia Capitolina</i> (the ancient +Jerusalem).</p> + +<p>The especial source for the history of Adrian, is his <i>Life</i> and<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_433" id="Page_433">[Pg 433]</a></span> +that of <i>Ælius Verus</i> by <span class="smcap">Ælius Spartianus</span> <i>in Script. Hist. +Aug. Minores</i>, already quoted.</p></div> + +<div class="sidenote">Antoninus +Pius, July +10, 138.—March +7, +161.</div> + +<p>26. The reign of Antoninus Pius, from his +forty-seventh to his seventieth year, was without +doubt the happiest period of the Roman empire. +He found everything already in excellent order; +and those ministers which Adrian had appointed, +he continued in their places. His quiet activity +furnishes but little matter for history; and yet he +was, perhaps, the most noble character that ever +sat upon a throne. Although a prince, his life +was that of the most blameless individual; while +he administered the affairs of the empire as +though they were his own. He honoured the +senate; and the provinces flourished under him, +not only because he kept a watchful eye over the +conduct of the governors, but because he made it +a maxim of his government to continue in their +places all those whose probity he had sufficiently +proved. He observed rigid order in the finances, +and yet without sparing where it could be of +service in the foundation or improvement of useful +institutions; as his erection of many buildings, +establishment of public teachers with salaries in +all the provinces, and other examples fully show. +He carried on no war himself; on the contrary, +several foreign nations made choice of him to +arbitrate their differences. Some rebellions which +broke out in Britain and Egypt, and some frontier +wars excited by the Germans, the Daci, the +Moors, and the Alani, were quelled by his lieutenants.</p> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_434" id="Page_434">[Pg 434]</a></span></p><div class="sblockquot"><p>The principal and almost the only source for the history of +Antoninus Pius, Dion Cassius's history of this period being lost, +is his <i>Life</i> by <span class="smcap">Julius Capitolinus</span> in the <i>Script. Hist. August.</i> +And even this refers to his private character rather than his +public history. Compare the excellent <i>Reflections</i> of <span class="smcap">Marcus +Aurelius</span>, i, 16. upon this prince.</p> + +<p><i>Vie des Empereurs Tite Antonin et Marc Aurele</i>, <i>par</i> <span class="smcap">M. +Gautier de Sibert</span>. Paris, 1769, 8vo. A valuable essay on +the lives of the two Antonines.</p></div> + +<div class="sidenote">Marcus +Aurelius, +March 7, +161.—March +17, +180.</div> + + +<p>27. He was succeeded by Marcus Aurelius +Antoninus, the philosopher (aged 40—59 years), +who immediately associated with himself, under +the title of Augustus, L. Verus (aged 30—40 +years, † 169), to whom he gave his daughter in +marriage. Notwithstanding the differences of +their character, the most cordial union existed +between them during the whole of their common +reign; L. Verus, indeed, being almost always +absent in the wars, took but a very small share in +the government. The reign of M. Aurelius was +marked by several great calamities: a dreadful +pestilence, a famine, and almost continual wars. +Nothing short of a prince like Aurelius, who exhibited +to the world the image of wisdom seated +on a throne, could have made so much misery tolerable. Soon after +<span class="sidenote">161—166.</span> +his accession, the Catti +made an irruption upon the Rhine, and the Parthians +in Asia. L. Verus was sent against them. +But the wars on the Danube with the Marcomanni +and their allies in Pannonia, and other +<span class="sidenote">The northern nations begin to press forward.</span> +northern nations, who now began to press forward +with great force upon Dacia, were of much greater +consequence. They occupied M. Aurelius from +the year 167, with but little intermission, to the +end of his reign. He succeeded, indeed, in main<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_435" id="Page_435">[Pg 435]</a></span>taining +the boundaries of the empire; but then +he was the first who settled any of the barbarians +within it, or took them into the Roman +service. In the internal administration of affairs +he closely followed the steps of his predecessor, +<span class="sidenote">Avidius Cassius's rebellion,</span> +except that he was rather too much influenced +by his freedmen and family. The only rebellion +which broke out against him, was that of Avidius +Cassius, his lieutenant in Syria, occasioned by a +false report of his +<span class="sidenote">and death, 175.</span> +death; but it was quelled by +the destruction of that general, as soon as the +truth was made known.</p> + +<div class="sblockquot"><p>The war against the Parthians (see above, p. 304) was indeed +brought to a successful issue by Verus, the principal cities of the +Parthians falling into the hands of the Romans; Verus left +them, however, to be carried on by his lieutenants, while he rioted +in debaucheries at Antioch. The first war against the Marcomanni, +carried on in the beginning and until the death of Verus, +by the two emperors together, was highly dangerous for Rome, +as many other nations had joined the Marcomanni, particularly +the Quadi, Jazygi, and Vandals, and penetrated as far as Aquileia. +M. Aurelius ended this war by a glorious peace, 174, as +he found it necessary to stop the progress of Cassius's rebellion; +in 178, however, the Marcomanni again commenced hostilities, +and before their close M. Aurelius died at Sirmium. Contemporary +with these wars, yet, as it seems, without any connection +with them, were the attacks of other nations upon Dacia, the +Bastarnæ, Alani, etc. who poured in from the north, probably +pressed forward by the advance of the Goths. <i>This was the first +symptom of the great migration of nations now beginning.</i></p> + +<p>The especial sources for the history of M. Aurelius, are the +Biographies of him and L. Verus, written by <span class="smcap">Julius Capitolinus</span>, +as well as that of Avidius Cassius, by <span class="smcap">Vulcatius Gallicanus</span> +in <i>Script. Hist. August.</i> The letters discovered in Milan, +among and together with the writings of <span class="smcap">Fronto</span>, are of no historical +service.—His principles are best learnt from his <i>Meditations +on himself</i>.</p> +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_436" id="Page_436">[Pg 436]</a></span></p> +<p><span class="smcap">Ch. Meiners</span> <i>de M. Aurel. Antonini ingenio, moribus, et +scriptis, in Commentat. Soc. Gotting.</i> vol. vi.</p></div> + +<div class="sidenote">T. Commodus, +March +17, 180—Dec. +31, +192.</div> + +<p>28. By means of adoption the Roman empire +had been blessed, during the last eighty years, +with a succession of rulers such as have not often +fell to the lot of any kingdom. But in J. Commodus +the son of M. Aurelius (probably the offspring +of a gladiator), who reigned from his nineteenth +to his thirty-first year, there ascended the +throne a monster of cruelty, insolence, and lewdness. +At the commencement of his reign he +bought a peace of the Marcomanni that he might +return to Rome. Being himself unable to support +the burden of government, the helm of state +<span class="sidenote">Perennis, † 186.</span> +was placed in the hands of the stern and cruel +Perennis, præfect of the prætorian guard; but +who, being murdered by the discontented soldiers, +was succeeded by the freedman +<span class="sidenote">Cleander, † 189.</span> +Cleander, who put up all for sale, till he fell a sacrifice to +his own insatiable avarice, in a revolt of the +people, caused by their want of provisions. The +extravagant propensity of Commodus for the +diversions of the amphitheatres, and the combats +of wild beasts and gladiators, wherein he himself +usually took a part, in the character of Hercules, +became a chief cause of his dissipation, and +thereby of his cruelty; till at last he was killed +at the instigation of his concubine Marcia, Lætus +the præfect of the prætorian guard, and Electus. +<span class="sidenote">182—184.</span> +The wars on the frontiers during his reign, in +Dacia, and especially in Britain, were successfully +carried on by his lieutenants, generals who +belonged to the school of his father.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_437" id="Page_437">[Pg 437]</a></span></p> + +<div class="sblockquot"><p>The especial source for the history of Commodus is his private +life by <span class="smcap">Æl. Lampridius</span>, in the <i>Script. Hist. August.</i>—The +history of Herodian begins with his reign.</p></div> + +<div class="sidenote">State of the +empire at +this period.</div> + +<p>29. The disasters under M. Aurelius, and the +extravagances of Commodus, had injured the empire, +but not enfeebled it. Towards the close of +the period of the Antonines it still retained its +pristine vigour. If wise regulations, internal peace, +moderate taxes, a certain degree of political, and +unrestrained civil liberty, are sufficient to form +the happiness of a commonwealth, it must have +been found in the Roman. What a number of +advantages did it possess over every other, simply +from its situation! Proofs of it appear on every +side. A vigorous population, rich provinces, +flourishing and splendid cities, and a lively internal +and foreign trade. But the most solid +foundation of the happiness of a nation consists in +its moral greatness, and this we here seek for in +vain. Otherwise the nation would not so easily +have suffered itself to be brought under the yoke +of Commodus by prætorian cohorts and the legions. +But what best shows the strength which +the empire still retained, is the opposition it continued +to make, for two hundred years longer, to +the formidable attacks from without.</p> + +<div class="sblockquot"><p><span class="smcap">D. H. Hegewisch</span> <i>upon the Epochs in Roman History most +favourable to Humanity</i>. Hamburg, 1800—8.</p> + +<p>Foreign commerce, so flourishing in this period, could only be +carried on, to any extent, with the east—mostly with India—as +the Roman empire spread over all the west. This trade continued +to be carried on through Egypt, and also through Palmyra +and Syria. Information thereupon will be found in</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">W. Robertson's</span> <i>Disquisition concerning the Knowledge +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_438" id="Page_438">[Pg 438]</a></span> +which the Ancients had of India</i>. London, 1791, 4to. Often +reprinted. And particularly upon Egypt, in</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">W. Vincent</span>, <i>the Periplus of the Erythrean Sea</i>. London, +1802, 4to. 2 vols. A very instructive work.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Heeren</span>, <i>Commentationes de Græcorum et Romanorum de +India notitia, et cum Indis commerciis</i>: <i>in Commentat. Soc. +Gott.</i> vol. x. xi.</p></div> + + +<hr style='width: 25%;' /> +<h2>SECOND SECTION.</h2> + +<p class="cblockquot"><i>From the death of Commodus to Diocletian, +A. C. 193—284.</i></p> + +<div class="sblockquot"><p><span class="smcap">Sources.</span> The Extracts of Xiphilinus from <span class="smcap">Dion Cassius</span>, +lib. lxxiii—lxxx. though often imperfect, reach down as low as +the consulate of Dion himself under Alexander Severus, 229.—<span class="smcap">Herodiani</span> +<i>Hist.</i> libri viii. comprise the period from Commodus +to Gordian, 180—238.—The <i>Scriptores Historiæ Augustæ Minores</i> +contain the private lives of the emperors down to Diocletian, +by <span class="smcap">Julius Capitolinus, Flavius Vopiscus</span>, etc.—The +<i>Breviaria Historiæ Romanæ</i> of <span class="smcap">Eutropius, Aurelius Victor</span>, +and <span class="smcap">S. Rufus</span> are particularly important for this period.—Finally, +the important information that may be derived from the +study of medals and coins, not only for this section, but for the +whole history of the emperors, may be best learnt by consulting +the writers upon those subjects: <span class="smcap">J. Vaillant</span>, <i>Numismata Augustorum +et Cæsarum</i>, <i>cura</i> <span class="smcap">J. F. Baldino</span>. Rome, 1743, 3 vols. +<i>The Medallic History of Imperial Rome</i>, by <span class="smcap">W. Cooke</span>. London, +1781, 2 vols.—But above all, the volumes belonging to this +period in <span class="smcap">Eckhel</span>, <i>Doctrina Nummorum Veterum</i>.</p> + +<p>With the period of the Antonines begins the great work of +the British historian:</p> + +<p><i>The History of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire</i>, +by <span class="smcap">Edward Gibbon</span>. Oxford, 1828, 8 vols. 8vo. In worth and +extent this work is superior to all others. It embraces the whole +period of the middle ages; but only the first part belongs to this +period.</p></div><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_439" id="Page_439">[Pg 439]</a></span></p> + +<div class="sidenote">Pertinax, +Jan. 1—March 28, 193.</div> + +<p>1. The extinction of the race of the Antonines +by the death of Commodus was attended with +convulsions similar to those which took place +when the house of Cæsar became extinct at the +death of Nero. It is true that P. Helvius Pertinax, +aged sixty-seven, præfect of the city, was +raised to the throne by the murderers of Commodus; +and that he was acknowledged, first by the +guards, and afterwards by the senate. But the +reform which he was obliged to make at the beginning +of his reign in the finances, rendered him +so odious to the soldiers and courtiers, that a revolt +of the first, excited by Lætus, cost him his +life before he had reigned quite three months. +This was the first commencement of that dreadful +military despotism which forms the ruling character +of this period; and to none did it become +so terrible as to those who wished to make it the +main support of their absolute power.</p> + +<div class="sblockquot"><p>The insolence of the prætorian guard had risen very high during +the reign of Commodus; but it had never, even in the time +of the Antonines, been entirely suppressed. It was only by +large donatives that their consent could be purchased, their caprice +satisfied, and their good humour maintained; especially at +every new adoption. One of the greatest reproaches to the age +of the Antonines is, that those great princes, who seem to have +had the means so much in their power, did not free themselves +from so annoying a dependence.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Jul. Capitolini</span> <i>Pertinax Imp. in Script. Hist. Aug.</i></p></div> + +<div class="sidenote">Didias Julianus.</div> + +<p>2. When, upon the death of Pertinax, the rich +and profligate M. Didius Julianus, aged fifty-seven, +had outbid, to the great scandal of the +people, all his competitors for the empire, and +purchased it of the prætorian guard, an insurrection +of the legions, who were better able to create +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_440" id="Page_440">[Pg 440]</a></span>emperors, very naturally followed. But as the +army of Illyria proclaimed their general +<span class="sidenote">Septimius Severus, Pescennius Niger, Albinus.</span> +Septimius Severus, the army of Syria, Pescennius Niger, +and the army of Britain, Albinus, nothing less +than a series of civil wars could decide who should +maintain himself on the throne.</p> + +<div class="sblockquot"><p><span class="smcap">Æl. Spartiani</span> <i>Didius Julianus, in Script. Hist. Aug.</i></p></div> + +<p>3. Septimius Severus, however, aged 49—66, +was the first who got possession of Rome, and, +after the execution of Didius Julianus, he was +acknowledged by the senate. He dismissed, it +is true, the old prætorian guard, but immediately +chose, from his own army, one four times more +numerous in its stead. And after he had provisionally +declared Albinus emperor, he marched +his army against Pescennius Niger, already master +of the east, whom, after several contests near +the Issus, he defeated and slew. Nevertheless, +having first taken and destroyed the strong city +of Byzantium, a war with Albinus soon followed, +whom the perfidious Severus had already attempted +to remove by assassination. After a +bloody defeat near Lyons, +<span class="sidenote">Albinus kills himself, Feb. 19, 197.</span> +Albinus kills himself. +These civil wars were followed by hostilities +against the Parthians, who had taken the part of +Pescennius, and which ended with the plundering +of their principal cities (see above, p. 304). Severus +possessed most of the virtues of a soldier; +but the insatiable avarice of his minister Plautianus, +the formidable captain of the prætorian +guard, robbed the empire even of those advantages +which may be enjoyed under a military government, +<span class="sidenote">204.</span> +until he was put to death at the instigation +of Caracalla. To keep his legions em<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_441" id="Page_441">[Pg 441]</a></span>ployed, +Severus undertook an expedition into +Britain, where, after extending the boundaries of +the empire, he died at York (<i>Eboracum</i>), leaving +his son the maxim, "to enrich the soldiers, and +hold the rest for nothing."</p> + +<div class="sblockquot"><p>Agricola had already erected a line of fortresses, probably +between the Firth of Clyde and the Firth of Forth. These were +changed by Adrian into a wall along the present boundaries of +Scotland. Severus again extended the frontiers, reestablished +the fortresses of Agricola, and afterwards built a wall from sea +to sea; his son, however, gave up the conquered country, and the +wall of Adrian again became the boundary of the empire.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Æl. Spartiani</span> <i>Septimius Severus et Pescennius Niger</i>.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Jul. Capitolini</span> <i>Claudius Albinus, in Script. Hist. Aug.</i></p></div> + +<div class="sidenote"> +Caracalla, +Feb. 4, 211—April +4, +217.</div> + +<p>4. The deadly hatred which reigned between +the two sons of Severus, M. Aurelius Antoninus +Bassianus Caracalla, aged 23—29, and his young +step-brother Geta, aged twenty-one, led to a +dreadful catastrophe; for at their return to Rome, +and after a fruitless proposition had been made +for a division of the empire, +<span class="sidenote">Geta murdered, April 4, 212.</span> +Geta was assassinated +in the arms of his mother Julia Domna, together +with all those who were considered as his +friends. The restless spirit of Caracalla, however, +soon drew him from Rome, and in traversing +first the provinces along the Danube, and +then those of the east, he ruined them all by his +exactions and cruelty, to which he was driven for +money to pay his soldiers, and to purchase peace +of his enemies on the frontiers. The same necessity +led him to grant the right of citizenship to all +the provinces, that he might thereby gain the +duty of the <i>vicesima hereditatum et manumissionum</i> +(twentieth upon inheritances and enfranchisements), +which he very soon afterwards changed +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_442" id="Page_442">[Pg 442]</a></span>into a tenth (<i>decima</i>).—With respect to his foreign +wars, his first was against the Catti and Alemanni, +<span class="sidenote">215.</span> +among whom he remained a long time, +sometimes as a friend and sometimes as an enemy. +But his principal efforts, after having previously +ordered a dreadful massacre of the inhabitants +of Alexandria, to satisfy his cruel rapacity, +were directed against +<span class="sidenote">216.</span> +the Parthians (see +above, p. 304); and in his wars against them he +was assassinated by Macrinus, the præfect of the +prætorian guard.</p> + +<div class="sblockquot"><p>The præfect, or captain, of the prætorian guard became, from +the time of Severus, the most important officer in the state. +Besides the command of the guards, the finances were also under +his control, together with an extensive criminal jurisdiction. A +natural consequence of the continually increasing despotism.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Æl. Spartiani</span> <i>Antoninus Caracalla et Ant. Geta, in Script. +Hist. Aug.</i></p></div> + +<div class="sidenote">Macrinus, +April 11, +217—June +8, 218.</div> + +<p>5. His murderer, M. Opelius Macrinus, aged +fifty-three, was recognized as emperor by the soldiers, +and forthwith acknowledged by the senate. +He immediately created his son, M. Opelius Diadumenus, +aged nine years, Cæsar, and gave him +the name of Antoninus. He disgracefully terminated +the war against the Parthians by purchasing +a peace, and changed the <i>decima</i> (tenth) of +Caracalla again into the <i>vicesima</i> (twentieth). +However, while he still remained in Asia, Bassianus +Heliogabalus, grand-nephew of Julia Domna, +and high priest in the temple of the Sun at +Emesa, whom his mother gave out for a son of +Caracalla, was proclaimed emperor by the legions, +and, after a combat with the guards, subsequently +to which Macrinus and his son lost their +lives, they raised him to the throne.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_443" id="Page_443">[Pg 443]</a></span></p> + +<div class="sblockquot"><p>Mæsa, the sister of Julia Domna, had two daughters, both +widows; Soæmis, the eldest, was the mother of Heliogabalus, +Mammæa, the youngest, the mother of Alexander Severus.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Jul. Capitolini</span> <i>Opelius Macrinus, in Script. Hist. Aug.</i></p></div> + +<div class="sidenote">Heliogabalus, +June 8, +218—March +11, 222.</div> + +<p>6. Heliogabalus, aged 14—18, who assumed +the additional name of M. Aurelius Antoninus, +brought with him from Syria the superstitions +and voluptuousness of that country. He introduced +the worship of his god Heliogabal in Rome, +and wallowed openly in such brutal and infamous +debaucheries, that history can scarcely find a +parallel to his dissolute, shameless, and scandalous +conduct. How low must the morality of that +age have been sunk, in which a boy could so early +have ripened into a monster!—The debasement +of the senate, and of all important offices, which +he filled with the degraded companions of his +own lusts and vices, was systematically planned +by him; and he deserves no credit even for the +adoption of his cousin, the virtuous Alexander +Severus, as he shortly after endeavoured to take +away his life, but was himself for that reason assassinated +by the prætorian guards.</p> + +<div class="sblockquot"><p>† <span class="smcap">Æl. Lampridii</span> <i>Ant. Heliogabalus, in Script. Hist. Aug.</i></p></div> + +<div class="sidenote">Alexander +Severus, +March 11, +222—Aug. +235.</div> + + +<p>7. His young cousin and successor, M. Aurelius +Alexander Severus, aged 14—27, who had been +carefully educated under the direction of his mother +Mammæa, proved one of the best princes in +an age and upon a throne where virtues were +more dangerous than vices. Under favour of his +youth he endeavoured to effect a reform, in which +he was supported by the cooperation of the guards, +who had elevated him to the throne. He restored +the authority of the senate, from among +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_444" id="Page_444">[Pg 444]</a></span>whom he chose, with rigid justice, his privy council +of state, banishing the creatures of Heliogabalus +<span class="sidenote">War against Persia, 226.</span> +from their places. The revolution in the +Parthian empire, out of which was now formed +the new Persian, was of so much importance to +Rome, that it obliged Alexander to undertake a +war against Artaxerxes, in which he was probably +victorious. But while +<span class="sidenote">231—233.</span> +marching in haste to protect the frontiers against the advance of the +Germans upon the Rhine, his soldiers, exasperated +at the severity of his discipline, and incited +by the Thracian Maximin, +<span class="sidenote">235.</span> +murdered him +in his own tent. His præfect of the prætorian +guard, Ulpian, had already, for the same cause, +fallen a victim to this spirit of insubordination, which was not checked +<span class="sidenote">222.</span> +even by the immediate +presence of the emperor himself.</p> + +<div class="sblockquot"><p>The revolution in Parthia, whereby a new Persian empire was +formed (see above, p. 304.), became a source of almost perpetual +war to Rome; Artaxerxes I. and his successors, the Sassanides, +claiming to be descendants of the ancient kings of Persia, formed +pretensions to the possession of all the Asiatic provinces of the +Roman empire.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Ælii Lampridii</span> <i>Alexander Severus</i>, <i>in Script. Hist. Aug.</i></p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Heyne</span> <i>de Alexandro Severo Judicium</i>, Comment. i. ii. in +<i>Opuscula Academica</i>, vol. vi.</p></div> + +<div class="sidenote">Maximinus +Aug. +235—May, +238.<br /> + +236.<br /> + +237.</div> + +<p>8. The death of A. Severus raised military +despotism to the highest pitch, as it placed on the +throne the half savage C. Julius Maximinus, by +birth a Thracian peasant. At first he continued +the war against the Germans with great success, +repulsing them beyond the Rhine; and resolved, +by crossing Pannonia, to carry the war even +among the Sarmatians. But his insatiable rapacity, +which spared neither the capital nor the +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_445" id="Page_445">[Pg 445]</a></span>provinces, made him hateful to all; and Gordian, +proconsul of Africa, in his eightieth year, +was, together with his son of the same name, +proclaimed Augustus by the people, and immediately +acknowledged by the senate. Upon +<span class="sidenote">April, 238.</span> +this, Maximinus, eager to take vengeance on the +senate, marched directly from Sirmium towards +Italy. In the mean time, the legions of the +almost defenceless Gordians were defeated in +<span class="sidenote">The Gordians.</span> +Africa, and themselves slain by Capellianus the +governor of Numidia. Notwithstanding this, as +the senate could expect no mercy, they chose as +co-emperors the præfect of the city, Maximus +Pupienus, and Clodius +<span class="sidenote">Balbinus and Pupienus.</span> +Balbinus, who, in conformity +with the wishes of the people, created +the young Gordian III. Cæsar. In the meanwhile +Maximinus, having besieged Aquileia, and +the enterprise proving unsuccessful, was slain by +his own troops. Pupienus and Balbinus now +seemed in quiet possession of the throne; but +the guards, who had already been engaged in a +bloody feud with the people, and were not willing +to receive an emperor of the senate's choosing, +killed them both, and proclaimed as Augustus, +Gordian, already created Cæsar.</p> + +<div class="sblockquot"><p><span class="smcap">Jul. Capitolini</span> <i>Maximinus Gordiani tres, Pupienus et +Balbinus</i>, <i>in Script. Hist. August.</i></p></div> + +<div class="sidenote">Gordian +III. July, +238—Feb. +244.<br /> + +Syrian expedition, +241—243.</div> + +<p>9. The reign of the young M. Antoninus Gordianus +lasted from his twelfth to his eighteenth +year. He was grandson of the proconsul who had +lost his life in Africa, and in the early part of his +reign, acquired a degree of firmness from the +support of his father-in-law, Misitheus, præfect +of the prætorian guard, as well as from the suc<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_446" id="Page_446">[Pg 446]</a></span>cessful +expedition which he undertook into Syria +against the Persians, who had invaded that province. +But after the death of Misitheus, Philip +the Arabian, being made præfect of the guards in +his stead, found means to gain the troops over +to himself, and, after driving Gordian from the +throne, caused him to be assassinated.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">Philippus, +Feb. 244—Sept. +249.</div> + +<p>10. The reign of M. Julius Philippus was interrupted +by several insurrections, especially in +Pannonia; until at length Decius, whom he himself +had sent thither to quell the rebellion, was +compelled by the troops to assume the diadem. +Philip was soon after defeated by him near Verona, +where he perished, together with his son of +the same name. In this reign the secular games, +<i>ludi sæculares</i>, were celebrated, one thousand +years from the foundation of the city.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">247.<br /> + +Sept. 249—Oct. 251.<br /> + +250.<br /> + +Gallus.</div> + +<p>11. Under the reign of his successor, Trajanus +Decius, aged fifty, the Goths for the first time +forced their way into the Roman empire by crossing +the Danube; and although Decius in the beginning +opposed them with success, he was at +last slain by them in Thrace, together with his +son, Cl. Herennius Decius, already created Cæsar. +Upon this the army proclaimed C. Trebonianus +Gallus emperor, who created his son, Volusian, +Cæsar; and having invited Hostilian, the +yet remaining son of Decius, with the ostensible +purpose of securing his cooperation, he nevertheless +soon contrived to get rid of him. He purchased +a peace of the Goths; but, despised by his generals, +he became involved in a war with his victorious lieutenant, +<span class="sidenote">Æmilianus, May 253.</span> +Æmilius Æmilianus, in Mœsia, +and was slain, together with his son, by his own +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_447" id="Page_447">[Pg 447]</a></span>army. In three months, however, Æmilianus +shared the same fate; Publius Licinius Valerianus, +the friend and avenger of Gallus, advancing +against him with the legions stationed in Gaul. +Both the people and army hoped to see the empire +restored under +<span class="sidenote">Valerian.</span> +Valerian, already sixty years +of age; but, although his generals defended the +frontiers against the Germans and Goths, he +himself had the misfortune to be defeated and +taken prisoner by the superior forces of the Persians. +Upon this event his son and associate in +the empire, P. Licinius +<span class="sidenote">Gallienus, 259—968.</span> +Gallienus, who knew +everything except the art of governing, reigned +alone. Under his indolent rule the Roman empire +seemed on one hand ready to be split into +a number of small states, while on the other it +seemed about to fall a prey to the barbarians; +for the lieutenants in most of the provinces declared +themselves independent of a prince whom +they despised, and to which, indeed, they were +driven, like Posthumius in Gaul, for their own +security.—There were nineteen of these; but as +many of them named their sons Cæsars, this period +has been very improperly distinguished by +the name of <i>the thirty tyrants</i>, although their intolerable +oppressions might well justify the latter +expression. The Persians at the same time were +victorious in the east, and the Germans in the +west.</p> + +<div class="sblockquot"><p>The German nations which were now become so formidable to +the Roman empire, were: 1. The great confederation of tribes +under the name of <i>Franks</i>, who spread over Gaul along the whole +extent of the Lower Rhine. 2. The allied nations of the Alemanni +on the Upper Rhine. 3. The Goths, the most powerful +of all, who had formed a monarchy upon the banks of the Lower<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_448" id="Page_448">[Pg 448]</a></span> +Danube and the northern coasts of the Black sea, which soon +extended from the Boristhenes to the Don; and who became +formidable, not only by their land forces, but also by their naval +power, especially after they had captured the peninsula of Crim +Tartary (<i>Chersonesus Taurica</i>); and by means of their fleets +they not only kept the Grecian, but likewise the Asiatic provinces +in a continual state of alarm.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Trebelli Pollionis</span> <i>Valerianus, Gallieni duo, triginta tyranni</i>, +<i>in Script. Hist. Aug.</i></p> + +<p>† <i>Concerning the thirty tyrants under the Roman emperor +Gallienus</i>, by <span class="smcap">J. C. F. Manso</span>; at the end of his <i>Life of Constantine</i>.</p></div> + +<div class="sidenote">Claudius, +March, 268—Oct. +270.</div> + +<p>12. Gallienus losing his life before Milan, in +the war against Aureolus an usurper, had nevertheless +recommended M. Aurelius Claudius (aged +45—47) for his successor. The new Augustus +reestablished in some degree the tottering empire; +not only by taking Aureolus prisoner and +defeating the Alemanni, but also by a decisive +<span class="sidenote">269.</span> +victory gained at Nissa over the Goths, who had +invaded Mœsia. He died, however, soon after, +at Sirmium, of a pestilential disease, naming for +his successor Aurelian, a hero like himself, who +mounted the throne upon the death of Quintillus +the late emperor's brother, who had at first proclaimed +himself Augustus, but afterwards died by +his own hand.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Trebellii Pollionis</span> <i>divus Claudius</i>, <i>in Script. Hist. Aug.</i></p> + +<div class="sidenote">Aurelian, +Oct. 270—March, +275.</div> + +<p>13. During the reign of L. Domitius Aurelianus, +which lasted almost five years, those +countries which had been partly or entirely lost +to the empire were restored. Having first driven +back the Goths and the Alemanni, who had advanced +as far as Umbria, he undertook his expedition +<span class="sidenote">271.</span> +against the celebrated Zenobia, queen of +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_449" id="Page_449">[Pg 449]</a></span>Palmyra, who at that time possessed Syria, Egypt, +and part of Asia Minor. These countries he again +brought under the dominion of the empire, after having +<span class="sidenote">Zenobia defeated and made prisoner, 271—273.</span> +defeated Zenobia and made her prisoner. +The western provinces of Gaul, Britain, and Spain, +which since the time of Gallienus had +been governed by separate rulers, and were now +under the dominion of Tetricus, he reduced to +their former obedience. Dacia, on the contrary, +he willingly abandoned; and as he transported +<span class="sidenote">274.</span> +the Roman inhabitants across the Danube into +Mœsia, the latter henceforward bore the name of +<i>Dacia Aureliani</i>. Hated for his severity, which +in a warrior so easily degenerates into cruelty, +<span class="sidenote">275.</span> +he was assassinated in Illyria at the instigation of +his private secretary Mnestheus.</p> + +<div class="sblockquot"><p><span class="smcap">Flav. Vopisci</span> <i>divus Aurelianus</i>, <i>in Script. Hist. Aug.</i></p> + +<p>Palmyra in the Syrian desert, enriched by the Indian trade, +and one of the most ancient cities in the world, became a Roman +colony in the time of Trajan. Odenatus, the husband of Zenobia, +had acquired so much celebrity by his victories over the Persians, +that Gallienus had even named him Augustus with himself. +He was murdered, however, by his cousin Mæonius, 267. +Zenobia now took possession of the government for her sons +Vabalathus, Herennianus, and Timolaus, without, however, being +acknowledged at Rome. After this, in the time of Claudius, +she added Egypt to her dominions. Aurelian, having first +defeated her near Antioch and Emesa, soon afterwards took +Palmyra, which, in consequence of a revolt, he destroyed.—Even +in its ruins Palmyra is still magnificent.</p> + +<p><i>The Ruins of Palmyra</i>, by <span class="smcap">R. Wood</span>. London, 1753; and +the <i>Ruins of Balbec, otherwise Heliopolis</i>, by the same author, +London, 1757, give us clear and certain ideas of the splendour +and magnitude of these cities.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">A. H. L. Heeren</span>, <i>de Commercio urbis Palmyræ vicinarumque +urbium</i>, in <i>Comment. recent. Soc. Gotting.</i> vol. vii. and the +Appendix to Heeren's Researches.</p></div><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_450" id="Page_450">[Pg 450]</a></span></p> + +<div class="sidenote">Tacitus, +Sept. 25, +275—April, +276.</div> + +<p>14. An interregnum of six months followed +upon the death of Aurelian, till at length the +senate, at the repeated solicitations of the army, +ventured to fill up the vacant throne. The object +of their choice, however, M. Claudius Tacitus, +the worthiest of the senators, was unfortunately +seventy-five years old, and perished after a short +reign of six months, in an expedition against the +Goths. Upon this event the army of Syria raised +M. Aurelius Probus to the purple; while Florianus +the brother of Tacitus, who had already been +acknowledged at Rome, was put to death by his +own people.</p> + +<div class="sblockquot"><p><span class="smcap">Flav. Vopisci</span> <i>Tacitus; ejusd. Florianus</i>, <i>in Script. Hist. +Aug.</i></p></div> + +<div class="sidenote">Probus, +April, 276—August, +282.<br /> + +277.<br /> + +278.<br /> + +Carus, Aug. 282.<br /> + +Aug. 283.<br /> + +284.</div> + +<p>15. The six years' reign of Probus was a warlike +one. He defeated the Germans, and forced +them beyond the Rhine and Danube; strengthening +the frontiers by building a strong wall from +the Danube, near Regensburg, to the Rhine. He +also obliged the Persians to make peace. Nevertheless, +the number of towns which he reestablished +and peopled with prisoners of war, and the +vineyards which he caused his soldiers to plant +on the Rhine, are proofs that he had taste and +inclination for the arts of peace. This policy, +however, would not suit the legions! After he +had perished, therefore, by the hands of his +soldiers, they proclaimed the præfect of the prætorian +guard, M. Aurelius Carus, emperor, who +created his two sons Cæsars—men very unlike +each other in disposition, M. Aurelius Carinus +being one of the greatest reprobates, while M. +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_451" id="Page_451">[Pg 451]</a></span>Aurelius Numerianus was gentle by nature, and +had a mind well formed by study. The new emperor, +having defeated the Goths, marched against +the Persians, but was shortly afterwards killed, it +is said, by a flash of lightning. Nor did his son +Numerianus long survive him, being murdered +by his own father-in-law, Arrius Aper, the prætorian +præfect.</p> + +<div class="sblockquot"><p><span class="smcap">Flav. Vopisci</span> <i>Probus imper. ejusd. Carus, Numirianus et +Carinus</i>, <i>in Script. Hist. Aug.</i></p></div> + +<div class="sidenote">Review of +the government +during +this period.</div> + +<p>16. Although this period gives us a finished +picture of a complete military despotism, it is still +evident that this was owing to the entire separation +of the military order from the rest of the +people, by the introduction of standing armies, +and the extinction of all national spirit among +the citizens. The legions decided because the +people were unarmed. It was, indeed, only +among them, situated far from the soft luxuries +of the capital, and engaged in almost a continual +struggle with the barbarians, that a remnant of +the ancient Roman character was still preserved. +The nomination of their leaders to the purple became +a natural consequence, not only of the uncertainty +of the succession, which could not be +fixed by mere ordinances, but often of necessity, +from their being in the field under the pressure of +urgent circumstances. Thus a succession of distinguished +generals came to the throne: what +authority, indeed, would an emperor at that time +have had who was not a general? All durable +reform, however, was rendered quite impossible +by the quick succession of rulers. Even the best<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_452" id="Page_452">[Pg 452]</a></span> +among them could do but very little for the internal +administration; as all their energies were +required to protect the frontiers, and defend +themselves against usurpers, who, with the exception +of the formality of being acknowledged +by the senate, had claims as well founded as +their own.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">Luxury hastens +the decline +of the +empire.</div> + +<p>17. The decline of the empire also became so +much the more rapid, in proportion as in these +days of terror luxury had increased not only in +the splendour and profligate effeminacy of private +life, but more particularly in public, to a pitch +almost beyond belief. The latter was especially +shown in the exhibitions of the amphitheatre and +circus; by which not only every new ruler, but +even every new magistrate was obliged to purchase +the favour of the people. Thus these remnants +of a free constitution served only to accelerate +the general ruin! What enjoyments, indeed, +could be found under the rod of despotism, except +those of the grossest sensuality; and to +satisfy this, the intellectual amusements of the +theatre (mimes and pantomimes), and even those +of rhetoric and poetry, were made to contribute.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">Progress +and effects +of the +Christian +religion.</div> + +<p>18. Yet, during this general decay, the gradual +spread of the Christian religion was working a +reform altogether of a different nature. Before +the end of this period it had opened itself a way +into every province, and, notwithstanding the +frequent persecutions, had made converts in every +rank of society, and was now on the eve of becoming +the predominant form of worship. We +shall be better able to estimate its value, if we +consider it as the vehicle by which civilization<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_453" id="Page_453">[Pg 453]</a></span> +made its way among the rude nations that now +appeared on the scene, than if we merely consider +it as the means of improving the manners and +morals of the Roman world. In a political view +it became of the greatest importance on account +of the hierarchy, the frame-work of which was +now in a great measure constructed among its +professors. It was afterwards adopted as a state +religion; and although the ancient creed of Rome +had formerly been on the same footing, yet it was +only calculated for the republic, and not at all +for the now existing monarchy. The overthrow +of paganism was necessarily attended with some +violent convulsions, yet its loss was nothing to be +compared with the support which the throne +afterwards found in the hierarchy.</p> + +<div class="sblockquot"><p>The dispersion of the Jews, and especially the persecutions +which were renewed from time to time, after the reign of Nero, +(but which only served to kindle enthusiasm,) strongly cooperated +in spreading the Christian religion. These persecutions were +principally called forth against the Christians on account of their +forming themselves into a separate society, which caused them to +be regarded as a dangerous sect at Rome, notwithstanding the +general toleration granted to every other system of religious +belief. Although towards the end of this period, only a very +small proportion of the inhabitants of the Roman empire as yet +professed the Christian faith, it nevertheless had followers in +every province.</p> + +<p>† <i>History of the Social Constitution of the Christian Church</i>, +by <span class="smcap">D. G. J. Planck</span>, 4 parts, 1800. It is the first part of this +excellent work which relates to this period.</p></div> + + +<hr style="width: 25%;" /> +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_454" id="Page_454">[Pg 454]</a></span></p> + +<h2>THIRD SECTION.</h2> + +<p class="cblockquot"><i>From Diocletian to the overthrow of the Roman empire in +the west, A. C. 284—476.</i></p> + +<div class="sblockquot"><p><span class="smcap">Sources.</span> It now becomes of importance to enquire whether +the historians were Christians or pagans. <span class="smcap">Zosimus</span>, the imitator +of Polybius, belonged to the last. He describes the fall of the +Roman state, as his model does the previous part. Of his <i>Histories</i> +only five books and a half, to the time of Gratian, 410, +have descended to us. He was certainly a violent antagonist of +the Christians, yet, nevertheless, the best writer of this period. +<span class="smcap">Ammiani Marcellini</span> <i>Historiarum</i>, lib. xiv—xxxi. from the +year 353—378 (the first thirteen books are lost). Probably a +Christian, but yet no flatterer; and, notwithstanding his tiresome +prolixity, highly instructive. Together with the writers of +general history already noticed at p. 437, we must here especially +add to the abbreviators, <span class="smcap">Pauli Orosii</span> <i>Hist.</i> lib. vii. and <span class="smcap">Zonaræ</span> +<i>Annales</i>. The <i>Panegyrici Veteres</i>, from Diocletian to +Theodosius, can only be used with circumspection.—The writers +of church history, such as <span class="smcap">Eusebius</span>, in his <i>Hist. Eccles.</i> lib. x. +and in his <i>Vita Constantini Magni</i>, lib. v. as well as his continuators, +<span class="smcap">Socrates</span>, <span class="smcap">Theodoret</span>, <span class="smcap">Sozomenus</span>, and <span class="smcap">Evagrius</span>, are +also highly important for the political history of this period, +though, from their partiality towards the Christian emperors, +they should rather be classed with the panegyrists than the historians. +To these may be added another principal source, viz. +the <i>Constitutions</i> of the emperors, which have been preserved in +the <i>Codex Theodosianus</i> and <i>Justinianeus</i>, from the time of Constantine +the Great.</p> + +<p>Besides the works quoted at pages 411, 437, the Byzantine +historians here become of importance. We shall mention also:</p> + +<p><i>Histoire du Bas-Empire depuis Constantin</i>, <i>par</i> <span class="smcap">M. le Beau</span>, +<i>continuée par</i> <span class="smcap">M. Ameilhon</span>. Paris, 1824, 20 vols. 8vo. The +first seven parts only belong to this period.</p> +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_455" id="Page_455">[Pg 455]</a></span> +† The German translation of <span class="smcap">Guthrie</span> and <span class="smcap">Gray's</span> <i>Universal +History</i>, 5 sections, 1 vol. Leipsic, 1768. Rendered very useful +by the labours of Ritter.</p> + +<p><i>Histoire du Bas-Empire, depuis Constantin jusqu' à la prise +de Constantinople en 1453</i>, <i>par</i> <span class="smcap">Carentin Royou</span>. Paris, +1803, 4 vols. 8vo. A useful abridgement, without much +research.</p></div> + +<div class="sidenote">Diocletian, +Sept. 17, +284—May +1, 305.<br /> + +Carinus, +† 285.<br /> + +Maximian +associated +in the government, +286.<br /> + +Carausius, +288—293.<br /> + +Galerius +and Chlorus +created +Cæsars, +292.</div> + +<p>1. The reign of C. Valerius Diocletian, aged +39—60, proclaimed emperor after the murder of +Numerianus, by the troops in Chalcedon, begins +a new section in Roman history. To the period +of military despotism succeeded the period of +partitions. After Diocletian had defeated Carinus +the yet remaining Cæsar, in Upper Mœsia, +where he was assassinated, he made M. Valerius +Maximianus Herculius, a rough warrior who had +hitherto been his comrade in arms, the sharer of +his throne. Herculius now contended with the +Alemanni and Burgundians on the banks of the +Rhine, while Diocletian himself made head +against the Persians. Nevertheless, the two Augusti +soon found themselves unable to withstand +the barbarians, who were pressing forward on +every side, more especially as Carausius had +usurped and maintained the title of Cæsar in +Britain. Each of them, therefore, created a Cæsar: +Diocletian chose C. Galerius, and Maximianus +Flavius Constantius Chlorus, both of whom +had distinguished themselves as generals, at that +time the only road to advancement. The whole +empire was now divided between these four rulers; +so that each had certain provinces to govern and +defend; without detriment, however, to the unity +of the whole, or to the dependence in which a<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_456" id="Page_456">[Pg 456]</a></span> +Cæsar stood as the subordinate assistant and +future successor of his Augustus.</p> + +<div class="sblockquot"><p>In the partition, 292, Diocletian possessed the eastern provinces; +Galerius, Thrace, and the countries on the Danube +(Illyricum); Maximianus, Italy, Africa, and the islands; and +Constantius, the western provinces of Gaul, Spain, Britain, and +Mauritania.</p></div> + +<p>2. This new system could not but have a striking +effect upon the spirit of the government. It +was now not only in fact, but also in form, entirely +in the hands of the rulers. By their continual +absence from Rome they became freed +from that moral restraint in which the authority of +the senate, and the name of the republic, not yet +entirely laid aside, had held before them. Diocletian +formally assumed the diadem, and, with the +ornaments of the east, introduced its luxuries into +his court. Thus was laid the foundation of that +structure which Constantine the Great had to +complete.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">296.</div> + + +<p>3. The consequences of this new system became +also oppressive to the provinces, inasmuch +as they had now to maintain four rulers, with +their courts, and as many armies. But however +loud might be the complaints of the oppression +occasioned thereby, it was, perhaps, the only +means of deferring the final overthrow of the +whole edifice. In fact, they succeeded not only +in defeating the usurpers, Allectus in Britain +<span class="sidenote">293—296.</span> +(who had murdered Carausius in 293), Julian in +Africa, and Achilleus in Egypt; but also in defending +the frontiers, which, indeed, by the victories +of Galerius over the Persians, they extended +as far as the Tigris. Did not, however,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_457" id="Page_457">[Pg 457]</a></span> +the gloomy perspective present itself, that among +so many rulers, and the undefined relations which +existed between the Cæsars and the emperors, +the union could not be of long continuance?</p> + +<div class="sidenote">Constantius, 305—307.<br /> + +Galerius, 305—313.</div> + +<p>4. Diocletian voluntarily abdicated the throne +(although the growing power and encroaching +disposition of Galerius might perhaps have had +some influence), and obliged his colleague Maximianus +to do the same. The two Cæsars, Constantius +and Galerius, were proclaimed Augusti, +and altered the division of the empire, so that the +former possessed all the western countries, of +which, however, he freely ceded Italy and Africa +to Galerius, who had all the remaining provinces. +The latter, during the same year, created Flavius +Severus, Cæsar, and confided to him the government +of Italy and Africa; as he did also C. Galerius +Maximin, to whom he gave the Asiatic +provinces. The administration of the two emperors, +however, was very different; Constantius +was as much beloved for his mild and disinterested +government, as Galerius was hated for his +harshness and prodigality. Constantius died very +soon after at York, leaving his son Constantine +heir to his dominions, who was immediately proclaimed +Augustus by the legions, although Galerius +would only acknowledge him as Cæsar.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">Constantine +the Great, +July 25, +306—May +22, 337.</div> + +<p>5. Thus Constantine, who afterwards obtained +the surname of Great, began to rule, aged 33—64, +though at first only over Britain, Spain, and +Gaul; nevertheless, after seventeen years of violence +and warfare, he succeeded in opening himself +a way to the sole dominion of the empire. +The rulers disagreed among themselves; and for<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_458" id="Page_458">[Pg 458]</a></span>midable +usurpers started up and rendered war inevitable.</p> + +<div class="sblockquot"><p>The history of the first seven years of Constantine, 306—313, +is very complicated; after that, he had only one rival to struggle +with, 314—323. At his accession, Galerius, as Augustus, was +in possession of all the other provinces; of which, however, he +had given to Cæsar Maximin the government of those of Asia, +and to Cæsar Severus, now created Augustus, Italy and Africa. +The latter, however, rendering himself odious by his oppression, +Maxentius, the son of the former emperor, Maximianus, assumed +the title of Augustus at Rome (Oct. 28, 306), and associated +his father with himself in the government; so that at this time +there were six rulers: Galerius, Severus, Constantine, Maximin, +and the usurpers Maxentius and his father Maximianus. But +in the year 307, Severus, wishing to oppose Maxentius, was +abandoned by his own troops, upon which he surrendered himself +to Maximianus, who caused him to be executed. In his +place Galerius created his friend Licinius, Augustus; and Maximin +obtained the same dignity from his army in Asia. In the +mean time, Maximianus, after having endeavoured to supplant +his own son in Rome, fled to Constantine, who had crossed over +into Gaul and there defeated the Franks, 306; but having made +an attempt upon the life of Constantine, who had married his +daughter Fausta, that emperor caused him to be put to death, +310. As the excesses of Galerius soon brought him to the +grave, 311, there only remained Constantine, Licinius, and +Maximin, and the usurper Maxentius. The latter was soon defeated +and slain, 312, before the gates of Rome, by Constantine, +who thereby became master of Italy and the capital. A war +having broken out about the same time between Maximin and +Licinius, Maximin was defeated near Adrianople, and then +killed himself, 313. The year 314 brought on a war between +the two remaining emperors, Constantine and Licinius, which, +however, ended the same year in an accommodation, by which +Constantine obtained all the countries on the south bank of the +Danube, as well as Thrace and Mœsia Inferior; it broke out +again, however, in 322, and was finally terminated by a decisive +victory in Bithynia, and the total overthrow of Licinius, whom +Constantine put to death, 324.</p></div> + +<p>6. However opposite may be the opinions<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_459" id="Page_459">[Pg 459]</a></span> +formed respecting the reign of Constantine the +Great, its consequences are perfectly plain. Although +he annihilated military despotism, he established +in its stead, if not completely, yet in +great measure, the despotism of the court, and +likewise the power of the hierarchy. He had +already, during his expedition against Maxentius, +decided in favour of the Christian religion; and +since he thereby gained a vast number of partisans +in all the provinces, and weakened at the +same time the power of his co-emperors, or competitors, +it was the surest way he could have +taken to obtain sole dominion, the great object of +his ambition. This change must nevertheless +have had very considerable influence on every +part of the government, as he found in the previously +established hierarchy a powerful support of +the throne; and since he, in concert with it, settled +what was, and what was not the orthodox +doctrine, he introduced a spirit of persecution +heretofore unknown.</p> + +<div class="sblockquot"><p>At a period in which religious parties must almost necessarily +have become political parties, we can by no means venture to +judge of the importance of the sect by the importance of their +points of doctrine. The quarrels of the Arians, which arose at +this time, gave Constantine, by the council of Nice, 325, the opportunity +he wished for, of making good his authority in religious +legislation.</p></div> + +<p>7. The removal of the seat of empire from +Rome to Constantinople was connected with this +change in the form of worship—as a Christian +court would have been awkwardly situated in a +city still altogether pagan—although the need +there was of protecting the frontiers against the +Goths and Persians had a considerable share<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_460" id="Page_460">[Pg 460]</a></span> +therein. It did, indeed, become the principal +means of establishing the despotism of the court; +but those who regard it as one of the causes of +the decline of the empire, should remember, that +for an empire fallen so low as the Roman was at +this time, despotism was almost the only support +that remained.</p> + +<div class="sblockquot"><p>The various partitions of the empire from the time of Diocletian, +had led the way to this change of the capital; because a +natural result of that system was, that the emperors and Cæsars, +when not with the army as they usually were, would reside in +different cities. The seat of Diocletian's government was at +Nicomedia; of Maximian's, at Milan; even Constantine himself +remained but very little at Rome. In these new residences they +felt themselves unfettered; and therefore, although the Roman +senate existed till after the time of Constantine, its authority +must have fallen of itself from the time of Diocletian.</p></div> + +<p>8. We ought not, therefore, to wonder that the +consequence of this removal was so complete a +change in the whole form of government, that +after a short time it seemed to be altogether a +different state. A partition of the empire was +made, which, though it might in part have been +founded on those which had previously existed, +was yet so different, that it not only changed the +ancient divisions of the provinces, but completely +altered their mode of government.—The court, +with the exception of polygamy, assumed entirely +the form of an eastern court.—A revolution also +had taken place in the military system, by the +complete separation of the civil and military authorities, +which the prætorian præfects had hitherto +possessed, but who now became merely +civil governors.</p> + +<div class="sblockquot"><p>According to the new division the whole empire was divided +into four <i>præfectures</i>, each of which had its <i>dioceses</i>, and each<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_461" id="Page_461">[Pg 461]</a></span> +diocese its <i>provinces</i>. The præfectures were: I. The eastern +(<i>præfectura Orientis</i>); it contained five dioceses; 1. <i>Orientis</i>; +2. <i>Ægypti</i>; 3. <i>Asiæ</i>; 4. <i>Ponti</i>; 5. <i>Thraciæ</i>; forming altogether +forty-eight provinces, and comprising all the countries of +Asia and Egypt, together with the frontier countries of Libya +and Thrace. II. <i>Præfectura Illyrici</i>, containing two dioceses; +1. <i>Macedoniæ</i>; 2. <i>Daciæ</i>; forming eleven provinces, and comprising +Mœsia, Macedon, Greece, and Crete. III. <i>Præfectura +Italiæ</i>, containing three dioceses; 1. <i>Italiæ</i>; 2. <i>Illyric</i>i; 3. +<i>Africæ</i>; forming twenty-nine provinces, and comprising Italy, +the countries on the south of the Danube, as far as the boundaries +of Mœsia; the islands of Sicily, Sardinia, and Corsica, and +the African provinces of the Syrtis. IV. <i>Præfectura Galliarum</i>, +containing three dioceses; 1. <i>Galliæ</i>; 2. <i>Hispaniæ</i>; 3. +<i>Britanniæ</i>; forming altogether twenty-eight provinces, and comprising +Spain and the Balearian islands, Gaul, Helvetia, and +Britain.—Each of these præfectures was under a <i>præfectus prætorio</i> +(prætorian præfect), but who was merely a civil governor, +and had under him <i>vicarios</i>, in the dioceses, as well as the <i>rectores +provinciarum</i>, of various ranks and titles. They were +named <i>proconsules præsides</i>, etc. Besides these, Rome and Constantinople, +not being included in any of the four præfectures, +had each its præfect.</p> + +<p>As principal officers of state and the court (<i>s. cubiculi</i>), we +now for the first time meet with the <i>præpositus s. cubiculi</i> +(grand-chamberlain), under whom were all the <i>comites palatii</i> +and <i>cubicularii</i>, in four divisions; these, at a later period, were +frequently eunuchs of great influence; the <i>magister officiorum</i> +(chancellor, minister of the interior); the <i>comes sacrarum largitiorum</i> +(minister of the finances); the <i>quæstor</i> (the organ of the +emperors in legislation; minister of justice and secretary of +state); the <i>comes rei principis</i> (minister of the crown-treasury) +[privy-purse]; the two <i>comites domesticorum</i> (commander of the +household guards), each of whom had his corps (<i>scholas</i>) under +him. The number of the state officers and courtiers was continually +increasing. If the good of a commonwealth consisted in +forms, ranks, and titles, the Roman empire must at this time +have been truly happy!</p> + +<p>At the head of the troops were the <i>magistri peditum</i> (masters +of the infantry) and the <i>magistri equitum</i> (masters of the horse), +under the <i>magister utriusque militæ</i> (general in chief of the +whole army). Their subordinate commanders were called <i>comites</i> +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_462" id="Page_462">[Pg 462]</a></span>and <i>duces</i>. Constantine considerably reduced the army. In the +arrangement of the troops he also made great alterations; these, +however, were but of slight consequence compared with that +which was produced by admitting into the service a continually +increasing number of barbarians.</p> + +<p><i>Notitia dignitatem utriusque Imperii cum not.</i> <span class="smcap">Pancirolli +Græv.</span> <i>Thesaur. Antiquitat. Rom.</i> vol. vii.</p></div> + +<div class="sidenote">Taxes.</div> + +<p>9. It would naturally be expected that these +great changes should lead to others in the system +of taxation. New taxes, or old ones revived, +were added to those already existing, and became, +by the manner in which they were collected, +doubly oppressive. We shall particularly notice, +<i>a.</i> The annual land-tax (<i>indictio</i>). <i>b.</i> The tax +upon trade (<i>aurum lustrale</i>). <i>c.</i> The free gift (<i>don. +gratuit.</i>), now grown into an obligatory tax (<i>aurum +coronarium</i>). To these we must add the municipal +expenses, which fell entirely upon the citizens, +and especially upon the civic officers (<i>decuriones</i>), +places which must have been generally held by +the rich, as Constantine had in great measure appropriated +the wealth of the cities to the endowment +of churches, and the support of the clergy.</p> + +<div class="sblockquot"><p><i>a.</i> The land-tax, or <i>indiction</i>, which if not first introduced by +Constantine was entirely regulated under him, was collected after +an exact register, or public valuation, of all the landed estates. +Its amount was yearly fixed and prescribed by the emperor (<i>indicebatur</i>), +and levied by the rectors of provinces and the decurions; +an arbitrary standard (<i>caput</i>) being taken as the rate +of assessment.</p> + +<p>As this register was probably reviewed every fifteen years, it +gave rise to the <i>cycle of indictions</i> of fifteen years, which became +the common era, beginning from September 1, 312. In this +manner the tax included all those who were possessed of property. +<i>b.</i> The tax on commerce; which was levied on almost +every kind of trade. It was collected every four years, whence +the <i>aurum lustrale</i>. <i>c.</i> The <i>aurum coronarium</i> grew out of the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_463" id="Page_463">[Pg 463]</a></span> +custom which obtained of presenting the emperors with golden +crowns on particular occasions; the value of which was at last +exacted in money. Every considerable city was obliged to +pay it.</p></div> + +<div class="sidenote">Spread of +the Christian +religion.</div> + +<p>10. The rapid spread of the Christian religion, +the promulgation of which was enforced as a +duty upon all its professors, was now accelerated +by the endeavours of the court. Constantine forbade +sacrifices, and shut up the temples; and the +violent zeal of his successors unfortunately soon +turned them into ruins.</p> + +<div class="sblockquot"><p><i>Histoire de Constantin-le-Grand</i>, <i>par le</i> <span class="smcap">R. P. Bern. de Varenne</span>. +Paris, 1778, 4to.</p> + +<p><i>Vita di Constantino il Grande dell'</i> <span class="smcap">Abb. Fr. Gusta.</span> Fuligno, +1786. Both these works, especially the first, are written +in a tone of panegyric; the latest, and by far the best, is</p> + +<p>† <i>Life of Constantine the Great</i>, by <span class="smcap">J. C. F. Manso</span>. Bresl. +1817. With several very learned appendixes, which clear up +some particular points.</p></div> + +<div class="sidenote">Constantine, +Constantius +and Constans.</div> + +<p>11. The three Cæsars and sons of Constantine +the Great, Constantine, 337—340; Constantius, +337—361; and Constans, 337—350; had been +carefully educated, and yet resembled one another +as much in their vices as they did in their names. +They indeed divided the empire again upon the +death of their father; but were so eager after +territory, which neither of them was qualified to +govern, that a series of wars followed for the +next twelve years, till at last Constantius was left +master of the whole; and by the murder of most +of his relations secured the throne to himself.</p> + +<div class="sblockquot"><p>In the partition of the empire Constantine obtained the <i>præfectura +Galliarum</i>, Constans the <i>præfectura Italiæ et Illyrici</i>, +and Constantius the <i>præfectura Orientis</i>. But as Constantine +desired to add Italy and Africa to his portion, he attacked<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_464" id="Page_464">[Pg 464]</a></span> +Constans, and thereby lost his life, so that Constans came into +thee possession of the western countries. In consequence, however, +of his wretched misgovernment, Magnentius, a general, +proclaimed himself emperor in Gaul, and Constans was slain +in endeavouring to escape, 350. A war with Constantius, who +was then occupied in the east, became inevitable, and broke out +351. The usurper was defeated first at Mursa in Pannonia, +then retreating into Gaul he was again defeated, 353; upon +which he slew himself, together with his family.</p></div> + +<div class="sidenote">Constantius alone.<br /> + +351.<br /> + +354.</div> + +<p>12. As Constantius, however—sunk in effeminacy +and debauchery, and surrounded and governed +by eunuchs—was unable to sustain the +weight of government alone, he took his cousin +Constantius Gallus, hitherto a state prisoner, and +whose father he had formerly slain, to his assistance, +created him Cæsar, and sent him into the +east against the Parthians. But his excessive +arrogance, which was fomented by his wife Constantina, +rendered him so dangerous that Constantius +recalled him, and caused him, upon his +return, to be put to death in Istria. His younger +brother Fl. Julian, from whom the suspicious +Constantius believed he had nothing to fear, was +<span class="sidenote">Nov. 6, 355.</span> +promoted in his place, created Cæsar, and sent +to defend the frontiers on the Rhine. Although +Julian passed suddenly from study to warfare, he +not only fought against the Germans with success, +but also made a deep inroad into their country. +In the mean time Constantius, after his +generals had been beaten by the Persians, who +wished to reconquer the provinces they had +ceded, was preparing an expedition against them +in person, and with that view endeavoured gradually +to withdraw the troops of Julian, in consequence +of which the latter, suspecting his de<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_465" id="Page_465">[Pg 465]</a></span>sign, +was induced to accept the diadem presented +<span class="sidenote">361.</span> +by his soldiers. While marching, however, along +the Danube against Constantius, he received information +of that prince's death in Asia.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">Julian, +March, 360—June 25, +363.</div> + +<p>13. Fl. Julian, (the apostate,) who reigned from +his twenty-ninth to his thirty-second year, was +the last and most highly gifted prince of the house +of Constantine. Instructed by misfortunes and +study, he yet had some faults, though certainly +free from great vices. He began with reforming +the luxury of the court. His abjuration of the +religion now become dominant, and which he +wished to annihilate by degrees, was an error in +policy, which he must have discovered to his +cost had his reign been prolonged. Wishing, +however, to terminate the war against the Persians, +he penetrated as far as the Tigris, where +he lost his life in an engagement, after a reign of +three years.</p> + +<div class="sblockquot"><p>† <i>The Emperor Julian and his Times</i>, by <span class="smcap">August. Neander</span>. +Leipsic, 1812. An historical sketch.</p></div> + +<div class="sidenote">Jovian, +June 25, +363—Feb. +24, 364.</div> + + +<p>14. Fl. Jovianus, now thirty-three years of +age, was immediately raised to the purple by the +army. He concluded a peace with the Persians, +by which he restored them all the territory that +had been conquered from them since the year +297. After a short reign of eight months he was +carried off by a sudden disorder; and the army +proclaimed Fl. Valentinian at Nice in his stead, +Valentinian almost immediately associated his +<span class="sidenote">Valentinian and Valens.</span> +brother Valens with himself in the government, +and divided the empire by giving him the <i>præfectura +Orientis</i>, and retaining the rest for himself.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_466" id="Page_466">[Pg 466]</a></span></p> + +<div class="sidenote">Valentinian +Feb. 26, +364—Nov. +17, 375.</div> + +<p>15. The reign of Valentinian I. in the east, +who, in the year 367, created his son Gratian +Augustus with himself, is distinguished by the +system of toleration which he followed with regard +to the affairs of religion, though in other +respects a cruel prince. Nearly the whole of his +reign was taken up in almost continual struggles +with the German nations, who had recovered +from the losses they had suffered under Julian. +His first efforts were directed against the Franks, +the Saxons, and the Alemanni on the Rhine; +and afterwards against the Quadi and other nations +on the Danube; where he died of apoplexy +at Guntz in Hungary.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">Valens, +364—368.</div> + +<p>16. In the mean time his brother Valens (aged +38—52 years) had to contend with a powerful +insurrection which had broken out in the east. +A certain Procopius had instigated the people to +this, by taking advantage of the discontent occasioned +by the oppression of Valens, who, having +adopted the opinion of the Arians, was more disliked +in the east than his brother was in the +<span class="sidenote">373.</span> +west. His war against the Persians ended with +a truce. But the most important event that happened +during his reign, was the entrance of the +Huns into Europe, which took place towards its +close. This in its turn gave rise to the great +popular migration, by which the Roman empire +in the west may properly be said to have been +overthrown. The immediate consequence was +the admission of the greater part of the Visigoths +into the Roman empire, and this occasioned a +war which cost Valens his life.</p> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_467" id="Page_467">[Pg 467]</a></span></p><div class="sblockquot"><p>The Huns, a nomad people of Asia, belonged to the great +Mongolian race. Having penetrated to the Don, 373, they +subdued the Goths upon that river as far as the Theiss. The +Goths, divided into Ostrogoths and Visigoths, were separated +from one another by the Dnieper. The former, driven from +their country, fell upon the Visigoths, in consequence of which +the emperor Valens was requested by the latter to grant them +admission into the Roman empire, and with the exception of +the Vandals, who had been seated in Pannonia from the time +of Constantine, they were the first barbarian nation that had +been settled within the boundaries of the empire. The scandalous +oppression of the Roman governor, however, drove them into +rebellion; and as Valens marched against them, he was defeated +near Adrianople and lost his life, 378.</p></div> + +<div class="sidenote">Gratian, +375—383, +and<br /> + +Valentinian II. 375—392.</div> + +<p>17. During these events, Gratian (aged 16—24 +years) succeeded his father Valentinian I. in +the west, and immediately associated his brother, +Valentinian II. (aged 5—21 years) with himself +in the empire; giving him, though under his own +superintendence, the <i>præfectura Italiæ et Illyrici</i>. +Gratian set forward to the assistance of his uncle +Valens against the Goths, but receiving on his +march an account of his defeat and death, and +fearing the east might fall a prey to the Goths, +he raised Theodosius, a Spaniard, who had already +distinguished himself as a warrior, to the +purple, and gave him the <i>præfectura Orientis et +Illyrici</i>.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">Revolt of +Maximus, +383.</div> + +<p>18. The indolent reign of Gratian led to the +rebellion of Maximus, a commander in Britain, +who, crossing into Gaul, was so strongly supported +by the defection of the Gallic legions, that +Gratian was obliged to seek safety in flight. He +was, however, overtaken and put to death at +Lyons. By this event Maximus found himself +in possession of all the <i>præfectura Galliarum</i>; +and by promising Theodosius not to interfere +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_468" id="Page_468">[Pg 468]</a></span>with the young Valentinian II. in Italy, he prevailed +upon him to acknowledge him emperor. +But having broken his promise by the invasion of +Italy, he was defeated and made prisoner by +<span class="sidenote">388.</span> +Theodosius in Pannonia, and soon after executed. +Upon this Valentinian II. a youth of whom great +hopes were entertained, became again master +of all the west. But, unfortunately, he was murdered +by the offended Arbogast, his <i>magister militum</i>; +who, thereupon, raised to the throne his +own friend +<span class="sidenote">Eugenius.</span> +Eugenius, <i>magister officiorum</i>. Theodosius, +however, so far from acknowledging, declared +war against him and made him prisoner. +He himself thus became master of the whole empire, +but died in the following year.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">Theodosius +the Great, +Jan. 19, +379—Jan. +17, 395.</div> + +<p>19. The vigorous reign of Theodosius in the +east, from his thirty-fourth to his fiftieth year, +was not less devoted to politics than to religion. +The dexterity with which he at first broke the +power of the victorious Goths (though they still +preserved their quarters in the provinces on the +Danube), procured him considerable influence, +which the strength and activity of his character +enabled him easily to maintain. The blind zeal, +however, with which he persecuted Arianism, +now the prevailing creed in the east, and restored +the orthodox belief, as well as the persecutions +which he directed against the pagans and the +destruction of their temples, occasioned the most +dreadful convulsions. His efforts to preserve the +boundaries of the empire, not a province of which +was lost before his death, required an increase of +taxes; and however oppressive this might be, we +cannot impute it to the ruler as a crime. In an<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_469" id="Page_469">[Pg 469]</a></span> +empire so enfeebled in itself, and which, nevertheless, +had powerful foes on every side to contend +with, it followed that every active reign +would be oppressive. Yet never before had the +internal depopulation of the empire made it necessary +to take so many barbarians into Roman +pay, as under this reign; whence naturally followed +a change in the arms and tactics of the +Roman armies.</p> + +<div class="sblockquot"><p><span class="smcap">P. Erasm. Muller</span>, <i>de genio sæculi Theodosiani</i>. Havniæ, +1798, 2 vols. A very learned and in every respect excellent description +of the deeply-decayed Roman world as it now stood.</p></div> + +<div class="sidenote">Final division +of the +Roman empire.<br /> + +Arcadius, +395—408.<br /> + +Honorius, +385—423.</div> + +<p>20. Theodosius left two sons, between whom +the empire was divided. Both parts, however, +were certainly considered as forming but one empire—an +opinion which afterwards prevailed, and +even till late in the middle ages had important +consequences—yet never since this period have +they been reunited under one ruler. The eastern +empire, comprising the <i>præfectura Orientis et Illyrici</i>, +was allotted to the eldest son, Arcadius (aged +18—31) under the guardianship of Rufinus the +Gaul. The western, or the <i>præfectura Galliarum +et Italiæ</i>, to the younger, Honorius, aged 11—39, +under the guardianship of the Vandal Stilico.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">Alaric king +of the Visigoths.</div> + +<p>21. The western empire, to the history of which +we shall now confine ourselves, suffered such +violent shocks during the reign of Honorius, as +made its approaching fall plainly visible. The +intrigues of Stilico to procure himself the government +of the whole empire, opened a way for the +Goths into its interior, just at a time when they +were doubly formidable, fortune having given +them a leader greatly superior to any they had +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_470" id="Page_470">[Pg 470]</a></span>hitherto had. Alaric king of the Visigoths established +himself and his people in the Roman empire, +became master of Rome, and mounted the +throne: it was the mere effect of chance that he +did not overthrow it altogether.</p> + +<div class="sblockquot"><p>Both Honorius and Arcadius, especially the latter, belonged +to that class of men who never come to years of maturity; their +favourites and ministers therefore governed according to their +own inclination. Stilico, who made Honorius his son-in-law, +was not deficient, indeed, in abilities for governing; and his endeavour +to obtain the management of the whole empire, arose, +perhaps, from the conviction that it was necessary he should have +it. He could not, however, gain his object by intrigue; for after +the murder of Rufinus; 395, he found a still more powerful opponent +in the eunuch Eutropius, his successor in the east. Under +the regency of Stilico, Gaul, in consequence of its troops +being withdrawn to oppose Alaric, 400, was inundated by +German tribes—by Vandals, Alani, and Suevi—who from thence +penetrated even into Spain. Nevertheless, he preserved Italy +from their attacks by the victory which he gained, 403, over +Alaric at Verona; and again over Radagaisus, 405, who had advanced +with other German hordes as far as Florence. But +Stilico, having entered into a secret alliance with Alaric, for the +purpose of wresting eastern Illyrica from the empire of the east, +was overreached by the intrigues of the new favourite Olympius, +whose cabal knew how to take advantage of the weakness of +Honorius, and of the jealousy of the Roman and foreign soldiers. +Stilico was accused of aspiring to the throne, and was executed +August 23, 408. Rome lost in him the only general that was +left to defend her. Alaric invaded Italy the same year, 408, and +the besieged Rome was obliged to purchase peace; the conditions, +however, not being fulfilled, he was again, 409, before +Rome, became master of the city, and created Attalus, the præfect +of the city, emperor instead of Honorius, who had shut himself +up in Ravenna. In 410 he assumed the diadem; and, +making himself master of the city by force, gave it up to be +plundered by his troops. Soon afterwards, while projecting the +capture of Sicily and Africa, he died in lower Italy. His brother-in-law +and successor, Adolphus, together with his Goths, left +Italy, now completely exhausted, 412, went into Gaul, and from<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_471" id="Page_471">[Pg 471]</a></span> +thence proceeding into Spain, founded there the empire of the +Visigoths: he carried with him, however, Placidia the sister of +Honorius, either as prisoner or as hostage, and married her in +Gaul. During these events an usurper arose in Britain and +Gaul named Constantine, 407: he was vanquished, and put to +death, 411, by Constantius, one of Honorius's generals. This +latter prince not only gave Constantius his sister Placidia, who +had become a widow and was restored in 417, in marriage, but +also named him Augustus in 421. He died, however, a few +months after, so that Placidia henceforward had a considerable +share in the government. She went nevertheless, 423, to Constantinople, +where she remained until the death of Honorius.</p> + +<p>† <i>Fl. Stilico, or the Wallenstein of Antiquity</i>, by <span class="smcap">Chr. Fr. +Schulze</span>, 1805. Not written by way of comparison.</p></div> + +<div class="sidenote">423.<br /> + +425.<br /> + +Valentinian +III. 425—455.</div> + +<p>22. In this manner was a great part of Spain, +and part of Gaul, cut off from the Roman empire +during the reign of Honorius. After his death +the secretary John usurped the government, but +was defeated by the eastern emperor Theodosius +II. The nephew of Honorius, Valentinian III. a +minor (aged 6—36), was then raised to the throne, +under the guardian care of his mother Placidia +(† 450). Under his miserable reign the western +empire was stripped of almost all her provinces +with the exception of Italy. Yet the government +of his mother, and afterwards his own incapacity, +were as much the cause as the stormy +migration of barbarous tribes, which now convulsed +all Europe.</p> + +<div class="sblockquot"><p>Britain had been voluntarily left by the Romans since 427. +In Africa, the governor Boniface having been driven into rebellion +by the intrigues of the Roman general Ætius, who possessed +the ear of Placidia, invited the Vandals from Spain, under the +command of Genseric, to come to his assistance. The latter then +obtained possession of the country, 429—439; indeed, even as +early as 435, Valentinian was obliged to make a formal cession +of it to them. Valentinian's wife Eudoxia, a Grecian princess,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_472" id="Page_472">[Pg 472]</a></span> +was purchased by the cession of western Illyricum (Pannonia, +Dalmatia, and Noricum); so that of all the countries south of +the Danube there now only remained those which belonged to +the præfecture of Italy: Rhætia and Vindelicia. On the south-east +of Gaul was formed, 435, the kingdom of the Burgundians, +which, besides the south-east part of France, comprised also +Switzerland and Savoy. The south-west was under the dominion +of the Visigoths. There remained only the territory north +of the Loire which still submitted to the Roman governors; the +last of whom, Syagrius, survived the fall of the empire itself; +holding out till the year 486, when he was defeated near Soissons +by Clodovicus, or Clovis, king of the Franks.</p></div> + +<div class="sidenote">The Huns.<br /> + +Attila.<br /> + +450.<br /> + +451.<br /> + +453.<br /> + +454.<br /> + +455.</div> + +<p>23. But while the western empire seemed thus +of itself almost to fall to pieces, another impetuous +rush of nations took place, which threatened the +whole of western Europe. The victorious hordes +of Huns who now occupied the territory formerly +the seat of the Goths, between the Don and the +Theiss, and even as far as the Volga, had united +themselves, since the year 444, under one common +chief, Attila; who, by this union and his +own superior talents as a warrior and ruler, became +the most powerful prince of his time. The +eastern empire having bought a peace by paying +him a yearly tribute, he fell with a mighty army +upon the western provinces. The united forces, +however, of the Romans under Ætius and the Visigoths, +obliged him near Chalons (<i>in campis Catalaunicis</i>) +to retreat. Nevertheless, the following +year he again invaded Italy, where he had a +secret understanding with the licentious Honoria, +Valentinian's sister. The cause of his second retreat, +which was soon followed by his death, is +unknown. The miserable Valentinian soon after +deprived the Roman empire of its best general, +being led by his suspicions to put Ætius to death. +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_473" id="Page_473">[Pg 473]</a></span>He himself, however, was soon doomed to undergo +the punishment of his debaucheries, being +murdered in a conspiracy formed by Petronius +Maximus, whose wife he had dishonoured, and +some friends of Ætius, whom he had executed.</p> + +<p>24. The twenty years which intervened between +the assassination of Valentinian, and the +final destruction of the Roman empire in the +west, was nearly one continued series of intestine +revolutions. No less than nine sovereigns rapidly +succeeded one another. These changes, indeed, +were but of little importance in this troublesome +period, compared to the terror with which Genseric +king of the Vandals filled the Roman empire: +he by his naval power having become master +of the Mediterranean and Sicily, could ravage +the coasts of the defenceless Italy at his pleasure, +and even capture Rome itself. While in Italy, +the German Ricimer, general of the foreign troops +in Roman pay, permitted a series of emperors to +reign in his name. It would have been his lot to +put an end to this series of Augusti, but for mere +accident, which reserved that glory for his son +and successor, Odoacer, four years after his father's +death.</p> + +<div class="sblockquot"><p>After the death of Valentinian, Maximus was proclaimed emperor; +but as he wished to compel Eudoxia, Valentinian's +widow, to marry him, she called over Genseric from Africa, who +took and pillaged Rome, and Maximus perished after a reign of +three months, 455. He was succeeded by M. Avitus, who +ascended the throne at Arles; and he again was soon deposed +by Ricimer, 456, who, just before, had defeated the fleet of the +Vandals. Ricimer now placed upon the throne, first Julianus +Majorianus, April 1, 457; but he, having distinguished himself +in the wars against the Vandals, 461, was set aside, and Libius +Severus put in his place, who, however, died in 465, probably of<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_474" id="Page_474">[Pg 474]</a></span> +poison. His death was followed by an interregnum of two years, +during which Ricimer ruled, though without the title of emperor. +At length the patrician Anthemius, then at Constantinople +(where they never gave up their pretensions to the right +of naming or confirming the sovereigns of the west), was, though +not without the consent of the powerful Ricimer, named emperor +of the west, April 12, 467, by the emperor Leo. But differences +having arisen between him and Ricimer, the latter retired to +Milan, 469, and commenced a war, in which he took and pillaged +Rome, and Anthemius was slain. Ricimer himself followed +soon after, † Aug. 18, 472. Upon this, Anicius Olybrius, +son-in-law of Valentinian III. was proclaimed Augustus, but +dying in three months, Oct. 472, Glycerius assumed the purple +at Ravenna, without, however, being acknowledged at Constantinople, +where they in preference named Julius Nepos Augustus. +The latter, in 474, having expelled Glycerius, became also in his +turn expelled by his own general Orestes, 475, who gave the +diadem to his son Romulus Momyllus, who, as the last in the +succession of Augusti, acquired the surname of Augustulus. In +476, however, Odoacer, the leader of the Germans in the Roman +pay at Rome, sent him, after the execution of Orestes, into captivity, +and allowed him a pension. Odoacer now remained master +of Italy till the year 492, when the Ostrogoths, under their king +Theodoric, founded there a new empire.</p></div> + +<p>25. Thus fell the Roman empire of the west, +while that of the east, pressed on every side, and +in a situation almost similar, endured a thousand +years, notwithstanding its intestine broils, which +would alone have sufficed to destroy any other, +and the hosts of barbarians who attacked it +during the middle ages. The impregnable situation +of its capital, which usually decides the fate +of such kingdoms, joined to its despotism, which +is not unfrequently the main support of a kingdom +in its decline, can alone, in some measure, +explain a phenomenon which has no equal in the +history of the world.</p> + + + +<hr style="width: 100%;" /> +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_475" id="Page_475">[Pg 475]</a></span></p> +<h2>APPENDIX.</h2> + +<p class="iblockquot">CHRONOLOGY OF HERODOTUS TO THE TIME OF CYRUS, EXTRACTED +FROM THE RESEARCHES OF M. VOLNEY. See +Preface.</p> + + +<p>Although Herodotus did not write his work in +chronological order, yet we cannot doubt that he +had some general plan of computing time. By +carefully selecting and comparing the separate +data scattered through his work, this plan to a +certain extent may be traced out, and early history, +with regard to settled chronology, must necessarily +gain a good deal. The following essay +is founded upon a procedure of this kind; it is +drawn entirely from Herodotus, and only from +data which he has precisely determined, the passages +of his work being always referred to.</p> + +<p>The year B. C. 561, in which the fall of Astyages +and the Median empire took place, as may +be proved from Herodotus himself, is a fixed point +of time from which we may ascend into higher +antiquity. This point of time may be determined +by the chronological data respecting the battle of +Marathon, four years before the death of Darius +(Herodotus VII. 1. 4.) agreeing with the general +data of the Greeks, who fix it in the third year of +the 72nd Olymp. B. C. 490. By adding to this +the thirty-two years of Darius's reign that had +already elapsed (Herodotus, ibid.), the eight +months of Smerdis (Herodotus, III. 68.), the +seven years and five months of Cambyses (He<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_476" id="Page_476">[Pg 476]</a></span>rodotus +III. 66.), and the twenty-nine years of +Cyrus (Herodotus, I. 214.), we obtain the year +560 as the first year of Cyrus.</p> + + +<p class="cblockquot">I. CHRONOLOGY OF THE MEDIAN EMPIRE.</p> + + +<div class='center'> +<table border="0" cellpadding="2" cellspacing="0" summary=""> +<tr><td align='left'></td><td align='right'><small>B. C.</small></td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>End of the Median empire</td><td align='right'>561.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Duration of the Median empire one hundred and fifty-six years (Herodotus, I, 130.) </td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>The beginning of it, therefore, after their separation from the Assyrians, would be</td><td align='right'>717.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>In this period, at first, six years of anarchy<a name="FNanchor_A_5" id="FNanchor_A_5"></a><a href="#Footnote_A_5" class="fnanchor">[a]</a></td><td align='right'>716—710.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Reign of Deioces fifty-three years (Herodotus, I. 102.)</td><td align='right'>710—657.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Reign of Phraortes, twenty-two years (ibid.)</td><td align='right'>657—635.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Cyaxares, forty years (I. 106.)</td><td align='right'>635—595.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Irruption and dominion of the Scythians, twenty-eight years (I. 203. 106.)</td><td align='right'>625—598.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Conquest of Nineveh (I. 106.)</td><td align='right'>597.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Astyages reigned thirty-five years (I. 130.)</td><td align='right'>595—561.</td></tr> +</table></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_A_5" id="Footnote_A_5"></a><a href="#FNanchor_A_5"><span class="label">[a]</span></a> These are certainly not determined from Herodotus; but they remain after +subtracting the one hundred and fifty years' reign of the four Median kings.</p></div> + +<p>The succession of Median kings given by Ctesias, +which entirely differs from this, the author +thinks might be explained by a duplication; see +† <i>Gott. Gel. Anz.</i> 1810, p. 4.</p> + + +<p class="cblockquot">II. CHRONOLOGY OF THE ASSYRIAN EMPIRE.</p> + +<p>The dominion of the Assyrians over Asia, or +their empire, ended with the revolt of the Medes +(Herodotus, I. 95.); although the existence of +their state did not then end, but terminated with +the capture of Nineveh by Cyaxares, B. C. 597.</p> + + +<div class='center'> +<table border="0" cellpadding="2" cellspacing="0" summary=""> +<tr><td align='left'></td><td align='right'><small>B. C.</small></td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Revolt of the Medes, as above</td><td align='right'>717.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>The dominion of the Assyrians had endured five hundred and twenty years (Herodotus, I. 95.) </td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>The Assyrian empire lasted therefore from</td><td align='right'>1237—717.</td></tr> +</table></div> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_477" id="Page_477">[Pg 477]</a></span></p> +<p>As Herodotus intended to write the history of +this empire in a separate work (I. 184.), he only +casually mentions (I. 7.) its founder Ninus, who +began to reign 1237; and afterwards Sennacherib +and his expedition (II. 141.); and the last king, +Sardanapalus (II. 150.).</p> + +<p>The mention of Sennacherib and his expedition +furnishes a point of time for comparing the chronology +of Herodotus with that of the Bible, or the +Jews. According to the latter, Sennacherib's expedition +took place B. C. 714. (see above, p. 26.); +his death takes place immediately after, and he +has for his successor Esar-haddon, 2 Kings, xix. +37. Here then is certainly a contradiction, since, +according to Herodotus, the Assyrian dominion +had ceased three years before, namely, 717. M. +Volney endeavours to reconcile this difficulty by +the restoration of an ancient reading in the sacred +text; according to which Amon, king of Judæa, +reigned twelve years instead of two (2 Kings, +xxi. 10.); from which it would follow, that the +expedition of Sennacherib took place in 724. +As this would leave seven years after his death +for his successor Esar-haddon, who agrees both +in time and name with the Sardanapalus of the +Greeks (the Greek name being formed from +Esar-haddon-pal, i. e. Esar, the lord, son of Pal), +the two chronologies are thus made to agree +exactly. But even in following the ancient +usual reading, the greatest difference between +the two statements is only ten years; quite as +little as can be reasonably expected under such +circumstances.</p> + +<p>With regard to the Assyrian chronology of<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_478" id="Page_478">[Pg 478]</a></span> +Ctesias, M. Volney has satisfactorily shown that +it is full of contradictions, and unworthy of any +credit.</p> + + +<p class="cblockquot">III. CHRONOLOGY OF THE LYDIAN EMPIRE.</p> + +<p>The arrangement of the Lydian chronology +rests upon the settlement of two principal facts: +first, the great eclipse of the sun under Alyattes, +foretold by Thales (Herodotus, I. 74.); and +secondly, the conquest of Sardes, and overthrow +of the empire under Crœsus, by Cyrus; both of +which Herodotus certainly mentions, but without +assigning any precise date. But by a careful comparison +of all the data it has been proved, that +the great eclipse in Asia Minor (according to the +Tables of Pingré) happened in the year 625; and +the conquest of Sardes, and the end of the Lydian +empire, B. C. 557, or in the fourth year of Cyrus. +Therefore:</p> + + +<div class='center'> +<table border="0" cellpadding="2" cellspacing="0" summary="" width="70%"> +<tr><td align='left'></td><td align='right'><small>B. C.</small></td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>End of the Lydian empire</td><td align='right'>557.</td></tr> +</table></div> + +<p>It subsisted under three houses; under that of +the Atyadæ (fabulous and uncertain); under that +of the Heraclidæ, five hundred and five years +(Herodotus, I. 7.); and under the last, that of the +Mermnadæ, one hundred and seventy years.</p> + +<p>The Heraclidæ and Mermnadæ, then, reigned +altogether six hundred and seventy-five years. +Therefore:</p> + + +<div class='center'> +<table border="0" cellpadding="2" cellspacing="0" summary="" width="70%"> +<tr><td align='left'></td><td align='right'><small>B. C.</small></td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Commencement of the reign of the Heraclidæ, with Agron the son of Ninus (I. 7.)</td><td align='right'>1232.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>End of this house with the murder of Candaules, by Gyges</td><td align='right'>727.</td></tr> +</table></div> + +<p>By fixings the time of Agron, son of Ninus,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_479" id="Page_479">[Pg 479]</a></span> +Herodotus verifies himself (I. 7.); as, by the preceding +data, Ninus began his reign in Assyria, +1237; consequently, it must have been in the +fifth year of his reign that he conquered Lydia, +and placed his son Agron upon the throne.</p> + + +<div class='center'> +<table border="0" cellpadding="2" cellspacing="0" summary="" width="70%"> +<tr><td align='left'></td><td align='right'><small>B. C.</small></td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Dominion of the Mermnadæ, one hundred and seventy years, under kings of that house</td><td align='right'>727—557.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Gyges, thirty-eight years (Herodotus, I. 14.)</td><td align='right'>727—689.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Ardys, forty-nine years (Herodotus, I. 16.)</td><td align='right'>689—640.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>First irruption of the Cimmerians</td><td align='right'>670.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Sadyattes, twelve years (Herodotus, I. 16.)</td><td align='right'>640—628.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Alyattes, fifty-seven years (Herodotus, I. 25.)</td><td align='right'>628—571.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>War with Cyaxares, ending with the great eclipse, and second irruption of the Cimmerians </td><td align='right'>625.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Crœsus, fourteen years and fourteen days (Herodotus, I. 86.)</td><td align='right'>571—557.</td></tr> +</table></div> + +<p class="cblockquot">IV. CHRONOLOGY OF THE BABYLONIANS.</p> + +<p>For this as well as for the Egyptians there is +no evidence to guide us, the data being very +scanty, and taken from Herodotus alone. The +chronology of the Babylonians, according to the +canon of Ptolemy, begins with Nabonassar, 747, +who was succeeded by twelve kings (mentioned +in the same canon), down to Nabopolassar; (see +above, p. 28.)</p> + + +<div class='center'> +<table border="0" cellpadding="2" cellspacing="0" summary=""> +<tr><td align='left'></td><td align='right'><small>B. C.</small></td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Nabopolassar</td><td align='right'>627—604.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Nebuchadnezzar</td><td align='right'>604—561.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Evil-Merodach</td><td align='right'>561—559.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Neriglissar</td><td align='right'>559—555.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Labynetus</td><td align='right'>555—538.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Conquest of Babylon by Cyrus </td><td align='right'>538.</td></tr> +</table></div> +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_480" id="Page_480">[Pg 480]</a></span></p> + +<p class="cblockquot">V. CHRONOLOGY OF THE EGYPTIANS.</p> + +<p>M. Volney very properly commences this with +the dodecarchy—as of the earlier periods only +the time of Sesostris, 1365, is ascertained;—and +arranges it in the following manner.</p> + +<div class='center'> +<table border="0" cellpadding="2" cellspacing="0" summary=""> +<tr><td align='left'></td><td align='right'><small>B. C.</small></td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Dodecarchy</td><td align='right'>671—656.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Psammetichus's sole dominion thirty-nine years </td><td align='right'>656—617.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Reign of Neco, sixteen years</td><td align='right'>617—601.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>—— Psammis, six years</td><td align='right'>601—595.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>—— Apries, twenty-five years</td><td align='right'>595—570.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>—— Amasis, forty-four years</td><td align='right'>570—526.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Psammenitus, six months</td><td align='right'>525.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Conquest of Egypt by Cambyses</td></tr> +</table></div> + + +<hr style="width: 100%;" /> +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_481" id="Page_481">[Pg 481]</a></span></p> + +<h3>I. THE REIGNING HOUSES OF MACEDON.</h3> + +<p class="cblockquot">I. HOUSE OF ALEXANDER THE GREAT.</p> + + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 90%;"> +<img src="images/i503-i.png" width="100%" alt="" title="" /> +</div> + +<div class='center'> +<table border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" summary=""> +<tr> + <td colspan='5'><span class="smcap">Philip</span> † 336. married, 1. Olympias. 2. Cleopatra. (3. Concubines.)</td> +</tr> +<tr><td></td><td class="bl"></td></tr> +<tr><td class="bt bl"></td><td class="bt"></td><td class="bt"></td><td class="bt"></td><td class="bt br"></td></tr> +<tr> + <td colspan='2'>1.<br /><span class="smcap">Alexander the Great</span> † 323.<br />married, 1. Roxana. (2. Barsine.)</td> + <td>1.<br /> Cleopatra. <br /> </td> + <td>3.<br /><span class="smcap">Philip Arrhidæus</span> † 317.<br />married Eurydice.</td> + <td>3.<br />Thessalonice.<br />married Cassander.</td> +</tr> +<tr><td class="br"></td></tr> +<tr><td class="bt bl"></td><td class="bt br"></td></tr> +<tr> + <td align='center'>1.<br /><span class="smcap">Alexander</span> † 311.</td> + <td align='center'>2.<br /><span class="smcap">Hercules</span> † 309.</td> +</tr> +</table></div> + + +<p> </p> +<p class="cblockquot">II. HOUSE OF ANTIPATER.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 90%;"> +<img src="images/i503-ii.png" width="100%" alt="" title="" /> +</div> + +<div class='center'> +<table border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" summary="" width="70%"> +<tr> + <td colspan='4'><span class="smcap">Antipater</span> † 320.</td> +</tr> +<tr><td></td><td class="br"> </td></tr> +<tr> + <td colspan='4'><span class="smcap">Cassander</span> † 298, married Thessalonice.</td> +</tr> +<tr><td></td><td class="br"></td></tr> +<tr><td class="bt bl"></td><td class="bt"></td><td class="bt"></td><td class="bt br"></td></tr> +<tr> + <td><span class="smcap">Philip</span> † 297.</td> + <td colspan='2'><span class="smcap">Antipater</span> † 294.</td> + <td><span class="smcap">Alexander</span> † 294.</td> +</tr> +</table></div> + + +<p> </p> +<p class="cblockquot">III. HOUSE OF ANTIGONUS.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 90%;"> +<img src="images/i503-iii.png" width="100%" alt="" title="" /> +</div> + +<div class='center'> +<table border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" summary=""> +<tr> + <td colspan='7'><span class="smcap">Antigonus</span> † 301.</td> +</tr> +<tr><td></td><td class="br"> </td></tr> +<tr> + <td colspan='7'><span class="smcap">Demetrius I. Poliorcetes</span> † 284.</td> +</tr> +<tr><td></td><td class="br"></td></tr> +<tr><td colspan="6" class="bl bt br"></td><td></td></tr> +<tr> + <td>Stratonice.<br />married, 1. Seleucus I. 2. Antiochus I.</td> + <td colspan='6'><span class="smcap">Antigonus I. Gonatas</span> † 242.<br /> </td> +</tr> +<tr><td colspan='4' class='br'></td></tr> +<tr><td></td><td colspan="5" class="bl bt br"></td><td></td></tr> +<tr> + <td></td> + <td colspan='2'><span class="smcap">Demetrius II.</span> † 233.</td> + <td> </td> + <td colspan='2'>Alcyoneus.</td> +</tr> +<tr><td></td><td class="br"></td><td></td><td></td><td class="br"></td></tr> +<tr><td></td><td class="bt bl"></td><td class="bt br"></td><td></td><td class="bt bl"></td><td class="bt"></td><td class="bt br"></td></tr> +<tr> + <td></td> + <td colspan='2'><span class="smcap">Philip II.</span> † 179.</td> + <td> </td> + <td colspan='3'><span class="smcap">Antigonus II. Doson</span> † 221.</td> +</tr> +<tr><td></td><td class="br"></td></tr> +<tr><td></td><td class="bt bl"></td><td class="bt br"></td></tr> +<tr> + <td></td> + <td align='center'><span class="smcap">Perseus</span> † 166.</td> + <td align='center'>Demetrius † 180.</td> +</tr> +</table></div> + + + +<hr style="width: 100%;" /> +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_482" id="Page_482">[Pg 482]</a></span></p> + +<h3>II. GENEALOGICAL TABLE OF THE SELEUCIDÆ.</h3> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 90%;"> +<img src="images/i504.png" width="100%" alt="" title="" /> +</div> + +<p> </p> +<div class='center'> +<table border="0" cellpadding="6" cellspacing="0" summary=""> +<tr> + <td colspan='8'><span class="smcap">Seleucus I. Nicator</span> † 281.<br />married, 1. Apame. 2. Stratonice, daughter of Demetrius Poliorcetes.</td> +</tr> +<tr><td colspan='5' class="br"></td></tr> +<tr><td></td><td colspan='7' class="bt bl br"></td></tr> +<tr> + <td></td> + <td colspan='5'>1.<br /><span class="smcap">Antiochus I. Soter</span> † 262.<br />married, 1. Stratonice, his mother-in-law. 2. Anonymous.</td> + <td colspan='2'>2.<br />Phila<br />married Antigonus Gonatas king of Macedon.</td> +</tr> +<tr><td colspan='4' class="br"></td></tr> +<tr><td colspan='8' class="bt bl br"></td></tr> +<tr> + <td colspan='6'>1.<br /><span class="smcap">Antiochus II. Theos</span> † 247.<br />married, 1. Laodice, his sister-in-law. 2. Berenice, daughter of Ptol. Philad.</td> + <td>1.<br />Apame<br />married Magas of Cyrene.</td> + <td>2.<br />Laodice.<br /> </td> +</tr> +<tr><td></td><td></td><td class="br"></td></tr> +<tr><td colspan='8' class="bt bl br"></td></tr> +<tr> + <td colspan='5'>1.<br /><span class="smcap">Seleucus II. Callinicus</span> † 227.<br />married Laodice, daughter of Andromachus, father of Achæus.</td> + <td>1.<br />Antiochus Hierax.<br /> </td> + <td colspan='2'>1.<br />Stratonice<br />married Ariarathes IV. of Cappadocia.</td> +</tr> +<tr><td></td><td></td><td class="bl"></td></tr> +<tr><td></td><td colspan='7' class="bt bl br"></td></tr> +<tr> + <td></td> + <td></td> + <td colspan='2'><span class="smcap">Seleucus III. Ceraunus</span> † 224.<br /> </td> + <td colspan='2'>Stratonice<br />married Mithridates IV. of Pontus.</td> + <td colspan='2'><span class="smcap">Antiochus III. the Great</span> † 187.<br />married Laodice, daughter of Mithridates IV. of Pontus.</td> +</tr> +<tr><td colspan='7' class="br"></td></tr> +<tr><td colspan='8' class="bt bl br"></td></tr> +<tr> + <td align='center'>Antiochus<br />† 192.</td> + <td align='center'>Laodice.</td> + <td align='center' colspan='3'><span class="smcap">Seleucus IV. Philopator</span> † 176.<br />married his sister Laodice.</td> + <td align='center' colspan='1'><span class="smcap">Antiochus IV. Epiphanes</span><br />† 164.</td> + <td align='center'>Cleopatra<br />married Ptolemy V.</td> + <td align='center'>Antiochis<br />married Ariarathes V. of Cappad.</td> +</tr> +<tr><td></td><td></td><td class="br"></td></tr> +<tr><td colspan='4' class="bt bl br"></td><td></td><td class="bt bl br"></td></tr> +<tr> + <td align='center' colspan='2'><span class="smcap">Demetrius I.</span><br />† 150.</td> + <td align='center' colspan='2'>Laodice<br />married Perseus king of Maced.</td> + <td></td> + <td align='center' colspan='1'><span class="smcap">Antiochus V. Eupator</span> † 161.</td> +</tr> +<tr><td></td><td class="bl"></td></tr> +<tr><td colspan='8' class="bt bl br"></td></tr> +<tr> + <td align='center' colspan='5'><span class="smcap">Demetrius II. Nicator</span> † 126.<br />married, 1. Cleopatra, daughter of Ptol. Philom. 2. Rhodogyne.</td> + <td align='center'></td> + <td align='center' colspan='2'><span class="smcap">Antiochus Sidetes</span> † 131.<br />married his daughter-in-law, Cleopatra.</td> +</tr> +<tr><td></td><td></td><td class="bl"></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td class="br"></td></tr> +<tr><td></td><td colspan='4' class="bt bl br"></td><td></td><td colspan='2' class="bt bl br"></td></tr> +<tr> + <td align='center'></td> + <td align='center'><span class="smcap">Seleucus V.</span> † 125.</td> + <td align='center' colspan='3'><span class="smcap">Antiochus Gryphus</span> † 97.<br />married Cleopatra Selene, daughter of Ptol. Phys.</td> + <td align='center'></td> + <td align='center' colspan='2'><span class="smcap">Antiochus Cyzicenus</span> † 96.<br />married Cleopatra, daughter of Ptol. Phys.</td> +</tr> +<tr><td></td><td></td><td class="br"></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td class="br"></td></tr> +<tr><td colspan='5' class="bt bl br"></td><td></td><td colspan='2' class="bt bl br"></td></tr> +<tr> + <td align='center'>Seleucus Epiph.<br />† 94.</td> + <td align='center'>Antioch. Epiph.<br />† 93.</td> + <td align='center'>Philippus Epiph.<br />† 83.</td> + <td align='center'>Demetr. Eucar.<br />† c. 87.</td> + <td align='center'>Antioch. Dionys.<br />† 89.</td> + <td></td> + <td align='center' colspan='2'><span class="smcap">Antiochus Eusebes</span> † c. 90.<br />married Cleopatra Selene.</td> +</tr> +<tr><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td class="br"></td></tr> +<tr><td colspan='4'></td><td colspan='4' class="bt bl br"></td></tr> +<tr> + <td align='center' colspan='4'></td> + <td align='center' colspan='2'><span class="smcap">Antiochus Asiaticus</span><br />† 58.</td> + <td align='center' colspan='2'><span class="smcap">Seleucus Cybiosactes</span> † 57.<br />married Berenice, daughter of Ptol. Auletes.</td> +</tr> +</table></div> + + + +<hr style="width: 100%;" /> +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_483" id="Page_483">[Pg 483]</a></span></p> + +<h3>III. GENEALOGICAL TABLE OF THE PTOLEMIES.</h3> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 90%;"> +<img src="images/i505.png" width="100%" alt="" title="" /> +</div> + +<p> </p> +<div class='center'> +<table border="0" cellpadding="6" cellspacing="0" summary=""> +<tr> + <td colspan='10'><span class="smcap">Ptolemy</span> I. son of <span class="smcap">Lagus</span> † 284.<br />married, 1. Eurydice, daughter of Antipater. 2. Berenice. (3. Concubines.)</td> +</tr> +<tr><td colspan='5' class="br"></td></tr> +<tr><td></td><td colspan='9' class="bt bl br"></td></tr> +<tr> + <td></td> + <td colspan='2'>1.<br />Ptol. Ceraunus † 279.<br />king of Macedonia.<br /> </td> + <td colspan='4'>2.<br /><span class="smcap">Ptol. II. Philadelphus</span> † 246.<br />married, 1. Arsinoe, daughter of Lysimachus.<br />2. His sister Arsinoe.</td> + <td>2.<br />Arsinoe<br /> <br /> </td> + <td colspan='2' align='center'>3.<br />Magas of Cyrene.<br /> </td> +</tr> +<tr><td colspan='5' class="br"></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td class="bl"></td></tr> +<tr><td></td><td></td><td colspan='5' class="bt bl br"></td><td></td><td colspan='2' class="bt bl br"></td></tr> +<tr> + <td></td> + <td></td> + <td colspan='3'><span class="smcap">Ptol. III. Evergetes</span> † 221.<br />Married Berenice, daughter of Magas.</td> + <td colspan='2'>Berenice<br />married Antiochus Theos.</td> + <td></td> + <td colspan='2' align='center'>Berenice<br /> </td> +</tr> +<tr><td colspan='4' class="br"></td></tr> +<tr><td colspan='5' class="bt bl br"></td></tr> +<tr> + <td colspan='3'><span class="smcap">Ptol. IV. Philopator</span> † 204.<br />married, 1. His sister Arsinoe.<br />(2. Agathoclea.)</td> + <td>Magas.<br /> <br /> </td> + <td>Arsinoe.<br /> <br /> </td> +</tr> +<tr><td colspan='1' class="br"></td></tr> +<tr><td colspan='4' class="bt bl br"></td></tr> +<tr> + <td colspan='4'><span class="smcap">Ptol. V. Ephiphanes</span> † 181.<br />married Cleopatra, daughter of Antiochus the Great.</td> +</tr> +<tr><td colspan='2' class="br"></td></tr> +<tr><td colspan='10' class="bt bl br"></td></tr> +<tr> + <td colspan='2'><span class="smcap">Ptol. VI. Philometor</span> † 145.<br />married his sister Cleopatra.</td> + <td colspan='1'>Cleopatra.<br /> </td> + <td colspan='6'><span class="smcap">Ptol. VII. Physcon</span> † 117.<br />married, 1. His sister Cleopatra. 2. Cleopatra the younger. (3. Irene.)</td> +</tr> +<tr><td colspan='1' class="br"></td><td colspan='5' class="br"></td></tr> +<tr><td colspan='2' class="bt bl br"></td><td></td><td colspan='7' class="bt bl br"></td></tr> +<tr> + <td colspan='2'>Cleopatra the younger.<br /> <br /> </td> + <td></td> + <td colspan='2'>2.<br /><span class="smcap">Ptol. VIII. Lathyrus</span> † 81.<br />married, 1, 2. his two sisters.<br />(3. Concubines.)</td> + <td colspan='1'>2.<br />Cleop. Selene.<br /> <br /> </td> + <td colspan='2'>2.<br /><span class="smcap">Ptol. Alexander I.</span> † 88.<br />married Cleopatra, daughter of<br />Ptol. Lathyrus.</td> + <td colspan='1'>2.<br />Cleopatra.<br /> <br /> </td> + <td colspan='1'>3.<br />Ptol. Apion.<br />king of Cyrene,<br />† 97.</td> +</tr> +<tr><td colspan='2'></td><td colspan='5' class="br"></td></tr> +<tr><td colspan='10' class="bt bl br"></td></tr> +<tr> + <td colspan='1'>2.<br />Cleopatra † 88.<br />married Alex. I.</td> + <td colspan='1'>2.<br />Cl. Berenice.<br /> </td> + <td colspan='2'>3.<br /><span class="smcap">Ptol. Auletes</span> † 51.<br />married, 1. His sister Cleop.<br />2. Unknown.</td> + <td colspan='1'>3.<br />Ptol. of Cyprus.<br />† 57.</td> + <td colspan='1'>3.<br />Cleopatra.<br /> <br /> </td> + <td colspan='2'><span class="smcap">Ptol. Alexander II.</span> † 80.<br />married Cleop. Berenice.</td> + <td colspan='2'> † <br /> † †<br /><span class="smcap">Ptol. Alex. III.</span> † 66.</td> +</tr> +<tr><td colspan='3' class="br"></td></tr> +<tr><td colspan='9' class="bt bl br"></td></tr> +<tr> + <td colspan='2'>1.<br /><span class="smcap">Berenice</span> † 55.<br />married, 1. Seleucus Cybios.<br />2. Archelaus.</td> + <td colspan='2'>1.<br /><span class="smcap">Cleopatra</span> † 30.<br />married, 1. 2. her brothers.<br />(3. Jul. Cæsar.) 4. Antony</td> + <td colspan='2'>2.<br /><span class="smcap">Ptol. Dionysius</span> † 47.<br />married Cleopatra.</td> + <td colspan='2'>2.<br />Ptol. the younger † 44.<br />married Cleopatra.</td> + <td colspan='1'><br />Arsinoe<br /> † 43.</td> +</tr> + +</table></div> + + +<hr style="width: 100%;" /> +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_484" id="Page_484">[Pg 484]</a></span></p> + +<h3>IV. THE REIGNING HOUSES OF THE JEWS.</h3> + +<p class="cblockquot">HOUSE OF THE MACCABEES.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 90%;"> +<img src="images/i506-i.png" width="100%" alt="" title="" /> +</div> + + +<div class='center'> +<table border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" summary=""> +<tr> + <td colspan='6'>Mattathias † B. C. 166.</td> +</tr> +<tr><td></td><td class="br"></td></tr> +<tr><td colspan="6" class="bl bt br"></td></tr> +<tr> + <td>Judas Maccabæus,<br />general of the army † 161. </td> + <td>Jonathan,<br />high priest † 143.</td> + <td colspan='4'>Simon,<br />high priest and ethnarch, † 135.</td> +</tr> +<tr><td></td><td></td><td></td><td class="br"></td></tr> +<tr><td></td><td></td><td colspan="4" class="bl bt br"></td></tr> +<tr> + <td></td> + <td></td> + <td colspan='4'>John Hyrcanus † 107.</td> +</tr> +<tr><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td class="bl"></td></tr> +<tr><td></td><td></td><td colspan="5" class="bl bt br"></td></tr> +<tr> + <td></td> + <td></td> + <td>Aristobulus I. † 106,<br />king and high priest.</td> + <td colspan='5'>Alex. I. Jannæus † 79.<br />married Alexandra.</td> +</tr> +<tr><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td class="br"></td></tr> +<tr><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td colspan="4" class="bl bt br"></td></tr> +<tr> + <td></td> + <td></td> + <td></td> + <td colspan='4'>Hyrcanus II. † 30.<br />high priest and ethnarch.</td> + <td>Aristobulus.<br />† 49.</td> +</tr> +<tr><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td class="br"></td></tr> +<tr><td></td><td></td><td colspan="5" class="bl bt br"></td></tr> +<tr> + <td></td> + <td></td> + <td colspan='4'>Alexander II. † 49.</td> + <td>Antigonus † 37.</td> +</tr> +<tr><td></td><td></td><td></td><td class="br"></td></tr> +<tr><td></td><td></td><td colspan="4" class="bl bt br"></td></tr> +<tr> + <td></td> + <td></td> + <td colspan='2'>Aristobulus † 34.<br /> </td> + <td colspan='2'>Mariamne † 28.<br />married Herod the Great.</td> +</tr> +</table></div> + +<p> </p> +<p class="cblockquot">II. HOUSE OF HEROD.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 90%;"> +<img src="images/i506-ii.png" width="100%" alt="" title="" /> +</div> + +<div class='center'> +<table border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" summary=""> +<tr> + <td></td> + <td></td> + <td colspan='6'>Antipater † 43.</td> +</tr> +<tr><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td class="br"></td></tr> +<tr><td></td><td></td><td colspan="5" class="bl bt br"></td></tr> +<tr> + <td></td> + <td></td> + <td colspan='2'>Salome.<br /> </td> + <td colspan='3'>Herod the Great † A. C. 3.<br />married, 1. Doris. 2. Mariamne. 3. Many others.</td> +</tr> +<tr><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td class="br"></td></tr> +<tr><td colspan="8" class="bl bt br"></td></tr> +<tr> + <td> Antipater <br />† A. C. 3.<br /> </td> + <td> Alexander <br />† B. C. 5.<br /> </td> + <td colspan='2'>Aristobulus<br />† B. C. 5.</td> + <td colspan='2'>Archelaus,<br />ethnarch, deposed A. C. 6. <br /> </td> + <td>Antipas,<br />tetrarch, deposed A. C. 39. <br />married Herodias.</td> + <td>Philip,<br />tetrarch, † A. C. 34.<br /> </td> +</tr> +<tr><td></td><td></td><td class="br"></td></tr> +<tr><td></td><td></td><td class="bt bl"></td><td class="bt br"></td></tr> +<tr> + <td></td> + <td></td> + <td colspan='2'>Herod II. Agrippa<br />† A. C. 44.</td> +</tr> +<tr><td></td><td></td><td class="br"></td></tr> +<tr><td></td><td></td><td class="bt bl"></td><td class="bt br"></td></tr> +<tr> + <td></td> + <td></td> + <td colspan='2'>Herod Agrippa<br />† A. C. 100.</td> +</tr> +</table></div> + + +<hr style="width: 100%;" /> +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_485" id="Page_485">[Pg 485]</a></span></p> + +<h3>V. GENEALOGICAL TABLE OF THE CÆSARS.</h3> + +<p class="cblockquot">I.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 90%;"> +<img src="images/i507-i.png" width="100%" alt="" title="" /> +</div> + +<div class='center'> +<table border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" summary=""> +<tr><td align='center' colspan='6'>C. Julius Cæsar, prætor, † 84.</td></tr> +<tr><td></td><td></td><td class="br"></td></tr> +<tr><td class="bl bt"></td><td class="bt"></td><td class="bt"></td><td class="bt"></td><td class="bt"></td><td class="bt br"></td></tr> +<tr> + <td align='center' colspan='2'><span class="smcap">C. Julius Cæsar</span>, dictator,<br />† 44.</td> + <td align='center' colspan='2'></td> + <td align='center' colspan='2'>Julia † 52.<br />married Accius Balbus.</td> +</tr> +<tr><td></td><td class="bl"></td><td></td><td></td><td class="br"></td></tr> +<tr><td class="bl bt"></td><td class="bt br"></td><td></td><td></td><td class="bl bt"></td><td class="bt br"></td></tr> +<tr> + <td align='center' colspan='2'>Julia † 52. married Pompey.</td> + <td align='center' colspan='2'></td> + <td align='center' colspan='2'>Accia † 42, married C. Octavius.</td> +</tr> +<tr><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td class="br"></td></tr> +<tr><td class="bt bl"></td><td class="bt"></td><td class="bt"></td><td class="bt"></td><td class="bt"></td><td class="bt br"></td></tr> +<tr> + <td align='center' colspan='2'>Octavia the elder<br />married M. Marcellus.<br /> </td> + <td align='center' colspan='2'>Octavia the younger<br />married, 1. C. Marcellus.<br />2. Pompey. 3. M. Antony.</td> + <td align='center' colspan='2'><span class="smcap">C. Octavius</span> (<span class="smcap">Cæsar Augustus</span>)<br />† A. C. 14 (see No. II.)<br /> </td> +</tr> +</table></div> + + +<p> </p> +<p class="cblockquot">II.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 90%;"> +<img src="images/i507-ii.png" width="100%" alt="" title="" /> +</div> + +<div class='center'> +<table border="0" cellpadding="6" cellspacing="0" summary=""> +<tr> + <td colspan='2'></td> + <td colspan='6' align='center'><span class="smcap">Cæsar Octavianus Augustus</span> † A. C. 14.</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td colspan='2'></td> + <td align='right' colspan='2'>married, 1. Scribonia.</td> + <td align='left' colspan='4'>2. Livia, widow of Tiberius Claudius Nero.</td> +</tr> +<tr><td colspan='3' class='br'></td><td colspan='3' class="br"></td></tr> +<tr><td colspan='4' class="bt bl br"></td><td></td><td colspan='8' class="bt bl br"></td></tr> +<tr> + <td colspan='4'>1.<br />Julia † A. C. 17.<br />married, 1. M. Cl. Marcellus. 2. Agrippa. 3. Tiberius.</td> + <td></td> + <td colspan='3'><br /><span class="smcap">Tiberius Nero</span> † A. C. 37.<br />married, 1. Vipsania. 2. Julia.<br /><b>|</b></td> + <td> </td> + <td colspan='4'><br />Nero Claudius Drusus † 9.<br />married Antonia the younger.</td> +</tr> +<tr><td colspan='2' class='br'></td><td colspan='9' class="br"></td></tr> +<tr><td colspan='5' class="bt bl br"></td><td colspan='3'></td><td colspan='5' class="bt bl br"></td></tr> +<tr> + <td>2.<br />C. Cæsar<br />† A. C. 4.</td> + <td>2.<br />L. Cæsar<br />† A. C. 2.</td> + <td>2.<br />Agrippina † A. C. 35.<br />married Germanicus.</td> + <td>2.<br />Julia<br />† A. C. 30.</td> + <td>2.<br />Agrippa Posthumus<br />† A. C. 14.</td> + <td colspan='2'>Drusus Cæsar † A. C. 25.<br /> <br /> </td> + <td> </td> + <td colspan='3'>Germanicus <br /> † A. C. 19.<br />married Agrippina.</td> + <td colspan='2'><span class="smcap">Claudius</span> A. C. 54.<br />married, 1. Messalina.<br />2. Agrippina.</td> +</tr> +<tr><td colspan='9' class='br'></td><td colspan='3' class="br"></td></tr> +<tr><td colspan='3'></td><td colspan='7' class="bt bl br"></td><td></td><td colspan='2' class="bt bl br"></td></tr> +<tr> + <td></td> + <td></td> + <td></td> + <td>Nero <br /> † A. C. 29.</td> + <td>Drusus <br /> † A. C. 35.</td> + <td><span class="smcap">Caius Caligula</span><br /> † A. C. 41.</td> + <td colspan='3'>Agrippina<br />married, 1. Cn.<br />Domitius. 2. Claudius.</td> + <td> </td> + <td> </td> + <td>1.<br />Britannicus<br />† A. C. 34.</td> + <td>1.<br />Octavia<br />† A. C. 59.<br />married Nero.</td> +</tr> +<tr><td colspan='8' class="br"></td></tr> +<tr><td colspan='5'></td><td colspan='6' class="bt bl br"></td></tr> +<tr> + <td colspan='5'></td> + <td colspan='6'>1.<br /><span class="smcap">Domitius Nero</span> † A. C. 68.<br />married, 1. Octavia. 2. Poppæa Sabina</td> + <td></td> +</tr> +</table></div> + + +<hr style="width: 100%;" /> +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_486" id="Page_486">[Pg 486]</a></span></p> + +<h3>VI. GENEALOGICAL TABLE OF THE HOUSE OF CONSTANTINE.</h3> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 90%;"> +<img src="images/i508.png" width="100%" alt="" title="" /> +</div> + +<p> </p> +<div class='center'> +<table border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" summary=""> +<tr><td align='center' colspan='13'><span class="smcap">Constantius Chlorus</span> † 306.<br />married, 1. Helena. 2. Theodora.</td></tr> +<tr><td colspan='6'></td><td class='bl'></td></tr> +<tr><td></td><td class='bt br bl' colspan='12'></td></tr> +<tr> + <td align='center'></td> + <td align='center' colspan='2'><span class="smcap">Constantine</span> the Great † 337.<br />married, 1. Minervina. 2. Fausta.</td> + <td align='center'></td> + <td align='center' colspan='3'>Constantia<br />married C. Valer <span class="smcap">Licinius</span>, Cæsar,<br />† 324.</td> + <td align='center'></td> + <td align='center' colspan='2'>Jul. Constantius † 337.<br />married, 1. Galla. 2. Basilina.</td> + <td align='center'></td> + <td align='center' colspan='2'>Annibalianus.</td> +</tr> +<tr><td></td><td class="br"></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td class="br"></td><td></td><td></td><td class="br"></td><td></td><td></td><td class="br"></td></tr> +<tr><td class="bt bl"></td><td class="bt"></td><td class="bt"></td><td class="bt br"></td><td></td><td class="bt bl"></td><td class="bt br"></td><td></td><td class="bt bl"></td><td class="bt br"></td><td></td><td class="bt bl"></td><td class="bt br"></td></tr> +<tr> + <td align='center'>1.<br /><span class="smcap">Crispus</span><br />† 326.</td> + <td align='center'>2.<br /><span class="smcap">Constantine</span><br />† 340.</td> + <td align='center'>2.<br /><span class="smcap">Constantius</span><br />† 361.</td> + <td align='center'>2.<br /><span class="smcap">Constans</span><br />† 350.</td> + <td></td> + <td align='center' colspan='2'>Fl. Valer. Licinius<br />† 326.<br /> </td> + <td></td> + <td align='center'>1.<br />Gallus<br />† 354.</td> + <td align='center'>2.<br /><span class="smcap">Julian</span> (the apostate)<br />† 363.</td> + <td></td> + <td align='center'>Dalmatius<br />Cæsar † 339.<br /> </td> + <td align='center'>Annibalianus<br />† 338.<br /> </td> +</tr> +</table></div> + + + +<p> </p> + +<p> </p> +<hr style="width: 15%;" /> +<h5>PRINTED BY TALBOYS AND BROWNE, OXFORD.</h5> + +<p> </p> +<p> </p> +<hr class="full" /> + +<p>***END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK A MANUAL OF ANCIENT HISTORY***</p> +<p>******* This file should be named 39747-h.txt or 39747-h.zip *******</p> +<p>This and all associated files of various formats will be found in:<br /> +<a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/dirs/3/9/7/4/39747">http://www.gutenberg.org/3/9/7/4/39747</a></p> +<p> +Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions +will be renamed.</p> + +<p> +Creating the works from public domain print editions means that no +one owns a United States copyright in these works, so the Foundation +(and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United States without +permission and without paying copyright royalties. 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H. L. +(Arnold Hermann Ludwig) Heeren + + +This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with +almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or +re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included +with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org + + + + + +Title: A Manual of Ancient History + Particularly with Regard to the Constitutions, the Commerce, and the Colonies, of the States of Antiquity + + +Author: A. H. L. (Arnold Hermann Ludwig) Heeren + + + +Release Date: May 21, 2012 [eBook #39747] + +Language: English + +Character set encoding: ISO-646-US (US-ASCII) + + +***START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK A MANUAL OF ANCIENT HISTORY*** + + +E-text prepared by Adrian Mastronardi and the Online Distributed +Proofreading Team (http://www.pgdp.net) from page images generously made +available by Internet Archive/American Libraries +(http://archive.org/details/americana) + + + +Note: Images of the original pages are available through + Internet Archive/American Libraries. See + http://archive.org/details/manualofancienth00heeriala + + + + + +A MANUAL OF ANCIENT HISTORY, + +Particularly with Regard to the Constitutions, the Commerce, +and the Colonies, of the States of Antiquity. + +by + +A. H. L. HEEREN; + +Knight of the North Star and Guelphic Order; Aulic Counsellor +and Professor of History in the University of Goettingen; and +Member of Several Other Learned Societies. + +Translated from the German. + +THE SECOND EDITION, CORRECTED AND IMPROVED. + + + + + + + +Oxford: +Published By D. A. Talboys. +M DCCC XXXIII. + +Oxford: Printed by Talboys and Browne. + + + + +TRANSLATOR'S PREFACE + +TO THIS EDITION. + + +It is to the patient industry of the historians of Germany, that we are +indebted for the first production of Manuals of history, and for those +synchronistic tables which have so much facilitated the systematic study +of ancient history; and among the various and profound treatises of this +class which enrich and adorn their literature, the works of Heeren are +distinguished by their extended range of enquiry, as well as by the +minute accuracy of their details. + +The work before us embodies the result of his laborious researches +during the long period in which he has been engaged as public lecturer +and professor of history in the university of Goettingen; and if it be +any recommendation of a work to know that its writer has had ample time, +ability, and opportunity to collect and elaborate his materials, it may +be asserted, without fear of contradiction, that the author of the +present work possessed all these advantages in an eminent degree. He has +spent the greater portion of his life in lecturing upon the subjects of +which it treats, and has in every case gone for his information +immediately to the fountain head. It forms, too, an important feature of +his work, that a list of the original sources, whence his own knowledge +has been drawn, is placed at the head of each section; another is added +of the principal writers who have touched upon or illustrated the +particular portion of history under notice; both being generally +accompanied with a few words of judicious criticism, in which the value +of the writer's authority is estimated, and his sources, circumstances, +and prejudices, briefly, but fairly set forth. Besides this advantage, +the work possesses the merit of combining the convenience of the Manuals +with the synchronistic method of instruction; as the geography, +chronology, and biography of the countries and states of the ancient +world are brought at once under the eye of the reader; and so lucid is +the arrangement, that the darkest and most entangled portions of history +are seen in a clear and perspicuous light. Professor Heeren seems, +moreover, to possess in a more eminent degree than any other writer, the +power of forcing, by a very few words, the attention of the reader upon +the most important facts of history; and of conjuring up in his thoughts +a train of reflections calculated at once to instruct and enlarge the +mind. His work is not only admirably adapted to become a text-book in +the study of history, but will be found equally serviceable as a book of +reference--it will guide the student in his untried and intricate +course, and enable the more advanced scholar to methodize his collected +stores. Perhaps in no work has so much important information been +condensed into so small a compass. + +The estimation in which this Manual is held on the continent, may be +gathered from the fact of its having passed through six large editions +in German, and two in French, and from its having been translated into +almost every language of Europe. + +The rapidity with which the first edition, as well as the other writings +of professor Heeren, have sold in this country, is a proof that they +only required to be known here in order to be appreciated. The favour +with which these translations have been received, both by the venerable +author himself and by the British public, has been a source of the +highest gratification to the publisher. The encouragement, so kindly +bestowed, has urged him to new exertions, the fruits of which, he +trusts, will be observable in the present volume. The Manual has not +only been revised and corrected throughout, but has also been diligently +compared with the German, and has received such ameliorations as the +original text or the English style seemed to demand. When it is added to +this that a very numerous body of corrections and improvements have been +sent to the publisher by professor Heeren himself, who has patiently +examined the translation expressly for this edition, he trusts that the +public will be satisfied that it is as faithful a copy of the original +work as the nature of things will allow. + +In the preface to the last edition of this Manual the publisher +announced his intention, should it be favourably received, of following +it up by the publication of another elaborate work of the same author, +viz. A Manual of the History of the States of Modern Europe and their +Colonies, as forming one political System. This work will now very +shortly appear. As an apology for the delay which has taken place, he +begs to call to their notice another equally important work by the same +author, which he has published in the mean time; the Historical +Researches into the Politics, Intercourse, and Trade of the +Carthaginians, Ethiopians, and Egyptians, with a general introduction; +the remainder of this work, containing the Historical Researches into +the Politics, Intercourse, and Trade of the Ancient Asiatic Nations--the +Persians, Phoenicians, Babylonians, Scythians, and Hindoos, will +appear in a few weeks. + +To add to the usefulness of the work, an analysis of the contents, with +dates, has been given in the margin. The # prefixed to some of the books +denote that they are written in German. + + OXFORD, + _March, 1833_. + + + + +PROFESSOR HEEREN'S WORKS. + + +The following catalogue of the historical works of Professor Heeren, has +been sent to the Publisher by the Professor himself. They are uniformly +printed in German, in 15 vols. 8vo. and may always be had together or +separate of the publisher of this volume. + + + VOL. I. II. III. Vermischte historische Schriften. (Miscellaneous + Historical Pieces). + + VOL. I. Einleitung. Biographische Nachrichten ueber den Verfasser. + (Biographical Sketch of Heeren's Life, by himself.) + + 1. Entwickelung der politischen Folgen der Reformation fuer Europa. + (Development of the Consequences of the Reformation to the Politics + of Europe). + + 2. * Versuch einer Entwickelung des Ursprungs und Fortganges der + britischen Continental-interesse. (Essay on the Rise and Progress + of the British Continental interests). A translation of this Essay + will be appended to the Manual of the History of Modern Europe, + see vol. viii. ix. below. + + 3. Ueber den Einfluss der politischen Theorien auf Europa. (Of the + Influence of Political Theories on Europe). + + VOL. II. 1. Ueber die Erhaltung der Nationalitaet besiegter Voelker. + (On the Method of Preserving the Nationality of Conquered States.) + Written in 1810, and suppressed by the French. + + 2. Entwickelung der Folgen der Kreuzzuege fuer Europa. (Development of + the Effects of the Crusades upon Europe: An essay which obtained the + prize of the French Institute in 1808). + + 3. Ueber den Einfluss der Normannen auf die franzoesische Sprache und + Poesie. (On the Influence of the Normans on the French Language and + Poetry). + + 4. Ueber die Colonisation von Aegypten, und ihre Folgen fuer Europa. + (On the Colonisation of Egypt, and its Probable Consequences to + Europe). + + 5. Der deutsche Bund in seinen Verhaltnisse zu Europa. (The + Influence of the German Federation upon Europe). + + VOL. III. 1. Ueber den historischen Werth der Biographien Plutarch's. + (On the Historical Value of Plutarch's Lives). + + 2. Geschichte der buergerlichen Unruhen der Gracchen. (History of the + Civil Commotions under the Gracchi). + + 3. Fuenf archaeologische und antiquarische Aufsaetze. (Five + Archaeological and Antiquarian Tracts). + + VOL. IV. V. Geschichte der classischen Litteratur im Mittelalter. + (History of Classical Literature During the Middle Ages). + + VOL. VI. Biographische und litterarische Denkschriften. (Biographical + and Literary Memoirs). + + 1. Christian Gottlob. Heyne, biographisch dargestellt. (Biographical + Memoir of Heyne), the father-in-law of Heeren. + + 2. Andenken an deutsche Historiker. (Memoirs of German Historians.) + + VOL. VII. * Handbuch der Geschichte der Staaten des Alterthums. + (Manual of Ancient History, of which this volume is the second + edition of the English translation). + + VOL. VIII. IX. * Handbuch der Geschichte der europaeische + Staaten-systems und seiner Colonien. (Manual of the + History of the European States-system and their Colonies). + + VOL. X. * Ideen ueber die Politik, den Verkehr und den Handel + des vornehmsten Staaten der alten Welt. (Researches into the + Politics, Intercourse, and Trade of the Principal States of + Antiquity,--Asiatic Nations). 1. General Introduction; + 2. Persians. + + VOL. XI. * Ideen, etc. (Asiatic Nations). 1. Phoenicians; + 2. Babylonians; 3. Scythians. + + VOL. XII. * Ideen, etc. (Asiatic Nations). Indians. + + VOL. XIII. * Ideen, etc. (African Nations). 1. Carthaginians; + 2. Ethiopians. + + VOL. XIV. * Ideen, etc. (African Nations). Egyptians. + + VOL. XV. * Ideen, etc. (European Nations). Greeks. + + +Those with a * prefixed are translated into English, and are either now +published or will very shortly be so. + + + + +PREFACE + +TO THE FIRST EDITION. + + +In adding to the number of Manuals on Ancient History already published, +I feel myself bound to give an account of the plan on which the present +has been executed. + +It was at first designed to be used in my public lectures, and from them +it has grown up to what it now is. In them I did not consider it +necessary to state all we know or think we know of ancient history. Many +facts highly interesting to the learned historian are not adapted for +public lectures. It was therefore my great object to make choice of such +incidents as ought to be known by my pupils in order to the effectual +prosecution of their historical studies. Consequently I have not +extended my labours so far as to give an historical account of every +nation, but have limited myself to those most remarkable for their +general civilization and political eminence. + +The subjects to which I have particularly directed my attention are, the +formation of states, the changes in their constitution, the routes by +which commerce was carried on, the share which the different nations +respectively took in its pursuit, and, as immediately connected with +that department, their extension severally by means of colonies. + +The favourable reception which my larger work, executed after a +different plan, has met with, would lead me to hope for a like +indulgence in this new attempt, even if the spirit of the age did not so +loudly call upon every historian to direct his chief attention to these +subjects. And for this reason I could not rest satisfied with a mere +detail of isolated facts, but have made it my study to follow the course +of events, linking them into one connected chain; so as to represent +them in a condensed form by continually and carefully forcing together +the main circumstances which contributed to the development of the +whole. + +Without this, history in general would be but a lifeless study, more +especially that of republics, which were so numerous in ancient times, +and which, from their constitution being made up of political parties, +everywhere present the most difficult problems for the historian's +solution. Of all the larger divisions of my work, the arrangement of the +Greek history I have found most troublesome, on account of the number of +little states into which it is sub-divided. Historians, indeed, lighten +this labour by confining themselves merely to Athens and Sparta; but by +so doing they give us a very imperfect knowledge of the subject. I have +endeavoured to surmount the difficulty by throwing the account of the +smaller states and their colonies into the second period; by which means +I have been able in the third and most important portion, the interest +of which depends entirely upon the principal states, to carry on my +history, as a whole without interruption. But in case others, who wish +to make this Manual the groundwork of their lectures, should dislike +this arrangement, they may very easily attach these notices to the +introductory geographical survey; a plan I very often adopt in my own +lectures. Upon the arrangement of the other parts, I am not aware of the +necessity of making any observations. The sources from which I have +drawn my materials are specified in every section. Particular references +do not come within my plan; and if I have referred several times in the +first two sections to my larger work, it is only on particular points, +explanations of which may be sought for in vain elsewhere. + +Some knowledge of ancient geography and the use of maps[a], if it has +not been previously acquired by the student, should, I am convinced, +always be connected with lectures on ancient history. That this need not +extend to detailed explanations of ancient geography, but that it should +be restricted to what is merely useful in the study of history, I have +observed in the body of my work. The geographical chapters which are +interspersed having been written with this intent, will, I hope, be +judged of accordingly. I have taken care to arrange them so as to +include the whole of the ancient world; it depends, therefore, only upon +the teacher to form a more or less extensive course upon them. + + [a] I have made use of D'Anville. + +With regard to chronology, I have followed throughout the same uniform +plan of computing time, viz. to and from the birth of Christ. By +preferring this method, so convenient and certain, to the inconvenient +and uncertain one of reckoning from the year of the world, I hope I have +deserved the thanks of my readers. I relinquish, on the other hand, all +claim to merit on the score of having more accurately defined the +chronology of events which occur before the time of Cyrus. I have, on +the contrary, in this part of my labour, often stated round numbers, +where, in many modern publications, precise dates may be found. Exact +determinations of time are only necessary, in my opinion, where a +continuous development of circumstances takes place; not where +unconnected facts are recorded. + +The transactions of our own times have thrown a light upon ancient +history, and given it an interest which it could not formerly possess. A +knowledge of history, if not the only, is at least the most certain +means of obtaining a clear and unprejudiced view of the great drama now +performing around us. All direct comparisons, notwithstanding the many +opportunities which have tempted me, I considered as foreign to my plan; +but if, notwithstanding in some chapters of my work, particularly in the +history of the Roman republic, I may be thought to make a reference to +the transactions of the ten years during which this work has been +published, I do not consider it necessary to offer any excuse for so +doing. Of what use is the study of history if it do not make us wiser +and better? unless the knowledge of the past teach us to judge more +correctly of the present? Should I have contributed in any measure to +promote this object, and should I be so fortunate as to lead the minds +of my young friends to a deeper study of a science which can only in +this way reward its admirers, I shall esteem it the most delightful +recompense my labour can receive. + +GOETTINGEN, Sept. 23, 1799. + + + + +PREFACE + +TO THE SECOND AND FOLLOWING EDITIONS. + + +The call for a second edition of my Manual imposes upon me an obligation +to supply the deficiencies of my former work. Corrections have been +carefully made, and many parts completely re-written. A select list of +books which treat of the respective departments of my subject is now +first added; the former edition containing only references to the +sources from which my facts were derived. This, I trust, will be +considered an essential service to the friends of historical science, +more especially the young, for whom and not for the learned these +additions have been made. Their use in this place is particularly +obvious, where it is in every one's power to procure the books referred +to[b]. The short criticisms subjoined, where it seemed necessary, will +serve as guides for their use. In the author's department of the work +but little has been changed, while its form and appearance have been +improved by the use of different types, by more accurate running titles, +and by ranging the dates in the margin. By the adoption of the latter +method the increase in the number of pages is rendered inconsiderable, +notwithstanding the numerous additions which have been made to the +matter. In its arrangement, this work is the same as my Manual of the +History of the European States and their Colonies. Beyond this, however, +these works have no relation to each other, but have been executed upon +quite different principles; the present as a history of the _separate_ +states of the ancient world, and the other as a general history of +modern states and their colonies, as forming altogether one political +system. Each, however, forms a complete work in itself, and it is by no +means my intention to fill up the gulf which time has placed between +them. + + [b] [The author alludes to the public library at Goettingen. TR.] + +I regret that the acute researches of M. Volney[c], upon the chronology +of Herodotus before the time of Cyrus, came too late into my hands to be +made use of in its proper place in my second edition. In the third this +has been done. I lay claim, at the same time, to the thanks of the +reader for giving, in an Appendix, the results of these researches, +together with references to the passages by which they are supported; +leaving out, however, all extraneous matter, and everything that cannot +be proved by the positive assertions of the father of history. + + [c] Chronologie d'Herodote, conforme a son Texte par C. F. Volney. + Paris, 1809, 3 vols. See the _Goett. Gel. Anz._ for 1810 and 1816. + +I cannot close this preface without again recurring to the advantage of +the mode now becoming more and more general, of computing time in +ancient history according to the number of years before Christ. The fact +of its being certain and convenient has often been remarked; but besides +this it possesses the great advantage of giving us at once a clear and +precise notion of the interval that separates us from the incidents +recorded; which it is impossible to obtain by the use of any other era, +whether the year of the world, the olympiads, or the year of Rome, etc. +And yet this peculiar advantage, so great in the eyes of the teacher, +has not, to the best of my knowledge, been hitherto made the subject of +remark. Even for the science of history itself, this circumstance is of +greater moment than might be at first supposed. Should an enquirer arise +who would closely examine all ancient history according to this +era--setting out from the generally received year of the birth of Christ +as from a fixed point, to which the labours of M. Volney are a good +beginning--the whole science would thereby acquire a firmer consistency. +For by this method all dates would not appear equally certain and +equally uncertain, as they do in the eras which are computed from the +year of the world; but it would be shown what is chronologically +certain, what only probable, and what completely uncertain, according as +we should recede from the clearer into the more obscure regions of +history. The old manner of reckoning from the year of the world, in +which congruity was impossible, because there was no agreement upon the +point to start from, would certainly be thrown aside; but where is the +harm if something better and more certain be substituted in its place? + +In the third, fourth, fifth, and sixth editions, though the increase in +the number of pages is small, yet all those additions and corrections +which I deemed necessary, and which the progress of knowledge and +discovery, as in the case of Egypt and other countries, enabled me to +effect, have been most carefully and fully made. The importance of these +will be best seen by comparison. + +_Goettingen_, 1828. + + + + +CONTENTS. + + + Page + INTRODUCTION 1 + + + Book I. Asiatic and African states previous to Cyrus 15 + + General geographical outline of Asia ib. + + Preliminary and General Observations upon the History and + Constitution of the great Asiatic Empires 22 + + History of the ancient Asiatic kingdoms before the reign of + Cyrus 25 + + I. Assyrian monarchy ib. + + II. Median monarchy 26 + + III. Babylonian monarchy 27 + + IV. States in Asia Minor 29 + 1. Trojan empire ib. + 2. Phrygian empire ib. + 3. Lydian empire ib. + + V. Phoenicia 30 + + VI. Syrians 33 + + VII. Jews 34 + 1. Period of the Nomad state from Abraham till the conquest + of Palestine 35 + 2. Period of the federative republic 36 + 3. Period of the monarchy from B. C. 1100-600 38 + The Jewish state as one single kingdom ib. + The Jewish state as a divided kingdom 40 + + African Nations 45 + + General geographical outline of Ancient Africa ib. + + I. Egyptians 47 + + 1st Period. From the earliest times down to the Sesostridae, + about B. C. 1500 51 + + 2nd Period. From the Sesostridae till the sole dominion + of Psammetichus, B. C. 1500-650 62 + + 3rd Period. From the reign of Psammetichus to the + Persian conquest of Egypt by Cambyses, B. C. 650-525 69 + + II. Carthaginians 73 + + 1st Period. From the foundation of Carthage to the + wars with Syracuse, B. C. 880-480 74 + + 2nd Period. From the breaking out of the wars with + Syracuse to the commencement of those with Rome, + B. C. 480-264 80 + + 3rd Period. From the beginning of the wars with + Rome to the downfal of Carthage, B. C. 264-146 82 + + + Book II. History of the Persian empire from B. C. 560-330 90 + + + Book III. History of the Grecian states 112 + + Geographical outline of Greece ib. + + 1st Period. Traditional history down to the Trojan war, + about B. C. 1200 118 + + 2nd Period. From the Trojan war to the breaking out + of the Persian war, B. C. 1200-500 127 + + History of the Hellenic states within Greece ib. + General history ib. + Sparta 131 + Athens 136 + + Principal data for the history of the smaller states: + + I. Within the Peloponnesus: + _a._ Arcadia 142 + _b._ Argos ib. + _c._ Corinth 143 + _d._ Sicyon 144 + _e._ Achaia ib. + _f._ Elis 145 + + II. Central Greece, or Hellas: + _a._ Megaris 146 + _b._ Boeotia 147 + _c._ Phocis 148 + _d._ Locris ib. + _e._ Aetolia ib. + _f._ Acarnania 149 + + III. Northern Greece: + _a._ Thessaly 149 + _b._ Epirus 150 + + IV. Grecian Islands: + _a._ Corcyra 151 + _b._ Aegina ib. + _c._ Euboea 152 + _d._ The Cyclades ib. + _e._ Crete ib. + _f._ Cyprus 154 + + History of the Grecian colonies 155 + + General observations ib. + + Colonies on the Western coast of Asia Minor: 157 + 1. Aeolian colonies 158 + 2. Ionian colonies 159 + 3. Dorian colonies 161 + + Colonies on the coast of the Propontis and the Black sea 162 + + Colonies on the coasts of Thrace and Macedonia 163 + + Colonies on the western coast of Greece 164 + + Grecian settlements in Lower Italy: + _a._ Tarentum 165 + _b._ Croton 166 + _c._ Sybaris ib. + _d._ Thurii 167 + _e._ Locri Epizephyrii ib. + _f._ Rhegium 168 + _g._ Cumae ib. + + Grecian settlements in Sicily: + _a._ Syracuse 169 + _b._ Agrigentum 174 + _c._ The smaller Sicilian cities 175 + + Colonies in Sardinia and Corsica ib. + + Colonies in Gaul;--Massilia 176 + + Colonies in Spain;--Saguntum ib. + + Colonies in Africa;--Cyrene ib. + + Period III. From the breaking out of the Persian wars to + Alexander the Great, B. C. 500-336 178 + + + Book IV. History of the Macedonian Monarchy: + + Period I. From its origin to the death of Alexander the + Great, B. C. 800-323 206 + + Period II. History of the Macedonian monarchy, from the death + of Alexander the Great to the battle of Ipsus, B. C. 323-301 222 + + Period III. History of the separate kingdoms and states + which arose out of the dismemberment of the Macedonian + monarchy, after the battle of Ipsus 232 + + I. History of the Syrian empire under the Seleucidae + B. C. 312-64 232 + + II. History of the Egyptian kingdom under the Ptolemies, + B. C. 323-30 247 + + III. History of Macedonia itself and of Greece, from the + death of Alexander to the Roman conquest, B. C. 323-146 268 + + Achaean league 280 + Aetolian league 279 + + IV. History of some smaller or more distant kingdoms + and states formed out of the Macedonian monarchy 290 + + The kingdom of Pergamus 291 + Bithynia 293 + Paphlagonia 294 + Pontus 295 + Cappadocia 297 + Armenia 298 + The kingdom of Parthia 299 + The kingdom of Bactria 305 + The restored kingdom of the Jews 306 + 1. Under the Persians 307 + 2. Under the Ptolemies and Seleucidae 308 + 3. Under the Maccabees 309 + 4. Under the family of Herod 311 + + + Book V. History of the Roman state: + + Introductory remarks on the Geography of Ancient Italy 314 + + Period I. From the foundation of Rome to the conquest of + Italy, and the commencement of the wars with Carthage, + B. C. 754-264, or A. U. C. 1-490 321 + + Period II. From the commencement of the war with Carthage + to the rise of the civil broils under the Gracchi, + B. C. 264-134, or A. U. C. 490-620 339 + + Period III. From the beginning of the civil broils under + the Gracchi to the fall of the republic, B. C. 134-30, + or A. U. C. 620-724 362 + + Period IV. History of the Roman state as a monarchy till the + overthrow of the western empire, B. C. 30-A. C. 476 402 + + Geographical outline. View of the Roman empire and provinces, + and other countries connected with it by war or commerce ib. + + 1st Section. From Augustus Caesar to the death of + Commodus, B. C. 30-A. C. 193 411 + + 2nd Section. From the death of Commodus to Diocletian, + A. C. 193-284 437 + + 3rd Section. From Diocletian to the overthrow of the + Roman empire in the west, A. C. 284-476 454 + + + Appendix. Chronology of Herodotus from the time of Cyrus, + according to Volney 475 + + + Genealogical Table of the reigning houses of Macedon 481 + + -------------------------------------------- the Seleucidae 482 + + -------------------------------------------- the Ptolemies 483 + + -------------------------------------------- the Jews 484 + + -------------------------------------------- the Caesars 485 + + -------------------------------------------- Constantine 486 + + + * * * * * + + +OXFORD: PRINTED BY TALBOYS AND BROWNE. + + + * * * * * + + + +MANUAL + +OF + +ANCIENT HISTORY. + + + + + * * * * * + + + + +INTRODUCTION. + + + I. The sources of ancient history may be ranged under two heads; + the ancient writers, and the monuments still extant. The various + writers will be mentioned in their proper places, at the different + divisions of this work. A general view of the ancient monuments, so + far as they are sources of history, will be found in: + + OBERLIN, _Orbis antiqui monumentis suis illustrati primae lineae_. + Argentorati, 1790. Extremely defective, as many discoveries have + been made since it was published. + + II. GENERAL TREATISES ON ANCIENT HISTORY. + + 1. _The more voluminous works_ on the subject. These may be divided + in two classes: _a._ The part appropriated to ancient history, in + the general treatises on universal history; _b._ Works exclusively + devoted to ancient history. + + _a._ To the first class belong: + + _The Universal History, ancient and modern; with maps and + additions._ Lond. 1736, 26 vols. folio. Reprinted in 8vo. in 67 + vols. and again in 60 vols. with omissions and additions. + + This work, compiled by a society of British scholars, has been + translated into German, and illustrated with remarks, by SIEGM. + JAC. BAUMGARTEN. Halle, 1746, 4to. The Germans frequently designate + it by the name of the Halle Universal History of the World: the + first eighteen vols. comprise the ancient part. + + WILL. GUTHRIE, JOHN GRAY, _etc._ _General History of the World, + from the creation to the present time._ London, 1764-1767, 12 vols. + 8vo. This work, of no estimation in the original, is rendered + valuable and useful by the labours of the German translator, C. G. + HEYNE, (_Leip._ 1766, 8vo.) who has corrected the errors, inserted + the dates, and added his own observations. + + _b._ To the second class belong: + + ROLLIN, _Histoire ancienne des Egyptiens, des Carthaginois, des + Assyriens, des Medes el des Perses, des Macedoniens, des Grecs._ + Paris, 1824, 12 vols. 8vo.; revue par LETRONNE: the last and best + edition. This work, which greatly promoted the study of ancient + history in France, still maintains its well-earned reputation. [It + was translated into English, 1768: best edition, 7 vols. 8vo.: + frequently reprinted.] The above is generally accompanied by the + _Histoire Romaine_ of the same author. See below, book v. first + period, _Sources_. + + JAC. BEN. BOSSUET, _Discours sur l'Histoire Universelle_. Paris, + 1680, 3 vols. Frequently reprinted, being considered by the French + one of their classics. + + [English translation, by RICH. SPENCER. London, 1730, 8vo.] + + MILLOT, _Elemens de l'Histoire Generale_. Paris, 1772, sq. + [Translated into English, 1778, 2 vols. 8vo.: and again, an + improved edition, with additions.] Edinb. 1823, 6 vols. 8vo. The + ancient history is contained in the first two volumes. + + # JOH. MATTH. SCHROECKH, _General History of the World_, for the + use of children. Leipzic, 1779, sq. 6 vols. + + # J. G. EICHHORN, _History of the Ancient World_, 1799, third + edition, 1817. (First part of the History of the World.) + + # DAN. G. J. HUEBLER, _Sketch of the General History of the Nations + of Antiquity, from the birth of states to the end of the Roman + commonwealth_. Freyberg, 1798-1802. Five parts; and a continuation: + _History of the Romans under the Emperors, and of the contemporary + Nations, until the great migration_, 1803; three parts. A work + rendered extremely useful, by the judicious advantage taken by the + author of the labours of other writers. + + # H. LUDEN, _General History of Nations_. 1814; three parts. + + # L. VON DRESCH, _General Political History_. 1815; three parts. In + each of the above works the first part contains the ancient + history, and exhibits the more modern views of the subject. + + [The following is added, as well deserving the attention of the + English student: RALEGH (Sir WALTER) _History of the World, Part I. + extending to the end of the Macedonian Empire; with his Life and + Trial, by Mr. Oldys_. Lond. 1736, 2 vols. folio. Formerly the best + edition; but a new and improved one has been printed at the + Clarendon press. Oxford, 1829, 8 vols. 8vo.] + + # F. VON RAUMER, _Lectures on Ancient History_, parts 1, 2. Berlin, + 1821. + + Works furnishing illustrations of the progressive civilization, + government, and commerce of early nations, although, strictly + speaking, not treatises on ancient history, are nevertheless very + closely connected with the subject. Among these may be mentioned: + + GOGUET, _De l'Origine des Lois, des Arts, et des Sciences, et de + leurs progres chez les anciens peuples; nouv. edit_. Paris, 1778. + [Translated by Dr. DUNN and Mr. SPEERMAN. Edinb. 1761-1775, 3 vols. + 8vo.] + + # A. H. L. HEEREN, _Reflections on the Politics, Intercourse, and + Trade of the most eminent Nations in the Ancient World_. Third + edition, with many additions. Gottingen, 1815, 8vo.; the third + part, 1821. Fourth edition. Gottingen, 1824. [This edition, the + last, contains many improvements and additions, suggested by the + great discoveries of modern travellers. Part I, Asiatic Nations, in + 3 vols. Persians, Phoenicians, Babylonians, Scythians, Indians. An + English translation of which is at this moment in the press. Part + II, African Nations, 2 vols. Carthaginians, Ethiopians, Egyptians. + Part III, European Nations; of which only 1 volume, Greeks, has + been published.] + + 2. _Manuals_, or epitomes. + + The Germans are entitled to the merit of having first produced + manuals of ancient history, all of them useful, some excellent, in + their kind: they are a result of the progress made in this science + at the universities. + + # J. CHR. GATTERER, _Attempt at an Universal History of the World + to the discovery of America_. Gottingen, 1792. He who possesses + this, the last and ripest fruit of Gatterer's studies, may dispense + with the earlier manuals published by that author. + + # CHR. DAN. BECK, _A Short Introduction to the Knowledge of the + Universal History of the World and of Nature_. Leipzic, 1798. The + first part connected with our subject extends to A. D. 843. This + volume is enriched with such a copious and critical account of + books relating to ancient history, that it may supply the place of + a particular work on the subject. + + # J. A. REMER, _Manual of the more Ancient History, from the + creation of the world to the great migration_. Fourth edition. + Brunswick, 1832. + + # J. M. SCHROECKH, _Manual of Universal History_. 1774: latest + edition, 1795. + + # G. S. BREDOW, _Manual of Ancient History, with a sketch of the + chronology of the ancients_. Altona, 1799, 8vo. [Translated into + English. Lond. 1828, 12mo. In English we have: + + _The Outlines of History_, in 1 vol. (forming part of Lardner's + Cabinet Cyclopaedia) by Mr. KEIGHTLY, author of a learned and + highly useful work on Grecian Mythology, is a convenient + abridgement. TYTLER'S _Elements of General History_, improved and + continued by Dr. NARES. Lond. 1825, best edition; owes its + reputation and success to the want of a better work on the + subject.] + + 3. _Helps._ + + Among the works subservient to the study of ancient history, the + first rank is justly due to the synchronistic tables. + + # D. G. J. HUEBLER, _Synchronistic Tables of the History of + Nations_; arranged principally according to GATTERER'S _History of + the World_. In two numbers. Second edit. 1799 and 1804. + +1. The object of POLITICAL HISTORY is to recount the destinies of +nations, both in respect to their foreign relations and internal +affairs. In regard to domestic concerns, one of its most important +objects is the _history of governments_: in respect to external affairs, +it comprises not only an account of the wars, but likewise of the +friendly relations and intercourse with other states. + + Observe here the difference between universal history, or general + history of the human race, and the history of nations; the latter + forms part of the former. Observe also the difference between + political history and that of civilization, or of man as a human + being: the latter is merely the history of man, as man, without + regard to political circumstances. + +2. Universal political history is usually divided into three parts: +_ancient history_, that of the _middle ages_, and _modern history_. The +first extends to the fall of the Roman empire in the west, which took +place towards the close of the fifth century of the christian era; the +second extends to the discovery of America, and of a passage by sea to +the East Indies, about the end of the fifteenth century; the third +extends from the commencement of the sixteenth century to the present +time. + + The propriety of the above division is evinced by the nature of the + events which form these epochs. The student will easily perceive that + the division of history, into that before and after the birth of + Christ, is not judicious. + +3. From the definition just given, it follows, that political history +does not commence till after the first formation of states. Whatever is +known, therefore, of the period previous to this, or may be gathered +from traditions, respecting individuals or tribes, or their migrations, +affinities, or discoveries, forms no part of political history, but must +be referred to the general history of man. + + It is well known that a great deal of information has been preserved + in the sacred writings concerning the early fortunes of the human + race. From these materials have been compiled what has been called + an _Historia Antediluviana_, sometimes considered as forming a + separate division of history. What has been said above will + satisfactorily account for the omission of this portion of history + in the present work; although none can deny the high importance of + such traditions in the investigation of the origin, dispersion, and + civilization of the human race. + +4. The sources of history may be ranged under sources of two general +heads; _oral traditions_, and _written documents_ of various kinds. The +history of every nation usually commences with oral tradition, which +remains the only source, until the art of writing becomes known, and in +some degree adopted by the people. + +5. Under the name of _traditional history_ or _mythology_, is +comprehended all the general collection of oral traditions preserved by +a nation; and some such traditional history or mythology is to be found +among every people in the first stage of their existence as a community. +This mythology, however, is by no means confined to events strictly +historical, but embraces every branch of information which may appear to +a nation in its infancy, of sufficient importance to be preserved and +handed down to posterity. + + Hence the mythology of a people is invariably composed of very + heterogeneous materials; it not only preserves the remembrance of + various kinds of historical facts, but likewise the pervading ideas + of the people with respect to the nature and worship of their + deities; as well as the notions they had formed from observations + and experience respecting astronomy, morals, the arts, etc. All + these are handed down in the form of historical narrative; because + man, as yet unpractised in abstract thinking, necessarily + represents every thing to his mind under the figure of some + physical object. It is just as useless, therefore, to attempt to + mould the mythology of any people into a consistent and connected + whole, or indeed into any scientific system whatsoever, as it is + difficult to draw a strict line between what belongs to mythology, + and what to pure history. It follows, therefore, that mythology + should be employed by the historian with great caution; and not + without judicious criticism, and an accurate knowledge of + antiquity. + + These correct views of mythology,--the key to the whole of earlier + antiquity,--were first set forth and illustrated by Heyne, in his + commentaries upon Virgil and other poets, in his edition of + Apollodorus, and in various essays published in the Transactions of + the Gottingen Scientific Society. It is principally to the aid of + these that the Germans owe their superiority over other nations in + the science of antiquity. + +6. The place of writing among such nations, is generally supplied, in a +great measure, by poetry; which being in its origin nothing more than +imagery expressed in figurative language, must spontaneously arise among +men, as yet wont to represent every thing to their minds under the form +of images. Hence the subject matter of the poetry of every nation, while +in a state of rudeness, is and can be nothing else but its mythology; +and the great variety in the materials of which this is composed very +naturally gave rise, at the same early period, to various kinds of +poetry; as the lyric, the didactic, the epic. The last of these, +inasmuch as it contains the historic songs and the epopee, claims in a +more especial manner the attention of the historian. + + The mythi (or fables of which this mythology was composed) were in + later times frequently collected from the works of the poets, and + committed to writing by grammarians; such as Apollodorus and + others. This, however, can have had no effect on their original + character. + +7. The second source of history, much more copious and important than +the former, are the various kinds of written monuments. These may be +arranged according to the order of time at which they were brought into +use, into three classes; 1st. Inscriptions on public monuments, under +which head are included the coins of later date; 2nd. Chronological +records of events, under the form of annals and chronicles; 3rd. Real +philosophical works on history. + +8. Inscriptions on public monuments erected to preserve the remembrance +of certain events, though perhaps no more than a stone set upright, or +even a bare rock, was used for that purpose, were undoubtedly the most +ancient written memorials. These rude monuments became fashioned by art +into columns, obelisks, and pyramids, as the taste of the nation became +formed; and assumed that definite character which local circumstances +and the natural features of the country led it to adopt, as architecture +arose and attained to perfection among them. The very object, indeed, +for which they were erected--the commemoration of remarkable +events,--must have suggested the practice of inscribing upon them some +particulars of the facts they were intended to perpetuate. Of this +nature, no doubt, were the oldest monuments, and more particularly those +of Egypt. Their use was much more general among nations of a later +period, especially Greece and Rome, than among the moderns; yet of the +great mass of inscriptions still extant, but few comparatively are of +any importance as regards history. + + The characters engraved on these monuments were either symbolical + (hieroglyphics; see below under Egypt,) or alphabetical. The + invention and transmission of alphabetical writing are commonly + ascribed to the Phoenicians; although, if we may judge by the shape + of the arrow-headed character, it was made, without communication + with them, in the interior of Asia. + + The general collections of inscriptions are: + + LUD. ANT. MURATORI, _Novus Thesaurus veterum Inscriptionum_. + Mediolani, 1739, sq. 4 vols. fol. Together with SEB. DONATI, + _Supplementa_. Luccae, 1764. JAN. GRUTERI, _Inscriptiones antiquae + totius orbis Romani, cura_ J. G. GRAEVII. Amstel. 1707, 2 vols. fol. + + C. A. BOEKHIUS, _Corpus Inscriptionum Graecarum, auctoritate et + impensis Academiae literarum Borussicae_, vol. 1. 1827, folio. + + Among the separate monuments, the most important for ancient + history is the Parian or Oxford Inscription, _Marmora Oxoniensia, + Arundeliana_, edited by SELDEN, 1629; by PRIDEAUX, 1677. The best + edition is by RICH. CHANDLER, Oxf. 1763, fol. A useful and portable + edition has been published by FR. CH. WAGNER, _containing the Greek + text, with a German translation and notes_. Gottingen, 1790, 8vo. + +9. Coins may likewise be regarded as a source of ancient history, as by +the light they throw upon genealogy and chronology, the events known +from other authorities may be better arranged and understood. The +importance of coins, therefore, becomes most sensible in those portions +of history where our information, in consequence of the loss of the +works of the original historians, is reduced to a few insulated facts +and fragments. + + EZ. SPANHEMII, _Dissertatio de Usu et Praestantia Numismatum_. + Londini, 1707 et 1709, 2 vols. fol. The capital work, however, on + this subject, and which embraces the whole numismatic science of + antiquity is: + + ECKHEL, _De Doctrina Nummorum Veterum_. Viennae, 1792-1798, 8 vols. + 4to. And the epitome: + + # ECKHEL, _Brief Elements of Ancient Numismatics_. Vienna, 1707, + 8vo. Another very useful work is: + + J. C. RASCHE, _Lexicon Universae Rei Nummariae Veterum_. 1785, sq. 5 + vols. 8vo. + +10. Chronicles or annals form the second great division of written +historical monuments. These presuppose the invention of letters, and the +use of materials for writing upon; consequently they are of a later date +than mere inscriptions. They occur, nevertheless, in the earlier periods +of nations; and from such annals, indited by public authority (state +chronicles,) subsequent historians have generally drawn materials for +their works. In many nations, and in nearly all the eastern ones, +history has not even yet advanced beyond the composition of such +chronicles. + +11. The third great division of historical writings is formed of works +composed on philosophical principles, which differ from mere annals by +their containing not only a chronological narration of events, but also +a development of their connection with one another, their causes and +effects. + + But few nations among the moderns, and we know of none among the + ancients, except the Greeks and Romans, that had any acquaintance + with this sort of history. A fact which may be attributed,--1st. To + the government; for the more completely the affairs of a nation are + under the control of arbitrary power and caprice, whether of one or + more individuals, so much the less apparent is a rational internal + connection of events. Hence philosophical history flourishes most + under free governments; and has not even a shadow of existence + under pure despotic constitutions. 2nd. To the degree of + civilization to which the nation may have attained: for the + observing and unravelling of the political connection of events + presupposes a considerable progress in philosophical culture. + +12. Since all events are considered in reference to the time and place +in which they occur, it follows that geography and chronology are +indispensable as auxiliary sciences in the study of history, especially +the ancient. These sciences, however, need not, for this purpose, be +considered in their full extent and detail, but only so far as they are +of use in determining and arranging events according to time and place. +A fixed mode of computing time is therefore necessary in ancient +history, as well as a continuous geographical description of the +countries which were the theatres of the principal events. + +13. No method of computing time was adopted generally in antiquity. Each +nation, each state, had its own era: yet, in the explication of ancient +history, there is an evident necessity that some common era should be +fixed upon, by which a synchronistic view of the various events may be +obtained. For this purpose, the years may be computed either from the +creation of the world, or before and after Christ. The latter method has +the advantage not only of greater certainty, but also of greater +convenience. + + Of the various modes of computing time, the best known are those of + the Greeks and the Romans; the former by olympiads, the latter by + years from the foundation of Rome. The era of the olympiads + commences at B. C. 776; that of the foundation of Rome commences at + B. C. 753, according to Varro; at B. C. 752, according to + Cato.--The era of the Seleucidae, in the Syrian empire, commences + with B. C. 312.--Various other eras, such as that of Nabonnassar, + commencing with B. C. 747, are founded on observations preserved by + Ptolemy, and made known by SCALIGER, in his _Doctrina Temporum_. + + Chronology constitutes a distinct science: the best introduction to + which will be found in: + + # J. C. GATTERER, _Epitome of Chronology_. Gottingen, 1777. A most + excellent criticism on the ancient eras has lately been + communicated to the public by: + + # L. IDELER, _Historic Researches into the Astronomical + Observations of the Ancients_. Berlin, 1806. + + # D. H. HEGEWISCH, _Introduction to Historical Chronology_; 1811. A + very useful and portable work. + + [In English we have the laborious work of Dr. Hales: + + HALES (WILLM.) _New Analysis of Chronology, explaining the History + and Antiquities of the primitive Nations of the World, etc._ Lond. + 1809-12, 4 vols. 4to. New edition, corrected and improved, 1830, 4 + vols. 8vo. + + BLAIR'S _Chronology and History of the World, from the Creation to + the present Time_. Lond. 1803, folio. + + And for the brilliant period of Greece and Rome the satisfactory + volumes: + + H. F. CLYNTON'S _Fasti Hellenici. The civil and literary Chronology + of Greece, from the fifty-fifth to the hundred and twenty-fourth + Olympiad_. Second edition, with additions. Oxford, 1827, 4to. And + the continuation of the same work to the death of Augustus, Oxford, + 1830, 4to. In this valuable work, much light is also thrown upon + the chronology of the times anterior to the period with which the + first volume is principally occupied.] + +14. In ancient geography there is much care required to distinguish the +fabulous from the true. With regard to true geography, as an auxiliary +science to history, all that can be expected is some general information +respecting the nature and peculiarities of the countries, respecting +their political divisions, and finally, respecting the principal +cities:--Long lists of the names of places would be quite superfluous. + + Fabulous geography constitutes a part of the mythology of every + nation, and differs in each, because the ideas formed by every + early nation respecting the form and nature of the earth are + peculiar to itself. True geography gradually comes to light as + civilization increases, and discovery widens its + horizon.--Necessity of treating it historically, on account of the + manifold changes to which the division and the face of the + countries of the ancient world have been at various periods + subjected. + + CHRISTOPH. CELLARII _Notitia Orbis Antiqui_. Lips. 1701-1706, 2 + vols. 4to. _cum observat._ J. C. SCHWARZII. Lips. 1771, et iterum + 1773. This work was for a long time the only, and is still an + indispensable, treatise on ancient geography. + + # H. MANNERT, _Geography of the Greeks and Romans_. Nuremberg, + 1788-1802. This work, now completed in 15 volumes, may be justly + designated classical, from the historical and critical learning + which the author has everywhere displayed. Vol. I, contains Spain; + II, Gallia et Britain; III, Germania, Rhaetia, Noricum; IV, The + Northern parts of the World, from the Wessel to China; V, India and + the Persian Empire to the Euphrates, 2 parts; VI, Asia Minor, 3 + parts; VII, Thrace, Illyria, Macedonia, Thessaly, Epirus; VIII, + Northern Greece, Peloponnesus, and the Archipelago; IX, Italy and + Sicily, Sardinia, etc. 2 parts; X, Africa, 2 parts. + + # F. A. UKERT, _Geography of the Greeks and Romans, from the + earliest periods to the time of Ptolemy_: first part, first + division, contains the historical, the second contains the + mathematical sections. Weimar, 1816; with maps. + + GOSSELIN, _Geographie des Grecs analysee_. Paris, 1790, 4to. A + development of the system of mathematical geography among the + Greeks. Partly continued in + + GOSSELIN, _Recherches sur la Geographie des Anciens_. Paris, an. + vi. vol. 1-4. + + J. RENNEL, _Geographical System of Herodotus_. Lond. 1800, 4to. + + [Reprinted in 2 vols. 8vo. Lond. 1830, revised. Here, too, for the + benefit of the English reader may be mentioned: + + RENNEL'S _Treatise on the Comparative Geography of Western Asia, + with an atlas_. London, 1831, 2 vols. 8vo.; published since the + author's death. And the learned and valuable volumes of Dr. CRAMER, + principal of New Inn Hall, and public orator of the University of + Oxford; they are, + + _Geographical and Historical Description of Ancient Greece, with a + map, and plan of Athens._ Oxford, 1826, 3 vols. 8vo. + + _Geographical and Historical Description of Ancient Italy, with a + map._ Oxford, 1826, 2 vols. 8vo. + + _Geographical and Historical Description of Asia Minor, with a + map._ Oxford, 1832, 2 vols. 8vo. + + The maps which accompany these works approach very nearly to + perfection. + + As useful compendiums, there are: + + _An Introduction to Ancient Geography, with copious indexes of + Ancient and Modern Names_, by PETER ED. LAURENT, teacher in the + Royal Naval Academy at Portsmouth. Oxford, 1813, 8vo. + + _A Compendium of Ancient and Modern Geography, for the use of Eton + School; illustrating the most interesting points in History, + Poetry, and Fable; preceded by an Introduction to the study of + Astronomy, and containing plans of Athens, Rome, Syracuse, and + numerous diagrams explanatory of the motions of the heavenly + bodies_, by AARON ARROWSMITH, Hydrographer to the King, 1 vol. + 8vo., with or without a copious index. London, 1830. + + BUTLER'S (Dr. SAM.) _Sketch of Ancient and Modern Geography_. + Seventh edition, 8vo. Also his _Atlas of Ancient Geography_, + consisting of twenty-one coloured maps, with a complete accentuated + index. 8vo.] + + We are indebted to d'Anville for the best charts of ancient + geography: _Atlas Orbis antiqui_, twelve leaves, fol. + + [The Eton Comparative Atlas of Ancient and Modern Geography, with + the index, published in several sizes; and the Maps published by + the Society for the Promotion of Useful Knowledge, are very useful + and correct.] + +15. Ancient history may be treated either ethnographically, that is, +according to separate nations and states; or synchronistically, that is, +according to certain general epochs. Each of these methods has its +advantages and its disadvantages. The two, however, may be combined, and +formed into one system; and as this seems the most convenient, it has +been adopted in the present work, which is accordingly divided as +follows: + +FIRST BOOK.--History of the ancient Asiatic and African states and +kingdoms anterior to Cyrus, or to the rise of the Persian monarchy, +about the year B. C. 560: comprising little more than insulated +fragments. + +SECOND BOOK.--History of the Persian monarchy, from B. C. 560 to 330. + +THIRD BOOK.--History of the Grecian states, both in Greece and other +parts, to the time of Alexander, B. C. 336. + +FOURTH BOOK.--History of the Macedonian monarchy, and of the kingdoms +which arose out of its division, until they merged into the Roman +empire. + +FIFTH BOOK.--History of the Roman state, both as a commonwealth and a +monarchy, until the fall of the western empire, A. D. 476. + + + * * * * * + + + + +MANUAL OF ANCIENT HISTORY. + + + + + * * * * * + + + + +THE FIRST BOOK. + + + HISTORICAL FRAGMENTS OF THE EARLIER ASIATIC AND AFRICAN KINGDOMS AND + STATES, PREVIOUS TO CYRUS, OR THE RISE OF THE PERSIAN MONARCHY. + + + + +I.--ASIATIC NATIONS. + + + + +_General Preliminary Remarks on the Geography of Asia._ + + + See the Introduction to Heeren's Researches into the Politics and + Commerce of the Nations of Antiquity, prefixed to vol. 1 of the + African Nations. Oxford, 1831. + +1. Asia is the largest and the most favourably situated of the great +divisions of the globe. Its superficial contents are 11,200,000 square +geogr. miles; while those of Africa do not exceed 4,780,000; and those +of Europe are not more than 2,560,000. As to situation, it comprises the +greatest portion of the northern temperate zone. + + Compare it, in this point of view, with the other quarters of the + globe, especially Africa.--Advantages over the latter, in + consequence of the convenience of its indented shores--of its + surrounding fruitful islands--of its deep gulfs and large + streams--the few sandy deserts in its interior. + +2. Natural features, and consequent division of the land, according to +the course of the larger mountain chains and of the principal rivers. + + Two great mountain chains run from west to east; in the north, the + Altai, (nameless in antiquity): in the south, Taurus.--Branches of + both: the Caucasus, between the Black and Caspian seas: Imaus + extending along the golden desert (desert of Cobi): the Paropamisus, + on the north of India: the Ural (nameless in antiquity).--Of the + rivers remarkable in ancient history, there are four flowing from + north to south, namely, the Euphrates and Tigris, which fall into the + Persian gulf; the Indus and Ganges, which fall into the Indian sea: + two which run from east to west, and discharged their waters into the + Caspian sea, (but now into the sea of Aral,) namely, the Oxus (or + Jihon) and the Jaxartes (or Sirr). + +3. This quarter of the globe is accordingly divided into Northern Asia, +comprising the regions north of Altai; Central Asia, or the countries +between the Altai and Taurus; and Southern Asia, or the lands south of +Taurus. + +4. Northern Asia, between the 76th and 50th parallels of north latitude, +(Asiatic Russia and Siberia,) was almost, though not entirely, unknown +in antiquity.--Some obscure hints, though partly true, respecting it, +are found in Herodotus, the father of history. + +5. Central Asia, the regions extending between the 50th and 40th degrees +of north latitude, Scythia and Sarmatia Asiatica, (Great Tartary and +Mongol;) for the most part a boundless, barren table land, devoid of +arable fields or forests; and consequently a mere country of +pasture.--The inhabitants pastors, (nomads,) without cities or fixed +abodes; recognizing no other political association than patriarchal +government. + + Peculiar mode of life and character of nomad nations; powerful + influence which they have exercised, as conquerors, on political + history.--Whether we have a right to expect that the civilization of + the human race will for ever continue to advance, when we consider + that perhaps one half of it has from time immemorial remained, and + from its physical situation must for ever remain, in a nomad state. + +6. Southern Asia, or the regions from the 40th degree of N. lat. to +about the equator.--Its natural features altogether different from those +of central Asia. The great advantages of these regions compared with all +other parts of the earth, in possessing a soil and climate highly +favourable for agriculture; and an abundance of various costly +productions. To these circumstances may be attributed, 1st. The adoption +of fixed habitations and political associations in these countries, from +the earliest times. 2ndly. Their becoming the principal seat of trade, +from the infancy of civilization to the discovery of America. + + Reflections upon the rise of political associations.--Whether, + according to the general opinion, they were produced solely by + agriculture and the possession of land; or, whether religion, by + which I mean the common worship of one divinity as the national god, + (communia sacra,) was not the main bond which united the earliest + states of antiquity?--How shall we account for the very remarkable + fact, that in the earliest civil societies in the world, the + priesthood is generally found to be a ruling caste.--Reflections on + early trade, particularly that of the east, before it was changed, by + the discovery of America and the new passage to India, from a land + trade to a sea trade.--Observations upon ancient commercial routes + across Asia.--The banks of the large rivers destined by nature to + become the seats of commerce for the interior; on the Oxus, Bactra + and Maracanda, (Samarcand;) on the Euphrates and Tigris, + Babylon.--The sea shores on the western coast of Asia Minor and + Phoenicia, pointed out also by nature as places of commerce;--line + of Grecian and Phoenician factories. + +7. Division of southern Asia. 1st. South-western Asia, from the +Mediterranean to the Indus; 2nd. South-eastern Asia, from the Indus to +the eastern ocean. + +A. South-western Asia is again subdivided into the countries--1st. on +this side the Euphrates--2ndly. between the Euphrates and Tigris--3rdly. +between the Tigris and the Indus. + +1. _Countries on this side the Euphrates._ + +(_a_) The peninsula of Asia Minor (Natolia). Principal rivers: the Halys +and Sangarius. Countries: three towards the west, Mysia, Lydia, Caria. +Along the shore, the Greek seaports of Phocaea, Ephesus, Miletus, Smyrna, +Halicarnassus, etc. Inland, the cities of Sardes in Lydia, of Pergamus +in Mysia. + +Three towards the south, Lycia, Pamphylia, and Cilicia, with its capital +Tarsus. + +Three towards the north, Bithynia, Paphlagonia, Pontus; with the Greek +ports of Heraclea, Amisus, and Sinope. Two inland, Phrygia, together +with Galatia and the capital cities of Gordium and Celaenae; Cappadocia, +with the city of Mazaca. + +(_b_) Islands along the coast of Asia Minor: Lesbos, with the city of +Mitylene; Chios, Samos, Cos, Rhodes, with cities of the same name. + +(_c_) Syria, together with Phoenicia and Palestine. 1st. Syria, +properly so called. Cities: Damascus, Emessa, Heliopolis, (Baalbec). In +the desert, Palmyra. 2nd. Phoenicia, a mountainous tract, extending +along the shore. Mountains: Libanus and Antilibanus. Cities: Tyre, on an +island opposite the ancient Tyre, which was situate upon the mainland; +Sidon, Byblus, Berytus, Tripolis, Aradus. 3rd. Palestine. Mountains: +Carmel, Tabor. River: Jordan, which discharges its waters into the Dead +sea. Division of Palestine; first, according to the twelve tribes; +afterwards into the provinces, of Judaea, capital Jerusalem: of Samaria; +cities, Samaria, Sichem: and of Galilee. + +(_d_) Peninsula of Arabia, abounding in vast sandy deserts, and almost +entirely occupied by nomad tribes. Its southern and eastern coasts +render it, nevertheless, a most important seat of trade. In the north, +Arabia Petraea, so called from the town of Petra. Inland, Arabia Deserta. +In the south, Arabia Felix; rich, both in natural productions, being the +native land of almost every kind of perfume, particularly frankincense; +and also as being the ancient staple for the merchandise of India. +Cities: Mariaba, Aden, etc. In the east, the trading town of Gerra, and +the islands near the shore, Tylos and Aradus, (Bahrein,) both likewise +marts for Arabian and Indian wares, particularly cinnamon from Taprobane +(Ceylon). + +2. _Countries between the Euphrates and Tigris._ + +(_a_) Mesopotamia; in the interior a sterile table land, entirely +occupied by nomad hordes. Cities on the Euphrates: Thapsacus, Circesium, +Cunaxa; in the north, Zoba or Nisibis. + +(_b_) Armenia, north of the foregoing. Very mountainous; for a long time +without cities, but at last it had Tigranocerta. Rivers: the Cyrus and +Araxes, falling into the Caspian; and the Phasis, falling into the Black +sea. + +(_c_) Babylonia, the southern part of Mesopotamia, from which it was +separated by the Median wall. A level plain, remarkable for the richness +of its soil; formerly, by its high cultivation, its canals and lakes, +and the erection of dams, the most fruitful, and, from its situation, +the most opulent staple of inner Asia. Cities: Babylon on the Euphrates, +Borsippa. + + Whether the account given by Herodotus, as an eyewitness, of the size + and splendour of Babylon is not exaggerated?--Manner in which the + great Asiatic cities arose out of the royal encampments of the nomad + conquerors. + +3. _Countries between the Tigris and the Indus._ + +(_a_) Assyria, or the province of Adiabene; a table land. Cities: +Nineveh, (Ninus,) Arbela. + + The name of Assyria is also frequently taken by the Greeks in a wider + acceptation, as comprising both Mesopotamia and Babylonia; it is + sometimes even confounded with Syria. + +(_b_) Susiana, a fruitful district, with the city Susa on the river +Choaspes, or Eulaeus (Ulai), one of the residences of the Persian +monarchs. + +(_c_) Persis, rugged and mountainous towards the north; level and +fruitful in the centre; sandy towards the south. Rivers: the Cyrus and +Araxes. Cities: Persepolis or Pasargada, the national palace and +cemetery of the kings of Persia. + + The name of Persis was, in ancient as well as in modern geography, + taken in a more extensive sense, as comprising all the countries + between the Tigris and Indus, with the exception of Assyria. + In this sense, it contains three countries towards the + south--Persis, properly so called; Carmania, Gedrosia: three + central countries--Media, Aria, Arachosia: and three countries + towards the north--Parthia and Hyrcania, Bactria, Sogdiana. + +(_d_) Carmania, an extensive country, for the most part desert, ranging +along the Persian gulf and Indian sea. Cities: Carmana, Harmozia. + +(_e_) Gedrosia, tract of land running along the coast between Carmania +and India, and washed by the Indian sea. A mere sandy desert; towards +the north, mountainous. Town, Pura. + +(_f_) Media, above Persis; an extensive and very fruitful country; +mountainous towards the north. Rivers: Araxes, Cyrus, and Mardus. +Cities: Ecbatana, Rages. The northern district was likewise known by the +name of Atropatene (Azerbeijan), or Lesser Media. + +(_g_) Aria, a smooth table land, with a lake and river, Arius: and one +city, Aria or Artacoana. + +(_h_) Arachosia; a rich and fertile country on the frontiers of India; +bounded towards the north by the Paropamisus chain. Cities: Arachotus +and Prophthasia. The neighbouring highlands, occupied by a numerous +population, (now Cabul and Kandahar,) are often regarded, in consequence +of their being subject to the Persian dominion, as forming part of +Persia. They are known by the name of Paropamisus. + +(_i_) Parthia and Hyrcania, rugged mountainous districts to the north of +Media; but abounding in magnificent and fertile vales. Before and during +the predominance of Persia, but little known and little valued; and +without cities. It was at a considerably later period that the +inhabitants of Parthia became a dominant nation. + +(_k_) Bactria, the country on the south bank of the Oxus; rich in +natural productions, and one of the most ancient marts of Asia. River: +Oxus. Cities: Bactra and Zariaspa. + + Bactria lies on the frontier of India, Little Thibet, Bukharia, (the + north India of Herodotus and Ctesias,) and the desert of Cobi, + (Herodotus's golden desert): the road to China runs through this + country. Nature, by the geographical situation in which she has + placed Bactria, seems to have destined it to be the great emporium + for the wares of south-eastern Asia; and in proportion as we + penetrate into early history, we become convinced that Bactria, like + Babylon, must have been one of the earliest seats of international + commerce, and consequently, if not the birthplace, one of the cradles + of infant civilization. + +(_l_) Sogdiana, the territory between the upper Oxus and upper Jaxartes, +the latter dividing it from central Asia. (A part of Great Bukharia.) +Its peculiarities and advantages similar to those of the neighbouring +Bactria. Capital: Maracanda (Samarcand). + +B. South-eastern Asia, or Asia beyond the Indus, offers nothing +remarkable for history till a later period. See Book v, Period iv. + + + + +_General Preliminary Observations upon the History and Constitution of +the great Asiatic Empires._ + + +1. Asia contained in ancient times, as it does at present, empires of +immense extent, differing materially both in this respect and in their +constitution from the civilized nations of Europe. Changes were +frequent; but the form of government continued nearly always the same. +Some deeply rooted and active principles therefore must have been in +constant operation, to have given so repeatedly, in these various +revolutions, the same organization to the kingdoms of Asia. + +2. The great revolutions of Asia, with the exception of that caused by +Alexander, were effected by the numerous and powerful nomad races which +inhabited a large portion of that continent. Pressed by necessity or +circumstances, they forsook their own seats, founded new kingdoms, and +carried war and conquest into the fruitful and cultivated lands of +southern Asia, until, enervated by luxury, the consequence of the change +in their mode of life, they were in their turn, and in a similar manner, +subjugated. + +3. This origin, common to all Asiatic kingdoms, accounts for their +immense extent, their rapid establishment, and their generally brief +duration. + +4. The internal organization must, for the same reasons, have been +nearly alike in all; and the constant reappearance of despotism is +accounted for, partly by the rights of conquest, partly by the vast +extent of the subdued countries, which obliged the rulers to have +recourse to satrap-government. + +5. To this, it must moreover be added, that among all the considerable +nations of inner Asia, the paternal government of every household was +corrupted by polygamy: where that custom exists, a good political +constitution is impossible; fathers being converted into domestic +despots, are ready to pay the same abject obedience to their sovereign +that they exact from their family and dependants in their domestic +economy. + + To avoid confusion, it will be necessary to define the terms + despotism and despotic government. In theory, we must admit THREE + essentially different kinds of government. 1st. The _despotic_, in + which the members of the state are not secured in the possession of + their rights as men, (personal freedom and security of property,) + nor of their rights as citizens, (active participation in the + legislative power). Such a constitution exists only by force, and + can never be lawful. 2nd. The _autocratic_, in which the members of + the state are in full possession of their rights as men, but not of + their rights as citizens. This government, therefore, arises from + the union of the legislative and executive powers in the person of + the ruler. In form, it is either monarchical or aristocratical (a + pure monarchy, or a pure aristocracy). This kind of government is + most likely to be established by usurpation; it may, nevertheless, + be acquired by succession, or even adopted by common consent: it may + therefore be lawful. 3rd. The _republican_, in which the members of + the state are in possession of their rights, both as men and as + citizens. This government necessarily presupposes a separation of + the legislative and executive powers; and with regard to its form, + may be either monarchical or aristocratical, (a moderate monarchy, + or a moderate aristocracy).--How far can a pure democracy be called + a government, and comprised under any of the foregoing + heads?--Explanation of the despotism in the Asiatic kingdoms, and + the attempts made to limit it by religion and religious + institutions. + +6. General features in the gradual internal development of all empires +formed by nomad conquerors. (_a_) At first the mere occupation of rich +territories, and levying of tribute. (_b_) Hence the constitutions +already established among the conquered or tributary nations generally +suffered to remain. (_c_) Gradual progress towards the adoption of a +fixed abode and the building of cities, together with the assumption of +the customs and civilization of the conquered. (_d_) Division into +provinces, and, as a necessary consequence, the establishment of +satrap-government. (_e_) Insurrections of the satraps, and the internal +ruin of the state prepared thereby. (_f_) The influence of the seraglio +on the government has the same effect, for its unavoidable consequences +are--effeminacy and indolence in the rulers. (_g_) Hence the dissolution +of the empire, or its total annihilation by some violent attack from +without. + + + + +_Fragments of the History of the ancient Asiatic Kingdoms previous to +Cyrus._ + + + Sources, and their critical examination: 1. Jewish writings, + particularly the books of Kings, Chroniclers, and the Prophets; + together with the Mosaic records. 2. Greek writers, Herodotus, + Ctesias, and Diodorus: later chroniclers, Syncellus, Eusebius, + Ptolemy. 3. Native writer, Berosus. Futility of all endeavours to + arrange into one work the accounts of authors so entirely different + by birth and the times in which they flourished: a task attempted by + the French writers, SEVIN, FRERET, and DEBROSSE, in their papers + contained in the Mem. de l'Acad. des Inscript. + + VOLNEY, _Recherches nouvelles sur l'Histoire ancienne_. 1808-1814: + very important and authentic, so far as regards the system of + Herodotus's chronology. + + + +I. _Assyrian monarchy._ + + +1. With the Greeks, Assyrian is generally a common name applied to the +ruling nations about the Euphrates and Tigris before the time of Cyrus. +With the Jews, on the contrary, it signifies a distinct nation of +conquerors, and the founders of an empire. Hence a necessary discrepancy +between the Grecian and Hebrew statements. + +2. Assyrian history, according to Grecian authorities, particularly +Ctesias and Diodorus, is nothing more than mere traditions of +ancient heroes and heroines, who at some early period founded a +large kingdom in the countries about the Euphrates and Tigris; +traditions without any chronological data, and in the style of the +east. Ninus--Semiramis--Ninyas--Sardanapalus. + + According to Herodotus, an Assyrian empire of 520 years' duration, + 1237-717. Lists of Assyrian kings in the chronicles of Syncellus + and Eusebius. + +3. Assyrian history, according to Jewish authorities. Chronological +history of an Assyrian empire between B. C. 800 and 700.--Seat of the +nation in Assyria, properly so called.--Capital: Nineveh on the +Tigris.--Extension of their dominion as far as Syria and Phoenicia. + + Line of Assyrian kings: 1. Pul, about 773. Invasion of Syria. + 2. Tiglath-Pileser, about 740. He overthrows the kingdom of Damascus. + 3. Shalmaneser, about 720. He destroys the kingdom of Samaria. + Transplantation of the inhabitants into inner Asia. 4. Sennacherib, + about 714. Mighty expedition against Egypt, frustrated by a + pestilence. 5. Esarhaddon. + + _Contemporary_: Jews, the divided kingdoms of Israel and + Judah.--Greeks, decennial archons at Athens.--Romans, rise + of the state and the two first kings. + + + +II. _Median monarchy._ + + +1. The name of Medes is undoubtedly often used by the Greeks to +designate one nation; it is, however, frequently made use of as a common +appellation of the ruling nations in eastern Asia, from the Tigris to +the Indus, (or Persia, in the more extensive sense of that word,) before +Cyrus.--With the Jews: nothing more than general hints of the Medes as a +conquering nation. + +2. Although the statements of the Grecian writers, as well as of the +Zendavesta, sufficiently prove that long before the rise of the Persian +power mighty kingdoms existed in these regions; and particularly in the +eastern part, or Bactria; yet we have no consistent or chronological +history of these states: nothing but a few fragments, probably of +dynasties which ruled in Media, properly so called, immediately previous +to the Persians. + + _a._ _Herodotus's History of the Medes._ Herodotus's Medes are + unquestionably the inhabitants of Media, properly so called. + Division into six tribes: among these, that of the Magi.--Ruling + nation after the overthrow of the Assyrians.--Capital of their + empire, Ecbatana.--Boundaries: west, the Tigris and Halys; east, + unknown.--Internal organization: graduated subjection of the + various nations to one another, according to their distance from + the seat of empire; rigid despotism; and imposition of tribute. + Line of kings between B. C. 717-560. Deioces, 53 _y._ the founder + of Ecbatana, _d._ 657.--Phraortes, 22 _y._ down to 635. He conquers + Persia. Cyaxares I. 40 _y._ down to 595. He establishes military + discipline among the Medes. Wages war with the Lydians, the + Assyrians.--Irruption of the Scythians and Cimmerians, 625.--He + takes Nineveh, 597. Astyages, 38 _y._ down to 560, when he was + dethroned by Cyrus. According to Xenophon, Astyages was followed by + another Median prince, Cyaxares II. _b. Ctesias's History of the + Medes_, deduced from Persian archives, and contained in Diodorus. + Probably a different dynasty in eastern Asia. Line of kings, + between B. C. 800 and 560. Arbaces, conqueror of the Assyrians, 18 + _y._ Mandaucus, 50 _y._ Sosarmes, 30 _y._ Artias, 50 _y._ Arbanes, + 22 _y._ Artaeus, 40 _y._ and Artynes, 22 _y._ Sanguinary wars with + the nomad races of the east, the Sacae, and Cadusii. Artibarnas, 14 + _y._ Astyages, the last king. + + _Contemporary_: Jews, kingdom of Judah alone.--Greeks, yearly + archons, Draco, Solon.--Romans, kings from Tullus Hostilius to + Servius Tullius. + + + +III. _Babylonian monarchy._ + + +Periods: 1st. Previous to the Chaldaean conquest, which occurred about +630. 2nd. From the Chaldaean conquest to the Persian, 630-538. + +1. Babylon was not only spoken of in the most remote antiquity, but is +mentioned in the Jewish traditions as the earliest scene of political +treaties, and as the most ancient seat of intercourse for the nations of +Asia. Traditions concerning Nimrod--and the erection of the tower of +Babel.--Comparison of those traditions with the Babylonian mythology in +Berosus.--Scanty historical notices of this period in the later Jewish +writers; and probable subjection of Babylon to the Assyrian empire. + +2. In the second period, 630-538, the Babylonians were the ruling nation +of western Asia.--The Chaldaeans take possession of Babylon, there +establish themselves, and ultimately extend their empire, by conquest, +to the Mediterranean. + + Origin of the Chaldaeans: whether that name was applied to a + distinct nation, or to the northern nomads in general?--Line of + Chaldaean kings. In the enumeration of these rulers, as given by + Ptolemy, this line begins with Nabonassar, and the era bearing the + name of that sovereign, which commences in the year B. C. 747: + (probably because, under the reign of that prince, the adoption of + the Egyptian solar year first introduced among the Chaldaeans an + exact method of reckoning time). Neither Nabonassar himself, nor + his twelve immediate successors, are remarkable in history: the + six last alone deserve notice. 1. Nabopolassar, 627-604. + Settlement in Babylon; and complete establishment of the + Chaldaeo-Babylonian dominion, by his victory over Pharaoh-Nechoh, + near Circesium, in 604. 2. Nebuchadnezzar, 604-561. Brilliant + period of the Chaldaeo-Babylonian empire. He conquers Phoenicia and + Old Tyre about 586: Jerusalem in 587; probable irruptions into + Egypt. Construction of immense buildings and canals in and about + Babylon. Rapid decline of the empire after his death, under--3. + Evil-Merodach, 561-559. 4. Neriglissar, (probably the contemporary + of Herodotus's Nitocris;)--555. Labosoarchad murdered, after a few + months' reign. Nabonadius, (Herodotus's Labynetus; and probably + the Chaldaean Belshazzar;) 555-538. attacked and conquered by + Cyrus. Sack of Babylon by the Persians, 538. + + See the section concerning the Babylonians in A. H. L. HEEREN'S + _Historical Researches_, vol. i, part. 2. + + _Contemporary_: Jews, last sovereigns of the kingdom of + Judah.--Greeks, Solon, Pisistratus.--Romans, Tarquinius Priscus + and Servius Tullius. + + + +IV. _States and kingdoms in Asia Minor._ + + +The number and variety of the inhabitants of this peninsula, was +probably the reason why they never became united into one empire. The +most important nations among them, were the Carians in the west; the +Phrygians in the centre, reaching as far as the Halys; the +Syro-Cappadocians beyond the Halys; and the Thracians in Bithynia. +Nevertheless we find here but three kingdoms deserving notice--the +Trojan, the Phrygian, and the Lydian. + + +1. The Trojan empire comprised western Mysia: its history consists of +mere traditions contained in poets, with very uncertain chronological +data. + + Kings: Teucer, about 1400.--Dardanus--Erichthonius--Tros + (Troja)--Ilus (Ilium)--Laomedon--Priam. The destruction of Troy, + after a ten years' war, occurred, it is probable, B. C. 1190. + + _Contemporary_: Jews, time of the Judges: before the foundation of + Rome, 450 years. + + +2. The Phrygian empire.--Almost all the kings were named Midas and +Gordius; their succession cannot be accurately determined. After the +death of the last, called Midas V., Phrygia became a province of the +Lydian empire, about 560. + + +3. The Lydian empire.--The Lydians (Maeonians) were a branch of the +Carian tribe. According to Herodotus, three dynasties ruled in Lydia; +the Atyadae down to 1232; the Heraclidae down to 727; and the Mermnadae +down to 557: the two first are almost wholly fabulous, and the proper +history of Lydia may be said to commence with the last dynasty. + + Kings: Gyges, down to 689. From this period followed almost + uninterrupted wars with the Greek settlements on the seacoast. + Gyges takes Colophon. Ardys down to 640. He takes Priene. Under + his reign, an irruption of the Cimmerians. Sadyattes down to 628. + Alyattes down to 571. Expulsion of the Cimmerians. Capture of + Smyrna. Croesus down to 557. He takes Ephesus, and subjugates Asia + Minor as far as the Halys. Under his reign, the first rise of a + Lydian empire, which however is overthrown by Cyrus. Asia Minor + becomes a province of the Persian empire. + + _Contemporary_ with which, in Asia, were the Medic and Babylonian + empires.--Among the Jews, the last period of the kingdom of + Judah.--Among the Greeks, the yearly archons at Athens.--With the + Romans, the kings. + + + +V. _Phoenicia._ + + +The Phoenicians may be regarded as one of the most remarkable nations of +Asia during this period; yet we have no complete, or even connected +history of this people. But though a few scattered fragments are all we +possess, we may from these trace out a general outline. + + The peculiar sources of Phoenician history.--How far Sanchoniathon + deserves to be mentioned here?--Hebrew writers, particularly + Ezekiel; Greek writers; Josephus--Eusebius, etc. and the fragments + which he has preserved of Menander of Ephesus, and Dius, + historians of Tyre. + + MIGNOT, _Memoires sur les Pheniciens_; inserted in _Mem. de + l'Acad. des Inscript._ t. xxxiv-xlii. A series of twenty-four + papers. + + The section concerning the Phoenicians in A. H. L. HEEREN'S + _Researches on the Politics, etc._ + +1. Observations on the internal state of Phoenicia. It did not +constitute one state, or, at least, one single empire; but consisted of +several, and their territories. Alliances, however, were naturally +formed between them, and hence a kind of supremacy of the more powerful, +particularly of Tyre. + +2. But though Tyre stood at the head, and claimed a certain degree of +superiority, each separate state still possessed its own particular +government. In all of them we meet with kings, who appear to have +possessed but a limited authority, as we always find magistrates +associated with them in power. Among a mercantile and colonizing people, +it was impossible that absolute despotism should endure for any length +of time. Of the separate states, Tyre is the only one of which we +possess a series of kings; and even that series is not complete. + + This line of kings, which we derive from Menander through + Josephus, commences with Abical, the contemporary of David, about + B. C. 1050. The most remarkable among them are: Hiram, the + successor of Abical;--Ethbaal I. about 920;--Pygmalion, Dido's + brother, about 900;--Ethbaal II. in whose reign Tyre was sacked by + Nebuchadnezzar, 586.--Foundation of New Tyre--republican + constitution under suffetes: tributary kings under the Persian + rule;--conquest of New Tyre by Alexander, 332. The flourishing + period of Phoenicia in general, and of Tyre in particular, falls + therefore between 1000-332. + + _Contemporary_ in inner Asia: monarchies of the Assyrians, Medes, + and the Babylonians. Jews: period of the kings after David. + Greeks: from Homer to Solon. Romans: period of their kings in the + last two centuries. + +3. During this period the Phoenicians spread themselves by the +establishment of colonies; some of which, particularly Carthage, became +as powerful as the mother states. + + General ideas concerning colonization.--1. Colonies are absolutely + necessary to every seafaring and commercial people, whenever + their trade extends to distant countries. 2. They have likewise + been established for the purpose of providing for the excessive + increase of the poor. 3. And they have sometimes arisen from + political commotion, when the malcontents, either from free will, + or force, have forsaken their country, and sought new settlements + in distant regions. + +4. Geographical sketch of the Phoenician colonies. They possessed, at a +very early period, most of the islands of the Archipelago; from which, +however, they were subsequently expelled by the Greeks. The principal +countries in which they had settlements were the south of Spain +(Tartessus, Gades, Carteia); the north coast of Africa, west of the +Lesser Syrtis (Utica, Carthage, Adrumetum); and the north-western coast +of Sicily (Panormus, Lilybaeum). It is likewise highly probable that they +formed settlements towards the east in the Persian gulf, on the islands +of Tylos and Aradus (Bahrein). + +5. This sketch of the Phoenician colonies will give us some idea of the +extent of their sea trade and navigation; which, however, extended much +farther than their colonies. Among them, as among other nations, +commerce took its rise in piracy; even as late as the time of Homer, the +Phoenicians appear to have been freebooters. The principal objects of +their commerce were (_a_) the settlements in north Africa and Spain; the +latter more particularly, on account of its rich silver mines. (_b_) +Beyond the Pillars of Hercules, the west-coast of Africa; Britain and +the Scilly islands, for the purpose of procuring tin, and, very +probably, amber. (_c_) From Elath and Ezion-Gebar, ports situate at the +northern extremity of the Arabian gulph, they undertook, in connection +with the Jews, voyages to Ophir, that is to say, to the rich lands of +the south, particularly Arabia Felix and Ethiopia. (_d_) From the +Persian gulf, they extended their commerce to the western peninsula of +India and the island of Ceylon. Finally, (_e_) they made several +extensive voyages of discovery, among which, the most remarkable was the +circumnavigation of Africa. + +6. Of no less importance was the land trade, mostly carried on by +caravans. The principal branches of it were: (_a_) The Arabian caravan +trade for spices and incense, imported from Arabia Felix, Gerra, and the +Persian gulf. (_b_) The trade through Palmyra with Babylon, which opened +them an indirect communication by way of Persia, with lesser Bukharia +and little Thibet, probably even with China itself. (_c_) The trade with +Armenia and the neighbouring countries in slaves, horses, copper +utensils, etc. + +7. To all this must be added their own manufactures, particularly their +stuffs and dyes; (the purple, made of the juice of a marine shellfish;) +their manufactures of glass and toys, which, in their commerce with +uncivilized nations, generally carried on by barter, were turned to good +account. Many other important discoveries, among which the invention of +letters holds the first rank, are attributed to the Phoenicians. + + + +VI. _Syrians._ + + +1. The inhabitants of Syria dwelt in cities as early as B. C. 2000, when +Abraham wandered over their country. This country did not form one +single state, but consisted of several cities, each of which had its +separate territory, and its chief or king; of these cities, Damascus, +Hamath, etc. are mentioned in the most remote antiquity. + +2. The Syrians were, however, often subjected by foreign conquerors; and +their country was certainly, at least in the time of David, a Jewish +province. It shook off the yoke, however, in the time of Solomon; when +Rezon, who had formerly been a slave, obtained possession of Damascus. + +3. After this, there arose the kingdom of Damascus, which comprised the +greatest portion of Syria, the kings in the other cities becoming +tributary to Damascus. The boundaries of the empire, too, were extended, +and particularly at the expense of the divided kingdoms of Judah and +Israel. + + The kings, whose names are taken from the books of Chronicles, + were: Rezon, about 980. Benhadad I. about 900. Hazael, about 850. + Benhadad II. about 830. Rezin. Under this last, the kingdom of + Damascus was overthrown by the Assyrian conqueror Tiglath-Pileser, + about 740. + + _Contemporary_ in Inner Asia: Assyrian kingdom. Jews: kingdoms + of Israel and Judah. Greeks: settlement of the Asiatic + colonies.--Lycurgus. + + + +VII. _Jews._ + + +The history of the Jewish people, begins with Abraham the father of +their race; that of the Jewish state does not commence till after the +conquest of Palestine. It is divided into three periods. I. History of +the Jews, as a nomad horde, from Abraham till their settlement in +Palestine, B. C. 2000-1500. II. History of the Jewish state as a +federative republic under the high priests and judges, from B. C. +1500-1100. III. History of the Jewish state under a monarchical +government, from B. C. 1100-600, first in one kingdom,--975; afterwards +as two separate kingdoms, Israel and Judah, until the downfall of the +latter, 588. + + Sources of the Jewish history.--Their annals:--Books of Judges, + Samuel, Chronicles, Kings. How those books were composed, and + whether their authors may be considered as contemporary with the + events they relate? How far the Hebrew poets, the prophets in + particular, may be considered as historical authority?--JOSEPHUS, + as an antiquarian in his _Archaeologia_, and as a contemporary + historian in his _Historia Belli Romani_. + + Unfortunately there is not at present any satisfactory treatise on + the Jewish history previous to the Babylonian captivity; nor one + written in an impartial spirit, without credulity or scepticism. + The work of BERRUYER, _Histoire du Peuple de Dieu, depuis son + origine jusqu'a la Naissance de J. C._ Paris, 1742, 10 vols. 8vo.; + and the continuation, _depuis la Naissance de J. C._ 10 vols.; and + others of the same kind do not answer this description. RELANDI + _Antiquit. Sacr. Heb._ The writings of J. D. MICHAELIS, particularly + his # Remarks on the Translation of the Old Testament, and his + # _Mosaic Law_; together with # HERDER, _On the Spirit of Hebrew + Poesy_, furnish many excellent materials. + + +I. _Period of the nomad state from Abraham to the conquest of +Palestine._--Under Abraham, Isaac, and Jacob, nothing more at first than +a single nomad family; which, however, during its sojourn in Lower +Egypt, where, during four hundred and thirty, or, according to others, +two hundred and fifty years, it roved about in subjection to the +Egyptian Pharaohs,--increased to a nomad nation, divided into twelve +tribes. The nation, however, becoming formidable from the great increase +of its numbers, the Pharaohs, following the usual policy of the +Egyptians, wished to compel the Jews to build and inhabit cities. +Unaccustomed to restraint, they fled from Egypt under the conduct of +Moses; and conquered, under him and his successor Joshua, Palestine, +the land of promise. + + Moses and his legislation.--What he borrowed and what he did not + borrow from the Egyptians?--The worship of Jehovah in the national + sanctuary, and by national festivals, celebrated with ceremonies + rigidly prescribed, the point of union for the whole nation, and + the political bond which held the tribes together.--The caste of + Levites, compared with the Egyptian caste of priests. + + J. D. MICHAELIS, _Mosaic Law_. Gottingen, 1778, etc. 6 vols. 8vo.; + translated into English by Dr. ALEXANDER SMITH. Lond. 1814, 4 + vols. 8vo. The commentator frequently sees more than the lawgiver. + + +II. _Period of the federative republic._ From the occupation of +Palestine to the establishment of monarchy, 1500-1100. + +1. General character of this period as the heroic age of the nation, +which, after the gradual adoption of fixed dwellings and agriculture, +was engaged in constant feuds with its neighbours, the vagrant Arabs, +the Philistines, and the Edomites. Impossibility of exterminating +entirely the ancient inhabitants according to the intention of +Moses.--Hence the worship of Jehovah was never the _only_ religion in +the land. + +2. Political organization. In consequence of the division of land, +according to tribes, and their separation from one another, the +government long remained patriarchal. Each tribe preserved its patriarch +or elder, as in the nomad state. All, however, had, in the worship of +Jehovah, one common bond, uniting them into one federate state. +Magistrates were likewise appointed in the cities, to whom scribes are +conjoined out of the Levite caste. + +3. The permanent union of the nation, and preservation of the Mosaic +law, were likewise promoted by the distribution of the Levite caste into +forty-eight separate towns, situated in various parts of the country, +and by making the high priesthood hereditary in Aaron's family. + +4. But when at the death of Joshua the people were left without a common +ruler, the tie of religion became insufficient to hold them together; +especially as the weaker tribes became jealous of the more powerful. At +this time the high priests appear to have had but little political +influence; and the national bond was only prevented from being dissolved +by the dread of a foreign yoke. + +5. The Jews were sometimes independent, at other times tributary. In +seasons of oppression and distress heroes arose, jealous for the worship +of Jehovah, to deliver them from bondage. They acted as chief +magistrates and rulers of a part, or even the whole of the nation, and +as champions of the worship of the true God. The judges, particularly +Othniel, Deborah, and Sampson.--Concerning the marvellous in their +history. + +6. Reestablishment of the worship of Jehovah by Samuel. He becomes +judge, and rules as Jehovah's minister.--His scheme of making the office +of judge hereditary in his own family is defeated by the conduct of his +sons. The nation demands a king, whom Samuel, as minister of Jehovah, is +called upon to appoint. His crafty policy in the election, which he +cannot impede. He chooses Saul, politically speaking, the most +insignificant man of the nation; but the tallest and most stately. A +formal constitutional act, according to the Mosaic command, is drawn up +and deposited in the national sanctuary. + + Causes which led the nation to demand a king.--Earlier attempts + made, particularly by _Abimelech_, to obtain regal power. + + +III. _Period of the monarchy from 1100-600._ + + +I. _The Jewish state as one single kingdom from 1100(1095)-975._ + +1. _Saul_, the new king, strengthened himself on the throne by a victory +over the Ammonites; and a general assembly of the nation, in which +Samuel laid down his office as judge, unanimously acknowledged his +sovereignty. But Saul, no sooner became a conqueror than he threw off +the tutelage of Samuel, and ventured himself to consult Jehovah. This +was the occasion of a feud between them. Samuel, offended, privately +anointed another young man, David the son of Jesse, as king. David +acquires fame and popularity by his heroic conduct; but has much +difficulty in escaping the jealousy of Saul.--Saul sustains himself amid +constant wars with the neighbouring nations; but at last defeated, he +and all his sons, except one, lose their lives. + +2. State of the nation and constitution under Saul.--The king little +more than a military leader under the direction of Jehovah; without +either court or fixed residence.--The people still a mere agricultural +and pastoral race, without wealth or luxury; but gradually assuming the +character of a warlike nation. + +3. Saul was succeeded by David; but not without opposition. Eleven +tribes declare for Ish-bosheth, the remaining son of Saul; and David is +only acknowledged by his own tribe, Judah. It is not till seven years +later, and the murder of Ish-bosheth by his own people, that David is +recognized as king by the whole nation. + +4. Complete formation of the nation, and a change of constitution during +the reign of David over the united kingdom, which lasted thirty-three +years. Jerusalem is made the seat of government and of the national +sanctuary. Rigid observance of the worship of Jehovah, the exclusive +religion of the nation, considered in respect to its political +consequence. + +5. Vast aggrandizement of the Jewish state by conquest. A war with +Hadadezer opens the way to the conquest of Syria and Idumaea. Extent of +the kingdom from the Euphrates to the Mediterranean; from Phoenicia to +the Red sea. Gradual decline towards despotism and seraglio government; +the political consequences of which become apparent about the end of +David's reign, in the rebellion of his sons. + +6. Reign of Solomon. The brilliant government of a despot from the +interior of his seraglio; unwarlike, but civilized, and fond of parade. +New organization of the kingdom for the support of the court. +Connections formed with the neighbouring states, particularly with Tyre; +hence a participation in the southern trade carried on from the ports of +the Red sea, conquered by David; but only as a monopoly of the court. + +7. The capital enriched by the splendour of the court; but the country +oppressed and impoverished, particularly the distant tribes. Gradual +internal decay hastened by the admixture of the worship of foreign gods +with that of Jehovah; although Solomon, by the erection of the temple +according to the plan of his father, seems to have wished to make the +worship of the true God the only religion of the country. An +unsuccessful attempt at rebellion made by Jeroboam; and by the Edomites, +who remain tributary under their own kings: actual secession, even +during the reign of Solomon, of the conquered province of Syria by the +foundation of the kingdom of Damascus. + +8. Solomon is succeeded by his son Rehoboam, who has scarcely ascended +the throne, before the malcontents, increased in number by his +imprudence, break into open rebellion. Jeroboam is recalled from Egypt, +and ten tribes acknowledge him as their king. Only two tribes, Judah and +Benjamin, remain faithful to Rehoboam. + + +II. _The Jewish state as a divided kingdom, 975-588._ + +1. Reciprocal relations between the two kingdoms of Judah and Israel. +Although Israel was more extensive and populous than Judah, yet was +Judah, in consequence of possessing the capital, richest of the two; +thus their power was nearly balanced; and hence the struggle between +them was the more obstinate. + +2. The kings of Israel seek to confirm the political division of the +nation, by establishing a new form of worship within their dominions, in +order to restrain their subjects from visiting the ancient seat of the +national worship at Jerusalem; hence they were considered as the enemies +of Jehovah. Several kings, however, even of Judah were so impolitic as +to mingle the worship of other gods with that of Jehovah. But oppression +itself serves to sustain the worship of Jehovah; the number and +political influence of the prophets increase in proportion as men feel, +amid the turbulence of the times, need of the counsels of the true God; +the idea of some future happier period under a mighty king--the idea of +the Messiah and of his kingdom--is more fully developed by the lively +recollection of the splendid reign of David.--Schools of the prophets. + +3. The rivalry and wars between those two states not only continue with +slight interruption, but become more and more fraught with danger, in +consequence of the alliances entered into with foreign princes, +particularly with the kings of Damascus and Egypt. An end is at length +put to these feeble kingdoms by the rise of vast empires in Inner Asia. + + Most important events in the history of the two kingdoms. + + 1. KINGDOM OF ISRAEL, 975-722; under 19 kings, from different + families, who succeeded to the throne amid violent revolutions. 1. + Jeroboam, _d._ 954. Settlement of the royal residence at Shechem; + of the sanctuaries at Bethel and Dan, and appointment of priests, + not belonging to the tribe of Levi. Constant wars with the kings of + Judah. 2. Nadab, Jeroboam's son, murdered in 953 by 3. Baasha, _d._ + 930. This prince, by his alliance with the kings of Damascus, + brought the kingdom of Judah into great danger. 4. Elah murdered in + 929 by one of his generals. 5. Zimri, in whose place the army + immediately elected 6. Omri: this prince, at the beginning of his + reign, had a rival to the throne in Tibni, _d._ 925. Omri founded + the new capital, Samaria, _d._ 918. He was succeeded by his son 7. + Ahab: strong connections by marriage with the kings of Sidon; + introduction of the Phoenician worship of Baal. Wars with + Damascus, in which Ahab at last perishes, 897. Under Ahab a league + formed with the king of Judah. He is succeeded by his sons, 8. + Ahaziah, _d._ 896, and 9. Jehoram. The league with Judah continues. + Jehoram is murdered by Jehu, 883. 10. Jehu: this king destroys the + house of Ahab, which had given 4 kings to Israel, and does away + with the worship of Baal. The kings of Damascus wrest from the + kingdom of Israel the lands beyond Jordan. Jehu, _d._ 856. He is + succeeded by his son 11. Jehoahaz, _d._ 840. The wars with Damascus + continue unsuccessful to Israel. 12. Jehoash, _d._ 825. He defeats + the kings of Damascus and Judah. 13. Jeroboam II. _d._ 784. He + restores the kingdom of Israel to its ancient extent. After a + turbulent interregnum of 12 years, he is succeeded by his son 14. + Zechariah, 773; who was assassinated the same year, being the last + remnant of the house of Jehu, which had given 5 kings to Israel. + His murderer, 15. Shallum, after a reign of one month, is, in his + turn, assassinated by 16. Menahem, _d._ 761: under his reign the + first expedition of the Assyrians, headed by Pul, whom he buys off + by tribute. 17. His son Pekahiah murdered in 759 by 18. Pekah, + under whose reign falls the expedition of Tiglath-Pileser the + Assyrian, and destruction of Damascus. Pekah is assassinated in 740 + by 19. Hoshea, who, after an anarchy of eight years, obtains + possession of the throne. Hoshea endeavours, by an alliance with + Egypt, to shake off the Assyrian yoke; but Shalmaneser, king of + Assyria, wages war against him, conquers Samaria, and puts an end + to the kingdom of Israel, whose inhabitants he transplants to Media + in Inner Asia, 722. + + 2. KINGDOM OF JUDAH under 20 kings of the house of David, 975-598. + The regular line of hereditary succession is generally followed + without dispute, and is only twice interrupted by Athaliah's + usurpation, and the intervention of foreign conquerors. 1. + Rehoboam, _d._ 958. Jerusalem is still the seat of government; but + even during this reign the worship of Jehovah begins to fall into + neglect, in consequence of the introduction of foreign gods. + Besides the war with Israel, Jerusalem is attacked and plundered by + Shishak, king of Egypt. 2. Abijah, _d._ 955. 3. Asa. This prince + was attacked by the combined kings of Israel and Damascus, and, no + doubt, would have sunk in the conflict, had he not succeeded in + breaking their alliance; _d._ 914. 4. Jehoshaphat, the restorer of + the worship of Jehovah and framer of a league with the kingdom of + Israel. His attempt to reestablish the trade to Ophir, on the Red + sea, is unsuccessful, _d._ 891. 5. Jehoram. The union with Israel + is confirmed by the marriage of this prince with Ahab's daughter, + Athaliah; but Idumaea, under his reign, secedes wholly from the + kingdom of Judah, _d._ 884. 6. His son Ahaziah is, in the next + year, 883, assassinated by Jehu, the murderer and successor of + Jehoram king of Israel. 7. His mother, Athaliah, takes possession + of the throne; murders the whole royal family; only one son of + Ahaziah, 8, Joash, is, in consequence of his youth, rescued from + the carnage, secretly educated in the temple, and after seven years + forcibly placed upon the throne, by means of a revolution wrought + by the high priest, Jehoiada; and Athaliah is slaughtered, 877. + Joash rules under the tutelage of the priests, which leads to the + reestablishment of Jehovah's worship. This prince is menaced by + Hazael king of Damascus, and compelled to pay him tribute. Slain + 838. 9. Amaziah: he defeats the Edomites, and is in his turn + defeated by Jehoash king of Israel, by whom Jerusalem itself is + sacked. He is slain in 811, and succeeded 10. by his son Azariah, + (or Uzziah.) This prince was leprous, and _d._ 759. His son 11. + Jotham, _d._ 743, became regent during the life of his father. The + wars with Israel and Damascus recommence. 12. Ahaz, _d._ 728. The + league between the kings of Damascus and Israel induces Ahaz to + call to his assistance Tiglath-Pileser king of Assyria, who + overthrows the kingdom of Damascus, and subjects Israel and Judah + to tribute. 13. Hezekiah, _d._ 699. He shakes off the Assyrian + yoke: under his reign Shalmaneser destroys Samaria, 722: and + Shalmaneser's successor, Sennacherib, undertakes his expedition + against Egypt, 714. Jerusalem is again besieged, but fortunately + relieved by the total failure of the expedition. Isaiah prophecies + during the reign of this prince. 14. Manasseh, _d._ 644. During his + 55 years' reign, the worship of the Phoenician god, Baal, becomes + general; that of Jehovah falls into contempt, and the Mosaic law + into disuse. 15. Amon, murdered as early as 642. 16. Josiah + restorer of the temple, and of the worship of Jehovah. The book of + the Law, which had been cast aside and neglected, is once more + found, and a complete reform instituted according to its + principles. Palestine however is the first country attacked by + Necos, king of Egypt; and Josiah falls in battle, 611. His son, 17. + Jehoahaz, is, after a reign of three months, dethroned by + Pharaoh-Nechoh, and his brother 18. Jehoiakim placed as a tributary + prince on the throne. But in consequence of the rise of the + Chaldaeo-Babylonian empire, Pharaoh-Nechoh is deprived of his + Asiatic conquests by the loss of the battle of Circesium, 606; and + Jehoiakim becomes tributary to Nebuchadnezzar, _d._ 599. The + prophet Jeremiah flourishes. 19. Jehoiachin, son of the former + king, after three months' reign, is, together with the greater part + of the nation, transplanted into Inner Asia by Nebuchadnezzar, + after a second expedition, (commencement of the Babylonian + captivity,) and, 20. Zedekiah, brother on the father's side to + Jehoiachin, is seated on the throne as a tributary prince. Forming, + however, a league with Egypt, in order to throw off the Babylonian + yoke, Nebuchadnezzar marches a third time against Jerusalem, + conquers it, 588, and delivers it up to pillage and destruction. + Zedekiah, after being deprived of his eye-sight, and losing all his + children by the hands of the executioner, is, together with the + remaining portion of the nation, led in captivity to Babylon. + + S. BERNHARDI _Commentatio de causis quibus affectum sit ut regnum + Judae diutius persisteret quam regnum Israel; cum tabula + geographica_, Lovanii, 1825, 4to. A prize essay, containing also + several valuable enquiries into the monarchical period of the + Jewish state. + + # BAUER, _Manual of the History of the Hebrew Nation_, vol. i-iii, + 1800. The best introduction hitherto published, not only to the + history, but also to the antiquities of the nation, from the rise + to the fall of the state. + + + + +II. AFRICAN NATIONS. + + + + +_General Geographical Outline of Ancient Africa._ + + + See A. H. L. HEEREN'S _Historical Researches_, etc. African Nations. + 2 vols. 8vo. Oxford, 1831. + +1. Although the Phoenicians had circumnavigated Africa, the northern +part only of that quarter of the globe was known to antiquity. + +With that part, however, the ancients were better acquainted than we are +at the present day, the coast being then occupied by civilized and +commercial nations, who pushed their excursions far inland. This was the +case in early times with the Carthaginians and the Egyptians; still more +so with the Macedonian Greeks, under the Ptolemies, and under the +Romans. War, hunting, and commerce, were, generally speaking, the +objects which gave rise to those excursions. + +2. Considered as a whole, Africa is very different from Asia, both in +situation and form. Asia lies almost entirely within the temperate, +while Africa is almost wholly under the torrid zone. Asia abounds in +deep gulfs and large rivers; Africa constitutes a regular triangle, and +in its northern half possesses but two large rivers, the Nile and the +Niger. No wonder, then, that this portion of our globe should form, as +it were, a world in itself, distinguished by its productions and its +inhabitants. + +3. Physically considered, Northern Africa may be divided into three +regions, distinguished in early antiquity by separate names. The +maritime country along the Mediterranean, with the exception of +Tripolis, or the Regio-Syrtica, consists principally of very fertile +districts, and was consequently, at all times, very thickly inhabited: +hence in Herodotus it bears the name of the _inhabited Africa_; it is +now called Barbary. Above this, and under the 30th parallel of N. lat., +succeeds a mountainous tract, across which stretches the Atlas chain of +mountains; abounding in wild beasts and dates: hence Herodotus calls it +the _wild beast Africa_: among the Arabs it is called the land of dates, +(_Biledulgerid_.) Beyond this, and between the 30th and 20th degrees of +N. lat. the sandy region extends right across Africa and Arabia: this +part of Africa is therefore known, both among the ancients and moderns, +under the name of Africa Deserta, or the Sandy Desert, (Sahara). The +fruitful lands beyond the desert, stretching along the banks of the +Niger, were almost wholly unknown to the Greeks: by them these parts +were comprehended under the common name of Ethiopia, although that name +applied more peculiarly to the districts above Egypt. The Greeks were, +however, acquainted with some of the fruitful spots in the desert, the +Oases; such as Augila, Ammonium, and the Oases, properly so called, in +Egypt. + +4. There exists no political division which comprises the whole of +Africa. The north coast alone was inhabited by civilized nations: +Egyptians, Cyrenaeans, and Carthaginians; of which the first only were +aboriginals. The rest of the inhabitants either roved about as nomad +hordes, or formed insignificant states, of whose existence we have +heard some account, though we possess no history of them. Along the +shore, reckoning from the Plinthinetic gulf, Egypt is succeeded by: 1st. +Marmarica, a tract without cities, consisting principally of sandy +deserts, occupied by nomad hordes: this country extends from the 40-47 deg. +E. long. from Ferro. 2nd. The fertile territory occupied by the Greek +colonies, called Cyrenaica, extended to the Greater Syrtis, 37-40 deg. E. +long. Cities: Cyrene, Barca. 3rd. The territory of Carthage, extending +from the Greater Syrtis to the Fair Promontory, 25-40 deg. E. long. This +territory comprised (_a_) the country between the Greater and Lesser +Syrtis, (Regio Syrtica,) which constitutes the modern kingdom of +Tripoli; a sandy tract, almost wholly occupied by nomads. (_b_) the +territory of Carthage, properly so called, (kingdom of Tunis). A very +fruitful country; the southern part, called Byzacena, the northern part +Zeugitana. Cities: Carthage, Utica, etc. 4th. Numidia and Mauritania; +occupied during the Carthaginian age by nomad races. Along the shore +some Carthaginian settlements. + + + +EGYPTIANS. + + +Preliminary remarks. Egypt in its superficial contents is equal to about +two-thirds of Germany, and may therefore justly be ranked among the more +extensive countries of the globe; it greatly varies, however, in its +physical properties. The soil is only sufficiently fertile for tillage +on the banks of the Nile, and as far as the floods of that river extend; +beyond that, on the west, is a sandy desert, on the east a chain of +rocky mountains. From its entrance into Egypt at Syene, the Nile flows +in one undivided stream to the city of Cercasorus, 60 geogr. miles above +its mouth, directing its source from south to north through a valley +from 8 to 16 geogr. miles broad, bounded on the west by deserts of sand, +and on the east by mountains of granite. At Cercasorus the stream first +divides itself into two main branches, which formerly discharged their +waters into the Mediterranean, the eastern near the city of Pelusium, +the western near the city of Canopus (_ostium Pelusiacum et Canopicum_;) +from these two diverged several intermediate branches; so that in the +time of Herodotus there existed seven mouths of the Nile, but the number +has not always remained the same. The tract between the two extreme arms +of the Nile bears, in consequence of its triangular form, the name of +the Delta; it was covered with cities, and highly cultivated. The +fertile part of Egypt, inhabited by civilized men, was therefore +confined to the Delta and the valley of the Nile, on the two banks of +the stream from Syene to Cercasorus; to which must be added some well +watered spots in the centre of the western desert, known under the name +of the Oases. In consequence of the perpetual absence of rain, +particularly in Upper Egypt, the fertility of the Delta and the valley +of the Nile depends on the overflowing of the river, which happens at +stated periods. This commences at the beginning of August and continues +to the end of October; so that during three whole months the +above-mentioned parts of the country are under water. + +Egypt is divided into Upper, extending from Syene to the city of +Chemmis, (capital, Thebes, or Diospolis); Central from Chemmis to +Cercasorus, (capital, Memphis,) and Lower Egypt, which comprises the +Delta, and the land on both sides: it was full of cities, among which +the most remarkable was Sais. + +Next above Egypt lies Ethiopia, (_Aethiopia supra Aegyptum_); which, from +the earliest times, principally through commerce, appears to have been +closely connected with the former country. The regions immediately above +Egypt, usually called Nubia, are little more than deserts of sand, still +inhabited by roving hordes of nomad robbers. The rocky mountain chain, +which forms the eastern boundary of Egypt, stretches along the Red sea, +and was formerly of great importance to Nubia, from its containing, just +above the Egyptian frontier, productive gold mines. The Nile, in this +country, makes a wide curve to the west, and becomes so full of shallows +as to render navigation difficult. The lands adjoining the river, +however, are fertile and well inhabited; and contain numerous ancient +monuments. Still higher up, reckoning from 16 deg. N. lat. the appearance +of the country changes; the region of fertility commences, and its costly +productions, its gold and its perfumes, gave rise to a profitable +commerce. Among these countries, Meroe, with its capital of the same +name, was celebrated in the days of Herodotus. By Meroe is understood a +tract of land bounded by two rivers, the Nile on the west, and the +Astaboras, (Tacazze,) which falls into the Nile, on the east; for this +reason it is frequently, although improperly, called an island. This +country extended towards the sources of the Nile, or the modern province +of Gojam, where, under the reign of Psammetichus, the Egyptian caste of +warriors, having for the most part deserted, established themselves. +Meroe itself, like the Egyptian states, was sacerdotal, with a king at +its head.--The city of Axum, or Auxume, is not indeed mentioned at so +early a period; but if we may judge by the ruins that still remain, it +was of equally high antiquity with the old Egyptian towns and with +Meroe. The same observations apply to Adule, the harbour on the Arabian +gulf. + +The Egyptian history is divided into three periods of unequal duration; +the _first_ of which extends from the earliest time down to the +Sesostridae, that is to say, to about B.C. 1500: the _second_ comprises +the reigns of the Sesostridae, or the brilliant period of Egypt, down to +Psammetichus, 1500-650: the _third_ brings us from Psammetichus down to +the Persian conquest, 650-525. + + +FIRST PERIOD. + +_From the earliest times down to the Sesostridae, about B. C. 1500._ + + Sources: 1. Jewish writers. _Moses._ His records contain, no doubt, + a faithful picture of the Egyptian state in his day; but no + continuous history can be deduced from them.--From Moses down to + Solomon (B.C. 1500-1000.) total silence, with respect to Egypt, of + the Hebrew writers. From Solomon down to Cyrus, (B.C. 1000-550.) a + few scanty fragments.--Importance and superiority of the Jewish + accounts, so far as they are _purely historical_. 2. Greek writers. + (_a_) _Herodotus._ The first who published a History of the + Egyptians. About seventy years after the destruction of the throne + of the Pharaohs by the Persian conquerors, this author collected, + in Egypt itself, the earliest accounts of the history of the + country; he received his information from the most capable persons, + the priests; and wrote down faithfully that information, such as he + heard it. If, therefore, we would estimate at their proper worth + the accounts given by Herodotus, it is necessary to enquire, what + did the priests themselves know of their earlier national history? + And this question cannot be answered until we have ascertained in + what manner the historical records of the earlier periods were + preserved among the Egyptians. + + The earliest history of the Egyptians, like that of all other + nations, was traditional. They adopted, however, before any other + nations, a sort of writing, hieroglyphics, or allegorical picture + writing; in which the signs borrowed from natural objects served, + as modern discoveries have proved, partly to represent sounds, + (_hieroglyphes phonetiques_,) and partly to express ideas; in the + latter case they were either representative or allegorical. This + mode of writing, by its nature, is not so complete as the purely + alphabetical; since, 1. It can express only a narrow circle of + ideas, and these separately, without connection or grammatical + inflection, at least with very few exceptions. 2. As it is not so + well adapted to writing as to painting or engraving, it is not so + useful for books as for public monuments. 3. Being emblematic, it + is not intelligible without the help of a key, which could only be + preserved in some tradition connected with the monument, and which + was exclusively possessed by the priests; this key, therefore, + could hardly be preserved many centuries without falsification. 4. + The same image seems frequently to have been used to express very + different objects.--It follows, that the Egyptian history, as + deduced from the lips of the priests, can hardly have been any + thing more than records connected with, and depending upon, public + monuments: consisting, therefore, of mere fragments, and reducible + to no consistent chronology, it ultimately admitted only of + allegorical translation, and consequently was very liable to be + misinterpreted. Besides their hieroglyphics, the Egyptians + certainly had two other species of writing: the _hieratic_, + confined to the priests, and the _demotic_, used in common life. + Both, however, seem to have been nothing more than running hands + derived from the hieroglyphic system; and we have no instance of + the employment of either the one or the other in public monuments + of the time of the Pharaohs. That the use of papyrus, a material on + which all the above kinds of writing were employed, had its origin + in the highest antiquity, or at least in the more brilliant period + of the Pharaohs, we now know for certain, written documents + belonging to those times having been obtained from the tombs. + + CHAMPOLLION LE JEUNE, _Precis du Systeme Hieroglyphique des anciens + Egyptiens_. Paris, 1824. The main work on this subject, of which + the _Lettre a M. Dacier_, 1822, is but the precursor, and the two + _Lettres a M. le duc de Blacas_ the continuation. The new method of + deciphering has received its principal confirmation from the work + of the British consul in Egypt, SALT, _Essay on the Phonetic System + of Hieroglyphics_, 1825, on the authority of a comparison with the + Egyptian monuments themselves. Hitherto, however, little more has + been made out than the names and titles of the kings, distinguished + by being always enclosed within a border. + + These preliminary remarks on the earlier Egyptian history, will + derive abundant support from a perusal of the account given by + Herodotus (ii, 99-150), of the Egyptian kings previous to + Psammetichus. The study of that author proves beyond all doubt, + that: I. The whole history is throughout founded on public + monuments, and on monuments too, either in or near _Memphis_. We + may even restrict ourselves to one single monument at Memphis, to + the temple of Vulcan, or Phtha, the chief temple of that city. The + history commences with Menes, the founder of that edifice, (c. + 99.), and we are informed, respecting each of his successors, what + was done towards the augmentation and embellishment of the + building: those who made no addition to that temple, but left other + monuments, (as the builders of the pyramids,) are denominated + oppressors of the people, and contemners of the gods: of those + princes who left no monuments at all, the priests could give no + other information than a catalogue of names. II. Hence this line of + kings, although the priests gave it to Herodotus as such, is not + without interruptions, but, as is clearly proved by a comparison + with Diodorus, contains many wide chasms: therefore no + chronological system can be erected upon such a basis. III. The + whole history is interwoven with narrations derived from + hieroglyphic representations, and for that very reason allegorical, + the meaning of which it is no longer possible to unravel, the + priests themselves being either unable or unwilling to explain it, + and even inclining, it appears, to introduce false interpretations. + To this class of narrations belongs, for instance, that of the + robbery of Rhampsinitus's treasury; that of his journey into hell, + where he played at dice with Ceres, (c. 121, 122); that concerning + the daughter of Cheops, (c. 127.); concerning the blindness of + Pheron, and the manner in which he was cured, etc. (c. 111.) To + prove that this charge is not without foundation, it will suffice + to adduce two examples; one from c. 131, where Herodotus himself + observes that such was the case; the other from c. 141, the true + meaning of which we gather from other sources. Even in the time of + Herodotus, it was customary with the priests to endeavour to + conciliate the Greek and Egyptian authorities; a fact in proof of + which there are many arguments which cannot escape the critic: + such, for instance, as the completely _Graecised_ history of king + Proteus, c. 112-115.--The general result of the above observations + on Herodotus's Egyptian history is, that it is nothing more than a + narration connected with public monuments. To this inference but + one objection can possibly be made, namely, that the Egyptian + priests possessed, besides their hieroglyphics, an alphabetical + mode of writing; consequently, that, over and above the public + monuments, they might likewise refer to written annals; but this + objection is overthrown by Herodotus himself. All the information + the priests could give him beyond what has been above alluded to, + consisted in the names of 330 kings subsequent to Menes; these + they read from a papyrus roll, but knew nothing more of the kings + who bore them, because _those sovereigns had left no monuments + behind them_, (c. 100.) + + (_b_) Besides Herodotus, _Diodorus_ (lib. i.) likewise furnishes us + with the names of some Egyptian kings. This author, who wrote 400 + years subsequently to Herodotus, visited Egypt, and collected his + history, partly from the oral and written documents of the priests + of _Thebes_, partly from the more ancient Greek writers, and + particularly Hecataeus. If we consider Herodotus's line of kings as + not continuous or uninterrupted, all appearance of contradiction + between the two historians vanishes. Diodorus, like Herodotus, did + not intend to give a complete enumeration of the Egyptian kings; + but only of the most remarkable; indicating the interruptions by + the number of generations which they contained. + + (_c_) Finally, different from both the above is the Egyptian + _Manetho_, high priest at _Heliopolis_, who flourished under the + reign of Ptolemy Philadelphus, about B. C. 260. He wrote the + _Aegyptiaca_, of which, besides several fragments in Josephus, the + enumeration of the kings has been preserved in the chronicles of + Eusebius and Syncellus. This catalogue is divided into three + sections, (tomos,) each of which contains several dynasties, in all + 31, enumerated according to the different cities of Egypt. In each + dynasty the number of kings belonging to it and the years of their + reigns are marked. The authenticity of Manetho is now completely + established; since the names of the Pharaohs mentioned by him have + been deciphered on the Egyptian monuments. To this period belong + the first seventeen dynasties; in the eighteenth begins the second + and brilliant period, to which the yet remaining monuments of Upper + Egypt, bearing the names of the founders, are to be ascribed. It is + worthy of observation, that in Herodotus we have the documents of + the priests of Memphis, in Diodorus those of the priests of Thebes, + in Manetho those of the priests of Heliopolis--the three principal + seats of sacerdotal learning:--perfect consistency cannot, + therefore, be expected in the accounts of those historians. + + The modern writers on Egyptian antiquities, from KIRCHER, _Oedipus + Aegyptiacus_, 1670, to DE PAUW, _Recherches sur les Egyptiens et sur + les Chinois_, 1772, have too often substituted their own dreams and + hypotheses for truth. The principal attempts at a chronological + arrangement of the dynasties have been made by MARSHAM, in his + _Canon Chronicus_; and by GATTERER, in his # _Synchronistic History + of the World_.--Among the principal works on this subject may be + reckoned: + + JABLONSKI _Pantheon Mythicum Aegyptiacum_, 1750, 8vo. + + GATTERER, _Commentationes de Theogonia Aegypt_. in _Commentat. + Societ. Gotting._ t. vii. + + _De Origine et Usu Obeliscorum, auctore_ G. ZOEGA; Romae, 1797. + + _L'Egypte sous les Pharaons, ou Recherches sur la Geographie, la + Religion, la Langue, les Ecritures, et l'Histoire de l'Egypte avant + l'invasion de Cambyse, par_ CHAMPOLLION LE JEUNE, t. i, ii. 1814. + These two volumes, dedicated to the geography, contain the + restoration of the ancient Egyptian names of provinces and cities + deduced from Coptic authorities. + + _Commentationes Herodoteae, scribebat_ FRID. CREUZER. _Aegyptica et + Hellenica, pars 1._ Lips. 1819. A series of most acute and learned + illustrations of different points in Egyptian antiquity, introduced + by different passages of Herodotus. + + The volume in HEEREN'S _Historical Researches_, etc. 1831, vol. ii, + concerning the Egyptians; and particularly the introduction on + hieroglyphic writing. For the best representations of the Egyptian + monuments, we are indebted to the French expedition. Those of Denon + in his _Voyage en Egypte_, are far superior to those of Pococke and + Norden; but Denon's, in their turn, have been greatly surpassed in + the magnificent work: + + _Description de l'Egypte, Antiquites_, P. i, ii, iii. P. i, + contains the monuments of Upper Egypt, from the frontiers of Nubia + to Thebes; P. ii, iii, contain the monuments of Thebes alone. + + BELZONI, _Researches in Egypt_, London, 1824, with an atlas. + + # MINUTOLI, _Journey to the Temple of Jupiter Ammon, and Egypt_, 1824. + + L. BURCKHARDT, _Travels in Nubia_, London, 1819. + + F. C. GAU, _Antiquites de la Nubie_, Paris, 1824. A worthy + continuation of the great French work on Egypt. + + FR. CAILLAUD, _Voyage a Meroe et au Fleuve Blanc_, Paris, 1825, + contains the description of the monuments of Meroe. + +1. Political civilization commenced in Egypt at a much earlier period +than that to which history reaches; for even in the days of Abraham, +and still more so in those of Moses, the government seems to have been +so well organized, that a long period must necessarily have elapsed in +order to raise the nation to that degree of civilization which we see it +had then attained. It may, therefore, be safely asserted, that Egypt +ranks among the most ancient countries of our globe in which political +associations existed; although we cannot determine with equal certainty +whether they did not exist still earlier in India. + +2. The causes which contributed to render Egypt thus early a civilized +state, may be found in the natural features of the country, and its +favourable situation, when compared with the rest of Africa. It is the +only tract in all northern Africa situated on a large uninterrupted +navigable stream: had it not been for this, it would, like the other +parts of Africa under the same parallel, have been a mere desert. To +this must be added two extraordinary circumstances: on the one hand, the +overflowing of the river so perfectly prepares the soil, that to scatter +the seed is almost the only labour of the husbandman; and yet, on the +other hand, so many obstacles impede the progress of agriculture, (by +the necessity of canals, dams, etc.) that the invention of man must +necessarily have been awakened. When agriculture, and the kind of +knowledge requisite for its ulterior development had introduced a +certain degree of civilization into Egypt, the situation of that +country, between Asia and Africa, and in the neighbourhood of the rich +land of gold and spices, must have been highly favourable to the +purposes of international commerce; hence Egypt appears in all ages to +have been one of the chief seats of the inland or caravan trade. + +3. It is obvious, therefore, that in the fertile valley of the Nile, the +course of things must have been very different from what it was in the +desert of Libya. Several small states appear to have been formed in this +valley long before the existence of any great Egyptian kingdom. Their +origin, as might naturally be supposed, is enveloped in an obscurity, +which history can no longer entirely penetrate. It may still, however, +be gathered from monuments and records, that Upper Egypt was first the +seat of civilization; which, originating in the south, spread by the +settlement of colonies towards the north. It is probable that this took +place in consequence of the migration of some tribe, differing from the +negroes, as is proved by the representations, both in sculpture and in +painting, found on the yet remaining monuments of Egypt. + +4. The records of the high antiquity of political civilization, not only +in India, but likewise in Arabia Felix and Ethiopia, particularly in +Meroe, and the evident vestiges of ancient intercourse between the +southern nations of our globe, prove with sufficient evidence the truth +of such migrations, although they cannot be chronologically determined. +It is certain, however, that religion had no small share in producing +them. The national bond of union in Egypt not only continued in later +times, entirely dependent upon religion, but was originally grounded +upon it. Thus every step in political civilization must have depended, +if not solely, at least principally, on the caste of priests and on +their extension. + + General development of the idea of division into castes. Originating + at first in the variety of tribes settled in one and the same + country, and their different modes of life.--Its further progress + in despotic and in theocratic kingdoms.--Application to Egypt and + to the Egyptian caste of priests, as an original, civilized tribe. + +5. The peculiarity of this caste was the worship of certain deities, the +principal of which were Ammon, Osiris, and Phtha, confounded by the +Greeks with their Jupiter, Bacchus, and Vulcan. The spread of this +worship, which was always connected with temples, affords, therefore, +the most evident vestiges of the spread of the caste itself; and those +vestiges combined with the records of the Egyptians, lead us to conclude +that this caste was a tribe which migrated from the south, from beyond +Meroe in Ethiopia, and by the establishment of inland colonies around +the temples founded by them, gradually extended and made the worship of +their gods the dominant religion in Egypt. + + Proof of the accuracy of the above theory deduced from monuments and + express testimonies concerning the origin of Thebes and Ammon from + Meroe; it might have been inferred from the preservation of the + worship of Ammon in the latter place. Memphis, again, and other + cities in the valley of the Nile, are commonly supposed to have been + founded by detachments from Thebes. + +6. This conjecture, which agrees with the usual progress of population, +is corroborated by the very ancient division of the country into +districts, or nomes. This division was intimately connected with the +chief temples, each of which represented a separate colony of the caste +of priests; so that the inhabitants of every home belonged to the chief +temple, and joined in the religious worship there performed. + +7. To the gradual extension of this civilized tribe, which comprised, +not only the caste of the priests, but certainly also that of the +warriors, and perhaps some others, may be attributed the formation of +several small states along the banks of the Nile; the central point of +each being always such a colony as we have just now described; although +each state consisted both of the aboriginal tribes of the neighbourhood, +and of those that had migrated into the country. The bond which united +every separate state was, therefore, as in most of those formed in the +infancy of mankind, a common worship, in which all the members +participated. But what, by reason of the peculiarities of soil and +climate, could not take place in southern Africa, took place in Egypt: +agriculture, and its progressive improvement, became the great support +of civilization; and, as being the true foundation of states, formed the +principal political object of the ruling caste. + + Refutation of the idea, that the Egyptian priests were in possession + of great speculative knowledge; since their knowledge rather had + constant reference to practical life, and, therefore, was in their + hands the _instrumentum dominationis_ over the people, by which they + rendered themselves indispensable, and kept the former in a state of + dependence.--Explanation of the close reference which their gods, + their astronomical and mathematical sciences bore to agriculture. + +8. According to Manetho's catalogues, these separate Egyptian states +existed first in Upper and Middle Egypt; in the former were Thebes, +Elephantine, This, and Heraclea; in the latter, Memphis. It is only in +the last division of his work that we meet with states in Lower Egypt, +such as Tanis, Mendes, Bubastis, and Sebennytus. + + To these states, therefore, no doubt, belong the 330 kings after + Menes, whose names the priests read to Herodotus; as also those whom + Diodorus mentions as reigning previous to Sesostris, among whom are + remarked Busiris II. founder of Thebes, and Uchoreus, the founder of + Memphis. Eusebius and Syncellus have preserved from Manetho the names + of several of those kings, which Marsham has endeavoured to compare + and arrange. + +9. In the absence of a certain and continuous chronology, it is +impossible to determine accurately which of these states were +contemporary, and which succeeded the others. There can be no question +that Thebes was one of the earliest, if not indeed the most ancient of +them all; certainly prior to Memphis, which was founded by it. According +to the natural order of things, some of these states became wealthy and +mighty, and swallowed up the others. Even at this early period, Thebes +and Memphis had obtained a superiority over the rest. + + This and Elephantine appear to have been united to Thebes; as were the + states of Lower Egypt to Memphis. + +10. The Mosaic records prove, that even in Joseph's time the state of +Memphis (the real place, it appears, of his residence, not On, or +Heliopolis,) comprised Middle and Lower Egypt. It possessed a numerous +and brilliant court; castes of priests and warriors. Its agriculture +flourished, and several of its institutions indicated a deeply-rooted +civilization. But after the establishment of vassalage in this state by +Joseph, when the class of free proprietors was destroyed, by making the +king the only landholder except the priests, the troubles which already +threatened the kingdom must have assumed a more dangerous and alarming +aspect. + +11. These troubles came from abroad. Egypt, surrounded on all sides by +nomad tribes, had often suffered from their irruptions, which sometimes +poured in from the south, sometimes from the east. But never were these +invasions so frequent and durable as in the period which immediately +followed the administration of Joseph. Lower Egypt was overrun by the +Bedouin Arabs, whose chieftains, called by the Egyptians _Hyksos_, +settled in the country, fortified Avaris, or Pelusium, and extended +their dominion to Memphis, which they made probably the seat of their +government. They are depicted as the oppressors of religion, and of the +caste of priests; but when we consider that Moses flourished in their +time, we are led to infer that, like the Mongols in China, they must +have gradually adopted Egyptian manners and civilization. They do not +appear to have gained possession of Thebes in Upper Egypt; and it seems +highly probable, that the long struggle against them was never, or at +least but for a short time, suspended. + + The dominion of the Arabian Hyksos falls between B. C. 1800-1600; and + consequently was contemporary with Moses and the exodus of the Jews. + Josephus gives 500 years to their dominion, in which he probably + comprises the long periods of earlier wars. + +12. Defeat, and final expulsion of the Hyksos from Upper Egypt by +Thutmosis king of Thebes. The consequence of this event was not only +the restoration of freedom and independence to Egypt, but also the +union of the different states into one kingdom; as the rulers of Thebes +now became monarchs over all Egypt. This expulsion of the Hyksos, which +in itself cannot be considered otherwise than as a vast national effort, +must have been the more deeply impressed on the memory of the people, as +it laid the foundation of the splendid period which immediately +followed. + + The expulsion of the Hyksos appears to have been one of the chief + subjects on which the Egyptian artists exercised their talents: it + is supposed to have been represented upon one of the large temples + in Thebes. Denon, plate cxxxiii. + + +SECOND PERIOD. + +_From the Sesostridae until the sole dominion of Psammetichus. +B. C. 1500-650._ + + The sources for this period are the same as for the foregoing; and + the history still preserves the character of records handed down by + hieroglyphics. To this period belongs the line of kings subsequent + to Sesostris, given both by Herodotus and Diodorus. Those two + historians nearly agree, if we regard Herodotus's line of kings, + not as uninterrupted, but as the fragments of a series deduced + solely from public monuments: this will be demonstrated by the + following table, in which the predecessors of Sesostris have + likewise been indicated. + + HERODOTUS. DIODORUS. + + _Menes._ _Menes._ + + He was followed by three Followed by fifty-two successors, + hundred and thirty kings ranging over a period of more + belonging to the previous than 1400 years. + period, concerning which our + information is very incomplete: _Busiris I._ and eight successors; + among those sovereigns were the last of whom was + eighteen Ethiopians, and one + queen named Nitocris. _Busiris II._ the founder of + Thebes. + + _Osymandyas_ and eight successors; + the last of whom was + + _Uchoreus_, founder of Memphis. + + _Aegyptus_, grandson of the + foregoing. After the lapse + of twelve generations, + + _Moeris._ _Moeris._ + + Seven generations. + + _Sesostris._ _Sesostris_ or _Sesoosis_. + + _Pheron_, son of Sesostris. _Sesostris II._ son of the + foregoing: he assumed his + father's name. + + Interval comprising several + generations. + + _Amasis_, and the Ethiopian, + + _Actisanus._ + + _Mendes_ or _Manes_, builder + of the labyrinth. + + Anarchy which lasted five + generations. + + _Proteus_, in the time of the _Proteus_ or _Cetes_, in the time + Trojan war. of the Trojan war. + + _Rhampsinitus._ _Remphis_, son of the foregoing. + + Seven generations, in the course + of which flourished _Nileus_, + from whom the Nile derives + its name. + + _Cheops_, builder of the great _Chemmis_ or _Chembes_, from + pyramid. Memphis, builder of the great + pyramid. + + _Chephres_, brother to the _Cephren_, brother to the + foregoing, builder of a pyramid. foregoing, builder of a pyramid. + + _Mycerinus_, son of Cheops, _Mycerinus_, son of Chemmis, + builder of a pyramid. builder of a pyramid. + + _Asychis_ the legislator. _Bochoris_ the legislator. + + _Anysis_, who was blind. Interval of several generations. + + _Sabaco_, the Ethiopian. _Sabaco_, the Ethiopian + + _Anysis_, king for the second + time. + + _Sethos_, a priest of Vulcan. + + Dodecarchy. Dodecarchy. + + _Psammetichus_ of Sais, sole _Psammetichus_ of Sais, sole + ruler. ruler. + + This comparative table demonstrates evidently, not only that + Herodotus's line is often interrupted, but likewise that it is + impossible to establish any continuous chronology, since Diodorus, + more than once leaves the number of generations undetermined. Great + importance, nevertheless, attaches to the date fixed by Herodotus, + ii, 13, where he declares that king Moeris flourished 900 years + before his own visit to Egypt: consequently between B.C. 1500 and + 1450. And if, as seems highly probable, the age of Sesostris was + the 15th century B.C. (see ZOEGA, _de Obeliscis_), it cannot be + denied but that we have some general epochs; and with these we must + remain content until more satisfactory information can be + discovered on the monuments. It should likewise be observed, that + the discrepancy between the names of the kings mentioned by + Herodotus and Diodorus, and those furnished by Manetho, may be + accounted for by the fact, that the sovereigns were distinguished + by different names on the monuments and in common life. + + Of the dynasties of Manetho, the 18th, 19th, 20th, and 22nd, belong + to this period; more especially the two first, which contain the + most important of the Pharaohs. + +1. The following period, nearly to its termination, was the brilliant +age of Egypt, during which it formed but one empire; the kings being +represented as sovereign lords of the whole country. And, indeed, it was +natural that the expulsion of the invaders should be followed by a +period in which the military force and ardour of the nation would be +developed, and directed to external conquest. The capital of the empire +was, no doubt, Thebes, the great monuments of which were erected in this +period; that honour, however, seems to have alternately belonged to +Memphis, Herodotus's line of kings being deduced from the monuments of +that city, and more especially from the temple of Phtha. + + The more powerful of the Pharaohs of this period, and the founders + of the most important monuments of Upper Egypt, on which their + names are found, are the following: belonging to the 18th dynasty, + somewhere about 1600-1500. + + _Amenophis I._ His name is likewise found beyond Egypt on the + temple of Amada, in Nubia. + + _Thutmosis I._ Commencement of the expulsion of the Hyksos. + + _Amenophis II._ The Memnon of the Greeks. Complete expulsion of the + Hyksos, and commencement of several of the great edifices. His name + is also found on the monuments of Thebes, Elephantine, and even in + Nubia, on the distant temple of Soleb. Builder of the palace of + Luxor. + + _Thutmosis II._ His name found in Carnac, and on the obelisk at the + Lateran. + + _Ramesses I._ Supposed to be the Danaus of the Greeks. Expelled by + his brother: + + _Ramesses II._ Miamun. Builder of the palace of Medinet-Abu in + Thebes. One of the royal graves that have been opened belongs to + this king. + + _Amenophis III._ Renewed invasion of the Hyksos; he flees before + them into Ethiopia; but returns victorious with his son Ramesses. + + Belonging to the 19th dynasty, between 1500 and 1400. + + _Ramesses III._, called the Great, and sometimes _Sesostris_; + founder of the dynasty, liberator of Egypt, and a great conqueror. + His name and titles, his wars and triumphs, are found on the + temples and palaces of Luxor and Carnac, in Thebes and Nubia. His + son and follower: + + _Ramesses IV._ Pheron, rules long in peace. His name is found in + the great pillared hall of the palace of Carnac, and on many other + buildings. + + Among his successors but few names have been preserved until we + come to Scheschonk or Sisac, of the 22nd dynasty, between 970 and + 950; he took Jerusalem under the reign of Rehoboam, and therefore + furnishes a fixed date. + + # R. V. L. (RUEHLE VON LILIENSTERN), _Graphic Illustrations of the + most ancient History and Geography of Egypt and Ethiopia, with an + atlas, 1827_. A work containing every thing necessary for + understanding the discoveries hitherto made in this department of + history. + +2. For this splendour, the empire was principally indebted to Sesostris, +son of Amenophis. This prince is justly entitled to the surname of +Great, which was given him by the Egyptians. No one will, to the letter, +credit the narrative of his deeds, exaggerated as they were by the +traditions of the priests, or represented, as they still appear, on the +buildings of Thebes; but who can doubt the existence of a monarch of +whom so many and such various monuments within and without Egypt bear +witness? + + Critical examination of the accounts of the nine years' campaign, and + conquests of Sesostris. His arms were principally directed against + wealthy commercial countries; probably by land against Ethiopia, Asia + Minor, and part of Thrace; by sea against Arabia Felix, perhaps even + the Indian peninsula. Can the performance of these exploits be deemed + improbable, in an age when western Asia did not contain a single + great empire? The vast undertakings attributed to Sesostris in the + interior of his dominions; extensive buildings, canals, division of + the land, and imposition of taxes, according to a regular survey, + prove that he must have been the sovereign of all Egypt. + +3. Notwithstanding the great changes that were made, the constitution +still bore the same general character, that of a sacerdotal aristocracy +combined with a monarchy. Although the Egyptian kings, like the Indian +princes, were distinct from the priests, yet their power was limited in +various ways by that caste. The high priest shared the royal authority; +the king was shackled by religious ceremonies, both in public and +private life; he was obliged to evince his veneration for the +established worship by the erection of public monuments; and all the +high offices of state were in the hands of the priests. It cannot be +denied that on the personal character of the king depended much of his +power; but how strong must have been this aristocracy, when even +successful conquerors were obliged to conciliate its approbation! + +4. It was probably about this time that the domestic relations of the +people, the division into castes, was completed. The sacerdotal caste +being in exclusive possession of all scientific knowledge, remained for +that reason in possession of the offices of state. The caste of warriors +could hardly have assumed its complete form before the country was +united into one empire: in like manner that of the navigators could not +have been completely established before the canals were excavated; +although the origin of all may have been of a much earlier date. + + Comparison of the accounts given by Herodotus and Diodorus of the + division into castes. Not only precedence in time, but likewise the + discrepancies between the two, declare in favour of Herodotus. + +5. It appears, therefore, that the most prosperous period of the kingdom +of the Pharaohs must be placed somewhere between B. C. 1500-900: +although, according to Diodorus, even this period was interrupted by a +long anarchy. The splendour of the empire was obscured towards the end. +Sabaco, a foreign conqueror from Ethiopia, (probably from Meroe,) +subjugated Egypt; after his departure from the country, Sethos, a +priest of Phtha, contrary to all precedent, seated himself upon the +throne. He was, consequently, considered an usurper; he offended the +caste of warriors, and could not have escaped the dangers of an +irruption threatened by the Assyrian, Sennacherib, had not a pestilence +compelled the invader and his host to retreat. + + The dynasty of Sabaco, Seuechus, and Tarhaco in Meroe, who as + conquerors subjected Upper Egypt, is comprised between B. C. 800-700. + Their names likewise have been already discovered on monuments; some + at Abydos in Egypt, others in Nubia. + +6. The Egyptian monarchy, however, at length fell, and was replaced by +an oligarchy; (or perhaps a return was only made to the division of the +earlier kingdoms;) twelve princes sharing among themselves the sovereign +power. A certain degree of unity seems to have existed at first in this +government; but quarrels soon sprung up among the princes, and they +compelled one of their number, Psammetichus of Sais, to take flight. The +exiled prince, supported by Greek and Carian mercenaries, contrived to +avenge his wrongs; he drove away his rivals, and became the sole ruler. + + +THIRD PERIOD. + +_From the reign of Psammetichus as sole monarch to the Persian conquest +of Egypt by Cambyses. B. C. 650-525._ + + Herodotus, (l. ii, c. 125, etc.) is still the principal authority + for this portion of history. His statements, however, are no longer + derived from hieroglyphics: they are purely historical. During the + reign of Psammetichus, the Greeks who had migrated into Egypt gave + rise to the caste of interpreters, [Greek: hermeneis], who acted + both as ciceroni for strangers, and as brokers between the + Egyptians and Greeks: these people were enabled to give information + respecting the history of the country. It is not, therefore, + surprising that Herodotus should assure us, that from this time the + history was authentic.--The names of the succeeding Pharaohs are + likewise found on the monuments; in the erection of which they + rivaled their predecessors. + + _Contemporary_: Asia: rise and fall of the Chaldaeo-Babylonian + empire; rise of the Persian monarchy.--Rome: kings from Numa + Pompilius to Servius Tullius.--Athens: Draco; Solon; + Pisistratus.--Jews: the last period and fall of the kingdom of + Judah; Babylonish captivity. + +1. From this epoch Egypt remained uninterruptedly one kingdom, the +capital of which was Memphis, although Sais, in Lower Egypt, was the +general residence of the royal family. Strangers, and more particularly +Greeks, admitted into Egypt; partly as mercenaries, partly as merchants. +Influence of this innovation upon the national character, and upon the +political system in particular. A spirit of conquest gradually inherited +by the Egyptian kings, is directed principally against Asia: hence the +formation of a navy, and wars with the great rising monarchies of Asia. +Continued, but declining influence of the sacerdotal caste, and proofs +of the veneration of the kings for the priesthood deduced from the +erection and embellishment of temples, particularly of that consecrated +to Phtha in Memphis. + +2. _Psammetichus._ He obtains sole power through the assistance of Greek +and Carian mercenaries, who are continued as a standing army in the +country. The caste of Egyptian warriors, taking umbrage in consequence, +emigrate for the most part to Ethiopia, where they settle. The southern +portico of the temple of Phtha is erected, and projects of conquest are +formed against Asia. + +3. _Neco_, son and successor of Psammetichus. His extensive plans of +conquest. First formation of a naval power; and unsuccessful attempt to +unite by a canal the Mediterranean with the Red sea. Conquests in Asia +as far as the Euphrates; but quick secession of the conquered, in +consequence of the loss of the battle of Circesium. Circumnavigation of +Africa undertaken at his command by the Phoenicians, and successfully +performed. + +4. _Psammis his son and successor._ Expedition against Ethiopia, and +conquests in the interior of Africa. + +5. Reign of _Apries_, (the Pharaoh-hophra of the Hebrews). Plans of +conquest against Asia;--siege of Sidon, and naval battle with the +Tyrians;--expedition against Cyrene in Africa; its fatal result. A +revolution caused thereby in Egypt, the inhabitants of which were averse +to foreign wars, carried on mostly by mercenary aliens: the revolution +headed by Amasis. In the civil war which Apries now wages with his +mercenaries against the Egyptians commanded by Amasis, he loses both his +throne and life; and with him ends the family of Psammetichus, which had +reigned to this time. + +6. The usurper _Amasis_ took possession of the sovereign power; and +although he had to contend with a strong party, who despised him on +account of his low origin, he contrived by popular measures, and by the +respect he showed to the sacerdotal caste, to establish himself upon the +throne.--His monuments, both at Sais and Memphis.--The Egyptians and +Greeks become better acquainted and more closely connected with each +other, partly in consequence of the marriage of the king with a Greek +woman; but principally owing to the mouths of the Nile being opened to +the Greek merchants, and the cession of Naucratis as a factory for their +merchandise. Great and beneficial consequences to Egypt, which, under +the long reign of Amasis, reaches its highest pitch of prosperity. This +prince had already been engaged in disputes with the Persian conqueror, +Cyrus, whose son and successor, Cambyses, led an expedition against +Egypt, which Amasis, however, luckily for himself, escaped by a +seasonable death. + +7. His son Psammenitus, the last of the Egyptian Pharaohs, is attacked +by Cambyses in the very first year of his reign. After a single battle, +fought at Pelusium, and a short siege of Memphis, the empire of the +Pharaohs is overthrown, and Egypt merges into a Persian province. The +powerful caste of the priests suffered most from the hatred of the +conqueror; but the persecution to which they were subjected must be +attributed rather to policy than fanaticism. + +8. Condition and fate of Egypt as a Persian province. After the death of +Cambyses, the country received a Persian governor, and consequently +became a satrapy. Immediately after the first tempest of war had blown +over, Egypt was treated with mildness by the Persians. The country paid +a moderate tribute, together with some royal gifts, among others the +produce of the fisheries in lake Moeris; nevertheless, repeated revolts +occurred, which may be principally attributed to the hatred and +influence of the sacerdotal caste. The first took place under Darius +Hystaspes, and was quelled by Xerxes. An increase of tribute was the +consequence. The second, under king Inarus, fomented and supported by +the Athenians, happened during the reign of Artaxerxes I.; it was +quelled by Megabyzus. The third occurred under Darius II. and in +consequence of the support which the Egyptians received from the Greeks, +was of longer duration than either of the former, the throne of the +Pharaoh's being in some measure restored. + + This third secession of the Egyptians lasted till 354. During + this period various kings were appointed; Amyrtaeus, _d._ 408; + Psammetichus, about 400; Nephreus, about 397; Pausiris, _d._ 375; + Nectanebus I. _d._ 365; Tachos, _d._ 363; Nectanebus II. conquered + by Artaxerxes III. 354. + + + +CARTHAGINIANS. + + + Sources. The first great republic which ancient records mention as + applying both to trade and war, is undoubtedly a phenomenon well + deserving the attention of the historical enquirer. Our knowledge, + however, of Carthaginian history is unfortunately very deficient, + as we possess no author who has made it the principal object of his + attention. The immediate subject of the Greek and Roman writers was + the history of their own country, and they only allude to that of + Carthage in so far as it is connected with their main topic. This + observation applies as well to Polybius and Diodorus, as to Livy + and Appian. Even the information given by Justin, the only author + who says any thing concerning the early state of Carthage, is + miserably defective, although taken from Theopompus. (Cf. _Comment. + de fontibus_ JUSTINI _in Commentat. Soc. Gotting._ vol. xv.) + Moreover, as Herodotus here fails us, we have not the writings of + any author whatever who witnessed Carthage in the days of her + prosperity: Polybius did not see that country till after the + decline of its power; the other historians, wrote long afterwards. + But although an uninterrupted history of Carthage does not exist, + we are yet able to trace the main outlines of the picture of that + state.--The modern writers on Carthage are: + + HENDRICH, _de Republica Carthaginiensium_, 1664. A useful + compilation. + + # _History of the Republic of Carthage_, 2 vols. Franckfort, 1781. + A mere history of the wars. + + DAMPMARTIN, _Histoire de la Rivalite de Carthage et de Rome_, tom. + i, ii. Very superficial. + + # W. BOETTICHER, _History of Carthage_, part i. Berlin, 1827. + The best work on the subject; in which use has been made of modern + researches. + + Concerning the Carthaginians, see HEEREN'S _African Nations_, + 2 vols. 8vo. Oxford, 1831. + +The history of Carthage is most conveniently divided into three periods: +I. From the foundation of the city to the commencement of the wars with +Syracuse, B. C. 880-480. II. From the commencement of the wars with +Syracuse to those with Rome, 480-264. III. From the commencement of the +wars with Rome to the destruction of Carthage, 264-146. + + +FIRST PERIOD. + +_From the foundation of Carthage to the wars with Syracuse, B. C. +880-480._ + + _Contemporary_: Inner Asia: kingdoms of the Assyrians, Babylonians, + and first half of the Persian monarchy. Greeks: period from + Lycurgus to Themistocles. Romans: period of the kings, and of the + commonwealth until the establishment of the tribunes of the people. + +1. The foundation and primitive history of Carthage, like all very early +and important events in national history, have, by long tradition, been +wrapt in the veil of romance. The account given of Dido, the supposed +founder of the city, cannot be reduced to the standard of pure +historical truth, though it appears to justify the inference that some +political commotions in the mother city, Tyre, induced a party of +emigrants to proceed to the northern shores of Africa; where other +Phoenician establishments had already taken place: here, by engaging to +pay a yearly tribute, they purchased from the natives permission to +found a city, the site of which was so happily chosen, that it only +depended upon the inhabitants to raise it to that greatness which it +afterwards attained. + +2. It is probable that Carthage advanced at first by slow steps; yet +even at the end of this first period she had reached to such a height of +power, that she was mistress of a large territory in Africa, and of +foreign possessions still more extensive. Establishment of the +Carthaginian dominion in Africa by the subjection of the neighbouring +aboriginal tribes, and the foundation of Carthaginian settlements within +their territories; the natives, Liby-Phoenicians, gradually mingled with +the inhabitants of those colonies, and imbibed from them a love of +agriculture and fixed abodes. The inhabitants of the fertile territory +extending southward as far as the lake Triton, were, without exception, +Carthaginian subjects. + +3. Her connection, however, with the ancient Phoenician towns along the +coast, particularly Utica, was of a different nature. For although +possessed a certain authority over them, she did not claim absolute +dominion, but rather stood at the head of a federation; thus affording a +protection which must frequently have degenerated into oppression. + +4. In consequence of a treaty with the neighbouring republic of Cyrene, +the whole territory extending between the two Syrtes was also ceded to +the Carthaginians. The Lotophagi and Nasamones, inhabitants of this +district, preserved their nomad mode of life; they must, however, from +their trade with the interior parts of Africa, have been of the highest +importance to Carthage. + +5. System of colonization, and, as a necessary result, that of conquest +without Africa. It was evidently the aim of the Carthaginians to settle +on islands, and to subject them to their dominion. Those lying in the +western part of the Mediterranean occupied the first place in their plan +of conquest, which was completely executed in Sardinia, the Baleares, +and other small islands; perhaps in Corsica; in Sicily, however, they +could never succeed to the full extent of their wishes. There is also +every probability that the Canary islands and Madeira were entirely in +their possession. On the other hand, the Carthaginians, previous to +their wars with Rome, were in the practice of establishing separate +settlements on the main land, partly in Spain, and partly on the western +shore of Africa. In the latter, they adopted the policy of their +ancestors, the Phoenicians, making the settlements so small, and +confining them within such narrow bounds, that the mother country might +always ensure their dependence. + +6. The glory of extending the territory of Carthage, by important +conquests, belongs principally to the family of Mago, who, together with +his two sons and six grandsons, established the dominion of the republic +in Sicily, Sardinia, and Africa. This occurred about the same time that +Cyrus, Cambyses, and Darius were laying the foundation of the Persian +monarchy, with which Carthage even then entered into connection. The +Carthaginians, therefore, made their first appearance, as extensive +conquerors, in the fourth century from the foundation of their +commonwealth; and it is at this period that mention is made of their +first naval engagement, in which the Phocaeans were their adversaries. In +the same period may be dated the establishment of their colonies beyond +the Pillars of Hercules by Hanno and Himilco--both probably sons of +Mago;--by the former on the coast of Africa, by the latter on that of +Spain. To the same period likewise is referred the first commercial +treaty between the Carthaginians and Romans, in which the former appear +as already masters of Sardinia, Africa, and a portion of Sicily. + +7. To complete these conquests, and to preserve them when completed, the +formation and support of vast fleets and armies were indispensably +necessary. According to the usual practice of those nations who apply +both to trade and to war, the Carthaginian armies were composed for the +most part of mercenaries. No nation, however, followed this plan so +extensively as the Carthaginians, for to them half Africa and Europe +furnished warriors.--Description of a Carthaginian army; development of +the advantages and disadvantages of its organization.--Organization of +their navy. The state supported very numerous fleets of war-ships, with +a multitude of slaves who laboured at the oar, and were it seems public +property. + +8. The political constitution of Carthage, like that of all wealthy +trading states, was an aristocracy composed of the noble and the +opulent, though at all times combined with a certain admixture of +democracy. The affairs of the state were confided to the hands of the +two suffetes or kings,--who, in all probability, held their office for +life--and to those of the senate ([Greek: Boule]) which contained within +itself a more select council (the [Greek: gerousia]). The privilege of +electing the magistrates resided with the people at large, who also +shared the legislative power with the suffetes. Civil and military power +was usually divided: the offices of general and magistrate not being +always, as at Rome, united in the same individual,--although such an +instance might not be of impossible occurrence:--to each military chief, +on the contrary, was appointed a committee from the senate, on which he +was more or less dependent. + +9. The high state tribunal of the HUNDRED was instituted as a barrier to +the constitution against the attempts of the more powerful aristocrats, +particularly the military leaders; indeed the brilliancy of Mago's +conquests seemed to threaten the republic with a military government; +and immediately previous to his time one of the generals, Malchus, had +actually made an attempt to enslave Carthage. The object of the +institution was no doubt attained; but in later times the council +assumed to itself a power which increased to absolute despotism. It is +not improbable that this court likewise constituted the select committee +(the [Greek: gerousia]) of the senate. + +10. Our information respecting the financial system of the Carthaginians +is extremely meagre. The following seem to have been the principal +sources of the public revenue. 1. The tribute drawn from the federate +cities, and their African subjects. The former paid in money, the latter +for the most part in kind; this tribute was imposed at the will of the +government, so that in pressing cases the taxed nations were obliged to +give one half of their income. 2. The case was the same with their +external provinces, particularly with Sardinia. 3. The tribute +furnished by the nomad hordes, partly by those in the Regio-Syrtica, and +occasionally also by those on the western side. 4. The customs, which +were levied with extreme rigour, not only in Carthage, but likewise in +all the colonies. 5. The products of their rich mines, particularly +those of Spain. In considering the financial system of the +Carthaginians, it should not be forgotten that many of the nations with +whom they traded, or who served in their armies, were unacquainted with +the use of money. + +11. System and extent of their commerce. Their object was to secure a +monopoly of the western trade; hence the practice of restricting the +growth of their colonies, and of removing as much as possible all +strangers from their commercial marts. Their trade was carried on partly +by sea, and partly by land. Their sea trade, arising from the colonies, +extended beyond the Mediterranean, certainly as far as the coasts of +Britain and Guinea. Their land trade was carried on by caravans, +consisting principally of the nomad tribes resident between the Syrtes: +the caravans travelled eastward to Ammonium and Upper Egypt, southward +to the land of the Garamantes, (Fezzan,) and even still further into the +interior of Africa. + + +SECOND PERIOD. + +_From the breaking out of the wars with Syracuse, to the commencement of +those with Rome, B. C. 480-264._ + +1. The great object of Carthaginian policy during the whole of the above +period, was to subdue Sicily; this object the nation pursued with +extraordinary pertinacity, often approximating to, but never obtaining, +complete success. The growing power of Syracuse, which likewise aimed at +the sole possession of the island, laid the foundation of that national +hatred which now arose between the Sicilian Greeks and the +Carthaginians. + +2. First attempt, arising out of the league formed with Xerxes I. upon +his irruption into Greece. Gelon of Syracuse, in a victory more decisive +even than that gained by Themistocles over the Persians at Salamis, +routs the Carthaginians near Himera, and compels them to accede to a +disgraceful peace. + +3. This defeat was followed by a period of tranquillity lasting seventy +years, during which we know little about Carthage. All that we can say +with any probability is, that in the mean time the struggle for +territory between Cyrene and Carthage commenced and terminated to the +advantage of the latter state, whose dominion was generally extended and +confirmed in Africa by wars with the aboriginal tribes. + +4. But the accession of Dionysius I. to the throne of Syracuse, and the +ambitious project formed by him and his successors, of subjecting to +their rule all Sicily and Magna-Grecia, rekindled once more the embers +of war, which had only smouldered for a short time, to burst forth with +additional violence. + + Repeated and bloody wars with Dionysius I. between the years + 410-368. Neither party able to expel the other: terms of the last + peace; that each party should remain in possession of what he then + occupied. Second commercial treaty with Rome. + + Crafty advantage taken by the Carthaginians of the internal + commotions at Syracuse during and subsequent to the reign of + Dionysius II: they endeavour to obtain their end; but are thwarted + by the heroism of Timoleon, 345-340. + + A new and frightful war with Agathocles, the seat of which is + transferred from Sicily into Africa itself; it at last terminates + in favour of Carthage, 311-307. + + The war with Pyrrhus, 277-275, whose ambition gave rise to an + alliance between Carthage and Rome, contributed likewise to + increase the preponderance of the Carthaginians in Sicily; and + probably the perseverance of that people, and their skill in + profiting by circumstances, would at last have enabled them to + attain their object, had not the seeds of war been thereby + scattered between Carthage and Rome. + +5. What effect these Sicilian wars had upon the state we are not +informed. They were probably regarded in Carthage as a beneficial +channel for carrying off the popular fermentation;--nevertheless, two +attempts, both unsuccessful, were made by some of the aristocratical +party, to overthrow the constitution; first by Hanno, 340, and +afterwards by Bomilcar, 308.--At the breaking out, however, of the war +with Rome, the commonwealth was so formidable and mighty, that even the +finances of the state do not appear to have been at all affected; a +circumstance of the highest importance. What consequence was it to +Carthage whether 100,000 barbarians more or less existed in the world, +so long as there remained plenty of men willing to suffer themselves to +be sold, and she possessed money to purchase them? + + +THIRD PERIOD. + +_From the beginning of the wars with Rome, to the downfal of Carthage, +B. C. 264-146._ + +1. The wars between Carthage and Rome were the necessary consequences of +a desire of aggrandizement in two conquering nations; any one might have +foreseen the struggle between the two rivals as soon as their conquests +should once begin to clash. It is, therefore, a question of little +importance, to enquire which was the aggressor; and although Rome may +not be entirely cleared of that charge, we cannot help observing that, +according to the principles of sound policy, the security of Italy was +hardly compatible with the sole dominion of the Carthaginians over the +island of Sicily. + + First war with Rome, 264-241, (twenty-three years,) waged for the + possession of Sicily, and decided almost at its commencement by + Hiero's passing over to the Roman side. (For the history of it, + see below, in the Roman history, Book V. Period ii, parag. 2 sq.) + +2. This war cost the republic, Sicily and the sovereignty of the +Mediterranean, by which the fate of its other external possessions was +already predetermined. But that which appeared at the first view to +threaten the greatest danger, was the total exhaustion of its finances; +a circumstance which will no longer surprise us, when we consider how +many fleets had been destroyed and replaced, how many armies had been +annihilated and renewed. Carthage had never before been engaged in such +an obstinate struggle as this; and the immediate consequences were more +terrific even than the war itself. + +3. The impossibility of paying the mercenaries produced a mutiny among +the troops, which rapidly grew into a rebellion of the subject nations, +who had been most cruelly oppressed during the war. The consequence was +a civil war of three years and a half, which probably would have spared +the Romans the trouble of destroying Carthage, had not the state been +snatched from ruin by the heroism of Hamilcar. + + This war, which lasted from 240 to 237, produced lasting consequences + to the state; it gave rise to the feud between Hamilcar and Hanno the + Great, which compelled Hamilcar to seek for support against the senate + by becoming the leader of a democratic faction. + +4. The revolt spread abroad; it reached Sardinia and caused the loss of +that most important island, of which the Romans, flushed with power, +took possession, in spite of the terms of the peace. + +5. The influence of the family of the Barcas, supported in their +disputes with the senate by the popular party, now got the upper hand +in Carthage; and the first fruit of their power was the new and gigantic +project of repairing the loss of Sicily and Sardinia by the conquest of +Spain; a country where the Carthaginians already had some possessions +and commercial connections. The immediate object of the Barcas was the +support of their family and party; but the Spanish silver mines soon +furnished the republic with the means of renewing the contest with Rome +also. + +6. During the nine years in which Hamilcar commanded, and in the +following eight in which Hasdrubal, his son-in-law and successor, was at +the head of the army, the whole of the south of Spain, as far as the +Iberus, was brought under subjection to Carthage, either by negotiation +or force of arms. The further progress of the Carthaginians was only +arrested by a treaty with the Romans, in which the Iberus was fixed upon +as a frontier line, and the freedom of Saguntum acknowledged by both +powers. Hasdrubal crowned his victories as a general and as a statesman +by the foundation of New Carthage, (Carthagena,) which was to be the +future seat of Carthaginian power in the newly-conquered country. +Hasdrubal having fallen by the hand of an assassin in the year 221, the +party of the Barcas succeeded in appointing Hamilcar's son, Hannibal, a +young man of one-and-twenty, for his successor. Hannibal found every +thing already prepared in Spain for the furtherance of the hereditary +project of his family, which was a renewal of the contest with Rome; and +the vigour with which this project was pursued, clearly proves how great +must have been the preponderance of the Barcine influence, at that +time, in Carthage. Had the commonwealth attended to the marine with the +same ardour as their great general did to the land service, the fate of +Rome would perhaps have been very different. + + Second war with Rome, 218-201, (seventeen years,) first in Italy + and Spain, afterwards, from 203, in Africa itself. (See the + history of this war below, in the Roman history, Book V, Period + ii, parag. 6 sqq.) + +7. Until Africa became the scene of action, the second war cost the +republic much less than the first; the expenses being principally +defrayed by Spain and Italy. Hanno, however, was at the head of a +powerful party at home, who were clamorous for peace, and who can say +they were wrong? As might be expected, the family of the Barcas were for +war, and their influence carried the day. That general who, with hardly +any support from Carthage, was yet able to maintain a footing in the +country of his powerful foes for no less than fifteen years, and that, +too, as much by policy as by force of arms, must extort our admiration. +It cannot, however, be denied, that during the struggle one favourable +opportunity, at least, was let slip of making peace; a fatal omission, +for which the hero of Cannae paid dearly enough, by the failure of his +darling project. + +8. By the second peace with Rome, Carthage was deprived of all her +possessions out of Africa, and her fleet was delivered into the hands of +the Romans. She was now to be a mere trading city under the tutelage of +Rome. But Carthage found by this peace her most formidable enemy on the +soil of Africa itself. Massinissa had been elevated to the dignity of +king of Numidia; and his endeavours to form his nomads into an +agricultural people, and to collect them into cities, must have changed +the military system that Carthage had hitherto followed. Roman policy, +moreover, had taken care that the article inserted in his favour in the +last treaty of peace, should be so ambiguously worded, as to leave +abundant openings for dispute. + +9. Even after this disgraceful peace, the family of the Barcas still +preserved their influence, and Hannibal was placed as supreme magistrate +at the head of the republic. He attempts to reform the constitution and +the finances, by destroying the oligarchy of the hundred, by whom the +finances had been thrown into confusion. Complete as was the success of +the first blow, it soon became apparent that aristocratic factions are +not so readily annihilated as armies. + + The democratic faction to which even the Barcas owed their first + elevation, was the cause of the degeneracy of the Carthaginian + constitution. By that faction the legislative authority of the + senate and magistrates was withdrawn and transferred to the _ordo + judicum_--probably the same as the high state tribunal of the + hundred--which now assumed the character of an omnipotent national + inquisition; and the members being chosen for life exercised + oppressive despotism. This tribunal was formed of those who had + served the office of ministers of finance, with whom it shared + unblushingly the revenues of the state. Hannibal destroyed this + oligarchy by a law, enacting that the members should hold their + office but for one year; whereas before they held it for life. In + the reform wrought by this law in the finances it was seen, that + after all wars and losses, the revenues of the republic were still + sufficient, not only for the usual expenditure and the payment of + tribute to Rome, but also for leaving a surplus in the public + treasury. Ten years had hardly elapsed before Carthage was enabled + to pay down at once the whole of the tribute which she had engaged + to furnish by instalments. + +10. The defeated party, whose interests were now the same with those of +Rome, joined the Romans, to whom they discovered Hannibal's plan of +renewing the war in conjunction with Antiochus the Great, king of Syria. +A Roman embassy was sent over to Africa, under some other pretext, to +demand that Hannibal should be given up. The Carthaginian general +secretly fled to king Antiochus, at whose court he became the chief +fomenter of the war against Rome; although unsuccessful in his endeavour +to implicate the Carthaginian republic in the struggle. + + See hereafter the history of Syria, Book IV, Period iii, separate + kingdoms. I. Seleucidae, parag. 18; and Book V, Period ii, parag. + 10 sq. + +11. In consequence of the absence of Hannibal, Carthage fell once more +under the dominion of the Romans, who contrived, by taking a crafty +advantage of the state of parties, to give a show of generosity to the +exercise of their power. Even the patriotic faction, if we may judge by +the violent steps which they took more than once against Massinissa and +his partisans, seem to have been but a tool in the hands of Rome. + +12. Disputes with Massinissa, which led to the gradual partition of the +Carthaginian territory in Africa. The manner in which this territory had +been acquired, facilitated the discovery of claims upon each of the +component parts; and the interference of Rome, sometimes disinterested, +but oftener swayed by party feeling, ensured the possession of the +territory to the Numidian. + + Even in 199, a disadvantageous treaty framed with Massinissa for + fifty years: nevertheless the rich province of Emporia is lost in + 193.--Loss of another province unnamed, to which Massinissa + inherited some claims from his father.--Seizure of the province of + Tysca, with fifty cities, about 174. Probable date of Cato's + embassy, who returned in disgust, because his decision had been + rejected, and became the fomenter of a project to destroy + Carthage.--New disputes about 152.--Massinissa's party is expelled + Carthage.--War breaks out in consequence, during which the king in + his ninetieth year personally defeats the Carthaginians; and what + with famine and the sword, Hasdrubal's army, which had been + surrounded by the enemy, was nearly exterminated; in the mean while + the Roman ambassadors, who had come to act as mediators, obeying + their private instructions, looked on with quiet indifference. + +13. Though it is evident that the party spirit raging between Cato and +Scipio Nasica had a considerable influence in hastening the destruction +of Carthage; and though it is equally clear that Massinissa's late +victory paved the way for the immediate execution of that project; yet +it is difficult to unravel the web, by which, long before the +declaration of war now about to follow, treachery prepared the final +scene of this great tragedy. Was the account that Cato at his return +gave of the resuscitated power of Carthage consonant to truth? Was not +the sudden secession of Ariobarzanes, the grandson of Syphax, who was to +have led a Numidian army to defend Carthage against Massinissa, +previously arranged with Rome? Was not the turbulent Gisgo, who first +incited the populace to insult the Roman ambassadors, and then +opportunely rescued them from the fury of the mob, in the pay of Rome? +These questions give rise to suspicions, although they cannot +satisfactorily be answered. At any rate, it may be said, that the +conduct of Rome, after war had broken out, corroborates the suspicion. +The whole history of the last period sufficiently proves, that it was +not so much the debased character of the nation, as party spirit, and +the avarice of the great, which produced the fall of Carthage. Advantage +was taken of that party spirit and avarice by Roman policy, which, +although acting according to the dictates of blind passion, knew how to +profit by dark and base intrigue. + + Third war with Rome and destruction of Carthage, 150-146. See + hereafter the Roman history, Book V, Period ii, parag. 19 sq. + + + * * * * * + + + + +SECOND BOOK. + + + + +_History of the Persian Empire, from B. C. 560-330._ + + + Sources. Preservation of historic records among the Persians + themselves under the form of royal annals; origin and nature of + those annals. As these have been destroyed, we are obliged to + deduce the history from foreign writers, some of whom, however, + availed themselves of the Persian annals. 1. _Greeks_: their + authority as writers, contemporary, but not always sufficiently + acquainted with the east. (_a_) CTESIAS. His court history compiled + from Persian annals, would be the principal work did we possess the + whole; we have, however, only an extract from it preserved by + Photius. (_b_) HERODOTUS: who probably availed himself of similar + sources in some portion of his work. (_c_) XENOPHON. To this period + of history belong, not only his Anabasis and Hellenica, but also + his Cyropaedia, or portraiture of a happy empire and an accomplished + ruler, according to eastern ideas, exhibited in the example of + Cyrus: of use so far as pure historic records are interwoven with + the narrative. (_d_) DIODORUS, etc. 2. _Jewish writers._ The books + of ESDRAS and NEHEMIAH; and more particularly that of ESTHER, as + containing a faithful representation of the Persian court and its + manners. 3. The accounts of the later _Persian chroniclers_, + MIRKHOND in particular, who flourished in the thirteenth century of + the christian era, can have no weight in the scale of criticism; + they are nevertheless interesting, inasmuch as they make us + acquainted with the ideas that the inhabitants of the east form of + their early history. + + The modern authors on Persian history are principally those who + have written on ancient history in general: see p. 2. A treatise on + Persian history, deduced from eastern sources, will be found in the + _Ancient Universal History_, vol. iv. + + BRISSONIUS, _de Regno Persarum_, 1591, 8vo. A very laborious + compilation. + + The section concerning the Persians in # HEEREN, _Ideas_, etc. + vol. i, part 1. + + [MALCOLM, SIR JOHN, _History of Persia_, from the earliest ages to + the present times. Lond. 1816, 4to. 2 vols. "A valuable work."] + +1. State of the Persian nation previous to Cyrus; a highland people, +subject to the Medes, dwelling in the mountainous parts of the province +of Persis, and leading wholly, or for the most part, a nomad life. +Division into ten clans, among which that of the _Pasargadae_, the +noblest and ruling horde, is particularly remarkable on account of the +figure it makes in subsequent history.--The result of this division was +a patriarchal government, the vestiges of which remain visible in the +whole of the following history of the Persians. Permanent distinction +between the tribes in reference to their mode of life, observable even +during the most flourishing period of the Persian state: three of the +nobles or warriors, three of the husbandmen, and four of the shepherds. +Argument thence deduced, that the history of the Persians as a dominant +nation, _is that of the nobler clans alone, and of the_ PASARGADAE _more +especially_. + +2. The personal history of Cyrus, the founder of the Persian monarchy, +was, even in the time of Herodotus, so obscured under the veil of +romance, that it was no longer possible to detect the real truth. It is, +however, evident, that the course of the revolution wrought by him was, +on the whole, the same as was followed in all similar empires founded in +Asia. Gengis-khan, in a later age, was placed at the head of all the +Mogol hordes; in the same manner was Cyrus elected chief of all the +Persian tribes, by whose assistance he became a mighty conqueror, at the +time that the Babylonian and Median kingdoms of Inner Asia were on the +decline, and before the Lydian empire, under Croesus, had been firmly +established. + + Descent of Cyrus from the family of Achaemenes, (Jamshid?). That + family belonged to the Pasargadae tribe, and therefore remained the + ruling house. + +3. Rise of the Persian dominion, in consequence of the overthrow of the +Medo-Bactrian empire, after the defeat of Astyages at Pasargada. Rapid +extension by further conquest. Subjection of Asia Minor after the +victory won by Cyrus in person over Croesus, and capture of the Greek +colonies by the generals of the Persian monarch. Conquest of Babylon and +all the Babylonian provinces. The Phoenician cities submit themselves of +their own accord. Even in Cyrus's time, therefore, the frontiers of the +Persian empire had been extended in southern Asia to the Mediterranean, +to the Oxus, and to the Indus; but the campaign against the nomad races, +inhabiting the steppes of Central Asia, was unsuccessful; and Cyrus +himself fell in the contest. + + It cannot be denied but that in the narration of the separate wars + waged by Cyrus, discrepancies are found in Herodotus and Ctesias; + those two authors, however, agree in the main facts: and, indeed, + the differences which exist between them cannot be considered always + as direct contradictions. + +4. Immediate consequences of this great revolution in respect both of +the conquerors and the conquered. Among the former, even in the time of +Cyrus, the civilization and luxury of the Medes, their legislation and +national religion, and the sacerdotal caste of the magi, who were +guardians of that religion, had been introduced, and the whole system of +the Persian court had been remodelled upon that of the Medes. + + Description of Zoroaster's legislation, and of the magian national + religion, according to the Zend-avesta. How far the dogmas of + Zoroaster can be considered as dominant among the Persians?--Proof + that they were adopted only by the nobler tribes, more particularly + the Pasargadae. Their great and beneficial influence on agriculture. + + ANQUETIL DU PERRON, _Zend-avesta, ouvrage de_ ZOROASTRE, _traduit + en Francois sur l'original Zend_. Paris, 1771. 4to. This work has + been much improved by the critical discussions added to the German + translation by J. L. KLEUKER. Compare the dissertations on + Zoroaster by MEINERS and TYCHSEN, in _Comment. Soc. Gotting._ and + HEEREN, _Ideas_, etc. vol. i. + + HYDE, _De Religione veterum Persarum_; Oxon. 1700, 4to. Replete + with learned research, and the first work that excited enquiry on + the subject. + + # J. S. RHODE, _Sacred Traditions of the East_; Breslau, 1821. An + excellent work for the study of the Zend-avesta, the magian religion, + and the antiquities of the Medes and Persians. + +5. First political constitution of the Persian empire under Cyrus. No +general new organization; but for the most part the original +institutions are preserved among the conquered, who are compelled to pay +tribute. Royal officers, appointed to collect the tribute, are +associated with the generals, who with numerous armies keep in +subjection the inhabitants of the conquered countries. For the support +of the empire large standing armies are kept in pay, besides which, +recourse is frequently had to the transplanting of whole nations; while, +as was the case with the Jews, some who had been formerly transplanted +are restored to their country. With the same view injunctions are +issued, as in the case of the Lydians, to effect the enervation of +warlike races by a luxurious and effeminate system of education. + +6. Cyrus leaves two sons, the elder of whom, Cambyses, succeeds as +king; the younger, Smerdis, (the _Tanyoxarces_ of Ctesias,) becomes +independent lord of Bactria and the eastern territories; but is soon +after murdered by the command of his elder brother. + +7. Under Cambyses the conquering arms of the Persians are directed +against Africa. Egypt becomes a Persian province, and the neighbouring +Libya, together with Cyrene, assume the yoke of their own accord. But +the twofold expedition against the opulent commercial establishments, +Ammonium in the west, and Meroe in the south, is wholly unsuccessful; +that against Carthage is arrested in its commencement by the refusal of +the Tyrians to join the naval armament. A colony of six thousand +Egyptians is transplanted into Susiana. + +8. The cruelty with which Cambyses is accused of treating the Egyptians +was directed rather against the powerful caste of the priests, than +against the whole nation; and originated more in political than in +religious motives. It must be observed, however, that we ought to be +particularly on our guard against all the evil that is related of +Cambyses, inasmuch as our information respecting that prince is derived +entirely from his enemies, the Egyptian priests. + +9. The usurpation of the Pseudo-Smerdis, (or _Tanyoxarces_,) was an +attempt of the magi to replace a Median dynasty on the throne, by means +of a plot hatched within the seraglio. It was the occasion of an +accident which cost Cambyses his life, after a reign of seven years and +a half: (or, according to Ctesias, of eighteen.) + +10. The Pseudo-Smerdis kept his seat on the throne eight months, during +which he attempted to bring over the conquered nations to his interest +by a remission of all tribute for three years; but the discovery of his +cheat gave rise to a conspiracy of seven of the chief Persians, who +could not brook the rule of a Mede, and the usurper lost his life. + +11. It could not be expected that the political organization of the +kingdom should advance to completion during the reign of Cambyses, who +was almost always absent in the prosecution of war; or during the brief +rule of the Pseudo-Smerdis. It remained, therefore, in the same state as +under Cyrus. But the introduction of the Median court-ceremonial among +the ruling tribe of the Persians, and the adoption of fixed dwellings by +that tribe, rendered it necessary that royal residences should be +erected for the reception of the king's court; among these Persepolis, +(see above, p. 20,) probably commenced by Cyrus, was completed under +Darius and Xerxes. + + The best drawings of the monuments of Persepolis, remarkable alike + for their architecture, their sculpture, and their inscriptions in + the arrow-headed character, are to be found in the Travels of + CHARDIN and NIEBUHR. Illustrations: + + # HERDER'S _Persepolis_, in the collection of his works, vol. i. + + # HEEREN, _Ideas_, etc. Part I. vol. i. Great assistance in + studying the inscriptions, is furnished by + + DE SACY, _Memoires sur diverses Antiquites de la Perse_; Paris, + 1793, 4to. It must be observed, however, that this work is confined + to the illustration of the later monuments, belonging to the + _Sassanidae_. The most successful attempt at deciphering the + arrow-headed inscriptions of the old Persic, since TYCHSEN, + MUENTER, and LICHTENSTEIN, will be found in + + # GROTEFEND, _On the Interpretation of the Arrow-headed Characters, + particularly of the Inscriptions at Persepolis_, contained in the + appendix to HEEREN, _Ideas_, etc. vol. ii. with an accompanying Zend + alphabet. + +12. After a very remarkable debate held by the seven conspirators, +concerning the form of of government which should be established, +Darius, the son of Hystaspes, one of the family of the Achaemenides, was +raised to the throne by an oracle; this king endeavoured to strengthen +his right to the sceptre by marrying two of Cyrus's daughters. + +13. The reign of Darius I. which lasted thirty-six years, (according to +Ctesias 31,) is remarkable for the improvements made both in the +external and internal administration of the Persian empire. In the +former, by the great expeditions and conquests, which extended the +Persian realm to its utmost limits; in the latter, by several important +institutions, established for the internal organization of the state. + +14. The expeditions of the Persians under Cyrus were directed against +the countries of Asia; those of Cambyses against Africa. But those +undertaken by Darius I. were directed against Europe, though the Persian +territory was at the same time extended in the two other quarters of the +world. In the reign of this king likewise commenced those wars with the +Greeks, so fatal to the Persians; constantly fomented and supported by +emigrant or exile Greeks, who found an asylum in the Persian court, and +there contrived to raise a party.--First example of the kind exhibited +shortly after the accession of Darius, in the case of Syloson, brother +to Polycrates, who had been tyrant of Samos: at his request the island +was taken possession of by the Persians, and delivered up to him after +the almost total destruction of the male population. + +15. Great revolt in Babylon, which would not submit tamely to a foreign +yoke. After a siege of twenty-one months, Darius by stratagem regains +possession of the city. The power of Babylon and the importance of its +situation increased the jealousy with which it was guarded by the +Persian kings; so much so, that they were wont to reside there a certain +portion of the year. + +16. First great expedition of Darius undertaken against the Scythians +inhabiting the lands north of the Black sea: the former irruption of the +Scythians into Asia afforded a pretext for the war, which, therefore, +was considered as a general national undertaking. Unsuccessful as the +Persian arms were in this vast expedition against the Scythians, and +disgraceful as was the retreat from the barren steppes of the Ukrain, +yet the power of Darius was established in Thrace and Macedonia, and the +Persians obtained firm footing in Europe. + + Concerning the peculiar character of the Persian national wars, + or great campaigns, in which all the conquered nations were + obliged to participate, contrasted with the other wars waged by + Persian troops alone. + +17. The next expedition made by Darius was more successful. It was +carried on along the banks of the Indus, down which river Scylax, a +Greek, had previously sailed on a voyage of discovery. The highlands +north of the Indus were then subjected to the Persian dominion, and the +Indus became the boundary of the kingdom. About the same time that +Darius was engaged on the Danube and the Indus, Aryandes, his viceroy in +Egypt, led an expedition against Barca, to avenge the murder of king +Arcesilaus; a war which terminated in the destruction of the city, and +the transplantation of its inhabitants into Asia. + +18. However trifling the first occurrence which gave rise to the revolt +of the Asiatic Greeks, it was much more important in its consequences. +It was set on foot by Aristagoras, lieutenant-governor of Miletus, who +was secretly supported by his relation, the offended Histiaeus, then +resident at the Persian court. The share taken by the Athenians in this +rebellion, which led to the burning of Sardes, was the origin of the +national hatred between Persia and European Greece, and of the long +series of wars that ensued. The confederates were this time defeated; +but the naval battle off the island of Lada, could hardly have had such +a fatal result, had not the league been previously corrupted by the +craft and gold of Persia. Be that as it may, this war ended in the +reduction of the Ionians, and the destruction of Miletus, their +flourishing capital; a city which in those days, together with Tyre and +Carthage, engrossed the trade of the world. + +19. First attack upon Greece, particularly Athens. Darius, already +enraged against the Athenians by the firing of Sardes, is still further +instigated by the suggestions of the banished tyrant of Athens, Hippias, +the son of Pisistratus. This prince, who had fled to the Persian court, +was evidently the animating spirit of the whole undertaking. Although +the first attempt, made under the command of Mardonius, was thwarted by +a tempest, yet the mighty expedition which afterwards followed, was +undertaken with so much more prudence, and conducted with so much +knowledge of the country, that no one can fail to recognize the guiding +hand of Hippias. Even the battle of Marathon, which seems to have been +but a diversion on the side of the Persians, would not have decided the +war, had not the activity of Miltiades defeated the principal design of +the enemy upon Athens. + +20. It may be said that Darius, by these foreign wars, debilitated the +kingdom which he endeavoured to extend; this circumstance, however, it +cannot be denied, increases the merit which he has of perfecting the +internal organization of the empire. His reign constitutes precisely +that period which must enter into the history of every nomad race that +has attained to power, and is advancing towards political civilization; +a period at which it becomes visible that the nation is endeavouring to +obtain a constitution, however gradual the progress towards it. + +21. Division of the empire into twenty _satrapies_, and the imposition +of a regular tribute on each. This division at first depended solely on +that of the various tributary races, but from it gradually arose a +geographic division, in which the ancient distinction of countries was +for the most part preserved. + + Proofs that the division into satrapies was originally a mere + arrangement for the civil government and collection of taxes, + distinct from military power. Duties of the satraps. The attention + they were to pay to the cultivation and improvement of the land; to + the collection of the imposts; to the execution of the royal + commands relating to provincial affairs. An abuse of this + institution, at a later period, placed in the hands of these + satraps the command also of the troops.--Various means of keeping + the satraps in a state of dependence: royal secretaries appointed + for each, who were to be the first to receive the king's + commands.--Periodical visits paid to the provinces by commissioners + under the direct appointment of the king, or by the king himself + accompanied with an army.--Establishment of couriers in every part + of the empire, for the purpose of securing a safe and rapid + communication with the provinces, as was the case also in the + Mongol countries; (not a regular post, however, the institution + here alluded to being intended only for the court.) + +22. The Persian finance continues to preserve those peculiarities which +naturally result from the formation of an empire by a nomad race of +conquerors, desirous of living at the expense of the conquered, and +under a despotic form of government. + + Collection of tribute, mostly in kind, for the support of the court + and the armies; and in precious metals, not coined, but in their + raw state. Application of the treasure thus collected towards + constituting a private chest for the king. Various other royal + imposts.--Mode of providing for the public expenditure by + assignments on the revenues of one or several places. + +23. Organization of the military system, conformably to the primitive +state of the nation, and the necessity now felt of keeping the conquered +countries in subjection by means of standing armies. + + Military organization of the Persian nations, by means of a decimal + division pervading the whole.--Royal troops cantoned in the open + field, according to a certain division of the empire, or stationed + as garrisons in the cities, and distinct from the + encampments.--Manner in which the troops were supported at the cost + and by the taxes of the provinces.--Introduction of mercenaries + and Greeks, more particularly among the Persians, and fatal + consequences of that measure. Military household of the satraps and + grandees.--Institution of a general conscription in national wars. + Formation of the Persian navy, consisting of the Phoenician, and + not unfrequently of the Asiatic Greek fleets. + +24. From the time of Darius, the court of the kings of Persia attained +its complete form, and the government soon after was wholly concentrated +in the seraglio. Yet the mode of life which the kings led, surrounded by +a court, taken principally if not wholly from the tribe of the +Pasargadae, and changing their residence according to the revolutions of +the seasons, still preserved the traces of nomad origin. + + Babylon, Susa, and Ecbatana, the usual residences; Persepolis now + used as a royal cemetery. The court supported by the most costly + productions of each province; hence arose the rigid ceremonial + observed at the royal table.--Internal organization of the + seraglio.--Influence of the eunuchs and queen-mothers on the + government. + +25. Already had Darius commenced preparations to wreak his vengeance on +Athens, when a revolution broke out in Egypt, and hindered him from +prosecuting his design. He died after nominating for his successor +Xerxes I. grandson of Cyrus, and his eldest son by a second wife, +Atossa, whose influence over her husband was boundless. + +26. Xerxes I. A prince educated in the seraglio, who knew nothing beyond +the art of representing the pomp of royalty. Subjection of Egypt, and +severe treatment of that country under the satrap Achaemenes, brother to +Xerxes. + +27. Xerxes' famous expedition against Greece was again the result of +the cabals and intrigues of the Greek exiles, the Pisistratidae, the +soothsayer Onomacritus, the Thessalian princes or Aleuadae, who +contrived to exert their influence on the king's mind, and to raise a +party in their favour among the grandees. But the progress of the +campaign showed that no Hippias was at the head of the invading army, +although the Persian king did certainly succeed in his avowed object, +the capture and destruction of Athens. + + Critique on the detailed account given by Herodotus of this + expedition, as a national undertaking in which all the subjugated + nations were obliged to take a share.--Preparations which last for + three years in the Persian empire; league framed with Carthage for + the subjection of the Sicilian Greeks, 483-481. The expedition + itself in 480; over Asia Minor and the Hellespont, through Thrace + and Macedonia.--Muster of the army and division of the troops + according to nations at Doriscus; the detailed description of which + found in Herodotus, was most probably borrowed from some Persian + document.--The pass of Thermopylae taken by treachery; on the same + day a naval engagement off Artemisium.--Athens captured and burnt. + Battle of Salamis, Sept. 23, 480. Retreat of Xerxes; an army of + picked men left behind, under the command of Mardonius.--Fruitless + negotiations with the Athenians.--Second campaign of Mardonius: he + is routed at Plataeae, Sept. 25, 479; and that event puts an end for + ever to the Persian irruptions into Greece: on the same day the + Persian army is defeated, and their fleet burnt at Mycale in Asia + Minor. + +28. The consequences of these repeated and unsuccessful expeditions, in +which almost the whole population was engaged, must be self-evident. The +empire was weakened and depopulated. The defensive war which the +Persians for thirty years were obliged to maintain against the Greeks, +who aimed at establishing the independence of their Asiatic countrymen, +completely destroyed the balance of their power, by compelling them to +transfer their forces to Asia Minor, the most distant western province +of the empire. + +29. Little as the Greeks had to fear from the Persian arms, the danger +with which they were now threatened was much more formidable, when the +enemy began to adopt the system of bribing the chieftains of Greece; a +system which succeeded beyond expectation in the first trial made of it +with Pausanias, and perhaps was not wholly unsuccessful with +Themistocles himself.--But the Persians soon found in Cimon an adversary +who deprived them of the sovereignty of the sea; who in one day +destroyed both their fleet and their army on the Eurymedon; and by the +conquest of the Thracian Chersonese, wrested from them the key of +Europe. + +30. What little we know further concerning the reign of Xerxes, consists +in the intrigues of the seraglio, which now, through the machinations of +queen Amestris, became the theatre of all those horrors which are wont +to be exhibited in such places, and to which Xerxes himself at last fell +a victim, in consequence of the conspiracy of Artabanes and the eunuch +Spamitres. + + Was Xerxes the Ahasuerus of the Jews?--On the difference between the + names of the Persian kings in Persian and Chaldee; not to be + wondered at when we consider that they were mere titles or surnames, + assumed by the sovereigns after their accession. + +31. Artaxerxes I. surnamed Longimanus. In consequence of the murder of +his father and his elder brother, in the conspiracy of Artabanes, this +prince ascended the throne, but was unable to keep possession of the +sceptre without assassinating, in his turn, Artabanes. His reign, which +lasted forty years, exhibits the first symptoms of the decline of the +empire, which this king, although possessed of many good qualities, had +not the talent or spirit to arrest. + +32. At the very commencement of his reign rebellions are excited in the +provinces; in the mean while the war with Athens continues. Two battles +are required to repress the insurrection of his brother Hystaspes in +Bactria. + +33. Second revolt of Egypt, excited by the Libyan king, Inarus of Marea, +in conjunction with the Egyptian, Amyrtaeus, and supported by an Athenian +fleet. Although the confederates did not make themselves masters of +Memphis, they defeated the Persian army, commanded by the king's +brother, Achaemenes, who lost his life in the battle; they were at last +overpowered by Megabyzus, satrap of Syria, and shut up together with +Inarus in the town of Byblus. Inarus and his party were admitted to +capitulation; but Amyrtaeus, having taken refuge in the morasses, +continued to make head against the Persians. + +34. The Grecian war takes, once more, an unfavourable turn for the +Persians: Cimon defeats the enemy's fleet and army near Cyprus. The fear +of losing the whole of the island accordingly compels Artaxerxes I. to +sign a treaty of peace with Athens, in which he recognizes the +independence of the Asiatic Greeks, and agrees that his fleet shall not +navigate the Aegaean sea, nor his troops approach within three days' march +of the coast. + +35. But the haughty and powerful Megabyzus, enraged at the execution of +Inarus, in violation of the promise made by him to that prince, excites +a rebellion in Syria; repeatedly defeats the royal armies, and +prescribes himself the conditions upon which he will be reconciled to +his sovereign. This was the first great example of a successful +insurrection excited by one of the Persian satraps; and chequered as +were the subsequent fortunes of Megabyzus, his party continued to +subsist after his death in the persons of his sons. He possessed in the +centre of the court a support in the dowager queen Amestris, and the +reigning queen Amytis; (both notorious for their excesses;) who kept +Artaxerxes I. in a constant state of tutelage to the hour of his death. + +36. Revolutions in the government now succeed each other with rapidity +and violence. Xerxes II. the only legitimate son and successor of +Artaxerxes, is slain, after forty-five days' reign, by his bastard +brother Sogdianus; the latter, in his turn, after a reign of six months, +is deposed by another bastard brother, Ochus, who ascends the throne, +and assumes the name of Darius II. + +37. Darius II. surnamed the Bastard, or Nothus. He reigns nineteen years +under the tutelage of his wife, Parysatis, and of three eunuchs, one of +whom, Artoxares, even attempts to open a way to the throne, but is put +to death. In this period the decline of the state advances with hurried +steps; partly by reason of the extinction of the legitimate royal line, +partly by the increased practice of placing more than one province, +together with the military command, in the hands of the same satrap. +Although the repeated insurrections of the satraps are repressed, the +court, by the breach of faith to which it is obliged to have recourse, +in order to succeed in its measures, exhibits to the world a convincing +proof of its infirmity. The revolt of Arsites, one of the king's +brothers, who was supported by a son of Megabyzus, and that of +Pisuthnes, satrap of Lydia, are quelled only by obtaining treacherous +possession of their persons. + +38. In consequence of the weak state of the empire, the fire, which had +hitherto been smouldering under the ashes, burst forth in Egypt. +Amyrtaeus, who had remained till now in the morasses, issued forth, +supported by the Egyptians; and the Persians were again expelled the +land. Obscure as the subsequent history may be, we see that the Persians +were obliged to acknowledge, not only Amyrtaeus, but his successors. [See +page 72]. + +39. The Persians must have regarded it as a happy event, that the +Peloponnesian war, kindled in Greece during the reign of Artaxerxes, and +protracted through the whole of that of Darius II. had prevented the +Greeks from unitedly falling upon Persia. It now became, and +henceforward continued to be, the chief policy of the Persians to foment +quarrels and wars between the Grecian republics, by siding at various +times with various parties; and the mutual hatred of the Greeks rendered +this game so easy, that Greece could hardly have escaped total +destruction, had the Persian plans been always as wisely laid as they +were by Tissaphernes; and had not the caprice and jealousy of the +satraps in Asia Minor generally had more effect than the commands of +the court. + + Alliance of the Persians with Sparta, framed by Tissaphernes, 441; + but in consequence of the policy of Alcibiades, and the artful + principles of Tissaphernes, followed by no important results, until + the younger Cyrus, satrap of all Asia Minor, was by Lysander, 407, + brought over to the Spartan interest. (See below, the Grecian + history, III. Period, parag. 23.) + +40. Artaxerxes II. surnamed Mnemon. Although this prince was the eldest +son of Darius, his right to the throne might, according to the Persian +ideas of succession, have appeared dubious, since his younger brother, +Cyrus, had the advantage over him of being the first born subsequent to +the accession of his father. Relying on the support of his mother +Parysatis, Cyrus, even without this claim to the throne, would, no +doubt, have asserted his pretence to the sovereign power. It would have +been, in all probability, a fortunate event for the Persian empire, had +the fate of battle, in the ensuing war between the two brothers, +assigned the throne to him whom nature seems to have pointed out as the +fittest person. + + History of this war according to Xenophon. Battle of Cunaxa, + in which Cyrus falls, 401. Retreat of the ten thousand Greek + mercenaries in the service of Cyrus, under the guidance of Xenophon. + +41. During the whole of this reign, Artaxerxes, now firmly seated on the +throne, remained under the tutelage of his mother, Parysatis, whose +inveterate hatred against his wife, Statira, and against all who had any +share in the death of her darling son, Cyrus, converted the seraglio +into a theatre of bloody deeds, such as can be conceived and committed +only in similar places. + +42. The insurrection and rout of Cyrus produced a corresponding change +in the political relations between the Persian court and Sparta: which, +however, were now determined, not so much by the will of the monarch +himself, as by the satraps of Asia Minor, Tissaphernes and Pharnabazus, +of whose jealousy Sparta knew how to take advantage. The former, by his +severity towards the Asiatic Greeks, who had supported the cause of +Cyrus, excited a war with Sparta, in which he himself fell a victim. The +death of the satrap is not, however, succeeded by tranquillity; for +Agesilaus commands in Asia, and threatens to overthrow the Persian +throne itself. The policy of the Persians is shown by the war which they +foment in Greece against Sparta: Conon is placed at the head of their +fleet, and extricates Persia from her difficulties better than could +have been done by her own generals; in the peace of Antalcidas she +herself dictates the terms, by which the Grecian colonies of Asia Minor, +together with Cyprus and Clazomenae, are again delivered into her +possession. The rising power of Thebes under Epaminondas and Pelopidas, +with whom Persia keeps up a friendly connection, ensures her from any +future blow at the hands of the Spartans.--War for the possession of +Cyprus with Evagoras, who, however, by the subsequent peace retains the +sovereignty of Salamis. + +43. The war against the Cadusii in the mountains of Caucasus, proves +that Artaxerxes II. was not fitted for military command; and his attempt +to recover Egypt from king Nectanebus I. which was defeated by the feud +between Iphicrates and Artabazus, evinces that the most numerous +Persian host could achieve nothing without the assistance of Grecian +troops and Grecian generals.--It could hardly be expected that an empire +should endure much longer, when in the court all was ruled by the desire +of revenge in the women; when the political organization was already so +corrupt, that the satraps waged war against each other; and when those +generals who gave any proof of talent received no better reward than +that of Datames. + +44. In fact, it seemed not unlikely that the Persian empire would fall +asunder a little before the death of Artaxerxes Mnemon. A quarrel about +the succession arose in the court between the three legitimate sons of +the king, the eldest of whom, Darius, was put to death: the standard of +rebellion was erected in the western half of the empire, and joined by +all the governors of Asia Minor and Syria, supported by Tachos, king of +Egypt, to whose assistance the Spartans had sent Agesilaus. The +insurrection, however, was quelled in consequence of the treachery of +the chief leader, Orontes, who was bribed over to the court. + +45. In the midst of these commotions died Artaxerxes II.: his youngest +son, Ochus, took possession of the throne, and assumed the name of +Artaxerxes III. This king conceived that he could not establish his +power but by the total destruction of the royal family, numerous as it +was. He was contemporary with Philip of Macedon, in whom he soon found a +more formidable rival than any he could have met with in his own family. + +46. The new insurrection fomented by Artabazus in Asia Minor, was +accompanied with success so long as it was backed by the Thebans; but +the reception which Artabazus met with at the hands of Philip soon +betrayed the secret intentions of the Macedonian king. + +47. But the extensive rebellion of the Phoenicians and Cyprians, in +conjunction with Egypt, compelled the king to undertake another +expedition, which succeeded almost beyond expectation; although in this +case the object was again attained principally by treachery and by +Grecian auxiliaries. + + Treachery of Mentor, the leader of the confederates: the consequent + capture and destruction of Sidon, followed by the subjection of + Phoenicia, 356. Capture of Cyprus by Grecian troops, under the + command of Phocion and the younger Evagoras, 354. Expedition of the + king in person against Egypt: victory of Pelusium, won over king + Nectanebus II. with the help of Grecian mercenaries. Egypt becomes, + once more, a Persian province. + +48. This restoration of the empire to its former limits was followed by +a period of tranquillity, the result of force, as Mentor and the eunuch +Bagoas, holding the king in complete dependence, divided the kingdom, as +it were, between themselves; until Bagoas was pleased, by poison, to +remove Artaxerxes out of his way. + +49. After the assassination of the royal family, Bagoas placed on the +throne the king's youngest and only surviving son, Arces. Bagoas was +desirous of reigning in the name of that prince; but after the lapse of +two years, he found it necessary to depose him, and to substitute in his +place a distant relation of the reigning family, Darius Codomannus, who +commenced his reign by putting to death the wretch himself. + +50. Darius III. Codomannus, not having been educated, like his +predecessors, in the seraglio, gave proof of virtues which entitled +him to a better fate. Attacked in the second year of his reign by +Macedon, against which Persia had hitherto made no preparation for +resistance,--unless, perhaps, the dagger which pierced Philip was +pointed by Persian hands,--Darius was unable at once to reestablish a +kingdom which of itself was mouldering away. And yet, had not death +defeated the invasion of Macedonia by his general, Memnon, it might have +been matter of doubt, whether Alexander would ever have shone as the +conqueror of Asia.--After the loss of two battles, in which he fought in +person, Darius III. fell a victim to the treachery of Bessus, and the +burning of Persepolis made known to Asia that the realm of Persia was +destroyed, and that the east must acknowledge a new lord and master. + + For the history of the war, see below: the history of Macedon. + + + * * * * * + + + + +THIRD BOOK. + +HISTORY OF THE GRECIAN STATES. + + + + +_Geographical Outline._ + + +_Greece_ is bounded on the north by the Cambunian mountains, which +separate it from Macedonia; on the south and east by the Aegaean, on the +west by the Ionian sea. Greatest length from south to north = 220 geog. +miles, greatest breadth from west to east, = 140 geog. miles. +Superficial contents, = 29,600 square miles.--Principal rivers: the +Peneus, which discharges its waters into the Aegaean, and the Achelous, +which flows into the Ionian sea. Advantages in respect to fertility, +resulting from the mildness of the climate, between 37-40 deg. N. lat.; +from the number of small streams; from the qualities and variety of the +soil, in which this country has been so much more blessed by nature than +any other of similar extent, that every branch of cultivation may be +prosecuted equally and in conjunction.--Advantages in reference to +navigation and commerce: situated in the vicinity of the three quarters +of the world, on three sides washed by the sea, and by reason of its +irregular, indented coast, abounding with commodious ports and havens. + +It may be divided into Northern Greece, from the north boundary to the +chain of Oeta and Pindus, between the Ambracian gulf west, and the +Maliac east. Central Greece, or Hellas, down to the isthmus of Corinth: +and the southern peninsula, or Peloponnesus. + +Northern Greece comprises two countries; Thessaly east, Epirus west. + +1. Thessaly, the largest and one of the most fruitful of the Grecian +countries. Length from north to south 60 geog. miles; breadth from west +to east 64 geog. miles. Rivers: the Peneus, Apidanus, and several +smaller streams. Mountains: Olympus, residence of the fabulous gods, and +Ossa in the north; the chain of Oeta, Othrys, and Pindus in the south. +Division into five provinces: 1. Estiaeotis; cities: Gomphi, Azorus: 2. +Pelasgiotis; cities: Larissa, Gonni, the vale of Tempe: 3. Thessaliotis; +cities: Pharsalus, etc. 4. Phthiotis; cities: Pherae, etc. 5. The +foreland of Magnesia, with a city of the same name. Other territories, +such as Perrhaebia, etc. for instance, derived their names from the +non-Greek races who inhabited them. + +2. Epirus. Next to Thessaly, the largest, although one of the least +cultivated countries of Greece: 48-60 geog. miles long, and the same in +breadth. Divisions: Molossis; city, Ambracia: Thesprotia; city, +Buthrotum; in the interior, Dodona. + +Central Greece, or Hellas, comprises nine countries. + +1. Attica, a foreland, extending towards the south-east, and gradually +diminishing. Length, 60 geog. miles; greatest breadth, 24 geog. miles. +Rivers: Ilissus, Cephissus. Mountains: Hymettus, Pentelicus, and the +headland of Sunium. City: Athens, with the harbours Piraeus, Phalereus, +and Munychius; in the other parts no towns, but hamlets, [Greek: demoi], +such as Marathon, Eleusis, Decelea, etc. + +2. Megaris, close to the isthmus of Corinth. The smallest of the Grecian +countries; 16 geog. miles long, and from 4-8 broad. City, Megara. + +3. Boeotia, a mountainous and marshy country, 52 geog. miles long, and +from 28-32 broad. Rivers: Asopus, Ismenus, and several smaller streams. +Mountains: Helicon, Cythaeron, etc. Lake: Copais.--Boeotia was, of all +the Grecian countries, that which contained the greatest number of +cities, each having its own separate territory. Among these, the first +in importance, and frequently mistress of the rest, was Thebes on the +Ismenus. The others, Plataeae, Tanagra, Thespiae, Chaeronea, Lebadea, +Leuctra, and Orchomenus, are all celebrated in Grecian history. + +4. Phocis, smaller than Attica; 48 geog. miles long, from 4-20 broad. +River: Cephissus. Mountain: Parnassus. Cities: Delphi, on Parnassus, +with the celebrated oracle of Apollo. Crissa, with the harbour of +Cirrha, and up the country Elatea. The other cities are insignificant. + +5, 6. The two countries called Locris. The eastern on the Euripus, +territory of the Locri Opuntii and Epicnemidii is the lesser of the two; +being but little larger than Megaris. City: Opus; pass, Thermopylae. The +western Locris on the Corinthian gulf, station of the Locri Ozolae, is +from 20-24 geog. miles long, and from 16-20 broad. Cities: Naupactus on +the sea, Amphissa up the country. + +7. The small country of Doris, or the Tetrapolis Dorica, on the south +side of mount Oeta, from 8-12 geog. miles long, and the same in breadth. + +8. Aetolia, somewhat larger than Boeotia; from 40-52 geog. miles long, +and from 28-32 broad; but the least cultivated country of all. Rivers: +Achelous, which skirts Acarnania, and the Evenus. Cities: Calydon, +Thermus. + +9. Acarnania, the most western country of Hellas, 32 geog. miles long, +from 16-24 broad. River: Achelous. Cities: Argos Amphilochicum, and +Stratus. + +The peninsula of Peloponnesus contains eight countries. + +1. Arcadia, a mountainous country, abounding in pastures, and situate in +the centre of the peninsula; greatest length, 48 geog. miles; greatest +breadth, 36 geog. miles. Mountains: Cyllene, Erymanthus, etc. Rivers: +Alpheus, Erymanthus, and several smaller streams. Lake: Styx. Cities: +Mantinea, Tegea, Orchomenus, Heraea, Psophis; subsequently Megalopolis, +as a common capital. + +2. Laconia, likewise mountainous. Greatest length, 66 geog. miles; +greatest breadth, 36 geog. miles. River: Eurotas. Mountains: Taygetus, +and the headlands Malea and Tenarium. Cities: Sparta on the Eurotas; +other places: Amyclae, Sellasia, and others of little importance. + +3. Messenia, west of Laconia; a more level and extremely fertile +country, subject to the Spartans from B. C. 668. Greatest length, 28 +geog. miles: greatest breadth, 36 geog. miles. City: Messene. Frontier +places, Ithome and Ira: of the other places, Pylus (Navarino) and +Methone are the most celebrated. + +4. Elis, with the small territory of Triphylia, on the west of the +Peloponnesus. Length, 60 geog. miles: greatest breadth, 28 geog. miles. +Rivers: Alpheus, Peneus, Sellis, and several smaller streams. Cities: in +the north, Elis, Cyllene, and Pylus. On the Alpheus, Pisa and the +neighbouring town of Olympia. In Triphylia, a third Pylus. + +5. Argolis, on the east side of the peninsula; a foreland opposite to +Attica, with which it forms the Sinus Saronicus. Length, 64 geog. miles: +breadth, from 8-28 geog. miles. Cities: Argos, Mycenae, Epidaurus. +Smaller but remarkable places; Nemea, Cynuria, Troezen. + +6. Achaia, originally Ionia, called likewise Aegialus, comprises the +north coast. Length, 56 geog. miles: breadth, from 12-24. It contains +twelve cities, of which Dyme, Patrae, and Pellene are the most important. + +7. The little country of Sicyonia, 16 geog. miles long, 8 broad, with +the cities of Sicyon and Phlius. + +8. The small territory of Corinth, of the same extent as the foregoing, +adjoining the isthmus which connects Peloponnesus with the main land. +City: Corinth, originally Ephyra, with the ports of Lechaeum and +Cenchreae; the former on the Corinthian, the latter on the Saronic gulf. + +The Greek islands may be divided into three classes; those which lie +immediately off the coasts, those which are collected in groups, and +those which lie separate in the open sea. + +1. Islands off the coasts. Off the west coast in the Ionian sea: +Corcyra, opposite Epirus, 32 geog. miles long, from 8-16 broad. City: +Corcyra. A Corinthian colony. Opposite Acarnania; Leucadia, with the +city and headland of Leucas.--Cephalonia or Same, originally Scheria, +with the cities of Same and Cephalonia. In the neighbourhood lies the +small island of Ithaca.--Opposite Elis: Zacynthus. Off the south coast: +Cythera, with a town of the same name. Off the east coast, in the +Saronic gulf: Aegina and Salamis. Opposite Boeotia, from which it is +separated by the strait named Euripus, Euboea, the most extensive of +all; 76 geog. miles long, from 12-16 geog. miles broad. Cities: Oreus, +with the headland of Artemisium on the north, in the centre Chalcis, +Eretria. Off Thessaly, Scyathus and Halonesus. Farther north, Thasus, +Imbrus, Samothrace, and Lemnos. + +2. Clusters of islands in the Aegaean sea: the Cyclades and Sporades; the +former of which comprise the western, the latter the eastern islands of +the Archipelago. The most important among them are, Andros, Delos, +Paros, Naxos, Melos, all with cities of the same names. + +3. The more extensive separate islands: 1. Crete, 140 geog. miles long, +from 24-40 broad. Mountain: Ida. Cities: Cydonia, Gortyna, Cnossus. 2. +Cyprus, 120 geog. miles long, from 20-80 broad. Cities: Salamis, Paphos, +Citium, and several smaller places. + + Concerning the principal Greek islands off the coast of Asia + Minor, see above, p. 18. + + # FR. CARL. HERM. KRUSE, _Geographico-Antiquarian delineation + of ancient Greece and its colonies, with reference to modern + discoveries_. Illustrated with maps and plates: first part, 1825. + General Geography: second part, first division, 1826. Second + division, 1827. Special Geography of Central Greece. A most minute + and careful description of Greece, founded on modern discoveries. + + + + +FIRST PERIOD. + +_The most ancient traditional history, down to the Trojan war, +about B. C. 1200._ + + + Sources: On the formation and progress of history among the Greeks. + Preliminary enquiry into the peculiarities of Grecian mythology in + a historical point of view, as comprising the most ancient history + of the national tribes and heroes. A history rich in itself, on + account of the number of tribes and their leaders; but embellished + and altered in various ways by the poets, particularly the great + early epic writers, and afterwards by the tragedians.--First + advance of history from tradition, wrought by the logographi, + especially those of the Ionian cities, Hecataeus, Pherecydes, etc. + until HERODOTUS, so justly called the Father of History, raised it + at once to such a lofty pitch of eminence. (Compare # _The + historical Art of the Greeks considered in its Rise and Progress, + by_ G. F. CREUZER; 1803.) Nevertheless, in Herodotus, and even + later writers, history continued to savour of its origin; and so + far as the realm of tradition extended, even Theopompus and Ephorus + felt no disinclination to borrow their materials from mythologists + or poets. It need scarcely be observed, that in this first period + the history is merely traditional. + + Among the moderns, the English have most successfully treated the + subject of Grecian history: the principal works are: + + JOHN GILLIES, _The History of Ancient Greece, its colonies and + conquests, from the earliest accounts till the division of the + Macedonian empire in the east, including the history of literature, + philosophy, and the fine arts_. London, 1786, 2 vols. 4to. and + + WILLIAM MITFORD, _The History of Greece_. London, 1784, 4 vols. + 4to. Several new editions have since appeared. Translated into + German, Jena, 1800, sqq. by _H. L. Eichstaedt_. Mitford is perhaps + superior in learning, copiousness, and solidity, but he certainly + is greatly surpassed by Gillies in genius and taste, and more + especially in a proper conception of the spirit of antiquity. [Few + English critics will here coincide with our author.] + + DE PAUW, _Recherches sur les Grecs_, 1701, 2 vols. 8vo. Replete + with partial views and hypotheses. + + # HEEREN, _Researches into the politics, intercourse, and trade of + the most celebrated nations of antiquity_: 3 vols. 1st part, 4th + edit. 1826. [Translated into English, Oxford, 1830, 8vo.] + + Many important enquiries on various portions of Grecian history and + antiquities will be found in the great collection: + + GRONOVII, _Thesaurus Antiquitatum Graecarum_, 12 vols. folio. + + Others are contained in the transactions of different learned + societies; particularly in + + _Memoires de l'Academie des Inscriptions et des Belles Lettres_, + Paris, 1709, sqq. 49 vols. 4to. + + _Commentarii_, (4 vols.) _Commentarii novi_, (8 vols.) + _Commentationes_, (16 vols.) and _Commentationes recentiores + Societatis Scientiarum Gotting._ (5 vols.) + +1. Although Greece was originally inhabited by several insignificant +races, two principal tribes claim our attention, the _Pelasgi_ and the +_Hellenes_. Both probably were of Asiatic origin; but the difference of +their language characterized them as different tribes. The Pelasgi were +the first that extended their dominion in Greece. + + First seat of the Pelasgians in the Peloponnesus, under Inachus, + about B. C. 1800. According to their own traditions, they made + their first appearance in this quarter as uncultivated savages; + they must, however, at an early period, have made some progress + towards civilization, since the most ancient states, Argos and + Sicyon, owed their origin to them; and to them, perhaps, with + great probability, are attributed the remains of those most + ancient monuments generally termed _cyclopian_.--Extension of this + tribe towards the north, particularly over Attica; settlement in + Thessaly under their leaders Achaeus, Phthius, and Pelasgus; here + they learned to apply themselves to agriculture, and remained for + a hundred and fifty successive years; about 1700-1500. + +2. The Hellenes,--subsequently so called from Hellen, one of their +chieftains,--originally the weaker of the two tribes, make their first +appearance in Phocis, near Parnassus, under king Deucalion; from whence +they are driven by a flood. They migrate into Thessaly, and drive out +the Pelasgi from that territory.--The Hellenes soon after this become +the most powerful race; and spreading over Greece, expel the Pelasgi +from almost every part. The latter tribe maintain their ground only in +Arcadia, and the land of Dodona; some of them migrate to Italy, others +to Crete, and various islands. + +3. The Hellenic tribe is subdivided into four principal branches, the +_Aeolians_, _Ionians_, _Dorians_, and _Achaeans_, which continue +afterwards to be distinguished and separated by many peculiarities of +speech, customs, and political government. These four tribes, although +they must not be considered as comprising all the slender ramifications +of the nation, are derived by tradition from Deucalion's immediate +posterity; with whose personal history, therefore, the history of the +tribes themselves and their migrations is interwoven. + + This derivation of the tribes will be better understood by an + inspection of the following genealogical table: + + DEUCALION. + | + HELLEN. + |--------------------|--------------------| + DORUS. XUTHUS. AEOLUS. + | |---------|-------------| | + DORIANS. | | AEOLIANS. + ACHAEUS. ION. + | | + ACHAEANS. IONIANS. + +4. The gradual spread of the various branches of the Hellenic tribe over +Greece was effected by several migrations, between B. C. 1500-1300; +after which they preserved the settlements they had already obtained +until the later migration of the Dorians and Heraclidae, about 1100. + + _Principal data for the history of the separate tribes in this + period._ + + 1. AEOLUS follows his father Hellen into Phthiotis, which + consequently remains the seat of the Aeolians; they spread from + thence over western Greece, Acarnania, Aetolia, Phocis, Locris, Elis + in the Peloponnesus, and likewise over the western islands. + + 2. DORUS follows his father into Estiaeotis, the most ancient seat + of the Dorians. They are driven from thence after the death of + Dorus by the Perrhaebi; spread over Macedonia and Crete; part of the + tribe return, cross mount Oeta, and settle in the Tetrapolis + Dorica, afterwards called Doris, where they remain until they + migrate into Peloponnesus, under the guidance of the Heraclidae; + about 1100. (See below, p. 127). + + 3. XUTHUS, expelled by his brothers, migrates to Athens, where he + marries Creusa, daughter of Erectheus, by whom he has sons, Ion and + Achaeus. Ion and his tribe, driven out of Athens, settle in that + part of Peloponnesus called Aegialus, a name which by them was + converted into Ionia, and in later times exchanged for Achaia. The + Achaeans preserve their footing in Laconia and Argos, until the time + of the Dorian migration. + + # L. D. HUELLMAN, _Early Grecian History_, 1814. Rich in original + views and conjectures, beyond which the early history of nations + seldom extends. + + # D. C. OTFRIED MUELLER, _History of the Hellenic Tribes and + Cities_, 1820, vol. 1. containing, _Orchomenus and the Minyae_; + vols. 2, 3, containing the _Dorians_, 1825. + +5. Besides these original inhabitants, colonies at the same early period +came into Greece from civilized countries, from Egypt, Phoenicia, and +Mysia. The settlements of these strangers occurred probably between B. +C. 1600-1400. + + Establishment in Attica of the colony of Cecrops, from Sais in Egypt, + about 1550; in Argos, of the colony of Danaus, likewise from Egypt, + about 1500.--The colony of Cadmus, from Phoenicia, settles in Boeotia + about 1550.--The colony of Pelops, from Mysia, settles in Argos about + 1400. + +6. The mythology of the Hellenes proves beyond a doubt, that they were +at first savages, like the Pelasgi since they had to learn even the use +of fire from Prometheus; yet it is equally clear that they must, even in +the earliest period, particularly from 1300-1200, when they had ceased +to migrate, have made the first important steps towards the attainment +of a certain degree of civilization. About the time of the Trojan war +they appear to have been still barbarians, though no longer savages. + +7. The origin and progress of this national organization, and the +influence wrought upon it by settlers from foreign countries, are +difficult subjects to determine. If we allow that Cecrops was the first +who introduced marriage in Attica, and that agriculture and the +cultivation of the olive were discovered in that country, it +unquestionably follows, that the Hellenes were indebted to strangers for +the foundation of domestic civilization. And when we consider that the +families which subsequently held sway were descended directly from the +most powerful of these strangers, their lasting influence can hardly be +a matter of doubt. It must, however, be observed, that what the Greeks +borrowed from foreigners they previously stamped with their own peculiar +character, so that it became, as it were, the original property of the +nation. The question, therefore, is deprived of much of the importance +which it assumes at the first glance. + +8. The case was the same with regard to all branches of intellectual +civilization, particularly religion. That many deities and religious +rites were introduced into Greece from Egypt, Asia, and Thrace, and +generally through Crete, hardly admits of a doubt; but they did not +therefore remain Egyptian, Asiatic, or Thracian; they became Grecian +gods. Hence it appears that the investigation of those relations can +hardly lead to any important conclusion. It is a fact, however, of the +highest importance, that whatever gods the Greeks adopted, no separate +order of priesthood was established among them, still less any caste +laying claim to the exclusive possession of knowledge. Several traces, +nevertheless, make it probable, that many of the most ancient +sanctuaries were settlements of Egyptian, Phoenician, or Cretan priests, +who imported with them their own peculiar forms of worship. And +notwithstanding this worship consisted merely of outward ceremonies, +many ideas and institutions which were attached to it, became, in this +manner, the common property of the nation. + +9. It was principally, therefore, by religion, that the rude mind became +in some degree polished. But it was the ancient minstrels, ([Greek: +aoidoi],) Orpheus, Linus, etc., who, by disseminating religious +principles, contributed so much towards abolishing revenge, and with it +the perpetual state of warfare which had hitherto distracted the +country. These it was who in their mysteries contrived in some measure +to impress the narrow circle of the initiated with the advantages +resulting from a civilized life. + + SAINTE-CROIX, _Recherches sur les Mysteres du Paganisme_, Paris, 1765. + Translated into German, with valuable observations, by C. G. LENZ; + Gotha, 1790. + +10. The influence of religion, through the medium of oracles, especially +those of Dodona and Delphi, was not less powerful. The two latter, with +that of Olympia, were perhaps, originally ancient settlements of +priests, such as have been already alluded to. The necessity of +consulting these sanctuaries naturally led men to regard the oracles as +the common property of the nation, to which every one should have +access; it followed therefore as an inevitable consequence, that the +direction of affairs in which all were engaged, depended principally on +those oracles. + + A. VAN DALEN, _De Oraculis veterum Ethnicorum Dissertationes_ 6. + Amstel. 1700. A very valuable work. A comprehensive dissertation on + the subject, however, is still wanting: a portion of it is treated + of in + + J. GRODDEK, _De Oraculorum veterum, quae in Herodoti libris + continentur, natura, commentatio_; Gotting. 1786. + +11. It happened with Greece as with other countries; the tender plant +of civilization grew up under the shelter of the sanctuary. There the +festivals were celebrated, and there the people assembled; and there +various tribes, who had hitherto been strangers to one another, met +in peace, and conversed on their common interests. Hence arose +spontaneously the first idea of a law of nations, and those connections +which led to its development. Among these connections, that of the +Amphictyons at Delphi was the most important, and continued the longest: +it is probable that it did not assume its complete form till a later +period; yet it appears in early times to have adopted the principle, +that none of the cities belonging to the league should be destroyed by +the others. + + # FR. WILH. TITTMANN, _Upon the Amphictyonic League_; 1812. A + dissertation which gained the prize of the Academy of Sciences at + Berlin. + +12. To religion must likewise be added navigation, and the consequent +intercourse which brought the nation into contact with strangers, and +prepared it to receive civilization. It cannot be denied that the +navigators continued long to be mere pirates; but as Minos of Crete +cleared the sea of freebooters, the want of another state of things must +have been felt long before. + +13. In the mean time the chivalrous spirit of the nation was gradually +aroused; and developed the first bloom of its youthful vigour in the +heroic ages. An affection for extraordinary undertakings was excited; +and conducted the chieftains, not only individually, but also in +confederate bodies, beyond the limits of their father-land. These +undertakings were not only important in themselves, but their advantages +were increased by their being preserved in the songs of their bards by +means of a national poesy, such as no other people possessed, and such +as contributed to the further development of the national genius. + + Expedition of the Argonauts to Colchis, somewhere about B. C. 1250; + war of the seven confederate princes against Thebes about 1225; the + town, however, was not taken until the second attempt made by the sons + of the chiefs (Epigoni) in 1215. + +14. Thus every thing was now ripe for some great national undertaking of +all the combined Hellenic nations; and that object was attained in the +war against Troy. The most important result of that expedition was the +kindling of one common national spirit,--a spirit which in spite of +dissensions and feuds, was never wholly extinguished, and which must +almost necessarily have arisen from an expedition carried on in so +distant a field, which lasted ten years, in which all were joined, and +which was crowned with such signal success. From the time of the Trojan +war downwards the Hellenes always looked upon themselves as but one +people. + + General view of the political state of Greece about the time of the + Trojan war.--Division into several small states, the most powerful + of which were Argos and Mycenae.--All those states were governed by + hereditary chieftains or princes from a certain _family_ (kings, + [Greek: basileis],) who combined the offices of leaders in war and + judges in peace. Their authority being more or less extended in + proportion to the qualities they possessed, and particularly to + their valour in battle.--Manner of life among the people: a nation + dwelling in cities, but at the same time cultivating the land and + tending cattle; applying also to war, and already somewhat advanced + in the art of navigation. + + A. W. SCHLEGEL, _De Geographia Homeri Commentatio_. Hannov. 1788. A + review of the political geography of Greece at this period.--On the + topography of Troy: + + LECHEVALIER, _Description de la Plaine de Troie_. Translated and + accompanied with notes by HEYNE, Leipzig, 1794. Compare CLARKE, + _Travels_, vol. i, c. 4-6, who has thrown doubts on the system of + Lechevalier, which has, however, been again confirmed by LEAKE, + _Travels in Asia Minor_. + + + + +SECOND PERIOD. + +_From the Trojan war to the breaking out of the Persian war, B. C. +1200-500._ + + Sources. On no portion of the Grecian history is our information + so scanty as upon this long period, in which we can be hardly said + to have more than a general knowledge of many of the most + important events. As in the foregoing period, its commencement is + but a traditional and poetical history. It was not till towards + the end of it that the use of writing became common among the + Greeks; add to which the period itself was not rife in great + national undertakings, such as might afford appropriate materials + for the poet or historian. Besides the scattered information which + may be gathered from Herodotus, Plutarch, Strabo, and above all + from the introduction to Thucydides's history, Pausanias must not + be forgotten; who, in his description of Greece, has preserved an + abundance of most valuable documents relating to the separate + histories of the minor states. The Books of Diodorus belonging to + this period are lost. + + # FR. WILHELM TITTMANN, _Delineation of the Grecian Forms of + Government_, 1822. An industrious collection of all the + information we possess respecting this subject. + + # W. WACHSMUTH, _Grecian Antiquities with regard to Politics_, 4 + vols. An excellent work. + + +1. _History of the Hellenic states within Greece._ + +1. The Trojan war was followed by a very stormy period, in consequence +of the many disorders prevalent in the ruling families, especially in +that of Pelops. But more violent commotions soon arose, caused by the +attempts of the rude tribes of the north, particularly of the Dorians +combined with the Aetolians, who, under the guidance of the descendants +of Hercules, exiled from Argos, strove to obtain possession of +Peloponnesus. Those commotions shook Greece during a whole century, and +as the seats of most of the Hellenic tribes were then changed, the +consequences were lasting and important. + + First unsuccessful attempt under Hyllus, son of Hercules, about + 1180.--Repeated attempts, until at last the claims of the Heraclidae + are made good by the grandsons of Hyllus, viz. Telephus and + Cresphontes, together with Eurysthenes and Procles, sons of their + brother Aristodemus, 1100. + +2. Consequences resulting to the Peloponnesus from this migration. The +territories of Argos, Sparta, Messene, and Corinth, wrested from the +Achaeans who had hitherto inhabited them, become the property of the +Dorians; Elis falls to the share of the Aetolians, who had accompanied +the former. The Achaeans expelled, in their turn expel the Ionians and +settle in the country since called Achaia; the fugitive Ionians are +received by their ancient kinsmen the Athenians.--But among the +consequences of this migration of the Hellenic races must be reckoned +likewise the establishment of Greek colonies in Asia Minor; an +occurrence of the highest importance to the ulterior development of the +nation. This colonization was commenced by the Aeolian Hellenes, whose +example was soon after followed by the Ionians, and even by the Dorians. + + For the history of these colonies, see the following section. + +3. Although the effect of these migrations and wars, in which the ruder +tribes oppressed the more civilized, must inevitably have been, not only +to interrupt the progress of civilization, but even almost entirely to +annihilate it, yet in this universal movement the foundation was laid +of that constitution of things which afterwards existed in Greece. The +tribes which had migrated, as well as those which had been expelled, +remained at first under the dominion of their hereditary princes, some +for a longer, others for a shorter time. In the two centuries, however, +immediately subsequent to the migrations, B. C. 1100-900, republican +constitutions took the place of hereditary clanship in all the Grecian +countries, the distant Epirus excepted. These republics continued to +exist amid the various revolutions which happened; and the love of +political freedom, deeply impressed on the minds of the people, +constituted from this time the principal feature in the national +character. + +4. The sequel proves, that the principal cause of this change so +important for Greece,--this change, by which her future internal policy +was for ever determined, originated in the progress made by the newly +come tribes towards civic life, and consequently at the same time +towards national civilization. In this newly constituted order of +things, each city, with the territory around it, formed a separate +state, and framed its own constitution; hence there arose as many free +states as cities. + + The notion that Greece contained the same number of states as + countries is completely false, although it cannot be denied that + the mode of expression in most writings upon Greek history seems to + authorize the assertion. It is true that some of those countries, + such as Attica, Megaris, Laconia, may be each regarded as a + separate state, because each constituted the territory of one city. + The others, however, such as Arcadia, Boeotia, etc. did not each + form one state, but comprised as many separate states as there were + free and independent cities, each of which, with its territory, + formed one. Still, however, it must be observed, (_a_) that the + natural ties of kindred subsisted; Arcadians, Boeotians, etc. spoke + of one another as countrymen. (_b_) Voluntary connections were + entered into between different cities, and sometimes all the cities + of a country, as, for instance, in Achaia, so that the whole formed + one confederation; each individual city nevertheless still + preserved its own system of laws and government. Again, (_c_) in + consequence of a greater share of power, one city assumed a sort of + dominion over the other; as, for instance, that of Thebes over the + Boeotian cities. This dominion, however, was always precarious, and + depended upon the state of affairs. (_d_) It must likewise be + observed, that the constitution of each separate city underwent + many changes, wrought generally by influential citizens, (tyrants,) + who not only possessed themselves of the supreme power, but also + contrived frequently to make it for some time hereditary in their + families. Every one will easily discern that the above are the + fundamental principles of Greek history, which cannot be too + clearly conceived, or too correctly defined; since it is + self-evident what a wide field was by such a constitution of things + thrown open to practical politics. The more improbable the + attainment of fixed constitutions in the separate cities was, the + more frequent must have been the political attempts; (attempts + facilitated by the narrow extent of the state;) and the more + frequently those attempts failed, the more extensive in this + intellectual people became the mass of political ideas; the results + of which in later times were the legislative codes of Solon and + others. + +5. Although Greece was thus parcelled out into a number of small states, +united by no common political bond, yet there existed a certain unity of +the Hellenic race, a certain national spirit: this was produced in part +by national festivals and games, occurring at stated periods, among +which those in honour of Jupiter at Olympia were the chief. The nation +at these appeared in all its splendour; and all Hellenes, but no others, +were allowed to join in them. This union, too, was promoted by the +extension of the Amphictyonic council: and the reason why this last +institution was not followed by all the consequences which might have +been expected from it, may perhaps be found in what naturally takes +place in every great confederation whenever any of the component states +become too powerful. + + The Amphictyonic council was certainly not a states-general, in + which all national affairs were discussed. Its immediate office was + to attend to the temples and the oracles of Delphi. But then it + must be observed, 1st, that from this council originated the + Grecian ideas of the law of nations; over the preservation of which + the Amphictyons watched. 2. In consequence of its political + influence on the oracle, this council, in certain cases, was + enabled to take a share in the affairs of different states. 3. The + Amphictyons always formed a national institution, since none but + Hellenes were admitted. + + ST. CROIX, _Des anciens gouvernemens federatifs, et de la + legislation de Crete_, Paris, 1796. One of the most invaluable + inquiries, not only into the institutions of the Amphictyons, but + also into other matters of Grecian history connected with them. + +6. Among the different states of Greece, Sparta and Athens, even at this +period, became celebrated, not only for their greater power, but also +for their superior constitutions and their laws: and though it may not +perhaps be strictly true, that the history of the rest of Greece is +connected with that of these two cities, yet they certainly possess the +highest claim to our attention. + +7. History of Sparta. The Achaeans at first were governed by princes of +the house of Perseus, but after Menelaus's accession to the throne in +virtue of his wife, by princes of the house of Pelops. When the latter +had been expelled by the Dorians, Laconia fell by lot to the sons of +Aristodemus, Procles and Eurysthenes, between whose families the royal +power was divided, so that two kings constantly reigned in common, one +from each family. + + Families of the Proclidae and Aegidae; the latter so called from Agis, + the son and successor of Eurysthenes. + + # J. C. F. MANSO, _An Essay on the History and Constitution of + Sparta_, Leipzig, 1800 sqq. 3 vols. The most important work upon + this subject, and which likewise contains much information upon + various points of Grecian history connected with it. + + CRAGIUS, _De Republica Lacedaemoniorum_, 1642. + + MEURSIUS, _De regno Laconico_; and _Miscellanea Laconica_. Both + laborious compilations. + +8. The Dorians now gradually conquered, and established themselves in +many cities of the peninsula; forming, if not the whole population, at +least the only part of it that enjoyed any power, as the Achaeans that +remained were reduced to slavery. No long time, however, elapsed ere the +city of Sparta usurped an authority over the whole country, which it +ever afterwards preserved; the other towns, formerly considerable, +becoming unfortified, defenceless, and insignificant. + + Relation between the Spartan citizens of the capital as a ruling + body, and the Lacedaemonians, or [Greek: perioikoi], inhabitants of + the country, as subjects who paid tribute and military service. Even + in the time of Agis, the successor of Eurysthenes, this subjection + was effected by force; the inhabitants of Helos were made slaves, as + a punishment for their opposition; while the others, by the + sacrifice of their political freedom, preserved their personal + liberty, however confined it might be. + +9. The history of the two following centuries, to the time of Lycurgus, +exhibits nothing but the repeated wars of the Spartans with their +neighbours the Argives; their domestic broils, occasioned by the too +unequal division of property, by the feuds, and the diminished power of +the kings, and which lasted until Lycurgus, the uncle and guardian of +the minor king, Charilaus, about the year 880, gave to Sparta that +constitution to which she was principally indebted for her subsequent +splendour. + + _Illustration of the principal features in the Spartan constitution._ + Some preliminary observations are necessary. (_a_) As the legislation + of Lycurgus occurred at so early a period, and as his laws were not + written, but conveyed in apophthegms, ([Greek: rhetrai],) which + were confirmed by the oracle of Delphi, many things of later origin + have been attributed to Lycurgus. (_b_) Much that is rightly + attributed to him was not original, but deduced from ancient Dorian + institutions, which being now upon the decline, were reestablished + by force of law. Hence it follows, that the legislation of Lycurgus + must naturally have had many points of resemblance with that of the + Cretans, likewise of Dorian origin, although much, as we are told, + was directly borrowed from them. (_c_) The principal object of the + laws of Lycurgus was to ensure the existence of Sparta by creating + and supporting a vigorous and uncorrupted race of men. Hence those + laws had a more peculiar reference to private life and physical + education, than to the constitution of the state, in which the + legislator appears to have introduced but few alterations. + + In reference to the constitution: 1. The relation which had + hitherto existed between the Spartans as a dominant people, and the + Lacedaemonians as subjects, was preserved. 2. The two kings, from + the two ruling families, were likewise continued, as leaders in war + and first magistrates in peace. On the other hand, 3. to Lycurgus + is attributed the institution of a senate, ([Greek: gerousia],) + consisting of twenty-eight members, none of whom could be less than + sixty years old, who were to be chosen by the people for life, and + were to constitute the king's council in public affairs. 4. Whether + the college of the five Ephori annually chosen, was originally + instituted by Lycurgus, or at some later period, is a question + impossible to decide, but of little importance, since the great + power of this college, to which every thing was finally referred as + the highest tribunal of the state, was certainly assumed after the + time of Lycurgus. 5. Besides the above, there were likewise the + popular assemblies, convened according to the division into + [Greek: phylas] and [Greek: obas], at which none but Spartans could + assist: their privileges extended no further than to approve or + reject the measures proposed to them by the kings and the senate. + + In the laws relating to private life, Lycurgus aimed at making the + Spartans a society of citizens, equal as far as possible with + respect to their property and mode of life, and each deeply + impressed with the conviction that he was the property of his + country, to which he was bound to yield an unconditional obedience. + Hence, 1. The new division of land, 9000 portions to the Spartans, + and 30,000 to the Lacedaemonians; permission being given to dispose + of those portions by entail or gift, but not by sale. 2. The + removal as far as possible of every species of luxury, particularly + by means of the daily public tables ([Greek: syssitia]) of all the + citizens, according to their divisions, in which the commons were + settled by law. 3. The complete organization of domestic society in + relation both to husband and wife, parents and children, which was + so framed as to further, even at the cost of morality, the grand + political object, the production of vigorous and healthy citizens. + 4. Hence, finally, the condition of the slaves, comprehended under + the general name of helots, who, although they may be regarded + nearly as serfs, were likewise the property of the state, which had + the right of claiming their services in war.--Easy, however, as it + is to enumerate thus generally the principal heads of the Spartan + constitution, the want of sufficient documents renders it difficult + and oftentimes impossible to answer a crowd of questions, which + present themselves on our penetrating more deeply into the subject. + Still, however, its long duration, (nearly four hundred years,) + without any observable change, is more remarkable even than the + constitution itself. More remarkable, inasmuch as the Spartans soon + after this time appear as conquerors. Indeed, it could no longer be + expected that any durable peace should exist in Greece, while the + centre of the country was occupied by a military commonwealth, + whose citizens must have been, by the restlessness common to man, + impelled to war, since all the occupations of household life and of + agriculture were left to the care of slaves. + + Besides the works mentioned above, p. 119. + + HEYNE, _De Spartanorum republica Judicium_; inserted in _Commentat. + Soc. Gotting._ vol. ix. Intended to correct the partial opinions of + DE PAUW. + +10. Soon after the time of Lycurgus commenced the war of the Spartans +with their neighbours, the Argives, the Arcadians, but more particularly +the Messenians. The wars with these last appear to have originated in an +old grudge on the part of the Dorian tribe, proceeding from the unequal +division of lands at the occupation of Peloponnesus: it is nevertheless +evident, that the quarrel between the two nations was mainly fostered by +the ambition of the Spartan kings, who wrought upon a superstitious +multitude by oracular responses and interpretations. + + Unimportant wars with Tegea and Argos; and disputes with Messene, + 783-745. + + First Messenian war, 742-722, terminated by the capture of the + frontier fortress Ithome, after the voluntary death of the + Messenian king, Aristodemus.--The Messenians become tributary to + the Spartans, and are obliged to give up one half of the revenues + of their lands.--Occurrences during this war: 1. Institution, + according to some authorities, of the college of Ephori as + vicegerents of the kings in their absence, and arbitrators in the + quarrels which might arise between the kings and the senate. 2. The + power of the people so far limited as to restrain the popular + assemblies from making alterations in the resolutions proposed to + them by the senate or the kings, and confining them merely to a + vote of approval or rejection. 3. Insurrection of the Parthenii and + Helots becomes the motive for sending out colonies; a measure to + which Sparta had more than once resorted for the purpose of + maintaining domestic tranquillity. + + Second Messenian war, 682-668, waged by the Messenians under the + command of their hero Aristomenes, by the Spartans under that of + Tyrtaeus, who fanned the flame of war until the contest was + terminated by the capture of the strong town Ira. The Messenian + territory is divided among the conquerors, and the conquered + inhabitants become, like the helots, agricultural slaves. + +11. Although the territory of the Spartans was greatly increased by +these Messenian wars, the nation seems to have been a long time before +it recovered from the struggle, and to have raised itself by slow steps +to the first rank among the Dorian states, extending its boundaries at +the expense of the Argives and Arcadians. + + Wars with Tegea for the most part unsuccessful; and with Argos, for + the possession of Thyrea and the island of Cythera; by the accession + of which the Spartan territory received an important augmentation, + about 550. + +12. These wars within Peloponnesus were not of such a nature as to give +rise to any remarkable changes in the Spartan constitution, and for a +long time the nation refused to take any share in foreign affairs. But +no sooner did king Cleomenes, who in the end procured the deposition of +his colleague, Demaratus, interfere in the affairs of the Athenians, +than the seeds of strife were sown between these two republics. The +Persian war next ensued, in which Sparta was obliged to bear a part, +although Cleomenes had refused to participate in the insurrection of +Aristagoras: that struggle, together with the idea of supremacy in +Greece which now took its rise, introduced a series of political +relations before unknown. + +13. The history of Athens during this period is rendered important +rather by domestic revolutions, which gradually tended to convert the +state into a republic, than by external aggrandizement. The situation +and peculiarities of Attica, which rendered it less exposed than other +parts of Greece to the attacks and forays of wandering hordes, favoured +the gradual and tranquil growth of national prosperity; the traces of +which are incontestable, though it would be difficult for the most +profound research to point out the whole course of its progress so +perspicuously as the historian might wish. + + The history of Athens, of course, constitutes a main part of the + works mentioned above, p. 119. Besides which: + + W. YOUNG, _The history of Athens politically and philosophically + considered_. London, 1796. 4to. Argumentation rather than history. + + CORSINI, _Fasti Attici_. Florent. 1747. 4 vols. 4to. A most careful + chronological essay. + + 1. Period of kingly government down to 1068. The history of Athens + as a state begins properly with Theseus, who succeeded his father + Aegeus, about B. C. 1300. Although certain institutions, such as + that of the areopagus, the division of the people into nobles, + ([Greek: eupatridai],) husbandmen, ([Greek: georgoi],) and + mechanics: ([Greek: demiourgoi;]) a division which recals to our + memory the Egyptian institution of castes, are perhaps of an + earlier date, and may be ascribed to the colony of Cecrops. Theseus + was, however, in some measure the founder of the state, since, + instead of the four districts, ([Greek: demoi],) hitherto + independent of one another, he constituted the city of Athens as + the only seat of government. Among his successors the attention of + the student is directed to Mnestheus, who fell before Troy; and the + last king, Codrus, who by a voluntary sacrifice of his life rescued + Attica from the inroads of the Dorians, 1068. + + 2. Period of archons for life, taken from the family of Codrus, + thirteen of whom ruled; 1068-752. The first was Medon, the last, + Alcmaeon. These archons succeeded, like the kings, by inheritance, + but were accountable for their administration, ([Greek: + hypeuthynoi].)--At the commencement of this period occur the + migrations of the Ionians from Attica to Asia Minor, 1044. See + below. + + 3. Period of the decennial archons, seven of whom succeeded between + 752-682. These likewise were taken from the family of Codrus. This + period is devoid of any remarkable occurrences. + + 4. Period extending to Solon, 682-594. that of nine archons yearly + chosen, but so arranged that the prerogatives of the former kings, + and the preceding archons, were divided among the three first of + the nine. With respect to this, as well as to the other changes + above mentioned, we know little of the causes which produced them, + or of the manner in which they were brought about. Rise of an + oppressive aristocracy, (like that of the patricians at Rome, + immediately after the expulsion of the kings,) both the archons and + the members of the areopagus being elected only from noble + families. First attempt at legislation by Draco, 622, which appears + only to have consisted in a criminal code, rendered unavailing by + its severity.--The insurrection of Cylon, 598, in consequence of + the manner in which it was quelled, turned out most injurious to + the aristocratical party, inasmuch as the nobles drew upon + themselves the pollution of blood, which, even after the + purification of Epimenides, 593, was long used as a pretext for + commotion. The political factions of the Pediaei, of the Diacrii, + and of the Parhali, produced an anarchy at Athens, during which the + neighbouring Megarians took possession of the island of Salamis; a + conquest which, however, was subsequently wrested from them by + Solon. + +14. From this state of anarchy Athens was rescued by Solon; a man to +whom not only Athens, but the whole human race, are deeply indebted. He +was chosen archon, and at the same time commissioned to remodel the +constitution of Athens: and the successful manner in which he executed +this task, laid the foundation of the happiness of his native country. + + _Review of the prominent features in Solon's legislation._ Its main + object was to abolish the oppressive aristocracy, without however + introducing a pure democracy. 1. Provisional laws: abolition of the + statutes of Draco, those against murder excepted: law enacted for + the relief of debtors, ([Greek: seisachtheia], novae tabulae,) not so + much by cancelling the debts as by diminishing their amount by a + rise in the value of money; and likewise by ensuring the personal + liberty of the debtor. 2. Fundamental laws, both in reference to + the constitution and in reference to private life and private + rights.--Constitution of the state. (_a_) Organization of the + people by means of divisions: according to property into four + classes; the Pentacosimedimni, or those who had a yearly income of + 500 medimni; the Equites, ([Greek: hippeis],) who had 400; the + Zeugitae, who had 300; and the Thetes, (capite censi,) whose yearly + revenue did not amount to so much.--The ancient divisions according + to heads, into wards, ([Greek: phylai],) of which there were four, + and according to residence into demi, (hundreds,) of which a + hundred and seventy are enumerated, were preserved. (_b_) None but + citizens of the three first classes could fill all the offices of + state; but all were admitted to the popular assemblies, and had a + right of voting in the courts of judicature. (_c_) The nine archons + annually chosen, who acted as supreme magistrates, although not + permitted to assume military office at the same time, remained at + the head of the state; the first bearing the name of [Greek: + eponumos], the second of [Greek: basileus], the third of [Greek: + polemarchos], the remaining six that of [Greek: thesmothetai]. + Combined with the archons was (_d_) The council, ([Greek: boule],) + which consisted of a body of four hundred persons annually taken + from the three first classes of citizens; (a hundred from each + ward;) these were chosen by lot, but were obliged to submit to a + rigid examination ([Greek: dokimasia]) before they entered upon + office. The archons were obliged to consult the four hundred on + every occurrence; and nothing could be carried down to the commons + until it had been previously debated in this council. (_e_) To the + people, consisting of the whole four classes, was reserved the + right in its assemblies ([Greek: ekklesiai]) of confirming the + laws, of electing the magistrates, of debating all public affairs + referred to them by the council, and likewise the public + distribution of justice. (_f_) The areopagus was, according to + Solon's plan, to be the main buttress of the constitution; that + tribunal had hitherto been a mere tool in the hands of the + aristocracy. It was composed of retired archons, and remained not + only the supreme tribunal in capital cases, but likewise was + charged with the superintendence of morals, with the censorship + upon the conduct of the archons who went out of office, and had the + prerogative of amending or rescinding the measures that had been + approved of by the commons. The power of this court, which might + easily have become equal to the college of Ephori at Sparta, might + at first have been supposed too extensive, had not experience shown + the fatal consequences of the reduction of that power by Pericles. + This alloy of aristocracy and democracy certainly gives proof of a + deep insight into the nature of republican constitutions; but Solon + is not less entitled to praise for his endeavours to place the helm + of government in the hands only of the most enlightened and prudent + citizens. It must likewise be observed, that the code for private + life given by Solon exhibits the genius of a man who regarded + polity as subordinate to morals, and not, like Lycurgus, morals as + subordinate to polity. + + SAM. PETITUS, _De Legibus Atticis_, 1635. fol. The best compilation + and illustration of the fragments remaining of the Attic law. + + CHR. BUNSEN, _De jure Atheniensium hereditario, ex Isaeo caeterisque + oratoribus Graecis ducto_, Goett. 1812. The law of inheritance was a + principal feature in Solon's legislation; the explanation of it + requires a profound acquaintance with the constitution, so far as + it was connected with government by clans or families. + + An explanation of the Athenian constitution will be likewise found + in the above-mentioned works of Tittmann, Kruse, and Wachsmuth. + +15. The legislation of Solon, like all other state reforms, was not +followed by the total extinction of party spirit. It was natural that +the commons, now free, should wish to try their strength with the +aristocratical party, and that, after the defeat of the latter, +Pisistratus, who headed the commons, should grasp the rudder of the +state without, therefore, necessarily abrogating the constitution of +Solon. Modern history has proved with sufficient evidence, that the +frame-work of a republic may easily subsist under the rule of an +usurper. And would that no republics might fall into the hands of a +worse tyrant than Pisistratus! + + First exaltation of Pisistratus, 561, procured by his obtaining a + body guard; flight of the Alcmaeonidae under Megacles. Pisistratus + expelled, 560. Second exaltation of Pisistratus procured by his + matrimonial connection with the family of Megacles, 556-552.--His + second expulsion by Megacles, 552-538.--His third exaltation; + obtains the power by force of arms, and preserves it to the day of + his death, 538-528. Flight of the Alcmaeonidae into Macedonia, where + they attach the malcontents to their party. Pisistratus is + succeeded by his sons Hipparchus and Hippias, who rule conjointly + until 514, when the elder is murdered by Harmodius and Aristogiton. + The exiled Alcmaeonidae, having bribed the Delphian oracle, gain over + the Spartans to their interest: backed by a Spartan army, they + take possession of Athens in 510; Hippias is deposed, and flies + over to the Persians. + +16. This return of the Alcmaeonidae was followed by a change in the +constitution of Solon. Clisthenes, the son of Megacles, with a view of +quenching party spirit by a new combination of the citizens, increased +the number of wards to ten, and that of the members of the council to +five hundred.--But the Athenians had to purchase the continuance of +their freedom by a struggle with Sparta, who, united with the Boeotians +and Chalcidians, and aided by Aegina, sought to reestablish monarchy in +Attica; first in the person of Isagoras, the rival of Clisthenes, and +afterwards in that of the exiled Hippias. But the glorious success of +the republic in this first struggle in the cause of liberty, gave an +additional impulse to the national spirit. Impelled by that spirit, +Athens suffered herself to be induced to share in the war of freedom +carried on by the Asiatic Greeks under Aristagoras; and the audacity +which led to the firing of Sardis, drew upon Attica the vengeance of the +Persians, without which, doubtless, neither Athens or Greece would ever +have risen to that degree of eminence which they ultimately attained. + +17. Of the history of the other states of Greece we have at best but few +data, and even these in most instances are very scanty. Towards the end +of this period Sparta and Athens had, undoubtedly, exalted themselves +above the rest, and were recognized, one as the first among the Dorian, +the latter as the first among the Ionian states; yet did Sparta more +than once meet with rivals in Messene, Argos, and Tegea: while Athens +had to contend with Megara and Aegina. Sparta and Athens had, +nevertheless, not only the best constitutions, but possessed also a more +extended territory than any other of the great cities. + + +_Principal data for the history of the smaller states._ + +I. _Within the Peloponnesus._ + + _a._ Arcadia. The Arcadian traditions enumerate a line of kings or + hereditary princes, said to have ruled over the whole of Arcadia; + the line commences with Arcas and his son Lycaon, whose successors + kept possession of the supreme power, and shared more or less in + the ancient feuds of the Hellenic princes. Upon the conquest of + Peloponnesus by the Dorians, Arcadia was the only land that did not + suffer by the irruption: an advantage for which it was probably + indebted more to its mountains, than to the skill of Cypselus its + king. The successors of that prince took a part in the wars between + the Messenians and Spartans, siding with the former: but in the + second Messenian war, the last Arcadian king, Aristocrates II. + having betrayed his allies, was in consequence stoned to death by + his subjects, and the regal dignity was abolished in 668. Arcadia + now became divided into as many small states as it contained cities + with their respective districts; among these Tegea and Mantinea + were the chief, and probably held the others in a certain state of + control, without, however, depriving them wholly of their + independence. As might have been expected in a pastoral nation, the + constitution was democratical. In Mantinea there were wardens of + the people, ([Greek: demiourgoi],) and a senate, ([Greek: boule].) + The wars of separate cities are frequently mentioned, but no + general confederation united them. + + # See A. VON BREITENBAUCH, _History of Arcadia_, 1791. + + _b._ Argos. Even previously to the Dorian migration, the country of + Argolis was parcelled out into several small kingdoms, such as + those of Argos, Mycenae, and Tiryns. In Argos, the oldest Grecian + state next to Sicyon, ruled the forefathers of Perseus, who + exchanged the kingdom of his ancestors for Tiryns: here his + successors continued to reign till the time of Hercules, whose + sons, expelled by Eurystheus, sought an asylum among the + Dorians.--In Mycenae, said to have been built by Perseus, the throne + was occupied by the family of Pelops: and at the period of the + Trojan war, this little state, to which Corinth and Sicyon then + belonged, was the most powerful in Greece, and governed by + Agamemnon. The migration into this country by Pelops from Asia + Minor, must have been attended with important consequences, since + it has given a name to the whole peninsula: the object of Pelops, + as we may infer from the riches he brought with him, was probably + to establish a trading settlement.--At the Dorian conquest Argos + fell to the share of Temenus, the Achaeans were expelled, and the + country was peopled by Dorians. As early as the reign of Cisus, son + of Temenus, the royal power was so limited, that the successors of + that prince hardly preserved any thing but the mere name: about 984 + the regal dignity was wholly abrogated, and its place supplied by a + republican constitution, concerning the domestic organization of + which we know nothing more than that at Argos the government was in + the hands of a senate, ([Greek: boule],) of a college of eighty + citizens, ([Greek: hoi ogdoekonta],) and of magistrates, who bore + the name of [Greek: artynoi]: in Epidaurus, however, there was a + body of one hundred and eighty citizens who chose from among + themselves the senate, the members of which were called [Greek: + artynoi]. As in the other states of Greece so in Argolis, there + were as many independent states as there were cities; in the north + Argos, Mycenae, and Tiryns; in the south Epidaurus and Troezen. The + two last preserved their independence; but Mycenae was destroyed by + the Argives in 425, and the inhabitants of Tiryns were forcibly + transplanted to Argos. The district of Argos, therefore, comprised + the northern portion of the country called Argolis; but not the + southern portion, which belonged to the towns situated therein. + + _c._ Corinth. In this place, previous to the time of the Dorian + migration, the house of Sisyphus held the royal power; and even at + that early period Corinth is extolled by Homer for its wealth. The + Dorians drove out the original inhabitants; and Aletes, belonging + to the race of Hercules, became king about 1089; the posterity of + that prince held the sceptre down to the fifth generation. After + the death of the last king, Telessus, 777, the family of the + Bacchiadae, likewise a branch of the family of Hercules, took + possession of the government and introduced an oligarchy, electing + annually from among themselves a Prytane. At last, in 657, Cypselus + got the upper hand; he was succeeded, 627, by his son Periander; + both father and son were equally conspicuous for their avarice and + cruelty. Periander (_d._ 587) was succeeded by his nephew + Psammetichus, who reigned till 584, when the Corinthians asserted + their freedom. With regard to the internal organization of the + republic, little more is known than that there were at Corinth + assemblies of the commons and a senate, ([Greek: gerousia]): the + government appears to have been the aristocracy of a trading state; + for even the Bacchiadae, at least some of them, were merchants.--The + Corinthian commerce consisted chiefly in the exchange of Asiatic + and Italian goods, and therefore was mostly carried on by sea: for + such a trade the city of Corinth offered many advantages, + particularly if we consider the state of navigation in those times; + but the sea trade of Corinth, however profitable to the citizens, + and even to the state, in consequence of the customs, cannot be + considered as very extensive.--The colonies of Corinth in the west + were principally Corcyra, Epidamnus, Leucas, Syracuse; in the east + Potidaea: these colonies would fain have asserted a sort of + independence, but never succeeded for any length of time in so + doing. + + From the possession of these colonies, and from the necessity of + protecting the trader from pirates, Corinth grew to be a naval + power; she invented triremes, and at the early date of 664 gave + battle to the Corcyraeans at sea. On the other hand, her wars by + land were generally waged with the assistance of foreign + subsidiaries; and from the facility with which she was enabled to + pay her mercenary troops, she was the more ready to interfere in + the domestic wars of Greece. + + _d._ Sicyon. Tradition represents this state, together with Argos, + as the most ancient in Greece; the catalogues of early kings and + princes, who are said to have reigned at this place, make it + probable that in early antiquity some settlements of priests were + made in this quarter. In the times previous to the migration of the + Dorians, Sicyon was first inhabited by the Ionians; at the Trojan + war, however, it made part of Agamemnon's kingdom. At the Dorian + irruption, Phalces, son of Temenus, took possession of Sicyon, + which then became a Dorian city. After the abrogation of the + kingship, the date of which is not precisely known, the + constitution assumed the form of an uncurbed democracy, which, as + usual, paved the way for the usurpation of one individual. + Orthagoras and his posterity, the last and most celebrated of whom + was Clisthenes, ruled over Sicyon during a whole century; 700-600. + After the restoration of her freedom, Sicyon frequently suffered + from revolutions; and the period of her highest splendour was + during the latter days of Greece, when she became a member of the + Achaean league. + + _e._ Achaia. During the spread of the Hellenes, this country, which + till then had borne the name of Aegialus, was taken possession of by + Ion, who had been expelled from Athens, and his tribe, who from + their leader took the name of Ionians: the country remained in the + hands of the Ionians until the Dorian migration, when the Achaeans, + driven out of Argos and Laconia, pressed into the northern parts of + Peloponnesus under Tisamenus, son of Orestes: they settled in the + land of the Ionians, and the power of the chieftain descended to + his posterity, until the tyranny of the last sovereign of that + race, Gyges, (of date undetermined,) produced the abolition of + monarchy. Achaia thereupon was parcelled into twelve small + republics, or so many cities with their respective districts, each + of which comprised seven or eight cantons. All these republics had + democratic constitutions, and were mutually united by a league, + founded on the most perfect equality, and which nothing but the + policy of the Macedonian kings could dissolve; and even this + dissolution gave rise to the _Achaean_ league, of such high + importance in subsequent times. The Achaeans lived in peace and + happiness, inasmuch as they had not the vanity, before the + Peloponnesian war, to interfere in the affairs of foreign states: + their constitutions were so renowned, that they were adopted by + several other Grecian cities. + + _f._ Elis. The inhabitants in earlier times bore the name of + Epeans, which, like that of Eleans, was traced to one of their + ancient kings. The names of their most ancient hereditary princes, + Endymion, Epeus, Eleus, Augias, are celebrated by the poets. It + appears that this country was divided into several small kingdoms, + since, at the period of the Trojan war it contained four, to which + however must be added Pylus in Triphylia, a territory usually + reckoned as belonging to Elis. At the epoch of the Dorian migration + the Aetolians, who had accompanied the Dorians, headed by their + chieftain Oxylus, settled in Elis; but permitted the ancient + inhabitants to remain in the country. Among the successors of + Oxylus was Iphitus the contemporary of Lycurgus, and celebrated as + the restorer of the Olympian games, to the celebration of which + Elis was indebted for the tranquil splendour that distinguished her + from this time: her territory being regarded as sacred, although + she had occasional disputes with her neighbours, the Arcadians, for + precedence at the games. After the abolition of the royal power + supreme magistrates were chosen, to whose office was added the + charge of superintending the games: (Hellanodicae). These + magistrates were at first two; they were afterwards increased to + ten, one from each tribe, although their number frequently changed + with that of the tribes themselves. There must likewise have been a + senate, consisting of ninety persons, who held their places for + life, since Aristotle makes mention of that branch of the Elean + constitution. The city of Elis was first built in 477, before which + time the Eleans resided in several small hamlets. + +II. _Central Greece, or Hellas._ + + _a._ Megaris. Until the epoch of the Dorian migration, this state + generally formed part of the domain of the Attic kings; or at + least was governed by princes of that house. Immediately previous + to that event, the Megarians, after the assassination of their + last sovereign, Hyperion, placed the government in the hands of + magistrates elected for stated periods. At the time of the Dorian + irruption, under the reign of Codrus, Megara was occupied by + Dorians, more especially those of Corinth, who consequently + reckoned the city among their colonies, and during the sway of the + Bacchiadae endeavoured to keep it in a state of dependency; a + circumstance which gave rise to several wars. Nevertheless Megara + supported her rank as a separate state, both in those and many + subsequent wars among the Greeks, in which she took a share both + by sea and land. About the year 600, Theagenes, step-father of the + Athenian Cylon, had possessed himself of the supreme power: after + the expulsion of that tyrant, the republican constitution was once + more restored, but soon after merged into the lowest species of + democracy. Megara, however, even at the period of the Persian war, + in which it took a glorious share, appears to have recovered the + character of a well-ordered state, although we have no information + respecting its internal organization. + + _b._ Boeotia. History mentions several very early races in + Boeotia, such as the Aones, Hyantes, etc.; with these were mingled + Phoenician emigrants, who had come into the country under the + guidance of Cadmus. The stock of Cadmus became the ruling family, + and remained so for a long time: the history of his descendants, + who were kings of Thebes, and comprised under their dominion the + greatest part of Boeotia, constitutes a main branch of Grecian + mythology: among them were Oedipus, Laius, Eteocles, and + Polynices. After the capture of Thebes by the Epigoni, 1215, the + Boeotians were expelled by Thracian hordes, and settled at Arne in + Thessaly; at the time of the Dorian migration they returned to the + land of their forefathers, and mingled with the Aeolians of those + quarters. Not long after, upon the death of Xuthus, royalty was + abolished, 1126. Boeotia was now divided into as many small states + as it contained cities; of these, next to Thebes, the most eminent + were the towns of Plataeae, Thespiae, Tanagra, and Chaeronea, each + of which had its own separate district and peculiar form of + government; but all those constitutions appear to have been + commuted into oligarchies about the time of the Persian war. Such + had been the case even with Thebes, although she had received as a + legislator, Philolaus from Corinth; but the code given by this + individual cannot have been attended with the desired effect, as + the government was continually fluctuating between a licentious + democracy and an overbearing oligarchy. The Boeotian cities were, + however, mutually united by a league, at the head of which stood + Thebes, who gradually converted her right of precedence into a + right of power, although her ambitious attempts were resisted to + the last extremity by the separate cities, and by Plataeae in + particular: hence sprung many wars. The general affairs were + decided upon in four assemblies, ([Greek: boulai],) held in the + four districts into which Boeotia was divided; these assemblies in + conjunction elected eleven Boeotarchs, who stood at the head of + the federation as supreme magistrates and field marshals. The + great extent and population of their territory might have enabled + the Boeotians to act the first part on the theatre of Greece, had + they not been impeded by their pernicious form of government, by + the envy felt against Thebes, and by the want of union which + naturally ensued. Yet in subsequent times the example of + Epaminondas and Pelopidas gave proof that the genius of two men + was sufficient to surmount all these obstacles. + + _c._ Phocis was originally ruled by kings descended, it is said, + from Phocus, the leader of a colony from Corinth. The sovereign + power was abolished about the time of the Dorian migration; but + the form of the republican constitution which succeeded remains + undetermined; and of the undertakings of the Phocians previous to + the Persian invasion, we know nothing more than that they waged + war with the Thessalians, and were successful. As history never + mentions the Phocians but in the aggregate, the whole territory + must have formed but one independent state. To that state, + however, the city of Delphi, which had its own constitution, did + not belong: the city of Crissa with its fertile district, and the + harbour of Cirrha, constituted a separate state, which became + opulent by practising extortions upon the pilgrims to Delphi: this + state lasted till 600, when, in consequence of the insults of the + Crissaeans to the Delphian oracle, a war was proclaimed against + them by the Amphictyons, which ended in 590 with the rasing of + Crissa; the land of which was thenceforward added to the sacred + glebe of Delphi. + + _d._ Locris. Although we learn from early history that the + Locrians also had their kings,--among whom Ajax, the son of + Oileus, is renowned in the Trojan war,--and that they likewise in + subsequent times adopted a republican form of government; yet the + date of that revolution, and the manner in which it was brought + about, are not known. The three tribes of Locrians remained + politically distinct. The Locri Ozolae, west of Phocis, possessed + the most extensive territory; each city of which stood + independent, though Amphissa is mentioned as the capital. The + country of the Locri Opuntii, eastward, consisted of the district + appertaining to the city of Opus; of their domestic organization, + as well as that of their neighbours, the Locri Epicnemidii, we + know nothing. + + _e._ Aetolia. The Aetolians remained the most rude and uncivilized + of all the Hellenic races; they were little more than a band of + freebooters, and carried on their predatory excursions both by sea + and land. Renowned as are the names of their earliest heroes, + Aetolus, Peneus, Meleager, Diomede, the nation has no place in the + history of the flourishing times of Greece. Nor did they acquire + any celebrity until the Macedo-Roman period, when the various + insignificant tribes of which they were composed gathered + themselves together and chose one common leader, for the purpose + of carrying on a war with the Achaeans. The earlier period of + their history seems, however, to afford no previous example of + such an union; their political constitution in those times is + wholly unknown. + + _f._ Acarnania. This country derived its name from Acarnan, son of + Alcmaeon, both of whom are adduced as its earliest kings. In the + Trojan age it appears beyond a doubt, that some part at least of + this country was subject to the governors of the island of Ithaca. + When and how a republican government was introduced among the + Acarnanians, and what were the peculiarities of that government we + know not. All that can be distinguished through the veil of time + is, that here likewise the different cities, the most important of + which was Stratus, had each its own form of government. Those + cities upon particular emergencies were wont to combine; and out + of that practice in later times, during the Macedonian period, + grew up a permanent confederation. The city and district of Argos + Amphilochicum constituted a separate state, which endured a long + time, and flourished greatly; it derived its name from + Amphilochus, the founder. The inhabitants, however, being driven + out by the Ambracians, whom they had themselves called in, sought + assistance at the hands of the Acarnanians, who with the help of + Athens, replaced the exiles in possession of their city, which + thenceforward was inhabited in common by Amphilochians and + Acarnanians, and was almost constantly engaged in war with + Ambracia. + +III. _Northern Greece._ + + _a._ The importance of Thessaly in the earliest history of Greece, + may be gathered from the principal data enumerated above for the + history of the Pelasgi and the Hellenes. From this country it was + that the Hellenes proceeded and spread over Greece; and here + likewise they maintained their original seat. In the Trojan age + Thessaly contained ten small kingdoms, governed by hereditary + princes, several of whom, such as Achilles and Philoctetes, were + among the most renowned heroes of the time. In the period + subsequent to the Trojan war and the Dorian migration, Thessaly + must have experienced political revolutions similar to those of + the other Grecian countries; but neither the time nor the manner + in which those revolutions occurred can be ascertained. All that + can be deduced from the subsequent history is, that if the + Thessalian cities ever did recover their political freedom, they + were unable to maintain it; for in the two most eminent cities, + Pherae and Larissa, with whose history that of the whole country is + closely connected, the supreme power had fallen into the hands of + arbitrary individuals, who appear to have kept possession of it + almost without interruption. Even before the breaking out of the + Persian war, Larissa was under the rule of the Aleuadae; a family + who claimed descent from Hercules, and are specially denominated + by Herodotus kings of the Thessalians. They preserved their power + until the Macedonian period.--In Pherae there arose about the year + 380, a tyrant, by the name of Jason, who extended his dominion not + only over Thessaly, but likewise over several of the neighbouring + barbarous tribes. The sceptre of Jason passed rapidly and + successively into the hands of his three brothers, Polydorus, + Polyphron, and Alexander. The last was first driven out of Larissa + by the Aleuadae, assisted by the Macedonians; was afterwards + worsted in war by Pelopidas; and finally, at the instigation of + his wife Thebe, was murdered, 356, by her brothers, Lycophron and + Tisiphonus. The two murderers then assumed the supreme power, but + were, in compliance with the request of the Aleuadae, deposed by + Philip of Macedon.--Some other such tyrants are met with at + intervals in the rest of the Thessalian cities, such as + _Pharsalus_, etc. + + _b._ Epirus. This country was occupied by several tribes, partly + Greek and partly barbarian. The most powerful of these was that of + the Molossi, who were governed by kings of the house of the + Aeacidae, descendants of Pyrrhus, the son of Achilles. This Greek + family was the only one that held the kingly power for a + permanency; it must be observed, however, that previous to the + Macedonian period, those sovereigns were by no means lords of the + whole of Epirus; for the other non-Hellenic races, such as the + Thesprotii, Orestii, etc. had their own separate kings. Moreover + the Corinthian colony of Ambracia constituted a distinct state, + generally governed as a republic, although sometimes subject to + the rule of tyrants. But, in consequence of an alliance framed + with the Macedonian kings, the whole of Epirus, and even Ambracia + itself, was placed under the sceptre of the Molossian kings; and + some of those princes, Pyrrhus II. more especially, rose to be + mighty conquerors. See below. + +IV. _Grecian Islands._ + + Both the islands off the coast of Greece, and those of the + Archipelago, all underwent the same political revolutions as + occurred in the states on the main land. But those events did not + take place till after the more ancient non-Hellenic inhabitants, + such as the Phoenicians, Carians, etc. had been driven out, and + the land had been taken possession of by the Hellenes. In the more + extensive islands, which contained several cities, there generally + arose as many small republics as there were towns, and those + little states were wont to enter into mutual alliances. The + smaller islands, containing but one city, formed each one small + independent state, the territory of which comprised the whole + island. The respective independence of these islands ceased to + exist at the period of the Trojan war; for after the Athenians had + by their success placed themselves at the head of confederate + Greece, and possessed themselves of the sovereignty of the sea, + these smaller states, although called confederates, were treated + little better than subjects, except that their political + constitutions were not changed.--Among the islands of the Grecian + coast, the most remarkable in history are the following: + + _a._ Corcyra, a colony of Corinth, important for its naval power + and trade, in which it rivalled the mother state itself: a rivalry + which occasioned many feuds and wars, and was even one of the + principal motives that led to the Peloponnesian war. About the + time this struggle began Corcyra had attained the height of her + power, being able, without foreign aid, to man a fleet of 120 + galleys. The constitution appears, as at Corinth, to have been + aristocratic, or oligarchical: but after the Persian war a + democratic faction arose, which produced the most violent internal + commotions, and ended in the total ruin of Corcyra. + + _b._ Aegina. This small island was, after the Dorian migration, + occupied by colonists from Epidaurus; it however soon shook off + the yoke of the mother city, and rapidly grew by commerce and + navigation, to be one of the first Grecian states. Aegina was for a + long time the rival of Athens; over whom her naval power enabled + her to maintain a superiority until the time of the Persian war. + Humbled, however, by Themistocles, 485, she could no longer + support herself against the preponderating influence of Athens; + and although subsequently she made another stand for independence, + 458, the consequences were but an increase of oppression. Neither + must it be forgotten, that Aegina suffered much, even before the + Persian war, from internal broils, caused by the bitterness of + party spirit engendered between the aristocratic and democratic + factions. + + C. O. MUELLER, _Aegineticorum liber_, 1817. This treatise contains + not only the political history, but likewise that of trade and + arts. + + _c._ Euboea. The different cities of this island, Chalcis and + Eretria in particular, had each its separate domestic + constitution: in the two towns above mentioned the constitution + was aristocratic, since the government was in the hands of the + opulent, (Hippobatae;) nevertheless we hear of tyrants in Chalcis. + After the Persian war Euboea became dependent upon Athens, which + drew from that island a portion of her supplies and provisions. + The oppression of the Athenians stirred up the minds of the + Euboeans to rebellion, and the islanders were in the sequel ever + ready to throw up their allegiance when a suitable opportunity + presented itself; such an opportunity was seized in 446, when the + island was recovered by Pericles; and the attempt was renewed in + the Peloponnesian war. + + _d._ The Cyclades were first colonized by Crete, during the reign + of Minos. The Carian race had in earlier times spread over these + islands, but were gradually driven out by Hellenic invaders, + belonging principally to the Ionian and Dorian families. The most + important was Delos, chief seat of the Ionians. Sheltered under + the protection of Apollo, this place became the centre of an + extensive trade, and during the Persian war, 479, was selected for + the treasury of Greece. Next was Paros, famed for its marble, and + for the stand it made against Miltiades, 489, although it + afterwards shared the fate of the other islands, and passed under + the dominion of the Athenians. We know little of the constitution + of the other smaller islands; each of them contained one city of + the same name as the island which constituted its territory. + + _e._ Crete. The inhabitants of Crete were not pure Hellenes, but + of alloyed origin, such as Curetes, Pelasgi, etc. mingled with + whom were Hellenes, of the Dorian and Aeolian stock. In the earlier + periods, Crete had her kings, the most celebrated of whom were + Minos, about 1300, probably first sovereign of the whole island; + his brother Rhadamanthus, Idomeneus, Meriones, who followed + Idomeneus to the Trojan war, and succeeded him upon the throne: + the last king Etearchus, about 800, after whose death a republican + form of government was introduced. Under these kings Crete was + powerful on sea: to Minos is ascribed the honour of having by his + fleets purged the Aegaean of pirates, occupied the islands, and + ensured security to the mariner. To him likewise is attributed the + Cretan legislation, the model, it is said, of that given to Sparta + by Lycurgus. But the uncertainty as to what does and what does not + belong to Minos, is in this case even greater than in that of + Lycurgus; many of the laws referred to Minos are probably nothing + more than ancient Dorian institutions. The insular situation which + in some measure ensured Crete from foreign inroads, and the + proximity of Egypt and Phoenicia must indubitably have contributed + to expand the germ of political civilization. The abolition of the + kingly office seems to have been the effect of internal + commotions, to which Crete continued to be frequently exposed, + even under a republican form of government. Those commotions + originated in the jealousy between the two largest cities, Gortina + and Cnossus, which, when united, ruled the rest; but when at war, + shook the whole island, until the city of Cydonia, passing over to + one of the sides, gave a turn to the balance. The laws instituted + by Minos respecting private life were enforced in all the cities + of the island; but declined at an earlier period than in the + country. Each city had its own constitution; each possessed it + senate, ([Greek: gerousia],) at the head of which were ten + censors, ([Greek: kosmoi],) chosen from certain families: these + cosmi were not only prime magistrates, but likewise invested with + the command in war, not often, it is true, waged by the Cretans + against other nations, but, for that reason, more frequently with + one another; a circumstance which must have necessarily + contributed to corrupt, not only their constitution, but likewise + their national character. + + MEURSII _Creta, Rhodus, Cyprus_, 1675, 4to. Very laborious + compilations. New light, however, has been thrown upon the subject + by the inscriptions published in + + CHISHULL'S _Antiq. Asiaticae_; 1728, folio. A work which has been + made use of by + + ST. CROIX, _Des anciens gouvernemens_, etc. (See above, p. 131.) + The principal work upon Crete. + + # C. HOECK, Crete. An attempt to explain the mythology, history, + etc. of this island, 1823. + + _f._ Cyprus. This island, like Crete, was inhabited by a race of + mixed origin, who, even in the time of Herodotus, traced their + descent from Phoenicians, Africans, (Ethiopians,) from Greeks out + of Arcadia, Attica, and the island of Salamis; of which last the + city of Salamis, founded by Teucer about 1160, was a colony. There + can be no doubt, that in earlier times the Phoenicians were for a + long period the dominant race in the island; since in the + flourishing days of Tyre the Cyprians rebelled against their + oppressors, at the same time that Psalmanezer led an expedition + against the former city, about 720: moreover, even in the present + day, Phoenician monuments are still found in the island. From that + time to the Persian period, there appears to have been a close + connection between this island and the Phoenicians, although the + Cyprians preserved their independence. Several smaller kingdoms + afterwards arose in various cities of the island; the number of + which in subsequent times amounted to nine, and under Amasis, + about 550, were tributary to the Egyptians; and under Cambyses, + 525, to the Persians: notwithstanding this species of subjection, + the various states preserved their own kings. During the Persian + dominion, the Cyprians more than once joined in the insurrections + against the Persians; more particularly the kings of Salamis, now + become the most powerful. So early as the year 500, Onesilus + joined the Ionian rebels, but was defeated. In the wars which + afterwards ensued between the Persians and Greeks, Cyprus was + frequently attacked by the combined Grecian fleets; as in 470 by + Pausanias, and during the reign of Evagoras I. 449, by Cimon, who + died at the siege of Citium; yet the Persians were not driven out, + but appear to have kept their footing even after the peace of 449. + Among the subsequent kings of Salamis was Evagoras II. (400-390,) + who was master of the greatest portion of the island; but as in + the peace of Antalcidas Cyprus was ceded to the Persians, he was + obliged to wage a hot war against them, in which he lost every + thing but Salamis. Finally, the Cyprians, in 356, took a part in + the insurrection of the Phoenicians and Egyptians: thereupon the + Persians sent an army against them, under the command of a younger + Evagoras, (who had been banished by his uncle Protagoras,) and + under that of the Athenian Phocion Salamis was besieged, but + matters were made up by a negotiation. The nine small kingdoms of + the island continued to exist till the time of Alexander, whom + they voluntarily joined during the siege of Tyre, 332, and + thenceforward Cyprus constituted a part of the Macedonian + monarchy. + + +2. _History of the Grecian Colonies._ + + To assist the student in obtaining a general view of the events + connected with the Greek colonies, the history of them will be + here carried on through the subsequent period. + + RAOUL ROCHETTE, _Histoire critique de l'etablissement des Colonies + Grecques_, Paris, 1815, 4 vols. The most comprehensive treatise on + the subject: it comprises the earlier Pelasgian and the later + Macedonian colonies, as well as those of the Hellenes. There is + much erudition displayed in this work, but sufficient attention is + not paid to the value of the authorities made use of. + + # D. H. HEGEWISCH, _Geographic and Historic Documents relative to + the Colonies of the Greeks_, Altona, 1808, 8vo. A brief review of + the subject. + + ST. CROIX, _De l'etat et du sort des Colonies des anciens + peuples_, Paris, 1786. A series of valuable and important + enquiries. + +1. No nation of antiquity ever founded so many colonies as the Greeks: +these colonies became so important in various respects, that an +acquaintance with them is indispensably requisite towards understanding +the more early history of the world. Not only is the history of the +civilization of the mother country and that of early trade intimately +connected with these settlements, but some of them grew to such power as +to have the greatest influence on political history. + +2. The Grecian colonies, to which the following observations apply, are +those founded by the Hellenes in the time which elapsed between the +Dorian migration and the Macedonian period. It appears certain that +before the date of that migration some Pelasgian, and perhaps even some +Hellenic settlers passed over into Italy. The history of these colonies +however is not only involved in obscurity, but it is besides known that +they ceased after a time to be Greek. The later settlements of the +Macedonians were of a quite different nature from those of the Hellenes, +to which we now allude. + +3. The Hellenic race spread alike to the east and to the west of Greece, +their settlements, however, were confined to the shores of the +Mediterranean and Black sea. The countries in which their principal +colonies were established, were Asia Minor and Thrace in the east; the +coasts of Lower Italy and Sicily in the west. Nevertheless particular +settlements were to be found scattered here and there on the shores of +most other countries. + +4. The Grecian colonies had their origin either in political motives, +being generally made in accordance with the express command or advice of +an oracle, (for the propagation of the religion of the parent state was +always connected therewith,) or, in commercial speculations; the former +was the case, almost without exception, with the settlements made by the +mother country herself; the latter, with those which had branched out of +such colonies as had already exalted themselves by their commerce. In +fact, almost all the Grecian colonies applied more or less to trade, +even when that was not the sole object of their foundation. + +5. The connection existing between the colonies and the mother cities +was generally determined by the same causes that led to their +foundation. In those cases where a city had been founded by malcontent +or banished emigrants, all dependence on the mother country was +naturally out of the question; and even in the colonies established for +the purposes of trade, that dependence was but feeble and brief; the +mother cities failing in power, if not in will, to enforce it. The very +independence of so many colonies, made (almost without exception) in +countries preeminently favoured by nature in productions and climate, +and so situated as to oblige the inhabitants to navigation and commerce, +must have given a great impulse to the civilization of the Hellenic +race, and may be regarded as the main cause of its rapid progress and +wide extension; wider indeed than that of any other nation of the +ancient world. What a variety of political ideas must have been formed +among a people whose settlements, more than a hundred in number, had +each its own peculiar form of government. + +6. Of the Greek colonies, the most ancient, and in many respects the +most important, were those along the western coast of Asia Minor, +extending from the Hellespont to the boundary of Cilicia. Here, ever +since the Trojan war, which first made these countries generally known, +Hellenes of the three great families, Aeolians, Ionians, and Dorians had +planted settlements. These were the most important for trade; and here +likewise in the native country of Homer, the father of Grecian +civilization, of Alcaeus, and of Sappho, poesy, both epic and lyric, +expanded her first and fairest blossoms; and hence too, the mother +country herself received the first impulse of moral and cultivated +taste. + + 1. The Aeolian colonies. Their original foundation dates about 1124: + they appear to have been a consequence of the Dorian migration, + having been established during that great movement in Greece. The + Pelopidae, who had been driven out of Peloponnesus, Orestes, his son + Penthilus, his grandson Archelaus, and his great grandson Grais, + successively headed the emigrants, who proceeded slowly by land, + divided, it appears, into several companies, with which some + Boeotians and others gradually coalesced. In Asia they occupied the + coasts of Mysia and Caria; a strip of land which from thence + derived the appellation of Aeolis. They moreover possessed the + islands of Lesbos, Tenedos, and the Hecatonnesi. On the main land, + in the quarter named from them Aeolis, they erected twelve cities, + the most eminent of which were Cyme and Smyrna; the latter, + however, afterwards fell into the hands of the Ionians. But their + chief settlements were on the island of Lesbos; here they inhabited + five cities, at the head of which, and likewise of all their other + colonies, stood Mitylene. They had likewise spread inland as far as + mount Ida. All these towns were independent of one another, and + possessed their own peculiar forms of government: our information, + however, respecting these constitutions extends no further than to + enable us to ascertain that they were subject to many disorders, + which it was often attempted to quell by nominating rulers of + unlimited power, under the title of Aesymnetae. These were elected + sometimes for a stipulated period, at others for life; the most + celebrated of the number was Pittacus of Mitylene, who flourished + about 600, and was the contemporary of Sappho and Alcaeus. The + Aeolians maintained their independence till the time of Cyrus, with + the exception of Smyrna, which as early as 600, was captured and + destroyed by the Lydians, and not rebuilt till four hundred years + afterwards, when it was restored by Antigonus, and entered upon its + flourishing period. The cities of the main land were compelled to + acknowledge the supremacy of the Persian conqueror; but not the + islands. The Aeolian cities were not leagued together by any + permanent bond; it was only in peculiar cases that they debated in + common. Mitylene, which they all regarded as their capital, was + the only one of their colonies that became rich by trade, and + formidable by its naval power. Yet in 470 it was tributary to + Athens; having seceded in 428, at the time of the Peloponnesian + war, it was recaptured and almost levelled to the earth by the + Athenians. + + 2. The Ionian colonies. These were, no doubt, founded at a later + period than those of the Aeolians; like them, however, they were a + consequence of the Dorian migration. The Ionians, driven out of + Peloponnesus by the Achaeans, had withdrawn to Athens, from whence, + sixty years afterwards, that is to say about 1044, they proceeded + by sea to Asia, headed by Neleus and others of the sons of Codrus. + They were joined, however, by some Thebans, Phocians, Euboean + Abantes, and various other Greeks. In Asia they settled on the + southern coast of Lydia and the northern shore of Caria; which, + together with the islands of Samos and Chios, took from them the + name of Ionia. Here they built twelve cities on the main land; + namely, reckoning from north to south, Phocaea, Erythrae, Clazomene, + Teos, Lebedus, Colophon, Ephesus, Priene, Myus, Miletus, and in the + islands, Samos and Chios. They possessed in common one sanctuary, + the Panionium temple of Neptune, built on the headland of Mycale. + Here they celebrated their festivals, and assembled to deliberate + upon matters affecting the general interest, although it must still + be remembered that each city was in itself independent. This + independence was maintained until the time of the Lydian dynasty of + the Mermnadae, and that of Cyrus, under whose reign they were + compelled to submit to the Persian yoke. Still, under the Persian + rule, they for the most part preserved their own form of + government, and were subject only so much as they had to pay + tribute. Nevertheless they seized every opportunity of delivering + themselves from this species of thraldom; and hence their history + in the following period is closely interwoven with that of Greece. + The political constitution was, no doubt, at an early period + republican in all; but these colonies likewise were oppressed by + continual factions, and frequently by tyrants. Among the towns + situate on the continent, the most remarkable were Miletus, + Ephesus, and Phocaea. Miletus was the principal seat of trade. It + had been founded by the Carians before the arrival of the Ionians; + but was by the latter raised to opulence and power. The most + flourishing period of its existence was between 700-500: in the + latter year it was implicated in the insurrection of Aristagoras + against the Persians, in consequence of which it was destroyed in + 496. From that time Miletus never recovered its ancient splendour. + Nevertheless, in the days of her prosperity Miletus was, next to + Tyre and Carthage, the first emporium of the world. Her sea trade + was chiefly carried on in the Euxine, and the Palus Maeotis, whose + shores, on all sides, were occupied by her colonies, amounting, + according to some authorities, to more than a hundred. By means of + these settlements she monopolized the whole of the northern trade + in pulse, dry fish, slaves, and furs. Her land trade was carried on + by the great _military_ road, constructed by the Persians, far into + the interior of Asia. Four harbours admitted her vessels; and her + naval power was so great, that she had been known, more than once, + to fit out, unaided, fleets of from eighty to a hundred + sail.--Phocaea. The flourishing period of this establishment was + contemporary with that of Miletus; but ended at the rise of the + Persian dominion, 540, when the Phocaeans, rather than submit to the + Persian yoke, chose to forsake the city of their fathers and + migrate to Corsica, although one half of the inhabitants repented + of their resolution and returned. Phocaea had the most extensive + trade by sea of all the Grecian cities; they were to the west what + the Milesians were to the north. Their navigation extended as far + as Gades; and they not only visited the coasts of Italy, Gaul, and + Corsica, but even founded colonies in these countries; as for + instance, Aleria in Corsica, Elea in Italy, and, above all, + Massilea, (Marseilles,) on the coast of Gaul.--Ephesus. This city + was likewise originally founded by the Carians, but subsequently + occupied by the Ionians. Its independence was maintained until the + time of Croesus, who annexed it to his other conquests about 560. + The constitution was aristocratic; the government being in the + hands of a senate, ([Greek: gerousia],) combined with the + magistrates, ([Greek: epikletoi]): and the family which had once + possessed the throne preserved certain prerogatives. Ephesus was + not so important in a commercial point of view as Phocaea and + Miletus; but was much celebrated for its temple of Diana, which in + 355 was fired by Erostratus, and afterwards rebuilt with more + sumptuous splendour. The flourishing period of Ephesus appears to + have commenced at this time, long after that of Miletus and Phocaea + had terminated; for both in the Macedonian and Roman ages Ephesus + was regarded as the first city of Asia Minor.--Of the cities on + the islands, Samos was the most important, for its trade, and for + its naval power. The period of its splendour was under the reign of + the tyrant Polycrates, 540-523, whose sway extended over the sea + and islets of the neighbourhood. Syloson, brother to the tyrant, + having by the assistance of the Persians, 517, obtained possession + of Samos, the island was almost depopulated. Soon afterwards Samos + became dependent upon the Athenians, who in 440 introduced a + democratic form of government, and made it the rendezvous for her + troops and fleets during the war with Sparta.--Chios was scarcely + inferior to Samos, either in power or wealth. It submitted to the + Persian yoke with the rest of the Ionian colonies; but was so + powerful, that in 500, at the insurrection of Aristagoras, + ninety-eight sail of the combined fleet belonged to Chios. After + the defeat of Xerxes, 469, it entered into the Athenian league, + from which it endeavoured to secede in the Peloponnesian war, 412. + The naval power of the Chians was still considerable; and those + islanders had the high honour of not suffering prosperity to + inflate them with overweening ambition. + + F. G. RAMBACH, _De Mileto ejusque coloniis_, 1790, 4to. + + 3. The Dorian colonies. These were situated in Asia Minor, upon the + southern coast of Caria, and in the islands of Cos and Rhodes, but + were all planted at a later period than the Ionian colonies, and, + no doubt, were the result of successive migrations. The Dorians + appear to have gradually spread beyond Peloponnesus, over the + islands of the Archipelago to the Asiatic coast: in Rhodes they + erected the cities of Ialyssus, Camirus, and Lindus; in Cos a city + of the same name; on the main land two cities, Halicarnassus and + Cnidus. These six ancient colonies had, like the Ionians, one + common sanctuary, the temple of Apollo Triopius, where they + celebrated their festivals and held their deliberative assemblies. + Halicarnassus, however, was afterwards excluded from the + confederation. They remained independent until the Persian period, + although the constitutions of the separate cities were subject to + violent revolutions; thus at Cnidus the oligarchy was converted + into a democracy; Halicarnassus was likewise generally subject to + the Carian sovereigns, among whom Mausolus and Artemisia are names + familiar to all.--The three cities in Rhodes appear never to have + grown to any importance; that of Rhodes, not built till after the + irruption of Xerxes into Greece, 480, soon eclipsed the others: its + flourishing period began after the death of Alexander. At no + period of early history could the Dorian colonies, or those of the + Aeolians, compete in wealth and commerce with the Ionians. + +7. The shores of the Propontis, the Black sea, and the Palus Maeotis, +were likewise covered with Grecian settlements. Nearly all these were +colonies of the city of Miletus alone, and were, without exception, all +of them the marts of a prosperous trade. Although the date of each +cannot be precisely defined, they must have arisen between the eighth +and sixth centuries before the Christian era. They were not only +sovereigns of the Black sea, but likewise extended their trade over the +whole of southern Russia, and eastward to the regions beyond the Caspian +sea; that is, to great Bukharia. + + On the Propontis stood Lampsacus (adjoining the Hellespont) and + Cyzicus, on an island connected with the continent by means of + bridges. The latter town certainly was one of the most beautiful + and flourishing cities of Asia; but this did not occur until the + Roman age, and was in consequence of the fostering protection of + the Romans.--Opposite to Cyzicus, on the Thracian coast, was + Perinthus, subsequently called Heraclea; at the mouth of the + Thracian Bosporus stood Byzantium, over against which was + Chalcedon. The prosperity of all these towns affords sufficient + proof of the skill with which sites were chosen for the + establishment of colonies. + + HEYNE, _Antiquities Byzantina: Commentationes duae_, 1809. The first + of which contains the fragments of the earlier history of + Byzantium. + + The colonies of the Black sea were: on the southern coast of + Bithynia, Heraclea, in the territory of the Maryandini. This place + preserved its republican constitution amid frequent broils and + revolutions, brought about by the oligarchic and democratic + factions, until about B. C. 370, when the democrats having gained + the upper hand, a path was opened to Clearchus, who became tyrant, + and abrogated the senate, ([Greek: boule?]) the family of the + tyrant continued for a long time in possession of power, after he + himself had been murdered by two disciples of Plato.--In + Paphlagonia was Sinope, the most powerful of all the Grecian + settlements on the Black sea, of which it long held the + sovereignty. The freedom and independence of this place lasted to + about 100, when it fell under the dominion of the kings of Pontus, + and afterwards under that of the Romans. The principal source from + which it derived its wealth were the shoals of migratory fish + ([Greek: pelamydes],) which, issuing from the Palus Maeotis, spread + along the shore of the Black sea down to the Thracian Bosporus.--In + Pontus was Amisus, the mother city of Trapezus, and which shared + the fate of Sinope.--On the eastern coast stood the cities of + Phasis, Dioscurias, and Phanagoria: this last was the principal + mart of the slave trade, and, during the Macedonian period, the + staple for Indian commodities imported across the Oxus and the + Caspian sea.--In the Chersonesus Taurica stood Panticapaeum, capital + city of the little Grecian kingdom of Bosporus, whose kings (among + whom Spartacus, about 439, and more especially Leucon, about 350, + are celebrated) remained in alliance with Athens till Mithridates + the Great laid there the foundation of his dominion.--On the + northern coast was the city of Tanais, on the mouth of a river of + the same name at the bottom of the Palus Maeotis. Olbia was situated + at the mouth of the Borysthenes. These two places, and Olbia in + particular, were of the highest importance for the inland trade, + which issuing from thence in a northern and easterly direction, was + extended to the very centre of Asia.--The colonies of the western + coast, such as Apollonia, Tomi, and Salmidessus, were of less + notoriety. + +8. The coast of Thrace and Macedonia, washed by the Aegaean sea, was +likewise covered with Grecian colonies, from various cities, and +especially from Corinth and Athens. The Athenians having obtained in the +Persian war the sovereignty of the sea, endeavoured to establish their +dominion in this part of the world; hence the cities in that quarter +were closely implicated in the quarrels and wars excited, first by the +jealousy between Sparta and Athens, and afterwards by that which sprang +up between Athens and Macedonia, in the reign of Philip. + + On the Thracian coast of the Chersonesus, regarded as the key of + Europe, and ranging along the Hellespont, were the towns of Sestos, + Cardia, and Aegospotamos; farther to the west stood Maronea and + Abdera, the latter a colony of Teos. Of far greater importance, + however, were the towns on the Macedonian coast, Amphipolis, + Chalcis, Olynthus, Potidaea. The first of these towns, founded about + B. C. 464, was a colony from Athens, which endeavoured to keep it + in a state of dependence. Chalcis was a colony from a city of the + same name in Euboea. In 470 it was dependent on Athens; but in 432, + the inhabitants having raised the standard of rebellion, forsook + their houses and voluntarily withdrew to Olynthus.--Olynthus + derived its name from the founder, one of the sons of Hercules: in + the course of time it ranked among the most powerful cities of + Thrace, although it was tributary to the Athenians. It took a share + in the war between Athens and Sparta, and continued to be a + flourishing city until 348, when it was taken by Philip of Macedon, + and destroyed.--Potidaea was a colony of Corinth, from which it + received annual magistrates, ([Greek: epidemiourgoi],) having + become tributary to Athens after the Persian war, it revolted in + 431: obliged to yield to the Athenian arms, its inhabitants were + expelled, and their place supplied by an Athenian colony. It now + became a possession of Athens, and remained so till it was taken by + Philip in 358. + +9. The Grecian settlements westward of the mother country were, almost +without exception, made at a later period than those in the Aegean and +Black seas: they reached nevertheless to an equal degree of splendour; +and though their trade was not so extensive, it was equally profitable: +these colonies not only rivalled those we have above described, in +wealth, but surpassed them in power, being generally characterized by +the wisdom and prudence displayed in their respective constitutions. The +foundation of most of them may be dated between B. C. 750 and 650; +consequently at a period when all the cities in the mother country had +already been republicanized: and at a time when there could be no lack +of domestic troubles, which would furnish sufficient motives for +emigration. + + 1. Grecian settlements in Lower Italy. The most numerous and + important of these were scattered around the bay of Tarentum; they + extended likewise along the western coast of Italy up to Naples. + These colonies were variously traced to the Dorian, Achaean, and + Ionian families: they were likewise distinguished by political + characteristics, the government in the Dorian settlements being + generally more aristocratic, in the rest more democratic: it must + be observed, however, that, with respect to the various revolutions + which the respective constitutions underwent, it is hardly possible + to give any general information, excepting so far as regards the + earliest times. Of Dorian origin were Tarentum, and its colonies + Heraclea and Brundusium. Of Achaean origin were Sybaris and Croton, + together with the colonies of the latter, Laus, Metapontum, + Posidonia; which last founded in its turn, Terina, Caulonia, and + Pandosia. Of Ionian origin were Thurii, (built on the site where + Sybaris had formerly stood,) Rhegium, Elea, Cumae, and its branch + settlement of Neapolis. Locri Epizephyrii, a colony of the Locri + Ozolae, may be regarded as an Aeolian city. The most remarkable of + these cities in respect of general history are: + + _a._ Tarentum, founded by the Parthenii, from Sparta, about 707. It + waged several wars with the aboriginal tribes in the vicinity, the + Messapians, Lucanians, etc. and grew to be one of the richest and + most powerful of the maritime towns. The brilliant period of + Tarentum appears to have fallen between 500 and 400. Excess of + wealth subsequently introduced luxury, which extinguished the + national spirit. Nevertheless Tarentum preserved its independence + until 273, when, after the war with Pyrrhus, it fell under the + Roman dominion. The constitution was originally a moderate + aristocracy; but was commuted soon after the Persian war into a + democracy, which was, however, curbed by prudent restrictions. + Tarentum had its senate, ([Greek: boule],) without whose consent + war could not be undertaken; its magistrates elected half by lot, + half by majority of votes given in the assemblies of the commons. + Among its most celebrated citizens is reckoned the Pythagoraean + Archytas, who, after the year B. C. 390, was frequently at the head + of the state, filling the offices of general and supreme + magistrate. The constitution appears to have preserved its form + until the Roman period, although the national spirit was greatly + corrupted by a luxury almost exceeding the limits of credibility. + + _b._ Croton, founded 710 by the Achaeans, under the guidance of + Myscellus from Rhype in Achaia. This city must have attained to + very great power during the very first century of its existence; + since in the battle of Sagra against the Locrians, which may with + probability be dated about 600, the Crotoniates were able to set on + foot an army of 120,000 men. Neither does the defeat which they + there suffered appear to have debilitated the settlement for any + length of time; for in 510, with nearly the same number of forces, + they attacked the Sybarites, and destroyed their city. The original + constitution was, no doubt, a moderate democracy; but we are + unacquainted with the details of its organization. Pythagoras was + the reformer of customs, moral and political, not only at Croton, + but in several other of the Italico-Greek cities. This philosopher + arrived at Croton about 540, and there laid the foundation of the + league or secret association named after him; the object of which + was, not to change the form of government in the Italian cities, + but to create men capable of managing the helm of state. This + reform and influence of the Pythagoraeans lasted about thirty years, + when their order underwent the same fate as generally befalls a + secret association founded with a political view. Probably about + 510 the Pythagoraeean league was broken asunder by the democratic + faction under Cylon. The consequence was universal anarchy, not + only in Croton, where, about 494, a certain Clinias usurped the + supreme power, but likewise in the other cities: these disorders, + however, were quelled by the intervention of the Achaeans; and the + Achaean colonies not only adopted the laws of their mother cities, + but likewise soon afterwards signed a league in the temple of + Jupiter Homorius, about 460: it appears that Croton, having already + recovered from the blow it had received, was at the head of this + league. In this happy posture affairs remained till about 400. + After the kings of Syracuse had commenced their attacks on Magna + Graecia, Croton was repeatedly captured; as in B. C. 389 by + Dionysius I. and about 321; and again, in 299, by Agathocles. + Finally, after the war with Pyrrhus, 277, it became dependent on + Rome. + + _c._ Sybaris was founded about 720, like the foregoing, by the + Achaeans, who were mingled with Troezenians: this settlement existed + till 510, when it was destroyed by Croton. Soon after its + foundation it became one of the most extensive, populous, and + luxurious cities, so much so, that the effeminacy of the Sybarites + became proverbial. Sybaris appears to have been at the height of + her prosperity from about 600-550; she then possessed a respectable + territory, comprising four of the neighbouring tribes, and + twenty-five cities or places. The extraordinary fertility of the + soil, and the admission of all strangers to the rights of + citizenship, tended to increase the population so much, that + Sybaris, in the war against Croton, is said to have brought into + the field 300,000 men. The vast wealth possessed, not only by + Sybaris, but by the other cities in this quarter, was probably + derived from the great trade in oil and wine carried on with Africa + and Gaul: that such was the case at Agrigentum we know with + certainty. The constitution of Sybaris was likewise, it appears, a + moderate democracy: towards the year 510 one Telys took possession + of the supreme power, and drove out five hundred of the optimates, + who fled to Croton. The Crotoniates received the exiles, and the + Sybarites having put to death their ambassadors, a war was kindled + between the two cities, and ended in 510 by the defeat of the + Sybarites and the destruction of their city. + + _d._ Thurii, founded near the site of ancient Sybaris in 446 by + Athens, although the inhabitants were of mixed origin; a + circumstance which gave rise at first to many domestic broils, the + citizens disputing as to who was the real founder; at last, 433, + the Delphian oracle declared the city to be a colony of Apollo. The + constitution was at first a moderate democracy; but this was soon + converted into an oligarchy, all the power and the best lands + having been taken possession of by the Sybarite families who had + joined the settlement. The Sybarites were, however, again expelled, + and Thurii grew into importance by the confluence of several new + colonies out of Greece; its constitution was meliorated by the + adoption of the laws of Charondas of Catana. The principal enemies + of the Thurians were the Lucanians, by whom they were beaten, 390. + The desultory attacks of that tribe obliged them, 286, to crave the + assistance of the Romans, which soon after afforded the Tarentines + an excuse for attacking them. Thurii now formed a part of the Roman + dependencies, and after suffering much in the Carthaginian wars, + was at last, B. C. 190, occupied by a Roman colony. + + _e._ Locri Epizephyrii. The question of their origin is subject to + dispute: the causes of this uncertainty are, that here, as in most + other of the cities, various bands of colonists arrived at various + times, and those bands themselves were composed of a mixture of + several Grecian stocks. The chief colony was sent out, B. C. 683, + by the Locri Ozolae. After suffering much from violent internal + commotions, Locri found, about 660, a lawgiver in Zaleucus, whose + institutions remained more than two centuries inviolate. The + constitution was aristocratic, the administration being in the + hands of a hundred families. The supreme magistrate was called + cosmopolis. The senate consisted of a thousand members, probably + elected from the commons, with whom resided, either wholly or + partially, the legislative power. The maintenance of the laws was, + as in other Grecian cities, committed to the nomophylaces. Locri + was certainly neither so wealthy nor so luxurious as the cities + above mentioned; but she was honourably distinguished by the good + manners and quiet conduct of her citizens, who were contented with + their government. The flourishing period of this city lasted till + the time of Dionysius II. who having been driven out of Syracuse, + fled with his dependents to Locri, the native country of his + mother: by his insolence and licentiousness of manners the city was + brought to the verge of ruin; after his return to Syracuse, 347, + the Locrians avenged their wrongs upon his family. Locri afterward + maintained its recovered independence until the time of Pyrrhus, + who, 277, placed a garrison in the town; the Locrians, however, put + the troops to the sword, and passed over to the Roman side: the + city was in consequence sacked by Pyrrhus in 275. From that time + Locri remained a confederate town dependent on Rome, and suffered + much in the second Punic war. + + _f._ Rhegium, a colony from Chalcis in Euboea, 668: here also the + government was aristocratic, the supreme power being in the hands + of a council of a thousand men, selected only from Messenian + families, which had joined the original settlers. Hence arose an + oligarchy, of which Anaxilaus took advantage to assume the sole + dominion, 494, in which he was succeeded by his sons. These having + been driven out, 464, commotions ensued, which, after a time, were + quelled by adopting the laws of Charondas. Rhegium now enjoyed a + period of happiness, which lasted till B. C. 392, when it was + captured and destroyed by Dionysius I. Dionysius II. restored it in + some measure; but in 281 the city was taken possession of by a + Roman legion, who being sent for the purpose of garrisoning the + place, murdered the inhabitants. The soldiers were punished with + death, 271; but Rhegium thenceforth remained in a state of + dependence upon Rome. + + _g._ Cumae, founded as early as 1030, from Chalcis in Euboea. This + city attained at an early period to a high degree of power and + prosperity; its territory being of considerable extent, its navy + respectable, and Neapolis and Zancle (or Messana) among its + colonies. The government was a moderate aristocracy: this + constitution was subverted about 544, by the tyrant Aristodemus; + but restored after his assassination. Cumae was subject to repeated + annoyances from the petty Italian nations; and in 564 she was + invaded and defeated by the Etruscans and Daunians combined; in 474 + she beat the Etruscans at sea: but in 420 was captured by the + Campanians; together with whom she became a dependent of Rome in + 345. Cumae, nevertheless, in consequence of its harbour of Puteoli, + preserved a share of importance, even under the Roman dominion. + + HEYNE, _Prolusiones 16 de civitatum Graecarum per magnam Graeciam et + Siciliam institutis et legibus_. Collected in his _Opuscula_, vol. + vii. + + 2. Grecian settlements in Sicily. These occupied the eastern and + southern shores of the island: they were founded in the same period + as those of Magna Graecia, and belonged partly to the Dorian, partly + to the Ionian stocks. Of Dorian origin were Messana and Tyndaris, + from Messene; Syracuse, who in her turn founded Acrae, Casmenae, and + Camarina, from Corinth; Hybla and Thapsus from Megara; Segesta from + Thessaly; Heraclea Minoa from Crete; Gela, which founded + Agrigentum, from Rhodes; and Lipara, on the small island of that + name, from Cnidus. Of Ionian origin were Naxus, the founder of + Leontini; Catana and Tauromenium, from Chalcis; Zancle, (after its + occupation by Messenian colonists, called Messana,) founded by + Cumae, and in its turn founder of Himera and Mylae. The most + remarkable of these towns in ancient history are: + + _a._ Syracuse, the most powerful of all the Greek colonies, and + consequently that concerning which our information is the most + copious. The history of Syracuse, on which, as that town was for a + long time mistress of the greatest part of the island, depends + nearly the whole history of Sicily, comprises four periods. 1. From + the foundation, B. C. 735, to Gelon, 484; a space of two hundred + and fifty-one years. During this period Syracuse was a republic, + but does not appear to have risen to any very great height of + power: yet she founded the colonies of Acrae, 665, Casmenae, 645, and + Camarina, 600. The assistance of her parent city, Corinth, and + Corcyra, alone prevented her falling a prey to Hippocrates, + sovereign of Gela; and even then she was obliged to cede Camarina, + 497. The constitution was aristocratic; but not free from domestic + troubles. The administration was in the hands of the opulent, + ([Greek: gamoroi?]) but these were, about 485, expelled by the + democratic faction and their own mutinous slaves. They fled to + Casmenae, and by the help of Gelon, sovereign of Gela, were restored + to their homes; Gelon retaining the power in his own hands. 2. From + Gelon to the expulsion of Thrasybulus, 484-466. The three brothers, + Gelon, Hiero, and Thrasybulus, successively ruled over Syracuse. + Gelon, 484-477. He was at once the founder of the greatness of + Syracuse, and of his own power: this he effected partly by + increasing the population, bringing in new inhabitants from other + Greek cities, and partly by the great victory he won over the + Carthaginians, in alliance with the Persians, 480. At this early + period Syracuse was so powerful, both by sea and by land, as to + justify Gelon in claiming the office of generalissimo of Greece, + when Sparta and Athens came to solicit his aid. His beneficent + reign not only gained him the love of the Syracusans during his + life, but likewise procured him heroic honours after death at the + hands of a grateful people. He died in 477, and was succeeded by + his brother Hiero I. who had till then ruled over Gela. The reign + of this prince was splendid, his court was brilliant, and a + fostering protection was extended to arts and sciences. Hiero's + power strengthened by the establishment of new citizens, both in + Syracuse and its subordinate towns of Catana and Naxus, whose + original inhabitants are translated to Leontini.--Wars waged + against Thero, 476, and his son Thrasidaeus, tyrants of Agrigentum: + after the expulsion of Thrasidaeus, that town forms an alliance with + Syracuse; the Syracusan fleet sent to the assistance of Cumae, wins + a victory over the Etruscans. Hiero, dying in 467, was succeeded by + his brother Thrasybulus, who, after a short reign of eight months, + was expelled for his cruelty by the Syracusans and the confederate + cities. 3. From the expulsion of Thrasybulus to the elevation of + Dionysius I.; Syracuse a free democratic state: from 466-405. + Reestablishment of republican forms of government in Syracuse and + the other Grecian cities; accompanied, however, with many + commotions and civil wars, proceeding from the expulsion of the new + citizens and the restoration of the ancient inhabitants to their + property.--Increasing power and prosperity of Syracuse, who is now + at the head of the confederate Grecian cities in the island, and + soon endeavours to convert her precedence into supremacy. The new + democratic constitution quickly suffers from the diseases incident + to that form of government; a vain attempt is made to apply a + remedy by the introduction of the petalismus, B. C. 454; in the + mean time the Siculi, aboriginal inhabitants of Sicily, unite in + closer league under their leader Ducetius; attempting to expel the + Greeks, 451, they engage the Syracusans in reiterated wars; the + arms of Syracuse are successful, her authority is confirmed by the + subjection of the ambitious Agrigentum, 446, and by her naval + victory over the Etruscans. First but unsuccessful attempt of the + Athenians to interpose in the domestic affairs of Sicily, by siding + with Leontini against Syracuse, 427; eleven years afterward occurs + the great expedition against Syracuse, 415-413, caused by the + disputes between Segesta and Selinus; the expedition ends in the + total rout of the Athenian fleet and army, (see below,) and the + power of Syracuse reaches its zenith. A constitutional reform takes + place, 412, brought about by Diocles, whose laws were subsequently + adopted by several other of the Sicilian cities. The magistrates + were chosen by lot. The rest of the laws, which appear to have had + reference to the criminal code, were the production of a committee + over which Diocles presided; these enactments were so beneficial to + Syracuse, that the author of them was honoured with a temple after + his death. Yet as early as 410, a renewal of the differences + between Segesta and Selinus afforded a pretext for war with + Carthage, from whom the Segestani had besought assistance; by this + war the whole state of affairs in Sicily was subverted. The rapid + strides made by the Carthaginians, who, under the command of + Hannibal the son of Gisgo, took, 409, Selinus and Himera, and even + Agrigentum, 406, engendered domestic factions and commotions within + Syracuse; and amid those disorders the crafty Dionysius succeeded + first in obtaining the office of general, and then, after + supplanting his colleagues, the sovereign power of Syracuse, 405. + 4. From Dionysius I. to the Roman occupation, 405-212. Dionysius + I. 405-368. Ominous commencement of his reign, by a defeat at Gela + and the mutiny of his troops.--A plague wasting the Carthaginian + army, he is enabled to patch up a peace, B. C. 405, by which it is + agreed, that Carthage, besides her territory in the island, shall + retain all the conquests made during the war, together with Gela + and Camarina. But the project of expelling the Carthaginians out of + Sicily, in order to subject the whole island, and to fall upon + Magna Grecia, kindles a long series of wars both with Carthage and + the cities of Magna Grecia. Second war with Carthage against + Hannibal and Himilco, 398-392. Dionysius loses all that he before + had conquered, and is himself besieged in Syracuse; but a plague + once more attacking the Carthaginians, rescues him from his + predicament, 396; deeds of hostility continued notwithstanding till + 392, when a peace was signed, by which Carthage ceded the town of + Tauromenium.--From 394, desultory attacks on the confederate + Grecian cities in Lower Italy, particularly on Rhegium, the chief + seat of the Syracusan emigrants, which, after repeated invasions, + is at last compelled to yield, 387. Third war with Carthage, 383, + against Mago; Dionysius wins a victory, which is however followed + by a greater defeat; and the war ends the same year by the adoption + of a peace, according to which each party is to retain what he then + had; the Halycus is fixed as the boundary line; so that Selinus and + a portion of the territory of Agrigentum remain in the hands of the + Carthaginians. Fourth war: inroad upon the Carthaginian states; it + ends, however, in the signing of a treaty. The decision of these + wars generally depended on the side taken by the Siculi, the most + powerful aboriginal race in Sicily. Dionysius I. having died by + poison, 368, was succeeded by Dionysius II. his eldest son by one + of his two wives, Doris of Locri, but under the guardianship of his + step-uncle Dio, the brother of Dionysius's other wife Aristomache. + Neither Dio or his friend Plato, who was three times invited to + Syracuse, were able to improve the character of a prince whose mind + had been corrupted by bad education.--Dio is banished, 360. He + returns, 357, and, in the absence of Dionysius, takes possession of + Syracuse, all but the citadel. Dionysius now has recourse to + stratagem; he excites in the city distrust of Dio, and foments + dissension between him and his general Heraclidas; meanwhile he + himself withdraws to Italy, taking with him his treasures. Dio is + compelled to retire from the city, which is sacked by the troops + garrisoned in the citadel; hereupon the Syracusans themselves fetch + back Dio; he possesses himself of the citadel and wishes to restore + the republican government, but soon falls a victim to party spirit, + being murdered by Callipus, B. C. 354, who usurped the government + till 353, when he is driven out by Hipparinus, a brother of + Dionysius, who keeps possession till 350. After ten years' absence, + Dionysius II. by a sudden attack, becomes once more master of the + city, 346. The tyranny of this prince, and the treachery of Icetas + of Gela, whom the Syracusans called in to their assistance, but who + leagues himself with the Carthaginians, and the formidable + attempts of the latter, compel the citizens to apply to the mother + city Corinth: Corinth sends to their assistance Timoleon with a + small force, 345. Rapid change of affairs wrought by Timoleon: he + beats Icetas and the Carthaginians: in 343 Dionysius is forced to + deliver up the citadel and evacuate the country; he retires to + Corinth, where he leads a private life. Restoration of the + republican government, not only in Syracuse, where the laws of + Diocles are reinstituted, but also in the rest of the Grecian + cities: the revolution confirmed by a great victory over the + Carthaginians, 340. In the midst of the execution of his plans + Timoleon dies, 337, the most splendid example of a republican that + history affords! From 337-317; almost a chasm in the history of + Syracuse. Wars with Agrigentum; the usurpation of Sosistratus, + disturbs the peace, both external and internal. The character of + the Syracusans was already too foully corrupted for one to expect + that liberty could again be established among them, without the + personal superintendence of a Timoleon. They deserved the fate that + befell them, when, in 317, that daring adventurer Agathocles + assumed the sovereign power, which he maintained till 289. Renewal + of the plan for expelling the Carthaginians from the island, and + subjecting Magna Graecia. Hence arises a new war with Carthage, in + which Agathocles is defeated, 311, and besieged in Syracuse: by a + bold stroke he passes over into Africa, accompanied by part of his + fleet and army, and there with general success prosecutes the war + until 307: the insurrection of most of the Grecian cities in Sicily + recalls him from the theatre of war; his views in Africa are + consequently defeated. In the peace of 306 both parties retain what + they had at the beginning of the war. The wars in Italy are + confined to the sacking of Croton, and a victory won over the + Bruttii; and are rather predatory expeditions than regular wars. In + the year 289, Agathocles died by poison, and his murderer, Maenon, + seized the power; he is expelled by the general Icetas, and flies + over to the Carthaginians. Icetas rules as pretor till 278, when, + in his absence, the government is usurped by Thynion, who meets + with a rival in the person of Sosistratus; in the mean while the + mercenaries of Agathocles (the Mamertini) possess themselves of + Messana, and the Carthaginians press forward to the very gates of + Syracuse. The Syracusans invite Pyrrhus of Epirus over from Italy; + that prince takes possession of the whole of Sicily as far as + Lilybaeum; but having by his haughtiness incurred general hatred and + disgust, he is obliged to evacuate the island, B. C. 275. The + Syracusans now appoint Hiero, a descendant of the ancient royal + family, to the office of general: after defeating the Mamertini he + is called to the throne, 269. At the breaking out of the war + between Carthage and Rome, the new king forsakes his alliance with + Carthage, and, passing over to the Roman side, thereby purchases a + long and tranquil reign until 215, when he dies of old age. Under + this wise prince Syracuse enjoyed a degree of happiness and + prosperity which none of her demagogues had been able to effect. + After his death the Carthaginian party became predominant; + Hieronymus the grandson of Hiero is murdered, 214, and Hannibal's + intrigues enable the Carthaginian party to keep the upper hand, by + contriving to place at the head of affairs his friends Hippocrates + and Epicydes, who entangle Syracuse in a war with Rome; and the + city, after a long siege, celebrated by the inventions of + Archimedes, is brought to ruin, 212.--The history of Syracuse is a + practical compendium of politics: what other state ever underwent + so many and such various revolutions? + + The history of Syracuse was at an early period disfigured by + partiality. For the topography, see # BARTEL'S _Letters from + Calabria and Sicily_, vol. iii. with a plan. + + # A. ARNOLD, _History of Syracuse, from its foundation to the + overthrow of liberty by Dionysius_. Gotha, 1816. + + MITFORD, _History of Greece_: the fourth volume contains the + history of Syracuse, and a defence of the elder Dionysius. It would + seem that even now it is difficult to write this history in an + impartial spirit. + + _b._ Agrigentum, a colony of Gela, founded 582. The first city of + Sicily next to Syracuse, of which it was frequently the rival. Its + first constitution was that of the mother city; that is to say, + Dorian or aristocratic. It fell, however, soon after its + foundation, under the dominion of tyrants; the first of whom + noticed in history is Phalaris, who flourished probably 566-534. + He was succeeded by Alcmanes, 534-488, who was followed by + Alcander, an indulgent ruler, in whose reign the wealth of + Agrigentum seems to have already been considerable. More renowned + than the foregoing was Theron, the contemporary and stepfather of + Gelon; he ruled from B. C. 488-472: in conjunction with Gelon he + routed the Carthaginian army, 480, and subjected Himera. His son + and successor, Thrasydaeus, was beaten by Hiero and expelled, 470; + whereupon the Agrigentines, as allies of Syracuse, introduced a + democracy. The period following, 470-405, is that in which + Agrigentum, blessed with political freedom, attained the highest + degree of public prosperity. She was one of the most opulent and + luxurious cities in the world, and in the display of public + monuments one of the most magnificent. For her wealth she was + indebted to the vast trade in oil and wine that she carried on with + Africa and Gaul, in neither of which were those productions + hitherto naturalized. In the year 446 the Agrigentines, excited by + envy, fell upon the Syracusans, but were defeated. In the war with + Athens they took no share; but in the Carthaginian invasion of + Sicily, 405, Agrigentum was taken and destroyed; from this blow she + recovered but slowly, and never effectually. By Timoleon she was, + in some measure, restored, 340; and under Agathocles, 307, was able + to head the cities combined against him, but was beaten. After the + death of Agathocles, a tyrant, by the name of Phintias, took + possession of the sovereign power; and was attacked, 278, by Icetas + of Syracuse. At the breaking out of the first Punic war, Agrigentum + was used by the Carthaginians as a military depot; but was taken by + the Romans as early as 262. + + _c._ The fate of the other Sicilian cities was more or less + dependent on that of Agrigentum and Syracuse: they all had + originally republican forms of government; but though the Ionian + colonies had a celebrated legislator in the person of Charondas, + (probably about 660,) they had the same fortune with the rest, of + being frequently oppressed by tyrants, either from among their own + citizens, or by those of Syracuse, who often used to drive out the + old inhabitants, and introduce a new population more devoted to + their interest: hence must have sprung manifold wars. The foregoing + history shows how grievously they likewise suffered in the wars + between Syracuse and Carthage. Following the dates of their + respective foundations, they may be thus arranged: Zancle, (after + 664, known by the name of Messana,) the earliest, though of + uncertain date; Naxus, 736; Syracuse, Hybla, 735; Leontini, Catana, + 730; Gela, 690; Acrae, B. C. 665; Casmenae, 645; Himera, 639; + Selinus, 630; Agrigentum, 582. The dates of the rest cannot be + ascertained with any degree of accuracy. + + 3. On the other islands and coasts of the Mediterranean we meet + with various insulated Grecian settlements; in Sardinia, the cities + Garalis and Olbia: the date of their foundation unknown; in + Corsica, Alaria, (or Alalia,) a colony of Phocaeans founded, 561; + hither the inhabitants of the mother city betook themselves in + 541; and subsequently, after the naval engagement with the + Etruscans and Carthaginians, withdrew, some to Rhegium, others to + Massilia, 536. + + 4. On the coast of Gaul stood Massilia, founded by the Phocaeans, + who had been driven out of Corsica after the above mentioned naval + engagement, 536; or rather, there was on the same site an old + settlement which was now increased. Massilia rapidly grew in wealth + and power. Our information respecting the wars she waged on the sea + against Carthage and the Etruscans is but of a general kind. Her + territory on the main land, although rich in wine and oil, was + limited in extent; she established, nevertheless, several colonies + along the shores of Spain and Gaul, among which Antipolis, Nicaea, + and Olbia are the best known. The trade of Massilia was carried on + partly by sea, and partly by land, through the interior of Gaul. + The constitution was a moderate aristocracy. The chief power was in + the hands of six hundred individuals; the members of this council + were called timuchi, they held their places for life, were obliged + to be married men with families, and descended at least to the + third generation from citizens. At the head of this council stood + fifteen men, three of whom were chief magistrates. As early as 218 + Massilia was in alliance with Rome, under whose fostering + protection she grew in prosperity; her freedom was preserved to her + until the war between Pompey and Caesar; having sided with the + former, she was stormed, 49, by Caesar's army. She soon retrieved + herself, and, under the reign of Augustus, Massilia was the seat of + literature and philosophy, in which public lectures were there + given as at Athens. + + AUG. BRUEKNER, _Historia Reipublicae Massiliensium_. Gotting. 1826. + A prize essay. + + 5. On the Spanish coast stood Saguntum, ([Greek: Zakunthos],) a + colony from the island of Zacynthus; the date of its foundation is + undetermined. It became opulent by its commerce; but at the opening + of the second Punic war, B.C. 219, was destroyed by Hannibal, as + being an ally of Rome. + + 6. On the coast of Africa lay Cyrene, founded at the suggestion of + the Delphic oracle in 631, by the island of Thera. The constitution + was at first monarchical. Kings: Battus I. the founder, 631-591. + In whose family the sceptre remained. Arcesilaus I. _d._ 575. Under + the reign of his successor, Battus II. surnamed the happy, (_d._ + 554,) the colony was much strengthened by new comers from Greece. + The Libyans, bereaved of their lands, seek for help at the hands + of Apries, who is defeated by the Cyrenaeans, 570, and in + consequence loses his crown.--Arcesilaus II. _d._ 550. Rebellion of + his brothers, and foundation of Barca, an independent town ruled by + its own separate kings. Secession of the Libyan subjects. He is put + to death by his brother or friend Learchus, who in his turn is + poisoned by Eryxo the widow of Arcesilaus. Her son, Battus III. + surnamed the lame, (_d._ about 529,) succeeds to the throne. The + royal power confined within narrow limits by the laws of Demonax of + Mantinea: the king retains nothing more than the revenue and + priestly office. His son Arcesilaus III. becomes of his own accord + tributary to the Persians; in conjunction with his mother, + Pheretime, he seeks to reestablish the regal supremacy, but is + expelled; nevertheless he regains possession of Cyrene. In + consequence of his cruelty he is assassinated in Barca, about 516. + Pheretime seeks for help from the Persian satrap of Egypt, + Aryandes, who by craft gets possession of Barca; the inhabitants + are carried away and translated into Bactria, 512. Soon after + Pheretime dies. It seems probable that another Battus IV. and + Arcesilaus IV. must have reigned at Cyrene, to whom Pindar's fourth + and fifth Pythian Odes are addressed: their history, however, is + veiled in obscurity. Cyrene then received a republican + constitution, probably somewhere about 450; but we are unacquainted + with the internal details of the government. Yet though Plato was + invited by the Cyrenaeans to give them laws, and though they had for + their legislator Democles of Arcadia, they appear never to have + been blessed with a good and stable constitution. Not only is + mention often made of domestic troubles, as in 400, when amid the + uproar excited by Ariston most of the aristocratic party were cut + off; but we likewise frequently meet with tyrants. Concerning the + external affairs of this state we know nothing but a few general + facts relative to the border wars with Carthage. Subsequently to + Alexander, Cyrene became a part of the Egyptian kingdom; so early + as the reign of Ptolemy I. it was added to that realm by his + general Ophellas, about B.C. 331. It now continued to receive + various rulers from the family of the Ptolemies (see below) until + the reign of Ptolemy Physcon, when it became a separate state, the + bastard son of that prince, Apion by name, having made it over to + the Romans, 97. Cyrene possessed a considerable share of trade, + consisting partly in the exportation of country produce, more + especially the Silphium, (Laser,) partly in a varied intercourse + with Carthage, Ammonium, and thence with the interior of Africa. + The former splendour and importance of this city and the + neighbouring country are testified by an abundance of most noble + ruins; a more accurate research into which every friend of + antiquity must desire. + + HARDION, _Histoire de Cyrene_, in _Mem. de l'Academie des + Inscriptions_, t. iii. + + J. P. THRIGE, _Historia Cyrenes, inde a tempore quo condita urbs + est, usque ad aetatem, qua in provinciae formam a Romanis redacta + est: particula prior, de initiis coloniae Cyrenen deductae, et + Cyrenes Battiadis regnantibus historia_. Havniae, 1819. The best + work on Cyrene. It is hoped that the author will not disapppoint + our expectations of the second part, which is to contain the period + of republican government. [The whole was completed in 1828. The + learned and ingenious author has neglected no authority whether + ancient or modern, and is particularly cautious and judicious in + his researches.] + + A ray of light has lately, for the first time, been thrown on the + remains still found in Cyrenaica by DELLA CELLA, _Viaggio di + Tripoli_; translated by Spieker, in the # _Journal of the latest + travels by sea and by land_, Sept. 1820. + + W. BEECHEY, _Proceedings to explore the northern coast of Africa + from Tripoli eastward_, 1827. + + F. R. PACHO, _Relation d'un voyage a Marmarique et Cyrenaique_, + 1828. A most accurate description. + + T. EHRENBERG, _Travels through North Africa_, in the years + 1820-1825, by Dr. W. F. Hemprich and Dr. C. G. Ehrenberg. Berlin, + 1828. + + + + +THIRD PERIOD. + +_From the commencement of the Persian wars to the time of Alexander +the Great, B. C. 500-336._ + + + Sources. The chief writers in this period are: For the history of + the Persian wars to the battle of Plataeae, 479, Herodotus. For the + period between 479 and the breaking out of the Peloponnesian war, + we must, in the absence of contemporary authors, consider Diodorus + Siculus as the principal authority.--The beginning of the 11th + book, which commences with the year 480, (the 6th, 7th, 8th, 9th, + and 10th books being lost,) to the middle of the 12th; the + chronology of this author, however, must in several cases be + rectified after Thucydides's summary in lib. i. For the period of + the Peloponnesian war, 431-410, the history of Thucydides is the + capital work; but it must be accompanied by Diodorus, from the + middle of the 12th book to the middle of the 13th.--From the year + 410 to the battle of Mantinea, 362, the principal sources are the + Hellenics of Xenophon, and occasionally his Anabasis and Agesilaus; + together with Diodorus, from the middle of the 13th book to the end + of the 15th. For the years intervening from 362-336, no + contemporary historian has been preserved; Diodorus's 16th book + must therefore here be considered as the chief source: for the + times of Philip, however, recourse may likewise be had to the + speeches of Demosthenes and Aeschines. The Lives of Plutarch and + Nepos often touch upon this period, but cannot be regarded as + authentic sources; of still less authority are the abridged + documents given by Justin and some others. + + The modern authors on this, the brilliant period of Greece, are, of + course, the same as have been enumerated above: (see p. 118.) To + whom must here be added: + + POTTER, _Archaeologia Graeca; or the Antiquities of Greece:_ 2 vols. + 8vo. Lond. 1722. Translated into German by J. J. Rambach, 3 vols. + 1775. + + BARTHELEMY, _Voyage du Jeune Anacharsis en Grece_. (Between the + years B. C. 362 and 338.) Paris, 1788, 5 vols. Accompanied with + charts and plans, illustrating the topography of Athens, etc. This + work is conspicuous for a rare union of good taste and erudition; + unattended, however, with an equal share of critical acumen and a + correct appreciation of antiquity. + + # _History of the Origin, Progress, and Fall of Science in Greece + and Rome_, by C. MEINERS. Gottingen, 1781. It contains also a + delineation of the political state of affairs; but does not extend + beyond the age of Philip. + + The principal works on the monuments of ancient Greece are: + + LE ROY, _Les Ruines des plus beaux Monumens de la Grece_. Paris, + 1758, 2nd edit. 1770, fol. The first in point of time; but far + surpassed by: + + J. STUART, _The Antiquities of Athens measured and delineated_; 3 + vols. Lond. 1762: the 4th vol. published in 1816. In beauty and + accuracy of execution superior to all. + + R. DALTON, _Antiquities and Views of Greece and Egypt_, 1691, fol. + The Egyptian monuments are confined to those of Lower Egypt. + + R. CHANDLER, _Ionian Antiquities_. London, 1796, 1797, 2 vols. fol. + A worthy companion to Stuart. + + CHOISEUL GOUFFIER, _Voyage pittoresque dans la Grece_, vol. i, + 1779: vol. ii, 1809. Confined principally to the islands and Asia + Minor. + +1. From a multitude of small states, never united but continually +distracted by civil broils--and such at the beginning of this period +were the states of Greece--any thing important could hardly be expected +without the occurrence of some external event, which, by rallying the +divided forces round one point, and directing them toward one object, +should hinder them from mutually exhausting one another. It was the +hostile attempt of Persia that first laid the foundation of the future +splendour of Greece; certain states then grew so rapidly in power, that +upon their particular history hinges the general history of all the +rest. + + Causes which led to the Persian war. Share taken by Athens in the + Ionian insurrection and firing of Sardes, B. C. 500. (see above, + p. 98.) Intrigues of Hippias, first with the satraps, and afterwards + at the Persian court itself.--First expedition, that of Mardonius, + thwarted by a storm, 493. + +2. Not even the summons to acknowledge the Persian authority was +sufficient to rouse the national energy of the Greeks. All the islands, +and most of the states on the main land, submitted to the yoke; Sparta +and Athens alone boldly rejected it. The Athenians, unassisted, under +their leader Miltiades, acquainted from his youth with the Persians and +their mode of warfare, and with the superiority of the arms of his +countrymen, became the saviours of Greece. + + Quarrel of Athens and Sparta with Aegina, which sides with the + Persians, 491; and consequent deposition of Demaratus, king of + Sparta, by his colleague Cleomenes. + + Persian expedition of Datis and Artaphernes under the guidance of + Hippias: frustrated by the battle of Marathon, B. C. Sept. 29, + 490, and the failure of an attempt upon Athens. + +3. The immediate consequence of this victory was a naval expedition +against the islands, more particularly Paros, to which Miltiades, out of +a private grudge, persuaded the Athenians. It was undertaken for the +purpose of levying contributions; and seems to have given the Athenians +the first idea of their subsequent dominion of the sea. The Athenians +punished Miltiades for the failure of this expedition, although the +effect of their own folly; yet was this act of injustice a source of +happiness to Athens; as the fall of Miltiades made room for the men who +laid the solid foundation of her glory and greatness. + +4. As usual in every democratic state rising to power, the history of +Athens now becomes that of eminent individuals, standing at the head of +affairs, as generals or demagogues. Themistocles, who united to an +astonishing degree in his own person the most splendid talents of +statesman and general, with a spirit of intrigue, and even of egotism; +and Aristides, whose disinterestedness, even in those days, was singular +at Athens, were the real founders of the power of this commonwealth. +Athens, however, was more indebted to the first than to the latter. + + Rivalry of these two men, 490-486. While Themistocles at the head + of the Athenian fleet prosecutes the design of Miltiades against + the islands, the management of state affairs is confided to + Aristides. On the return, however, of Themistocles as conqueror, + Aristides is by ostracism banished Athens, 486. Themistocles + alone, at the head of affairs, pursues his plan for making Athens + a maritime power. In consequence of a war against the object of + popular hatred, Aegina, B. C. 484, he prevails on the Athenians to + devote the income from the mines to the formation of a navy. While + Athens is thus rising to power, Sparta suffers from the insanity + of one of her kings, Cleomenes, (succeeded in 482 by his half + brother Leonidas,) and the arrogance of the other, Leotychides. + +5. The glory of frustrating the second mighty Persian invasion of Greece +under Xerxes I. belongs to Themistocles alone. Not only his great naval +victory off Salamis, but still more the manner in which he contrived to +work upon his countrymen, proves him to have been the greatest man of +the age, and the deliverer of Greece, now united by one common bond of +interest.--All national leagues are weak in themselves: yet how strong +may even the weakest be made when held together by one great man, who +knows how to animate it with his own spirit! + + Themistocles' plan for the conduct of the war; first, a common + union of all the Hellenic states; a measure which succeeds to a + certain degree, the honour of the command being left to the + Spartans; secondly, the sea made the theatre of war.--Gallant + death of Leonidas with his three hundred Spartans and seven + hundred Thespians, July 6, 480. An example of heroism which + contributes as much to the greatness of Greece as the victory of + Salamis. About the same time naval engagements off Artemisium in + Euboea, with two hundred and seventy-one sail. The leaders of the + Greeks are kept to their posts merely by bribery; the means of + purchasing their services being for the most part furnished by + Themistocles himself.--Athens, deserted by its inhabitants, is + taken and burnt by Xerxes, July 20. Retreat of the Grecian fleet + into the bay of Salamis: revocation of all exiles, Aristides among + the rest.--Politic measures adopted by Themistocles to hinder the + dispirited Greeks from taking flight, and at the same time to + secure to himself, in case of need, an asylum with the Persian + monarch.--Naval engagement and victory off Salamis, Sept. 23, 480, + with three hundred and eighty sail, (one hundred and eighty of + which were Athenian,) against the Persian fleet, already much + weakened: retreat of Xerxes.--Poets and historians have disfigured + these events by fanciful exaggerations: still, however, they may + show us how commonly human weakness is attended with human + greatness! + +6. The victory of Salamis did not conclude the war; but the negotiations +entered into during the winter months with the Persian general, +Mardonius, left in Thessaly, and with the Asiatic Greeks, to excite them +to throw off the yoke, show how far the confidence of the nation in its +own strength had increased. But by the battle fought on land at Plataeae, +under the command of the Spartan, Pausanias, (guardian to Plistarchus, +son of Leonidas,) and the Athenian, Aristides; together with the naval +battle at Mycale on the same day, and the destruction of the Persian +fleet, the Persians are for ever driven from the territory of Greece, +though the war continues for some time longer. + +7. The expulsion of the Persians wrought an entire change in the +internal and external relations of Greece. From being the aggressed the +Greeks became the aggressors; to free their Asiatic countrymen is now +the chief object or pretext for the continuation of a war so profitable; +the chief command of which abides with Sparta until B. C. 470. + + Athens rebuilt and fortified by Themistocles despite of Spartan + jealousy, 478: formation of the Piraeus, an event of still greater + importance, 477.--Naval expedition under Pausanias, accompanied by + Aristides and Cimon, undertaken against Cyprus and Byzantium, for + the purpose of expelling the Persians, 470. Treachery and fall of + Pausanias, 469. In consequence of the Spartans' haughtiness, the + supreme command devolves upon the Athenians. + +8. This transfer of the command to Athens had a decided effect on all +the subsequent relations of Greece, not only because it augmented the +jealousy between Sparta and Athens, but because Athens exercised her +predominance for a purpose entirely different from that of +Sparta.--Establishment of a permanent confederacy, comprising most of +the Grecian states without Peloponnesus, especially the islands, and an +adjustment of the contributions to be annually furnished by each, with +the view of prosecuting the Persian war, and liberating the Asiatic +Greeks from the Persian yoke. Although the common treasury was first +established at Delos, the superintendence of it was confided to Athens; +and such a manager as Aristides was not always to be found.--Natural +consequence of this new establishment: 1. What had hitherto been mere +military precedence, becomes in the hands of Athens a right of +political prescription, and that, as usual, is soon converted +into a sovereignty. Hence her idea of the supremacy of Greece, +([Greek: arche tes Hellados],) as connected with that of the sea, +([Greek: thalassokratia].) 2. The oppression of the Athenians, +sometimes real, at other times presumed, after a short time, rouses the +spirit of discontent and contumacy among several of the confederates: +hence, 3. The gradual formation of a counter league, headed by Sparta, +who maintains her supremacy over the greatest part of the Peloponnesus. + +9. The changes introduced into the internal organization are not to be +determined solely by the palpable alterations made in any of Lycurgus's +or Solon's institutions. In Sparta, the general frame-work of Lycurgus's +constitution subsisted; nevertheless the power was virtually in the +hands of the ephori, whose dictatorial sway placed Sparta in the +formidable posture she now assumed.--At Athens, in proportion as the +importance of foreign relations increased, and amid the protracted +struggles between the heads of the democratic and aristocratic parties, +the real power, under the outward appearance of a democracy, gradually +centered in the hands of the ten annually elected generals, ([Greek: +strategoi],) who with more or less effect played the parts of +demagogues. + + Abrogation of the law that excluded the poorer citizens from + official situations, B. C. 478. + + Expulsion of Themistocles, implicated in the fall of Pausanias, + principally through the intrigues of Sparta: he is first banished + by ostracism, 469, but in consequence of further persecution he + flies over to the Persians, 466. + +10. The following forty years, from 470-430, constitute the flourishing +period of Athens. A concurrence of fortunate circumstances happening +among a people of the highest abilities and promoted by great men, +produced here phenomena, such as have never since been witnessed. +Political greatness was the fundamental principle of the commonwealth; +Athens had been the guardian, and the champion of Greece, and she wished +to appear worthy of herself. Hence in Athens alone were men acquainted +with public splendour, exhibited in buildings, in spectacles, and +festivals, the acquisition of which was facilitated by private +frugality. This public spirit animating every citizen, expanded the +blossoms of genius; no broad line of distinction was anxiously drawn +between private and public life; whatever great, whatever noble was +produced by Athens, sprung up verdant and robust out of this harmony, +this buxom vigour of the state. Far different was the case with Sparta; +there rude customs and laws arrested the development of genius: there +men were taught to die for the land of their forefathers: while at +Athens they learnt to live for it. + +11. Agriculture continued the principal occupation of the citizens of +Attica; other employments were left to the care of slaves. Commerce and +navigation were mainly directed towards the Thracian coast and the Black +sea; the spirit of trade, however, was never the prevailing one. As +affairs of state became more attractive, and men desired to participate +in them, the want of intellectual education began to be felt, and +sophists and rhetoricians soon offered their instruction. Mental +expertness was more coveted than mental knowledge; men wished to learn +how to think and to speak. A poetical education had long preceded the +rise of this national desire; poesy now lost nothing of its value: as +heretofore Homer remained the cornerstone of intellectual improvement. +Could it be that such blossoms would produce other fruits than those +which ripened in the school of Socrates, in the masterpieces of the +tragedians and orators, and in the immortal works of Plato? + +12. These flowers of national genius burst forth in spite of many evils, +inseparable from such a constitution established among such a people. +Great men were pushed aside; others took their places. The loss of +Themistocles was supplied by Miltiades's son Cimon; who to purer +politics united equal talents. He protracted the war against the +Persians in order to maintain the union of the Greeks; and favoured the +aristocratic party at the same time that he affected popularity. Even +his enemies learnt by experience, that the state could not dispense with +a leader who seemed to have entered into a compact for life with +victory. + + Another expedition under Cimon; and victory by sea and land near + the Eurymedon, B. C. 469. He takes possession of the Hellespontine + Chersonesus, 468. Some of the Athenian confederates already + endeavour to secede. Hence, 467, the conquest of Caristus in + Euboea; subjection of Naxos, 466, and from 465-463, siege and + capture of Thasos, under Cimon. The Athenians endeavour to obtain + a firmer footing on the shore of Macedonia; and for that purpose + send out a colony to Amphipolis, 465. + + Great earthquake at Sparta; gives rise to a ten years' war, viz. + the third Messenian war or revolt of the Helots, who fortify + themselves in Ithome, 465-455: in this war the Athenians, at the + instigation of Cimon, send assistance to the Spartans, 461, who + refuse the proffered aid. The democratic party seize the + opportunity of casting on Cimon the suspicion of being in the + interest of Sparta; he is banished by ostracism, 461. + +13. The death of Aristides, and the banishment of Cimon, concur in +elevating Pericles to the head of affairs; a statesman whose influence +had begun to operate as early as 469. Less a general than a demagogue, +he supported himself in authority during forty years, until the day of +his death, and swayed Athens without being either archon or member of +the areopagus. That under him the constitution must have assumed a more +democratic character, is demonstrated by the fact of his exaltation as +leader of the democratic party. The aristocrats, however, contrive until +444 to set up rivals against him in the persons of the military leaders, +Myronides, Tolmidas, and more particularly the elder Thucydides. + + Change in the spirit of administration under Pericles, both in + reference to internal and external relations. A brilliant + management succeeds to the parsimonious economy of Aristides; and + yet, after the lapse of thirty years, the state treasury was + full.--Limitation of the power of the areopagus by Ephialtes, B. + C. 461. The withdrawal of various causes which formerly came under + the jurisdiction of that tribunal must have diminished its right + of moral censorship.--Introduction of the practice of paying + persons who attended the courts of justice. + + With regard to external relations, the precedence of the Athenians + gradually advanced toward supremacy; although their relations with + all the confederates were not precisely the same. Some were mere + confederates; others were subjects.--Augmentation in the imposts + on the confederates, and transfer of the treasury from Delos to + Athens, 461. The jealousy of Sparta and the discontent of the + confederates keep pace with the greatness of Athens. + + Unsuccessful attempt to support by the help of an Athenian fleet + and troops, Inarus of Egypt in his insurrection against the + Persians, 462-458. + + Wars in Greece: the Spartans instigate Corinth and Epidaurus + against Athens. The Athenians, at first defeated near Haliae, in + their turn rout the enemy, 458, and then carry the war against + Aegina, which is subdued, 457. In the new quarrel between Corinth + and Megara respecting their boundaries, the Athenians side with + Megara; Myronides conquers at Cimolia, 457. Expedition of the + Spartans to the support of the Dorians against Phocis; and hence + arises the first rupture between Athens, Sparta, and Boeotia. + First battle of Tanagra, in which the Spartans are victorious in + the same year, 457. The Boeotians, incited by the Spartans, are + in the second battle of Tanagra worsted by Myronides, 456. The + recall of Cimon, at the suggestion of Pericles himself, in + consequence of the first defeat. + +14. Cimon recalled from exile, endeavours to reestablish the domestic +tranquillity of Greece, and at the same time to renew the war against +the Persians. He succeeds in his attempt after the lapse of five years; +and the consequence is a victorious expedition against the Persians. He +defeats their fleet off Cyprus, and routs their army on the Asiatic +coast. The fruit of this victory is the celebrated peace with Artaxerxes +I. (see above, p. 104.) Ere that peace is concluded Cimon dies, too soon +for his country, while occupied with the siege of Citium. + + Termination of the third Messenian war in favour of Sparta, by the + cession of Ithome, B. C. 455. Meantime Athens continues the war + with Peloponnesus; Tolmidas and Pericles making an incursion by + sea on the enemy's territory, 455-454. At the same time Pericles, + by sending out colonies to the Hellespont, endeavours to secure + more firmly the Athenian power in that quarter: a colony is + likewise sent out to Naxos, 453.--Cimon negotiates a truce, which + is adopted first (451) tacitly, afterwards formally, (450,) for + five years. The result of this truce is his victorious expedition + against the Persians, and the consequent peace with that nation. + Although the conditions of the peace prescribed by Cimon were + sometimes infringed, they appear to have been ratified by all + parties. + +15. The conclusion of peace with Persia, glorious as it was, and the +death of the man whose grand political object was to preserve union +among the Greeks, again aroused the spirit of internal strife. For +notwithstanding nearly twenty years intervened before the tempest burst +with all its fury, this period was so turbulent during its course, that +Greece seldom enjoyed universal peace. While Athens by her naval +strength was maintaining her ascendancy over the confederates, and while +some of those confederates were raising the standard of rebellion and +passing over to Sparta, every thing was gradually combining towards the +formation of a counter league, the necessary consequence of which must +have been a war, such as the Peloponnesian. Up to this time Athens was +at the height of her power; she was governed by Pericles, who, in every +thing but the name, was sole ruler during this period, and for that +reason she experienced few of the evils resulting from a democratic +constitution. Who, indeed, could overthrow a demagogue whose presence of +mind, even in the greatest good fortune, never once deserted him; who +knew how to keep alive among his fellow-citizens the conviction that, +however exalted they might be, it was to him alone they were indebted +for it? + + During the five years' truce the sacred war for the possession of + the Delphian oracle took place, and it is given by the Spartans to + the city of Delphi; but after their return is given back again by + the Athenians to the Phocians, B. C. 448. The Athenians commanded + by Tolmidas, are defeated by the Boeotians, 447. This expedition, + undertaken in opposition to the advice of Pericles, contributes to + increase his influence; particularly as he reduces to obedience + the revolted Euboea and Megara, 446. End of the five years' truce + with Sparta; and renewal of hostilities, 445; further warlike + proceedings are repressed by a new thirty years' peace, which + lasts, however, only fourteen years.--Complete suppression of the + aristocratic party, by the banishment of the elder Thucydides, + 444; the whole administration of the state consequently centres in + the hands of Pericles.--Democracy in the confederate states + favoured; forcibly introduced in Samos, which, after a nine + months' siege, is obliged to submit to Pericles, 440.--Commencement + of the war between Corinth and Corcyra, on the subject of Epidamnus, + 436, which the Corcyraeans take possession of after winning a naval + victory, 435. The Athenians take part in the quarrel, and side with + the Corcyraeans, 432. The rupture with Corinth, and the policy of + Perdiccas II. king of Macedonia, lead to the secession of the + Corinthian colony of Potidaea, which previously belonged to the + Athenian confederacy: the war thereby is extended to the Macedonian + coast. Engagement near Potidaea, and siege of that town, 432. The + Corinthians direct their steps to Sparta, and excite the Spartans + to war; which is further accelerated by the attack of the Thebans + upon Plataeae, the confederate of Athens, 431. + +16. The history of the twenty-seven years' war, known by the name of the +Peloponnesian, or great Grecian war, which swept away the fairest +flowers of Greece, is the more deserving attention from its being not +merely a struggle between nations, but likewise against certain forms of +government. The policy of Athens, which to establish or preserve her +influence in foreign states, excited the multitude against the higher +orders, had on all sides given rise to two factions, the democrat or +Athenian, and the aristocrat or Spartan; and the mutual bitterness of +party spirit produced the most violent disorders. + +17. The respective relations of the two head states of Greece to their +confederates, were at this time of a very opposite nature. Athens, as a +naval power, was mistress of most of the islands and maritime cities, +which, as tributary confederates, rendered for the most part a forced +obedience. Sparta, as a land power, was allied with most of the states +on the continent, which had joined her side of their own accord, and +were not subject to tribute. Sparta therefore presented herself as the +deliverer of Greece from the Athenian yoke. + + Confederates of the Athenians: the islands Chios, Samos, Lesbos, all + those of the Archipelago, (Thera and Melos excepted, which stood + neutral,) Corcyra, Zacynthus; the Grecian colonies in Asia Minor, and + on the coast of Thrace and Macedonia; in Greece itself, the cities + of Naupactus, Plataeae, and those of Acarnania.--Confederates of the + Spartans: all the Peloponnesians, (Argos and Achaia excepted, which + stood neutral,) Megara, Locris, Phocis, Boeotia, the cities of + Ambracia and Anactorium, and the island of Leucas. + +18. Sketch of the internal state of Athens and Sparta at this period. +The power of Athens depended mainly on the state of her finances; +without which she could not support a fleet, and without a fleet her +ascendancy over the confederates would of course fall to ground. And +although Pericles, notwithstanding his lavish public expenditure, was +able to enter upon the war with 6,000 talents in the treasury, +experience could not fail to show that, in such a democratic state as +Athens was now become under Pericles, the squandering of the public +money was an unavoidable evil. This evil was produced, however, at +Athens much less by the peculations of individual state officers than by +the demands of the multitude, who for the most part lived at the expense +of the state treasury. On the other hand, Sparta as yet had no finance; +and only began to feel the want of it as she began to acquire a naval +power, and entered upon undertakings more vast than mere incursions. + + Financial system of the Athenians. Revenue: 1. The tribute paid by + the confederates ([Greek: phoroi]) increased by Pericles from four + hundred and sixty to six hundred talents. 2. Income from the + customs, (which were farmed,) and from the mines at Laurium. 3. + The caution money of the non-citizens: ([Greek: metoikoi].) 4. The + taxes on the citizens, ([Greek: eisphorai],) which fell almost + entirely on the rich, more particularly on the first class, the + members of which were not only to bear the burthen of fitting out + the fleet, ([Greek: trierarchiai],) but were likewise to furnish + means for the public festivals and spectacles, ([Greek: + choregiai].) The whole income of the republic at this time was + estimated at 2,000 talents. But the disbursements made to the + numerous assistants at the courts of justice (the principal means + of existence with the poorer citizens, and which, more than any + thing else, contributed to the licentiousness of the democracy and + the oppression of the confederates, whose causes were all brought + to Athens for adjudication,) together with the expenditure for + festivals and spectacles, even at this time, absorbed the greatest + part of the revenue. + + # F. BOEKH, _Public Economy of the Athenians_, 2 parts, Berlin, + 1816. The chief work on the subject. [Ably translated by J. C. + LEWIS, esq. of Christ Church in this university.] + + _Athenian Letters, or the Epistolary Correspondence of an Agent of + the King of Persia, residing at Athens during the Peloponnesian + war._ London, 1798, 2 vols. 4to. The production of several young + authors; first printed, but not published, in 1741. This sketch + comprises, not only Greece, but likewise Persia and Egypt. + +19. First period of the war until the fifty years' peace. Beginning of +the war unsuccessful to Athens during the first three years, under the +conduct of Pericles, in whose defensive plan we may perhaps discern the +infirmities of age. The Athenians, however, suffered less from the +annual inroads of the Spartans than from the plague, to which Pericles +himself at last fell a victim. The alliance of the Athenians with the +kings of Thrace and Macedonia extended the theatre of war; on the other +hand, Sparta had already conceived the idea of an alliance with Persia. + +20. The death of Pericles was, for the next seven years, during which +the place of that great man was supplied by Cleon a currier, followed by +all the evils of an uncurbed democracy. The atrocious decrees with +respect to Mitylene, which after seceding, had been recaptured, and the +insurrection of the Corcyraean populace against the rich, characterized +the party spirit then dominant in Greece better than the few +insignificant events of a war conducted without any plan. Sparta, +however, found in young Brasidas a general, such as are wont to arise in +revolutionary times. His prosecution of the war on the Macedonian coast +might have brought great danger to Athens, had he so early not fallen a +victim to his own gallantry. + + Capture of Amphipolis by Brasidas, and exile of Thucydides, 424. + Engagement near Amphipolis between Brasidas and Cleon; and death + of those two generals, 422. + +21. The peace now concluded for fifty years could not be of long +duration, as many of the confederates on either side were discontented +with its terms. All hope of tranquillity must have been at an end when +the management of Athenian affairs fell into the hands of a youth like +Alcibiades, in whom vanity and artifice held the place of patriotism and +talent, and who thought war the only field in which he could gain +credit. Against him what availed the prudence of Nicias?--Happy was it +for Athens that during the whole of this period Sparta never produced +one man who could match even with Alcibiades! + + Attempt of some states, Corinth especially, to set Argos at the + head of a new confederacy; this measure Athens likewise favours, + 421.--Violation of the peace, 419; the war indirect until 415, and + limited to assisting the confederates on either side.--Alcibiades's + plan of giving Athens the preponderance in Peloponnesus, by an + alliance with Argos, is defeated by the battle of Mantinea, + 417.--Exterminating war of the Athenians waged against the Melians, + who wish to preserve their neutrality, whereas neutrality in the + weaker party now becomes a crime, 416. + +22. Alcibiades's party brings forward at Athens the project of +conquering Sicily, under the pretence of succouring the Segestani +against the Syracusans. This rash expedition, in which the hopes both of +the Athenians and of its instigator Alcibiades were blighted, gave to +Athens the first great blow, from which she never after, even with the +utmost exertion of her strength, recovered; especially as Sparta also +was now become a naval power. + + Early interference of the Athenians with the concerns of the + Sicilian Greeks.--A fleet and army under the command of Nicias, + Lamachus, and Alcibiades, sent against Sicily, 415.--Accusation, + recall, and flight of Alcibiades to Sparta: formal rupture of the + peace by an inroad of the Spartans into Attica, where they fortify + Decelea, 414. Unsuccessful siege of Syracuse, 414; and total + annihilation of the Athenian fleet and army by the assistance of + the Spartans under Gylippus, 413. + +23. Fatal as in the present circumstances the blow struck in Sicily must +appear to have been to Athens, yet the calamity was surmounted by +Athenian enthusiasm, never greater than in times of misfortune. They +maintained their supremacy over the confederates; but the part which +Alcibiades, in consequence of the new posture his own personal interest +had assumed at Sparta, took in their affairs, brought about a twofold +domestic revolution, which checked the licentious democracy. + + Alliance of the Spartans with the Persians, and indecisive + engagement off Miletus--Flight of Alcibiades from Sparta to + Tissaphernes; his negotiations to gain the satrap over to the + interests of Athens, 411.--Equivocal policy of + Tissaphernes.--Negotiations of Alcibiades with the chiefs of the + Athenian army at Samos, and the consequent revolution at Athens, + and overthrow of the democracy by the appointment of the supreme + council of four hundred in place of the [Greek: boule], and of a + committee of five thousand citizens in place of the popular + assembly, 411.--The army assumes the right of debate; names + Alcibiades to be its leader; but declares again for + democracy.--Great commotions at Athens in consequence of the + discomfiture of the fleet at Eretria, and the secession of Euboea. + Deposition of the college of four hundred, after a despotic rule + of four months;--Reformation of the government;--Transfer of the + highest power to the hands of the five thousand;--Recall of + Alcibiades, and reconciliation with the army. + +24. Brilliant period of Alcibiades's command. The reiterated naval +victories won by the Athenians over the Spartans under Mindarus, who, +mistrusting Tissaphernes, now forms an alliance with Pharnabazus, satrap +of the north of Asia Minor, oblige the Spartans to propose peace, which +haughty Athens, unluckily for herself, rejects. + + Two naval engagements on the Hellespont, 411.--Great victory by + sea and land won near Cyzicus, 410.--Confirmation of the Athenian + dominion over Ionia and Thrace by the capture of Byzantium, 480. + Alcibiades returns covered with glory; but in the same year is + deposed, and submits to a voluntary exile, 407. + +25. Arrival of the younger Cyrus in Asia Minor; the shrewdness of +Lysander wins him over to the Spartan interest. The republican +haughtiness of Lysander's successor, Callicratidas, shown to Cyrus, was +a serious error in policy; for, unassisted by Persian money, Sparta was +not in a condition to pay her mariners, nor consequently to support her +naval establishment. After the defeat and death of Callicratidas, the +command is restored to Lysander, who terminates the twenty seven years' +war triumphantly for Sparta. + + Naval victory of Lysander over the Athenians at Notium, 407; in + consequence of which Alcibiades is deprived of the + command.--Appointment of ten new leaders at Athens; Conon among + the number.--Naval victory of Callicratidas at Mitylene; Conon is + shut up in the harbour of that place, 406.--Great naval victory of + the Athenians; defeat and death of Callicratidas at the Aeginussae + islands, near Lesbos, 406.--Unjust condemnation of the Athenian + generals.--Second command of Lysander, and last _decisive_ victory + by sea over the Athenians at Aegospotamos on the Hellespont, Dec. + 406.--The loss of the sovereignty of the sea is accompanied by the + defection of the confederates, who are successively subjected by + Lysander, 406.--Athens is besieged by Lysander in the same year, + 405; the city surrenders in May, 404.--Athens is deprived of her + walls; her navy is reduced to twelve sail; and, in obedience to + Lysander's commands, the constitution is commuted into an + oligarchy, under thirty rulers, (tyrants.) + +26. Thus ended a war destructive in its moral, still more than in its +political, consequences. Party spirit had usurped the place of patriotic +feeling; as national prejudice had that of national energy. Athens being +subdued, Sparta stood at the head of confederate Greece; but Greece very +soon experienced the yoke of her deliverers to be infinitely more +galling than that of the people hitherto called her oppressors. What +evils must not have ensued from the revolutions Lysander now found it +necessary to effect in most of the Grecian states, in order to place the +helm of government in the hands of his own party under the +superintendence of a Spartan harmost?--How oppressive must not have been +the military rule of the numerous Spartan garrisons?--Nor could any +alleviation of tribute be hoped for, now that in Sparta it was +acknowledged that the "state must possess an exchequer."--The arrogance +and rapacity of the new masters were rendered more grievous by their +being more uncivilized and destitute. + + History of the reign of terror at Athens under the thirty tyrants, + 403.--What happened here must likewise have happened more or less + in the other Grecian cities, which Lysander found it necessary to + revolutionize. In all quarters his party consisted of men similar + to Critias and his colleagues, who appear to have been long before + united in clubs ([Greek: hetaireiai]) intimately connected with + each other; from which were now taken the most daring + revolutionists, in order to place them everywhere at the head of + affairs. + +27. Happy revolution in Athens, and expulsion of the thirty tyrants +by Thrasybulus, favoured by the party at Sparta opposed to Lysander, +and headed by king Pausanias. Restoration and reform of Solon's +constitution; general amnesty. It was easy to reestablish forms;--to +recall the departed spirit of the nation was impossible! + + ED. PH. HINRICHS, _De Theramenis, Critiae et Thrasybuli, virorum + tempore belli Peloponnesiaci inter Graecos illustrium, rebus et + ingenio, Commentatio_, Hamburgi, 1820. An inquiry which exhibits + much research and impartiality. + +28. The defeat of the younger Cyrus entangles the Spartans in a war with +the Persians, the same year that, after the death of king Agis, +Agesilaus takes possession of the regal dignity. We willingly forget his +usurpation as we follow him in his heroic career. None but a man of +genius could have instructed Sparta how to support for so long a time +the extravagant character which she had now undertaken to play. + + Opening of the war with Persia by Tissaphernes's attack on the + Aeolian cities of Asia Minor, 400.--Command of Thimbron, who, 398, + is succeeded by the more successful and fortunate + Dercyllidas.--Availing himself of the jealousy between + Tissaphernes and Artabazus, he persuades the latter to a separate + truce, 397.--Command of Agesilaus; his expedition into Asia, from + the spring of 396 until 394. The conviction which he obtained of + the domestic weakness of the Persian empire in the successful + invasion of Phrygia, 395, seems to have matured in the mind of + Agesilaus the idea of overturning the Persian throne: this design + he would have accomplished had not the Persians been politic + enough to kindle a war against Sparta in Greece itself. + +29. The Corinthian war, waged against Sparta by Corinth, Thebes, and +Argos, to which Athens and the Thessalians unite, terminated by the +peace of Antalcidas. The tyranny of Sparta, and more particularly the +recent devastation of Elis, a sacred territory, were the alleged +pretexts; but the bribes of Timocrates, the Persian envoy, were the real +causes of this war. + + Irruption of the Spartans into Boeotia; they engage and are routed + at Haliartus, 394. Lysander falls on the field of battle; and + Agesilaus is recalled out of Asia.--His victory at Coronea ensures + to the Spartans the preponderance by land; but the discomfiture of + their navy near Cnidus at the same time, gives to their enemies + the sovereignty of the sea: Conon, who commanded the combined + Persian and Athenian fleets, avails himself, with consummate + skill, of this success to reestablish the independence of Athens, + 393.--Sparta endeavours by apparently great sacrifices to bring + over the Persians to her interests: the peace at last concluded by + the efforts of the skilful Antalcidas, (see above, book ii, parag. + 42), was readily agreed to by the Spartans, as they gave up only + what otherwise they could not have retained. The preponderance of + Sparta on the continent of Greece was established by the article + which invested them with the power of seeing the conditions of the + treaty fulfilled: the stipulated freedom of the Grecian cities was + but an apparent disadvantage; and now that the Asiatic colonies + were given up, the contest for power in Greece itself must be + decided by land, and not by sea. + +30. The quarrels which, after the peace of Antalcidas, Sparta began to +have with Mantinea and Phlius, and still more so her participation in +those between the Macedo-Greek cities and the over-powerful Olynthus, +prove too plainly the arrogance with which Sparta behaved to the weaker +states. But the arbitrary appropriation of the citadel of Thebes by +Phoebidas,--an act not indeed commanded, yet approved by Sparta,--was +attended with more serious consequences than were at first expected. +Would that all authors of similar breaches of good faith and the law of +nations were visited with the same vengeance! + +31. Period of the rivalry of Sparta and Thebes, Thebes, from the year +378. The greatness of Thebes was the work of two men, who knew how to +inspire their fellow-citizens and confederates with their own heroic +spirit: with them Thebes rose, with them she fell. Rarely does history +exhibit such a _duumvirate_ as that of Epaminondas and Pelopidas. How +high must our estimation of Pythagoras be, even had his philosophy +formed but one such man as Epaminondas! + + Liberation of Thebes from Spartan rule by the successful attempt + of Pelopidas and his fellow-conspirators, 378. Vain attempts + against Thebes, by the Spartans under Cleombrotus, 378, and + Agesilaus, 377 and 376. The defensive war conducted by Pelopidas, + during which he established the Theban supremacy in Boeotia, and + brought over the Athenians, (whose fleet, 376, beat that of the + Spartans,) deserves our admiration more than the winning of a + battle.--The vast plans of Thebes were not unfolded, however, till + Epaminondas was at the head of affairs. + + SERAN DE LA TOUR, _Histoire d'Epaminondas_. Paris, 1752. + + # MEISSNER, _Life of Epaminondas_. Prague, 1801, 2 parts. In which + the authorities are duly considered. + + # J. G. SCHEIBEL, _Essays towards a better understanding of the + Ancient World_, 1809. The second part contains an essay upon the + history of Thebes, as the first does on that of Corinth. + +32. A general peace is concluded in Greece through the mediation of the +Persians, (who wish to obtain auxiliaries against the Egyptians,) under +the condition that all the Grecian cities shall be free: it is acceded +to by Sparta and Athens, but rejected by Thebes, because she cannot +admit the condition without again falling under the Spartan yoke. In +fact, the lofty language used by Epaminondas, as envoy to Sparta, shows +that it was problematic whether Sparta or Thebes should now be at the +head of Greece. Could the idea, therefore, of a perfect equality between +the states of Greece be other than chimerical? + +33. The long struggle maintained so gloriously by Epaminondas against +Sparta is remarkable both in a political and military point of view. The +power of Sparta was abased; Epaminondas invented a new system of +tactics, (out of which soon after sprang the Macedonian art of war;) and +as soon as he found confederates in Peloponnesus itself, he made his way +to the very gates of Sparta. + + Victory won by the Thebans at Leuctra, July 8, 371, and + annihilation of what hitherto had been called the supremacy of + Sparta.--First irruption into Peloponnesus preceded by alliances + with Arcadia, Elis, and Argos.--The attack upon Sparta itself is + unsuccessful; but the freedom of Messene is restored, 369. + +34. Sparta in distress forms an alliance with Athens, under the +stipulation that the command shall alternately be in the hands of the +two confederates; conditions, no doubt, humiliating to Spartan pride! It +however affords them the means of frustrating Epaminondas's new attempt +on Corinth and the Peloponnesus. Even Dionysius I. of Syracuse, thinks +himself bound to assist the Spartans as being Dorians. + +35. Thebes played a no less brilliant part in the north than she did in +the south. And had the attempts to liberate Thessaly from the rule of +the tyrant, Alexander of Pherae, been attended with success, Thebes would +have received a vast increase of power. Even in Macedonia she acted as +arbitress. + + First and successful expedition of Pelopidas into Thessaly, + 368.--After the decision of the disputed succession to the + Macedonian throne, young Philip is brought as hostage to Thebes, + and educated in the house of Epaminondas.--Pelopidas is sent as + ambassador, and taken prisoner by Alexander; hence the second + expedition of the Thebans, in which Epaminondas rescues the army + and delivers his friend, 367. + +36. Alliance of Thebes with Persia successfully brought about by +Pelopidas. In the intrigues of the opponents at the Persian court, the +object of each was to bring that court over to his own interest. Yet the +domineering tone in which the Persians wished to dictate peace, had not +the consequences that might have been expected; and although Sparta +consented to her confederates remaining neutral, she would not forego +her claims on Messene. The establishment of a navy would have been of +more important consequences to Thebes than this alliance, had not all +these plans, together with the greatness of Thebes, been swept away by +the premature death of her two leading men. + + Last expedition of Pelopidas against Alexander of Pherae, in which + he himself falls, 364.--New irruption into Peloponnesus caused by + the commotions in Arcadia.--Battle of Mantinea, and death of + Epaminondas, June 27, 362.--General peace in Greece mediated by + the Persians; Sparta does not assent to it on account of Messene, + but sends Agesilaus to Egypt, there to support the insurrection of + Tachos. + +37. The result of this bloody struggle for the supremacy of Greece was, +that neither Sparta nor Thebes obtained it; the former of these states +being weakened by the loss of Messene, the latter by the loss of its +leaders, and both strained by their violent exertions. The situation of +Greece after this war seems to have been thus far changed, that no state +had the predominance; an independence proceeding from enervation. Even +Athens, who by means of her naval power still preserved her influence +over the cities on the coast and in the islands, lost the greater part +in the war of the allies, together with three of her most celebrated +leaders, Chabrias, Timotheus, and Iphicrates, whose places were ill +supplied by Chares. + + Confederacy of the islands Cos, Rhodes, and Chios, and the city of + Byzantium; their secession from Athens, 358.--Unsuccessful siege + of Chios, before which Chabrias falls, 358; of Byzantium, 357. + Athens suffers a still greater injury from the cabals of Chares + against his colleagues Timotheus and Iphicrates, and from her + imprudent participation in the insurrection of Artabazus, 356. The + threats of Artaxerxes III. force Athens to make a peace, in which + she is obliged to acknowledge the freedom of her confederates. + +38. At the very time when the growing power of Macedonia under Philip +ought to have united all the Grecian states, had such an union been +within the range of possibility, Greece plunged into another civil war +of ten years' duration, which is known by the name of the sacred or +Phocian war. The Amphictyonic assembly, whose duty it was to maintain +peace, and whose influence had been in the present circumstances +reinstated, abused its authority by kindling discord. The hatred of the +Thebans, who sought for new opportunities of quarrel with Sparta, and +the ambition of the Phocian Philomelus, were the real causes which led +to the war, which the policy of Philip knew how to prolong till the +precise moment favourable to his own particular views arrived. The +treasures of Delphi circulating in Greece, were as injurious to the +country as the ravages which it underwent. A war springing out of +private passions, fostered by bribes and subsidiary troops, and +terminated by the interference of foreign powers, was exactly what was +requisite for annihilating the scanty remains of morality and patriotism +still existing in Greece. + + Sentence of the Amphictyons against Sparta on account of the + former surprise of the citadel of Thebes by Phoebidas; and against + Phocis on account of the tillage of the sacred lands of Delphi, + 357.--Philomelus is elected general of the Phocians; the rifling + of the treasury of Delphi enables him to take into his pay + Athenian and other auxiliaries, and to carry war against the + Thebans and their confederates, the Locrians, etc. under pretence + of their being the executors of the Amphictyonic decrees. + Philomelus having fallen, 353, is succeeded by his brother + Onomarchus, more skilful than himself in intrigue and war: but + Onomarchus having fallen, 352, in the battle with Philip in + Thessaly, is followed by Phayllus. Philip even thus early + endeavours to push through Thermopylae into Greece, but is repelled + by the Athenians. He executes this plan after his peace with + Athens, 347, and having procured the expulsion of the Phocians + from the Amphictyonic council, gets their place and right of vote + to be transferred to himself. + +39. From the very first advance of Philip, the fate of Greece could +scarcely afford matter for doubt; although the eloquence of Demosthenes +warded it off until the second invasion, caused by the Amphictyonic +sentence passed on the Locrians. (See below, book iv. parag. 15.) The +battle of Chaeronea laid the foundation of Macedonia's complete +ascendancy over the Grecian republics: by the appointment of Philip to +be generalissimo of Greece in the Persian war, that ascendancy was, as +it were, formally acknowledged; nor did it end with the assassination of +that prince. + + + * * * * * + + + + +FOURTH BOOK. + +HISTORY OF THE MACEDONIAN MONARCHY. + + + + +FIRST PERIOD. + +_From its origin to the death of Alexander the Great. B. C. 800-323._ + + + Sources. We have no historian who wrote, particularly, on + Macedonia, before the time of Alexander. The facts relative to the + earlier history previous to Philip are collected from Diodorus, + Justin, Thucydides, and Arrian; from Diodorus more especially. In + consequence of the loss of the other historians, Diodorus is the + chief authority for the history of Philip; the speeches of + Demosthenes and Aeschines must likewise be consulted, but not made + use of without caution and judicious historical criticism. With + respect to Alexander the Great, as so many writers on his reign + have been destroyed by time, Arrian must now be considered as the + chief authority, on account of the care he has shown in the + selection of his authorities, conjointly with the seventeenth book + of Diodorus. Plutarch's biography contains several valuable + additional facts; and even the superficial Curtius might furnish us + with abundance of information, did his accounts offer higher claims + to our credit. + +1. An Hellenic colony from Argos, headed by the Temenidae, a branch of +the Heraclidae, settled in Emathia, and laid the feeble foundation of the +Macedonian empire, which was in time to rise to such power. Not only did +the settlers keep their footing in the country, in spite of the +aboriginal inhabitants; but their princes gradually extended their +territory, by subjecting or expelling several of the neighbouring +tribes. Their earlier history, not excepting even the names of their +kings, is buried in obscurity till the time of the Persian invasions. + + The three first Macedonian kings, Caranus said to have ruled + twenty-eight years, Coenus twenty-three, Tyrmas forty-five, were + unknown to Herodotus, who names as founder of the Macedonian + monarchy, Perdiccas, 729-678. Of this prince and his successors + Argaeus, _d._ 640, Philip I. _d._ 602, Aeropus, _d._ 576, and + Alcetas, _d._ 547, nothing more is known than that they waged war, + with various success against the neighbouring Pierians and + Illyrians, who had their own kings. + +2. When the Persians commenced their incursions into Europe, Macedonia, +by its situation, must have been one of the first countries they +ravaged. Accordingly, as early as the reign of Darius Hystaspis, the +Macedonian kings were tributary to the Persians; and were indebted for +their deliverance from that yoke, not to their own valour, but to the +victories of the Greeks. The battle of Plataeae restored independence to +the Macedonian kingdom, although that independence was not formally +acknowledged by the Persians. + + Immediately after the Scythian campaign, 513, Amyntas (_d._ 498,) + became tributary to the Persians; his son and successor, Alexander, + (_d._ 454,) was in the same state of subjection, and was even + compelled to join the expedition of Xerxes. + +3. But the expulsion of the Persians still left Macedonia exposed to the +attacks of other formidable neighbours; on one side there was the +Thracians, among whom, under Sitalces, and his successor, Seuthes, arose +the powerful kingdom of the Odrysae; on the other, the Athenians, who, +availing themselves of their extensive navy, reduced to subjection the +Grecian settlements on the Macedonian shores. Harassing as these +neighbours were to the Macedonian kings, they proved to be the very +instruments by which Macedonia became so early and so deeply involved in +the affairs of Greece. + + Commencement of the differences with Athens, under the reign of + Perdiccas II, 454-413; Athens having supported his brother Philip + against him.--Defection of Potidaea, and fortification of Olynthus, + into which the Greeks from Chalcis and other cities are + transplanted, 432. Potidaea being forced to surrender to Athens, + 431, Perdiccas contrives to play so skilful a part in the + Peloponnesian war just now commencing, that he outwits the + Athenians, parrying the attack of Sitalces by a marriage of his + sister with Seuthes, the heir to that prince, 429. His alliance + with Sparta, 424, is very detrimental to the Athenians, Brasidas + wresting Amphipolis from their hands; nevertheless Perdiccas + chooses rather to conclude a peace with Athens, 423, than to throw + himself entirely into the arms of his new allies. + +4. Archelaus, the successor of Perdiccas, introduced agriculture and +civilization among the Macedonians, who were never, however, recognized +by the Hellenes as their legitimate brethren: highways and military +roads were constructed; forts were erected; and the court became the +seat of literature. In these days the Macedonian kingdom seems to have +comprised Emathia, Mygdonia, and Pelagonia, to which may be added some +of the neighbouring tribes, who, although governed by their own kings, +were tributary. The power of the kings was insignificant when unaided by +the nobles, among whom, as was the case with all the hereditary princes +of Greece, they merely held the right of precedence. How difficult was +it, even in Alexander's time, to erase from the minds of the Macedonian +nobility the recollection of their former importance! + +5. The murder of Archelaus was followed by a stormy period, wrapped in +obscurity: the unsettled state of the succession raised up many +pretenders to the throne, each of whom easily found the means of +supporting his claims, either in some of the neighbouring tribes, or in +one of the Grecian republics. + + Aeropus, as guardian to the young king Orestes, usurps the supreme + power, B. C. 400-394. After his death, and the murder of his son + Pausanias, 393, the throne was seized by Amyntas II. son of + Philip, and brother to Perdiccas II. who was nevertheless unable + to maintain his power until he had gained a victory over Argaeus, + the brother of Pausanias, who was backed by the Illyrians, + 390-369. The war with Olynthus, 383-380, could not be brought to a + successful conclusion until he had formed an alliance with Sparta. + +6. The three sons of Amyntas II, Alexander, Perdiccas, and Philip, +successively ascended the throne after the death of their father; but so +violent were the commotions during the reigns of the two former, that +the future existence of Macedonia as a kingdom might have been regarded +as problematical: it is certain that they were obliged to submit to the +payment of tribute to the Illyrians. + + Alexander, in opposition to his rival, Ptolemy of Alorus, placed + on the throne by Pelopidas, sends his youngest brother Philip as + hostage to Thebes: in the same year he is deposed by Ptolemy, 368. + Reign of Ptolemy, 388-365, with the stipulation imposed, 367, by + Pelopidas, that he shall only hold the sceptre in reserve for the + two younger brothers. Murder of Ptolemy, 365, by Perdiccas III. + who is nearly overwhelmed by Pausanias, another and earlier + pretender to the crown; he is at last firmly seated on the throne + by the Athenians, under Iphicrates, 364. But as early as 360 he + falls in the war against the Illyrians, leaving behind him a son, + Amyntas, still a minor, and a younger brother Philip, who escapes + from Thebes in order to gain possession of the throne. + +7. The reign of Philip, which lasted twenty-four years, is one of the +most instructive and interesting in the whole range of history, as well +on account of the prudence he displayed, as for the manner in which his +plans were arranged and executed. Though it may be difficult to trace in +his morals the pupil of Epaminondas, yet it is impossible to view +without feelings of astonishment the brilliant career of a man, who, +under the almost hopeless circumstances in which he commenced his +course, never lost his firmness of mind, and who in the highest +prosperity preserved his coolness of reflection. + + The history of Philip, even in his own days, was distorted to his + disadvantage by orators and historians. Demosthenes could not, + Theopompus would not, be impartial; and the information contained + in Diodorus and Justin is mostly derived from the work of the + latter. + + OLIVIER, _Histoire de Philippe, roi de Macedoine_. Paris, 1740, 2 + vols. 8vo. A defence of Philip. + + DE BURY, _Histoire de Philippe, et d'Alexandre le grand_. Paris, + 1760, 4to. A very mean performance. + + TH. LELAND, _The History of the Life and Reign of Philip king of + Macedon_. London, 1761, 4to. Dry, but exhibiting much reading and + strict impartiality. + + In MITFORD, _History of Greece_, vol. iv, Philip has found his + most zealous panegyrist and defender. It would seem that, even in + the present day, it is impossible to write an impartial history of + this monarch. + +8. Melancholy posture of the Macedonian affairs at the beginning of +Philip's reign. Besides victorious foes abroad, there were at home two +pretenders to the throne, Argaeus, backed by Athens, Pausanias, supported +by Thrace; and Philip himself, at first, was merely regent, and not +king. In the two first years, however, every thing was changed, and +Macedonia recovered her independence. The newly-created phalanx ensured +victory over the barbarians; recourse was had to other means than force +for success against the suspiciousness of Athens and the neighbouring +Greek settlements, particularly against the powerful Olynthus. It is in +the conduct of these affairs that the peculiar sagacity of Philip is +displayed. + + After the defeat of Argaeus, peace is purchased from Athens by a + momentary recognition of the freedom of Amphipolis, 360.--Removal + of Pausanias by means of an accommodation with Thrace.--By the + conquest of the Paeonians and Illyrians, 359, the boundaries of + Macedonia are extended to Thrace, and westward to the lake + Lychnitis.--As early as 360 Philip was proclaimed king. + +9. Development of Philip's further plans of aggrandizement.--By the +gradual subjection of the Macedo-Greek cities, he proposed, not only to +make himself sole master in Macedonia, but also to remove the Athenians +from his domain.--The first object of his policy against Greece was to +get himself acknowledged as a Hellen, and Macedonia as a member of the +Hellenic league. Hence the subsequent tutelage in which Macedonia held +Greece was not converted into a formal subjection, a proceeding which +would have savoured too much of barbarian origin.--The execution of all +these plans was facilitated by the possession of the Thracian gold +mines, which enabled Philip to create finances as well as the phalanx. + + Capture of Amphipolis, 358; in the mean while Athens is amused + with promises, and Olynthus with the momentary cession of Potidaea, + which had likewise been captured: this event is followed by the + conquest of the mountainous districts, abounding in gold, which + extend from the Nestus to the Strymon, and furnished an annual + income of nearly 1,000 talents. + +10. The interference of Philip in the affairs of Thessaly dates from the +year 357; the possession of that country was an object equally important +for the furtherance of his views upon Greece, as for the improvement of +his finances. He first stepped forth as the deliverer of Thessaly, and +ended in making it a province of Macedonia. + + Expulsion of the tyrants from Pherae, at the request of the + Aleuadae, 356; the tyrants, however, receive support in the sacred + war from the Phocians under Onomarchus. The final defeat of + Onomarchus, 352, makes Philip master of Thessaly; he places + Macedonian garrisons in the three chief places, and thus supports + his authority in the country until he is pleased to make it + entirely a Macedonian province, 344. + +11. The protraction of the sacred war in Greece furnished Philip with an +excellent opportunity of promoting his views upon that country; although +his first attempt at an irruption, too precipitately undertaken, was +frustrated by the Athenians. The capture of Olynthus, notwithstanding +the assistance afforded it by the Athenians, after a season of apparent +inaction, insured the safety of the frontiers in his rear; and by a +master stroke of policy, almost at the very moment in which he was +driving the Athenians out of Euboea, he found means to enter with them +into negotiations, which, after repeated embassies, were closed by a +peace, opening to him the way through Thermopylae, and enabling him to +raise a party favourable to himself within the very walls of Athens. + +12. First descent of Philip into Greece, and termination of the sacred +war by reducing the Phocians. The place which he now obtained in the +Amphictyonic council, had been the height of his wishes; and the +humility of Sparta proved how firmly his ascendancy over Greece was +already established. + +13. Brief view of the state of Greece, and more particularly of Athens, +after the sacred war; description of the means by which Philip succeeded +in creating and supporting parties favourable to his own interests in +the Grecian states. Bribery was not his only instrument; what he gave he +borrowed from others; the main feature of his policy was, that he seldom +or ever recurred to the same means. Scheming and consistent even in his +drunken revels, he hardly ever appears under the same form. + + Dreadful consequences to the morals of the Greeks, resulting from + the spirit of party, the decline of religion, and the vast + increase in the circulating medium, produced by the treasures of + Delphi and Macedonia.--Estimate of the power of Athens during the + period of Demosthenes and Phocion. It seems that, unfortunately, + the eloquence and political acuteness of the former was not + accompanied with sufficient talents for negotiation; the latter, + perhaps, did not place confidence enough in his country, while + Demosthenes placed too much. In spite of public indolence and + effeminacy, Athens was still enabled to support her rank as a + maritime power, the navy of Philip not being equal to hers. + + # A. G. BECKER, _Demosthenes as a Statesman and an Orator_. An + historico-critical introduction to his works: 1815. A very useful + work, both as a history and as an introduction to the political + orations of Demosthenes. + +14. New conquests of Philip in Illyria and Thrace. The Adriatic sea and +the Danube appear to have been the boundaries of his empire on this +side. But the views of the Macedonian king were directed less against +the Thracians, than against the Grecian settlements on the Hellespont; +and the attack of the Athenian Diopithes furnished him a pretext for +making war against them. The siege, however, of Perinthus and Byzantium, +was frustrated by Phocion, to the great vexation of Philip; an event +which aroused the Athenians, and even the Persians, from their lethargy. + +15. Policy of Philip after this check.--At the very time that, engaged +in a war against the barbarians on the Danube, he appears to have wholly +lost sight of the affairs of Greece, his agents redouble their activity. +Aeschines, richly paid for his services, proposes in the Amphictyonic +council, that, to punish the sacrilegious insults of the Locrians to the +Delphian oracle, he should be elected leader of the Greeks in this new +sacred war. Following his usual maxim, Philip suffers himself to be +entreated. + +16. Second expedition of Philip into Greece. His appropriation of the +important frontier town of Elatea soon showed that, for this time at +least, he was not contending merely for the honour of Apollo.--Alliance +between Athens and Thebes brought about by Demosthenes.--But the defeat +of Chaeronea in the same year decided the dependence of Greece. Philip +now found it easy to play the magnanimous character towards Athens. + +17. Preparations for the execution of his plan against Persia, not as +his own undertaking, but as a national war of the Hellenes against the +barbarians. Thus, while Philip, by obtaining from the Amphictyons the +appointment of generalissimo of Greece against the Persians, secured in +an _honourable_ manner the dependence of the country, the splendour of +the expedition flattered the nation at whose expense it was to be +conducted. It is a question, indeed, whether Philip's own private views +extended much further! + +18. The internal government of Macedonia, under so skilful and +successful a conqueror, must necessarily have been absolute. No +pretender would dare to rise up against such a ruler, and the body guard +([Greek: doryphoroi]) established by him at the beginning of his reign, +and taken from the Macedonian nobility, contributed much to keep up a +proper understanding between the prince and the nobles. The court became +a military staff, while the people, from a nation of herdsmen, was +converted into a nation of warriors.--Philip was unfortunate only in his +own family; but the blame is not to be attributed to him if he could not +agree with Olympias. + +19. Philip murdered by Pausanias at Aegae, probably at the instigation of +the Persians, while celebrating the marriage of his daughter. + +20. The reign of ALEXANDER the GREAT, in the eyes of the historical +inquirer, derives its great interest, not only from the extent, but from +the permanence, of the revolution which he effected in the world. To +appreciate properly the character of this prince, who died just as he +was about to carry his mighty projects into execution, is no easy task; +but it is totally repugnant to common sense to suppose that the pupil of +Aristotle was nothing more than a wild and reckless conqueror, unguided +by any plan. + + ST. CROIX, _Examen critique des anciens historiens + d'Alexandre-le-grand_, 2nd. edition, _considerablement augmentee_. + Paris, 1804, 4to. The new edition of this, which is the principal + work on the history of Alexander, and important in more respects + than one, contains more than the title implies, though by no means + a strictly impartial estimate of that prince's character. + +21. Violent commotions at court, in the conquered countries, and in +Greece, after the death of Philip. Great as his power appeared to be, +the preservation of it depended entirely on the first display of +character in his successor. Alexander showed himself worthy to inherit +the sceptre by his victorious expedition against the Thracians; (to +whom, and more especially to his alliance with the Agrians, he was +afterwards indebted for his light horse;) and by the example which he +exhibited to Greece in his treatment of Thebes. + +22. Appointment of Alexander in the assembly at Corinth to be +generalissimo of the Greeks. Yet what his father would probably have +turned to a very different account, he allowed to remain a mere nominal +office.--Development of his plan of attack upon Persia.--The want of a +navy, soon experienced by Alexander, would probably have frustrated his +whole project, had not Memnon's counterplan of an inroad into Macedonia +been thwarted by the celerity of the Macedonian king. + +23. Passage over the Hellespont, and commencement of the war. The +tranquillity of his kingdom and of Greece appeared to be secured, +Antipater being left at the head of affairs.--The victory on the +Granicus opens to Alexander a path into Asia Minor; but the death of +Memnon, which soon after followed, was perhaps a greater advantage than +a victory. + +24. The victory of Issus, gained over Darius in person, appears to have +given Alexander the first idea of completely overturning the Persian +throne, as was proved by the rejection of Darius's offers of peace. When +indeed have not the plans of conquerors been dependent on the course of +events? Yet Alexander must have been pretty certain of his future +victory, since he permitted Darius to escape, while he sat down seven +months before Tyre, in order to make himself master of the sea; and, +after the conquest of Egypt without a battle, to which the possession of +Tyre opened the way, to build Alexandria, and erect to himself a +monument more lasting than all his victories. + + Although Alexandria perhaps in the end may have surpassed the + expectations of the founder, yet the selection of the site, + favourable only for navigation and commerce, shows that an eye was + originally had to those objects. + +25. Invasion of Inner Asia, facilitated by the tacit submission of the +ruling tribes, and by the state of cultivation in which the country was +found. On the plains of Arbela the Macedonian tactics were completely +triumphant. It might now be said that the throne of Persia was +overturned; and the unexpectedly easy capture of Babylon, Susa, and +Persepolis, was surely of more importance for the moment than the +pursuit of a flying king. + + Insurrection of the Greeks quelled by Antipater; Alexander himself + falls in with the malcontent envoys to Darius in the interior of + Asia. + +26. The subjection of the north-eastern provinces of the Persian empire +would perhaps have been attended with the greatest difficulties, had +not the astonishing activity of the conqueror crushed in their birth +the schemes of the treacherous Bessus, who, after the assassination of +Darius, wished to erect a separate kingdom in Bactria. The Jaxartes was +now the northern boundary of the Macedonian monarchy, as it had hitherto +been that of the Persian. Besides, the possession of the rich trading +countries, Bactria and Sogdiana, was in itself an object of vast +importance. + + During this expedition, the execution of Philotas and his father + Parmenio took place, though both were, probably, guiltless of the + conspiracy laid to their charge, 330. After the death of Darius, + Alexander met with almost constant opposition in his own army: the + majority of the troops fancying that that event precluded the + necessity of any further exertions. Cautious as Alexander was in + his treatment of the Macedonian nobles, we may discern, not + however by the mere example of Clitus, how difficult they found it + to banish from their memory the relations in which they had + formerly stood to their kings. + +27. Alexander's expedition against India had, no doubt, its origin in +that propensity to romantic enterprise which constituted a main feature +in his character. Yet what could be more natural than that a close view +of Persian splendour, the conquest of such wealthy countries, and the +desire of prosecuting his vast commercial designs, should gradually +mature in the mind of the Macedonian king the plan of subjecting a +country which was represented as the golden land of Asia. To this +likewise the scantiness of geographic information must have greatly +contributed; if he pressed forward to the eastern seas, the circle of +his dominion would, it was supposed, be complete.--It appears very +certain that Alexander was destitute of a sufficient knowledge of the +country when he entered upon this expedition. + + Alexander's invasion was directed against Northern India, or the + Panjab; in those days a populous and highly cultivated country; + now the seat of the Seiks and Mahrattas; and then, as now, + inhabited by warlike races. He crossed the Indus at Taxila + (Attock,) passed the Hydaspes (Behut or Chelum,) and, availing + himself of the quarrels between the Indian princes, defeated the + king, Porus. He then proceeded across the Acesines (Jenaub) and + Hydraotes (Rauvee). The eastern verge reached in this expedition + was the river Hyphasis (Beyah;) here, having already proceeded + half way to the Ganges, the conqueror was, by a mutiny in his + army, compelled to retreat. His return was through the country of + the Malli (Multan) as far as the Hydaspes, when the majority of + his troops took ship, and were floated along that stream into the + Acesines, and from thence into the Indus, which they followed down + to its mouth. + + RENNEL, _Memoir of a Map of Hindostan_. London, 1793, (3d. edit.) + and + + ST. CROIX, _Examen_, etc. (see p. 216.) furnish all the necessary + historical and geographical explanations relative to the Persian + and Indian campaigns of Alexander. + +28. Although Alexander was obliged to give up the project of conquering +India, yet the connection between Europe and the east, which has +continued from that time, was the work of his hands. While the +communication on land was secured by the establishment of various +settlements, the communication by sea was opened by the voyage of his +admiral, Nearchus, from the Indus to the Euphrates. In the mean time +Alexander himself proceeded to Persis and Babylon, across the desert, +and the unexplored provinces of Gedrosia and Carmania. + + Nearchus's voyage (our knowledge of which is derived from his own + journal, preserved in Arrian's _Indica_) lasted from the + beginning of October, 326, to the end of February, 325: nearly + the same time was occupied in the almost incredible land march of + the king. + + VINCENT, _The Voyage of Nearchus from the Indus to the Euphrates_. + London, 1797, 4to. Exhibiting the most learned researches, and + illustrated with excellent charts. + +29. After the abandonment of India, the whole circuit of Alexander's +conquests was precisely that of the former Persian empire; his later +projects were probably directed against Arabia alone. However easy it +had been to make these conquests, it was a more difficult task to retain +them; for Macedonia, exhausted by continual levies of men, could not +furnish efficient garrisons. Alexander removed this difficulty, by +protecting the conquered from oppression; by showing proper respect to +their religion; by leaving the civil government in the hands of the +native rulers who had hitherto possessed it; and by confiding to +Macedonians the command only of the garrisons left in the chief places, +and in the newly established colonies. To alter as little as possible in +the internal organization of countries was his fundamental principle. + +30. Simple as Alexander's plans were in the outset, their simplicity was +more than compensated by the magnitude and importance of their results. +Babylon was to be the capital of his empire, and consequently of the +world. The union of the east and the west was to be brought about by the +amalgamation of the dominant races by intermarriage, by education, and, +more than all, by the ties of commerce, the importance of which much +ruder conquerors, in Asia itself, soon learnt to appreciate. In nothing +probably is the superiority of his genius more brilliantly displayed, +than in his exemption from all national prejudice, particularly when we +consider that none of his countrymen were in this respect to be compared +with him. To refuse him this merit is impossible, whatever judgment we +may form of his general character. + +31. Sudden death of Alexander at Babylon by fever; under the peculiar +circumstances of the time, the greatest loss mankind could experience. +From the Indus to the Nile the world lay in ruins; and where was now the +architect to be found, that could gather up the scattered fragments and +restore the edifice? + + Alexander's disorder may be easily accounted for by the hardships + he had undergone, and the impure air to which he exposed himself + in cleaning out the canals about Babylon. He certainly was not + poisoned; and in the charge of immoderate drunkenness brought + against him, we must take into account the manners of the + Macedonian and Persian courts. Was it not the same with Peter the + Great? In estimating his moral character we must bear in mind the + natural vehemence of his passions, ever inclined to the most rapid + transitions; nor should we forget the unavoidable influence of + constant success upon mankind. + + + + +SECOND PERIOD. + +_History of the Macedonian monarchy, from the death of Alexander +the Great to the battle of Ipsus, B. C. 323-301._ + + + To enable the reader to take a general view, the history of the + European events is resumed below, under the head of the history + of Macedonia Proper. + + SOURCES. Diodorus, lib. xviii-xx. is the great authority for this + portion of history. He compiled mostly, for this period, from a + contemporary historian, Hieronymus of Cardia. He is followed by + Plutarch in the Lives of Eumenes, Demetrius, and Phocion; and by + Justin, lib. xiii, etc. Of Arrian's history of Alexander's + successors, nothing unfortunately remains but a few fragments in + Photius. + + # MANNERT, _History of Alexander's successors_. Nuremberg, 1787. + Composed with the usual judgment and learning of that author. + +1. The very first measure adopted after the death of Alexander contained +within itself the seeds of all the dire revolutions that afterwards +ensued. Not only were the jealousy and ambition of the nobles aroused, +but even the interference of the army was exhibited in the most terrific +manner. Although the idea of the supremacy of the royal family was cast +off only by degrees, yet the dreadfully disturbed state in which that +family stood, rendered its fall unavoidable. + + State of the royal family at the death of Alexander. He left his + wife Roxana pregnant, who at the end of three months brought into + the world the rightful heir to the sceptre, Alexander; he left + likewise an illegitimate son, Hercules; a bastard half-brother, + Arrhidaeus; his mother, the haughty and cruel Olympias, and a + sister, Cleopatra, both widows; the artful Eurydice, (daughter to + Cyane, one of Philip's sisters,) subsequently married to the king, + Arrhidaeus; and Thessalonica, Philip's daughter, afterwards united + to Cassander of Macedonia. + +2. The weak Arrhidaeus, under the name of Philip, and the infant +Alexander were at last proclaimed kings, the _regency_ being placed in +the hands of Perdiccas, Leonnatus, and Meleager; the last of whom was +quickly cut off at the instigation of Perdiccas. Meanwhile Antipater, +with whom Craterus had been joined as civil ruler, had the management of +affairs in Europe. + +3. The sequel of the history becomes naturally that of satraps, who fell +out among themselves, all being ambitious to rule, and none willing to +obey. Twenty-two years elapsed ere any massy edifice arose out of the +ruins of the Macedonian monarchy. In few periods of history are the +revolutions of affairs so violent, in few periods, therefore, is it so +difficult to unravel the maze of events. For this purpose the most +convenient division of the history is into _three_ periods: the first +extending to the death of Perdiccas, 321: the second to the death of +Eumenes, 315: the third to the defeat and death of Antigonus at the +battle of Ipsus, 301. + +4. First grant of the provinces made by Perdiccas. The vanity of this +man seems to have induced him to select the office of regent, in order +that no separate province might fall to his share; he placed his whole +reliance on having the command of the royal army, although it had +already given so many proofs of its determination to command rather than +to obey. + + In this division Ptolemy son of Lagus received Egypt; Leonnatus, + Mysia; Antigonus, Phrygia, Lycia, and Pamphylia; Lysymachus, + Macedonian Thrace; Antipater and Craterus remained in possession + of Macedonia.--The foreigner, Eumenes, would hardly have received + Cappadocia, although yet to be conquered, had Perdiccas been able + to dispense with his services. The remaining provinces either did + not come under the new division, or else their governors are + unworthy of notice. + +5. The first acts of Perdiccas's government showed how little dependence +he could place on the obedience of men who hitherto had been his +colleagues. The general insurrection among the mercenaries who had been +settled by Alexander in Upper Asia, and now wished to return to their +homes, was, no doubt, quelled by Python's destruction of the rebels; but +it was not Python's fault that he did not make himself independent +master of the scene of mutiny. + +6. Still more refractory was the behaviour of Leonnatus and Antigonus, +when they received orders to put Eumenes in possession of his province. +Antigonus was too haughty to obey; and Leonnatus preferred going over +into Europe to marry Cleopatra; there, however, he almost immediately +met with his death in the Lamian war. (See below, book iv. period iii. +parag. 2.) Perdiccas, therefore, was himself obliged to undertake the +expedition with the royal army; he succeeded by the defeat of +Ariarathes. + +7. Ambitious views of Perdiccas, who, in order to ascend the throne by a +marriage with Cleopatra, repudiates Nicaea, the daughter of Antipater. +Cleopatra actually came over to Asia; but Perdiccas, being obliged, at +the request of the army, to marry Eurydice, Philip's niece, after the +murder of her mother Cyane, to the king Arrhidaeus, found her a +troublesome rival and opponent in the government. + +8. Attempts of Perdiccas to overthrow Antigonus and Ptolemy, by accusing +them before the army. Antigonus passes over to Antipater in Macedonia; +and gives rise to the league between Antipater, Craterus, and Ptolemy, +against Perdiccas and Eumenes. + +9. Commencement and termination of the first war. Perdiccas himself +marches against Egypt, leaving his friend Eumenes to command in Asia +Minor: meanwhile Antipater and Craterus fall upon Asia; the former +advances towards Syria against Perdiccas; the latter is defeated and +slain by Eumenes. Before the arrival, however, of Antipater, Perdiccas, +after repeated and vain attempts to cross the Nile, falls a victim to +the insurrection of his own troops.--Thus three of the principal +personages, Perdiccas, Craterus, Leonnatus, were already removed from +the theatre of action; and the victorious Eumenes, now master of Asia +Minor, had to maintain, unaided, the struggle against the confederates. + +10. Second period, from the death of Perdiccas to that of +Eumenes.--Python and Arrhidaeus quickly resigning the regency, it is +assumed by Antipater.--New division of the provinces at Trisparadisus in +Syria. Seleucus receives Babylon; Antigonus is promised, besides his +former possessions, all those of the outlawed Eumenes. + +11. War of Antigonus with Eumenes. The latter, defeated by treachery, +shuts himself up in the mountain fastness of Nora, there to await more +favourable times; and Antigonus remains master of all Asia Minor: in the +mean time Ptolemy ventures to take possession of Syria and Phoenicia. + +12. Death of the regent Antipater, in the same year, (320;) he bequeaths +the regency to his friend, the aged Polysperchon, to the exclusion of +his own son Cassander. Antigonus now begins to unfold his ambitious +plans; he endeavours vainly to win over Eumenes, who deceives him in the +negotiations, and seizes the opportunity of leaving his mountain +fastness. + +13. Eumenes's plan to strengthen himself in Upper Asia; as he is on the +way he receives tidings of his being appointed generalissimo of the +royal troops. What better man could Polysperchon have selected for the +office than he who in his conduct towards Antigonus exhibited so +striking an example of attachment to the royal house? + +14. Exertions of Eumenes to maintain himself in Lower Asia, ineffectual, +the naval victory won by Antigonus over the royal fleet, commanded by +Clitus, depriving him of the empire of the sea. He bursts into Upper +Asia; where, in the spring, he unites with the satraps, who had taken +arms against the powerful Seleucus of Babylon. + +15. Antigonus following up the royal general, Upper Asia becomes the +theatre of war. Victorious as was at first the stand made by Eumenes, +neither valour nor talent were of any avail against the insubordination +of the royal troops, and the jealousy of the other commanders. Attacked +in winter quarters by Antigonus, he was, after the battle, delivered +into the hands of his enemy by the mutinous Argyraspidae, who had lost +their baggage: he was put to death, and in him the king's family lost +its only loyal supporter. + +16. Great changes had also taken place in the royal family. Her enemy +Antipater having deceased, Olympias, invited by Polysperchon, who wished +to strengthen himself against Cassander, had returned from Epirus, and +put to death Arrhidaeus together with his wife, Eurydice: in the year +following she was besieged in Pydna by Cassander, and being obliged to +surrender, was in her turn executed; meanwhile Cassander held Roxana and +the young king in his own power. + +17. Third period, from the death of Eumenes to that of Antigonus.--The +rout of Eumenes seemed to have established for ever the power of +Antigonus in Asia; still animated with the fire of youth, though full of +years, he saw himself revived in his son Demetrius, fond of boisterous +revelry, but gallant and talented.--Even Seleucus thought it time to +consult his safety by flying from Babylon into Egypt. + +18. Changes introduced by Antigonus into the upper provinces; return to +Asia Minor, where his presence seemed indispensable, by reason of the +aggrandizement of Ptolemy in Syria and Phoenicia, of the Macedonian +Cassander in Europe, of Lysimachus in Mysia, and the Carian Cassander in +Asia Minor.--He repossesses himself of Phoenicia, a country of the first +importance for the construction of a fleet. + + Siege of Tyre, 314-313: it lasts fourteen months; a proof that the + city was certainly not razed by Alexander. + +19. The fugitive Seleucus forms a league against Antigonus and +Demetrius, between Ptolemy, the two Cassanders, and Lysimachus. But +Antigonus frustrates their combination, himself driving out the Carian +Cassander, and his son marching against Ptolemy. + + Victory won by Ptolemy over Demetrius at Gaza, 312; after which + Seleucus marches back to Babylon, and, although subsequently + followed up by Demetrius, permanently maintains his footing in + Upper Asia.--On the other hand, Ptolemy, at the first approach of + Antigonus with the main body, surrenders back Syria and Phoenicia, + 312. + +20. A general peace concluded between Antigonus and his enemies, +Seleucus only excepted, from whom Upper Asia is to be again wrested. The +first article, that each should retain what he had, demonstrates pretty +evidently that the treaty was dictated solely by Antigonus; the second, +that the Greek cities should be free, was pregnant with the seeds of a +new war, ready to burst forth at every favourable opportunity; the +third, that the young Alexander should be raised to the throne upon +attaining his majority, was probably the death warrant of the hapless +prince, who, that same year, together with his mother, was murdered by +Cassander.--Shortly after, at the instigation of Antigonus, Cleopatra +was put to death, in order that Ptolemy might be thwarted in his object, +which depended on a matrimonial connection with that princess. + +21. Even the execution of the articles must have given rise to +hostilities; Ptolemy wishing to force Antigonus, and he, on his side, to +compel Cassander, to withdraw the garrisons from the Grecian towns; a +condition which neither party felt inclined to fulfil. Grecian freedom +was now but a name; this, however, is not the only example history +furnishes of political ideas making the greatest stir long after they +have survived their own existence; for then they become excellent tools +in the hands of artful designers. + + Expedition of Demetrius to liberate Athens, 308. The day when he + announced freedom to the Athenians, must have been the happiest of + his life! Few portions of history present such a scope for the + contemplation of human nature as the twofold sojourn of Demetrius + at Athens. + +22. The growing power of Ptolemy on the sea, and the capture of Cyprus, +determines Antigonus to an open rupture: he commands his son to drive +Ptolemy out of the island. + + Naval victory of Demetrius off Cyprus, 307, perhaps the greatest + and most bloody in history; nevertheless, as little decisive to + the general question as are most naval battles. The assumption of + the royal title, first by the conqueror, afterwards by the + conquered, and ultimately by all the rest, was but a mere form now + that the royal family was extirpated. + +23. The conquerors having failed in their project of subduing Egypt, +made the wealthy republic of the Rhodians, as an ally of that country, +the victim of their fury. But though in the renowned siege of their +capital, Demetrius earned his title of Poliorcetes, the noble defence of +the Rhodians afforded an illustrious example of the power of discipline +in conjunction with well-guided patriotism. The invitation of the +Athenians came seasonably to Demetrius; he raised the blockade and +proceeded to complete the liberation of Greece, the necessity of which +became every day more pressing. + +24. Second sojourn of Demetrius in Greece. The expulsion of Cassander's +garrisons from the Grecian cities, and more particularly from those in +Peloponnesus; the appointment of Demetrius as generalissimo of Greece, +for the conquest of Macedonia and Thrace; proved not only to Cassander, +but also to the other princes, that their common interest loudly called +upon them to resist the over-powerful Antigonus. + +25. Third grand league of Cassander, Ptolemy, and Seleucus, against +Antigonus and his son; brought about by Cassander. How easily, even +after the violent irruption of Lysimachus into Asia Minor, might +Antigonus have dispersed the gathering storms, had not his presumption +led him to place an overweening reliance on his own good fortune! + +26. Junction of Seleucus of Babylon and Lysimachus, in Phrygia. +Antigonus, to concentrate his forces, recalls his son, who had pushed on +to the borders of Macedonia. The cautious Ptolemy, on the other hand, is +afraid to invade Syria; and, in consequence of a false report, that +Lysimachus had been defeated, retires full of alarm, into Egypt. + +27. Great and decisive battle fought at Ipsus in Phrygia, in the spring +of 301, which costs Antigonus his life, and annihilates his empire, as +the two conquerors divide it between themselves, without taking any +account of the absent confederates. Asia Minor, as far as mount Taurus, +falls to the share of Lysimachus; and all the rest, with the exception +of Cilicia, which is given to Plisthenes, Cassander's brother, is left +to Seleucus.--Demetrius, by the help of his navy, escapes into Greece. + +28. The almost unbroken series of wars which had raged from the time of +Alexander, must have precluded the possibility of much being effected +with respect to domestic organization. It appears to have been nearly, +if not wholly, military. Yet were the numerous devastations in some +measure compensated by the erection of new cities, in which these +princes vied with one another, impelled partly by vanity to immortalize +their names, partly by policy to support their dominion, most of the new +settlements being military colonies. Nevertheless this was but a sorry +reparation for the manifold oppressions to which the natives were +exposed by the practice of quartering the army upon them. The spread of +the language and civilization of the Greeks deprived them of all +national distinction; their own languages sinking into mere provincial +dialects. Alexander's monarchy affords a striking example of the little +that can be expected from a forced amalgamation of races, when the price +of that amalgamation is the obliteration of national character in the +individuals. + + HEYNE, _Opum regni Macedonici auctarum, attritarum et eversarum, + causae probabiles; in Opusc._ t. iv. This collection contains + several other treatises on Grecian and Macedonian history, which + cannot be all separately enumerated. + + + + +THIRD PERIOD. + +_History of the kingdoms and states which arose upon the dismemberment +of the Macedonian Monarchy after the battle of Ipsus._ + + +I. HISTORY OF THE SYRIAN EMPIRE UNDER THE SELEUCIDAE, B. C. 312-64. + + SOURCES. Neither for the history of the Syrian, nor for that of + the Egyptian and Macedonian kingdoms, has any eminent writer been + preserved. The fragments of the lost books of Diodorus, and, from + the time that these kingdoms became allies of Rome, those of + Polybius, several narratives of Livy, the Syriaca of Appian, and a + few of Plutarch's Lives, are the principal authorities; too + frequently we are obliged to rely upon the extracts of Justin. For + the history of the Seleucidae, in consequence of the political + connection between these princes and the Jews, the Antiquities of + Josephus and the book of Maccabees become of importance. Besides + these authorities, the many coins that have been preserved of + these kings, afford much information respecting their genealogy + and chronology. + + Of modern publications on the subject, the principal work is + + VAILLANT, _Imperium Seleucidarum sive historia regum Syriae_, 1681, + 4to. The enquiry is principally grounded on coins, as is the case + with + + FROELICH, _Annales rerum et regum Syriae_. Viennae, 1754. + +1. The kingdom of the Seleucidae was founded in Upper Asia by Seleucus +Nicator. It was an extensive empire; but, being composed of various +countries united only by conquest, it could possess but little internal +stability except what it derived from the power of its rulers. That +power fell with the founder; and the transfer of the seat of empire +from the banks of the Tigris to Syria, entangled the Seleucidae in all +the political disputes of the western world, and facilitated the +insurrection of the upper provinces. The history of this kingdom divides +itself into the periods before and after the war with Rome; although at +the breaking out of this war the seeds of its decline and fall had +already been sown. + + Seleucus received, 321, Babylon as his province; but after the + defeat of Eumenes was obliged to take to flight, 315, in order to + avoid subjection to the conqueror Antigonus. But his moderate + government had rendered him so popular, that after the victory won + by Ptolemy over Demetrius at Gaza, 312, he could safely venture to + return with only a few adherents to Babylon. In this year + commences the kingdom of the Seleucidae. + +2. In the ten following years, and while Antigonus was busied in Asia +Minor, Seleucus laid the foundation of his power over all Upper Asia, +with a facility to which the detestation excited by the rigid government +of Antigonus mainly contributed. After his victory over Nicanor of +Media, all in that quarter declared spontaneously for him; and the +unsuccessful expedition of Demetrius taught Antigonus himself, that it +would no longer be prudent to assert his claims. As early as 307, +Seleucus was in possession of all the countries between the Euphrates, +Indus, and Oxus. + +3. Great campaign in India undertaken by Seleucus against king +Sandracottus. He penetrated as far as the Ganges, and the close alliance +he formed with the Indian sovereign lasted a long time after, and was +kept up by embassies. The great number of elephants which he brought +back with him was not the only advantage accruing from this expedition; +the intercourse with the east seems to have been permanently +reestablished. + +4. By the battle of Ipsus Seleucus added to his dominions the greater +part of the territories of Antigonus;--Syria, Cappadocia, Mesopotamia, +and Armenia. Unfortunately Syria now became the head province, +notwithstanding Coele-Syria and Phoenicia were left in the hands of +Ptolemy. How widely different would have been the course of historic +events, had the seat of empire remained at Seleucia on the Tigris, and +the Euphrates continued to be the western boundary of the Seleucidae! + +5. Reciprocal relations between the several kings, who now combine in +forming a kind of political system, in which continued exertions to +maintain a balance of power by alliance and marriage are plainly +discernible. + + Connection between Seleucus and Demetrius Poliorcetes, by the + marriage of the former with the beautiful Stratonice, daughter of + the latter; made with the view of counterbalancing a similar + connection between Ptolemy and Lysimachus; Lysimachus and his son + Agathocles having united themselves with two daughters of Ptolemy. + +6. The eighteen years of tranquillity enjoyed by Asia after the battle +of Ipsus, prove that Seleucus was one of the few followers of Alexander +who had any genius for the arts of peace. He either founded or +embellished a vast number of cities, the most important of which were +the capital, Antiochia in Syria, and the two Seleucias, one on the +Tigris, the other on the Orontes: the flourishing prosperity of several +of these places was the result of the restoration of eastern trade; new +channels for which appear to have been opened at this period on the main +streams of Asia, and more particularly on the Oxus. + +7. The home department of his empire was organized into satrapies, of +which there were seventy-two. But Alexander's maxim, "to give the +satrapies to natives," was wholly forgotten by his followers; and the +Seleucidae were not long before they experienced the evil consequences of +swerving from that practice. Under such a prince as Seleucus scarce any +kingdom could of itself fall to pieces; but the king himself paved the +way for the dismemberment of his empire, by ceding Upper Asia, together +with his consort Stratonice, to his son Antiochus; not, however, without +the previous approbation of the army. + +8. War with Lysimachus, kindled by ancient jealousy, and now fomented by +family feuds. The battle of Curopedion cost Lysimachus his throne and +his life; and Asia Minor became a part of the Syrian realm. But as +Seleucus was crossing over to Europe, to add Macedonia to his dominions, +he fell by the hand of an assassin, Ptolemy Ceraunus, and with him the +splendour of his kingdom was extinguished. + +9. The reign of his son, Antiochus I. surnamed Soter, seemed not +unprosperous, inasmuch as the empire preserved its former extension; but +in any state founded upon conquest, the failure of new attempts at an +increase of territory is a sure token of approaching ruin; and this was +the case here.--In such a state, the more immediately all depends on +the person of the ruler, the more rapid and sensible are the effects of +degeneration in a family like that of the Seleucidae. + + The late conquests of his father in Asia Minor entangled Antiochus + in new wars; although, by the marriage of his stepdaughter Phila + with Antigonus Gonatas, he ceded his claims on Macedonia, + 277.--Fruitless attempt at subjecting Bithynia, 279; the king of + that country, Nicomedes, calls in the Gauls, who had invaded + Macedonia, and gives them a settlement in Galatia, 277, where they + keep their footing, even after the victory won over them by + Antiochus, 275, and by their participation in the wars, as + mercenaries, become of importance.--The newly risen state of + Pergamus likewise thrives, at the expense of the Syrian empire, in + spite of Antiochus's attack, 263; and the inroad into Egypt, for + the purpose of supporting the rebel Magas, is anticipated by + Ptolemy II. 264. + +10. Antiochus II. surnamed [Greek: Theos]. During his reign the sway was +in the hands of women; and the diseased state of the interior of the +empire became palpable by the secession of various eastern provinces, +out of which arose the Parthian and Bactrian kingdoms. The boundless +luxury of the court hurried on the decline of the ruling family; having +once begun to sink, it could not without difficulty have retrieved its +virtue independently of the matrimonial connections now constantly +formed from within itself. + + Ascendancy of his stepsister and wife Laodice, and of his sister + Apame, relict of Magas; the latter involves him in war with + Ptolemy II. to vindicate her claims upon Cyrene; it ends by + Antiochus's marriage with Berenice, daughter of Ptolemy, and his + repudiation of Laodice, 260-252. Having, after the death of + Ptolemy, 247, put away Berenice and taken back Laodice; the + latter, distrusting his motives, cuts him off by poison.--The + secession of Parthia happened in consequence of the expulsion of + the Macedonian governor by Arsaces, founder of the house of the + Arsacidae: that of Bactria, on the other hand, was brought about by + the Macedonian governor himself, Theodotus, who asserted his + independence. (Concerning these two kingdoms, see below, book iv. + period iii. Dist. Kingdoms iv. parag. 4, 5.) At first, the former + of these kingdoms comprised but a part of Parthia; the latter only + Bactria, and, perhaps, Sogdiana; both, however, were soon enlarged + at the expense of the Seleucidae. + +11. Seleucus II. surnamed Callinicus. His reign, twenty years in +duration, is one unbroken series of wars; in which the kingdom, already +enfeebled, was subverted, partly by the struggle with Egypt, caused by +the hatred between Laodice and Berenice; partly by the jealousy of his +brother Antiochus Hierax; and partly by vain attempts at recovering the +upper provinces. + + Assassination of Berenice, and most unfortunate war thereby + kindled with Ptolemy Evergetes of Egypt, 247-244. The assistance + which Seleucus obtains from his junior brother, Antiochus, + governor of Asia Minor, induces Ptolemy to a truce, 243; but + another war ensues between the two brothers, in which Antiochus, + at first conqueror, is himself soon afterwards conquered in his + turn, 243-240; and during this contest, Eumenes of Pergamus + greatly increases his territory at the expense of Syria, 242.--His + first campaign against Arsaces, who had formed an alliance with + the Bactrian king, ended in a defeat, 238, regarded by the + Parthians as the real epoch of the foundation of their kingdom. In + the second campaign, 236, he himself fell into the hands of the + Parthians, and remained a prisoner till the day of his death, 227. + +12. His elder son Seleucus III. surnamed Ceraunus, on the point of +taking the field against Attalus king of Pergamus, was removed by +poison. But the dominion of the Seleucidae was reestablished in Asia +Minor by his mother's fraternal nephew, Achaeus; and the crown ensured to +the younger brother Antiochus, governor of Babylon. + +13. The long reign of Antiochus III. surnamed the Great, is not only the +most eventful in Syrian history, but likewise marks an epoch, by the +relations now commencing between Syria and Rome.--To earn the title of +_great_ was a task of no extreme difficulty in such a line of princes. + +14. Great power of Hermias the Carian, who soon became so formidable to +the young monarch, that he was obliged to rid himself of him by murder. +The great stand made by the brothers, Molo and Alexander, satraps of +Media and Persia, who probably had an understanding with Hermias, +threatened the king with the loss of all the upper provinces: it ended +in the defeat of Molo, Hermias being at last no longer able to hinder +the king from marching against him in person. + +15. The intrigues of Hermias excited Achaeus to rebellion in Asia Minor: +but Antiochus held more important, first to execute the plan he had +previously traced, of ejecting the Ptolemies from their possessions in +Syria; great as the success which at first attended this expedition, it +was completely traversed by the battle of Raphia.--Combining with +Attalus of Pergamus, Antiochus then defeated Achaeus, who, being shut up +in the citadel of Sardes, was treacherously delivered into his hands. + +16. Great campaign of Antiochus in the upper provinces, in consequence +of the seizure of Media by Arsaces III.--Hostilities ended in a compact, +by which Antiochus agreed formerly to cede Parthia and Hyrcania; +Arsaces, on his side, pledging himself to furnish assistance against +Bactria.--But the war with Bactria was also followed by a peace, +leaving the king, Euthydemus, in possession of his crown and +dominions.--The expedition now undertaken by Antiochus, in company with +Demetrius of Bactriana, against India, extended, probably far up the +country, and was attended with important consequences to Bactriana. (See +below, history of Bactria, book iv. per. iii. Dist. Kingdoms iv. parag. +5.) + +The result of these great expeditions was the establishment of the +supremacy of the Seleucidae in Upper Asia; those countries excepted which +had been formally resigned. + + On his return through Arachotus and Carmania, where he wintered, + he likewise undertook a naval expedition on the Persian gulf: here + Gerrha, in possession of its freedom, appears a flourishing place + of trade. + +17. Resumption of the plan against Egypt, after the death of Ptolemy +Philopator; and alliance with Philip of Macedonia, then carrying on war +in Asia. Antiochus, it is true, attained his end in the expulsion of the +Ptolemies from their possessions in Syria, Coele-Syria, and Phoenicia; +but then, his success brought him in contact with Rome, an event of +decisive importance to himself and his successors. + +18. Growth of the disputes between the king and Rome, proceeding from +the conquest of the major part of Asia Minor and the Thracian +Chersonesus; meanwhile Hannibal had taken refuge at the Syrian court, +and the probability daily increased of a great league being formed +against Rome, although that power, after conquering Carthage, 201, and +Macedonia, 197, had succeeded in winning over Greece even, by the magic +spell of _freedom_. But Antiochus ruined all: instead of following +Hannibal's advice, and attacking the Romans on their own ground, he +stood on the defensive, and suffered himself to be invaded by them in +Asia. His defeat at Magnesia near Mount Sipylus compelled him to accede +to such conditions as Rome chose to dictate, and the power of the Syrian +empire was for ever broken. + + For the history of this war, see below in the Roman history. Book + v. per. ii. parag. 10, 11. + +19. The conditions of the peace were: 1st. That Antiochus should +evacuate Asia Minor; (Asia cis Taurum.) 2nd. That he should pay down +15,000 talents; and to Eumenes of Pergamus four hundred. 3rd. That +Hannibal and some others should be delivered up, and the king's younger +son Antiochus, be given as an hostage.--The loss of the surrendered +countries was a consequence of this peace, less disadvantageous to the +Syrian kings, than the use made of it by the conquerors. By adding the +greatest part of the ceded territories to those of the kings of +Pergamus, the Romans raised up alongside of their enemy a rival, whom +they might at their own will use as a political engine against +him.--Rome took care likewise that the stipulated sum should be paid by +instalments in twelve years, to the end that Syria might be kept in a +permanent state of dependence. + +20. Murder of the king, 187. The reign of his elder son, Seleucus IV. +surnamed Philopator, was a period of tranquillity; peace arising from +weakness.--Though once he unsheathed his sword in defence of Pharnaces +king of Pontus, against Eumenes, his fear of Rome soon compelled him to +restore it to the scabbard. He exchanged his son for his brother at +Rome; but fell a victim to the ambition of his minister Heliodorus. + +21. Antiochus IV. surnamed Epiphanes. Educated at Rome, he sought to +combine the popular manners of a Roman with the ostentatious luxury of a +Syrian; and thereby became an object of universal hatred and contempt. +Our information respecting his history is too meagre to allow of our +deciding whether most of the evil reported of him, in the Jewish +accounts especially, may not be exaggerated. At any rate, among all his +faults, we may still discern in him the germs of good qualities. + +22. War with Egypt, springing out of Ptolemy Philometor's claims upon +Coele-Syria and Palestine. Obscure as many parts are in the history of +this war yet it is evident that success attended the arms of Antiochus, +and that he would have become master of Egypt had not Rome interfered. + + The pretext for war, on the Egyptian side, was, that those + provinces had by Antiochus III. been promised as a dowry to + Cleopatra, sister of Antiochus and the mother of Philometor: + Antiochus Epiphanes, on his side, laid claim to the regency of + Egypt, as uncle to the young king, who, however, was soon declared + of age.--Opening of the war, and victory won by Antiochus at + Pelusium, 171; in consequence of which Cyprus is betrayed into his + hands.--Pelusium is fortified with a view of insuring the + possession of Coele-Syria, and of facilitating an irruption into + Egypt.--Another victory, 170, and Egypt subdued as far as + Alexandria. Philometor driven by a sedition out of Alexandria, + where his brother Physcon is seated on the throne, falls into the + hands of Antiochus, who concludes with him a most advantageous + peace, and takes his part against Physcon. Hence siege is laid to + Alexandria, 169; attended with no success. Upon the retreat of + Antiochus, Philometor, concluding a separate peace with his + brother, according to which both are to rule in conjunction, is + admitted into Alexandria. Antiochus, bitterly enraged, now + declares war against both brothers, who crave assistance from + Rome: he once more penetrates into Egypt, 168; where the Roman + ambassador, Popillius, assumes so lofty a tone, that the Syrian + king is glad to purchase peace by the surrender of Cyprus and + Pelusium. + +23. The religious intolerance of Epiphanes, exhibited in his wish to +introduce the Grecian worship everywhere among the subjects of his +empire, is the more remarkable, as such instances were less frequent in +those times. This intolerance seems to have taken its rise, not only in +the love of pomp, but in the cupidity of the king, who by that means was +enabled to appropriate to himself the treasures of the temples, no +longer inviolate, since the defeat of his father by Rome. The consequent +sedition of the Jews, under the Maccabees, laid the foundation of the +future independence of that people, and contributed not a little to +weaken the Syrian kingdom. + + See below; History of the Jews, book iv. per. iv; Small states + Jews, parag. 6. The deep decay of the finances of the Seleucidae, + palpable from the latter days of Antiochus the Great, may be + accounted for well enough, by the falling off of the revenue, + accompanied with increased luxury in the kings, (an instance of + which is furnished in the festivals celebrated by Antiochus + Epiphanes at Daphne, 166,) and in the vast presents constantly + sent to Rome, in addition to the tribute, for the purpose of + keeping up a party there. + +24. His expedition also into Upper Asia, Persis especially, where great +disorders were likewise excited by the introduction of the Grecian +religion, had for its object not only the recovery of Armenia, but the +rifling of the temples. He died, however, on his way to Babylon. + +25. The real heir to the throne, Demetrius, being detained at Rome as an +hostage, Epiphanes was first succeeded by his son Antiochus V. surnamed +Eupator, a child nine years old. During his short reign, the quarrels of +his guardians, the despotism of the Romans, the protracted war with the +Jews, and the commencing conquests of the Parthians, reduced the kingdom +of the Seleucidae to a powerless state. + + Contest between Lysias, regent in the absence of Epiphanes, and + Philip, appointed by the king, previously to his death, as + guardian of the young prince, terminated by the defeat of Philip, + 162.--Eupator's right acknowledged at Rome, in order that the + guardianship might fall into the hands of the senate, who + administer the government by means of a commission sent over into + Syria, and completely deprive the king of all power of resistance. + Octavius, head of the commission, put to death, probably at the + instigation of Lysias.--While the Parthian king, Mithridates I. is + prosecuting his conquests at the expense of the Syrian kingdom in + Upper Asia, Demetrius secretly escapes out of Rome, takes + possession of the throne, and causes Eupator and Lysias to be put + to death, 161. + +26. Demetrius I. surnamed Soter. He succeeded in getting himself +acknowledged at Rome, on which all now depended. The attempts to extend +his power, by supporting Orofernes, the pretender to the crown of +Cappadocia, against the king Ariarathes, had their origin partly in +family relations, but still more, as was the case with almost all +political transactions of those times, in bribery. By this act he only +drew upon himself the enmity of the kings of Egypt and Pergamus; as, +moreover, he was hated by his subjects on account of his intemperance, +the chances of success were greatly in favour of the shameful usurpation +of Alexander Balas, brought about by Heraclidas the expelled governor of +Babylon, and backed by the yet more shameful conduct of the Roman +senate, who acknowledged his title to the throne. The Syrian kingdom was +now fallen so low, that both king and usurper were obliged to court the +favour of the Jews under Jonathan, hitherto regarded as rebels. In the +second battle Demetrius lost his life. + +27. The usurper Alexander Balas endeavoured to confirm his power by a +marriage with Cleopatra, daughter of Ptolemy Philometor: but he soon +evinced himself more unworthy even than his predecessor of wielding the +sceptre. While he abandoned the government to his favourite, the +detested Ammonius, the eldest remaining son of Demetrius succeeds not +only in raising a party against the usurper, but even in prevailing on +Philometor to side with himself, and give him in marriage Cleopatra, +whom he takes away from Balas. The consequence of this alliance with +Egypt was the defeat and downfal of Balas, although it cost Philometor +his life. + + The account, that Philometor wished to conquer Syria for himself, + must probably be understood as meaning that he had formed the + design of recovering the ancient Egyptian possessions, Coele-Syria + and Phoenicia. Otherwise, why should he have given his daughter to + a second pretender to the throne? + +28. Demetrius II. surnamed Nicator, 145-141, and for the second time, +130-126. The disbanding of his father's mercenaries having roused the +indignation of the army, the cruelty of his favourite Lasthenes kindled +a sedition in the capital, which could not be quenched without the +assistance of the Jews, under their high priest and military chieftain, +Jonathan.--While affairs were in this posture, Diodotus, subsequently +called Tryphon, a dependent of Balas, excited an insurrection, by +bringing forward Antiochus, the latter's son, and even, with the help of +Jonathan, seating him on the throne of Antioch: soon after, Tryphon, +having by treachery got Jonathan into his power, removed Antiochus by +murder, and assumed the diadem himself.--Notwithstanding Demetrius +kept his footing only in a part of Syria, he was enabled to obey +the call of the Grecian colonists in Upper Asia, and support them +against the Parthians, who had overrun the country as far as the +Euphrates.--Although victorious in the commencement of the contest, he +was soon after taken by the Parthians, and remained ten years a +prisoner, though treated meanwhile as a king. + +29. In order to maintain herself against Tryphon, Cleopatra marries the +younger, and better brother, Antiochus of Sida, (Sidetes); he being at +first in alliance with the Jews,--who, however, were soon after +subdued--defeats and overthrows Tryphon. Being now lord and master of +Syria, he undertakes a campaign against the Parthians; at the +commencement, befriended by the subjects of the Parthians, he is +successful, but soon afterwards is attacked in winter quarters by those +very friends, and cut to pieces, together with all his army. + + If the accounts of the wanton licentiousness of his army are not + exaggerations, they furnish the clearest proof of the military + despotism of those times. By continued pillage and extortion, the + wealth of the country had been collected in the hands of the + soldiers; and the condition of Syria must have been pretty nearly + the same as that of Egypt under the Mamluk sultans. + +30. Meanwhile Demetrius II. having escaped from prison, again seated +himself on the throne. But being now still more overbearing than before, +and meddling in the Egyptian affairs, Ptolemy Physcon set up against him +a rival in the person of Alexander Zebinas a pretended son of Alexander +Balas; by him he was defeated and slain. + + The Parthian king Phraates II. had, at first, liberated Demetrius, + to whom his sister Rhodogune was united by marriage, in order + that, by appearing in Syria, he might oblige Antiochus to retreat. + Antiochus having fallen, Phraates would fain have recaptured + Demetrius, but he escaped. + +31. The ensuing history of the Seleucidae is a picture of civil wars, +family feuds, and deeds of horror, such as are scarcely to be +paralleled. The utmost verge of the empire was now the Euphrates; all +Upper Asia acknowledging the dominion of the Parthians. The Jews, +moreover, having completely vindicated their independence, the kingdom +was consequently confined to Syria and Phoenicia. So thoroughly decayed +was the state, that even the Romans--whether because there was no longer +anything to plunder, or because they conceived it more prudent to suffer +the Seleucidae to wear themselves out in mutual quarrels--do not seem to +have taken any account of it, until, at the conclusion of the last war +with Mithridates, they thought proper formally to annex it to their +empire as a province. + + War between Alexander Zebinas and the ambitious relict of + Demetrius, Cleopatra, who with her own hand murders her eldest son + Seleucus, B.C. 125, for pretending to the crown, which she now + gives to her younger son, Antiochus Gryphus; the new king, + however, soon saw himself compelled to secure his own life by the + murder of his mother, 122; Alexander Zebinas having been the year + before, 123, defeated and put to death. After a peaceful rule of + eight years, 122-114, Antiochus Gryphus is involved in war with + his half-brother Antiochus Cyzicenus, son of Cleopatra by + Antiochus Sidetes: it ends, 111, in a partition of territory. But + the war between the brothers soon burst out anew, and just as this + hapless kingdom seemed about to crumble into pieces, Gryphus was + murdered, 97.--Seleucus, the eldest of his five sons, having + beaten and slain Cyzicenus, 96; the eldest son of the latter, + Antiochus Eusebes, prosecuted the war against the sons of Gryphus; + Eusebes being at last defeated, 90, the surviving sons of Gryphus + fell to war among themselves, and the struggle continued until the + Syrians, weary of bloodshed, did what they ought to have done long + before, viz. made over the sovereign power to Tigranes the king of + Armenia, 85. Yet Eusebes's widow, Selene, retained Ptolemais till + 70; and her elder son Antiochus Asiaticus, at the time that + Tigranes was beaten by Lucullus, in the Mithridatic war, took + possession of some provinces in Syria, 68; these were wrested from + him after the total defeat of Mithridates by Pompey, when Tigranes + was obliged to give up his claim, and Syria became a province of + the Roman empire, 64. Antiochus Asiaticus died 58; his brother + Seleucus Cybiosactes, having married Berenice, was raised to the + Egyptian throne, but murdered at her command, 57; and thus the + family of the Seleucidae was completely swept away. + + +II. _History of the Egyptian kingdom under the Ptolemies, 323-30._ + + The sources of this history are for the most part the same as in + the foregoing section; see above, p. 232; but unfortunately still + more scanty; for in the first place, less information can here be + derived from the Jewish writers; secondly, as on the coins struck + under the Ptolemies no continuous series of time is marked, but + only the year of the king's reign, they are by no means such + safeguards to the chronology as those of the Seleucidae. With + respect to some few events, important illustrations are supplied by + inscriptions. + + By modern writers, the history of the Ptolemies has been composed + under a form almost entirely chronological, and by no means treated + of in the spirit which it deserves. + + VAILLANT, _Historia Ptolemaeorum_, fol. Amstelodam. 1701. + Illustration by the aid of coins. + + CHAMPOLION FIGEAC, _Annales des Lagides, ou Chronologie des Rois + d'Egypte, successeurs d'Alexandre le Grand_. Paris, 1819, 2 vols. + This treatise, which was honoured with a prize by the Academie des + Inscriptions, has by no means exhausted the whole of the subject. + See + + J. SAINT-MARTIN, _Examen Critique de l'ouvrage de_ M. CH. F. + _intitule Annales des Lagides_. Paris, 1820. + + LETRONNE, _Recherches pour servir a l'histoire de l'Egypte pendant + la domination des Grecs et des Romains, tirees des inscriptions + Grecques et Latines, relatives a la chronologie, a l'etat des arts + aux usages civils et religieux de ce pays_. Paris, 1828. It cannot + be denied that the author has thrown a much clearer light on the + subjects mentioned in his title. + +1. Egypt, under the Ptolemies, fulfilled, and perhaps more than +fulfilled, the designs projected by Alexander; it became not only a +mighty kingdom, but likewise the centre of trade, and of science. The +history of Egypt, however, confines itself, almost solely, to that of +the new capital, Alexandria; the foundation of that city produced, +imperceptibly, a change in the national character, which never could +have been wrought by main force. In the enjoyment of civil welfare and +religious freedom, the nation sunk into a state of political drowsiness, +such as could scarce have been expected in a people who so often rose up +against the Persians. + + Alexandria, originally, was no doubt a military colony; it was not + long, however, before it became a general place of resort for all + nations, such as was scarcely to be met with in any other town of + that day. The inhabitants were divided into three classes; + _Alexandrines_, (that is to say, foreigners of all nations, who had + settled in the place; next to the Greeks, the Jews were, it + appears, the most numerous,) _Egyptians_, and _Mercenaries_ in the + king's service. The Greeks and Macedonians divided into wards + ([Greek: phylas]), constituted the citizens; they were under + municipal government; the others, such as the Jews, formed bodies + corporate according to their respective nations. The more + important, in so many respects, that Alexandria is for history, the + more it is to be regretted that the accounts respecting it, which + have reached us, are so far from satisfactory!--Concerning the + topography of ancient Alexandria: + + BONAMY, _Description de la ville d'Alexandrie_ in the _Mem. de + l'Academie des Inscript._ vol. ix. Compare: + + # J. L. F. MANSO, _Letters upon ancient Alexandria_, in his + _Vermischte Schriften_, vol. i. + +2. Ptolemy I. surnamed Soter, the son of Lagus, received Egypt for his +share, at the first division after the death of Alexander. Aware of the +value of his lot, he was the only one of Alexander's successors that had +the moderation not to aim at grasping all. No doubt he was, by the +ambition of the other princes, entangled in their quarrels, but his +conduct was so cautious, that Egypt itself was never endangered. Twice +attacked in that country, first by Perdiccas, afterwards by Antigonus +and Demetrius, he availed himself successfully of his advantageous +position, and moreover, in this period, added to his dominion several +countries without Africa, such as Phoenicia, Judaea, Coele-Syria, and +Cyprus. + + The possession of Phoenicia and Coele-Syria, by reason of their + forests, was of indispensable necessity to Egypt as a naval power. + They frequently changed masters. The first occupation of those + provinces by the Egyptian government, occurred in 320, soon after + the rout of Perdiccas by Ptolemy's general Nicanor, who took the + Syrian satrap Laomedon prisoner, established his footing in the + whole of Syria, and placed garrisons in the Phoenician cities. In + 314 it was again lost to Antigonus, after his return out of Upper + Asia, and the siege of Tyre. Ptolemy having defeated Demetrius at + Gaza, 312, repossessed himself of those countries, but soon after + evacuated them on the appearance of Antigonus, to whom they were + ceded by the peace of 311. At the conclusion of the last grand + league against Antigonus, 303, Ptolemy once more occupied them: but + alarmed at a false report, that Antigonus had gained a victory, he + retreated into Egypt, leaving nevertheless troops in the cities. + After the battle of Ipsus, 301, those countries were made over to + him, and continued in the hands of the Ptolemies until they were + lost at the second invasion of Antiochus the Great, 203. + + Cyprus, (see p. 154) like most other islands, acknowledged + submission to those who possessed the sovereignty of the sea, and + therefore could not escape the dominion of the Ptolemies. It was + taken possession of by Ptolemy as early as 313. Still the separate + cities of the islands preserved their kings, among whom Nicocles of + Paphos, having entered into a secret league with Antigonus, was put + to death, 310. After the great seafight, 307, Cyprus fell into the + hands of Antigonus and Demetrius. Subsequently to the battle of + Ipsus, 301, it remained indeed at first in the power of Demetrius; + but that prince being gone over to Macedonia, Ptolemy, 294, seized + an opportunity of recovering it, and the island from that time + remained under the dominion of Egypt. Availing themselves of their + naval strength, the Egyptian kings frequently exerted sovereign + power over the coasts of Asia Minor, especially Cilicia, Caria, and + Pamphylia, which appear to have absolutely formed a part of their + territory under the second Ptolemy. It is, however, hardly possible + to define with accuracy what were their real possessions in those + quarters. + +3. Ptolemy likewise extends his territory within Africa, by the capture +of Cyrene; in consequence of which Libya, or the neighbouring countries +betwixt Cyrene and Egypt, fell under his dominion. It is probable, also, +that even in his reign the frontier of the Egyptian empire was advanced +into Aethiopia; but for this assertion we have no positive authority. + + The fall of Cyrene was brought about by domestic broils: at the + time the place was besieged by Thimbron, a portion of the exiled + nobles fled to Ptolemy; the Egyptian prince commanded that they + should be reinstated by his general Ophellas, who took possession + of the town itself, 321. An insurrection in 312 was quelled by + Agis, Ptolemy's general: nevertheless it would appear that + Ophellas had almost established his independence, when, by the + treachery of Agathocles, with whom he had entered into a league + against Carthage, he perished, about 308. Cyrene was now seized by + Ptolemy, and given to his son Magas, who ruled over it fifty + years. + +4. With respect to the internal government of Egypt, our information is +far from complete. The division into districts or nomes was continued; +subject perhaps, in some cases, to alterations. The power of the king +appears to have been unlimited; the extreme provinces were administered +by governors, appointed by the sovereign; similar officers were probably +placed at the head of the various districts of Egypt itself; but hardly +any document relative to the home department of that country has reached +our time. High public situations, at least in the capital, appear +exclusively reserved to Macedonians or Greeks; no Egyptian is ever +mentioned as holding office. + + There were four magistrates at Alexandria: the Exegetes, whose + office was to provide for the wants of the city; the Chief Judge; + the Hypomnematographus--(Registrar of the archives?)--and the + [Greek: Strategos nykterinos], no doubt, the supervisor of the + police, whose duty it was to watch over the peace of the city at + night. We have the express testimony of Strabo, that these + offices, which continued under the Romans, had already existed + under the kings; whether their establishment can be dated as far + back as the time of Ptolemy I. is a question that does not admit + of a solution.--The number of the districts or nomes appears to + have been augmented; probably with a political view, in order that + no governor or monarch should be invested with too great a share + of power. + +5. Be that as it may, it is an undoubted fact, that the ancient national +constitution and administration were not entirely obliterated. The caste +of priests, together with the national religion, continued to exist; and +though the influence of the former was considerably diminished, it did +not entirely cease. A certain sort of worship was, by appointed priests, +paid to the kings, both in their lifetime and after their death. +Memphis, though not the usual residence of the court, remained the +capital of the kingdom; there the ceremony of coronation was performed; +and its temple of Phtha was still the head sanctuary. What influence had +not the religion of the Egyptians upon that of the Greeks! It were +difficult to say which nation borrowed most from the other. + +6. The regeneration of Egypt from the state of general ruin into which +she had been plunged, and the permanent tranquillity she enjoyed during +nearly thirty years, the duration of the reign of Ptolemy I.--at a time +when the rest of the world was harassed by continual wars,--must have +heightened her prosperity under so mild and beneficent a ruler. But +Ptolemy was certainly the only prince who could have taken advantage of +these favourable circumstances. Though a soldier by profession he was +highly accomplished, was himself a writer, and had a genius for all the +arts of peace, which he fostered with the open-handed liberality of a +king: while amidst all the brilliant splendour of his court, he led +himself the life of a private individual. + + Increase of Alexandria by the importation of vast numbers of + colonists; especially Jews.--Erection of several superb buildings, + more particularly the Serapeum.--Measures taken for the extension + of trade and navigation.--The twofold harbour on the sea, and on + the lake Mareotis.--The Pharus built. + +7. But what more than any thing else distinguished Ptolemy from his +contemporaries was his regard for the interests of science. The idea of +founding the Museum sprung out of the necessities of the age, and was +suited to the monarchical form of government now prevalent. Where in +those days of destruction and revolution could the sciences have found a +shelter, if not under the protection of a prince? But under Ptolemy they +found more than a shelter, they found a rallying point. Here accordingly +the exact sciences were perfected: and although the critic's art which +now grew up could not form a Homer or a Sophocles, should _we_, had it +not been for the Alexandrines, be at present able to read either Homer +or Sophocles? + + Foundation of the Museum, (Society of the learned,) and of the + first library in Bruchium, (afterwards removed to the Serapeum;) + probably under the direction of Demetrius Phalereus. A proper + estimation of the services rendered by the Museum is yet wanting: + what academy in modern Europe, however, has done so much? + + HEYNE, _De genio Saeculi Ptolemaeorum_. _In Opuscul._ t. i. + + MATTER, _Essai historique sur l'ecole d'Alexandrie_, 1820. + +8. Ptolemy II. surnamed Philadelphus, son of Berenice, the second wife +of his father, had ascended the throne in 286 as joint king. His reign, +which lasted thirty-eight years, was more peaceful even than that of his +predecessor, whose spirit seemed to inspire him in every thing, save +that he was not a warrior: but, by that very reason, the arts of peace, +trade, and science were promoted with the greater energy. In his reign +Egypt was the first power by sea, and one of the first by land, in the +world; and even though the account given by Theocritus of its +thirty-three thousand cities may be regarded as the exaggeration of a +poet, it is very certain that Egypt was in those days the most +flourishing country in existence. + + The commerce of Alexandria was divided into three main branches: + 1. The land-trade over Asia and Africa. 2. The sea-trade on the + Mediterranean. 3. The sea-trade on the Arabian gulf, and Indian + ocean.--With regard to the land-trade of Asia, especially that of + India carried on by caravans, Alexandria was obliged to share it + with various cities and countries: since one of its chief routes + traversed the Oxus, and Caspian, to the Black sea; while the + caravans, travelling through Syria and Mesopotamia, spread for the + most part among the seaports of Phoenicia and Asia Minor.--The + trade over Africa extended far west, and still farther south. + Westward it was secured by the close connection between Cyrene and + Alexandria; and no doubt followed the same roads as in earlier + times: of far greater importance was that carried on with the + southern countries, or Aethiopia, into the interior of which they + now penetrated, principally for the purpose of procuring + elephants. The navigation on the Arabian and Indian seas had + likewise for its immediate object the Aethiopian trade, rather than + the Indian.--The measures taken by Ptolemy with this view, + consisted partly in the building of harbours (Berenice, Myos + Hormos) on the Arabian gulf; partly in establishing a caravan from + Berenice to Coptos on the Nile, down which latter the goods were + further transmitted to their destination; for the canal connecting + the Red sea with the Nile, although, perhaps, completed at this + time, was nevertheless but little used. The grand deposit for + these wares was the lesser harbour of Alexandria, united by a + canal with the lake Mareotis, which in its turn communicated by + another canal with the Nile; so that the account we receive of the + lesser harbour being more thronged and full of bustle than the + larger one, need not excite our surprise. With regard to the trade + on the Mediterranean, it was shared between Alexandria, Rhodes, + Corinth, and Carthage. The chief manufactories appear to have been + those of cotton stuffs, established in or near the temples. + + The best inquiry into the trade of Alexandria will be found in J. + C. D. DE SCHMIDT, _Opuscula, res maxime Aegyptiorum illustrantia_, + 1765, 8vo. + +9. It would be important to know what, in a state like Egypt, was the +system of imposts, which under Philadelphus produced 14,800 silver +talents, (four millions sterling,) without taking into account the toll +paid in grain. In the extreme provinces, such as Palestine, the taxes +were annually farmed to the highest bidder, a mode of levy attended with +great oppression to the people. The case appears to have been very +different with regard to Egypt itself; the customs, however, constituted +the main branch of the revenue. + +10. The wars waged by Ptolemy II. were limited to those against +Antiochus II. of Syria, and Magas of Cyrene, half-brother to the +Egyptian king; the former sprung out of the latter. Luckily for Egypt, +Ptolemy II. was of a weak constitution, and by his state of health was +incapacitated from commanding his armies in person.--Under his reign the +first foundation was laid, by means of reciprocal embassies, of that +connection with Rome which afterwards decided the fate of Egypt. + + Magas had, after the defeat of Ophellas, received Cyrene, 308. He + had married Apame, daughter of Antiochus I., and in 266 had raised + the standard of rebellion with the intention of invading Egypt + itself, when an insurrection in Marmarica compelled him to + retreat; he contrived, notwithstanding, to prevail upon his + father-in-law to undertake an expedition against Egypt, which, + however, was frustrated by Philadelphus, 264. To terminate this + contest, Magas was about to unite his daughter Berenice with the + eldest son of Philadelphus; Apame, wishing to thwart the + negotiation, fled over to her brother, Antiochus II. whom, after + her husband's death, 258, she excited to a war against Egypt, + which closed in 252.--The embassy to Rome originated in the + victory won by the Romans over Pyrrhus, 273; it was answered by + another from the Romans, 272. + +11. The son inherited from his father all but the simplicity of domestic +life: under the reign of Philadelphus, the court was first thrown open +to that effeminate luxury, which soon wrought the destruction of the +Ptolemies as it had previously done that of the Seleucidae; at the same +time was introduced the pernicious practice of intermarriages in the +same family, by which the royal blood was more foully contaminated here +even than in Syria. Philadelphus set the first example, by repudiating +Arsinoe the daughter of Lysimachus, and then marrying his own sister, +likewise named Arsinoe; this princess preserved her influence over the +king as long as she lived, although she did not bring him an heir, but +adopted the children of her predecessor. + +12. Ptolemy III. surnamed Evergetes. Under him, Egypt, from being merely +mercantile, assumed the character of a conquering state; notwithstanding +his warlike spirit, he was not uninspired with that genius for the arts +of peace peculiar to his family. His conquests were directed partly +against Asia in the war with Seleucus II. and extended as far as the +borders of Bactria; and partly, it is probable, against the interior of +Ethiopia, and the western coast of Arabia. Countries so wealthy, and +with which commerce had made men so well acquainted, could hardly escape +the arms of such a formidable power as Egypt; yet she seems to have made +scarcely any other use of this extension of territory, than to insure +the safety of her commercial routes. + + The main source of the history of Ptolemy Evergetes, is the + inscription on the monument erected by that prince at Adule in + Ethiopia: it contains a chronological list of his conquests, a + copy of which has been preserved to us by Cosmas Indicopleustes; + modern researches, however, have shown the probability of its + having consisted of two inscriptions, one referring to Evergetes, + the other to a later king of Abyssinia.--According to this + monument, Ptolemy inherited from his father, besides Egypt itself, + Libya, that is to say, western Africa as far as Cyrene, + Coele-Syria, Phoenicia, Lycia, Caria, Cyprus, and the + Cyclades.--War with Seleucus Callinicus caused by the murder of + Berenice (see above, p. 237.); lasted until the ten years' truce, + 246-240. During this war, he conquered the whole of Syria as far + as the Euphrates, and most of the maritime countries in Asia + Minor, from Cilicia to the Hellespont: an easy prey to a naval + power. Whether the conquest of the countries beyond the Euphrates, + Mesopotamia, Babylonia, Persis, Susiana, and Media as far as + Bactria, was effected in these four years, or not till between 240 + and 230, is a question which cannot be determined with certainty. + If we may judge by the booty brought back, this campaign was + rather a foray than a regular expedition for conquest, though + Ptolemy, indeed, appointed governors in Cilicia and Babylonia; yet + the peculiar situation of affairs in Asia at the time, Seleucus + being at war with his brother Antiochus Hierax, and the Parthian + and Bactrian kingdoms being also in a state of infant feebleness, + afforded unusual opportunities for an expedition of this sort. + + The southern conquests, so far as they may be referred to + Evergetes, were effected during the last period of his reign, in a + separate war. They comprised: 1st. The greatest part of modern + Abyssinia,--for as the catalogue of nations commences with that of + Abyssinia, it necessarily follows that Nubia had already been + subjected to Egypt.--The mountain range along the Arabian gulf, + the plain of Sennaar as far as modern Darfur, the lofty chain of + mountains to the south, beyond the fountains of the Nile. All + these conquests were made by the king in person; and from those + distant lands to Egypt, commercial roads were opened. 2nd. The + western coast of Arabia, from Leuke Kome to the southern point of + Arabia Felix, was conquered by his generals and admirals: here, + likewise, the security of the commercial roads was established. + + _Monumentum Adulitanum_, published in FABRICIUS, _B. Graec._ t. ii. + + MONTFAUCON, _Coll. Patr._ t. i. and in CHISHULL, _Antiquit. + Asiaticae_. + + The assertion that the monument bears two different inscriptions + is made by SALT, in the narrative of his travels contained in the + _Travels of Lord Valentia_. + +13. Egypt was singularly blessed in having three great kings, whose +reigns filled one whole century. A change now ensued; but that change +was brought about by the natural course of events; in fact, it could +scarcely be expected that the court should remain untainted by such +luxury as must have prevailed in a city, which was the main seat of +trade, and the deposit of the treasures of the richest countries. + +14. Ptolemy IV. surnamed Philopator. A debauchee and a tyrant, who, +during the greater portion of his reign, remained under the tutelage of +the crafty Sosibius, and, after the decease of that individual, fell +into the yet more infamous hands of Agathocles and his sister +Agathoclea. Philopator being contemporary with Antiochus the Great, the +dangers that threatened Egypt under such a reign seemed to be doubled; +they were, however, averted by the ill-deserved victory of Raphia (see +above, p. 238). + +15. Agathocles and his sister would fain have taken into their own hands +the guardianship of his son Ptolemy V. surnamed Epiphanes, a child only +five years old; but the people having risen up and made a terrible +example of them, the office of guardian was confided to the younger +Sosibius and to Tlepolemus. The reckless prodigality of the former soon +gave rise to a feud between him and his colleague, who was at least +cunning enough to keep up appearances. Meanwhile the critical posture in +which the kingdom was placed, by the attack of the enleagued kings of +Syria and Macedonia, compelled the nation to defer the regency to Rome +and the senate, who had hitherto carefully cherished an amicable +connection with Egypt. + + The regency confided to M. Lepidus, 201, who hands over the + administration to Aristomenes of Acarnania. The sequel will show + how decidedly important this step was for the ulterior destinies + of Egypt. By the war of the Romans against Philip, and their + differences with Antiochus, Egypt was, no doubt, for the present + extricated from her embarrassment; but nevertheless in 198 she + lost her Syrian possessions, notwithstanding Antiochus III. had + promised to give them as a dowry to Cleopatra, the affianced + bride, and subsequently the consort of the young king of Egypt. + + To this time, or about 197, belongs the celebrated inscription on + the Rosetta stone, erected by the caste of priests as a tribute of + gratitude for past benefits, after the consecration of the king at + Memphis upon his coming of age: a monument important alike for + palaeography, and for the knowledge of Egyptian administration. + + AMEILHON, _Eclaircissemens sur l'inscription Grecque du monument + trouve a Rosette_. Paris, 1803. + + HEYNE, _Commentatio de inscriptione Graeca ex Aegypto Londinum + apportata_, in the _Commentat. Societ. Gotting._ vol. xv. + +16. The hopes conceived of Epiphanes, were grievously disappointed as he +grew up to manhood. His guardian Aristomenes fell a victim to his +tyranny; nay, his cruelty drove even the patient Egyptians to rebel, +although the insurrections were stilled by his counsellor and general +Polycrates. His reign happened during the period in which Rome crushed +the power of Macedonia and Syria; and notwithstanding the close alliance +between Epiphanes and Antiochus III. the Romans succeeded in holding the +Egyptian king in dependence; he was, however, in the twenty-eighth year +of his age, brought to an early grave by intemperance and debauchery. + +17. Of his two sons, the elder, a child five years old, was his +immediate successor; this prince, by the title of Ptolemy VI. surnamed +Philometor, ascended the throne under the guardianship of his mother +Cleopatra, who fulfilled the duties of her office to the satisfaction of +all, until 173. But, after her death, the regency having fallen into the +hands of Eulaeus an eunuch, and Lenaeus, these individuals, asserting +their claims to Coele-Syria and Phoenicia, engaged with Antiochus +Epiphanes in a war exceedingly detrimental to Egypt, until Rome +commanded peace to be made. + + Antiochus, after the victory of Pelusium, B. C. 171, and the + treacherous surrender of Cyprus, having possessed himself of Egypt + as far as Alexandria, a faction arose in the city; Philometor was + expelled, and his younger brother Physcon seated on the throne, + 170.--The exile Philometor fell into the power of Antiochus, who + compelled the fugitive to sign a separate peace, highly injurious + to the interests of Egypt. The articles were not, however, + ratified; Philometor secretly entering into an agreement with his + brother that they should both rule in common, 169. Antiochus + having in consequence again made an inroad into Egypt, the two + kings addressed themselves for assistance to the Achaeans and to + the Romans: the latter forthwith despatched an embassy to + Antiochus, commanding him to evacuate the territory of their + allies, which happened accordingly, 168. + +18. In the contest, which soon afterwards ensued between the two +brothers, the younger was driven out and sought a refuge at Rome; when a +partition of the kingdom between the princes was determined upon: the +senate, however, after due consideration, refused to confirm the +decision, so that the disputes between the two kings were rekindled and +protracted, until the younger fell into the power of the elder. + + In the first division, 164, Philometor received Egypt and Cyprus; + and the infamous Physcon had for his share Cyrene and Libya. But, + during his stay at Rome, Physcon, contrary to all justice, + obtained the promise of Cyprus; Philometor refusing to give up + that portion of his share, and Cyrene having risen up against its + king, Physcon ran the risk of losing the whole of his dominions. + In the war which, supported by Rome, he waged against his brother, + Physcon fell, 159, into the hands of Philometor, who not only + forgave him, but, leaving him in possession of Cyrene and Libya, + added some cities in the place of Cyprus, and promised him his + daughter in marriage. + +19. During the last period of his reign, Philometor was almost +exclusively busied with Syrian affairs. He supported Alexander Balas +against Demetrius, and even gave him his daughter Cleopatra. +Nevertheless, he afterwards passed over to the side of Demetrius, seated +him on the throne, gave him in marriage this same Cleopatra, who had +been taken away from Balas. But in the battle in which Balas was +overthrown, the Egyptian king also received his death wound. He may be +regarded as one of the good princes of the Ptolemaic dynasty, especially +if compared with his brother. + +20. His younger brother Ptolemy VIII. surnamed Physcon, and likewise +Evergetes II. a monster both in a moral and a physical sense, who had +hitherto been king of Cyrene, now possessed himself of the throne of +Egypt by marrying his predecessor's widow and sister, Cleopatra, whom, +however, after having murdered her son, he repudiated for her daughter +of the same name. This prince accordingly, once more united the divided +kingdom; but at the same time that he was purchasing the sanction of +Rome by vile adulation, he maintained himself at Alexandria by means of +military law, which soon converted the city into a desert, and obliged +him to attract foreign colonists by large promises. Another bloody +massacre, however, produced an insurrection in the town, which compelled +the king to flee to Cyprus, the Alexandrines, meanwhile, raising to the +throne his repudiated wife Cleopatra. Physcon, nevertheless, with the +assistance of his mercenaries, recovered the sceptre, and wielded it to +the day of his death. + + That a prince of such a character should nevertheless be a friend + to science, and himself an author, must ever be regarded as a + singular phenomenon; yet his exaction of manuscripts, and his + treatment of the learned, whole crowds of whom he expelled, betray + the despot. + +21. His widow, the younger Cleopatra, to gratify the Alexandrines, was +obliged to place on the throne the elder of her two sons, Ptolemy IX. +surnamed Lathyrus, who was living in a sort of banishment at Cyprus: to +the younger, Ptolemy Alexander I. who was her favourite, she accordingly +gave the island of Cyprus. But Lathyrus not choosing to obey her in +everything, she compelled him to exchange Egypt for Cyprus, and gave the +former to her younger son. But neither was the new king able to brook +the tyranny of his mother: as she threatened even his life, he saw no +other means of escape than to anticipate her design; but failing in his +project, he was obliged to take to flight, and, after a vain attempt to +recover the throne, perished. The Alexandrines then reinstated in the +government his elder brother Lathyrus, who ruled till the year 81, +possessing both Egypt and Cyprus. + + Revolt and three years' siege of Thebes in Upper Egypt, still one + of the most wealthy cities even in those days, but after its + capture almost levelled to the earth; about 86.--Complete + separation of Cyrenaica from Egypt: this province had been + bequeathed by Physcon as a separate branch-state to his + illegitimate son, Apion, 117; that prince, after a tranquil reign, + bequeathed it, in his turn, to the Romans, 96, who at first + allowed it to retain its independence. + +22. Lathyrus left one daughter born in wedlock, Berenice, and two +illegitimate sons, Ptolemy of Cyprus and Ptolemy Auletes. Besides the +above, there was a lawful son of Alexander I. of the same name as his +father, and at that time residing at Rome with the dictator Sylla. The +following history is obscured by clouds, which, amid the contradiction +of accounts, cannot be entirely dispelled. Generally speaking, Egypt was +now a tool in the hands of powerful individuals at Rome, who regarded it +but as a financial speculation whether they actually supported a +pretender to the Egyptian crown, or fed him with vain hopes. All now saw +that Egypt presented a ripe harvest; but they could not yet agree by +whom that harvest should be reaped. + + The first successor of Lathyrus in Egypt was his legitimate + daughter Cleopatra Berenice, 81: at the end of six months, + however, Sylla, then dictator at Rome, sent his client Alexander + II. to Egypt, 80; that prince married Berenice, and with her + ascended the throne. Nineteen days after Alexander murdered his + consort, and, according to Appian, was himself about the same time + cut off by the Alexandrines, on account of his tyranny. We + afterwards hear, notwithstanding, of a king Alexander, who reigned + until 73, or, according to others, until 66; when, being driven + out of Egypt, he fled to Tyre, and called upon the Romans for that + aid, which probably through Caesar's intercession, would have been + granted, had not the supplicant soon after died at the place of + his refuge. He is said to have bequeathed by will his kingdom to + Rome; and although the senate did not accept the legacy, it does + not appear to have formally rejected the offer; in consequence of + which, frequent attempts were made at Rome for effecting the + occupation.--Either, therefore, Appian's account must be false, + and this person was the same Alexander II. or he was some other + person bearing that name, and belonging to the royal house.--Be + this as it may, after the death of Lathyrus the kingdom was + dismembered: and one of his illegitimate sons, Ptolemy, had + received Cyprus, but that island was taken from him, 57, and + converted into a Roman province: the other, Ptolemy Auletes, seems + to have kept his footing either in a part of Egypt, or in Cyrene, + and was probably the cause of Alexander's expulsion, at whose + decease he ascended the throne; although the Syrian queen Selene, + sister to Lathyrus, asserted her son's claims at Rome, as + legitimate heir to the throne of Egypt. With Caesar's assistance, + Auletes, however, succeeded in obtaining the formal acknowledgment + of his right at Rome, 59. But the measures taken by the Romans + with regard to Cyprus, gave rise to a sedition at Alexandria, 57, + in consequence of which Auletes, being compelled to flee, passed + over into Italy: or, perhaps, he was ordered to take this step by + the intrigues of some Roman grandees, anxious of an opportunity to + reinstate him. Pompey's attempts, with this view, are thwarted by + Cato, 56. Meanwhile the Alexandrines placed Berenice, the eldest + daughter of Auletes, on the throne; she married first Seleucus + Cybiosactes, as being the lawful heir; and after putting that + prince to death, united herself to Archelaus, 57.--Actual + restoration of Auletes by the purchased assistance of Gabinius, + the Roman governor of Syria; and execution of Berenice, whose + husband had fallen in the war, 54. Not long after, this miserable + prince, no less effeminate than tyrannical, died, 51. + + J. R. FORSTER, _Commentatio de successoribus Ptolemaei VII._ + Inserted in _Comment. Soc. Gotting._ vol. iii. + +23. Auletes endeavoured by his last testament to insure the kingdom to +his posterity, nominating as his successor, under the superintendence of +the Roman nation, his two elder children. Ptolemy Dionysos, then +thirteen years old, and Cleopatra, seventeen, who were to be united in +wedlock: his two younger children, Ptolemy Neoteros and Arsinoe, he +recommended to the Roman senate. Notwithstanding these measures, Egypt +would not have escaped her fate upwards of twenty years longer, had not +the impending calamities been diverted by the internal posture of +affairs at Rome, and still more by the charms and policy of Cleopatra, +who through her alliance with Caesar and Antony not only preserved but +even aggrandized her kingdom. From this time, however, the history of +Egypt is most closely implicated with that of Rome. + + Feuds between Cleopatra and her brother, excited and fomented by + the eunuch Pothinus, in whose hands the administration was: they + lead to open war: Cleopatra, driven out, flees to Syria, where she + levies troops: Caesar in pursuit of the conquered Pompey arrives at + Alexandria, and in the name of Rome, assumes the part of + arbitrator between the king and queen, but suffers himself to be + guided by the artifices of Cleopatra, 48. Violent sedition in + Alexandria, and Caesar besieged in Bruchium, the malcontent + Pothinus having brought Achillas, the commander of the royal + troops into the city. The hard struggle in which Caesar was now + engaged, demonstrates not only the bitterness of the long + rankling grudge of the Alexandrines against Rome, but shows also + how decisive, to the whole of Egypt, were the revolutions of the + capital. Ptolemy Dionysos having fallen in the war, and Caesar + being victorious, the crown fell to Cleopatra, 47, upon condition + of marrying her brother, when he should be of age: but as soon as + the prince grew to manhood, and had been crowned at Memphis, she + removed him by poison, 44. + +24. During the life of Caesar, Cleopatra remained under his protection, +and consequently in a state of dependence. Not only was a Roman garrison +stationed in the capital city, but the queen herself, together with her +brother, were obliged to visit him at Rome. After the assassination of +Caesar, she took the side of the triumviri, not without endangering +Egypt, threatened by Cassius who commanded in Syria; and after the death +of her brother, succeeded in getting them to acknowledge as king, +Ptolemy Caesarion, a son whom she pretended to have had by Caesar.--But +the ardent passion conceived by Antony for her person, soon after the +discomfiture of the republican party, now attached her inseparably to +his fortunes; which, after vainly attempting to win over the victorious +Octavius, she at last shared. + + The chronology of the ten years in which Cleopatra lived, for the + most part, with Antony, is not without difficulty, but, according + to the most probable authorities, may be arranged in the following + manner. Summoned before his tribunal, on account of the pretended + support afforded by some of her generals to Cassius, she appears + in his presence at Tarsus, in the attire, and with the parade, of + Venus, 41; he follows her into Egypt. In the year 40, Antony, + called back to Italy by the breaking out of the Perusine war, is + there induced, by political motives, to espouse Octavia; meanwhile + Cleopatra abides in Egypt. In the autumn of 37, she goes to meet + him in Syria, where he was making ready for the war against the + Parthians, until then prosecuted by his lieutenants; here she + obtained at his hands Phoenicia--Tyre and Sidon + excepted,--together with Cyrene and Cyprus; and in 36 went back to + Alexandria, where she remained during the campaign. The expedition + ended, Antony returned into Egypt and resided at Alexandria. From + thence it was his intention to attack Armenia in 35; this design, + however, he did not effect until 34, when, after taking the king + prisoner, he returned in triumph to Alexandria, and presented to + Cleopatra, or to his three children by her, all the countries of + Asia from the Mediterranean to the Indus, already conquered or to + be conquered. Preparing then to renew, in conjunction with the + king of Media, his attack on the Parthians, he is prevailed upon + by Cleopatra to break with Octavia, who was to bring over troops + to him, 38. A war between him and Octavius being now unavoidable, + the Parthian campaign already opened is suspended, and Cleopatra + accompanies Antony to Samos, 32, where he formally repudiated + Octavia. From hence she followed him in his expedition against + Octavius, which was decided by the battle of Actium, fought + September 2, 31.--Octavius having pursued his enemy into Egypt, + Alexandria was besieged, 30, and after Antony had laid violent + hands on himself, the place surrendered; and Cleopatra, not + brooking to be dragged a prisoner to Rome, followed the example of + her lover, and procured her own death. + +25. Even in this last period, Egypt appears to have been the seat of +unbounded wealth and effeminacy. The line of infamous princes who had +succeeded to the third Ptolemy were unable to destroy her prosperity. +Strange, however, as this seems, it may be easily accounted for when we +consider that the political revolutions scarcely ever overstepped the +walls of the capital, and that an almost perpetual peace ruled in the +country: that Egypt was the only great theatre of trade; and that that +trade must have increased in the same proportion as the spirit of luxury +increased in Rome, and in the Roman empire. The powerful effects +wrought on Egypt by the growth of Roman luxury, are most convincingly +demonstrated by the state of that country when it had become a Roman +province; so far from the trade of Alexandria decreasing in that +period,--though the city suffered in the first days after the +conquest--it subsequently attained an extraordinary and gigantic bulk. + + +III. _History of Macedonia and of Greece in general, from the death of +Alexander to the Roman conquest, B. C. 323-146._ + + The sources for this history are the same as have been quoted + above: see p. 232. Until the battle of Ipsus, 301, Diodorus is + still our grand authority. But in the period extending from 301 to + 224, we meet with some chasms: here almost our only sources are + the fragments of Diodorus, a few of Plutarch's lives, and the + inaccurate accounts of Justin. From the year 224, our main + historian is Polybius; and even in those parts where we do not + possess his work in its complete form, the fragments that have + been preserved must always be the first authorities consulted. + Livy, and other writers on Roman history, should accompany + Polybius. + + Among modern books, besides the general works mentioned above + p. 1. we may here in particular quote: + + JOHN GAST, D. D. _The History of Greece, from the accession of + Alexander of Macedon, till the final subjection to the Roman + power, in eight books._ London, 1782, 4to. Although not a + master-piece of composition, yet too important to be passed over + in silence. + +1. Of the three main kingdoms that arose out of Alexander's monarchy, +Macedonia was the most insignificant, not only in extent,--particularly +as till B. C. 286 Thrace remained a separate and independent +province,--but likewise in population and wealth. Yet, being, as it +were, the head country of the monarchy, it was considered to hold the +first rank; and here at first resided the power which, nominally at +least, extended over the whole. As early, however, as the year 311, upon +the total extermination of Alexander's family, it became a completely +separate kingdom. From that time its sphere of external operation was +for the most part confined to Greece, the history of which, +consequently, is closely interwoven with that of Macedonia. + + Posture of affairs in Greece at Alexander's decease: Thebes in + ruins: Corinth occupied by a Macedonian garrison: Sparta + humiliated by the defeat she had suffered at the hands of + Antipater in her attempt at a revolt against Macedonia, under Agis + II. 333-331: Athens on the other hand flourishing, and although + confined to her own boundaries, still by her fame, and her naval + power, the first state in Greece. + +2. Although at the first division of the provinces, Craterus, as civil +governor, was united with Antipater, the latter had the management of +affairs. And the termination, as arduous as it was successful, of the +Lamian war,--kindled immediately after the death of Alexander, by the +Greeks, enthusiastic in the cause of freedom,--enabled him to rivet the +chains of Greece more firmly than they had ever been before. + + The Lamian war--the sparks of which had been kindled by + Alexander's edict, granting leave to all the Grecian emigrants, + twenty thousand in number, nearly the whole of whom were in the + Macedonian interest, to return to their native countries,--was + fanned to a flame by the democratic party at Athens. Urged by + Demosthenes and Hyperides, almost all the states of central and + northern Greece, Boeotia excepted, took up arms in the cause; and + their example was quickly followed by most of those in + Peloponnesus, with the exception of Sparta, Argos, Corinth, and + the Achaeans. Not even the Persian war produced such general + unanimity! The gallant Leosthenes headed the league.--Defeat of + Antipater, who is shut up in Lamia; Leosthenes, however, falls in + the siege of that place, B. C. 323, and although Leonatus--who + with the view of ascending the throne by his marriage with + Cleopatra, had come to the assistance of the Macedonians--was + beaten and slain, 322, the Greeks were finally overwhelmed by the + reinforcements, brought to Antipater out of Asia, by Craterus. And + Antipater having fully succeeded in breaking the league, and + negotiating with each separate nation, was enabled to dictate the + terms. Most of the cities opened their gates to Macedonian troops; + besides this, Athens was obliged to purchase peace through the + mediation of Phocion and Demades, by an alteration in her + constitution,--the poorer citizens being excluded from all share + in the government, and for the most part translated into + Thrace--and by a pledge to deliver up Demosthenes and Hyperides; + whose place Phocion occupied at the head of the state.--The + Aetolians, the last against whom the Macedonian wars were directed, + obtained better terms than they had ventured to expect, Antipater + and Craterus being obliged to hurry over to Asia in order to + oppose Perdiccas. + +3. That hatred which, even in the lifetime of Alexander, had sprung up +between Antipater and Olympias, in consequence of his not permitting the +dowager queen to rule, induced her to withdraw to Epirus; her rankling +envy being still more embittered by the influence of the young queen +Eurydice. See above, p. 224. Antipater, dying shortly after his +expedition against Perdiccas, in which his colleague Craterus had +fallen, and he himself had been appointed regent, nominates his friend, +the aged Polysperchon, to succeed him as regent and head guardian, to +the exclusion of his own son Cassander. Hence arose a series of quarrels +between the two, in which, unfortunately for themselves, the royal +family were implicated and finally exterminated, Cassander obtaining the +sovereignty of Macedonia. + + Cassander having secured the interest of Antigonus and Ptolemy, + makes his escape to the former, 319: he had previously + endeavoured also to raise a party in Macedonia and Greece, + particularly by getting his friend Nicanor to be commander at + Athens.--Measures taken by Polysperchon to oppose him; in the + first place, he recalls Olympias out of Epirus, but the princess + dares not come without an army; in the next place, he nominates + Eumenes commander of the royal troops in Asia (see above, p. 225); + he likewise endeavours to gain the Grecian cities, by recalling + the Macedonian garrisons, and changing the governors set over them + by Antipater. These latter, however, were in most of the cities + too firmly established to suffer themselves thus to be deposed; + and even the expedition into Peloponnesus, undertaken by + Polysperchon to enforce his injunctions was attended but with + partial success.--In the same year occurs a twofold revolution in + Athens, whither Polysperchon had sent his son Alexander, nominally + for the purpose of driving out Nicanor, but virtually to get + possession of that important city. In the first place, Alexander + and Nicanor appearing to unite both for the attainment of one and + the same object, the democratic party rise up, and overthrow the + rulers, hitherto taken from Antipater's party, and headed by + Phocion, who is compelled to swallow poison: soon after, however, + Cassander occupies the city, excludes from the administration all + that possess less than ten mines, and places at the head of + affairs Demetrius Phalereus, who, from 318 to 307, ruled with + great prudence.--Not long after, Olympias returns with an army + from Epirus; the Macedonian troops of Philip and Eurydice having + passed over to her side, she wreaks her revenge on the royal + couple, and on the brother of Cassander, all of whom she puts to + death, 317. Cassander, nevertheless, having obtained + reinforcements in Peloponnesus, takes the field against her; she + is besieged in Pydna, where, disappointed in the hope of being + relieved either by Polysperchon or by Aeacidas of Epirus, both of + whom were forsaken by their men, she is obliged to surrender, 316. + Cassander, having caused her to be condemned by the Macedonian + people, has her put to death. + +4. Cassander being now master, and, from 302, king of Macedonia, +confirmed his dominion by a marriage with Thessalonice, half-sister to +Alexander, and at the same time endeavoured to corroborate as far as +possible his authority in Greece. Polysperchon and his son Alexander, +it is true, still made head in Peloponnesus; but the states without the +peninsula, Aetolia excepted, were all either allies of Cassander, or +occupied by Macedonian troops. After the defeat of the league against +Antigonus, in which Cassander had borne a part, general peace was +concluded, with the proviso, that the Grecian cities should be free, and +that the young Alexander, when of age, should be raised to the throne of +Macedonia: this induced Cassander to rid himself both of the young +prince and his mother Roxana by murder: but he thereby exposed himself +to an attack from Polysperchon, who, availing himself of the discontent +of the Macedonians, brought back Hercules, the only remaining +illegitimate son of Alexander. Cassander diverted the storm by a new +crime, instigating Polysperchon to murder the young Hercules, under +promise of sharing the government: Polysperchon, however, unable to +possess himself of the Peloponnesus which had been promised him, appears +to have preserved but little influence. Cassander met likewise with +formidable opponents in the persons of Antigonus and his son; and +although delivered by the breaking out of the war with Ptolemy from the +danger of the first invasion of Greece by Demetrius, his situation was +more embarrassing at the second irruption; from which, however, he was +extricated by the circumstance of Antigonus being obliged to recall his +son, on account of the newly formed league (see above, p. 230). + + Antigonus, on his return from Upper Asia, declares loudly against + Cassander, B. C. 314; despatches his general Aristodemus to + Peloponnesus, and frames a league with Polysperchon and his son + Alexander; the latter, however, Cassander succeeds in winning over + by a promise of the command in Peloponnesus. Alexander was soon + after murdered, but his wife Cratesipolis succeeded him, and + commanded with the spirit of a man. Meanwhile, Cassander carried + war against the Aetolians, who sided with Antigonus, 313; but + Antigonus, 312, having sent his general Ptolemy into Greece with a + fleet and army, Cassander lost his supremacy. In the peace of 311, + the freedom of all the Grecian cities was stipulated; but this + very condition became the pretext of various and permanent feuds; + and Cassander having murdered the young king, together with his + mother, drew upon himself the arms of Polysperchon, who wished to + place Hercules on the throne, 310; but the pretender was removed + in the manner above described, 309.--Cassander now endeavouring to + reestablish his power over Greece, Demetrius Poliorcetes was by + his father sent into that country in order to anticipate Ptolemy + of Egypt, in the enforcement of the decree for the freedom of the + Greeks, 308; the result at Athens was the restoration of + democracy, and the expulsion of Demetrius Phalereus.--From any + further attack of Demetrius, Cassander was delivered by the war + which broke out between Antigonus and Ptolemy, (see above, p. + 229.) and had the leisure, once more, to strengthen his power in + Greece, until 302, when Demetrius arrived a second time, and, as + generalissimo of liberated Greece, pressed forward to the borders + of Macedonia; Demetrius was, however, recalled by his father into + Asia, and at the battle of Ipsus, 301, lost all his dominions in + that quarter of the world. Yet although Athens closed her harbours + against him, he still maintained his possessions in Peloponnesus, + and even endeavoured to extend them; from thence, in 297, he + sallied forth, and once more took possession of his beloved + Athens, and after driving out the usurper Lachares, forgave her + ingratitude. + +5. Cassander survived the establishment of his throne by the battle of +Ipsus only three years: and bequeathed Macedonia as an inheritance to +his three sons, the eldest of whom, Philip, shortly after followed his +father to the grave. + +6. The two remaining sons, Antipater and Alexander, soon worked their +own destruction. Antipater having murdered his own mother Thessalonice, +on account of the favour she showed his brother, was obliged to flee; he +applied for help to his father-in-law Lysimachus of Thrace, where he +soon after died. Meanwhile Alexander, fancying that he likewise stood in +need of foreign assistance, addressed himself to Pyrrhus, king of +Macedonia, and to Demetrius Poliorcetes, both of whom obeyed the call +only with the expectation of being paid. After various snares +reciprocally laid for each other, the king of Macedonia was murdered by +Demetrius, and with him the race of Antipater became extinct. + +7. The army proclaimed Demetrius king; and in his person the house of +Antigonus ascended the throne of Macedonia, and, after many +vicissitudes, established their power. His seven years' reign, in which +one project succeeded the other, was a constant series of wars; and as +he never could learn how to bear with good fortune, his ambition was at +last his ruin. + + The kingdom of Demetrius comprised Macedonia, Thessaly, and the + greatest part of the Peloponnesus; he was also master of Megara + and Athens.--Twofold capture of Thebes, which had been rebuilt by + Cassander, 293, and 291; unsuccessful attempt upon Thrace, 292. + His war with Pyrrhus, 290, in whom men fancied they beheld another + Alexander, had already alienated the affections of the + Macedonians; but his grand project for the recovery of Asia + induced his enemies to get the start of him; and the hatred of his + subjects compelled him secretly to escape to Peloponnesus, to his + son Antigonus, 287. Athens, taking advantage of his misfortunes, + drove out the Macedonian garrison, and, by the election of + archons, reestablished her ancient constitution; although + Demetrius laid siege to the town, he allowed himself to be + pacified by Crates. Having once more attempted to prosecute his + plans against Asia, he was obliged, 286, to surrender to Seleucus + his father-in-law, who, out of charity, kept him till the day of + his death, 284. + +8. Two claimants to the vacant throne now arose, viz. Pyrrhus of Epirus +and Lysimachus of Thrace; but although Pyrrhus was first proclaimed +king, with the cession of half the dominions, he could not, being a +foreigner, support his power any longer than the year 286, when he was +deposed by Lysimachus. + + The sovereigns of Epirus, belonging to the family of the Aeacidae, + were properly kings of the Molossi. See above, p. 150. They did + not become lords of all Epirus, nor consequently of any historical + importance, until the time of the Peloponnesian war. After that + period Epirus was governed by Alcetas I. about 384, who pretended + to be the sixteenth descendant from Pyrrhus, the son of Achilles; + Neoptolemus, father to Olympias, by whose marriage with Philip, + 358, the kings of Epirus became intimately connected with + Macedonia, _d._ 352; Arymbas, his brother, _d._ 342; Alexander I. + son of Neoptolemus, and brother-in-law to Alexander the Great; he + was ambitious to be as great a conqueror in the west as his + kinsman was in the east, but he fell in Lucania, 332. Aeacides, son + of Arymbas, _d._ 312. Pyrrhus II. his son, the Ajax of his time, + and, we might almost say, rather an adventurer than a king. After + uninterrupted wars waged in Macedonia, Greece, Italy, and Sicily, + he fell at last at the storming of Argos, 272. He was followed by + his son Alexander II. in the person of whose successor, Pyrrhus + III. 219, the male line became extinct. Although the daughter of + this last prince, Deidamia, succeeded to the throne, the Epirots + were not long before they established a democratic government, + which endured till such time as they were, together with Macedonia + and the rest of Greece, brought under the Roman yoke, 146. + +9. In consequence of the accession of Lysimachus, Thrace, and for a +short time even Asia Minor, were annexed to the Macedonian kingdom. But +rankling hatred and family relations soon afterwards involved Lysimachus +in a war with Seleucus Nicator, in which, at battle of Curopedion, he +lost both his throne and his life. + + Execution of the gallant Agathocles, eldest son of Lysimachus, at + the instigation of his step-mother Arsinoe: his widow Lysandra and + her brother Ptolemy Ceraunus, who had already been driven out of + Egypt by his step-mother Berenice, go over, followed by a large + party, to Seleucus, whom they excite to war. + +10. The victorious Seleucus, already lord of Asia, now causing himself +to be proclaimed likewise king of Macedonia, it seemed as if that +country was again about to become the head seat of the whole monarchy. +But shortly after he had crossed over into Europe, Seleucus fell by the +murderous hand of Ptolemy Ceraunus, who, availing himself of the +treasures of his victim, and of the yet remaining troops of Lysimachus, +took possession of the throne; by another act of treachery he avenged +himself of Arsinoe, his half-sister; but just as he conceived himself +securely established, he lost both his crown and his life by the +irruption of the Gauls into Macedonia. + + The irruption of the Gauls, threatening desolation not only to + Macedonia but to the whole of Greece, took place in three + successive expeditions. The first under Cambaules, (probably 280,) + advanced no further than Thrace, the invaders not being + sufficiently numerous. The second in three bodies; against Thrace + under Ceretrius; against Paeonia under Brennus and Acichorius; + against Macedonia and Illyria under Belgius, 279. By the + last-mentioned chieftain Ptolemy was defeated; he fell in the + contest. In consequence, Meleager first, and Antipater + subsequently, were appointed kings of Macedonia; but both, on + account of incapacity, being soon afterwards deposed, a Macedonian + noble, Sosthenes, assumed the command, and this time liberated his + country. But the year 278 brought with it the main storm, which + spent its fury principally on Greece: Sosthenes was defeated and + slain: and although the Greeks brought all their united forces + into the field, Brennus and Acichorius burst into Greece on two + different sides, and pushed on to Delphi, the object of their + expedition; from hence, however, they were compelled to retreat; + and most of them were cut off by hunger, cold, or the sword. + Nevertheless a portion of those barbarians stood their ground in + the interior of Thrace, which, consequently, was for the most part + lost to Macedonia: another portion, consisting of various hordes, + the Tectosagae, Tolistobii, and Trocmi, crossed over to Asia Minor, + where they established themselves in the country called after them + Galatia (see above, p. 236). Although there can be no doubt that + the Tectosagae must have come from the innermost parts of Gaul, the + mode of attack demonstrates that the main tide of invaders + consisted of the neighbouring races; and, in fact, in those days + the countries from the Danube to the Mediterranean and Adriatic + were mostly occupied by Gauls.--Greece, though she strained every + nerve, and with the exception of Peloponnesus, was united in one + league, could scarcely bring forward more than 20,000 men to stem + the torrent. + +11. Antigonus of Gonni, son to Demetrius, now seated himself on the +vacant throne of desolated Macedon; he bought off his competitor, +Antiochus I. named Soter, by treaty and marriage. Successfully as he +opposed the new irruption of the Gauls, he was dethroned by Pyrrhus, +who, on his return from Italy, was a second time proclaimed king of +Macedonia. That prince, however, having formed the design of conquering +the Peloponnesus, and, after an ineffectual attack on Sparta, which was +repelled with heroic gallantry, wishing to take possession of Argos, +fell at the storming of the latter place. + + Extraordinary as these frequent revolutions appear, they may be + easily accounted for by the mode of warfare in those days. Every + thing depended on the armies; and these were composed of + mercenaries, ever willing to fight against him they had defended + the day before, if they fancied his rival to be a more valiant or + fortunate leader. Since the death of Alexander, the Macedonian + phalanx was no longer dependent on its captains, but they on their + men. The impoverishment of the countries, in consequence of war, + was such, that the soldier's was almost the only profitable trade; + and none prosecuted that trade more ardently than the Gauls, whose + services were ever ready for any one who chose to pay for them. + +12. After the death of Pyrrhus, Antigonus Gonnatas recovered the +Macedonian throne, of which he and his descendants kept uninterrupted +possession, yet not till after a violent contest with Alexander, the son +and successor of Pyrrhus. But no sooner were they secure from foreign +rivals, than the Macedonian policy was again directed against Greece, +and the capture of Corinth seemed to insure the dependence of the whole +country, when the formation of the Aetolian, and the yet more important +Achaean, league, gave rise to relations entirely new, and of the highest +interest, even for the universal history of the world. After so many +storms, the sun of Greece was about to set in all his splendour! + + The ancient confederacy of the twelve Achaean cities (see above, p. + 145.) had subsisted until the death of Alexander, but was + dissolved in the subsequent commotions; particularly when, after + the battle of Ipsus, 301, Demetrius and his son made Peloponnesus + the principal seat of their power. Some of these cities were now + garrisoned by those princes, while in others arose tyrants, + generally favourable to their interests. In 281, four asserted + their freedom and renewed the ancient federation; which, five + years afterwards, was gradually joined by the rest, Antigonus + being busied elsewhere, in consequence of his occupation of the + Macedonian throne. But the league did not become formidable till + the accession of foreign states. This took place, in the first + instance, with Sicyon, through the exertions of the liberator of + that town, Aratus, who now became the animating spirit of the + federation; and in 243 brought over Corinth, after the expulsion + of the Macedonian garrison, and Megara. Afterwards the league + gradually acquired strength, by the junction of several Grecian + cities, Athens among others, 229; and thereby excited the jealousy + of the rest. And as Aratus, who was more of a statesman than a + general, and possessed but little independence, had in the very + outset joined the party of Ptolemy II. the league soon became + involved in the disputes of the great powers, and was too often + but a mere tool in their hands. The main principles on which it + was founded were the following: 1. Complete political equality of + all the federate cities; in this respect it essentially differed + from all the earlier federations in Greece. 2. Unconditional + preservation of the domestic government in every one of the + cities. 3. The meeting twice a year of deputies from all the + cities, at Aegium, and afterwards at Corinth; for transacting all + business of common interest, particularly foreign affairs, and + also for the purpose of electing the strategus, or military leader + and head of the union, and the ten demiurgi, or supreme + magistrates.--But what more than all contributed to exalt this + league, founded on pure liberty, was the virtue of Aratus, 213, + Philopoemen, 183, and Lycortas, 170; men who breathed into it the + spirit of union, until, enfeebled by Roman policy, it was + overthrown. + + # BREITENBAUCH, _History of the Achaeans and their league_, 1782. + + The Aetolian league was formed about 284, in consequence of the + oppressions of the Macedonian kings. The Aetolians had likewise a + yearly congress, panaetolium, at Thermus; where they chose a + strategus and the apocleti, who constituted the state council. + They had, besides, their secretary, [Greek: grammateus]; and + supervisors, [Greek: ephoroi], whose particular functions are, + however, matter of doubt. This federation did not increase like + the Achaean, none but Aetolians being admitted. The more unpolished + this piratical nation remained, the more frequently it was used as + the tool of foreign, and particularly of Roman, policy. + +13. Antigonus, in the latter part of his reign, had recourse to various +means, and more especially to an alliance with the Aetolians, for the +purpose of counterpoising the Achaeans. He died in his eightieth year, +and was succeeded by his son, Demetrius II. who waged war upon the +Aetolians, now, however, supported by the Achaeans; and endeavoured to +repress the growth of the latter, by favouring the tyrants of particular +cities. The remainder of the reign of this prince is little more than a +chasm in history. + + The vulgar assertion that this prince conquered Cyrene and Libya, + originates in a confusion of names; his uncle Demetrius, son of + Poliorcetes of Ptolemais, being mentioned by Plutarch as king of + Cyrene. The history of that town, from 258 to 142, is enveloped in + almost total darkness: cf. Prolog. Trogi, l. xxvi. ad calcem + Justini. + +14. Demetrius's son Philip was passed over; his brother's son, Antigonus +II. surnamed Doson, being raised to the throne. This king was occupied +the most of his time by the events in Greece, where a very remarkable +revolution at Sparta, as we learn from Plutarch, had raised up a +formidable enemy against the Achaeans; and so completely altered the +relative position of affairs, that the Macedonians, from having been +opponents, became allies of the Achaeans. + + Sketch of the situation of Spartan affairs at this period: the + ancient constitution still continued to exist in form; but the + plunder of foreign countries, and particularly the permission to + transfer landed estates, obtained by Epitadeus, had produced great + inequality of property. The restoration of Lycurgus's constitution + had, therefore, a twofold object; to favour the poor by a new + agrarian law and release from debts, and to increase the power of + the kings by repressing that of the ephori.--First attempt at + reform 244, by king Agis III; attended in the beginning with + partial success, but eventually frustrated by the other king, + Leonidas, and terminating in the extinction of Agis and his + family, 241. Leonidas, however, was succeeded, 236, by his son + Cleomenes, who victoriously defeated the plans of Aratus to force + Sparta to accede to the Achaean league, 227; this king, by a + forcible revolution, overthrew the ephori, and accomplished the + project of Agis, at the same time increasing the Spartans by the + admission of a number of periaeci; and enforcing the laws of + Lycurgus referring to private life; but as in a small republic a + revolution cannot be confirmed without some external war, he + attacked the Achaeans as early as 224; these being defeated, + implored, through Aratus, the help of Antigonus; Cleomenes in + consequence was, at the battle of Sellasia, 222, obliged to yield + to superior force, and with difficulty escaped over to Egypt; + while Sparta was compelled to acknowledge her independence as a + gift at the hands of Antigonus. Such was the miserable success of + this attempt made by a few great men on a nation already + degenerate. The quarrels between the ephori and king Lycurgus and + his successor Machanidas, placed Sparta in a state of anarchy, + which ended, 207, in the usurpation of the sovereign power by one + Nabis, who destroyed the ancient form of government. Let him who + would study great revolutions commence with that just described; + insignificant as it is, none perhaps furnishes more instructive + lessons. + + PLUTARCHI _Agis et Cleomenes_. The information in which is + principally drawn from the Commentaries of Aratus. + +15. Philip II. son of Demetrius. He ascended the throne at the early age +of sixteen, endowed with many qualities, such as might, under favourable +circumstances, have formed a great prince. Macedonia had recruited her +strength during a long peace; and her grand political aim, the supremacy +of Greece, secured by the connection of Antigonus with the Achaeans, and +by the victory of Sellasia, seemed to be already within her grasp. But +Philip lived in a time when Rome was pursuing her formidable plans of +aggrandizement: the more vigorous and prompt his efforts were to +withstand that power, the more deeply was he entangled in the new maze +of events, which embittered the rest of his life, and at last brought +him to the grave with a broken heart, converted by misfortune into a +despot. + +16. The first five years of Philip were occupied by his participation +in the war between the Achaeans and Aetolians, called the war of the two +leagues; notwithstanding the treachery of his minister Apellas and his +dependents, the prince was enabled to dictate the conditions of peace, +according to which both parties were to remain in possession of what +they then had. The conclusion of this peace was hastened by the news of +Hannibal's victory at Thrasymenus, Philip being then instigated to form +more extensive projects by Demetrius of Pharus, who had fled before the +Romans, and soon acquired unlimited influence with the Macedonian king. + + The war of the two leagues arose out of the piracies of the + Aetolians on the Messenians, the latter of whom the Achaeans + undertook to protect, 221. The errors committed by Aratus + compelled the Achaeans to have recourse to Philip, 220; whose + progress, however, was for a long time impeded by the artifices of + Apellas's faction, who wished to overthrow Aratus. The + Acarnanians, Epirots, Messenians, and Scerdilaidas of Illyria, + (who, however, soon after declared against Macedonia,) combined + with Philip and the Achaeans; the Aetolians, on the other hand, + commanded by their own general, Scopas, had for their allies the + Spartans and Eleans.--The most important consequence of this war + for Macedonia was, that she began again to be a naval + power.--About the same time a war broke out between the two + trading republics of Byzantium and Rhodes (the latter supported by + Prusias I. of Bithynia) insignificant in itself, but which, as a + commercial war, originating in the duties imposed by the + Byzantines, was the only one of its kind in this age, 222. The + Rhodians, so powerful in those days by sea, compelled their + adversaries to submit. + +17. The negotiations between Philip and Hannibal concluded with an +alliance, in which reciprocal help was promised towards annihilating +Rome. But Rome contrived to excite so many foes against Philip on the +borders of his own kingdom, and availed herself so skilfully of her +naval power, that the execution of this plan was prevented until it +became possible to attack the Macedonian king in Greece; where he had +made himself many enemies, by the domineering tone he had assumed +towards his allies at the time that, sensible of his power, he was about +to enter upon a wider sphere of action. + + Commencement of hostilities by Rome, against Philip: immediately + that the alliance of Philip and Hannibal was known, a squadron + with troops on board was stationed off the coast of Macedonia, by + which the king himself was defeated at Apollonia, 214.--Alliance + of Rome with the Aetolians, joined likewise by Sparta and Elis, + Attalus king of Pergamus, and Scerdilaidas and Pleuratus, kings of + Illyria, 211. On Philip's side were the Achaeans, with whom + Philopoemen more than supplied the loss of Aratus, occasioned, + 213, by the Macedonian king; to them were joined the Acarnanians + and Baeotians.--Attacked on every side, Philip successfully + extricated himself from his difficulties; in the first place, he + compelled the Aetolians, who had been abandoned by Attalus and + Rome, to accept separate terms, which, shortly after, Rome, + consulting her own convenience, converted into a general peace, + inclusive of the allies on either side, 204. + +18. New war of Philip against Attalus and the Rhodians, carried on for +the most part in Asia Minor; and his impolitic alliance with Antiochus +III. to attack Egypt. But can Philip be blamed for his endeavours to +disarm the military servants of the Romans? Rome, however, did not grant +him time to effect his designs; the Macedonian king was taught at Chios, +by woeful experience, that his navy had not increased proportionably +with that of the Rhodians. + +19. The war with Rome suddenly hurled the Macedonian power from its +lofty pitch; and by laying the foundation of Roman dominion in the +east, wrought a change in almost all the political relations of that +quarter. The first two years of the war showed pretty evidently, that +mere force could scarcely overturn the Macedonian throne. But T. +Quintius Flaminius stepped forward; with the magic spell of freedom he +intoxicated the Greeks; Philip was stripped of his allies; and the +battle of Cynoscephalae decided everything. The articles of the peace +were: 1. That all Grecian cities in Europe and Asia should be +independent, and Philip should withdraw his garrisons. 2. That he should +surrender the whole of his navy, and never afterwards keep more than 500 +armed men on foot. 3. That he should not, without previously informing +Rome, undertake any war out of Macedonia. 4. That he should pay 1,000 +talents by instalments, and deliver up his younger son Demetrius as an +hostage. + + The Roman allies in this war were: the Aetolians, Athenians, + Rhodians, the kings of the Athamanes, Dardanians, and + Pergamus.--The Achaeans at the beginning sided with Philip, but + were subsequently gained over by Flaminius. See below, in the + Roman History. + +20. Soon after, the freedom of Greece was solemnly proclaimed at the +Isthmian games by Flaminius: but loud as the Greeks were in their +exultations, this measure served merely to transfer the supremacy of +their country from Macedonia to Rome: and Grecian history, as well as +the Macedonian, is now interwoven with that of the Romans. To foster +quarrels between the Greek states, with the especial view of hindering +the Achaeans from growing too formidable, now became a fundamental +principle at Rome; and Roman and anti-Roman parties having quickly +arisen in every city, this political game was easily played. + + Flaminius even took care that the Achaeans should have an opponent + in the person of Nabis, although under the necessity of waging war + against him previous to his return into Italy, 194.--In 192, war + between Nabis and the Achaeans; followed after the murder of Nabis, + at the hands of the Aetolians, by the accession of Sparta to the + Achaean league.--But about the same time Greece once more became + the theatre of foreign war; Antiochus having firmly seated himself + in the country, and enleagued himself with several tribes, but + more particularly the Aetolians, inspired with bitter and + long-standing hatred against the Romans. These last, however, + after the expulsion of Antiochus from Greece, 191, paid dearly for + their secession; nor was peace granted them by Rome till after + long and unsuccessful supplications, 189. + +21. While war was pending between the Romans and Antiochus, Philip, in +the character of one of the numerous allies of Rome, ventured to +increase his territory at the expense of the Athamanes, Thracians, and +Thessalians. To keep him in good humour he was permitted to effect those +conquests; but after the termination of the war the oppression of Rome +became so galling, that it could not be otherwise than that all his +thoughts should centre in revenge, and all his exertions be directed +towards the recovery of power. Meanwhile the violent measures adopted +for repeopling his exhausted kingdom--such is the punishment of ambition +which usually awaits even the victorious!--the transplantation of the +inhabitants of whole cities and countries, and the consequent and +unavoidable oppression of several of his neighbours, excited universal +complaints; and where was the accuser of Philip to whom Rome would not +now lend a ready ear?--His younger son, Demetrius, the pupil of Rome, +and by her intended, it is probable, to succeed to the crown, alone +diverted the impending fate of Macedonia. But after the return of that +prince from his embassy, the envy of his elder and bastard brother, +Perseus, grew into an inveterate rancour, such as could not be quenched +but by the death of the younger. The lot of Philip was indeed hard, +compelled as a father to judge between his two sons; but the measure of +human woe was filled, when after the death of his favourite child he +discovered that he was innocent; are we to wonder that sorrow should +soon have hurried him to a premature grave! + +22. The same policy which was observed by the Romans towards Philip, +they pursued towards the Achaeans, with whom, since the termination of +the war with Antiochus, they had assumed a loftier tone; and this artful +game was facilitated by the continual quarrels among the Greeks +themselves. Yet the great Philopoemen, worthy of a better age, +maintained the dignity of the league at the very time that the Romans +presumed to speak as arbitrators. After his decease they found it easy +to raise a party among the Achaeans themselves, the venal Callicrates +offering his services for that purpose. + + The Achaeans was continually embroiled either with Sparta or with + Messene: the grounds of difference were, that in both of those + states there were factions headed by persons who, out of personal + motives, and for the most part hatred to Philopoemen, wished to + secede from the league; on the other hand, the prevailing idea + among the Achaeans was, that this league ought to comprise the + whole of the Peloponnesus. In the war against the Messenians, + 183, Philopoemen, at the age of seventy, was taken prisoner by the + enemy and put to death. + + PLUTARCHI, _Philopoemen_. Nearly the whole of which is compiled + from the lost biography of Polybius. + +23. The last Macedonian king, Perseus, had inherited his father's +perfect hatred of the Romans, together with talents, if not equal, at +least but little inferior. He entered into the speculations of his +predecessor, and the first seven years of his reign was occupied in +constant exertions to muster forces against Rome; with this view he +called the Bastarnae out of the north, in order to settle them in the +territories of his enemies the Dardanians; he endeavoured to form +alliances with the kings of Illyria, Thrace, Syria, and Bithynia; above +all, he strove by negotiations and promises to reestablish the ancient +influence of Macedonia in Greece. + + The settlement of the Bastarnae (probably a German race, resident + beyond the Danube) in Thrace and Dardania, in order with them to + carry war against the Romans, was one of the plans traced out by + Philip, and now partially executed by Perseus.--In Greece the + Macedonian party, which Perseus formed chiefly out of the great + number of impoverished citizens in the country, would probably + have gained the upper hand, had not the fear inspired by Rome, and + the active vigilance of that power, interposed an effectual bar. + Hence the Achaeans, apparently at least, remained on the Roman + side; the Aetolians, by domestic factions, had worked their own + destruction; the case was the same with the Acarnanians; and the + federation of the Boeotians had been completely dissolved by the + Romans, 171. On the other hand, in Epirus the Macedonian party was + superior; Thessaly was occupied by Perseus; several of the + Thracian tribes were friendly to him; and in king Gentius he found + an ally who might have been highly useful, had not the Macedonian + prince, by an ill-timed avarice, deprived himself of his + assistance. + +24. The commencement of open hostilities was hastened by the bitter +hatred existing between Perseus and Eumenes, and by the intrigues of the +latter at Rome. Neglect of the favourable moment for taking the field, +and the defensive system, skilfully in other respects as it was planned, +caused the ruin of Perseus, as it had done that of Antiochus. +Nevertheless he protracted the war to the fourth year, when the battle +of Pidna decided the fate both of himself and his kingdom. + + Miserable condition of Perseus until his capture at Samothrace; + and afterwards until his death at Rome, 166. + +25. According to the system at that period followed by Rome, the +conquered kingdom of Macedonia was not immediately converted into a +province; it was first deprived of all offensive power, by being +republicanized and divided into four districts, wholly distinct from one +another, and bound to pay Rome half the tribute they were before wont to +furnish to their kings. + +26. It was in the natural order of things that the independence of +Greece, and more especially that of the Achaean league, should fall with +Perseus. The political _inquisition_ of the Roman commissaries not only +visited with punishment the declared partizans of Macedonia; but even to +have stood neutral was a crime that incurred suspicion. Rome, however, +amid the rising hatred, did not deem herself secure until by one blow +she had rid herself of all opponents of any importance. Above a thousand +of the most eminent of the Achaeans were summoned to Rome to justify +themselves, and there detained seventeen years in prison without a +hearing. While at the head of the league, stood the man who had +delivered them up, Callicrates, (_d._ 150.) a wretch who could, unmoved, +hear "the very boys in the streets taunt him with treachery."--A more +tranquil period, it is true, now ensued for Greece, but it was the +result of very obvious causes. + +27. The ultimate lot both of Macedon and was decided by the system now +adopted at Rome, that of converting the previous dependence of nations +into formal subjection. The insurrection of Andriscus in Macedonia, an +individual who pretended to be the son of Perseus, was quelled by +Metellus, the country being constituted a Roman province; two years +afterwards, at the sack of Corinth, vanished the last glimmer of Grecian +freedom. + + The last war of the Achaeans arose out of certain quarrels with + Sparta, 150, fomented by Diaeus, Critolaus, and Damocritus, who had + returned bitterly enraged from the Roman prison; in these disputes + Rome interfered, with the design of wholly dissolving the Achaean + league. The first pretext that offered for executing this scheme + was the ill-treatment of the Roman ambassadors at Corinth, 148; + war, however, still raging with Carthage and Andriscus, the Romans + preserved for the present a peaceful tone. But the party of Diaeus + and Critolaus would have war; the plenipotentiaries of Metellus + were again insulted, and the Achaeans declared war against Sparta + and Rome. In the very same year they were routed by Metellus, and + their leader Critolaus fell in the engagement; Metellus was + replaced in the command by Mummius, who defeated Diaeus the + successor of Critolaus, took Corinth and razed it to the ground, + 146. The consequence was, that Greece, under the name of Achaia, + became a Roman province, although to a few cities, such as Athens, + for instance, some shadow of freedom was still left. + + +IV. _History of some smaller or more distant Kingdoms and States erected +out of the Macedonian monarchy._ + + SOURCES. Besides the writers enumerated above, (see p. 232.) + Memnon, an historian of Heraclea in Pontus, deserves particular + mention in this place, (see p. 162): some extracts from his work + have been preserved to us by Photius, Cod. 224. In some individual + portions, as, for instance, in the Parthian history, Justin[a] is + our main authority; as are likewise Ammianus Marcellinus, and the + extracts from Arrian's _Parthica_, found in Photius. The coins of + the kings are also of great importance; but unfortunately + Vaillant's Essay shows, that even with their assistance the + chronology still remains in a very unsettled state. For the Jewish + history, Josephus (see p. 35.) is the grand writer: of the Books + of the Old Testament, those of Ezra and Nehemiah, together with + the Maccabees, although the last are not always to be depended + upon. + + The modern writers are enumerated below, under the heads of the + different kingdoms. Much information is likewise scattered about + in the works on ancient numismatics. + + [a] As Justin did no more than extract from Trogus Pompeius, a + question presents itself of great consequence to various + portions of ancient history; what authorities did Trogus + Pompeius follow? The answer will be found in two treatises + by A. L. L. HEEREN: _De fontibus et auctoritate Trogi Pompeii, + ejusque epitomatoris Justini_, inserted in _Comment. Soc. + Gott._ vol. 15. + +1. Besides the three main empires into which the monarchy of Alexander +was divided, there likewise arose in those extensive regions several +branch kingdoms, one of which even grew in time to be among the most +powerful in the world. To these belong the kingdoms of, 1. Pergamus. 2. +Bithynia. 3. Paphlagonia. 4. Pontus. 5. Cappadocia. 6. Great Armenia. 7. +Little Armenia. 8. Parthia. 9. Bactria. 10. Jewish state subsequent to +the Maccabees. + + We are acquainted with the history of these kingdoms, the Jewish + state alone excepted, only so far forth as they were implicated in + the concerns of the greater empires; of their internal history we + know little, often nothing. With respect to many of them, + therefore, little more can be produced than a series of + chronological data, indispensable, notwithstanding, to the general + historian. + +2. The kingdom of Pergamus, in Mysia, arose during the war between +Seleucus and Lysimachus. It owed its origin on the one hand to the +prudence of its rulers, the wisest of whom luckily reigned the longest; +and, on the other, to the weakness of the Seleucidae: for its progressive +increase it was indebted to the Romans, who in aggrandizing the power of +Pergamus acted with a view to their own interest. History exhibits +scarcely one subordinate kingdom whose princes took such skilful +advantage of the political circumstances of the times; and yet they +earned still greater renown by the anxiety they showed, in rivalling the +Ptolemies, to foster the arts of peace, industry, science, architecture, +sculpture, and painting. How dazzling the splendour with which the small +state of Pergamus outshines many a mighty empire! + + Philetaerus, lieutenant of Lysimachus, in Pergamus, asserts his + independence; and maintains possession of the citadel and town, + 283-263. His nephew, Eumenes I. 263-241, defeats Antiochus I. at + Sardes, 263, and becomes master of Aeolis and the circumjacent + country. His nephew, Attalus I. 241-197, after his victory over + the Galatians, 239, becomes king of Pergamus: a noble prince, and + one whose genius and activity embraced everything. His wars + against Achaeus brought him in alliance with Antiochus III. 216. + Commencement of an alliance with Rome, arising out of his + participation in the Aetolian league against Macedon, 211, in order + to thwart Philip's project of conquest. Hence, after Philip's + irruption into Asia, 203, participation on the side of Rome, in + the Macedonian war. His son Eumenes II. the inheritor of all his + father's great qualities succeeds him, 197-158. As a reward for + his assistance against Antiochus the Great, the Romans presented + him with almost all the territories possessed by the vanquished + king in Asia Minor, (Phrygia, Mysia, Lycaonia, Lydia, Ionia, and a + part of Caria,) which thereafter constituted the kingdom of + Pergamus; this prince extended his frontiers, but lost his + independence. In the war with Perseus he was scarce able to + preserve the good will of the senate, and therewith his kingdom. + His brother, Attalus II. 158-138, a more faithful dependent of + Rome, took part in nearly all the concerns of Asia Minor, more + especially Bithynia. His nephew, Attalus III. 138-133, a prince of + unsound mind, bequeathed his kingdom to the Romans, who, after + vanquishing the lawful heir, Aristonicus, 130, took possession of + it, annexing it to their empire, under the shape of a province + called Asia.--Great discoveries and vast establishments made at + Pergamus. Rich library; subsequently transferred by Antony to + Alexandria, as a present for Cleopatra. Museum. Discovery of + parchment, an invaluable auxiliary to the preservation of works of + literature. + + CHOISEUIL GOUFFIER, _Voyage pittoresque de la Grece_, vol. ii. + 1809. Containing excellent observations, both on the monuments and + history of Pergamus, as well as on those of all the neighbouring + coasts and islands. + + SEVIN, _Recherches sur les rois de Pergame_, inserted in the _Mem. + de l'Acad. des Inscript._ vol. xii. + + From the fall of Tyre and the unsuccessful attempt of Demetrius, + B. C. 307, to the establishment of Roman dominion in the east, + 300-200, was the brilliant period of Rhodes; alike important for + political wisdom, naval power, and extensive trade. At the head of + the senate ([Greek: boule]) were presidents, ([Greek: prytaneis,]) + who went out of office every half year, and were honoured with + precedence in the meetings of the commons. Friendship with all, + alliance with none, was the fundamental maxim of Rhodian policy, + until subverted by Rome. Thus was preserved the dignity of the + state, together with its independence and political + activity--where do we not meet with Rhodian embassies?--and + permanent splendour, resulting from the cultivation of arts and + sciences. What proofs of general commiseration did not Rhodes + enjoy after that dreadful earthquake, which threw down even the + famous colossus, 227! Long did her squadrons command the Aegaean; + over that sea, the Euxine, and the western parts of the + Mediterranean as far as Sicily, her commerce extended, consisting + in the rich exchange of commodities between three quarters of the + globe. Her revenue proceeded from the customs, and was abundant; + until, blinded by avarice, she sought to obtain at Peraea a + territory on the mainland; an ambition of which the Romans availed + themselves to her detriment, by presenting her with Lycia and + Caria, 190. And yet did this republic outlive that of Rome! Great, + indeed, is the chasm left in general history by the loss of the + internal history of this island! + + P. D. CH. PAULSEN, _Commentatio exhibens Rhodi descriptionem + Macedonica aetate, Gottingae_, 1818. A prize essay. + +3. The other small kingdoms of Asia Minor are fragments rather of the +Persian than of the Macedonian monarchy; for Alexander's march following +another direction, they were not formally subjugated by that conqueror. +The lines of their kings are generally traced back to an early period of +the Persian age; but, properly speaking, their rulers in those days were +nothing more than viceroys: selected indeed, for the most part, from the +royal family, they bore the title of princes, and, in the gradual +decline of the empire, not unfrequently threw up their allegiance. +Nevertheless these kingdoms do not appear as really independent until +after the time of Alexander. Connected with the Grecian republics +Heraclea, Sinope, Byzantium, etc. they formed, both in the Macedonian +and Roman ages, a system of small states, often distracted by internal +wars, and still oftener mere tools in the hands of the more powerful. + + 1. _Bithynia._ As early as the Persian period, mention is made of + two kings in Bithynia, Dydalsus and Botyras. The son of the + latter, Bias, B. C. 378-328, made head against Caranus, one of + Alexander's generals; as did also his son Zipoetas, _d._ 281, + against Lysimachus.--Lycomedes I. _d._ 248. He called the Gauls + over from Thrace, 278, and with their assistance deposed his + brother Zipoetas; the Gauls in consequence kept their footing in + Galatia, and were for a long time an object of terror to Asia + Minor. Zelas, _d._ about 232; established his dominion after a war + with his half-brothers. Prusias I. son-in-law and ally of Philip + II. of Macedon, _d._ 192. He sided with the Rhodians in the + commercial war against Byzantium, 222, (see above, p. 282.) and + directed his arms, 196, against Heraclea, a Grecian city in + Bithynia, with a respectable territory along shore. Prusias II. + waged war against Eumenes II. at the instigation of Hannibal, who + had fled to his court, 184; he was subsequently about to deliver + up the fugitive to the Romans; had not Hannibal put a period to + his existence, 183: this king likewise waged war against Attalus + II. 153; in both these contests Rome acted as mediator. Prusias, + who had the meanness to style himself a freedman of the Romans, + was dethroned by his own son, Nicomedes II. _d._ 92; a confederate + of Mithridates the Great, with whom, nevertheless, he afterwards + fell out concerning the appropriation of Paphlagonia and + Cappadocia. Nicomedes was murdered by his son Socrates, who was, + however, compelled to flee; in consequence of which Nicomedes III. + succeeded to the crown. Deposed by Mithridates, who supported his + half-brother Socrates, he was reinstated by Rome, 90. Having, + however, at the instigation of the Romans, 89, attacked + Mithridates, he was defeated and expelled in the first Mithridatic + war, now kindled; but in the peace of 85, he was again reinstated + by Sulla. At his death, 75, he bequeathed Bithynia to the Romans; + and this legacy gave rise to the third Mithridatic war. + + VAILLANT, _Imperium Arsacidarum_, vol. ii. See below. + + SEVIN, _Recherches sur les rois de Bithynie_; inserted in the + _Mem. de l'Academie des Inscript._ vol. xii. + + 2. _Paphlagonia._ Even in the Persian age, the rulers of this + country were but nominally subject. After Alexander's death, B. C. + 323, it fell into the hands of the kings of Pontus; it was, + however, subsequently, again ruled by its own monarchs; among whom + we hear of Morzes, about 179; Pylaemenes I. about 131: who assisted + the Romans in the war against Aristonicus of Pergamus.--Pylaemenes + II. _d._ before 121; who is said to have bequeathed his kingdom to + Mithridates V. of Pontus. Hence Paphlagonia came to be implicated + in the fortunes of Pontus, (see just below,) until after the fall + of Mithridates the Great, 63, that kingdom was converted into a + province, with the exception of one of the southern districts, to + which the Romans left some shadow of freedom. + + 3. _Pontus._ The later kings of this country derived their origin + from the family of the Achaemenidae, or house of Persia. In the + Persian age they remained dependent or tributary princes: and as + such we must consider Artabazes, son of Hystaspes, _d._ 480, + Mithridates I. _d._ 368, and Ariobarzanes, _d._ 337, mentioned as + the earliest kings of Pontus. Mithridates II. surnamed Ctistes, + _d._ 302, was one of the first to acknowledge subjection to + Alexander; after the death of the conqueror he sided with + Antigonus, who treacherously caused him to be murdered. His son, + Mithridates III. _d._ 266, (the Ariobarzanes of Memnon,) not only + maintained himself after the battle of Ipsus against Lysimachus, + but likewise possessed himself of Cappadocia and Paphlagonia. + Mithridates IV. father-in-law to Antiochus the Great, waged an + unsuccessful war against Sinope. The year of his death is + undetermined, Pharnaces, _d._ about 156. He conquered Sinope 183; + and that town then became the royal residence. War with Eumenes + II. whom Rome had made so powerful, and with his allies; + terminated by a treaty, according to which Pharnaces ceded + Paphlagonia, B. C. 179. Mithridates V. _d._ about 121. He was an + ally of the Romans, from whom, after the defeat of Aristonicus of + Phrygia, he contrived to obtain Great Phrygia. Mithridates VI. + surnamed Eupator, about 121-64. He bore the title of Great, an + epithet to which he was as fully entitled as Peter I. in modern + history; indeed he resembled the Russian prince in almost + everything except in good fortune. His reign, although of the + highest importance to general history, is, particularly in the + portion previous to the wars with Rome, replete with chronological + difficulties.--At the age of twelve years he inherits from his + father not only Pontus, but likewise Phrygia, and a reversionary + title to the throne of Paphlagonia, vacated by the death of + Pylaemenes II.--During his nonage, 121-112, while by voluntarily + inuring himself to hardships, he contrived to elude the + treacherous hostility of his guardians, Rome deprived him of + Phrygia. His conquests in Colchis and on the eastern side of the + Black sea, 112-110.--Commencement of the Scythian wars. Called by + the Greeks of Crimea to their assistance, he expelled the + Scythians; subjected several insignificant Scythian princes on the + mainland; and entered into alliances with the Sarmatic and even + Germanic races as far as the Danube, 108-105, having already a + view to the invasion of Italy from the north.--This war ended, he + travels over Asia, (Asia Minor?) about 104-103.--At his return, + after punishing with death his faithless sister and wife, Laodice, + he makes good his pretensions to Paphlagonia, which he divides + with Nicomedes II. 102. The Roman senate demanding the restoration + of that province, Mithridates not only refuses to accede, but + likewise takes possession of Galatia; meanwhile Nicomedes places + on the throne of Paphlagonia one of his own sons, whom he gives + out to be a son of Pylaemenes II. and denominates Pylaemenes + III.--Rupture with Nicomedes II. 101; the subject of dispute, + Cappadocia, which, after removing the king, Ariarathes VII. his + brother-in-law, with the assistance of Gordius, Mithridates + himself now wished to possess; he is anticipated, however, by + Nicomedes II. who marries Laodice, Ariarathes's + widow.--Mithridates, notwithstanding, expels his rival, under + pretence of holding the kingdom for his sister's son, Ariarathes + VIII. whom at the end of a few months he puts to death at a + private conference, 94; he defeats the brother of the murdered + prince, Ariarathes IX. and then places on the throne, under the + name of Ariarathes X. his own son, who is given out to be a third + son of Ariarathes VII; in opposition to whom Nicomedes sets up + another pretended Ariarathes. The Roman senate, meanwhile, declare + both Paphlagonia and Cappadocia free, B. C. 92; attending, + however, to the desires of the Cappadocians, they sanction the + election of Ariobarzanes to the crown; and he is put in possession + of the kingdom by Sylla, as propraetor of Cilicia, likewise in + 92.--Mithridates, on the other hand, forms an alliance with the + king of Armenia, Tigranes, to whom he gives his daughter in + marriage; and employs him in expelling Ariobarzanes.--He himself, + after the death of Nicomedes II. 92, supports the claims of the + deceased king's exiled son, Socrates Chrestus, against the bastard + Nicomedes III. and in the mean time takes possession of + Paphlagonia. Nicomedes and Ariobarzanes are reinstated by a Roman + embassy, 90, Mithridates, in order to gain time against Rome, + causing Socrates to be put to death. The hostilities of Nicomedes, + instituted by Rome, gave rise to the first Roman war, 89-85, + carried on in Asia and Greece, and brought to a conclusion by + Sylla. By the peace of 85, Mithridates restores Bithynia, + Cappadocia, and Paphlagonia.--War with the revolted Colchians and + Bosporans, 84.--Second war with Rome brought about by the Roman + governor, Murena, 83-81. Mithridates hereupon appoints his son, + Machares, king of Bosporus, (Crimea,) whom he afterwards himself + causes to be put to death, 66; he was likewise, in all + probability, the instigator of the migration of the Sarmatae out of + Asia into Europe, in order to maintain his conquests in that + quarter, about 80. Fresh disputes with Rome about Cappadocia, of + which Tigranes takes possession, and third war with Rome, 75-64. + The contest ended in the downfal of Mithridates, caused by the + treachery of his son Pharnaces; Pontus became a Roman province; + although the Romans, in the sequel, appointed over a portion of + the country princes from the royal house, Darius, Polemo I. Polemo + II. until Nero reduced it again wholly to the state of a province. + + VAILLANT, _Imperium Achaemenidarum_ in his _Imperium Arsacidarum_, + tom. ii. With the assistance of the coins. + + For the history of Mithridates the Great, previously treated + without sufficient chronological accuracy, see DE BROSSES, + _Histoire de la Rep. Romaine_, and more especially + + JOAN. ERNST. WOLTERSDORF, _Commentatio vitam Mithridatis Magni, + per annos digestam, sistens; praemio ornata ab A. Phil. Ord. + Gottingae:, A_. 1812. + + 4. _Cappadocia._ Until the time of Alexander this country remained + a province of the Persian empire, although the governors + occasionally made attempts at insurrection. The ruling family was + here likewise a branch of the royal house; Ariarathes I. was + particularly distinguished about B. C. 354. The prince + contemporary with Alexander was Ariarathes II. who, being attacked + by Perdiccas and Eumenes, fell in the contest, 322. Nevertheless, + his son, Ariarathes III. supported by the Armenians, recovered the + sceptre about 312. The son of this king, Ariaramnes, formed a + matrimonial connection with the Seleucidae, uniting his son + Ariarathes IV. with the daughter of Antiochus [Greek: Theos]. + Ariarathes IV. during his lifetime, associated in the government + his son Ariarathes V. _d._ 162. who married Antiochis, daughter to + Antiochus the Great: this princess, finding herself at first + barren, procured two supposititious sons, one of whom, Orophernes, + subsequently wrested the sceptre from the legitimate and later + born son, Ariarathes VI. but was afterwards expelled by the + rightful heir, 157. In the war against Aristonicus of Pergamus, + 131, he fell, as an ally of the Romans, leaving behind him six + sons; five of whom were cut off by his ambitious relict Laodice; + the sixth however, Ariarathes VII. ascended the throne, and was + married to Laodice, sister of Mithridates the Great, at whose + instigation he was murdered by Gordius, under pretence of placing + on the throne his sister's son, Ariarathes VIII; this last prince + was soon after treacherously put to death by Mithridates, 94, and + his brother Ariarathes IX. defeated 93, died of a broken heart; + Mithridates then placed on the throne his own son, Ariarathes X. a + lad eight years old. The independence of Cappadocia having + meanwhile been proclaimed at Rome, the inhabitants of the country, + in order to preclude domestic broils, themselves elect a king, + appointing to that dignity Ariobarzanes I. who was installed by + Sylla, 92, and, backed by the Romans, kept his footing in the + Mithridatic wars. In 63 he made the crown over to his son, + Ariobarzanes II. who was slain by the army of Brutus and Cassius, + 43, as was his brother, Ariobarzanes III. 34, by Mark Antony; + Antony then appointed Archelaus to be king, who enticed to Rome by + Tiberius, A. D. 17, was there assassinated; and Cappadocia then + became a Roman province. + + 5. _Armenia_ was a province of the Syrian empire until the defeat + of Antiochus the Great by Rome, 190. That defeat was followed by + the accession of Antiochus's lieutenants, Artaxias and Zariadras; + and now arose the two kingdoms of Armenia Major and Armenia Minor + (the latter on the west bank of the Upper Euphrates). In Armenia + Major the family of Artaxias kept possession of the throne, under + eight (according to others _ten_) consecutive kings, until B. C. + 5.--The only remarkable prince of this line was Tigranes I. 95-60, + son-in-law and ally of Mithridates the Great, and lord of Asia + Minor, Cappadocia, and Syria. He was, however, at the peace of 63, + obliged to give up all, so that Armenia was dependent on the + Romans, and remained so until B. C. 5, when it became the object + of contention between the Romans and Parthians, being ruled at + intervals by kings appointed by both parties, who endeavoured + thereby to protect their own provinces. Finally, in A. D. 412, + Armenia became a province of the new Persian empire.--In Asia + Minor the descendants of Zariadras ruled dependently on Rome; + after its defection under Mithridates the Great it usually formed + part of some one of the neighbouring kingdoms, until in the reign + of Vespasian it was converted into a province of the Roman empire. + + VAILLANT, _Elenchus regum Armeniae Majoris_, in his _Hist. Imp. + Arsacidarum_. + +4. Besides the above small kingdoms, two mighty empires arose in Inner +Asia, both out of Alexander's monarchy, and at the same time: these were +the Parthian and the Bactrian; each having previously constituted a part +of the empire of the Seleucidae, from which they seceded under Antiochus +II. The Parthian kingdom, or that of the Arsacidae, B. C. 256-A. D. 226, +at the maximum of its extension, comprised the countries between the +Euphrates and Indus. Its history, so far as we are acquainted with it, +is divided into four periods (see below); but unfortunately our +information is so imperfect respecting all that relates to the +Parthians, except their wars, that even the most important particulars +are beyond the reach of conjecture. + + Main facts in the history and constitution of the Parthian + kingdom. _a._ Like the ancient Persian empire, the Parthian arose + out of the conquests made by a rude mountain race of Central Asia, + whose Scythian (probably Tatarian) origin, betrayed itself even in + later times by their speech and mode of life: their conquests, + however, were not effected with the same rapidity as those of the + Persians. _b._ This empire increased at the expense of the Syrian + in the west, and of the Bactrian in the east; but its dominion was + never permanently established beyond the Euphrates, Indus, and + Oxus. _c._ The wars with Rome, commencing in B. C. 53, and + springing out of disputes for the possession of the Armenian + throne, were for a long time unfortunate for the Romans. Success + did not accompany the arms of Rome until she had discovered the + art of raising her own parties within the kingdom itself, by + lending her support to pretenders, an art rendered comparatively + easy, by the unfavourable situation of the Parthian capital + Seleucia and the neighbouring town of Ctesiphon, the real head + quarters of the court. _d._ The empire was indeed divided into + satrapies, eighteen of which are enumerated; nevertheless it + comprised likewise several small kingdoms, which preserved their + own rulers, only that they were tributary, such, for instance, as + Persis, etc. The Graeco-Macedonian settlements were also in + possession of great privileges, and of their own civic + governments; Seleucia more especially, where the coins of the + Parthian sovereigns were struck. _e._ The constitution was + monarchal-aristocratic, something like that of the Poles, in the + period of the Jagellons. At the king's side sat a supreme state + council, (_senatus_, in all probability what was called the + _megistanes_,) who had the power of deposing the king, and the + privilege, it is supposed, of confirming his accession previous to + the ceremony of coronation, performed by the field-marshals + (_surenas_). The right of succession was only so far determined as + belonging to the house of the Arsacidae; the many pretenders to + which this uncertainty gave rise, produced factions and domestic + wars, doubly injurious to the empire when fomented and shared by + foreigners. _f._ With regard to Asiatic commerce, the Parthian + supremacy was of importance, inasmuch as it interrupted the direct + intercourse between the western and eastern countries: it being a + maxim of the Parthians not to grant a passage through their + country to any stranger. This destruction of the trade occurs in + the third period of the empire, being a natural result of the many + wars with Rome, and the distrust thence ensuing. The East India + trade, in consequence, took another road through Palmyra and + Alexandria, which were indebted to it for their splendour and + prosperity. _g._ It is probable that this was the reason why + excessive luxury took a less hold on the Parthians than on the + other ruling nations of Asia, notwithstanding their predilection + for Grecian manners and literature, at that time generally + prevalent throughout the east. + + _Line of the kings._ I. Syrian period; that of reiterated wars + with the Seleucidae, until 130. Arsaces I. 256-253, founder of the + Parthian independence, by procuring the death of the Syrian + viceroy, Agathocles, to which he was instigated by the insult + offered to his brother Tiridates. Arsaces II. (Tiridates I.) + brother of the foregoing, _d._ 216. He possessed himself of + Hyrcania, about 244, confirmed the Parthian power by a victory on + Seleucus Callinicus, 238, whom he took prisoner, 236. Arsaces III. + (Artabanus I.) _d._ 196. In his reign occurred the unsuccessful + attempt of Antiochus III. who, in the treaty of 210, was obliged + to renounce all claims on Parthia and Hyrcania, in return for + which Arsaces lent his assistance to Antiochus in the war against + Bactria. Arsaces IV. (Priapatius,) _d._ about 181. Arsaces V. + (Phraates I.) _d._ about 144; he conquered the Mardians on the + Caspian. His brother, Arsaces VI. (Mithridates I.) _d._ 136. He + raised the hitherto confined kingdom of Parthia to the rank of a + mighty empire, having, after the decease of Antiochus Epiphanes, + 164, by the capture of Media, Persis, Babylonia, and other + countries, extended the frontiers westward to the Euphrates, and + eastward to the Hydaspes, beyond the Indus. The invasion of + Demetrius II. of Syria, supported by an insurrection of the + conquered races, ended, 140, in the capture of the aggressor. + Arsaces VII. (Phraates II.) _d._ about 127. Invasion of Antiochus + Sidetes, 132, who was at first successful, but being soon + afterwards cut off together with his whole army, 131, the Parthian + empire was for ever freed from the attacks of the Syrian kings. + + II. Period of the eastern nomad wars; from 130-53. After the fall + of the Bactrian empire, which had hitherto formed the eastern + rampart of the Parthians, violent wars took place with the nomad + tribes of Central Asia (Scythae, Dahae, Tochari, etc.) in which + Arsaces VII. was slain. Arsaces VIII. (Artabanus II.) shared the + same fate about 124. Arsaces IX. (Mithridates II.) _d._ 87. This + prince appears to have restored tranquillity to the east after + bloody wars; he met, however, with a powerful rival in Tigranes I. + of Armenia. In his reign occurred the first transactions between + the Parthians and Romans, 92, Sylla being propraetor of Cilicia. + Arsaces X. (Mnasciras,) _d._ about 76, waged a long war for the + succession with his follower on the throne, the septuagenarian, + Arsaces XI. (Sinatroces,) _d._ about 68. Unsuccessful war with + Tigranes I. In consequence of civil wars, and of that with + Tigranes, together with the formidable power of Mithridates the + Great, the Parthian empire was now greatly weakened. Arsaces XII. + (Phraates III.) _d._ 60, contemporary with the third Mithridatic + war. Although both parties eagerly courted his alliance, and he + himself was engaged in the contest with Tigranes, he, + notwithstanding, observed an armed neutrality, and made the + Parthian empire continue to be respected as far as the Euphrates. + Neither Lucullus nor Pompey durst attack him. The fall of + Mithridates and of his empire, 64, constitutes, however, an epoch + in the Parthian history, the Romans and Parthians having now + become immediate neighbours.--Arsaces XIII. (Mithridates II.) _d._ + 54, deposed after several wars, by his younger brother Orodes, + and at last put to death, after the capture of Babylonia, where he + had taken refuge. + + III. Roman period; from B. C. 53, to A. D. 226; comprising the + wars with Rome. Arsaces XIV. (Orodes I.) _d._ 36. In his reign the + first war with Rome, caused by the invasion of Crassus; it ends in + the annihilation of the invading army and general, 53. In + consequence of this victory the Parthians acquired such + preponderance, that during the civil wars they were frequently + masters on this side of the Euphrates, and in 52-51 proceeded to + attack Syria.--In the war between Pompey and Caesar they sided with + the former, and thus furnished the latter with a pretext for his + Parthian expedition, which, however, was prevented by his murder + in 44; again in the war between the triumviri and Brutus and + Cassius, 42, they took the republican side. After the defeat of + Brutus and Cassius, the Parthians, at the instigation of the Roman + general and ambassador Labienus, and commanded by him and Pacorus, + (eldest son to Arsaces,) spread over the whole of Syria and Asia + Minor, 40; but, after violent exertions, were driven back by + Ventidius, Antony's general, 39, 38; Pacorus lost his life, and + his father died of grief. Arsaces XV. (Phraates IV.) _d._ A. D. 4, + contemporary of Augustus. He confirmed his power by murdering his + brothers and their dependents; his views were likewise furthered + by the failure of Antony's expedition, B. C. 36, which ended + pretty nearly in the same manner as that of Crassus. The remainder + of his reign was disturbed by a pretender to the throne, + Tiridates, who, after his defeat, 25, found an asylum at the court + of Augustus. The threatened attack of Augustus was diverted by + Phraates's restoration of the standards taken from Crassus, 20; a + dispute, however, subsequently arose respecting the possession of + the Armenian throne, A. D. 2, on which account Caius Caesar was + despatched into Asia, and accommodated matters by a treaty. The + ultimate fate both of the king and the empire was principally + decided by a female slave, Thermusa, sent as a present from + Augustus; this woman, wishing to ensure the succession to her own + son, prevailed upon the king to send his four sons to Rome as + hostages, under the pretext of anticipating domestic troubles, + 18.--A practice which from that time became frequent, the Parthian + kings thinking it a convenient mode of ridding themselves of + dangerous competitors, while the Romans knew how to make the + proper use of them.--Thermusa's son having grown up, she removed + the king, and seated Phraataces on the throne, under the name of + Arsaces XVI; he was, however, put to death by the Parthians, A. D. + 4; and the crown given to one of the Arsacidae, Orodes II, (Arsaces + XVII.) who was, however, immediately afterwards slain by reason of + his cruelty. In consequence, Vonones I. the eldest of the sons of + Phraates sent to Rome, was called back and placed on the throne + (Arsaces XVIII.); but that prince having brought with him Roman + customs and luxury, was expelled, A. D. 14, with the assistance of + the northern nomads, by Artabanes III. (Arsaces XIX.) _d._ 44, a + distant relation: the fugitive took possession of the vacant + throne of Armenia, but was soon after driven from thence likewise + by his rival. Tiberius took advantage of the consequent disorders + to send Germanicus into the east, A. D. 17, from whence he was + never to return. The remainder of the reign of Artabanus was very + stormy, Tiberius on the one hand taking advantage of the factions + between the nobles to support pretenders to the crown; the revolts + of the satraps, on the other hand, giving proof of the declension + of the Parthian power. After his death war raged between his sons; + the second, Vardanes, (Arsaces XX.) _d._ 47, made good his + pretensions to the crown, and took North Media, (Atropatene;) he + was succeeded by his elder brother Gotarzes, (Arsaces XXI.) _d._ + 50, to whom Claudius unsuccessfully opposed Meherdates, educated + as an hostage at Rome. Arsaces XXII. (Vonones II.) succeeded, + after a reign of a few months, by Arsaces XXIII. (Vologeses I.) + _d._ 90. The possession of the Armenian throne, given by this + prince to his brother Tiridates, by the Romans to Tigranes, + grandson of Herod the Great, excited a series of disputes, which + began so early as the reign of Claudius, A. D. 52, and under Nero + broke out into open war, waged with some success on the Roman side + by Corbulo, 56-64, and closed by Tiridates going, after the death + of Tigranes, to Rome, and there accepting the crown of Armenia as + a gift at the hands of Nero, 65. Arsaces XXIV. (Pacorus,) _d._ + 107, contemporary with Domitian. All that we know of him is, that + he embellished the city of Ctesiphon. Arsaces XXV. (Cosroes,) _d._ + about 121. The claims to the throne of Armenia implicated him in a + war with Trajan, 114, during which Armenia, together with + Mesopotamia and Assyria, were converted into Roman provinces. + Trajan's consequent and successful inroad into the interior parts + of the Parthian dominions, 115-116, followed by the capture of + Ctesiphon, and the appointment of Parthamaspates as king, appears + to have been facilitated by the domestic commotions and civil wars + which had for a long time harassed the empire. Nevertheless, in + the following year, 117, Hadrian was compelled to give up all the + conquered country; the Euphrates was again acknowledged as the + boundary; Parthamaspates was appointed king of Armenia; and + Cosroes, who had taken refuge in the upper satrapies, was + reinstated on the throne, of which he seems ever after to have + kept quiet possession. Arsaces XXVI. (Vologeses II.) _d._ 149. + Parthia under his reign, and Rome under that of Antoninus Pius, + remained on good terms. Arsaces XXVII. (Vologeses III.) _d._ 191. + Under the reign of this king, the contemporary of Marcus Aurelius + and L. Verus, the war with Rome was again kindled, 161, by Verus, + and carried on in Armenia and Syria; Cassius, the legate of Verus, + at last got possession of Seleucia, and demolished that city, + 165.--Arsaces XXVIII. (Ardawan or Vologeses IV.) _d._ 207. This + king having taken the part of Pescenninus Niger, in the war + between him and Septimius Severus, was, after the defeat of his + friend, 194, routed in a war with Septimius Severus, 197, and the + chief towns of Parthia were sacked by the invaders. He is, without + authority, represented as succeeded by a Pacorus, who took the + name of Arsaces XXIX.: his real successor, however, appears to + have been Arsaces XXIX. (Vologeses V.) _d._ 216. Domestic wars + among his sons, fomented by Caracalla. Arsaces XXX. (Artabanus + IV.) At the beginning of his reign, this prince likewise was + contemporary with Caracalla, who, in order to pick a quarrel, + demanded his daughter in marriage; according to some, Arsaces + refused her, in consequence of which the Roman emperor undertook a + campaign into Armenia; according to others, Arsaces having + assented, and escorted his daughter to Caracalla, was, by an + abominable stroke of treachery, cut off, together with all his + train, A. D. 216. Caracalla having been murdered, 217, his + successor, Macrinus, signed a peace with the Parthians. But + Arsaces subsequently raised his brother Tiridates to the throne of + Armenia; this act spurred the Persian Artaxerxes, son of Sassan, + to rebellion; the Parthian king, defeated in three battles, fell + in the last, thus putting a period to the family and dominion of + the Arsacidae, 226, and Artaxerxes became the founder of the New + Persian kingdom, or that of the Sassanidae. The revolution was + accompanied not only with a change of dynasty, but with a total + subversion of the constitution. + + VAILLANT, _Imperium Arsacidarum et Achaemenidarum_, Paris, 1725, 2 + vols. 4to. The first part comprises the Arsacidae; the second the + kings of Bithynia, Pontus, and Bosporus. It is an attempt, not + altogether faultless, to arrange the series of kings, by the + assistance of coins. + + # C. F. RICHTER, _Historico-critical essay upon the dynasties of + the Arsacidae and Sassanidae, according to the Persian, Grecian, and + Roman authorities_. A prize essay. Leipzic, 1804. A comparative + research into the eastern and western sources. The chronology in + the above sketch has been corrected by this work, in conjunction + with + + TH. CHR. TYCHSEN, _Commentationes de Nummis Persarum et + Arsacidarum_; inserted in _Commentat. Nov. Soc. Sc. Gotting._ vol. + i. iii. + +5. The Bactrian kingdom arose nearly at the same time as the Parthian, +254; its origin, however, was of a different nature,--the independence +of this state being asserted by the Grecian governor, who was +consequently succeeded by Greeks;--its duration likewise was much +shorter, extending only from B. C. 254 to B. C. 126. Scarce any +fragments have been preserved of the history of this empire, the borders +of which appear at one time to have extended to the banks of the Ganges, +and the frontiers of China. + + Founder of the empire, Diodatus or Theodotus I. B. C. 254; he + threw off his allegiance to the Syrian king, under Antiochus II. + He appears to have been master not only of Bactria, but also of + Sogdiana. He likewise threatened the Parthians; after his decease, + 243, his son and successor, Theodotus II. signed a treaty and + alliance with Arsaces II. but was nevertheless deprived of his + crown by Euthydemus of Magnesia, about 221. Antiochus the Great, + at the conclusion of the Parthian war, directed his arms against + Euthydemus, 209-206; the contest ended in a peace, by which + Euthydemus, after delivering up his elephants, was not only left + in possession of the crown, but was allied to the Syrian family by + the marriage of his son Demetrius with a daughter of Antiochus. + Demetrius, though a great conqueror, does not seem to have been + king of Bactria; his dominions comprised, it is probable, North + India and Malabar, whose history now becomes closely connected + with that of Bactria, although consisting only of mere fragments. + The throne of Bactria fell to Apollodotus, and after him to + Menander, who extended his conquests as far as Serica, while + Demetrius was establishing his dominion in India, [as sovereign of + which country he is represented in a medal lately discovered,] and + where, about this time, several Greek states appear to have + existed, perhaps ever since the expedition of Antiochus III. 205. + Menander was succeeded, about 181, by Eucratidas, under whose + reign the Bactrian empire attained its greatest extension; after + defeating the Indian king, Demetrius, who had been the aggressor, + he, with the assistance of the Parthian conqueror, Mithridates, + (Arsaces VI.) annexed India to his own empire, 148. On his return, + he was murdered by his son; the same, probably, that is mentioned + afterwards by the name of Eucratidas II. He was the ally of + Demetrius II. of Syria, and the main instigator of his expedition + against the Parthians, 142; Demetrius being defeated by Arsaces + VI. Eucratidas was, in consequence, deprived of a portion of his + territory; overpowered soon after by the nomad races of Central + Asia, the Bactrian empire fell to the ground, and Bactria itself, + together with the other countries on this side of the Oxus, became + a prey to the Parthians. + + TH. SIEG. BAYER, _Historia regni Graecorum Bactriani_. Petropol. + 1738, 4to. The few remaining fragments are in this work collected + with industry and arranged with skill. + + [TOD, _Account of Greek, Parthian, and Hindu Medals_, in + _Transactions of the R. Asiatic Society_, vol. i. part ii, p. 316. + + TYCHSEN, _De Nummis Graecis et Barbaris in Bochara nuper retectis_, + in _Comment. Nov. Soc. Sc. Gotting._ vol. vi.] + +6. The restored kingdom of the Jews was likewise a fragment of the +Macedonian monarchy; and although it ranked only with the smaller +states, its history in various respects deserves our attention, few +nations having had so powerful an influence on the progress of human +civilization. The foundation of the independence of the Jews was not, it +is true, laid before the year 167; yet their domestic constitution had +previously assumed its main features, and their history, reckoning from +the return of the Babylonian captivity, accordingly divides itself into +four periods: 1. Under the Persian supremacy, 536-323. 2. Under the +Ptolemies and Seleucidae, 323-167. 3. Under the Maccabees, 167-39. 4. +Under the Herodians and Romans, B. C. 39. to A. D. 70. + + First period under the Persians. By permission from Cyrus, a + colony of Jews belonging to the tribes of Benjamin, Judah, and + Levi, returned to the land of their forefathers, 536: this colony, + headed by Zorobabel, of the ancient royal family, and the high + priest Joshua, consisted of about 42,000 souls; the far more + important and wealthy portion of the nation preferred to remain on + the other side of the Euphrates, where they had been settled for + seventy years, and continued to be a numerous people. The new + settlers found it difficult to keep their footing, principally in + consequence of differences, produced by the intolerance they + themselves evinced at the building of the temple, with their + neighbours and kinsmen the Samaritans, to whom the colony was only + a cause of expense. The Samaritans, subsequently, having erected a + separate temple at Garizim, near Sichem, about 336, not only + separated completely, but laid the foundation of an inveterate + hatred between the two nations. Hence the prohibition to rebuild + the city and temple, brought about by their means, under Cambyses, + 529, and Smerdis, 522, and not taken off until 520, in the reign + of Darius Hystaspes. The new colony did not receive a permanent + internal constitution till the time of Ezra and Nehemiah; both + brought in fresh colonists, the former in 478, the latter in 445. + The country was under the dominion of the satraps of Syria; but in + the increasing domestic declension of the Persian empire, the high + priests gradually became the virtual rulers of the nation. + Nevertheless, even at the time of Alexander's conquest, 332, the + Jews seem to have manifested proofs of fidelity to the Persians. + + Second period under the Ptolemies and Seleucidae, 323-167. After + the death of Alexander, Palestine, in consequence of its + situation, generally shared the fate of Phoenicia and Coele-Syria, + (see above, p. 249.) being annexed to Syria.--Capture of + Jerusalem, and transplantation of a vast colony of Jews to + Alexandria by Ptolemy I. 312; from thence they spread to Cyrene, + and gradually over the whole of North Africa, and even into + Aethiopia. From 311-301 the Jews remained, however, subject to + Antigonus. After the overthrow of his empire, they remained, + 301-203, under the dominion of the Ptolemies; the most conspicuous + of their high priests during this interval were Simon the Just, + _d._ 291, and afterwards his son, Onias I. _d._ 218, who, by + withholding the tribute due to Ptolemy III. exposed Judaea to + imminent danger.--In the second war of Antiochus the Great against + Egypt, 203, the Jews, of their own free will, acknowledged + themselves his subjects, and assisted in driving out the Egyptian + troops, who, under their general, Scopas, had again possessed + themselves of the country, and the citadel of Jerusalem, 198. + Antiochus confirmed the Jews in the possession of all their + privileges; and although he promised their country, together with + Coele-Syria and Phoenicia, to Ptolemy Epiphanes, as the future + dowry of his daughter, Judaea still remained under the Syrian + supremacy; except that the revenue was for a time divided between + the Syrian and Egyptian kings.--The high priests and self-chosen + ethnarchs or alabarchs were at the head of the people; and we now + find mention made for the first time of a senate, or the + sanhedrim. But the rout of Antiochus the Great by the Romans was + also the remote cause of the subsequent misfortunes of the Jews. + The consequent dearth of money in which the Syrian kings found + themselves, and the riches of the temple treasures, the + accumulation of the sacred income and gifts, made the office of + high priest an object of purchase under Antiochus Epiphanes: hence + arose quarrels between the pontifical families, and out of those + sprung factions, which Antiochus Epiphanes was desirous to turn to + his own account, by the introduction of Grecian institutions among + the Jews, in order thereby to promote the subjection of that + people, now raised by its privileges almost to the rank of a state + within that of Syria. Deposition of the high priest, Onias III. + 175; his brother Jason having obtained the mitre by purchase, and + the introduction of Grecian customs: Jason, however, was in his + turn supplanted by his brother Menelaus, 172. During the civil + war arising out of these events, Antiochus Epiphanes, at that time + conqueror in Egypt, (see above, p. 241.) takes possession of + Jerusalem, 170, being provoked by the behaviour of the Jews to + Menelaus, the high priest of his own appointment: the consequent + oppression of the Jews, who now were to be Hellenized by main + force, soon occasioned the rise under the Maccabees. + + Third period under the Maccabees, 167-39. Commencement of the + rebellion against Antiochus IV. brought about by the priest + Mattathias, 167, who was almost immediately succeeded, 166-161, by + his son Judas Maccabaeus. Supported by the fanaticism of his party, + Judas defeats in several battles the generals of Antiochus, who + was absent in Upper Asia, where he died, 164; the Jewish leader is + even said to have been favoured by Rome. The primary object of the + insurrection was not, however, political independence; they fought + only for religious freedom. Under Antiochus V. the sedition + continued successful, both against the Syrian king and the high + priest Alcimus, his creature, 163; Judas having died soon after + his defeat by Demetrius I. was succeeded by his brother Jonathan, + 161-143. The death of the high priest, Alcimus, 160, opened the + path of Jonathan to that office, which he received in the ensuing + war between Demetrius I. and Alexander Balas, 143, (see above, p. + 244, 245.) both rivals courting his alliance: Jonathan sided with + Balas, and consequently, from being merely the leader of a party, + came to be head of the nation, which still, nevertheless, + continued to pay tribute to the kings. Notwithstanding the favour + he had shown to Balas, after the overthrow of that pretender, he + was confirmed in his dignity by Demetrius I. 145; to whose + assistance he marched at the subsequent great revolt in Antioch. + Jonathan however, in 144, passed over to the side of the usurper, + Antiochus, the son of Balas, (see above, p. 245.) and was by + embassy presented with the friendship of the Romans in the same + year, but by the treachery of Tryphon was taken and put to death, + 143. His brother and successor, Simon, 143-135, having declared + against Tryphon, was by Demetrius II. not only confirmed in his + dignity, but excused from paying tribute; he likewise received the + title of prince, (ethnarch;) and appears to have struck coins. + After the capture of Demetrius, Antiochus Sidetes allowed Simon to + remain in possession of those privileges so long as he stood in + need of his assistance against Tryphon; but after the death of + that usurper, he caused him, 130, to be attacked by Cendebaeus, who + was defeated by the sons of Simon. Simon having been murdered by + his son-in-law, Ptolemaeus, who aspired to the government, 135, was + succeeded by his son, John Hyrcanus, 135-107, who was compelled + again to acknowledge submission to Antiochus Sidetes; but after + the defeat and death of that prince by the Parthians, 130, he + asserted his entire independence. The deep decline of the Syrian + kingdom, the constant civil wars by which it was distracted, and + the renewed league with the Romans, not only enabled Hyrcanus + easily to maintain his independence, but likewise to increase his + territory, by the conquest of the Samaritans and Idumaeans. But + with him ended the heroic line. Scarcely was he delivered from + foreign oppression, when domestic broils arose; the Pharisees and + Sadducees had hitherto been mere religious sects, but were + converted into political factions by Hyrcanus, who, offended with + the Pharisees, probably in consequence of their wish to separate + the pontifical and princely offices, went over to the Sadducees; + the former sect, the orthodox, were as usual supported by the + many; the latter, the innovators, in consequence of the laxity of + their principles, were favoured by the wealthy. Hyrcanus's eldest + son, the cruel Aristobulus, 107, assumed the royal title, but soon + after dying, 106, was succeeded by his younger brother, Alexander + Jannaeus, 106-79. His reign was an almost unbroken series of + insignificant wars with his neighbours, this prince wishing to + play the conqueror; and having likewise had the imprudence to + irritate the powerful party of the Pharisees, these made him the + object of public insult, and excited a tumult, 92, which was + followed by a bloody civil war which lasted six years. Jannaeus, it + is true, maintained himself during the struggle; but the opposite + party was so far from being annihilated, that, at his death, when + passing over his sons, the feeble Hyrcanus (who possessed the + pontifical dignity) and the ambitious Aristobulus, he bequeathed + the crown to his widow Alexandra, it was with the understanding + that she should join the party of the Pharisees: during her reign, + therefore, 79-71, the Pharisees held the reins of government, and + left her only the name. Provoked at this, Aristobulus, shortly + before the death of the queen, endeavoured to obtain possession of + the throne, and ultimately obtained his ends, notwithstanding + Alexandra nominated Hyrcanus to be her successor. Hyrcanus, at the + instigation of his confidant, the Idumaean Antipater, who was the + progenitor of the Herodians, and assisted by the Arabian prince + Aretas, waged war against his brother, 65, and shut him up in + Jerusalem: but the Romans were arbitrators, and Pompey, then + all-powerful in Asia, decided for Hyrcanus, 64; the party of + Aristobulus, however, refusing to accede, the Roman general took + possession of Jerusalem; made Hyrcanus high priest and prince, + under condition that he should pay tribute; and took as prisoners + to Rome Aristobulus and his sons, who, however, subsequently + escaped and caused great disturbances. The Jewish state being now + dependent on Rome, remained so, and the yoke was confirmed by the + policy of Antipater and his sons, who followed the general maxim + of entire devotion to Rome, in order thereby to succeed in wholly + removing the reigning family. As early as 48, Antipater was + appointed procurator of Judea by Caesar, whom he had supported at + Alexandria, and his second son Herod, governor in Galilee, soon + became sufficiently powerful to threaten Hyrcanus and the + sanhedrim, 45. He gained the favour of Antony, and thus maintained + himself amid the tempests which, after the assassination of Caesar, + 44, shook the Roman world, powerful as the party opposed to him + were: that party, however, at last, in lieu of the ill-fated + Hyrcanus, the only surviving son of Aristobulus, placed Antigonus + at their head, and, assisted by the Parthians, then flourishing in + power, seated him on the throne, 39. Herod having fled to Rome, + not only met with a gracious reception at the hands of the + triumviri, but was by them appointed king. + + Fourth period under the Herodians, B. C. 39 to A. D. 70. Herod the + Great, B. C. 39 to A. D. 1. put himself in possession of Jerusalem + and all Judaea, B. C. 37, and confirmed his power by marrying + Mariamne of the house of the Maccabees. Notwithstanding his + severity shown to the party of Antigonus, and the house of the + Maccabees, the total extinction of which Herod deemed necessary + for his own safety; yet so greatly did the wasted country stand in + need of peace, that for that very reason his reign may be said to + have been a happy one. Availing himself of the liberality of + Augustus, whose favour he contrived to obtain after the defeat of + Anthony, B.C. 31, Herod gradually increased the extent of his + kingdom, which at last comprised Judaea, Samaria, Galilee, and + beyond the Jordan, Peraea, Ituraea, and Trachonitis, (that is to + say, the whole of Palestine,) together with Idumaea; from these + countries he derived his income without being obliged to pay any + tribute. The deference consequently shown by Herod to Rome, was + but the effect of a natural policy, and his conduct in that + respect could be objected to him only by bigoted Jews. To his + whole family, rather than to himself individually, are to be + attributed the executions which took place among its members; + happy had it been if the sword had smitten none but the guilty and + spared the innocent. In the last year but one of his reign is + placed the birth of Christ (according to the usually adopted + computation, made in the sixth century by Dionysius Exiguus. But + the more accurate calculations of modern chronologists show that + the real date of the Saviour's birth was probably four years + earlier).--According to his will, with some few alterations made + by Augustus, his kingdom was divided among his three surviving + sons; Archelaus, as ethnarch, receiving the greater moiety, Judaea, + Samaria, and Idumaea; the two others, as tetrarchs, Philip a part + of Galilee and Trachonitis, Antipas the other part of Galilee, and + Peraea, together with Ituraea; subsequently to which division, the + various parts did not, in consequence, all share the same + fate.--Archelaus, by misgovernment, soon lost his portion, A. D. + 6; Judaea and Samaria were consequently annexed as a Roman province + to Syria, and placed under procurators subordinate to the Syrian + governors: among these procurators, the most famous is Pontius + Pilate, about A.D. 27-36, under whom the founder of our religion + appeared and suffered, not as a political--although accused of + being so--but as a moral reformer. On the other hand, Philip + retained his tetrarchy until the day of his death, A. D. 34, when + his country had the same lot with Judaea and Samaria. Soon after, + that is to say, in A. D. 37, it was, however, given by Caligula, + with the title of king, to Agrippa, (grandson of Herod by + Aristobulus,) as a recompense for his attachment to the family of + Germanicus; and when Antipas, who wished to procure a similar + favour for himself but instead of it, was deposed, 39, Agrippa + received his tetrarchy also, 40, and soon afterwards, by the + possession of the territory which had belonged to Archelaus, + became master of the whole of Palestine. Agrippa having died in A. + D. 44, the whole country being appended to Syria, became a Roman + province, and received procurators, although Chalcis, 49, and + subsequently also, 53, Philip's tetrarchy, were restored as a + kingdom to his son Agrippa II. _d._ 90. The oppression of the + procurators, and of Gessius Florus in particular, who obtained the + office, A. D. 64, excited the Jews to rebellion, which, 70, ended + in the capture and destruction of their city and temple by Titus. + The spread of the Jews over the whole civilized world of that + time, although previously commenced, was by this event still + further increased; and at the same time the extension of + Christianity was prepared and facilitated. Even after the + conquest, Jerusalem not only continued to exist as a city, but was + also still considered by the nation as a point of union; and the + attempt, under Adrian, to establish a Roman colony there, produced + a fearful sedition. + + BASNAGE, _Histoire des Juifs depuis J. C. jusqu' a present_. La + Haye, 1716, 15 vols. 12mo. The first two parts only, properly + speaking, belong to this period; but the others likewise contain + several very valuable historical researches. + + PRIDEAUX, _The Old and New Testament connected in the history of + the Jews and their neighbouring nations_. Lond. 1714, 2 vols. This + work, together with that above quoted, have always been esteemed + the grand books on the subject. The French translation of + Prideaux's Connection is, by its arrangement, more convenient for + use than the original: this translation was published at + Amsterdam, 1722, 5 vols. 8vo. under the title of PRIDEAUX, + _Histoire des Juifs et des peuples voisins depuis la decadence des + Royaumes d'Israel et de Juda, jusqu' a la mort de J. C._ + + # J. D. MICHAELIS, _Translation of the Books of Esdras, Nehemiah, + and Maccabees_, contains in the observations several historic + discussions of high importance. + + # J. REMOND, _Essay towards a history of the spread of Judaism, + from Cyrus to the total decline of the Jewish state_. Leipzig, + 1789. The industrious work of a young scholar. + + To the works enumerated p. 34, 35, must be added, for the more + ancient history of the Jews: + + J. L. BAUER, _Manual of the history of the Hebrew nation, from its + rise to the destruction of its state_. Nuremberg, 1800, 2 parts, + 8vo. As yet the best critical introduction, not only to the + history, but also to the antiquities of the nation. + + # In the works of J. J. HESS, belonging to this subject, namely, + _History of Moses_; _History of Joshua_; _History of the Rulers of + Judah_, 2 parts; _History of the Kings of Judah and Israel_: the + history is throughout considered in a theocratic point of view. + + + * * * * * + + + + +FIFTH BOOK. + +HISTORY OF THE ROMAN STATE. + + + + +_Introductory remarks on the Geography of Ancient Italy._ + + +Italy constitutes a peninsula, bounded on the north by the Alps, on the +west and south by the Mediterranean, and on the east by the Adriatic +sea. Its greatest length from north to south is 600 geogr. miles; its +greatest breadth, taken at the foot of the Alps, is 320 geogr. miles; +but that of the peninsula, properly so called, is not more than 120 +geogr. miles. Superficial contents, 81,920 sq. geogr. miles. The +principal mountain range is that of the Apennines, which, diverging +occasionally to the west, or east, stretch from north to south through +Central and Lower Italy. In the earlier times of Rome, these mountains +were covered with thick forests. Main streams: the Padus (Po) and the +Athesis, (Adige,) both of which discharge their waters in the Adriatic; +and the Tiberis, (Tiber,) which falls into the Mediterranean. The soil, +particularly in the plains, is one of the most fertile in Europe; on the +other hand, many of the mountain tracts admit but of little cultivation. +In that period when the Mediterranean was the grand theatre of trade, +Italy, by her situation, seemed destined to become the principal mart of +Europe; but she never in ancient times availed herself sufficiently of +this advantage. + +It is divided into _Upper_ Italy, from the Alps to the small rivers of +Rubicon and Macra; (this part, however, of Italy, until presented with +the right of citizenship under Caesar, was, according to the Roman +political geography, considered as a province;) into _Central_ Italy, +from the Rubicon and the Macra down to the Silarus and Frento; and into +_Lower_ Italy from those rivers to the southern land's end. + + +I. _Upper Italy comprises the two countries, Gallia Cisalpina and +Liguria._ + +1. Gallia Cisalpina, or Togata, in contradistinction to Gallia +Transalpina. It bears the name of Gallia, in consequence of being for +the most part occupied by Gallic races. This country is one continuous +plain, divided by the Padus into two parts, the northernmost of which is +therefore denominated Gallia Transpadana, (inhabited by the Taurini, +Insubres, and Cenomani,) while the southern part (inhabited by the Boii, +Senones, and Lingones) is known by the name of Gallia Cispadana. Various +streams contribute to swell the Padus; from the north the Duria, +(Durance,) the Ticinus, (Tessino,) the Addua, (Adda,) the Ollius, +(Oglio,) the Mintius, (Minzio,) and several less important rivers; from +the south, the Tanarus, (Tanaro,) the Trebia, etc. The Athesis, (Adige,) +the Plavis, (Piave,) and a number of smaller mountain streams, roll +their waters directly into the Adriatic. + +The cities in Gallia Cisalpina were, generally speaking, Roman colonies; +and most of them have preserved to this day their ancient names. Among +these are reckoned in Gallia Transpadana, principally, Tergeste, +Aquileia, Patavium, (Padua,) Vincentia, Verona, all east of the Athesis; +Mantua, Cremona, Brixia, (Brescia,) Mediolanum, (Milan,) Ticinum, +(Pavia,) and Augusta Taurinorum, (Turin,) all west of the Athesis. In +Gallia Cispadana we meet with Ravenna, Bononia, (Bologna,) Mutina, +(Modena,) Parma, Placentia, (Piacenza). Several of the above places +received municipal rights from the Romans. + +2. Liguria. This country deduced its name from the Ligures, one of the +old Italic tribes: it extended from the river Varus, by which it was +divided from Gallia Transalpina, down to the river Macra; northward it +extended to the Padus, and comprised the modern territory of +Genoa.--Cities: Genua, an extremely ancient place; Nicaea, (Nice,) a +colony of Massilia; and Asta, (Asti.) + + +II. _Central Italy comprises six countries; Etruria, Latium, and +Campania on the west; Umbria, Picenum, and Samnium on the east._ + +1. Etruria, Tuscia, or Tyrrhenia, was bounded north by the Macra, which +divided it from Liguria; south and east by the Tiberis, which separated +it from Latium and Umbria. Main river, the Arnus, (Arno). It is for the +most part a mountainous country; the seashore only is level. This +country derives its name from the Etrusci, a very ancient people, +composed, it is probable, of an amalgamation of several races, and even +some early Grecian colonies, to which latter they were indebted, not +indeed for all their arts, but for that of writing; to commerce and +navigation the Etrusci were indebted for their opulence and consequent +splendour. Cities: between the Macra and Arnus, Pisae, (Pisa,) Florentia, +Faesulae; between the Arnus and Tiberis, Volaterrae, (Volterra,) Volsinii, +(Bolsena,) on the Lacus Volsiniensis, (Lago di Bolsena,) Clusium, +(Chiusi,) Arretium, (Arrezzo,) Cortona, Perusia, (Perugia,) in the +neighbourhood of which is the Lacus Thrasimenus, (Lago di Perugia,) +Falerii, (Falari,) and the wealthy city of Veii. Each of the above +twelve cities had its own individual ruler, _lucumo_; although frequent +associations were formed among them, yet no firm and lasting bond seems +to have united the nation into one. + +2. Latium, properly the residence of the Latini, from the Tiberis north, +to the promontory of Circeii, south; hence that country was likewise +denominated Latium Vetus. Subsequently, under the name of Latium was +likewise reckoned the country from Circeii, down to the river Liris, +(Latium Novum;) so that the boundaries came to be, north, the Tiberis, +south, the Liris: the seat of the Latins, properly speaking, was in the +fruitful plain extending from the Tiber to Circeii; around them, +however, dwelt various small tribes, some eastward, in the Apennines, +such as the Hernici, Sabini, Aequi, and Marsi; others southward, such as +the Volsci, Rutuli, and Aurunci.--Rivers: the Anio (Teverone) and Allia, +which fall into the Tiber, and the Liris, (Garigliano,) which empties +itself into the Mediterranean. Cities in Latium Vetus: Rome, Tibur, +Tusculum, Alba Longa, Ostia, Lavinium, Antium, Gabii, Velitrae, the +capital of the Volsci, and several smaller places. In Latium Novum: +Fundi, Terracina, or Anxur, Arpinum, Minturnae, Formiae. + +3. Campania. The country lying between the Liris, north, and the +Silarus, south. One of the most fruitful plains in the world, but at the +same time greatly exposed to volcanic eruptions. Rivers: the Liris, the +Vulturnus, (Voltorno,) the Silarus, (Selo). Mountain: Vesuvius. Campania +derived its name from the race of the Campani. Cities: Capua the +principal one; and also Linternum, Cumae, Neapolis, Herculaneum, Pompeii, +Stabiae, Nola, Surrentum, Salernum, etc. + +_The three eastern countries of Central Italy are as follows_: + +1. Umbria. It is bounded, north, by the river Rubico, south, by the +river Aesis, (Gesano,) dividing it from Picenum, and by the Nar, (Nera,) +dividing it from the Sabine territory. It is for the most part plain. +The Umbrian race had in early times spread over a much larger portion of +Italy. Cities: Ariminium, (Rimini,) Spoletium, (Spoleto,) Narnia, +(Narni,) and Ocriculum, (Otriculi.) + +2. Picenum. Bounded, north, by the Aesis, south, by the Atarnus, +(Pescara.) The people are called Picentes. This country consists in a +fertile plain. Cities: Ancona and Asculum Picenum, (Ascoli.) + +3. Samnium, the name of a mountain tract extending from the Atarnus, +north, to the Frento, south; although that country reckoned among its +inhabitants, not only the rude and powerful Samnites, but also several +less numerous races; for instance, the Marrucini and Peligni in the +north, the Frentani in the east, and the Hirpini in the south. Rivers: +the Sagrus and the Tifernus. Cities: Allifae, Beneventum, and Caudium. + + +III. _Lower Italy, or Magna Grecia, comprised four countries; Lucania +and Bruttium on the western side, Apulia and Calabria on the eastern._ + +1. Lucania. Boundaries: north, the Silarus, south, the Laus. For the +most part a mountain tract. It derived its name from the race of the +Lucani, a branch of the Ausones, or chief nation of Lower Italy. Cities: +Paestum, or Posidonia, still renowned for its ruins, and Helia, or Velia. + +2. Bruttium, (the modern Calabria,) or the western tongue of land from +the river Laus to the southern land's end at Rhegium. The river +Brandanus constitutes the eastern frontier. A mountainous country, +deriving its name from the Bruttii, (a half savage branch of the +Ausones,) who dwelt in the mountains, while the seashores were occupied +by Grecian settlements. Cities: Consentia, (Cosenza,) Pandosia, +Mamertum, and Petilia. (Concerning the Greek colonies see above p. 155.) + +3. Apulia. The country ranging along the eastern coast, from the river +Frento to the commencement of the eastern tongue of land; an extremely +fertile plain, and particularly adapted to grazing cattle. Rivers: the +Aufidus (Ofanto) and the Cerbalus. This country is divided into two +parts by the Aufidus, the northern called Apulia Daunia, the southern +called Apulia Peucetia. Cities: in Apulia Daunia; Sipontum and Luceria: +in Apulia Peucetia; Barium, Cannae, and Venusia. + +4. Calabria or Messapia, the smaller eastern tongue of land, which +terminates in the promontory of Iapygium. Cities: Brundusium (Brindisi) +and Callipolis (Gallipoli). Concerning Tarentum and other Grecian +colonies, see above, p. 155. + +Three large islands are likewise reckoned as appertaining to Italy: they +are Sicily, Sardinia, and Corsica. According to the political geography +of the Romans they were, however, considered as provinces. Although the +above islands were, along the coast, occupied by aliens, the +aboriginals, under their own kings, maintained a footing in the inland +parts; among these the Siculi, said to have migrated from Italy, were +the most celebrated; they remained in Sicily, and gave their name to the +whole island. Concerning the cities, the more important of which were, +some of Phoenician, but the most part of Grecian, origin, see above, p. +30, and p. 155, sqq. + + + + +FIRST PERIOD. + +_From the foundation of Rome to the conquest of Italy and the +commencement of the wars with Carthage, B. C. 754-264, or A. U. C. +1-490._ + + + SOURCES. The most copious author, and, if we except his system of + deducing everything connected with Rome from Greece, the most + critical of all those who have written on the earlier history of + Rome and Italy, is Dionysius Halicarnassensis, in his + _Archaeologia_: of this work only the first eleven books, reaching + down to the year 443, have been preserved; to these, however, must + be added the fragments of the nine following books, xii-xx. + discovered in 1816, and published by the Abbate Mai of Milan. Next + to Dionysius is Livy, who as far as lib. iv, c. 18, is our main + authority, till B. C. 292. Of the Lives of Plutarch the following + belong to this period, Romulus, Numa, Coriolanus, Poplicola and + Camillus; which for the knowledge and criticism they display, are + perhaps more important even than Livy and Dionysius, see A. H. L. + HEEREN, _De fontibus et auctoritate vitarum Plutarchi_, inserted in + _Comment Recentiores Soc. Scient. Gott. Comment. I. II. Graeci, III. + IV. Romani_; reprinted also as an appendix to the editions of + Plutarch by Reiske and Hutten, _Gottingen_, 1821, _ap. Dieterich_. + The sources of the most ancient Roman history were extremely + various in kind. The traditions of the Fathers were preserved in + historical ballads; (no mention is ever made of any grand epic + poem;) and in this sense there existed a bardic history; by no + means, however, wholly poetic, for even the traditions of Numa's + Institutes are without the characteristics of poetry. The art of + writing was in Italy of earlier origin than the city of Rome; how + far, consequently, the public annals, such as the _Libri + Pontificum_, extended back in early time remains undetermined. + Several of the memorials are, beyond a doubt, mere family records, + whether preserved by vocal tradition or in written documents. To + the above must be added monuments, not only buildings and works of + arts, but also treaties engraved on tables; of which, nevertheless, + too little use seems to have been made. The Romans having learnt + the art of writing from the Greeks, their history was as + frequently written in Greek as in Latin; and that not only by + Greeks, such as, in the first place, Diocles of Peparethus, but + likewise by Romans, such as Fabius Pictor, at an early period. From + these last sources Dionysius and Livy compiled. The more ancient + Roman history given by these authorities rests, therefore, in part, + but by no means entirely, on tradition and poetry; still further + amplified by the rhetoric style, that of the Greeks more + especially. At what epoch the Roman history lays aside the poetic + character can hardly be determined with certainty; it may be traced + even in some parts of the period extending from the expulsion of + the kings to the conquest by the Gauls.--For the purposes of + chronology, great importance attaches to the _fasti Romani_, + contained partly in inscriptions, (_fasti Capitolini_,) partly in + manuscripts. They have been collected and restored by Pighius, + Noris Sigonius, etc. in GRAEVII, _Thes. A. R._ vol. xi.; likewise in + ALMELOVEEN, _Fast. Rom._ I. II. Amstel. 1705, etc. + + PIGHII _Annales Romanorum_. Antwerp, 1615, fol. 2 vols. An essay + towards a chronological arrangement; it reaches down to Vitellius. + + The Roman history has been copiously treated of by the moderns in + many works besides those on universal ancient history before + enumerated, (p. 2.). We shall mention only the more important. + + ROLLIN, _Histoire Romaine, Depuis la foundation de Rome jusqu' a la + bataille d'Actium_. 13 vols. 8vo. Paris, 1823, edit. revue par + Letronne. This history, which extends to B. C. 89, has been + continued and terminated by CREVIER. Although the critical + historian might suggest much that is wanting in this work, it + nevertheless contributed to advance the study. + + ED. FERGUSON, _The History of the Progress and Termination of the + Roman Republic_. London, 1783, 4to. On the whole, the best work on + the history of the Roman republic; it has superceded the earlier + work of GOLDSMITH. + + P. CH. LEVESQUE, _Histoire de la Republique Romaine_, 3 vols. + Paris, 1807. He who would still wish to admire with blind + enthusiasm the glory of ancient Rome, had better not read this + work. + + B. G. NIEBUHR, _Roman History_. + + Rather criticism than history; the author seems to be perpetually + endeavouring to overthrow all that has hitherto been admitted. The + spirit of acuteness is not always that of truth; and men do not so + lightly assent to the existence of a constitution which not only + is contrary to the broad view of antiquity--inferences drawn from + some insulated passages not being sufficient to overturn what is + corroborated by all the others--but likewise, according to the + author's own avowal, stands opposed to all analogy in history. But + truth gains even where criticism is wrong; and the value of some + deep researches will not for that reason be overlooked.--Consult + on this subject: + + # W. WACHSMUTH, _Researches into the more Ancient History of + Rome_. Halle, 1819. + + C. F. TH. LACHMANN, _Commentatio de fontibus T. Livii in prima + Historiarum Decade_. Gottingae, 1821. A prize essay. + + For the works upon the Roman constitution see below, at the end of + this and at the beginning of the third period. + + Abundance of most important writings upon Roman antiquities will + be found in the great collections: + + GRAEVII _Thesaurus Antiquitatum Romanarum_. Lugd. Batav. 1694, sq. + 12 vols. fol. and likewise in + + SALENGRE, _Thesaurus Antiquitatum Romanarum_. Venet. 1732, 3 vols. + fol. + + Many excellent papers, particularly in + + _Memoires de l'Academie des Inscriptions_. + + With the exception of NARDINI, _Roma Vetus_, inserted in GRAEVII + THES. A. R. t. iv. the best work on the topography of ancient Rome + is + + VENUTI, _Descrizione Topografica delle Antichita di Roma_. P. I. + II. Roma, 1763; and especially the new edition of that work by + VISCONTI, 1803. There is also: + + # S. H. L. ADLER, _Description of the city of Rome_. Altona, 1781, + 4to. + + The best representation of the monuments of ancient Rome will be + found in + + PIRANESI, _Antichita di Roma_, 3 vols. fol. + +1. In certain respects, the history of Rome is always that of one town, +inasmuch as until the period of the Caesars, the city continued mistress +of her extensive territory. The main parts of the internal constitution +of Rome were formed during this first period; which, considered in an +historical point of view, can hardly be said to be void of interest. +Whether every fundamental institution had its origin precisely at the +epoch to which it is attributed, is a question of little importance; it +is sufficient to observe, that they certainly arose in this period; and +that the steps by which the constitution was developed are, upon the +whole, determined beyond the possibility of a doubt. + +2. Exaggerated and embellished as the most ancient traditions of the +Romans respecting their origin may be, they all agree in this, that the +Romans belonged to the race of the Latini, and that their city was a +colony of the neighbouring Alba Longa. Long before this the custom seems +to have obtained with the Latini, of extending the cultivation of their +country by colonies. + + The primitive history of Rome is as difficult to reduce to pure + historic truth as that of Athens, or any other city of antiquity; this + proceeds from its being principally founded on traditions, handled by + poets and rhetoricians, and likewise differing from one another; as + may be seen in Plutarch's Romulus. As the knowledge of those + traditions, such as they are found in Dionysius and Livy, attaches to + so many other subjects, it would be improper to pass them over in + silence; and that they contained truths as well as poetic fictions is + proved most evidently by the political institutions of which they + narrate the origin, and which certainly reached back to those times. + To attempt to draw a line of demarcation between mythical and historic + times would be to mistake the real nature of mythology. + + L. DE BEAUFORT, _Sur l'incertitude des cinq premiers siecles de + l'histoire Romaine_, nouv. ed. a la Haye, 1750, 2 vols. 8vo. Every + thing that can be said against the credibility of the primitive Roman + history has been developed by Beaufort with abundant, and often with + laboured, acuteness. + +3. During the first two hundred and forty-five years subsequent to its +foundation this city was under the rule of governors, denominated kings; +these, however, were not hereditary, still less were they invested with +unlimited power, although they exerted themselves to become both +perpetual and absolute. On the contrary, in this period was framed a +municipal constitution, demonstrative of the existence, even at this +early date, of a considerable degree of political civilization; in its +principal parts this constitution was, no doubt,--as in every +colony,--copied from that of the mother city. Its principal features +were: _a._ Establishment and internal organization of the senate. _b._ +Establishment and progress of the patrician or hereditary nobility, +which, supported by the privilege of administering the sacred affairs, +and by the introduction of family names, quickly formed, in opposition +to the plebeians, a political party ever growing in power, although not, +therefore, a mere sacerdotal caste. _c._ Organization of the people +(_populus_), and modes of popular assembly (_comitia_), founded +thereupon; besides the original division according to heads into +_tribus_ and _curiae_, another was subsequently introduced according to +property into _classes_ and _centuriae_, out of which, besides the more +ancient _comitia curiata_, arose the very artificially constructed +_comitia centuriata_. _d._ Religious institutions, (_religiones_,) which +being most closely connected with the political constitution, formed a +state religion, by means of which everything in the state was attached +to determined forms, and received a higher sanction. Nor must we omit +_e._ the relations in private life established by law, the clientship, +marriage, and especially paternal authority. In consequence of those +domestic relations, a spirit of subordination and discipline, from the +earliest times, pervaded the people; and to that spirit the Romans were +indebted for the glory to which they attained. + +4. Notwithstanding many little wars with their immediate neighbours the +Sabines, Aequi, and Volsci, together with various cities of the Etrusci, +and even with the Latins themselves, Rome added but little to her +territory: nevertheless she took the first step towards her +aggrandizement; from the time of the destruction of Alba Longa, she +aimed at being the head of the collected cities of the Latins, and +finally attained the object of her ambition. + + Line of kings. Romulus, 754-717. First establishment of the colony; + augmentation in the number of the citizens, produced by the + establishment of an asylum, and an union with part of the Sabines. + Numa Pompilius, _d._ 679. By representing this prince as the founder + of the religion of the Roman state, that religion received the high + sanction of antiquity. Tullus Hostilius, _d._ 640. The conquest and + destruction of Alba lays the foundation of Roman supremacy in Latium. + Ancus Martius, _d._ 618. He extends the territory of Rome to the sea; + the foundation of the port of Ostia proves that Rome already applied + to navigation, the object of which was perhaps as yet rather piracy + than trade. Tarquinius Priscus, _d._ 578. A Grecian by descent. Under + his conduct Rome was already able to enter the field against the + confederate Etrusci. Servius Tullius, _d._ 534. The most remarkable in + the line of Roman kings. He placed Rome at the head of the confederacy + of the Latins, which he confirmed by _communia sacra_. On his new + division of the people according to property were raised the highly + important institutions of the _census_ and _comitia centuriata_. The + necessity of this measure is demonstrative of the great and increasing + prosperity of the Roman citizens; there can be no doubt, however, + that by its adoption the frame of the republic was already completed. + Tarquinius Superbus, (the tyrant,)--509. This individual, having taken + forcible possession of the throne as nephew to Priscus, endeavoured to + confirm his power by a close connection with the Latins and Volsci; by + this, as well as by his tyranny, he offended both the patrician and + plebeian parties. His deposition, and the consequent reformation of + the government, were however, properly speaking, brought about by the + ambition of the patricians. + + ALGAROTTI, _Saggio sopra la durata de' regni de' re di Roma_. (Op. t. + iii.) Chronological doubts. Can the raising of difficulties deserve + the name of criticism? + +5. The only direct consequence to the internal constitution of Rome, +proceeding from the abolition of royalty was, that that power, +undetermined as it had been while in the hands of the kings, was +transferred to two consuls, annually elected. Meanwhile the struggle for +liberty, in which the new republic was engaged with the Etrusci and +Latins, contributed much to arouse the republican spirit which +henceforward was the main feature of the Roman character--the evils of +popular rule being in times of need remedied by the establishment of the +dictatorship. The party, however, which had deposed the ruling family, +took wholly into their own hands the helm of state; and the oppression +of these aristocrats, shown principally towards their debtors, who had +become their slaves, (_nexi_,)--notwithstanding the _lex de +provocatione_ established by Valerius Poplicola, ensuring to the people +the highest judicial power--was so galling, that after the lapse of a +few years it gave rise to a sedition of the commons, (_plebis_,) the +consequence of which was the establishment of annually elected +presidents of the people (_tribuni plebis_). + + First commercial treaty with Carthage, 508, in which Rome appears + certainly as a free state, but not yet as sovereign of all Latium; the + most important monument of the authenticity of the earlier Roman + history. + + HEYNE, _Foedera Carthaginiensium cum Romanis super navigatione et + mercatura facta_: contained in his Opusc. t. iii. Cf. # A. H. L. + HEEREN, _Ideas_, etc. Appendix to the second vol. + +6. The further development of the Roman constitution in this period, +hinges almost wholly on the struggle between the new presidents of the +commons and the hereditary nobility; the tribunes, instead of confining +themselves to defend the people from the oppression of the nobles, soon +began to act as aggressors, and in a short time so widely overstepped +their power, that there remained no chance of putting an end to the +struggle but by a complete equalization of rights. A long time elapsed +ere this took place; the aristocracy finding a very powerful support +both in the clientship and in the religion of the state, operating under +the shape of auspices. + + Main facts of the contest: 1. In the trial of Coriolanus the tribunes + usurp the right of summoning some patricians before the tribunal of + the people.--Hence arise the _comitia tributa_; that is to say, either + mere assemblies of the commons, or assemblies so organized that the + commons had the preponderance. This institution gave the tribunes a + share in the legislation, subsequently of such high importance, those + officers being allowed to lay proposals before the commons. 2. More + equitable distribution among the poorer classes of the lands conquered + from the neighbouring nations, (the most ancient _leges agrariae_,) + suggested by the ambitious attempts of Cassius, 486. 3. Extension of + the prerogatives of the _comitia tributa_, more especially in the + election of the tribunes, brought about by Volero, 472. 4. Attempts at + a legal limitation of the consular power by Terentillus, (_lex + Terentilla_,) 460, which, after a long struggle, at last leads to the + idea of one common written code, 452, which is likewise realized in + spite of the opposition at first made by the patricians. + + # CHR. F. SCHULZE, _Struggle between the Democracy and Aristocracy + of Rome, or History of the Romans from the Expulsion of Tarquin to + the Election of the first Plebeian Consul_. Altenburgh, 1802, 8vo. + A most satisfactory development of this portion of Roman history. + +7. The code of the twelve tables confirmed the ancient institutions, and +was in part completed by the adoption of the laws of the Greek +republics, among which Athens in particular is mentioned, whose counsels +were requested by a special deputation. In this, however, two faults +were committed; not only were the commissioners charged with drawing up +the laws elected from the patricians _alone_, but they were likewise +constituted sole magistrates, with _dictatorial_ power, (_sine +provocatione_;) whereby a path was opened to them for an usurpation, +which could be frustrated only by a sedition of the people. + + Duration of the power of the Decemviri, 451-447. The doubts raised as + to the deputation sent to Athens are not sufficient to invalidate the + authenticity of an event so circumstantially detailed. Athens, under + Pericles, was then at the head of Greece; and, admitting the proposed + design of consulting the Greek laws, it was impossible that Athens + should have been passed over. And indeed, why should it be supposed, + that a state which fifty years before had signed a commercial treaty + with Carthage, and could not be unacquainted with the Grecian colonies + in Lower Italy, might not have sent an embassy into Greece? + + The yet remaining fragments of the code of the twelve tables are + collected and illustrated in BACHII _Hist. Jurisprudentiae Romanae_; and + in several other works. + +8. By the laws of the twelve tables the legal relations of the citizens +were the same for all; but as that code seems to have contained very +little in reference to any peculiar constitution of the state, the +government not only remained in the hands of the aristocrats, who were +in possession of all offices, but the prohibition, according to the new +laws of marriage between patricians and plebeians, appeared to have +raised an insurmountable barrier between the two classes. No wonder, +then, that the tribunes of the people should have immediately renewed +their attacks on the patricians; particularly as the power of those +popular leaders was not only renewed, but even augmented, as the only +limit to their authority was the necessity of their being unanimous in +their acts, while each had the right of a negative. + + Besides the other laws made in favour of the people at the renewal of + the _tribunicia potestas_, 446, that which imported _ut quod tributim + plebes jussisset, populum teneret_, frequently renewed in subsequent + times, and meaning, in modern language, that the citizens constituted + themselves, must, it would appear, have thrown the supreme power into + the hands of the people; did not the Roman history, like that of other + free states, afford examples enough of the little authority there is + to infer from the enactment of a law that it will be practically + enforced. + +9. The main subjects of the new dissensions between patricians and +plebeians, excited by the tribune Canuleius, were now the _connubia +patrum cum plebe_, and the exclusive participation of the patricians in +the consulship, of which the tribunes demanded the abolition. The repeal +of the former law was obtained as early as 445, (_lex Canuleia_;) the +right of admission to the consulship was not extended to the Plebeians, +till after a struggle annually renewed for eighty years; during which, +when, as usually was the case, the tribunes forbade the military +enrolment, recourse was had to a transfer of the consular power +to the yearly elected commanders of the legions; a place to which +plebeians were entitled to aspire, (_tribuni militum consulari +potestate._)--Establishment of the office of CENSORS, designed at first +for nothing more than to regulate the taking of the census, and invested +with no higher authority than what that required, but who soon after, by +assuming to themselves the _censura morum_, took rank among the most +important dignitaries of the state. + +10. Meanwhile Rome was engaged in wars, insignificant but almost +uninterrupted, arising out of the oppression, either real or imaginary, +which she exercised as head of the neighbouring federate cities, +(_socii_,) comprising not only those of the Latins, but likewise, after +the victory of lake Regillus, those of the other nations: the cities +embraced every opportunity of asserting their independence, and the +consequent struggles must have depopulated Rome, had not that evil been +diverted by the maxim of increasing the complement of citizens by +admitting the freedmen, and not unfrequently even the conquered, to the +enjoyment of civic privileges. Little as these feuds, abstractedly +considered, deserve our attention, they become of high interest, +inasmuch as they were not only the means by which the nation was trained +to war, but also led to the foundation of that senatorial power, whose +important consequences will be exhibited hereafter. + + Among these wars attention must be directed to the last, that against + Veii, the richest city in Etruria; the siege of that place, which + lasted very nearly ten years, 404-395, gave rise to the introduction + among the Roman military of winter campaigning, and of pay; thus, on + the one hand, the prosecution of wars more distant and protracted + became possible, while on the other the consequences must have been + the levy of higher taxes, (_tributa_). + +11. Not long after, however, a tempest from the north had nearly +destroyed Rome. The Sennonian Gauls, pressed out of northern Italy +through Etruria, possessed themselves of the city, the capitol excepted, +and reduced it to ashes; an event which made so deep an impression on +the minds of the Romans, that few other occurrences in their history +have been more frequently the object of traditional detail. Camillus, +then the deliverer of Rome, and in every respect one of the chief heroes +of that period, laid a double claim to the gratitude of his native city, +by overruling, after his victory, the proposal of a general migration to +Veii. + +12. Scarcely was Rome rebuilt ere the ancient feuds revived, springing +out of the poverty of the citizens, produced by an increase of taxation +consequent on the establishment of military pay, and by the introduction +of gross usury. The tribunes, Sextius and Licinius, by prolonging their +term of office to five years, had established their power; while +Licinius, by an agrarian law, decreeing that no individual should hold +more than five hundred _jugera_ of the national lands, had ensured the +popular favour; so that at last they succeeded in obtaining, that one of +the consuls should be chosen from the commons; and although the +nobility, by the nomination of a praetor from their own body, and of +_aediles curules_, endeavoured to compensate for the sacrifice they were +obliged to make, yet the plebeians having once made good a claim to the +consulship, their participation in the other magisterial offices, (the +dictatorship, 353, the censorship, 348, the praetorship, 334,) and even +the priesthood, (300,) quickly followed as a matter of course. Thus at +Rome the object of political equality between commons and nobles was +attained; and although the difference between the patrician and plebeian +families still subsisted, they soon ceased to form political parties. + + A second commercial treaty entered into with Carthage, 345, + demonstrates that even at this time the navy of the Romans was + anything but contemptible; although its principal object as yet was + mere piracy. Roman squadrons of war however appear more than once + within the next forty years. + +13. Far more important than any wars in which Rome had hitherto been +engaged, were those soon about to commence with the Samnites. In former +contests the object of Rome had been to establish her supremacy over her +immediate neighbours; but in these, during a protracted contest of fifty +years, she opened a way to the subjugation of Italy, and laid the +foundation of her future greatness. + + Commencement of the wars against the Samnites, the Campanians having + called the Romans to their assistance against that nation, 343. These + wars, carried on with vigorous exertion and various success, lasted, + with but short intermissions, till 290. This is the true heroic age of + Rome, ennobled by the patriotic valour of Decius Mus, (father and son, + both voluntary victims,) Papirius Cursor, Q. Fabius Maximus, etc. The + consequences of this struggle were: _a._ The Romans learnt the art of + mountain warfare, and thereby for the first time acquired a peculiar + system of military tactics; not, however, till they had been, 321, + obliged to pass under the _furcas Caudinas_. _b._ Their relations + were more firmly established with their neighbours the Latins and + Etrurians, by the complete conquest of the former, 340, and by + repeated victories over the latter, more especially in 308. _c._ Great + national federations having arisen in Italy, particularly during the + last period of the Samnite wars, the Romans entered into connection + with the more distant nations of the country; with the Lucanians and + Apulians, by the first league, 323, with the Umbri, from the year 308; + and although the nature of this connection frequently varied, the + different nations were perpetually struggling for independence, and + were consequently at enmity with Rome. In this period, moreover, + commenced the practical illustration of the leading ideas of Rome upon + the political relations in which she placed the conquered with regard + to herself. + +14. After the subjection of the Samnites, Rome, wishing to confirm her +dominion in Lower Italy, was thereby, for the first time, entangled in +war with a foreign prince; the Tarentines, too feeble to maintain alone +their footing against the Romans, called Pyrrhus of Epirus to their +assistance. He came, indeed, but not so much to further the views of the +Tarentines as to advance his own; but even in victory, he learnt by +experience that the Macedonian tactics gave him but a slight +preponderance, which the Romans soon transferred to their own side, +exhibiting the truth of the principle, that a good civic militia, sooner +or later, will always get the upper hand of mercenary troops. + + The idea of calling upon Pyrrhus for assistance was the more natural, + as the predecessor of that prince, Alexander I. (see above p. 275.) + had endeavoured, but without success, to effect conquests in Lower + Italy. In the first war with Pyrrhus, 280-278, two battles were + fought, the first at Pandosia, 280, the other at Asculum, 279; in both + of which Rome was unsuccessful. But Pyrrhus, after crossing over into + Sicily, 278, (see above, p. 173, 174.) once more returned into Italy, + 275, when he was defeated by the Romans at Beneventum, and compelled + to evacuate Italy, leaving a garrison at Tarentum. That city, however, + soon afterwards, 272, fell into the hands of the Romans, whose + dominion was consequently extended to the extremity of Lower Italy. + +15. The chief means to which, even from the earliest times, the Romans +had recourse for the foundation of their dominion over the conquered, +and at the same time for the prevention of the too great increase of the +needy classes at Rome, was the establishment of colonies of their own +citizens, which, being settled in the captured cities, served likewise +as garrisons. Each colony had its own distinct internal constitution, +modelled, for the most part, upon that of the mother city itself; hence +to keep the colonies in perfect dependence naturally became an object of +Roman policy. This colonial system of the Romans, necessarily and +spontaneously arising out of the rude custom of bereaving the conquered +of their lands and liberty, assumed its main features in the Samnite +war, and gradually embraced the whole of Italy. Closely connected with +this system was the construction of military highways, (_viae +militares_,) one of which, the Appian Way, was constructed so early as +312, and to this day remains a lasting monument of the greatness of Rome +at that period. + + Even at the time of Hannibal's invasion, the number of Roman colonies + amounted to 53: but several which had been settled returned to the + mother city. + + HEYNE, _De Romanorum prudentia in coloniis regendis_: inserted in + _Opusc._ vol. iii. Cf. _Prolusiones de veterum coloniarum jure ejusque + causis_, in his _Opusc._ vol. i. + +16. But the relations existing between Rome and the Italian nations +were extremely various in kind. 1. A few cities and nations enjoyed the +full privileges of Roman citizenship; in some instances, however, +without the right of voting in the _comitia_ (_municipia_). 2. The +privileges of the colonies (_jus coloniarum_) were of a more restricted +nature; the colonists were indeed in possession of their own civic +government, but had no further share whatever either in the _comitia_ or +magistracies of Rome. The other inhabitants of Italy were either +federates (_socii, foedere juncti_) or subjects (_dedititii_). The first +(_a_) preserved their internal form of government; but on the other hand +(_b_) were obliged to furnish tribute and auxiliary troops (_tributis et +armis juvare rempublicam_). Their further relation with Rome depended +upon the terms of the league. The most advantageous of these terms were +3. in favour of the Latins, although each of their cities had its own +separate league (_jus Latii_;) as 4. the rest of the Italian nations had +their _jus Italicum_. On the other hand, 5. the subjects, _dedititii_, +were deprived of their internal constitutions, and were governed by +Roman magistrates, (_praefecti_,) annually renewed. + + C. SIGONIUS, _De antiquo jure civium Romanorum_; and his treatise _De + antiquo jure Italiae_, inserted both in his _Opera_ and in GRAEVII + _Thes. Ant. Rom._ t. ii. contain the most learned researches on the + details of these relations. + +17. The internal constitution of Rome itself, now completed, bore the +character of a democracy, inasmuch as equality of rights existed both +for nobles and commons. Yet this democracy was modified by expedients so +various and wonderful--the rights of the people, of the senate, of the +magistrates, fitted so nicely into each other, and were so firmly +supported by the national religion, connecting every thing with +determinate forms--that there was no reason, at that time, to fear the +evils either of anarchy, or, what is much more astonishing when we +consider the warlike character of the people, those of military +despotism. + + The rights of the people consisted in the legislative power, so far as + fundamental national principles were concerned, and in the election of + the magistrates. The distinction between the _comitia tributa_ (as + independent of the senate) and the _comitia centuriata_ (as dependent + on the senate) still existed as to form, but had lost all its + importance, the difference between patricians and plebeians being now + merely nominal, and the establishment of the _tribus urbanae_, 303, + excluding the too great influence of the people (_forensis factio_) + upon the _comitia tributa_. The rights of the senate consisted in + administering and debating all transitory national affairs, whether + foreign relations, (war and peace only excepted, in which the consent + of the people was requisite,) financial concerns, or matters regarding + domestic peace and security. But the manner in which the senate was + supplied must have made it the first political body at that time in + the world. The rights and rank of magistrates were founded on their + greater or lesser _auspicia_, no public affair being entered upon + except _auspicato_. Consequently he only who was in possession of the + former could hold the highest civic and military power; (_imperium + civile et militare; suis auspiciis rem gerere_;) as dictator, consul, + praetor; such was not the case with those who had only the lesser + _auspicia_. The union of civil and military power in the person of the + same individual was not without its inconveniences, but military + despotism was in some measure guarded against by the prohibition of + any magistrate possessing military command within Rome itself. We must + not dismiss this subject without observing, that as the Roman + constitution arose merely out of practice, there never having been any + completely written charter, we cannot expect that all the details + should be clearly ascertained; to attempt, therefore, in default of + such authority, to describe all the minutiae would be the surest way to + fall into error. + + Of the numerous works on the Roman constitution and on Roman + antiquities, we shall mention: + + DE BEAUFORT, _La Republique Romaine, ou plan general de l'ancien + gouvernement de Rome_. La Haye, 1766, 2 vols. 4to. A most copious + work, and one of the most solid in regard to the matters discussed; + although it does not embrace the whole of the subject. + + _Histoire critique du gouvernement Romain_; Paris, 1765. Containing + some acute observations. + + _Du Gouvernement de la republique Romaine_, _par_ A. AD. DE TEXIER, 3 + vols. 8vo. Hamburg, 1796. This contains many enquiries peculiar to the + writer. + + Some learned researches respecting the principal points of the Roman + constitution, as SIGONIUS and GRUCHIUS _de comitiis Romanorum_, + ZAMOCIUS _de Senatu Romano_, etc. will be found collected in the first + two vols, of GRAEVIUS, _Antiq. Roman._ + + For the popular assemblies of the Romans, an antiquarian essay by Chr. + Ferd. Schulze, Gotha, 1815, chiefly according to Niebuhr, may be + consulted. + + Among the numerous manuals of Roman antiquities, NIEUPORT, _explicatio + rituum Romanorum, ed. Gesner_. Berol. 1743, promises at least as much + as it performs. Of those which profess to treat of Roman antiquities + in general, none have yet risen above mediocrity. Jurisprudence, + however, has been much more successfully handled. We cite the two + following excellent compendiums: + + BACHII, _Historia Jurisprudentiae Romanae_. Lips. 1754. 1796. + + # C. HUGO, _Elements of the Roman Law_; 7th edit. Berlin, 1820. + + + + +SECOND PERIOD. + +_From the commencement of the war with Carthage to the rise of the +civil broils under the Gracchi, B. C. 264-134. Year of Rome, 490-620._ + + + SOURCES. The principal writer for this highly interesting period, + in which was laid the foundation of the universal dominion of Rome, + is Polybius as far as the year 146, not only in the complete books + preserved to us, which come down to 216, but also in the fragments. + He is frequently followed by Livy, lib. xxi-xlv. 218-166. Appian, + who comes next, does not confine himself merely to the history of + the war; Florus gives us only an abridgement. The lives of Plutarch + which relate to this portion of history, are FABIUS MAXIMUS, P. + AEMILIUS, MARCELLUS, M. CATO, and FLAMINIUS. + + Of modern writers we dare only mention one:--and who is worthy to + be ranked beside him? + + MONTESQUIEU, _Considerations sur les causes de la grandeur et de la + decadence des Romains_. + +1. The political division of Italy laid the foundation for the dominion +of Rome in that country; the want of union and political relations in +the world paved the way to her universal empire. The first step cost her +much, the succeeding followed easily and rapidly; and the history of the +struggle between Rome and Carthage only shows on a larger scale what the +history of Greece exhibits on a smaller. The whole of the following +history confirms the fact, that two republics cannot exist near each +other, without one being destroyed or subjected: but the vast extent of +this struggle, the important consequences which followed, together with +the wonderful exertions made, and the great men engaged on both sides, +gave it an interest which cannot be found in that of any other nations. +Though the power and resources of both states were nearly equal in +appearance, they were widely different in quality and circumstances. +Carthage, besides her dominion over the seas, had also a better +furnished treasury, by which she was enabled to enlist into her service +as many _mercenaries_ as she pleased: Rome, on the contrary, _strong in +herself_, had all the advantages possessed by a nation of warriors over +one partly commercial, partly military. + +2. The first war of twenty-three years between the two republics, arose +from very slight causes: it soon, however, became a struggle for the +possession of Sicily, which in the end naturally extended itself to the +dominion of the sea. Rome, by the aid of her newly-built fleet, having +obtained for some time this power, was enabled to attack Africa, and +succeeded in driving the Carthaginians from Sicily. + + The occupation of Messina by the Romans, 264, gave rise to this + war. The defection of Hiero king of Syracuse from the side of + Carthage, and his joining the Romans, first gave the latter the + idea of expelling the Carthaginians from the island. The victory + near Agrigentum, and capture of that city in 262, seemed to + facilitate the execution of this project: it also convinced the + Romans of the necessity of their having a naval power. We shall the + less wonder at their forming a fleet in Italy, where wood was then + plentiful, if we remember their previous experience in naval + affairs; these were not the first vessels of war which they + constructed, but only the first large ones which they built upon a + Carthaginian model. The first naval victory of the Romans under + Duilius, by the aid of grappling machines, 260. The project then + conceived of carrying the war into Africa was one of the great + ideas of the Romans, and from that time it became a ruling maxim of + the state, to attack the enemy in his own territory. The second and + very remarkable naval victory of the Romans, 257, opened the way + for them to Africa, and shows their naval tactics in a very + brilliant light: but the unfortunate issue of their expedition to + Africa, restored the equilibrium; and the struggle for the dominion + of the sea became the more obstinate, as success did not altogether + favour one party. The result of the contest appears to have turned + upon the possession of the eastern promontories of Sicily, + Drepanum, and Lilybaeum, which were in a manner the bulwarks of the + Carthaginians, and seemed impregnable since Hamilcar Barca had + taken the command of them, 247. The last naval victory of the + Romans, however, under the consul Lutatius, 241, having cut off the + communication between Sicily and Carthage, and the finances of both + parties being completely exhausted, a peace was concluded upon the + conditions: 1. That the Carthaginians should evacuate Sicily and + the small islands adjacent. 2. That they should pay to Rome, by + instalments in ten years, for the expenses she had been at in + carrying on the war, the sum of 2,200 talents. 3. That they should + not make war against Hiero king of Syracuse. + +3. The issue of this war placed the political connections of Rome in a +new situation, and necessarily extended her influence abroad. The length +of the war and the manner of its conclusion had, moreover, inspired a +national hatred, such as is only found in republics; the conviction also +that they could not remain independent of one another, must have become +much more striking, as the points of contact had greatly increased since +the beginning of the war. Who does not know the arrogance of a republic +after the first essay of her power has been crowned with success! Rome +gave a striking example of this by her invasion of Sardinia in the midst +of peace. These successes had also a sensible effect on the Roman +constitution. For although in appearance its form was not in the least +changed, yet the power of the senate now acquired that preponderance +which the ruling authority of a republic never fails to do after long +and successful wars. + + Origin and nature of the governments of the first Roman provinces, + in part of Sicily and in Sardinia. + +4. An opportunity was soon afforded the Romans, in the Adriatic sea, of +making use of their superior naval power, in chastising the pirates of +Illyria under their queen Teuta. By effecting this, they not only +secured their authority over that sea, but at the same time formed their +first political relations with the Grecian states; relations which soon +afterwards became of great importance. + + Commencement of the first Illyrian war, 230, which ended with the + subjugation of Teuta, 226. The war, however, again broke out, 222, + against Demetrius of Pharus, who conceived himself inadequately + rewarded by Rome for the services he had rendered her in the + preceding war. The Romans found him a much more dangerous + adversary than had been expected, even after his expulsion and + flight to Philip, 220, (see above, p. 282.) Throughout this war, + Rome appeared as the deliverer of the Grecian states, which had + suffered extremely from the plunder of these freebooters; Corcyra, + Apollonia, and other cities placed themselves formally under her + protection, while the Achaeans, Aetolians, and Athenians vied with + each other in showing their gratitude. + +5. In the mean time, while Carthage endeavoured to make up for the loss +of Sicily and Sardinia by extending her Spanish dominions, which the +jealousy of Rome restrained her from carrying beyond the Ebro (p. 84.), +Rome herself had a new war to maintain against her northern neighbours +the Gauls, which ended after a violent contest with the establishment of +her authority over the north of Italy. + + From the first Gallic war to the burning of Rome, 390, the Gauls + had repeated their attacks in 360 and 348, even to the conclusion + of the peace in 336. But in the latter part of the Samnite war, a + formidable confederacy having taken place among the Italian + tribes, some of the Gauls enlisted as mercenaries in the service + of the Etruscans, while others allied themselves to the Samnites. + This led them to take part in these wars in 306, 302, and 292, + until they were obliged, together with the Etruscans, to sue for + peace in 284, before which time the Romans had sent a colony into + their country, near Sena. This peace lasted till 238, when it was + disturbed by the incursion of the transalpine Gauls; without, + however, their coming to any war with Rome. But in 232, the + proposition of Flaminius the tribune, (_lex Flaminia_), to divide + the lands conquered from the Senones, became the cause of new + disturbances. Upon this occasion, the Gauls entered into an + alliance with their transalpine countrymen, the Gaesates on the + Rhone, who had been accustomed to engage as mercenaries. These + having crossed the Alps, the dreadful war of six years (226-220) + began, in which, after defeating the Gauls near Clusium, 225, the + Romans pursued them into their own territory, and encamped upon + the Po, 223. The Gauls having been again completely overthrown by + Marcellus, were obliged to sue for peace; when the Roman colonies + of Placentia and Cremona were established. The number of men + capable of bearing arms in all Italy subject to the Romans during + this war amounted to 800,000. + +6. Before this storm was totally appeased, in which it is probable that +Carthaginian policy was not altogether inactive, Hannibal had obtained +the chief command in Spain. From the reproach of having first begun the +war, he and his party cannot be cleared; Rome, in the situation she then +was, could hardly desire it; he however who strikes the first blow is +not always the real aggressor. The plan of Hannibal was the destruction +of Rome; and by making Italy the principal seat of the war, he +necessarily turned the scale in his favour; because Rome, obliged to +defend herself, left to him all the advantages of attack. The +preparations she made for defence, show that it was not believed +possible he could execute his enterprise by the route which he took. + + The history of this war, 218-201, of which no later transaction + has been able to destroy the interest, is divided into three + parts: the history of the war in Italy; the contemporary war in + Spain; and from 203, the war in Africa. Hannibal's invasion of + Italy in the autumn, 218--engagement near the river Ticinus and + the battle of Trebia, in the same year. Battle near the lake + Thrasymenus in the spring, 217. Seat of the war transferred to + Lower Italy, and the defensive system of the dictator Fabius until + the end of the year. Battle of Cannae, 216, followed by the + conquest of Capua and the subjection of the greater part of Lower + Italy. The defensive mode of warfare afterwards adopted by the + Carthaginian, arose partly from his desire to form a junction with + his brother Asdrubal and the Spanish army, and partly from his + expectation of foreign support by means of alliances, with + Syracuse, after the death of Hiero, 215, and with Philip of + Macedon, 216. These hopes, however, were frustrated by the + Romans.--Syracuse was besieged and taken, 214-212, (see above, p. + 174.) and Philip kept employed in Greece, (see above, p. 282.) In + addition to this, the Romans retook Capua, notwithstanding the + audacious march of Hannibal towards Rome, 211, and he had now no + succour left except the reinforcement which Asdrubal was bringing + from Spain. The latter, however, was attacked immediately upon his + arrival in Italy, near Sena, by the consuls Nero and Livius, and + left dead on the field, 207. From this time the war in Italy + became only of secondary importance, as Hannibal was obliged to + act on the defensive in Bruttium. + + _The Course of Hannibal over the Alps ascertained_, by J. + WHITTAKER. London, 1794, 2 vols. 8vo. The author endeavours to + prove that the passage of Hannibal was over the great St. Bernard, + and criticises the opinions of other writers. + + [We may likewise mention the learned treatise:-- + + _A Dissertation on the Passage of Hannibal over the Alps._ By H. + L. WICKHAM, M. A. and the Rev. J. A. CRAMER, M. A. second edition, + Oxon.] + + The war in Spain began nearly about the same time between Asdrubal + and the two brothers, Cn. and P. Cornelius Scipio, and was + continued, with various success, till the year 216, the issue + depending much upon the disposition of the Spaniards themselves. + The plan of Carthage after the year 216, was to send Asdrubal with + the Spanish army into Italy, and to supply its place by an army + from Africa; two victories, however, gained by the Scipios near + the Ebro, 216, and the Illiberis, 215, prevented this from being + effected, till at last both fell under the superior power and + cunning of the Carthaginians, 212. But the arrival of the youthful + P. Cornelius Scipio, who did not appear merely to his own nation + as an extraordinary genius, entirely changed the face of affairs, + and the fortunes of Rome soon became attached to his name, which + alone seemed to promise victory. During his command in Spain, + 210-206, he won over the inhabitants while he defeated the + Carthaginians, and for the furtherance of his great design, + contracted an alliance with Syphax in Africa, 206. He was unable, + however, to prevent the march of Asdrubal into Italy, 208, which + nevertheless rendered it an easy task for him to subdue all + Carthaginian Spain as far as Gades, 206, and thus procured him the + consular dignity at his return, 205. + + The carrying of the war into Africa by Scipio, notwithstanding the + opposition of the old Roman generals, and the desertion of Syphax, + who at the persuasion of Sophonisba again went over to the + Carthaginians (whose loss however was well repaid by Masinissa, + whom Scipio had won over to his side in Spain), was followed by an + important consequence; for after he had gained two victories over + Asdrubal and Syphax, 203, and taken the latter prisoner, the + Carthaginians found it necessary to recall Hannibal from Italy, + 202; and the battle of Zama terminated the war, 201. The following + were the conditions of peace: 1. That the Carthaginians should + only retain the territory in Africa annexed to their government. + 2. That they should give up all their ships of war, except ten + triremes, and all their elephants. 3. That they should pay, at + times specified, 10,000 talents. 4. That they should commence no + war without the consent of Rome. 5. That they should restore to + Masinissa all the houses, cities, and lands that had ever been + possessed by himself or his ancestors.--The reproach usually cast + upon the Carthaginians, of having left Hannibal unsupported in + Italy, in a great measure vanishes, if we remember the plan formed + in 216, to send the Spanish army into Italy, and to replace it by + an African one: a plan formed with much ability, and followed with + as much constancy. We may add to this, that the Barcine faction + maintained its influence in the government even to the end of the + war. But why they, who by the treaty of peace gave up five hundred + vessels of war, suffered Scipio to cross over from Sicily, without + sending one to oppose him, is difficult to explain. + +7. Notwithstanding her great loss of men, and the devastation of Italy, +Rome felt herself much more powerful at the end of this war than at the +beginning. Her dominion was not only established over Italy, but +extensive foreign countries had been brought under it; her authority +over the seas was rendered secure by the destruction of the naval power +of the Carthaginians. The Roman _form_ of government, it is true, +underwent no change, but its _spirit_ much, as the power of the senate +became almost unlimited; and although the dawn of civilization had +broken over Rome, since her intercourse with more civilized foreigners, +the state still remained altogether a nation of warriors. And now, for +the first time, appears in the page of history the fearful phenomenon of +a great military republic; and the history of the next ten years, in +which Rome overthrew so many thrones and free states, gives a striking +proof, that such a power is the natural enemy to the independence of all +the states within the reach of her arms. The causes which led Rome from +this time to aspire after the dominion of the world are to be found +neither in her geographical situation, which for a conquering power by +land seemed rather unfavourable; nor in the inclination of the people, +who were opposed to the first war against Philip; but singly and +entirely in the spirit of her government. The means, however, whereby +she obtained her end, must not be sought for merely in the excellence of +her armies and generals, but rather in that uniform, sharp-sighted, and +dexterous policy, by which she was enabled to frustrate the powerful +alliances formed against her, notwithstanding the many adversaries who +at that time sought to form new ones. But where could be found such +another council of state, embodying such a mass of practical political +wisdom, as the Roman senate must have been from the very nature of its +organization? All this, however, would not have been sufficient to have +subjugated the world, if the want of good government, the degeneracy of +the military art, and an extremely corrupt state of morals among both +rulers and people, in foreign states, had not seconded the efforts of +Rome. + + View of the political state of the world at this period. In the + west, Sicily (the whole island after 212), Sardinia, and Corsica, + from the year 237, and Spain, divided into citerior and ulterior + (the latter rather in name than in fact), had become Roman + provinces 206; the independence of Carthage had been destroyed by + the last peace, and her subordination secured by the alliance of + Rome with Masinissa; Cisalpine Gaul, formed into a province, + served as a barrier against the inroads of the more northern + barbarians. On the other side, in the east, the kingdom of + Macedonia, and the free states of Greece, forming together a very + complicated system, had opened a connection with Rome since the + Illyrian war, 230, and Philip's alliance with Hannibal, 214. Of + the three powers of the first rank, Macedonia, Syria, and Egypt, + the two former were allied against the latter, who, on her part, + maintained a good understanding with Rome. The states of secondary + rank were, those of the Aetolian league, the kings of Pergamus, and + the republic of Rhodes, with some smaller, such as Athens: these + had allied themselves to Rome since the confederacy against + Philip, 211. The Achaean league, on the contrary, was in the + interests of Macedonia, which Rome always endeavoured to attach to + herself, in order to make head against those of the first rank. + +8. A declaration of war against Philip, notwithstanding the opposition +of the tribunes of the people, and an attack upon Macedonia itself, +according to the constant maxim of carrying the war into the enemy's +country, immediately followed. They could not, however, drive Philip so +soon from the fastnesses of Epirus and Thessaly, which were his +bulwarks. But Rome possessed in T. Quintius Flaminius, who marched +against Philip as the deliverer of Greece, a statesman and general +exactly fitted for a period of great revolutions. By the permanency of +his political influence he became indeed the true founder of the Roman +power in the east. Who could better cajole men and nations, while they +were erecting altars to him, than T. Quintius? So artfully indeed did he +assume the character of a great genius, such as had been given by nature +to Scipio, that he has almost deceived history itself. The struggle +between him and Philip consisted rather in a display of talents in +political stratagem and finesse than in feats of arms: even before the +battle of Cynoscephalae had given the finishing stroke, the Romans had +already turned the balance in their favour, by gaining over the Achaean +league. + + The negotiations between Rome and Macedonia, from the year 214, + give the first striking examples of the ability and address of the + Romans in foreign policy; and they are the more remarkable, as the + treaty with the Aetolians and others, 211 (see above, p. 283), was + the remote cause of the transactions which afterwards took place + in the east. The peculiar system adopted by the Romans, of taking + the lesser states under their protection as allies, must always + have given them an opportunity of making war on the more powerful + whenever they chose. This in fact happened in the present case, + notwithstanding the peace concluded with Philip, 204. The chief + object of the Romans in this war, both by sea and land, was to + drive Philip completely out of Greece. The allies on both sides, + and the conditions of peace, were similar to those concluded with + Carthage (see above, p. 284). The destruction of the naval power + of her conquered enemies became now a maxim of Roman policy in + making peace; and she thus maintained the dominion of the seas + without any great fleet, and without losing the essential + character of a dominant power by land. + +9. The expulsion of Philip from Greece brought that country into a state +of dependence upon Rome; an event which could not have been better +secured than by the present of liberty which T. Quintius conferred upon +its inhabitants at the Isthmian games. The system of surveillance, which +the Romans had already established in the west over Carthage and +Numidia, was now adopted in the east over Greece and Macedonia. Roman +commissioners, under the name of ambassadors, were sent into the country +of the nations in alliance, and were the principal means by which this +system of espionage was carried on. These however did not fail to give +umbrage to the Greeks, particularly to the turbulent Aetolians; more +especially as the Romans seemed in no hurry to withdraw their troops +from a country which they had declared to be free. + + Liberty was expressly granted to the state which had taken the + part of Philip, namely, to the Achaeans; to the others it was + naturally understood to belong. It was nevertheless three years, + 194, before the Roman army evacuated Greece and withdrew from the + fortified places. The conduct of T. Quintius during this period + fully shows what he was. The Greeks indeed had much want of such a + guardian if they wished to remain quiet: his conduct, however, in + the war against Nabis, 195, shows that he had not really at heart + the tranquillity of Greece. + +10. The treaty of peace with Philip contained the seeds of a new and +greater war with Syria; but though this seemed inevitable at that time, +it did not break out till six years afterwards; and in but few periods +of the history of the world is so great a political crisis to be found, +as in this short interval. The fall of Carthage and Macedonia had shown +the rest of the world what it had to expect from Rome; and there was no +lack of great men sufficiently endowed with courage and talents to +resist her. The danger of a formidable league between Carthage, Syria, +and perhaps Macedonia, was never so much to be feared, as when Hannibal, +now at the head of affairs, laboured to effect it with all the zeal +which his hatred of Rome could inspire; and they might calculate with +certainty beforehand on the accession of many smaller states. Rome, +however, by her equally decided and artful policy procured Hannibal's +banishment from Carthage, amused Philip by granting him some trifling +advantages, and gained over the smaller states by her ambassadors. By +these means, and by taking advantage of the intrigues in the court of +Syria, she prevented this coalition from being formed. Antiochus was +therefore left without assistance in Greece, except from the Aetolians, +and a few other unimportant allies; while Rome drew from hers, +especially the Rhodians and Eumenes, advantages of the greatest +consequence. + + The first cause of contention between Rome and Antiochus was the + liberty of Greece, which the former wished to extend to the + Grecian cities of Asia, and to those in particular which had + belonged to Philip, and afterwards to Antiochus; while the latter + contended, that Rome had no right to intermeddle with the affairs + of Asia. The second cause of dispute was the occupation of the + Thracian Chersonesus by Antiochus, 196, in right of some ancient + pretensions; and Rome, on her part, would not tolerate him in + Europe. This quarrel therefore commenced as early as 196, but did + not become serious till the year 105, when in consequence of + Hannibal's flight to Antiochus, together with the turbulence and + excitement of the Aetolians, whose object it was to embroil the + rival powers, the political horizon was completely overcast. What + a fortunate thing it was for Rome that such men as Hannibal and + Antiochus could not understand each other! + + HEYNE, _de foederum ad Romanorum opes imminuendas initorum eventis + eorumque causis; in Opusc._ vol. iii. + +11. This war was much sooner brought to a termination than the +Macedonian, owing to the half-measures adopted by Antiochus. After +having been driven from Greece by Glabrio, and after two naval victories +had opened to the Romans the way to Asia, he felt inclined to act on the +defensive; but in the battle near Magnesia at the foot of Mount Sipylus, +L. Scipio gathered the laurels which more properly belonged to Glabrio. +The total expulsion of Antiochus from Asia Minor, even before this +victory, had been the chief object of the war. The conditions of peace +(see above, p. 284.) were such, as not only weakened Antiochus, but +reduced him to a state of dependence. + + During this contest in the east, a sanguinary war was going on in + the west; from the year 201 in Spain, where the elder Cato + commanded; and from 193 in Italy itself, against the Ligurians. + Whatever may be said upon the means made use of by Rome to + increase the number of her citizens, it will always be difficult + to comprehend, not only how she could support all these wars + without being thereby weakened, but how at the same time she could + found so many colonies! + +12. Even after the termination of this war, Rome refrained with +astonishing moderation from appearing in the light of a conqueror: it +was only for the liberty of Greece, and for her allies, that she had +contended! Without keeping a foot of land for herself, she divided, with +the exception of the free Grecian cities, the conquered Asia Minor +between Eumenes and the Rhodians; the manner, however, in which she +dealt with the Aetolians, who after a long supplication for peace were +obliged to buy it dearly, shows that she also knew how to treat +unfaithful allies. The war against the Gauls in Asia Minor was not less +necessary for the preservation of tranquillity in that country, than it +was injurious to the morals and military discipline of the Roman army. +They here learned to levy contributions. + +13. Thus, within the short space of ten years, was laid the foundation +of the Roman authority in the east, and the general state of affairs +entirely changed. If Rome was not yet the ruler, she was at least the +arbitress of the world from the Atlantic to the Euphrates. The power of +the three principal states was so completely humbled, that they durst +not, without the permission of Rome, begin any new war; the fourth, +Egypt, had already, in the year 201, placed herself under the +guardianship of Rome; and the lesser powers followed of themselves: +esteeming it an honour to be called the _allies of Rome_. With this name +the nations were lulled into security, and brought under the Roman yoke; +the new political system of Rome was founded and strengthened, partly by +exciting and supporting the weaker states against the stronger, however +unjust the cause of the former might be, and partly by factions which +she found means to raise in every state, even the smallest. + + Although the policy of Rome extended itself everywhere by means of + her commissioners, or ambassadors, yet she kept a more particular + guard against Carthage by favouring Masinissa at her expense, + against the Achaean league by favouring the Spartans, and against + Philip of Macedon by favouring every one who brought any complaint + against him (see above, p. 285). + +14. Although these new connections and this intercourse with foreign +nations greatly aided the diffusion of knowledge and science, and was +followed by a gradual improvement in her civilization, yet was it +nevertheless, in many respects, detrimental to the internal state of +Rome. The introduction of the scandalous Bacchanalia, which were +immediately discovered and forbidden, shows how easily great vices may +creep in among a people who are only indebted for their morality to +their ignorance. Among the higher classes also the spirit of intrigue +manifested itself to an astonishing degree; particularly by the attacks +directed against the Scipios by the elder Cato, whose restless activity +became the instrument of his malignant passions. The severity of his +censorship did not repair the evils caused by his immorality and +pernicious politics. + + Voluntary exile of Scipio Africanus to Linternum, 187. He dies + there, 183, the same year in which Hannibal falls under the + continued persecution of Rome. His brother Scipio Asiaticus is + also unable to escape a trial and condemnation, 185. One would + have expected a sensible effect from the exile of these two great + men; but, in a state where the ruling power is in the hands of a + body like what the Roman senate was, the change of individuals is + but of little consequence. + +15. Fresh disputes arose, as early as 185, with Philip of Macedon, who +soon found that they had spared him no longer than it suited their own +convenience. Although the intervention of Philip's youngest son, upon +whom the Romans had formed some design, prevented the powers from coming +to an immediate rupture, and war was still further delayed by Philip's +death, yet the national hatred descended to his successor, and continued +to increase, notwithstanding an alliance concluded with him, until the +war openly broke out (see above, p. 287). + + The first circumstance which gave umbrage to Philip was the small + portion they permitted him to conquer in Athamania and Thessaly + during the war against Antiochus. But what sharpened his + animosity, much more than the object in dispute, was the conduct + of the Roman commissioners, before whom he, the king, was called + upon to defend himself as an accused party, 184. The exclamation + of Philip, that "the sun of every day had not yet set," showed his + indignation, and at the same time betrayed his intention. The + interval previous to the breaking out of the war was anything + rather than a time of peace for Rome; for besides that the Spanish + and Ligurian wars continued almost without intermission, the + revolts which broke out in Istria, 178, and in Sardinia and + Corsica, 176, produced much bloodshed. + +16. In the second Macedonian war, which ended with the destruction of +Perseus and his kingdom (see above, p. 288), it required the active +efforts of Roman policy to prevent a powerful confederacy from being +formed against her; as Perseus used all his endeavours to stimulate, not +only the Grecian states, and Thrace and Illyria, but also Carthage and +Asia, to enter into alliance with him. Where was it that Rome did not at +this crisis send her ambassadors? She did not, indeed, succeed so far as +to leave her enemy quite alone, but prepared new triumphs for herself +over the few allies she left him. The devastated Epirus, and Gentius +king of Illyria, suffered dearly for the assistance they had lent him; +the states also which had remained neuter, the Rhodians and Eumenes, +were made to feel severely that they were the mere creatures of Rome. + + Beginning of the Macedonian war, 171, before Rome was prepared; a + deceitful truce, which raised the indignation even of the elder + senators, was the means resorted to for gaining time. + Notwithstanding this, the war at first, 170 and 169, was + favourable to Perseus; but he wanted resolution and judgment to + enable him to turn his advantages to account. In 168, Paulus + Aemilius, an old general, against the usual custom of the Romans, + took the command. Bloody and decisive battle near Pydna, June 22, + 168. So completely may one day overturn a kingdom which has only + an army for its support! Contemporary with this war, and highly + fortunate for Rome, was the war of Antiochus Epiphanes with Egypt. + No wonder that Rome did not, till 168, through Popilius, command + peace between them! (See above, p. 261.) + +17. The destruction of the Macedonian monarchy was attended with +consequences equally disastrous to the conquerors and the conquered. To +the first it soon gave the notion of becoming the masters of the world, +instead of its arbiters; and it exposed the latter, for the next twenty +years, to all the evils inseparable from such a catastrophe. The system +of politics hitherto pursued by Rome could not last much longer; for if +nations suffered themselves to be brought under the yoke by force, it +was not to be expected that they would long be held in dependence under +the specious name of liberty. But the state of things after this war was +such as contributed to hasten a change in the form of the relations +which existed between Rome and her allies. + + The republican constitution given to the already ruined and + devastated Macedonians (see above, p. 288.) and Illyrians, and + which, according to the decree of the senate, "showed to all + people that Rome was ready to bestow liberty upon them," was + granted upon such hard conditions, that the enfranchised nation + soon used every endeavour to procure themselves a king. Greece + however suffered still more than Macedonia. Here, during the war, + the spirit of faction had risen to the highest pitch; and the + arrogant insolence of the Roman party, composed for the most part + of venal wretches, was so great, that they persecuted not only + those who had espoused an opposite faction, but even those who had + joined no faction at all. Rome nevertheless could not believe + herself secure, until she had destroyed, by a cruel artifice, all + her adversaries (see above, p. 288). + +18. Entirely in the same spirit did Rome proceed against the other +states from whom she had anything to fear. These must be rendered +defenceless; and every means of effecting that purpose was considered +justifiable by the senate. The quarrels between the successors to the +throne of Egypt were taken advantage of to cause dissensions in that +kingdom (see above, p. 260); while Syria was retained in a state of +tutelage, by keeping the rightful heir to the throne at Rome; and its +military power neutralized by means of their ambassadors (see above, p. +243). + +19. From these facts we may also conclude, that the injuries now +meditated against Carthage were not separate projects, but rather formed +part of the general system of Roman policy at this period, although +particular events at one time retarded their execution, and at another +hastened it. History, in recounting the incredibly bad treatment which +Carthage had to endure before her fall, seems to have given a warning to +those nations who can take it, of what they may expect from the +domination of a powerful republic. + + Cato was chief of the party which sought the destruction of + Carthage, both from a spirit of envy against Scipio Nasica, whom + he hated for his great influence in the senate; and because, when + ambassador to Carthage, he thought they did not treat him with + sufficient respect. But Masinissa's victory, 152 (see above, p. + 88), and the defection of Utica, brought this project into + immediate play. Beginning of the war, 150, the Carthaginians + having been previously inveigled out of their arms. The city, + however, was not captured and destroyed till 146, by P. Scipio + Aemilianus. The Carthaginian territory, under the name of Africa, + was then made a Roman province. + +20. During this third war with Carthage, hostilities again broke out in +Macedonia, which brought on a new war with Greece, and entirely changed +the state of both these countries. In Macedonia, an impostor named +Andriscus, who pretended to be the son of Philip, placed himself at the +head of that highly disaffected people, assumed the name of Philip, and +became, particularly by an alliance with the Thracians, very formidable +to the Romans, until overcome by Metellus. Rome wishing to take +advantage of this crisis to dissolve the Achaean league, the Achaean war +broke out (see above, p. 289). This war was begun by Metellus, and +terminated by Mummius with the destruction of Corinth. By reducing both +Macedonia and Greece to the form of provinces, Rome now gave evident +proof that no existing relations, nor any form of government, can +prevent nations from being subjugated by a warlike republic, whenever +circumstances render it possible. + + It might have been expected, that the destruction of the two first + commercial cities in the world, in the same year, would have been + followed by important consequences to the course of trade; but the + trade of Carthage and Corinth had already been drawn to Alexandria + and Rhodes, otherwise Utica might, in some respects, have supplied + the place of Carthage. + +21. While Rome was thus destroying thrones and republics, she met in +Spain with an antagonist--a simple Spanish countryman named +Viriathus--whom, after six years' war, she could only rid herself of by +assassination. The war, nevertheless, continued after his death against +the Numantines, who would not be subjected, but were at last destroyed +by Scipio Aemilianus. + + The war against the Spaniards, who of all the nations subdued by + the Romans defended their liberty with the greatest obstinacy, + began in the year 200, six years after the total expulsion of the + Carthaginians from their country, 206. It was exceedingly + obstinate, partly from the natural state of the country, which was + thickly populated, and where every place became a fortress; partly + from the courage of the inhabitants; but above all, owing to the + peculiar policy of the Romans, who were wont to employ their + allies to subdue other nations. This war continued, almost without + interruption, from the year 200 to 133, and was for the most part + carried on at the same time in Hispania Citerior, where the + Celtiberi were the most formidable adversaries, and in Hispania + Ulterior, where the Lusitani were equally powerful. Hostilities + were at the highest pitch in 195, under Cato, who reduced + Hispania Citerior to a state of tranquillity 185-179, when the + Celtiberi were attacked in their native territory; and 155-150, + when the Romans in both provinces were so often beaten, that + nothing was more dreaded by the soldiers at home than to be sent + there. The extortions and perfidy of Servius Galba placed + Viriathus, in the year 146, at the head of his nation, the + Lusitani: the war, however, soon extended itself to Hispania + Citerior, where many nations, particularly the Numantines, took up + arms against Rome, 143. Viriathus, sometimes victorious and + sometimes defeated, was never more formidable than in the moment + of defeat; because he knew how to take advantage of his knowledge + of the country, and of the dispositions of his countrymen. After + his murder, caused by the treachery of Caepio, 140, Lusitania was + subdued; but the Numantine war became still more violent, and the + Numantines compelled the consul Mancinus to a disadvantageous + treaty, 137. When Scipio, in the year 133, put an end to this war, + Spain was certainly tranquil; the northern parts, however, were + still unsubdued, though the Romans penetrated as far as Galatia. + +22. Towards the end of this period, the Romans obtained at a much +cheaper rate the possession of one of their most important provinces; +for the profligate Attalus III. king of Pergamus, bequeathing them the +whole of his kingdom (on what account is uncertain, see above, p. 292.), +they immediately took possession of it, and kept in spite of the +resistance of the legitimate heir Aristonicus, merely ceding, as a +recompense, Phrygia to Mithridates V. king of Pontus. Thus, by a stroke +of the pen, the largest and finest part of Asia Minor became the +property of Rome. If this extraordinary legacy was the work of Roman +policy, she paid dearly enough, in the long run, for this accession to +her power and riches, by the destruction of her morals, and the dreadful +wars to which this legacy gave rise under Mithridates. + +23. The foreign possessions of Rome, besides Italy, comprised at this +time under the name of provinces, a name of much higher signification in +the Latin language than in any other, Hispania Citerior and Ulterior, +Africa (the territory of Carthage), Sicily, Sardinia and Corsica, +Liguria, and Cisalpine Gaul, in the west; and in the east, Macedonia, +Achaia, and Asia (territory of Pergamus). The inhabitants of these +countries were entirely subject to Rome. The administration of them was +carried on by those who had enjoyed the office of consul, and by +praetors, subordinate to whom were the quaestors, or collectors of the +revenue. The highest military and civil powers were united in these +governors; a principal cause of that horrible oppression which was soon +felt. Troops were always kept up in the provinces; and the Latin +language everywhere introduced (except only where Greek was spoken), +that the inhabitants might be made as much like Romans as possible. + + Till nearly the end of this period, praetors were expressly + appointed to each province. It was not till after the origin of + the _quaestiones perpetuae_, that it became the custom for the + praetors who had vacated office, to succeed to the provinces + (_propraetores_), a principal cause of the degeneracy of the Roman + constitution. + + C. SIGONIUS, _de Antiquo jure provinciarum in Graevii Thes. Antiq. + Rom._ vol. ii. + +24. The acquisition of these rich countries naturally had great +influence in augmenting the revenue of the Romans. Though Rome was not +indeed a state, like Carthage, altogether dependent upon finances, yet +she kept these adjusted in a wonderful manner; a spirit of nice order +being observed in this as well as in every other department of her +administration. If in extraordinary emergencies recourse were had to +native loans, to a change in the value of money, or a monopoly of salt, +order was soon restored; while the booty obtained from conquered +countries was also a great source of the public income so long indeed as +it was reserved for the state, and did not become the prey of the +generals. + + Sources of the Roman revenue (_vectigalia_) were: 1. Tribute _a._ + from the Roman citizens; that is to say, a property-tax imposed by + the senate according to the urgency of the case (which, however, + was remitted, for a long time, after the war with Perseus, 168, + being no longer necessary). _b._ Tribute of the allies (_socii_) + in Italy: which seems also to have been a property-tax; differing + in different places. _c._ Tribute of the provinces: in some a + heavy poll-tax, in others taxes on property; in all, however, they + were paid in natural productions, mostly ordinary, though + sometimes extraordinary, as well for the salary of the governor as + for the supply of the capital. 2. The revenue from the national + domains (_ager publicus_), both in Italy (especially Campania) and + in the provinces; the tythes (_decumae_) of which were paid by + means of leases for four years, granted by the censors. 3. The + revenue from the customs (_portoria_), collected in the seaports + and frontier towns. 4. The revenue arising from the mines + (_metalla_), particularly the Spanish silver mines; the + proprietors of which were obliged to pay a duty to the state. 5. + The duty upon enfranchised slaves (_aurum vicesimarium_). All + receipts flowed into the national treasury, the _aerarium_; all + outgoings were exclusively ordered by the senate; and the people + were consulted as little with regard to them as they were + respecting the imposts. The officers employed were the + _quaestores_, under whom were the _scribae_, divided into + _decurias_, who, though certainly subordinate, had nevertheless + great influence. Their services, as they were not yearly changed, + must have been indispensable to the _quaestores_ for the time + being; and the whole management of affairs, at least in detail, + must have fallen into their hands. + + Upon the finances of Rome, the best work at present is:-- + + P. BURMANNI, _Vectigalia Populi Romani_. Leyden, 1734, 4to. + + Two excellent treatises have since appeared in German upon this + subject:-- + + # D. H. HEGEWISCH, _Essay upon Roman Finances_. Antona, 1804, and + + # R. BOSSE, _Sketch of the System of Finance in the Roman State_. + Brunswick, 1803, 2 parts. Both include the periods of the republic + and the monarchy. + + + + +THIRD PERIOD. + +_From the beginning of the civil broils under the Gracchi, to the fall +of the republic. B. C. 134-30. Year of Rome, 620-724._ + + + SOURCES. Concerning the first half of this important period of the + republic, down to the time of Cicero, we are sadly in want of precise + information. Not one of the contemporary writers has been preserved to + us, nor indeed any one of the later historians who have compiled a + history of the whole period. APPIAN, _de Bellis Civilibus_; PLUTARCH, + in his _Lives of the Gracchi_; and the spirited _Compendium_ of VEL. + PATERCULUS, are, for this portion, our principal authorities; and even + the imperfect summaries of the lost books of Livy, so masterly + supplied by Freinshemius here become of importance. For the times + which follow, the _Jugurtha_ and _Cataline_ of Sallust, are two + excellent historical cabinet pieces, and become the more valuable for + the insight they at the same time give us of the internal condition of + Rome. His great work, however, _The Histories_, is, with the exception + of a few precious fragments, unfortunately lost. For the times of + CAESAR and CICERO, we have the _Commentaries_ of the first, and the + _Orations_ and _Letters_ of the latter; both fertile sources of + information. What is left us of DIO CASSIUS'S _History_, begins with + the year 69 before Christ. Of PLUTARCH'S _Lives_, besides those of + the Gracchi, the following are connected with this period: C. MARIUS, + SYLLA, LUCULLUS, CRASSUS, SERTORIUS, CATO OF UTICA, CICERO, BRUTUS, + and ANTONIUS. Upon the sources for these lives, see my treatises cited + above, p. 321. + + Among the moderns, the greater part of this period is particularly + treated of by:-- + + DE BROSSES, _Histoire de la Republique Romaine dans le cours du VIIe + Siecle par Salluste_, a Dijou, 1777, 3 vols. 4to. + + In German by J. C. SCHLEUTER, 1790, etc. with remarks, 4 vols. The + editor of this capital work had an idea of translating Sallust, and + supplying what is lost. It contains, besides a translation of Jugurtha + and Cataline, the period between both, of which Sallust treats in his + _Histories_: that is, from Sylla's abdication, B. C. 79-67; and is + equally important for its own merits and for the period to which it + belongs. + + VERTOT, _Histoire des revolutions arrivees dans le gouvernement de la + Republique Romaine_. Paris, 1796, 6 vols. 12mo. Although this justly + esteemed work includes the foregoing period, it is particularly + valuable for the present. + + MABLY, _Observations sur les Romains_. Geneve, 1751, 2 vols. 8vo. A + survey of the internal history; ingenious, but as superficial as the + _Observations sur les Grecs_ by the same author. + +1. The foregoing period is composed of the history of foreign wars +alone; in this, on the contrary, Rome appears in a continual state of +internal commotion. And if foreign hostilities interrupt this state of +things for a short time, it is only that it may be renewed with more +violence, till at last it ends in a furious civil war. As the almost +boundless power of the senate had laid the foundation of an exceedingly +hateful family aristocracy, against which the tribunes of the people +arrayed themselves, in the character of powerful demagogues, there arose +a new struggle between the aristocratic and democratic parties, which +almost immediately grew into two powerful factions. This contest, from +its extent and its consequences, soon became much more important than +the ancient one between the patricians and the plebeians. + + This family aristocracy gradually arose from the power of the + magistrates, who now not only enjoyed a very high political + importance, but, by the government of the provinces, acquired immense + wealth. The present aristocracy, then, consisted of the ruling + families (_nobiles_) concentrated in the senate. The struggle with the + opposite party, the people (_plebs_), became so much the more violent + in consequence of the great abuses which had crept into the + administration, particularly in the division of the lands of the + republic; the ruling families securing to themselves the fruits of all + the victories and conquests, while the power of the democracy, by the + vast accumulation of people (without the means of livelihood, although + voting in the _comitia_), especially of enfranchised slaves, who, + though strangers, mostly without power or property, formed, + nevertheless, the greater part of what was then called the Roman + people. + + G. AL. RUPERTI, _Stemmata gentium Romanarum_. Goett. 1795, 8vo. Almost + indispensable for obtaining a clear insight into the history of the + Roman families, and of course into that of the state. + +2. Commencement of the disturbances under the tribunate of Tib. +Sempronius Gracchus, whom former connections had long made the man of +the people. His desire was to relieve the distress of the lower orders; +and the means whereby he hoped to do this was a better division of the +lands of the republic, now almost exclusively in the hands of the +aristocracy. His reform, therefore, naturally led at once to a struggle +with that party. Tib. Gracchus however soon found, by experience, that a +demagogue cannot stop where he would, however pure his intentions may be +at first; and no sooner had he obtained a prolongation of his term of +office, in opposition to the usual custom, than he fell a sacrifice to +his undertaking. + + The first agrarian law of Gracchus was confirmed by the people, + notwithstanding the fruitless opposition of his colleague Octavius, + who was deposed; it decreed, that no person should possess above five + hundred acres of land, nor any child above half that quantity. This + law was, in fact, only a renewal of the ancient _lex Licinia_; in the + condition, however, in which Rome now was, it bore much harder upon + the property usurped by the great families, than it did in former + times. Appointment of a committee for dividing the national lands, and + for enquiring also at the same time which were the property of the + state (_ager publicus_) and which were not. New popular propositions + of the elder Gracchus, especially that for the division of the + treasures left by king Attalus of Pergamus, with the view of securing + his continuance in office; great insurrection of the aristocratic + party under Scipio Nasica, and murder of Tiberius Gracchus, on the day + of electing the new tribunes of the people. + +3. The fall of the chief of the new party, however, occasioned any thing +rather than its destruction. Not only was there no mention of an +abrogation of the agrarian law, but the senate was obliged to allow the +place in the commission, which had become vacant by the death of +Gracchus, to be filled up; and Scipio Nasica himself was sent out of the +way, under the pretext of an embassy to Asia. The party of the senate +did, indeed, find a powerful support for a short time in the return of +Scipio Aemilianus (_d._ 129) from Spain; but its greatest support was +found in the difficulties of the law itself, which prevented its +execution. + + Great revolt of the slaves in Sicily under Eunus, 134-131. This + contributed not a little to keep alive the dissensions, as it showed + the necessity of a reform. + +4. Evident endeavours of the tribunes of the people to increase their +power, Gracchus having now awakened them to a sense of it. Not satisfied +with a seat and voice in the senate, Carbo wished that the renewing of +their dignity should be passed into a law. By the removal, however, of +the chiefs of the lower party, upon honourable pretexts, new troubles +were put off for some years. + + First establishment of the Roman power in Transalpine Gaul by M. + Fulvius Flaccus, on the occasion of his being sent to the assistance + of Massilia, 128. Southern Gaul became a Roman province as early as + 122, in consequence of the defeat of the Allobrogi and Averni by Q. + Fabius, who had been sent against them to support the Aedui, the allies + of Rome. Capture of the Balearian isles by Metellus, 123. Quaestorship + of C. Gracchus in Sicily, 128-125. + +5. These palliative remedies, however, availed nothing after the return +of C. Gracchus from Sicily with a full determination to tread in the +footsteps of his brother. Like him, it is true, he fell a victim to his +enterprise; but the storm that he raised during the two years of his +tribunate fell so much the more heavily, as the popular excitement was +more general, and from his possessing more of the shining talents +necessary to form a powerful demagogue than his brother. + + First tribunate of C. Gracchus, 123. Renewal of the agrarian law, and + rendering its provisions more strict. Nevertheless, as he increased + the fermentation by his popular measures and by acting the demagogue, + and obtained the renewal of the tribunate for the following year, 122, + he so far extended his plan, as to render it not only highly dangerous + to the aristocracy, but even to the state itself. Establishment of + distributions of corn to the poor people. Plan for the formation of + the knights (_ordo equestris_) into a political body, as a + counterbalance to the senate, by conferring on it the right of + administering justice, (_judicia_,) which was taken from the senate. + Still more important project of granting to the Italian allies the + privileges of Roman citizenship; and also the formation of colonies, + not only in Campania, but also out of Italy, in Carthage. The highly + refined policy of the senate, however, by lessening this man of the + people in the eyes of his admirers, through the assistance of the + tribune Livius Drusius, prevented his complete triumph; and, once + declining, Gracchus soon experienced the fate of every demagogue, + whose complete fall is then irretrievable. General insurrection, and + assassination of C. Gracchus, 121. + +6. The victory of the aristocratic faction was this time not only much +more certain and bloody, they turned the advantages it gave them to such +good account, that they eluded the agrarian law of Gracchus, and indeed, +at last, completely abrogated it. But the seeds of discord already +disseminated, especially among the Italian allies, could not be so soon +checked, when once the subjects of these states had conceived the idea +that they were entitled to a share in the government. How soon these +party struggles might be renewed, or indeed a civil war break out, +depended almost entirely upon foreign circumstances, and the chance of a +bolder leader being found. + + Agrarian law evaded: at first by repealing an act which prohibited the + transfer of the national lands already divided, whereby the patricians + were enabled to buy them again;--afterwards by the _lex Thoria:_ + complete stop put to all further divisions, a land-tax, to be + distributed among the people, being instituted in its stead; but even + this latter was very soon annulled. + + # D. H. HEGEWISCH, _History of the Civil Wars of the Gracchi_. + Altona, 1801. + + # _History of the Revolution of the Gracchi in my Miscellaneous + Historical Works._ Vol. iii. 1821. + +7. Visible effects of this party spirit upon public morals, which now +began to decline the more rapidly, in proportion to the increase of +foreign connections. Neither the severity of the censorship, nor the +laws against luxury (_leges sumtuariae_), nor those which now became +necessary against celibacy, could be of much service in this respect. +This degeneracy was not only to be found in the cupidity of the higher +ranks, but also in the licentiousness of the lower orders. + + Luxury in Rome was first displayed in the public administration (owing + to the excessive accumulation of wealth in the treasury, especially + during the Macedonian wars) before it infected private life; and the + avarice of the great long preceded the latter. The sources from whence + they satisfied this passion were found in the extortions of the + governors of provinces, their great power, and the distance from Rome + rendering the _leges repetundarum_ of but little effect. Probably the + endeavours of the allied princes and kings to gain a party in the + senate was a still more fruitful source, as they could obtain their + end only by purchase, and so gave a new impulse to the cupidity and + intriguing disposition of the members of that council. But private + luxury requires everywhere some time to ripen. It attained its height + immediately after the Mithridatic wars. + + # D. MEINER, _History of the Corruption of the Morals and Constitution + of the Romans_. Leips. 1782. + + # MEIEROTTO, _Morals and Manners of the Romans at different periods of + the Republic_. Berlin, 1776. Which considers the subject in several + points of view. + + # C. A. BOTTIGER, _Sabina, or, morning scenes at the toilette of a + rich Roman lady_. Leips. 1806, 2 vols. A true and lively description + of the luxury of the Roman ladies, but principally at its most + brilliant period. It has been translated into French. + +8. This corruption was manifested in a striking manner in the next +great war that Rome entered into, which was in Africa, against Jugurtha +of Numidia, the adopted grandson of Masinissa; and soon after against +his ally Bocchus of Mauritania. This war, kindled and maintained by the +avarice of the Roman nobles, which Jugurtha had already had an +opportunity of knowing at the siege of Numantia, paved the way to the +aggrandizement of C. Marius, a new demagogue, who, being also a +formidable general, did much more harm to the state than even the +Gracchi. + + Commencement of the quarrel of Jugurtha with the two sons of Micipsa, + and assassination of Hiempsal, one of them, 118.--When the other, + Adherbal, arrived at Rome, 117, the party of Jugurtha had already + succeeded, and obtained a partition of the kingdom. New attack upon + Adherbal, who is besieged in Cirta, and, notwithstanding the repeated + embassies of Rome to Jugurtha, is compelled to surrender, and is put + to death, 112. The tribune C. Memmius constrains the senate to declare + war against Jugurtha; but Jugurtha purchases a peace of the consul + Calpurnius Piso, 111.--Nevertheless Memmius hinders the ratification + of the peace, and Jugurtha is required to justify himself at Rome. He + would probably, however, have bought his acquittal, if the murder of + his kinsman Massiva, 110, by the help of Bomilcar, had not rendered it + impossible. The war is renewed under the consul Sp. Albinus and his + brother Aulus, 110, but with very little success, until the + incorruptible Q. Metellus took the command, 109, who would have put an + end to it, notwithstanding the great talents now displayed as a + general by Jugurtha, and his alliance with Bocchus, 108, had he not + been supplanted by Marius, who obtains the consulship by his + popularity, 107. Marius is obliged to have recourse to perfidy to get + Jugurtha into his hands, who is betrayed by Bocchus, 106. Numidia is + divided between Bocchus and two grandsons of Masinissa, Hiempsal and + Hiarbas. + +9. The elevation of Marius to the consulate not only humbled the power +of the aristocracy, but also showed, for the first time, that the way +was open to a man of low birth (_homo novus_) to the highest offices; +the method, however, which he had taken to form his army, entirely +against the Roman custom, that is, of composing it of the lower orders +(_capite censis_) must have rendered him doubly formidable. +Nevertheless, he would scarcely have effected so great a change in the +constitution, if a new and terrible war had not rendered his services +indispensable:--this was the threatened invasion of the Cimbri and +Teutones the most powerful nations of the north, during which a new and +violent rebellion of the slaves was raging in Sicily:--for after the +defeat of so many Roman armies, the people believed that no one but the +conqueror of Jugurtha could save Italy; and Marius knew so well how to +turn this to account, that he remained consul during four successive +years. + + The Cimbri, or Cimmerians, probably a nation of German origin, from + beyond the Black sea, originated a popular migration which extended + from thence as far as Spain. Their march was perhaps occasioned, or + accelerated, by the Scythian war of Mithridates; and their course, + like that of most nomad races, was from east to west along the Danube. + They had already, in 113, defeated the consul Papirius Carbo, near + Noreia in Styria. In their progress towards the west they were joined + by German, Celtic, and Helvetic tribes (the _Teutones_, _Ambrones_, + and _Tigurians_).--Attack Roman Gaul, 109, where they demand + settlements and defeat Junius Silanus the consul.--Defeat of L. + Cassius Longinus and M. Aurelius Scaurus, 107.--Great defeat of the + Romans in Gaul, 105, occasioned by the disagreement of their generals, + the consuls, Cn. Manlius and Q. Servius Caepio. Marius obtains the + command, and remains consul from 104-101. The migrations of the + Cimbri--a part of whom reach the Pyrenees, but are driven back by the + Celtiberians, 103--give Marius time to complete his army. In 102, + after dividing themselves, they first attempted to penetrate into + Italy: the Teutones through Provence, and the Cimbri by Tyrol.--Great + defeat and slaughter of the Teutones by Marius, near Aix, 102.--The + Cimbri, on the contrary, effect an invasion and make progress till + Marius comes to the help of Catulus. Great battle and defeat of the + Cimbri near the Po, July 30, 101. + + J. MULLER, _Bellum Cimbricum_. Tigur, 1772. A youthful essay of that + celebrated historian. Compare + + # MANNERT, _Geography,_ etc. part iii. + +10. Although during this war the power of the popular party had sensibly +increased, yet the storm did not break out until Marius _bought_ his +sixth consulate. Now, even in Rome itself, he wished to avenge himself +upon his enemies; and what could the senate do, when it had at its head +a demagogue in the consul himself?--His league with the tribune +Saturnius, and the praetor Glaucias, forming already a true triumvirate, +would have overthrown the republic after the expulsion of Metellus, if +the unbridled licentiousness of the rabble connected with his allies had +not obliged him to break with them, lest he should sacrifice the whole +of his popularity. + + The measures of this cabal, who wished to appear as if treading in the + steps of the Gracchi, were principally directed against Q. Metellus, + the chief of the party of the senate, and who, since the African war, + had been the mortal foe of Marius. After the exile of Metellus, + occasioned by his opposition to a new agrarian law, this faction + usurped the rights of the people, and lorded it in the committees; + until, at a new election of consuls, a general revolt, favoured by + Marius himself, took place of all the well-disposed citizens against + them; Saturnius and Glaucias were besieged in the capitol, forced to + surrender, and executed. The return of Metellus from his voluntary + exile soon followed, 92, much against the will of Marius, who was + obliged to retire into Asia. + +11. The few years of tranquillity which Rome now enjoyed, brought to +maturity many benefits and many evils, the seeds of which had been +already sown. On one hand the rising eloquence of Antonius, Crassus, and +others, was employed with effect against the oppressors of the provinces +in the state trials (_questiones_); and some generous spirits used all +their endeavours to heal the wounds of Sicily, Asia, and other +provinces, by a better administration; while, on the other hand, the +power of the _ordo equestris_ became a source of much abuse: for besides +their right to sit in the tribunals (_judiciis_), which C. Gracchus had +conferred upon them, they had also obtained the farming of the leases, +and thereby the collection of the revenue in the provinces; by which +means they were enabled not only to oppose every reform that was +attempted in the latter, but even at Rome to hold the senate in a state +of dependence. The struggle which now arose between them and the senate +respecting the _judicia_ (or right to preside in the tribunal), was one +of the most fatal to the republic, as this right was abused by them for +the purpose of satisfying their personal rancour, and oppressing the +greatest men. The tribune M. Livius Drusus the younger, it is true, +wrested from them half their power; but, alas! the manner in which he +did it kindled into a flame the fire which had been smouldering from the +time of the Gracchi. + + Acquisition of Cyrene by the testament of king Apion, 97; + notwithstanding which it maintained its independence, although + probably by paying a tribute. Adjustment of the differences between + the kings of Asia Minor by the praetor Sylla, 92 (see above, p. 294). + +12. Revolt of the Italian tribes, who desire to obtain the right of +Roman citizens; whereupon the bloody _war of the allies_ ensues. +Although the oppression of Rome had been preparing this war for a long +time, yet it was an immediate consequence of the intrigues of the Roman +demagogues, who since the law of the younger Gracchus, had, with the +view of making themselves popular, continually flattered the allies with +the hope of sharing the privileges of Roman citizenship. It was however +soon seen, that the allies were not at a loss among themselves for +leaders, capable of forming great plans and executing them with vigour. +Italy was about to become a republic, with Corfinium for its capital +instead of Rome. Neither could Rome have saved herself from such an +event, but by gradually permitting the allies to enjoy the complete +freedom of the city. + + After the civil wars of the Gracchi, large bands of the allies were + continually flocking to Rome. These were in the pay of the demagogues, + whom the _lex Licinia_, 95, had banished from Rome, and thereby laid + the foundation of the revolt. From that time the conspiracy among + these tribes began, and attained without interruption such a degree of + maturity, that the carelessness of Rome can only be accounted for from + the party fury which then existed, and which the _lex Varia_, 91, + enacted against the promoters of rebellion, served only to inflame the + more. The murder of the tribune Livius Drusus, 91, a very ambiguous + character, brought the affair to an open rupture. In this alliance + were the Marsi, Picentes, Peligni, Marrucini, Frentani, the Samnites, + who played a principal part, the Hirpini, Apuli, and the Lucani. In + this war, which was so much the more bloody, as it was mostly composed + of separate contests and sieges, especially of the Roman colonies, Cn. + Pompeius the elder, L. Cato, Marius, and, above all, Sylla, + particularly distinguished themselves on the side of the Romans; and + among the generals of the allies Pompadias, C. Papius, + etc.--Concession of the freedom of the city, first to such allies as + remained faithful, the Latins, Umbrians, etc. by the _lex Julia_, 91; + afterwards, by degrees, to the remainder by the _lex Plotia_. Some, + nevertheless, still continued in arms. + + HEYNE, _de Belli Socialis causis et eventu, in Opusc._ t. iii. + +13. The war now just ended, essentially changed the constitution of +Rome, as she no longer remained, as hitherto, the exclusive head of the +whole state; and although the new citizens were only formed into eight +tribes, yet their influence must soon have been felt in the committees, +on account of the readiness with which they promoted factions. Besides +this, the long-cherished private hatred between Marius and Sylla was +greatly strengthened by this war, as Sylla's fame was considerably +raised thereby, while that of Marius was proportionably diminished. An +opportunity was only wanted, like that which the first Pontine war soon +furnished, to stir up a new civil war, which threatened to destroy the +liberty of Rome. + +14. Alliance of Marius with the tribune Sulpicius, with the view of +wresting from Sylla the command of the forces against Mithridates, +already conferred upon him by the senate. The ease with which Sylla, at +the head of an army on which he could depend, expelled the chiefs of +this party, seems to have left him ignorant of the fact, that the party +itself was not thereby destroyed. However judicious may have been his +other measures, the elevation of Cinna to the consulship was an error in +policy of which Italy had still more reason to repent than himself. How +much blood might have been spared if Sylla had not unseasonably wished +to become popular! + + Proposition of Sulpicius for an indiscriminate distribution of the new + citizens and freemen among all the tribes of Italy, that he might + thereby gain a strong party in his favour, which, by a violent + assembly of the people, transfers the command from Sylla to Marius. + March of Sylla upon Rome, and expulsion of Marius, who, by a series of + adventures almost surpassing belief, escapes to Africa and is + proscribed with his son and ten of his partisans. Reestablishment of + the power of the senate, whose number is made up by three hundred + knights. Sylla, after having caused his friend C. Octavius and his + enemy L. Cinna to be elected consuls, hastens back to Greece. + +15. First war against Mithridates the Great. Sylla gains several +victories over that king's generals in Greece; wrests from him all his +conquests, and restricts him to his hereditary dominions. Rome since the +time of Hannibal had met with no such powerful opponent as the king of +Pontus, who in a few months had become master of all Asia Minor, +Macedonia, and Greece, and threatened even Italy itself; we must besides +consider, that the war on the side of Rome was carried on in a manner +altogether different from that of any previous one; as Sylla, after the +victory of the opposite party, being himself proscribed in Rome, was +obliged to continue it with his own army, and his own private resources. +The unfortunate countries which were the theatre of this war, felt as +many calamities during the struggle, as Italy was doomed to suffer after +its close. + + Commencement of the war by Mithridates before the termination of that + of the allies, 89, by taking possession of Cappadocia and Paphlagonia. + He was not less formidable by his alliance with the tribes along the + Danube, and his navy, than by his land forces; and the irritation of + the people of Asia against Rome rendered his enterprise still more + easy. Double victory over Nicomedes king of Bithynia and the Roman + general M. Aquilius, followed by the conquest of all Asia Minor except + the isle of Rhodes. Massacre of all the Roman citizens in the states + of Asia Minor. Expedition of the king's army into Greece, under the + command of his general Archelaus, who makes Athens the theatre of the + war, 88. Siege and capture of that unfortunate town by Sylla, 1st + March, 87. Repeated great defeats of Mithridates's army under the + command of Archelaus, near Chalcis, and afterwards near Orchomenus, by + Sylla, 86, whose general plan was formed upon the entire destruction + of his enemies. Negotiations for peace commenced by Archelaus, and + finally settled at a personal conference between Sylla and + Mithridates. The adverse party in Rome, however, had in the mean time + sent a new army into Asia Minor, to act as well against Sylla as + against Mithridates, under the command of L. Valerius Flaccus, who, + however, is assassinated by his lieutenant Fimbria. The latter gains + some advantages over the king, but, being shut up by Sylla, kills + himself. Owing to the licentiousness of his army, which Sylla dared + not restrain; and the heavy contributions exacted by him in Asia Minor + after the peace, in order to carry on the war in Italy, 84; together + with the bodies of pirates formed out of the fleet disbanded by + Mithridates, these unfortunate countries were almost ruined; the + opulent cities more especially. + +16. But during this war a new revolution took place in Rome, which not +only overthrew the order reestablished by Sylla, but also, by the +victory of the democratic faction under Cinna and Marius, gave rise to a +wild anarchy of the people, and which the death of Marius, alas, too +late for Rome! only rendered more destructive; as the leaders themselves +could no longer restrain the savage hordes of their own party. However +dreadful the prospect of the return of Sylla might seem, it was +nevertheless the only hope that remained for all those who had not +joined the popular faction, or had not some connection with its leaders. + + Revolt of Cinna, brought on by the proscriptions, soon after the + departure of Sylla; Cinna, by distributing the new citizens into all + the tribes, hoped to raise himself a party; but C. Octavius, at the + head of the senate and ancient citizens, drove him from Rome, and + forced him to give up the consulship, 87. He however soon raised a + powerful army in Campania, and recalled Marius from exile. Capture and + pillage of Rome, already weakened by famine, and horrible massacre of + the inhabitants; after which Marius and Cinna name themselves consuls + and banish Sylla. Death of Marius, 13th Jan. 86. C. Papirius Carbo + succeeds him in the consulship. The mediation of the senate is + useless, as the chiefs of both parties can only hope for security by + the annihilation of their adversaries. The murder of Cinna by his own + soldiers, 84, entirely deprives the dominant faction of a competent + leader. Neither the cowardly Carbo, although he remained consul alone, + nor the stupid Norbanus, nor the youth C. Marius (the son), had + sufficient personal authority for that purpose; and Sertorius leaves + Italy in good time to kindle a new flame in Spain. + +17. Return of Sylla to Italy, and a terrible civil war, which ends only +with the extermination of the democratic faction, and his own elevation +to the perpetual dictatorship. Although his enemies had so much +advantage over him in point of numbers, yet their party was so little +consolidated, that he with his veterans could not fail to obtain an easy +victory. The slaughter during this war fell for the most part upon the +Italian tribes, who had joined the party of Marius, and this afforded +Sylla the means of giving settlements to his own soldiers; but most of +the horrors of this revolution which fell to the share of Rome, were +reserved till the day of victory was past. Sylla's proscription, which +should only have punished his personal enemies, was the signal for a +general massacre, as every one took that opportunity to rid himself of +his private foes; and avarice did as much as vengeance. Who in these +days, so terrible to Italy, was sure of his life or property? And yet, +when we consider the dreadful circumstances which attended the foregoing +dominion of the people, deduct all that was done without Sylla's +knowledge, and consider how much he was obliged to do in order to +satisfy his army, we shall find it difficult to say how far he deserves +the reproach of wanton cruelty. + + Sylla's arrival; victory over Norbanus immediately after, and + seduction of the army of the consul Scipio, 82. After this almost + every person of distinction declared in his favour, and the young + Pompey having brought to him an army which he had himself raised, his + party acquired more consideration, and himself more power. Victory + over the younger Marius, near Sacriportum, who throws himself into + Praeneste, where he is besieged. But the great and decisive battle + gained before the gates of Rome, over the Samnites under the command + of Telisinus, is followed by the fall of Praeneste and the capture of + Rome. After the proscription which immediately ensued, Sylla is + created perpetual dictator, and secures his power in Rome by the + emancipation of ten thousand slaves, whose masters he had proscribed; + and in Italy by colonies of his veterans, whom he establishes at the + expense of his enemies. + +18. Great reform in the constitution during the two years' dictatorship +of Sylla. The aristocracy of the senate, which he filled up with +knights, was not only reestablished, but he also stopped the sources +from which the great disorders of the democracy had hitherto proceeded. +It seems probable that his natural indolence, which led him to prefer a +life of luxurious ease to one of laborious activity, when he was no +longer spurred to the latter by his passions, was the chief cause of his +voluntary abdication. He had, however, the great advantage over Marius, +of not being the sport of his own feelings. The conduct of Sylla, +indeed, was so consistent throughout, that it satisfactorily shows he +knew very well what was his ultimate aim--which Marius never did. + + Internal regulations of Sylla by the _leges Corneliae_. 1. Law to + restrain the influence of the tribunes, by taking from them their + legislative power. 2. Law respecting the succession to the magistracy; + the number of praetors fixed to eight, and the quaestors to twenty. 3. + _Lex de majestate_, especially to limit the power of the governors of + provinces, and to abolish their exactions. 4. _Lex de judiciis_, + whereby the _judicia_ were again restored to the senate. 5. Several + police regulations, _de sicariis_, _de veneficiis_, etc. for the + preservation and tranquillity of Rome, upon which everything depended. + 6. The _lex de civitate_, taking from the Latins and several Italian + cities and tribes the privileges of Roman citizens, upon which they + set so much store, although we scarcely know in what they consisted. + _Foreign wars_: War in Africa against the leaders of the democratic + faction, Cn. Domitius and king Hiarbas, which is ended by a triumph to + Pompey, 80. Second war against Mithridates begun by Murena, in hopes + of obtaining a triumph, to whom Archelaus came over; but which, under + the command of Sylla, terminates in an accommodation. + +19. Nevertheless it was impossible that the enactments of Sylla should +be long observed; as the evil lay too deep to be eradicated by laws. +A free state like that of Rome, with no middle class, must, from its +nature, be exposed to continual convulsions, and these will be more or +less violent in proportion to its greatness. Besides, as in the last +revolution almost all property had changed hands, there was spread +over all Italy a powerful party, who desired nothing so much as a +counter-revolution. And to this we may add, that there were many young +men, such as Lucullus, Crassus, and above all Pompey, who had opened to +themselves a career during the late troubles, which they would scarcely +yet wish to bring to a close. It will not then appear strange, that +immediately after the death of Sylla (! 88), a consul, M. Aemilius +Lepidus, should form the design of becoming a second Marius; a design +which could only be frustrated by the courage and activity of such a +patriotic citizen as Q. Lutatius Catulus, his colleague. + + Attempt of Lepidus to rescind the acts of Sylla, 78. Defeated, first + before Rome and again in Etruria, by Catulus and Pompey, 77, after + which he dies in Sardinia. + +20. But much more dangerous for Rome might have been the civil war +kindled by Sertorius in Spain, if the plan of that exalted republican to +invade Italy had succeeded. Even Pompey himself, after a six years' +struggle, would hardly have prevented it, had it not been for the +worthlessness of the Roman vagabonds who surrounded him, and his +assassination by Perpenna. The rapid termination of the war after the +fall of its conductor, is a circumstance much more creditable to +Sertorius than to the conqueror Pompey. + + The forces of Sertorius in Spain, consisted not only of the party of + Marius which he had collected, but more essentially of the Spaniards, + particularly the Lusitanians, whom he had inspired with an unbounded + confidence in himself. Very variable success of the war against + Metellus and Pompey, who receive but very little support from Rome, + 77-75. Negotiation of Sertorius with Mithridates the Great, and + interchange of embassies without any important result, 75. Sertorius + assassinated by Perpenna, 72. + +21. Before, however, the flame of war was totally extinguished in the +west, Mithridates kindled a new and much fiercer one in the east; at the +same time a war of slaves and gladiators was raging with terrible fury +in Italy itself; and whole fleets of pirates not only ravaged the +Italian coasts, but threatened Rome herself with a famine, and obliged +her to have recourse to a mode of naval warfare altogether peculiar. All +these enemies were not without intelligence with one another; and +colossal as was the power of the republic at that time, and rich as Rome +was in distinguished men, it seems probable that the storm which beat on +every side between 75-71, would have razed her to the ground, if a +stricter alliance could have been formed between Sertorius, Spartacus, +and Mithridates. But the great difficulty of communication which at that +time existed, and without which probably a republic such as the Roman +never could have been formed, proved of more assistance at this crisis +than at any other. + + The third Mithridatic war, occasioned by the will of Nicomedes king of + Bithynia, who had bequeathed his kingdom to Rome (see above, p. 294), + was carried on in Asia Minor, first by Lucullus, 74-67, and afterwards + by Pompey, 66-64. Mithridates, being better prepared, had already + concluded an alliance with Sertorius in Spain, 75. But the deliverance + of Cyzicus by Lucullus, 73, and the defeat of the king's fleet, + intended to act against Italy, not only frustrated all his original + plans, but were followed by the occupation of his own dominions, 72 + and 71, by the enemy, notwithstanding a new army which Mithridates + collected, mostly from the nomad hordes of Northern Asia. Flight of + Mithridates to Tigranes, 71, who positively refused to deliver him up, + and formed an alliance with him, 70; while the Parthian, Arsaces XII. + held both parties in suspense by negotiations. Victory of Lucullus + over the allied sovereigns, near Tigranocerta, 69, and Artaxata, 68; + but the mutinies which now broke out among his troops not only + hindered him from following up these advantages, but turned the scale + so much in Mithridates's favour, that in 68 and 67 he quickly regained + almost all his dominions, even while the Roman commissioners were on + their route to take possession of them. Lucullus, by his reform in the + finances of Asia Minor, raises a powerful party against himself in + Rome, and thereby loses his command. + +22. The war of the slaves and gladiators, which happened nearly at the +same time, was, from the theatre of action being in its neighbourhood, +equally dangerous to Rome; it became still more terrible from the +violence with which these outraged beings sought to revenge their +wrongs, and more formidable from the talents of their leader, Spartacus; +and the conclusion of this struggle seemed, therefore, of so much +importance to Rome, that it gave M. Crassus a much higher influence in +the state than he could ever have obtained by his riches alone. + + Commencement of this war by a number of runaway gladiators, who, being + strengthened by an almost general revolt of the slaves in Campania, + 73, soon became very formidable. The defeat of four generals, one + after the other, throws open to Spartacus the road to the Alps, and + enables him to leave Italy; but the greediness of booty manifested by + his hordes, who wished to plunder Rome, obliged him to return. Crassus + takes the command and rescues Rome, 72; upon which Spartacus retires + into Lower Italy, hoping to form a junction with the pirates, and to + carry the war into Sicily, but is deceived by them, 71. His complete + overthrow near the Silarus, 71. Pompey, then returning from Spain, + finds means to seize a sprig of the laurel chaplet which by right + should have adorned only the brow of Crassus; hence arises a + misunderstanding between these two commanders, during their consulate, + 70, which threatened to be dangerous to the state. + +23. The war against the pirates of Sicily and Isauria was not only very +important in itself, but still more so in its consequences. It procured +for Pompey a legal power such as no Roman general had ever before +enjoyed; and the quick and glorious manner in which he brought it to a +close, opened for him the way to the great object of his ambition--the +conduct of the war in Asia against Mithridates. + + The extraordinary power acquired by these pirates was owing partly to + the great negligence of the Romans in sea affairs, (see page 340), + partly to the war against Mithridates, who had taken the pirates into + his pay, and partly also to the Roman oppressions in Asia Minor. War + had been undertaken against them as early as 75, by P. Servilius; but + his victories, though they procured him the title of _Isauricus_, did + them but little harm. They were to be dreaded, not only for their + piracies, but because they also offered an easy means of communication + between the other enemies of Rome from Spain to Asia. The new attack + of the praetor M. Antonius upon Crete, proved a complete failure; but + it was the cause of that hitherto independent island being again + attacked, 68, by Metellus, and reduced to a Roman province, 67. Pompey + takes the command against the pirates with extraordinary privileges, + obtained for him by Gabinius, and finishes the war in forty days, 67. + +24. After these triumphs over so many enemies, Mithridates was the only +one which now remained; and Pompey had here again the good fortune to +conclude a struggle already near its end; for notwithstanding his late +success, Mithridates had never been able completely to recover himself. +His fall undoubtedly raised the power of Rome in Asia Minor to its +highest pitch; but it brought her, at the same time, into contact with +the Parthians. + + Pompey obtains the conduct of the war against Mithridates with very + extensive privileges, procured for him by the tribune Manilius (_lex + Manilia_), notwithstanding the opposition of Catulus, 67. His victory + by night, near the Euphrates, 66. Subjection of Tigranes, while + Mithridates flies into the Crimea, 65, whence he endeavours to renew + the war. Campaign of Pompey in the countries about the Caucasus, 65; + he marches thence into Syria, 64. Mithridates kills himself in + consequence of the defection of his son Phraates, 63. Settlement of + Asiatic affairs by Pompey: besides the ancient province of Asia, the + maritime countries of Bithynia, nearly all Paphlagonia and Pontus, are + formed into a Roman province, under the name of Bithynia; while on the + southern coast Cilicia and Pamphylia form another under the name of + Cilicia; Phoenicia and Syria compose a third, under the name of Syria. + On the other hand, Great Armenia is left to Tigranes; Cappadocia to + Ariobarzanes; the Bosphorus to Pharnaces; Judaea to Hyrcanus (see page + 310); and some other small states are also given to petty princes, all + of whom remain dependent on Rome. The tribes inhabiting Thrace during + the Mithridatic war, were first defeated by Sylla, 85, and their power + was afterwards nearly destroyed by the proconsuls of Macedonia: as by + Appius, in 77; by Curio, who drove them to the Danube, 75-73; and + especially by M. Lucullus, while his brother was engaged in Asia. Not + only the security of Macedonia, but the daring plans of Mithridates + rendered this necessary. + +25. The fall of Mithridates raised the republic to the highest pitch of +her power: there was no longer any foreign foe of whom she could be +afraid. But her internal administration had undergone great changes +during these wars. Sylla's aristocratic constitution was shaken by +Pompey, in a most essential point, by the reestablishment of the power +of the tribunes, which was done because neither he nor any leading men +could obtain their ends without their assistance. It was by their means +that Pompey had procured such unlimited power in his two late +expeditions, that the existence of the republic was thereby endangered. +It was, however, a fortunate circumstance for Rome, that Pompey's vanity +was sufficiently gratified by his being at the head of affairs, where he +avoided the appearance of an oppressor. + + Reiterated attempts of the tribune Sicinius to annul the constitution + of Sylla defeated by the senate, 76. But as early as 75 Opimius + obtained that the tribunes should not be excluded from honourable + offices, and that the judgments (_judicia_) should be restored to the + knights (_equites_). The attempts of Licinius Macer, 72, to restore + the tribunes to all their former powers, encountered but a short + opposition; and their complete reestablishment was effected by Pompey + and Crassus during their consulate, in 70. + +26. This victory of the democratic faction, however, in consequence of +the use made of it by some leading men, necessarily led the way to an +oligarchy, which after the consulate of Pompey and Crassus became very +oppressive. Catiline's conspiracy, which was not matured till after +several attempts, would have broken up this confined aristocracy, and +placed the helm of state in the hands of another and still more +dangerous faction: a faction composed in part of needy profligates and +criminals dreading the punishment of their crimes, and partly of +ambitious nobles. It occasioned a short civil war; but procured Cicero a +place in the administration. With what pleasure do we forgive the little +weaknesses and failings of one so gifted with talents and great virtues! +of one who first taught Rome, in so many ways, what it was to be great +in the robe of peace! + + Catiline's first conspiracy, in which Caesar and Crassus seem to have + been implicated, 66, as well as in the second, 65: failure of the + former by chance--of the latter through Piso's death. The third broke + out in 64, as well in Rome, where the conspirators, having no armed + force, were soon suppressed by the vigilance and activity of Cicero, + 63, as in Etruria, where a victory of the proconsul Antonius over + Catiline, who was left dead on the field, concluded it, 62. + +27. The suppression of this conspiracy, however, did not stay the effect +which the recently concluded Asiatic war had upon Roman manners. The +luxury of the east, though united with Grecian taste, which had been +introduced among the great by Lucullus; the immense riches poured into +the treasury by Pompey; the tempting examples of unlimited power, which +single citizens had already exercised; the purchase of the magistracy by +individuals, in order, like Verres, after the squandering of millions, +to enrich themselves again in the provinces; the demands of the soldiers +upon their generals; and the ease with which an army might be raised by +him who had only money enough to pay it; all these circumstances must +have foreboded new and approaching convulsions, even if the preceding +storms in this colossal republic, in which we must now judge of virtues +and vices, as well as of riches and power, by a very magnified standard, +had not formed men of that gigantic character they did:--men like Cato, +who struggled alone to stem the impetuous torrent of the revolution, and +was sufficiently powerful to retard its progress for a time; or, like +Pompey, who by good fortune and the art of acquiring influence, arose +to a degree of authority and power never before attained by any citizen +of a free state; or, like Crassus, "who only considered him as rich that +could maintain an army by his own private means," founding their +pretensions on wealth; or, finally, like the aspiring and now powerful +Caesar, whose boundless ambition could only be surpassed by his talents, +and courage, "who would rather be the first in a village than the second +in Rome." The return of Pompey from Asia, threatening the senate with a +new dictator, appeared an eventful moment. + + Attempt of Pompey, through the tribune Metellus Nepos, to be allowed + to return to Rome at the head of his army, frustrated by the firmness + of Cato, 62. + +28. The arrival of Pompey in Rome renewed the struggle between the +senate and that powerful general, although he had disbanded his army on +landing in Italy. The ratification of his management of affairs in Asia, +which was the chief point of contention, was opposed by the leading men +of the senate, Cato, the two Metelli, and Lucullus, which induced Pompey +to attach himself entirely to the popular party, by whose means he hoped +to obtain his end; Caesar's return, however, from his province of +Lusitania, entirely changed the face of affairs. + +29. Close union between Caesar, Pompey, and Crassus; that is, a secret +alliance, formed by the interposition of Caesar. That which formed the +height of the ambition of Pompey and Crassus was only regarded by Caesar +as the means by which he might be able to effect his. His consulate--a +kind of dictatorship under the mask of great popularity--necessarily +paved the way to his future career, as by giving him the government of +the two Gauls and Illyria for five years, it opened a wide field for +conquest, and gave him an opportunity of forming an army devoted to his +will. + + Caesar's abode and campaign in Gaul from the spring of 58 till the end + of the year 50. By arresting the emigration of the Helvetians, and by + the expulsion of the Germans, under Ariovistus, from Gaul, 58, Caesar + gained an opportunity of intermeddling in the internal affairs of that + country, and afterwards of subduing it, which was completed by his + victory over the Belgae, 57, and the Aquitani, 56; so that Caesar was at + liberty to undertake his several expeditions, as well in Britain, 55 + and 54, as in Germany, 54 and 53. But the repeated revolts of the + Gauls, 53-51, especially under Vercingetorix, 52, occasioned a war no + less obstinate than their first conquest. Roman policy continued the + same throughout. The Gauls were subdued, by the Romans appearing as + _their deliverers_; and in the country they found allies in the Aedui, + Allobroges, etc. + +30. The triumvirate, in order to establish their power upon a solid +foundation, took care, by the management of the tribune Clodius, to get +rid of the leaders of the senate, Cato and Cicero, before the departure +of Caesar; and this they did by giving the former a kingdom to govern, +and by procuring the banishment of the latter. They must however soon +have discovered, that so bold a demagogue as Clodius could not be used +as a mere machine. And, indeed, after Caesar's departure he raised +himself so much above the triumvirs, that Pompey was soon obliged, for +his own preservation, to permit Cicero to return from exile, which could +only be effected by the most violent efforts of the tribune Milo. The +power of Clodius, however, was but little injured thereby, although +Pompey, to put a stop to the source of these disorders, and revive his +own popularity, procured the nomination of himself as _praefectus +annonae_, or superintendent of provisions. + + Exile of Cicero, the greater part of which he spent in Macedonia, from + April, 58, till 4th Sept. 57. Ptolemy king of Cyprus deposed, and that + island reduced to a Roman province by Cato, on the proposition of + Clodius, 57 (see page 264). The personal dislike of Clodius and the + riches of the king were the causes that brought upon him this + misfortune. + + MIDDLETON'S _Life of Cicero_, 2 vols. 8vo. This work is almost a + complete history of Rome during the age of Cicero; for whom the writer + discovers an undue partiality. + + # M. TULLIUS CICERO, _all his Letters translated, in chronological + order, and illustrated with notes_, by C. M. WIELAND. Zurich, 1808. + With a preliminary view of the life of Cicero. Of all Germans the + writings of Wieland, whether original or translations (and to which + can we give the preference?) afford the most lively insight into + Greek and Roman antiquity at various periods. What writer has so + truly seized its spirit, and placed it so faithfully and elegantly + before his readers? His labours on the Letters of Cicero (whose + foibles he exposes with a rigorous and unflinching hand) serve to + make us much better acquainted with Rome, as it then was, than any + Roman history. + +31. A jealousy arises between the triumvirate, as Caesar, though absent, +still found means to keep up his party at Rome in such watchful +activity, that Pompey and Crassus considered it impossible to maintain +their own influence, except by procuring such concessions as had been +made to him. Harmony once more restored by an accommodation at Lucca, as +the parties found it necessary to preserve a good understanding with +each other. + + The terms of this accommodation were; that Caesar should have his + government prolonged for another five years; and that Pompey and + Crassus should enjoy the consulship for the ensuing year, the former + receiving the provinces of Spain and Africa; and the latter that of + Syria, for the purpose of carrying on a war against the Parthians. In + proportion as these conditions were kept secret, there remained less + secrecy respecting the alliance itself. + +32. Second consulate of Pompey and Crassus. It was only amidst violent +storms that they could effect their purposes; as it depended upon which +faction should first gain or keep possession of the forum. The +resistance they met with from the inflexible disposition of Cato, who in +his austere virtue alone found means to secure himself a powerful party, +shows how unfairly those judge who consider the power of the triumvirate +as unlimited, and the nation as entirely corrupted. + + Campaign of Crassus against the Parthians, undertaken at his own + expense, 54. Instead, however, of gathering laurels like Caesar, he and + his whole army were completely overthrown in Mesopotamia, 53; and the + Parthians from this time maintain a powerful preponderance in Asia + (see above, p. 302). + +33. As the triumvirate by this failure of Crassus was reduced to a +duumvirate, Pompey (who remained in Rome, and governed his provinces by +lieutenants), in the midst of continual domestic broils, which he +cunningly took care to foment, was evidently aiming to become the +acknowledged head of the senate and republic. The idea that a dictator +was necessary prevailed more and more during an anarchy of eight months, +in which no appointment of a consul could take place; and +notwithstanding the opposition of Cato, Pompey succeeded, after a +violent commotion, in which Clodius was murdered by Milo, in getting +himself nominated sole consul; a power equal to that of dictator. + + Consulate of Pompey, 52, in which, at the end of seven months, he took + as colleague his father-in-law Metellus Scipio. The government of his + provinces, which afterwards became the chief seat of the republicans, + is prolonged for five years. + +34. From this time civil war became inevitable; for not only the chiefs +of the parties, but also their adherents desired it. The approach of the +time when Caesar's command would expire, necessarily hastened the crisis. +Could it be supposed that the conqueror of Gaul would return to a +private life, and leave his rival at the head of the republic? The steps +taken on both sides towards an accommodation were only made to escape +the odium which would attach to him who struck the first blow. But +Pompey unfortunately could never understand his opponent, who did all +himself, all completely, and all alone. The brilliant light in which +Pompey now appeared, as _defender of the republic_, delighted him so +much, that it made him forget what belonged to its defence; while Caesar +avoided, with the greatest care, every appearance of usurpation. The +friend, the protector of the people against the usurpations of their +enemies, was the character which he now chose to assume. + + Commencement of the contest upon Caesar's demand to be allowed to hold + the consulship while absent, 52. Caesar, by the most lavish corruption, + had increased his adherents in Rome, gained the tribunes, and among + them especially the powerful speaker C. Curio (whom he did not think + too dearly purchased at the price of about half a million sterling); + by this man it was suggested to Caesar that he should give up his + command, and leave a successor to be appointed in his place, 51, if + Pompey would do the same: a proposition which created a prejudice much + in his favour. Repeated, but insincere offers of both parties for an + accommodation, 50, till at last a decree of the senate was passed, + Jan. 7, 49, by which Caesar was commanded "to disband his army under + the penalty of being declared an enemy to the republic," without + regard to the intercessions of the tribunes, whose flight to him gave + an appearance of popularity to his party. Caesar crosses the Rubicon, + the boundary of his province. + +35. The civil war now about to break out, seemed likely to spread over +nearly all the countries of the Roman empire; as Pompey, finding it +impossible to maintain himself in Italy, had chosen Greece for the +principal theatre of the war; while his lieutenants, with the armies +under their command, occupied Spain and Africa. Caesar, by the able +disposition of his legions, was everywhere present, without exciting +beforehand any suspicion of his movements. A combination of +circumstances, however, carried the war into Alexandria, and even as far +as Pontus; indeed it might be called rather a series of six successive +wars than merely one, all of which Caesar, by flying with his legions +from one quarter of the world to the other, ended, within five years, +victoriously and in person. + + Rapid occupation of Italy in sixty days (when the troops under + Domitius surrendered at Corfinus), which, as well as Sicily and + Sardinia, were subdued by Caesar almost without opposition; Pompey, + with his troops and adherents, having crossed over to Greece. Caesar's + first campaign in Spain against Pompey's generals, Afranius and + Petreius, whom he forces to surrender; this, however, is + counterbalanced by the loss of the legions under Curio in Africa. In + December, 49, however, Caesar is again in Italy, and named dictator, + which he exchanges for the consulate. Spirited expedition into Greece + with the ships he had been previously collecting together, Jan. 4, 49. + Unfortunate engagement at Dyrrachium. Removal of the war into + Thessaly, and decisive battle of Pharsalia, July 20, 48, after which + Pompey flies to Alexandria, where he is killed on his landing. Caesar + arrives three days after him at Alexandria. + +36. Caesar, after the victory of Pharsalia, again nominated dictator, +with great privileges. The death of Pompey, however, does not destroy +his party; and the six months' war of Alexandria, as well as the +expedition into Pontus against Pharnaces, gave them time to rally their +forces both in Africa under Cato, and in Spain under the sons of Pompey. + + During the Alexandrine war (see above, p. 266) and the expedition + against Pharnaces, the son of Mithridates,--who had obtained the + kingdom of his father, but was slain by Caesar immediately after his + arrival, 47,--great disorders had broken out in Rome, caused by the + tribune Dolabella's flattering the people with the abolition of debts + (_novae tabulae_), notwithstanding the military power of M. Antony, whom + Caesar had sent to Rome as master of the horse (_magister equitum_), as + this abandoned sensualist at first actually favoured the projects of + the tribune. Caesar's return to Rome, December, 47, put an end, it is + true, to these disorders; but the increase of the opposite party in + Africa, and an insurrection among his soldiers, obliged him to set out + for Africa immediately, January, 46. Victory near Thapsus over Scipio + and Juba; after which Cato kills himself at Utica. Numidia, the + kingdom of Juba, becomes a Roman province. Caesar after his return to + Rome in June, is only able to stay there four months, as, before the + end of the year, he is obliged to set out for Spain to crush the + dangerous efforts of Pompey's two sons. Bloody battle at Munda, March, + 45, after which Cneius is killed, but Sextus escapes to the + Celtiberians. + +37. Nothing seems more evident than that Caesar did not, like Sylla, +overthrow the republic for the purpose of reestablishing it; and it is +perhaps impossible to say what could be the final views of a childless +usurper, who throughout his whole career, seemed only to be guided by an +inordinate ambition, springing from a consciousness of superior powers, +and to satisfy which, no means seemed to him difficult or unlawful. The +period of his dictatorship was so short, and so much interrupted by +war, that his ultimate plans had not time for their development. He +endeavoured to establish his dominion by popular measures; and although +his army must still have been his main support, yet no proscription was +granted to satisfy it. The reestablishment of order in the distracted +country of Italy, and particularly in the capital, was his first care; +and he proposed to follow that by an expedition against the powerful +Parthian empire. His attempts, however, to obtain the diadem, seemed to +place it beyond a doubt that he wished to introduce a formal monarchy. +But the destruction of the form of the republic was shown to be more +dangerous than the overthrow of the republic itself. + + The following were the honours and privileges granted to Caesar by the + senate. After the battle of Pharsalia, 48, he was nominated dictator + for one year and consul for five years; and obtained the _potestas + tribunicia_, as well as the right of making war and peace, the + exclusive right of the committees, with the exception of the tribunes, + and the possession of the provinces. The dictatorship was renewed to + him, 47, for ten years, as well as the _praefectura morum_, and was at + last, 145, conferred upon him for ever, with the title of _imperator_. + Although Caesar thus became absolute master of the republic, it appears + to have been done without laying aside the republican forms. + +38. Conspiracy against Caesar, formed by Brutus and Cassius, and +terminating in the death of Caesar. Men so exalted as were the chiefs of +this plot, easily understand one another; and it was quite in accordance +with their character not to meditate upon the consequences of their +deed. Caesar's death was a great misfortune for Rome. Experience soon +showed that the republic could not be reestablished thereby; and his +life might probably have spared the state some of those calamities which +now, by its change to a monarchy, became unavoidable. + + We still want a discriminating life of Caesar, who in modern times has + been as extravagantly praised as Alexander has been unjustly censured. + As generals and conquerors, both were equally great--and little; as a + man, however, the Macedonian, in the brilliant period of his life, to + which Caesar never attained, was superior; to the great political ideas + which developed themselves in Alexander, we know of none corresponding + in Caesar; who knew better than any how to attain dominion, but little + of preserving it. + + _Histoire de la Vie de Jules Caesar_, _par_ M. DE BURY, Paris, 1758, 2 + vols. 8vo. + + # _Life of C. Julius Caesar_, _by_ A. G. MEISSNER, _continued by_ + J. Ch. L. Haken, 1811, 4 parts. At present the best. + + _Caius Julius Caesar, from original sources_, _by_ PROFESSOR SOELTL. A + short biography, judiciously executed. + +39. Notwithstanding the amnesty at first declared, the funeral obsequies +of Caesar soon showed, that peace was of all things the least desired by +his generals, M. Antony and M. Lepidus, now become the head of his +party; and the arrival of Caesar's nephew, C. Octavius (afterwards Caesar +Octavianus), whom he had adopted in his will, rendered affairs still +more complicated, as every one strove for himself; Antony's particular +object being to raise himself into Caesar's place. However earnestly they +sought to gain the people, it was in fact the legions who decided, and +the command of them depended, for the most part, upon the possession of +the provinces. We cannot therefore wonder, that while they sought to +revenge the murder of Caesar, this became the chief cause of the +struggle, and in a few months led to a civil war. + + At the time of Caesar's death, M. Antonius was actual consul, and + Dolabella consul-elect; M. Lepidus _magister equitum_ (master of the + horse); M. Brutus and Cassius, praetors (the first, _praetor urbanus_). + Caesar had given to the former the province of Macedonia, and to the + latter that of Syria, which had been confirmed to them by the senate. + M. Lepidus had been nominated to Transalpine, and D. Brutus to + Cisalpine Gaul. But soon after the murder of Caesar, Antony obtained, + by a decree of the people, Macedonia for himself, and Syria for his + colleague Dolabella, with whom he had formed a close connection; + instead of which the senate decreed to Cassius Cyrene, and to Brutus, + who now had the important charge of supplying Rome with provisions, + Crete. But soon after (June 1, 44), Antony desired, by a new change, + to obtain Cisalpine Gaul for himself, and Macedonia for his brother C. + Antony, both of which he procured from the people. + +40. As M. Antony sought by force to establish himself in Cisalpine Gaul, +and D. Brutus refused to give it up to him, and retired into Mutina, a +short, indeed, but very bloody civil war arose, (_bellum mutinense_.) +The eloquence of Cicero had caused Antony to be declared an enemy of the +republic; and the two new consuls, Hirtius and Pansa, together with +Caesar Octavianus, were sent against him. The defeat of Antony compelled +him to seek refuge beyond the Alps with Lepidus; but the two consuls +being slain, Octavianus at the head of his legions was too importunate +to be refused the consulship, and soon convinced the defenceless senate, +how impossible it was to reestablish the commonwealth by their powerless +decrees. The employment, moreover, of the _magistratus suffecti_, which +soon after arose, was in itself a sufficient proof that it was now no +more than the shadow of what it had formerly been. + + The Mutine war begins in December, 44, and closes with the defeat of + Antony at Mutina, April 14, 43. Octavius obtains the consulate, Sept. + 22. + +41. Octavianus, deserting the party of the senate, enters into a secret +negotiation with Antony and Lepidus; the consequence of which is a +meeting of the parties at Bononia, and the formation of a new +triumvirate. They declare themselves the chiefs of the republic for five +years, under the title of _triumviri reipublicae constituendae_; and +dividing the provinces among themselves according to their own pleasure, +they make the destruction of the republican party their principal +object. A new proscription in Rome itself, and a declaration of war +against the murderers of Caesar, were the means by which they proposed to +effect it. + + The agreement of the triumvirate was concluded Nov. 27, 43, after + which the march of the triumvirs upon Rome gives the signal for the + massacre of the proscribed, which soon extends all over Italy, and in + which Cicero perishes, Dec. 7. The cause of this new proscription was + not party hatred alone, but was as much, perhaps more, owing on the + one hand to the want of money for carrying on the war they had + undertaken, and on the other to a desire of satisfying the turbulent + demands of the legions. Where is to be found a time so full of terror + as this, when even tears were forbidden? + +42. The civil war, now on the eve of breaking out, may be considered +therefore as a war between the oligarchy and the defenders of the +republic. The Roman world was, as it were, divided between the two; and +although the former had possession of Italy, and the western provinces, +that advantage seemed counterbalanced to the chiefs of the opposite +party by the possession of the eastern countries, and the naval power of +Sextus Pompey, which seemed to assure them the dominion of the sea. + + M. Brutus had taken possession of his province of Macedonia as early + as the autumn of 44; while Cassius, on the contrary, had to contend + for that of Syria with Dolabella, who by the murder of the proconsul + Trebonius had possessed himself of Asia. Being, however, for this + offence, declared an enemy by the senate, and shut up in Laodicea by + Cassius, he killed himself, June 5, 43. From this time Brutus and + Cassius were masters of all the eastern provinces, at whose expense + they maintained their troops, though not without much oppression. S. + Pompey, after the victory of Munda, 45, having secreted himself in + Spain, and afterwards become a chief of freebooters, had grown very + powerful; when the senate, after Caesar's assassination, having made + him commander of the sea-forces, he with them took possession of + Spain, and, after the conclusion of the triumvirate, of Sicily, and + then, very soon after, of Sardinia and Corsica. It was a great thing + for the triumvirate, that C. Pompey did not know how to reap half the + profit he might have done from his power and good fortune. + +43. Macedonia became the theatre of the new civil war, and together with +the goodness of their cause, superior talents, and greater power both by +land and sea, seemed combined to ensure the victory to Brutus and +Cassius. But in the decisive battle at Philippi, fortune played one of +her most capricious tricks, and with the two chiefs fell the last +supporters of the republic. + + Double battle at Philippi towards the close of the year 42; voluntary + death of Cassius after the first, and of Brutus after the second + engagement. + + PLUTARCHI _Vita Bruti_; from the narratives of eyewitnesses. + +44. The history of the eleven years intervening between the battle of +Philippi and that of Actium, is little more than an account of the +quarrels of the oligarchy among themselves. The most subtle was, in the +end, victorious; for M. Antony possessed all the sensuality of Caesar, +without his genius: and the insignificant Lepidus soon fell a sacrifice +to his own vanity and weakness. While Antony went into Asia to arrange +the affairs of the eastern provinces, and from thence with Cleopatra to +Alexandria, Octavianus returned to Rome. But the famine which then +reigned in that city through Pompey's blockade of the seacoast; the +misery spread throughout Italy by the wresting of patrimonial lands from +the proprietors to distribute among the veterans; and the insatiable +covetousness of the latter rendered his situation as dangerous now as it +had been before the war. Besides all this, the hatred of the enraged +consort of Antony, who had entered into an alliance with her +brother-in-law, the consul L. Antony, brought on, towards the end of the +year, a civil war, which ended with the surrender and burning of +Perusium, in which L. Antony had shut himself up, and which was already +much weakened by famine. + + The _bellum Perusinum_ lasted from the end of the year 41 till April, + 40. + +45. This war, however, had nearly led to one still greater; for M. +Antony, as the enemy of Octavianus, had come to Italy in order to assist +his brother, and with the intention of forming an alliance with S. +Pompey against the former. But fortunately for the world, not only was +harmony restored between the triumvirs, but on account of the great +famine which prevailed at Rome, a peace was also concluded with Pompey, +although it lasted but a very short time. + + The principal object of the peace between the triumvirs was a new + division of the provinces, by which the city of Scodra in Illyria was + fixed upon as the boundary. Antony obtained all the eastern provinces; + Octavianus all the western; and Lepidus Africa. Italy remained in + common to them all. The marriage of Antony with Octavia, Fulvia being + dead, was intended to cement this agreement. In the peace concluded + with S. Pompey at Misenum, he obtained the islands of Sicily, + Sardinia, and Corsica, and the promise of Achaia. + +46. Pompey, however, was not long in finding that an alliance between +him and the triumvirs would only end in his own destruction; and the war +which he soon commenced, and which Octavianus could not bring to a close +but with the assistance of Agrippa, was of so much the more importance, +as it not only decided the fate of Pompey, but by leading to +dissensions, and the expulsion of Lepidus, reduced the triumvirate to a +duumvirate. + + After a doubtful engagement at sea, 38, and the formation of a new + fleet, Pompey was attacked on all sides at the same time; Lepidus + coming from Africa, and Antony sending also some ships. Final + overthrow of Pompey, who flies to Asia and there perishes.--Lepidus + wishing to take possession of Sicily, Octavianus gains over his + troops, and obliges him to retire from the triumvirate. + +47. The foreign wars in which Octavianus as well as Antony were engaged +in the following years, prevented for some time their mutual jealousy +from coming to an open rupture. Octavianus, to tame his unruly legions, +employed them with some success against the nations of Dalmatia and +Pannonia; whilst Antony undertook an expedition against the powerful +Parthians and their neighbours. But in offending Rome by his conduct in +these wars, he only armed his opponent against himself; and his formal +separation from Octavia, loosened the only tie which had hitherto held +together the two masters of the world. + + After his first stay in Alexandria, 41, Antony returned to Italy, 40, + and then, having made peace with Octavianus, he carried his new wife + Octavia with him into Greece, where he remained till the year 37. + Although his lieutenant Ventidius had fought with success against the + Parthians, who had invaded Syria (see above, p. 302.), Antony + determined to undertake an expedition against them himself, 36. But + although in alliance with Artavasdes king of Armenia (whom he soon + after accused of treachery), in seeking to effect an entrance into + Parthia, by passing through Armenia and Media, a different route from + that taken by Crassus, he was very nearly meeting with the same fate, + and the expedition completely failed. He then revenged himself upon + Artavasdes, who fell into his hands in a fresh expedition which he + made, 34, and deprived him of his kingdom. After his triumphal + entrance into Alexandria, he made a grant of this as well as other + countries to Cleopatra and her children. (See above, p. 267.) In 33, + he intended to renew his expedition against the Parthians, in alliance + with the king of Media; but having, at the instigation of Cleopatra, + ordered Octavia to return home, when she had already come as far as + Athens on her way to meet him, Octavianus and Antony reciprocally + accused each other before the senate, and war was declared at Rome, + though only against Cleopatra. + +48. Greece became again the theatre of war; and although the forces of +Antony were most considerable, yet Octavianus had the advantage of +having, at least in appearance, the better cause. The naval victory of +Actium decided for Octavianus, who could scarcely believe it, till he +found that Antony had forsaken his fleet and army, the latter of which +surrendered without striking a blow. The capture of Egypt followed, (see +above, p. 267.) and that country was reduced to a Roman province; the +death of Antony and Cleopatra ended the war, and left Octavianus +absolute master of the republic. + + The history of the last days of Antony, principally after his decline, + having been written under the rule of his enemies, must be received + with that mistrust which all such histories require. It has furnished + abundant matter for the retailers of anecdote. The history of + Cleopatra rests partly on the accounts of her physician Olympus, of + which Plutarch made use. + + + + +FOURTH PERIOD. + + + HISTORY OF THE ROMAN STATE AS A MONARCHY TO THE OVERTHROW OF THE + WESTERN EMPIRE. B. C. 30.-A. C. 476. + + + + +_Geographical outline. View of the Roman empire and provinces, and other +countries connected with it by war or commerce._ + + +The ordinary boundaries of the Roman empire, which, however, it +sometimes exceeded, were in Europe the two great rivers of the Rhine and +Danube; in Asia, the Euphrates and the sandy desert of Syria; in Africa +likewise, the sandy regions. It thus included the fairest portions of +the earth, surrounding the Mediterranean sea. + +EUROPEAN COUNTRIES: I. Spain (Hispania). Boundaries: on the east the +Pyrenees, on the south, north, and west, the sea. Principal rivers: the +Minius (Minho), Durius (Douro), Tagus (Tejo), Anas (Guadiana), Baetis +(Guadalquiver), which flow into the Atlantic; and the Iberus (Ebro), +which falls into the Mediterranean. Mountains: besides the Pyrenees, the +Idubeda along the Iberus, Orospeda (Sierra Morena). Divided into three +provinces. 1. Lusitania: northern boundary the Durius, southern, the +Anas. Principal tribes: Lusitani, Turdetani. Principal town: Augusta +Emerita. 2. Baetica: boundaries on the north and west the Anas, on the +east the mountains of Orospeda. Principal tribes: Turduli, Bastuli. +Principal towns: Corduba (Cordova), Hispalis (Seville), Gades (Cadiz), +Munda. 3. Tarraconensis, all the remainder of Spain. Principal tribes: +Callaeci, Astures, Cantabri, Vascones, in the north; Celtiberi, +Carpetani, Ilergetes, in the interior; Indigetes, Cosetani, etc. on the +Mediterranean. Chief towns: Tarraco (Tarragona), Cartago Nova +(Carthagena), Toletum (Toledo), Ilerda (Lerida); Saguntum and Numantia +(Soria) were already destroyed. The Balearic isles, Major (Majorca), and +Minor (Minorca), were considered as belonging to Spain. + +II. Transalpine Gaul. Boundaries: on the west the Pyrenees; on the east +the Rhine, and a line drawn from its source to the little river Varus, +together with that river itself; on the north and south the sea. +Principal rivers: the Garumna (Garonne), Liger (Loire), Sequana +(Seine), and Scaldis (Scheldt), which empty themselves into the ocean; +the Rhodanus (Rhone), which is increased by the Arar (Saone), and falls +into the Mediterranean; and the Mosella (Moselle) and Mosa (Meuse), +which flow into the Rhine. Mountains: besides the Alps, the Jura, +Vogesus (Vosge), and Cebenna (Cevennes). Divided into four provinces. 1. +Gallia Narbonensis, or Braccata. Boundaries: on the west the Pyrenees, +on the east the Varus, on the north the Cevennian mountains. Principal +tribes: Allobroges, Volcae, Calyes. Principal towns: Narbo (Narbonne), +Tolosa (Toulouse), Nemausus (Nimes), Massilia (Marseilles), Vienna. 2. +Gallia Lugdunensis, or Celtica. Boundaries: to the south and west the +Liger (Loire), to the north the Sequana, to the east the Arar. Principal +tribes: Aedui, Lingones, Parisii, Cenomani, etc. all of Celtic origin. +Principal towns: Lugdunum (Lyons), Lutetia Parisiorum (Paris), Alesia +(Alise). 3. Gallia Aquitanica. Boundaries: the Pyrenees on the south, +the Liger on the north and east. Principal tribes: Aquitani (of Iberian +origin), Pictones, Averni, etc. of Celtic descent. Principal towns: +Climberis, Burdegala (Bourdeaux). 4. Gallia Belgica. Boundaries: on the +north and east the Rhine, on the west the Arar, on the south the +Rhodanus as far as Lugdunum, so that it comprised at first the countries +bordering on the Rhine and Helvetia. The latter, however, were +afterwards separated from it under the names of Germania Inferior and +Superior. Principal tribes: Nervii, Bellovaci, etc. in the north, of +Belgic origin; Treviri, Ubii, of German origin; Sequani, Helvetii, in +the interior, of Celtic origin. Principal towns: Vesentio (Besancon), +Verodunum (Verdun), etc. Along the Rhine in Germania Inferior: Colonia +Agrippina (Cologne). In Germania Superior: Mogontiacum (Mayence, or +Mentz), and Argentoratum (Strasburg). + +III. Gallia Cisalpina, or Togata (Lombardy, see above, p. 315). But as +from the time of Caesar the inhabitants enjoyed all the privileges of +Roman citizens, it may be reckoned as forming part of Italy. + +IV. Sicilia; divided into Syracuse and Lilybaeum. + +V. Sardinia and Corsica, see above, p. 320. + +VI. The Insulae Britannicae (British islands); but of these, only England +and the southern part of Scotland were reduced into a Roman province in +the time of Nero, under the name of Britannia Romana. Principal rivers: +Tamesis (Thames) and Sabrina (Severn). Cities: Eboracum (York) in the +north, Londinum (London) in the south. Into Scotland, Britannia +Barbaria, or Caledonia, the Romans often penetrated, but without being +ably completely to conquer it; and as for Hibernia, Ierne (Ireland), it +was visited by Roman merchants, but never by Roman legions. + +VII. The countries south of the Danube, which were subdued under +Augustus and formed into the following provinces: 1. Vindelicia. +Boundaries: on the north the Danube, on the east the Aenus (Inn), on the +west Helvetia, on the south Rhaetia. Principal tribes: Vindelici, +Brigantii, etc. Principal towns: Augusta Vindelicorum (Augsburg), +Brigantia (Bregenz). 2. Rhaetia. Boundaries: on the north Vindelicia, on +the east the Inn and the Salza, on the south the chain of the Alps from +Lacus Verbanus (Lago Maggiore) to Belinzona, on the west Helvetia. +Principal tribe: Rhaeti. Principal towns: Curia (Chur), Veldidena +(Wilden), Tridentum (Trent). 3. Noricum. Boundaries: on the north the +Danube, on the west the Aenus, on the east the mountain Cetius +(Kahlenberg), and on the south the Julian Alps and the Savus (Save). +Principal tribes: Boii. Cities: Jovavum (Salzburg), Boiodurum (Passau). +4. Pannonia Superior. Boundaries: on the north and east the Danube, on +the south the Arrabo (Raab), on the west the mountain Cetius. Cities: +Vindobona (Vienna), Caruntum. 5. Pannonia Inferior. Boundaries: on the +north the Arrabo, on the east the Danube, on the south the Savus. +Cities: Taurunum (Belgrade), Mursa (Esseg), and Sirmium. 6. Moesia +Superior. Boundaries: on the north the Danube, on the south Mount +Scardus, or Scodrus, on the west Pannonia, on the east the river Cebrus +(Ischia). Cities: Singidunum (Semlin), and Naissus (Nissa). 7. Moesia +Inferior. Boundaries: on the north the Danube, on the west the Cebrus, +on the south mount Haemus (the Balkan), and on the east the Pontus +Euxinus. Cities: Odessus (Varna), Tomi (Tomisvar). + +VIII. Illyricum, in its most extensive signification, comprised all the +provinces south of the Danube, together with Rhaetia and Dalmatia: but +Illyricum Proper comprehends only the lands along the coast of the +Adriatic, from Rhaetia in Italy to the river Drinus, and easterly to the +Savus. Principal towns: Salona, Epidaurus (near the present Ragusa), +Scodra (Scutari). + +IX. Macedonia. Boundaries: on the north mount Scodrus, on the south the +Cambunian mountains, on the west the Adriatic, and on the east the Aegean +sea. Rivers: the Nestus, Strymon, and Halyacmon, which fall into the +Aegean sea, and the Apsus and Aoeus, which fall into the Adriatic. +Principal tribes: Paeones in the north, Pieres and Mygdones in the south. +Principal towns: Pydna, Pella, Thessalonica, Philippi, with other Greek +colonies (see above, p. 164). Dyrrachium and Apollonia on the western +coast. + +X. Thrace had for some time kings of her own, though dependent on Rome, +and was first reduced to a Roman province under Claudius. Boundaries: on +the north Mount Haemus, on the west the Nestus, on the south and east the +sea. River: Hebrus. Principal tribes: Triballi, Bessi, and Odrysae. +Cities: Byzantium, Apollonia, Beroea. + +XI. Achaia (Greece), see above, p. 131. + +XII. To the north of the Danube the province of Dacia was brought under +the Roman empire by Trajan. Boundaries: on the south the Danube, on the +west the Tibiscus (Theiss), in the east the Hierasus (Pruth), in the +north the Carpathian mountains. Principal tribe: Daci. Chief cities; +Ulpia Trajana and Tibiscum. + +ASIATIC PROVINCES: I. Asia Minor contained the provinces: 1. Asia (see +above, p. 293). 2. Bithynia, together with Paphlagonia and part of +Pontus. 3. Cilicia, with Pisidia (see above, p. 18.) II. Syria and +Phoenicia. III. The isle of Cyprus. Several other states, likewise +dependent, still preserved their kings: as, Judaea (became a Roman +province, A. D. 44.), Commagene (province A. D. 70, and, together with +Judaea, added to Syria), Cappadocia (province A. D. 17), Pontus +(completely a province under Nero). Free states at this time: Rhodes, +Samos (provinces A. D. 70), and Lycia (province A. D. 43). Beyond the +Euphrates, Armenia and Mesopotamia were reduced to provinces by Trajan, +but, as early as the time of Adrian, were abandoned. + +AFRICAN PROVINCES. I. Egypt. II. Cyrenaica, with the isle of Crete. III. +Africa, Numidia (see above, p. 47). Mauritania still had its separate +king, but he was set aside, A. D. 41, and the country divided into two +provinces: 1. Mauritania Caesariensis. Boundaries: on the east the river +Ampsaga, on the west the Mulucha. Principal places: Igilgilis and +Caesaria. 2. Mauritania Tingitana, from the river Mulucha to the Atlantic +ocean. Capital: Tingis. + +Principal states on the borders of the empire: I. Germania. Boundaries: +on the south the Danube, on the north the sea, on the west the Rhine, on +the east undetermined, though the Vistula is generally regarded as such. +Principal rivers: the Danubius, Rhenus (Rhine), Albis (Elbe), Visurgis +(Weser), Viadrus (Oder), and the Vistula; the Lupias (Lippe) and Amisia +(Ems) are likewise frequently mentioned. Mountains and forests: the +Hercynian forest, a general name for the forest mountains, particularly +of eastern Germany. Melibocus (the Hartz), Sudetus (the Thuringian +forest); the forest of Teutoburg, to the south of Westphalia, etc. It +would be useless to seek for a general political division, or for the +cities, of ancient Germany; we can only point out the situation of the +principal tribes. It is necessary, however, to precede this by two +observations: 1. The same territory, in the tide of forcible emigration +and conquest, and particularly after the second century, often changed +its inhabitants. 2. The names of some of the principal tribes often +became that of a confederacy. The principal tribes in the period of +Augustus were, in northern Germany; the Batavi in Holland; the Frisii in +Friesland; the Bructeri in Westphalia; the lesser and larger Chauci in +Oldenburg and Bremen; the Cherusci, likewise the name of a +confederation, in Brunswick; the Catti in Hesse. In southern (central) +Germany: the Hermunduri in Franconia; the Marcomanni in Bohemia. The +Alemanni, not the name of a single tribe, but of a confederation, are +first mentioned in the third century: in the period of Augustus these +tribes, and the principal of those of eastern Germany, which gradually +became known, were included under the general name of Suevi. + +The northernmost countries of Europe were considered as isles of the +German ocean, and therefore regarded as belonging to Germany. They were +Scandinavia, or Scandia (southern Sweden), Nerigon (Norway), and +Eningia, or probably Finningia (Finland). The northernmost island was +called Thule. + +The north of Europe, from the Vistula to the Tanais (Don), was comprised +under the general name of Sarmatia; but beyond the territory about the +Danube, and especially Dacia (see above, p. 407), they were only in a +slight degree acquainted with the coast of the Baltic, by the amber +trade. + +In Asia the Roman empire was bounded by Great Armenia (see above, p. 19, +and 299), the Parthian empire from the Euphrates to the Indus (see +above, p. 19-22), and the peninsula of Arabia (see above, p. 19). + +Eastern Asia, or India, became known to the Romans by a commercial +intercourse carried on between them, and which began soon after the +conquest of Egypt. It was divided into India on this side the Ganges, +that is: 1. The territory between the Indus and Ganges; 2. The peninsula +on this side, the western coast of which in particular (Malabar), was +very well known; and, 3. The island of Taprobana (Ceylon), and India +beyond the Ganges, to which also the distant Serica belonged: but of all +these countries they had but a very imperfect knowledge. + +The boundaries of Africa were Aethiopia above Egypt, and Gaetulia and the +great sandy desert of Libya, above the other provinces. + + + + +FIRST SECTION. + +_From Augustus Caesar to the death of Commodus, B. C. 30. A. C. 193._ + + + SOURCES. For the whole of this period DION CASSIUS, lib. li-lxxx, is + our historian; though of his last twenty books we have only the + abridgment of Xiphilinus. For the history of the emperors from + Tiberius to the beginning of Vespasian's reign, the principal writer + is TACITUS, in his _Annals_, A. C. 14-63; (of which, however, part of + the history of Tiberius, 32-34, all of Caligula and the first six + years of Claudius, 37-47, as well as the last year and a half of Nero, + are unfortunately lost); and in his _History_, of which scarcely the + first three years, 69-71, are come down to us. SUETONIUS'S _Lives of + the Caesars_, down to Domitian, are so much the more valuable, because + in a state like the Roman it becomes of importance to know the + character and domestic life of the ruling men. For the reigns of + Augustus and Tiberius the _History_ of VELLEIUS PATERCULUS is not of + less consequence, although written in a court-like tone. The sources + for the history of the separate Caesars will be given as we come to + them. + + The following are the labours of modern writers: + + _Histoire des Empereurs et des autres Princes qui ont regne dans les + six premiers siecles de l'Eglise_, _par_ M. LENAIN DE TILLEMONT. a + Bruxelle, 1707, 5 vols. 8vo. (An earlier edition in 4to. 1700, 4 + vols.) The work of Tillemont has some worth as a laborious + compilation, but is superseded in its execution by the following: + + _Histoire des Empereurs Romains, depuis Auguste jusqu' a Constantin_, + _par_ M. CREVIER. Paris, 1749, 12 vols. 8vo. [Translated into + English.] A continuation of Rollin's Roman History (see above, p. + 318), quite in the spirit of that writer, and by one of his school. + + DR. GOLDSMITH'S _Roman History, from the foundation of the city of + Rome to the destruction of the western empire_. London, 1774, 2 vols. + 8vo. Rather a sketch than a detailed history (see above, p. 321, + sqq.). + + # _History of Rome under the Emperors, and of the contemporary + nations_, _by_ M. D. G. H. HUBLER. Fryburg, 1803, 3 parts. + Continuation of the work cited p. 2: it reaches down to Constantine. + +1. Octavianus Caesar, on whom the senate conferred the honourable title +of Augustus, which they periodically renewed, and which descended to his +successors, possessed the sole dominion of the empire during forty-four +years. The government, notwithstanding the great revolutions by which +the republic had been converted into a monarchy, was not yet, either in +fact or in form, altogether a despotic one. The private interest of the +ruler required that the republican form should be preserved to the +utmost, as without that he could not make an entire change; and the rest +of his history sufficiently shows, that the cruelty with which he may be +reproached in the early part of his career, was rather owing to +circumstances than to his natural disposition. But during a reign so +long, so tranquil, and so fortunate, could it be otherwise than that the +republican spirit which at the beginning existed only in a few +individuals, should evaporate of itself! + + The forms under which Augustus held the different branches of supreme + power (dictatorship excepted) were;--the consulate, which, till B. C. + 21, was annually renewed; and the _potestas consularis_, which, in B. + C. 19, was settled on him for ever;--the _tribunicia potestas_, which + was, 30, granted him for ever, rendered his person sacred + (_sacrosancta_), and prepared the way to the _judicia majestatis_ + (accusations of high treason). As _imperator_, 31, he continued + commander of all the forces, and obtained the _imperium proconsulare_ + (proconsular power) in all the provinces. He assumed the _magistratura + morum_ (censorship), 19; and became _pontifex maximus_ (high priest), + 13. To avoid all appearances of usurpation, Augustus at first + accepted the sovereign power only for ten years, and afterwards had it + renewed from time to time, for ten or five years, which, at a later + period, gave rise to the _sacra decennalia_. + +2. The senate, indeed, remained a permanent council of state, and +Augustus himself endeavoured to increase its authority by more than one +purification (_lectio_); but the connection between him and that +assembly seemed of a very fragile nature, as it was undetermined, and +could not at this time be settled, whether Augustus was over the senate, +or the senate over Augustus. All matters of state could not be brought +before the senate, as even the most important often required secrecy. It +naturally followed, that a prince, as yet without a court, and who had +no proper minister, but only his friends and freedmen, should consult +with those whom he thought most worthy his confidence, a Maecenas, or an +Agrippa, etc. Hence afterwards was formed the secret council of state +(_consilium secretum principis_). Among the republican magistrates the +highest lost most; and as so much now depended upon the preservation of +peace in the capital, the offices of praefect of the city (_praefectus +urbis_) and praefect of provisions (_praefectus annonae_) were not only +made permanent, but became, especially the former, the principal offices +in the state. + + The spirit of monarchy shows itself in nothing more than in its strict + distinction of ranks; hence, therefore, the magistrates, especially + the consuls, lost nothing. Hence also the long-continued custom of + nominating under-consuls (_consules suffecti_,) which in time + became merely a formal assumption of the _ornamenta consularia et + triumphalia_ (consular and triumphal ornaments). Other offices were + created for the purpose of rewarding friends and dependents. + +3. The introduction of standing armies, already long prepared, naturally +followed a dominion acquired by war; and became, indeed, necessary to +guard the frontiers and preserve the newly-made conquests; the +establishment of the guards and militia of the city (_cohortes +praetorianae_ and _cohortes urbanae_) were measures equally necessary for +the security of the capital and the throne. The creation of _two_ +praetorian praefects, however, instead of _one_, diminished for the +present the great importance of that office. + + Distribution of the legions over the provinces in _castra stativa_ + (fixed camps), which soon grew into cities, especially along the + Rhine, the Danube, and the Euphrates (_legiones Germanicae, Illyricae, + et Syriacae_). Fleets also were stationed at Misenum and Ravenna. + +4. The government, as well as the administration and revenue of the +provinces, Augustus willingly divided with the senate; keeping to +himself those on the frontiers (_provinciae principis_,) in which the +legions were quartered, and leaving to that assembly the others +(_provinciae senatus_). Hence his deputies (_legati_, lieutenants) +exercised both civil and military authority in his name; while those of +the senate, on the contrary (_proconsules_), only administered in civil +affairs. Both were, in general, attended by commissioners (_procuratores +et quaestores_). The provinces were unquestionably gainers by this new +arrangement, not only because their governors were more carefully looked +after, but because they were paid by the state. + + The fate of the provinces naturally depended, in a great degree, upon + the disposition of the emperor and governor; but there was also an + essential difference between the provinces of the emperor and those + of the senate (_provinciae principis et senatus_): in the latter there + was no military oppression as there was in the former; and to that may + be ascribed the flourishing state of Gaul, Spain, Africa, etc. + +5. There is little doubt but that the finances of the treasury remained, +upon the whole, much the same as before; but in its internal +administration Augustus made many alterations, of which we have but a +very imperfect knowledge. Of course there would be at first an obvious +difference between the privy and military chest of the emperor +(_fiscus_), which was at his immediate disposal, and the state chest +(_aerarium_) which he disposed of indirectly through the senate, though +it must afterwards follow as a natural consequence of increasing +despotism, that the latter should progressively become merged in the +former. + + The great disorder into which the treasury had been thrown during the + civil wars, and especially by giving away the state lands in Italy to + the soldiers, together with the heavy sums required for the + maintenance of the standing army now established, must have rendered + it much more difficult for Augustus to accomplish the reform he so + happily executed; and in which it seems to have been his chief aim to + place everything, as far as possible, upon a solid and lasting + foundation. The principal changes which he made in the old system of + taxation seem to have been: 1. That the tithes hitherto collected in + the provinces should be changed into a fixed quota, to be paid by each + individual. 2. The customs, partly by reestablishing former ones, and + partly by imposing new ones as well as an excise (_centesima rerum + venalium_), were rendered more productive. The possession of Egypt, + which was the depot of nearly all the commerce of the east, rendered + the customs at this time of great importance to Rome. 3. All the state + lands in the provinces were, by degrees, changed into crown lands. Of + the new taxes the most considerable were the _vigesima hereditatum_ + (the twentieth of inheritances), though with important restrictions; + and the fines upon celibacy by the _lex Julia Poppaea_.--The greater + part of these state revenues most likely flowed, from the very first, + into the _fiscus_: that is, the whole revenues of the _provinciae + principis_, as well as of those parts of the _provinciae senatus_ which + were appropriated to the maintenance of the troops; the revenues + arising from the crown domains; the _vigesima_, etc. To the _aerarium_ + (now under three _praefecti aerarii_) remained a part of the revenues of + the _provinciae senatus_, the customs and the fines. Thus it appears + that Augustus was master of the finances, of the legions, and thereby + of the empire. + + See above, p. 362, the writings of HEGEWISCH and BOSSE. + +6. The extension of the Roman empire under Augustus was very +considerable; being generally of such a nature as conduced to the +security of the interior, and to the safeguard of the frontiers. The +complete subjugation of northern Spain, and western Gaul, secured the +frontiers on that side; as did the threatened but never-executed +expedition against the Parthians, and the one actually undertaken +against Armenia, A. C. 2. But the most important conquest in this +quarter was that of the countries south of the Danube, viz. Rhaetia, +Vindelicia, and Noricum, as well as Pannonia, and afterwards Moesia. To +counterbalance these, the expedition against Arabia Felix completely +failed; and that against Aethiopia was of no further consequence than to +strengthen the frontiers. + +7. All these conquests together, however, did not cost the Romans so +much as their fruitless attempt to subjugate Germany, first, by the +sons-in-law of Augustus, Drusus and Tiberius Nero, and afterwards by the +son of the former, Drusus Germanicus. Whether or not this undertaking +was a political fault, must always remain a problem, as it is now +impossible to say how far the security of the frontiers could be +preserved without it. + + Rome commenced her hostile attack upon Germany under the command of + Drusus, B. C. 12; Lower Germany (Westphalia, Lower Saxony, and Hesse) + being in general the theatre of the war: while the Lower Rhine was + attacked both by sea and land at the mouths of the Ems, the Weser, and + the Elbe, on account of the great assistance afforded the Romans by + their alliance with the nations on the coasts, the Batavi, Frisii, and + Chauci. The intrepid Drusus, in his second expedition, 10, penetrated + as far as the Weser, and, 9, even as far as the Elbe, but died on his + return. His successors in the command (Tiberius, 9-7, Domitius, + Aenobarbus, 7-2, M. Vinicius, 2-A. C. 2, then again Tiberius, A. C. + 2-4, who was followed by Quintilius Varus, A. C. 5-9,) endeavoured + to build on the foundation laid by Drusus, and, by erecting forts and + introducing the Roman language and laws, gradually to reduce into a + province the part of Germany they had already subdued; but the + craftily organized revolt of the young Arminius (Hermann,) a prince of + the Cherusci, son of Siegmar, and son-in-law of Segestes, a friend of + the Romans, together with the defeat of Varus and his army in the + Teutoburg wald, or forest, near Paderborn, A. C. 9, rescued Germany + from slavery, and its language from annihilation. It moreover taught + the conquerors (what they never forgot) that the legions were not + invincible. Augustus immediately despatched Tiberius, who had just + quelled a furious insurrection in Pannonia, together with Germanicus, + to the Rhine; but these confined themselves to simple incursions, till + Germanicus, A. C. 14-16, again carried his arms further into the + country, and certainly penetrated as far as the Weser. Yet, + notwithstanding his victory near Idistavisus (Minden), the loss of his + fleet and part of his army by a tempest on his return, and the + jealousy of Tiberius at his victory, obliged him to give up his + command. From this time the Germans were left at rest in this quarter. + + # MANNERT, _Geography of the Greeks and Romans_, part iii. + +8. The long, and for Italy itself, peaceable reign of Augustus, has +generally been considered a fortunate and brilliant period of Roman +history; and, when compared with the times which preceded and followed, +it certainly was so. Security of person and property were reestablished; +the arts of peace flourished under the benign patronage of Augustus and +his favourite Maecenas; and we may add, that, as the formal restoration +of the republic would only have been the signal for new commotions, the +government of Augustus, if not the very best, was, at least, the best +that Rome could then bear. Should it be said his private life was not +blameless, it may be replied, that he inflexibly maintained an outward +decency, to which, indeed, he sacrificed his only daughter; and if laws +could have bettered the public morals, there was no lack of decrees for +that purpose. + + Among his most important laws to this end are, the _lex Julia de + adulteriis_ and the _lex Papia Poppaea_ against celibacy. The latter + excited many murmurs. + +9. Nearly all that remains of the history of Augustus, is an account of +his domestic troubles; the most unhappy family being that of the +emperor. The influence of Livia, his second wife, was very great, but +does not seem to have been perverted to any worse purpose than raising +her sons, Tiberius and Drusus, to the throne. The naturally unsettled +state of the succession, in a government such as that of Rome now was, +became much increased by circumstances. After the untimely death of his +nephew and son-in-law Marcellus, whom he had adopted, his widow Julia, +the only child of Augustus by his wife Scribonia, was married to +Agrippa. The two eldest sons of this marriage, C. and L. Caesar, were +adopted, upon the death of their father, by the emperor, who showed so +much fondness towards them as they grew up, that Tiberius, who in the +mean time had married their mother, Julia,--afterwards banished by +Augustus for her licentious conduct--left the court in disgust. The +death of the two young princes, however, again revived the hopes of +Tiberius, who was adopted by Augustus upon the condition that he should +also adopt Drusus Germanicus, the son of his deceased brother Drusus; +after which Augustus, with the consent of the senate, formally +associated him with himself in the government, making him an equal +partner in the imperial privileges: called by his successors, _lex +regia_. + + _Marmor Ancyranum_; or, inscriptions in the temple of Augustus at + Ancyra. A copy of the account given of his government, which Augustus + latterly caused to be set up at Rome as a public memorial: + unfortunately much mutilated. It is to be found in CHISHULL, _Antiq. + Asiatic_. + + _Memoirs of the Court of Augustus, by_ THOMAS BLACKWELL. London, 1760, + 3 vols. 4to. divided into fifteen books. The last vol. was published + after the death of the author, by MR. MILLS. The last two books of + this prolix work contain a description of the contemporary affairs of + Augustus; the others go back to earlier times. A just appreciation of + Augustus requires a previous critical examination of the sources from + which Suetonius has drawn the materials for his biography. + + _Histoire des triumvirats augmentee de l'histoire d'Auguste, par_ + LARRY. Trevoux, 1741, 4 parts, 8vo. The last part of this simple + narrative contains the history of Augustus from the death of Catiline. + +10. The reign of Tiberius Claudius Nero, or, as he was called after his +adoption, Augustus Tiberius Caesar, from his fifty-sixth to his +seventy-eighth year, changed rather the spirit than the form of the +Roman constitution. He succeeded quietly to the vacant throne at Rome, +although the legions in Pannonia, and still more in Germany, felt that +they could make emperors. Under him the _comitia_, or assemblies of the +people, were reduced to a mere shadow; as he transferred their duties to +the senate, which also became the highest tribunal for the state crimes +of its own members: this assembly, however, had now been so much +accustomed to obey the will of the prince, that everything depended on +his personal character. Tiberius founded his despotism upon the _judicia +majestatis_, or accusations of high treason, now become an engine of +terror, the senate also sharing his guilt with a pusillanimity and +servility which knew no bounds. This degraded assembly, indeed, from the +moment that it ceased to be the ruling authority of a free state, +necessarily became the passive instrument of the most brutal tyranny. +Notwithstanding the military talents and many good qualities of +Tiberius, his despotic character had been formed long before his +fifty-sixth year, when he mounted the throne; although exterior +circumstances prevented him from entirely throwing off the mask which he +had hitherto worn. + + The foundation of the _judicia majestatis_, which soon became so + terrible by the unfixed state of crime, had been laid during the reign + of Augustus by the _lex Julia de majestate_, and the _cognitiones + extraordinariae_, or commissioners appointed to take cognizance of + certain crimes; it was, however, the abuse of them by Tiberius and his + successors, which rendered them so dreadful. + +12. The principal object of Tiberius's suspicion, and therefore of his +hate, was Germanicus, a man almost adored by the army and the people. +This brave general he soon recalled from Germany, and sent into Syria +to quell the disorders of the east. After having successfully put an end +to the commotions which called him there, he was poisoned by the +contrivances of Cn. Piso and his wife; and even that did not shelter the +numerous family which he left behind, with his widow Agrippina, from +persecution and ruin. + + The expeditions of Germanicus in the east not only gave a king to + Armenia, but also reduced Cappadocia and Commagene to Roman provinces, + A. C. 17. + + _Histoire de Caesar Germanicus, par_ M. L. D. B. [EAUFORT]. a Leyden, + 1741. An unpretending chronological narrative. + +13. Rome, however, soon experienced to her cost the powerful ascendancy +which L. Aelius Sejanus, the praefect of the praetorian guard, had acquired +over the mind of Tiberius, whose unlimited confidence he possessed the +more, as he enjoyed it without a rival. The eight years of his authority +were rendered terrible not only by the cantonment of his troops in +barracks near the city (_castra praetoriana_), but (having first +persuaded Tiberius to quit Rome for ever, that he might more securely +play the tyrant in the isle of Capreae) by his endeavouring to open a way +for himself to the throne by villanies and crimes without number, and by +his cruel persecution of the family of Germanicus. The despotism he had +introduced became still more dreadful by his own fall, in which not only +his whole party, but every one that could be considered as connected +with it, became involved. The picture of the atrocious despotism of +Tiberius is rendered doubly disgusting by the horrid and unnatural lust +which he joined to it in his old age. + + Tiberius's misfortune was, that he came too late to the throne. His + early virtues made no compensation for his later cruelties. It is + properly the former which Vel. Paterculus praises, whose flattery of + Tiberius, in whose reign he flourished, is more easily justified than + his praise of Sejanus. + +14. At the age of twenty-five Caius Caesar Caligula, the only remaining +son of Germanicus, ascended the throne; but the hopes which had been +formed of this young prince were soon wofully disappointed. His previous +sickness and debaucheries had so distorted his understanding, that his +short reign was one tissue of disorder and crime. Yet he did still more +harm to the state by his besotted profusion than by his tiger-like +cruelty. At length, after a career of nearly four years, he was +assassinated by Cassius Chaerea and Cornelius Sabinus, two officers of +his guard. + +15. His uncle Tiberius Claudius Caesar, who, at the age of fifty, +succeeded him, was the first emperor raised to the throne by the guards; +a favour which he rewarded by granting them a _donative_. Too weak to +rule of himself, almost imbecile from former neglect, profligate, and +cruel from fear, he became the tool of the licentiousness of his wives +and freedmen. Coupled with the names of Messalina and Agrippina, we now +hear, for the first time in Roman history, of a Pallas and a Narcissus. +The dominion of Messalina was still more hurtful to the state by her +rapacious cupidity, to which everything gave way, than by her dissolute +life; and the blow which at last punished her unexampled wantonness, +left a still more dangerous woman to supply her place. This was +Agrippina, her neice, widow of L. Domitius, who joined to the vices of +her predecessor a boundless ambition, unknown to the former. Her chief +aim was to procure the succession for Domitius Nero, her son by a former +marriage--who had been adopted by Claudius, and married to his daughter +Octavia--by setting aside Britannicus, the son of Claudius; and this she +hoped to effect, by poisoning Claudius, having already gained Burrhus, +by making him _sole_ praefect of the praetorian guard. Notwithstanding the +contentions with the Germans and Parthians (see above, p. 303) were only +on the frontiers, the boundaries of the Roman empire were in many +countries extended. + + Commencement of the Roman conquests in Britain (whither Claudius + himself went) under A. Plautius, from the year A. C. 43. Under the + same general, Mauritania, A. C. 42, Lycia, 43, Judaea, 44 (see above, + p. 312), and Thrace, 47, were reduced to Roman provinces. He also + abolished the praefectures which had hitherto existed in Italy. + +16. Nero Claudius Caesar, supported by Agrippina and the praetorian guard, +succeeded Claudius at the age of seventeen. Brought up in the midst of +the blackest crimes, and, by a perverted education, formed rather for a +professor of music and the fine arts than for an emperor, he ascended +the throne like a youth eager for enjoyment; and throughout his whole +reign his cruelty appears subordinate to his fondness for debaucheries +and revelry. The unsettled state of the succession first called into +action his savage disposition; and after the murder of Britannicus the +sword fell in regular order upon all those who were even remotely +connected with the Julian family. His vanity as a performer and composer +excited in an equal degree his cruelty; and as, among all tyrants, every +execution gives occasion for others, we need not wonder at his putting +to death every one that excelled him. His connection, however, in the +early part of his reign, with Agrippina, Burrhus, and Seneca, during +which he introduced some useful regulations into the treasury, kept him +within the bounds of decency. But Poppaea Sabina having driven him on to +the murder of his mother and his wife Octavia, and Tigellinus being made +his confident, he felt no longer restrained by the fear of public +opinion. The executions of individuals, nearly all of which history has +recorded, was not, perhaps, upon the whole, the greatest evil; the +plunder of the provinces, not only to support his own loose and +effeminate pleasures, but also to maintain the people in a continual +state of intoxication, had nearly caused the dissolution of the empire. +The last years of Nero were marked by a striking and undoubted insanity, +which displayed itself in his theatrical performances, and even in the +history of his fall. It appears that both around and upon a throne like +that of Rome, heroes were formed for vice as well as virtue! + + Discovery of the conspiracy of Piso, 65, and the revolt of Julius + Vindex in Celtic Gaul, 68, followed by that of Galba in Spain, who is + there proclaimed emperor, and joined by Otho, in Lusitania. + Nevertheless, after the defeat of Julius Vindex in Upper Germany, by + the lieutenant Virginius Rufus, these insurrections seemed quelled, + when the praetorian guard, instigated thereto by Nymphidius, broke out + into rebellion in Rome itself. Flight and death of Nero, June 11, 68. + Foreign wars during his reign: in Britain (occasioned by the revolt + of Boadicea), great part of which was subdued and reduced to a Roman + province, by Suetonius Paulinus; in Armenia, under the command of the + valiant Corbulo, against the Parthians (see above, p. 303); and in + Palestine against the Jews, 66. Great fire in Rome, 64, which gives + rise to the first persecution against the Christians. + + The principal cause why the despotism of Nero and his predecessors was + so tamely submitted to by the nation, may undoubtedly be found in the + fact, that the greater part of it was fed by the emperors. To the + monthly distributions of corn were now added the extraordinary + _congiaria_ and _viscerationes_ (supplies of wine and meat). The + periods of tyranny were very likely the golden days of the people. + +17. By the death of Nero the house of Caesar became extinct, and this +gave rise to so many commotions, that in somewhat less than two years, +four emperors by violence obtained possession of the throne. The right +of the senate to name, or at least to confirm, the successors to the +throne, was still indeed acknowledged; but as the armies had found out +that they could create emperors, the power of the senate dwindled into +an empty ceremony. Servius Sulpicius Galba, now seventy-two years of +age, having been already proclaimed emperor by the legions in Spain, and +acknowledged by the senate, gained possession of Rome without striking a +blow, the attempt of Nymphidius having completely failed, and Virginius +Rufus voluntarily submitting to him. Galba, however, having given +offence both to the praetorian guard and the German legions, was +dethroned by the guards, at the instigation of his former friend Otho, +at the very time when he thought he had secured his throne by adopting +the young Licinius Piso, and had frustrated the hopes of Otho. + +18. M. Otho, aged thirty-seven, was indeed acknowledged emperor by the +senate, but wanted the sanction of the German legions, who, proclaiming +their general, A. Vitellius, emperor, invaded Italy. Otho marches +against him, but after the loss of the battle of Bedriacum kills +himself--whether from fear or patriotism, remains uncertain. + + The special sources for the history of Galba and Otho, are their + _Lives_ by PLUTARCH. + +19. Vitellius, in his thirty-seventh year, was acknowledged emperor not +only by the senate, but likewise in the provinces; his debaucheries and +cruelty, however, together with the licentiousness of his troops, having +rendered him odious at Rome, the Syrian legions rebelled and proclaimed +their general, T. Flavius Vespasian, emperor, who, at the solicitation +of the powerful Mutianus, governor of Syria, accepted the imperial +diadem. The troops on the Danube declaring for him shortly after, and +marching into Italy under their general Antonius Primus defeated the +army of Vitellius at Cremona. Vitellius was immediately hurled from the +throne, though not till after some blood had been spilt by the +commotions that took place at Rome, in which Flavius Sabinus, the +brother of Vespasian, was slain, and the capitol burnt. + +20. Flavius Vespasian ascended the throne in his fifty-ninth year, and +became thereby the founder of a dynasty which gave three emperors to +Rome. The state, almost ruined by profusion, civil war, and successive +revolutions, found in Vespasian a monarch well suited to its unhappy +condition. He endeavoured, as far as he could, to determine the +relations between himself and the senate; while, by a decree, he +restored to it all the rights and privileges which had been conferred +upon it by his predecessors of the family of Caesar, and settled and +added some others (_lex regia_). He made a thorough reform in the +completely-exhausted treasury, which he recruited in part by reducing +the countries Nero had made free, together with some others, into +provinces; partly by restoring the ancient customs, by increasing +others, and by imposing new ones: without this it would have been +impossible for him to have reestablished the discipline of the army. His +liberality in the foundation of public buildings, as well in Rome as in +other cities; and the care with which he promoted education, by granting +salaries to public teachers, are sufficient to free him from the +reproach of avarice; and although, on account of their dangerous +opinions, he banished the Stoics (who since the time of Nero had become +very numerous, and retained nearly all the principles of republicanism), +the annulling of the _judicia majestatis_ and the restoration of the +authority of the senate show how far he was from being a despot. + + Rhodes, Samos, Lycia, Achaia, Thrace, Cilicia, and Commagene, were + brought by Vespasian into the condition of provinces. Foreign wars: + that against the Jews, which ended with the destruction of Jerusalem, + A. C. 70; and a much greater war against the Batavians and their + allies under Civilis, who during the late civil wars, sought to shake + off the Roman yoke, 69; but were reduced to an accommodation by + Cerealis, 70. Expeditions of Agricola in Britain, 78-85, who not only + subdued all England, and introduced the Roman manners and customs, but + also attacked and sailed round Scotland. + + _D. Vespasianus, sive de vita et legislatione T. Flavii Vespasiani + Imp. commentarius, auctore_ A. G. CRAMER. Jenae, 1785. An excellent + enquiry, with illustrations of the fragments of the _lex regia_. The + second part, _de legislatione_, contains a learned commentary upon the + _senatus consulta_, during his reign. + +21. His eldest son, Titus Flavius Vespasian, who in the year 70 had been +created Caesar, and reigned from his thirty-ninth to his forty-second +year, gives us the rare example of a prince becoming better on the +throne. His short and benevolent reign was, indeed, only remarkable for +its public calamities: an eruption of mount Vesuvius, overwhelming +several cities, was followed by a destructive fire, and a dreadful +plague at Rome. His early death secured him the reputation of being, if +not the happiest, at least the best of princes. + +22. His younger brother and successor, L. Flavius Domitian, who reigned +from his thirtieth to his forty-fifth year, gives an example quite +opposite to that of Titus: beginning with justice and severity, he soon +degenerated into the completest despot that ever swayed the Roman +sceptre. His cruelty, joined to an equal degree of pride, and nourished +by suspicion and jealousy, made him the enemy of all who excelled him by +their exploits, their riches, or their talents. The mortifications to +which his pride must have been subjected in consequence of his +unsuccessful wars against the Catti, and more particularly the Daci, +increased his bad disposition. His despotism was founded upon his +armies, whose pay he augmented one fourth; and that he might not +thereby diminish the treasury, as he had too much done at first, he +multiplied the _judicia majestatis_, rendering it still more terrible by +the employment of secret informers (_delatores_), in order, by +confiscations, to augment the wealth of his private treasury (_fiscus_). +By confining his cruelty chiefly to the capital, and by a strict +superintendence over the governors of provinces, Domitian prevented any +such general disorganization of the empire as took place under Nero. His +fall confirmed the general truth, that tyrants have little to fear from +the people, but much from individuals who may think their lives in +danger. + + The foreign wars during this reign are rendered more worthy of remark + by being the first in which the barbarians attacked the empire with + success. Domitian's ridiculous expedition against the Catti, 82, gave + the first proof of his boundless vanity; as did the recall of the + victorious Agricola, 85, from Britain, of his jealousy. His most + important war was that against the Daci, or Getae, who, under their + brave king Dercebal, had attacked the Roman frontiers; this again + occasioned another with their neighbours, the Marcomanni, Quadi, and + Jazygi, 86-90, which turned out so unfortunate for Rome, that Domitian + was obliged to purchase a peace of the Daci by paying them an annual + tribute. + +23. M. Cocceius Nerva, aged about seventy years was raised to the throne +by the murderers of Domitian; and now, at last, seemed to break forth +the dawn of a more happy period for the empire. The preceding reign of +terror completely ceased at once; and he endeavoured to impart fresh +vigour to industry, not only by diminishing the taxes, but also by +distributing lands to the poor. The insurrection of the guards +certainly cost the murderers of Domitian their lives; but it was at the +same time the cause of Nerva's securing the prosperity of the empire +after his death, by the adoption of Trajan. + +24. M. Ulpius Trajan (after his adoption, Nerva Trajan), a Spaniard by +birth, governed the empire from his forty-second to his sixty-second +year. He was the first foreigner who ascended the Roman throne, and at +the same time the first of their monarchs who was equally great as a +ruler, a general, and a man. After completely abolishing the _judicia +majestatis_, he made the restoration of the _free Roman constitution_, +so far as it was compatible with a monarchical form, his peculiar care. +He restored the elective power to the _comitia_, complete liberty of +speech to the senate, and to the magistrates their former authority; and +yet he exercised the art of ruling to a degree and in a detail which few +princes have equalled. Frugal in his expenses, he was nevertheless +splendidly liberal to every useful institution, whether in Rome or the +provinces, as well as in the foundation of military roads, public +monuments, and schools for the instruction of poor children. By his wars +he extended the dominion of Rome beyond its former boundaries; subduing, +in his contests with the Daci, their country, and reducing it to a Roman +province; as he likewise did, in his wars against the Armenians and +Parthians, Armenia, Mesopotamia, and part of Arabia. Why was so great a +character disfigured by an ambition of conquest? + + The first war against the Daci, in which the shameful tribute was + withdrawn and Dercebal reduced to subjection, lasted from 101-103. + But as Dercebal again rebelled, the war was renewed in 105, and + brought to a close in 106, when Dacia was reduced to a Roman province, + and many Roman colonies established therein. The war with the + Parthians arose from a dispute respecting the possession of the throne + of Armenia (see above, p. 304), 114-116: but although Rome was + victorious she gained no permanent advantage thereby. + + The especial source for the history of Trajan is the _Panegyricus_ of + PLINY THE YOUNGER; the correspondence, however, of the same writer, + while governor of Bithynia, with the emperor, affords us a much deeper + insight into the spirit of his government: PLINII _Epist._ lib. x. Who + can read it without admiring the royal statesman? + + RITTERSHUSII _Trajanus in lucem reproductus_. Ambegae, 1608. A mere + collection of passages occurring in ancient authors respecting Trajan. + + _Res Trajani Imperatoris ad Danubium Gestae, auctore_ CONRAD MANNERT. + Norimb. 1793: and + + JOH. CHRIST. ENGEL, _Commentatio de Expeditionibus Trajani ad + Danubium, et origine Valachorum_. Vindob. 1794.--Both learned + dissertations, written for the prize offered by the Royal Society of + Gottingen; the first of which obtained the prize, and the other the + _accessit_, i. e. was declared second best. + +25. By the contrivances of Plotina, his wife, Trajan was succeeded by +his cousin and pupil, whom he is said also to have adopted, P. Aelius +Adrian, who reigned from his forty-second to his sixty-third year. He +was acknowledged at once by the army of Asia, with which he then was, +and the sanction of the senate followed immediately after. He differed +from his predecessor in that his chief aim was the preservation of +peace; on which account he gave up (rare moderation!), directly after +his accession, the newly conquered provinces of Asia, Armenia, Assyria, +and Mesopotamia, and so put an end to the Parthian war (see above, p. +304.) He retained, though with some unwillingness, that of Dacia, +because otherwise the Roman colonies would have become exposed. He well +made up for his pacific disposition, however, in seeking, by a general +and vigorous reform in the internal administration, and by restoring the +discipline of the army, to give greater solidity to the empire. For that +purpose he visited successively all the provinces of the Roman empire; +first the eastern, and afterwards the western; making useful regulations +and establishing order wherever he came. He improved the Roman +jurisprudence by the introduction of the _edictum perpetuum_. +Passionately fond of and well instructed in literature and the fine +arts, he gave them his liberal protection, and thus called forth another +Augustan age. Upon the whole, his reign was certainly a salutary one for +the empire; and for any single acts of injustice of which he may be +accused, he fully compensated by his choice of a successor. After having +first adopted L. Aurelius Verus (afterwards Aelius Verus), who fell a +sacrifice to his debaucheries, he next adopted T. Aurelius Antoninus +(afterwards T. Aelius Adrianus Antoninus Pius), upon condition that he +should again adopt M. Aurelius Verus (afterwards M. Aurelius Antoninus), +and L. Cesonius Commodus (afterwards L. Verus), the son of Aelius Verus. + + During his reign a great revolt broke out in Judaea, under Barcochab, + 132-135, occasioned by the introduction of pagan worship into the + Roman colony of _Aelia Capitolina_ (the ancient Jerusalem). + + The especial source for the history of Adrian, is his _Life_ and that + of _Aelius Verus_ by AeLIUS SPARTIANUS _in Script. Hist. Aug. Minores_, + already quoted. + +26. The reign of Antoninus Pius, from his forty-seventh to his +seventieth year, was without doubt the happiest period of the Roman +empire. He found everything already in excellent order; and those +ministers which Adrian had appointed, he continued in their places. His +quiet activity furnishes but little matter for history; and yet he was, +perhaps, the most noble character that ever sat upon a throne. Although +a prince, his life was that of the most blameless individual; while he +administered the affairs of the empire as though they were his own. He +honoured the senate; and the provinces flourished under him, not only +because he kept a watchful eye over the conduct of the governors, but +because he made it a maxim of his government to continue in their places +all those whose probity he had sufficiently proved. He observed rigid +order in the finances, and yet without sparing where it could be of +service in the foundation or improvement of useful institutions; as his +erection of many buildings, establishment of public teachers with +salaries in all the provinces, and other examples fully show. He carried +on no war himself; on the contrary, several foreign nations made choice +of him to arbitrate their differences. Some rebellions which broke out +in Britain and Egypt, and some frontier wars excited by the Germans, the +Daci, the Moors, and the Alani, were quelled by his lieutenants. + + The principal and almost the only source for the history of Antoninus + Pius, Dion Cassius's history of this period being lost, is his _Life_ + by JULIUS CAPITOLINUS in the _Script. Hist. August._ And even this + refers to his private character rather than his public history. + Compare the excellent _Reflections_ of MARCUS AURELIUS, i, 16. upon + this prince. + + _Vie des Empereurs Tite Antonin et Marc Aurele_, _par_ M. GAUTIER DE + SIBERT. Paris, 1769, 8vo. A valuable essay on the lives of the two + Antonines. + +27. He was succeeded by Marcus Aurelius Antoninus, the philosopher (aged +40-59 years), who immediately associated with himself, under the title +of Augustus, L. Verus (aged 30-40 years, ! 169), to whom he gave his +daughter in marriage. Notwithstanding the differences of their +character, the most cordial union existed between them during the whole +of their common reign; L. Verus, indeed, being almost always absent in +the wars, took but a very small share in the government. The reign of M. +Aurelius was marked by several great calamities: a dreadful pestilence, +a famine, and almost continual wars. Nothing short of a prince like +Aurelius, who exhibited to the world the image of wisdom seated on a +throne, could have made so much misery tolerable. Soon after his +accession, the Catti made an irruption upon the Rhine, and the Parthians +in Asia. L. Verus was sent against them. But the wars on the Danube with +the Marcomanni and their allies in Pannonia, and other northern nations, +who now began to press forward with great force upon Dacia, were of much +greater consequence. They occupied M. Aurelius from the year 167, with +but little intermission, to the end of his reign. He succeeded, indeed, +in maintaining the boundaries of the empire; but then he was the first +who settled any of the barbarians within it, or took them into the Roman +service. In the internal administration of affairs he closely followed +the steps of his predecessor, except that he was rather too much +influenced by his freedmen and family. The only rebellion which broke +out against him, was that of Avidius Cassius, his lieutenant in Syria, +occasioned by a false report of his death; but it was quelled by the +destruction of that general, as soon as the truth was made known. + + The war against the Parthians (see above, p. 304) was indeed brought + to a successful issue by Verus, the principal cities of the Parthians + falling into the hands of the Romans; Verus left them, however, to be + carried on by his lieutenants, while he rioted in debaucheries at + Antioch. The first war against the Marcomanni, carried on in the + beginning and until the death of Verus, by the two emperors together, + was highly dangerous for Rome, as many other nations had joined the + Marcomanni, particularly the Quadi, Jazygi, and Vandals, and + penetrated as far as Aquileia. M. Aurelius ended this war by a + glorious peace, 174, as he found it necessary to stop the progress of + Cassius's rebellion; in 178, however, the Marcomanni again commenced + hostilities, and before their close M. Aurelius died at Sirmium. + Contemporary with these wars, yet, as it seems, without any connection + with them, were the attacks of other nations upon Dacia, the Bastarnae, + Alani, etc. who poured in from the north, probably pressed forward by + the advance of the Goths. _This was the first symptom of the great + migration of nations now beginning._ + + The especial sources for the history of M. Aurelius, are the + Biographies of him and L. Verus, written by JULIUS CAPITOLINUS, as + well as that of Avidius Cassius, by VULCATIUS GALLICANUS in _Script. + Hist. August._ The letters discovered in Milan, among and together + with the writings of FRONTO, are of no historical service.--His + principles are best learnt from his _Meditations on himself_. + + CH. MEINERS _de M. Aurel. Antonini ingenio, moribus, et scriptis, in + Commentat. Soc. Gotting._ vol. vi. + +28. By means of adoption the Roman empire had been blessed, during the +last eighty years, with a succession of rulers such as have not often +fell to the lot of any kingdom. But in J. Commodus the son of M. +Aurelius (probably the offspring of a gladiator), who reigned from his +nineteenth to his thirty-first year, there ascended the throne a monster +of cruelty, insolence, and lewdness. At the commencement of his reign he +bought a peace of the Marcomanni that he might return to Rome. Being +himself unable to support the burden of government, the helm of state +was placed in the hands of the stern and cruel Perennis, praefect of the +praetorian guard; but who, being murdered by the discontented soldiers, +was succeeded by the freedman Cleander, who put up all for sale, till he +fell a sacrifice to his own insatiable avarice, in a revolt of the +people, caused by their want of provisions. The extravagant propensity +of Commodus for the diversions of the amphitheatres, and the combats of +wild beasts and gladiators, wherein he himself usually took a part, in +the character of Hercules, became a chief cause of his dissipation, and +thereby of his cruelty; till at last he was killed at the instigation of +his concubine Marcia, Laetus the praefect of the praetorian guard, and +Electus. The wars on the frontiers during his reign, in Dacia, and +especially in Britain, were successfully carried on by his lieutenants, +generals who belonged to the school of his father. + + The especial source for the history of Commodus is his private life + by AEL. LAMPRIDIUS, in the _Script. Hist. August._--The history of + Herodian begins with his reign. + +29. The disasters under M. Aurelius, and the extravagances of Commodus, +had injured the empire, but not enfeebled it. Towards the close of the +period of the Antonines it still retained its pristine vigour. If wise +regulations, internal peace, moderate taxes, a certain degree of +political, and unrestrained civil liberty, are sufficient to form the +happiness of a commonwealth, it must have been found in the Roman. What +a number of advantages did it possess over every other, simply from its +situation! Proofs of it appear on every side. A vigorous population, +rich provinces, flourishing and splendid cities, and a lively internal +and foreign trade. But the most solid foundation of the happiness of a +nation consists in its moral greatness, and this we here seek for in +vain. Otherwise the nation would not so easily have suffered itself to +be brought under the yoke of Commodus by praetorian cohorts and the +legions. But what best shows the strength which the empire still +retained, is the opposition it continued to make, for two hundred years +longer, to the formidable attacks from without. + + D. H. HEGEWISCH _upon the Epochs in Roman History most favourable to + Humanity_. Hamburg, 1800-8. + + Foreign commerce, so flourishing in this period, could only be carried + on, to any extent, with the east--mostly with India--as the Roman + empire spread over all the west. This trade continued to be carried on + through Egypt, and also through Palmyra and Syria. Information + thereupon will be found in + + W. ROBERTSON'S _Disquisition concerning the Knowledge which the + Ancients had of India_. London, 1791, 4to. Often reprinted. And + particularly upon Egypt, in + + W. VINCENT, _the Periplus of the Erythrean Sea_. London, 1802, 4to. 2 + vols. A very instructive work. + + HEEREN, _Commentationes de Graecorum et Romanorum de India notitia, et + cum Indis commerciis_: _in Commentat. Soc. Gott._ vol. x. xi. + + + + +SECOND SECTION. + +_From the death of Commodus to Diocletian, A. C. 193-284._ + + + SOURCES. The Extracts of Xiphilinus from DION CASSIUS, lib. + lxxiii-lxxx. though often imperfect, reach down as low as the + consulate of Dion himself under Alexander Severus, 229.--HERODIANI + _Hist._ libri viii. comprise the period from Commodus to Gordian, + 180-238.--The _Scriptores Historiae Augustae Minores_ contain the + private lives of the emperors down to Diocletian, by JULIUS + CAPITOLINUS, FLAVIUS VOPISCUS, etc.--The _Breviaria Historiae Romanae_ + of EUTROPIUS, AURELIUS VICTOR, and S. RUFUS are particularly important + for this period.--Finally, the important information that may be + derived from the study of medals and coins, not only for this section, + but for the whole history of the emperors, may be best learnt by + consulting the writers upon those subjects: J. VAILLANT, _Numismata + Augustorum et Caesarum_, _cura_ J. F. BALDINO. Rome, 1743, 3 vols. _The + Medallic History of Imperial Rome_, by W. COOKE. London, 1781, 2 + vols.--But above all, the volumes belonging to this period in ECKHEL, + _Doctrina Nummorum Veterum_. + + With the period of the Antonines begins the great work of the British + historian: + + _The History of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire_, by EDWARD + GIBBON. Oxford, 1828, 8 vols. 8vo. In worth and extent this work is + superior to all others. It embraces the whole period of the middle + ages; but only the first part belongs to this period. + +1. The extinction of the race of the Antonines by the death of Commodus +was attended with convulsions similar to those which took place when the +house of Caesar became extinct at the death of Nero. It is true that P. +Helvius Pertinax, aged sixty-seven, praefect of the city, was raised to +the throne by the murderers of Commodus; and that he was acknowledged, +first by the guards, and afterwards by the senate. But the reform which +he was obliged to make at the beginning of his reign in the finances, +rendered him so odious to the soldiers and courtiers, that a revolt of +the first, excited by Laetus, cost him his life before he had reigned +quite three months. This was the first commencement of that dreadful +military despotism which forms the ruling character of this period; and +to none did it become so terrible as to those who wished to make it the +main support of their absolute power. + + The insolence of the praetorian guard had risen very high during the + reign of Commodus; but it had never, even in the time of the + Antonines, been entirely suppressed. It was only by large donatives + that their consent could be purchased, their caprice satisfied, and + their good humour maintained; especially at every new adoption. One of + the greatest reproaches to the age of the Antonines is, that those + great princes, who seem to have had the means so much in their power, + did not free themselves from so annoying a dependence. + + JUL. CAPITOLINI _Pertinax Imp. in Script. Hist. Aug._ + +2. When, upon the death of Pertinax, the rich and profligate M. Didius +Julianus, aged fifty-seven, had outbid, to the great scandal of the +people, all his competitors for the empire, and purchased it of the +praetorian guard, an insurrection of the legions, who were better able to +create emperors, very naturally followed. But as the army of Illyria +proclaimed their general Septimius Severus, the army of Syria, +Pescennius Niger, and the army of Britain, Albinus, nothing less than a +series of civil wars could decide who should maintain himself on the +throne. + + AEL. SPARTIANI _Didius Julianus, in Script. Hist. Aug._ + +3. Septimius Severus, however, aged 49-66, was the first who got +possession of Rome, and, after the execution of Didius Julianus, he was +acknowledged by the senate. He dismissed, it is true, the old praetorian +guard, but immediately chose, from his own army, one four times more +numerous in its stead. And after he had provisionally declared Albinus +emperor, he marched his army against Pescennius Niger, already master of +the east, whom, after several contests near the Issus, he defeated and +slew. Nevertheless, having first taken and destroyed the strong city of +Byzantium, a war with Albinus soon followed, whom the perfidious Severus +had already attempted to remove by assassination. After a bloody defeat +near Lyons, Albinus kills himself. These civil wars were followed by +hostilities against the Parthians, who had taken the part of Pescennius, +and which ended with the plundering of their principal cities (see +above, p. 304). Severus possessed most of the virtues of a soldier; but +the insatiable avarice of his minister Plautianus, the formidable +captain of the praetorian guard, robbed the empire even of those +advantages which may be enjoyed under a military government, until he +was put to death at the instigation of Caracalla. To keep his legions +employed, Severus undertook an expedition into Britain, where, after +extending the boundaries of the empire, he died at York (_Eboracum_), +leaving his son the maxim, "to enrich the soldiers, and hold the rest +for nothing." + + Agricola had already erected a line of fortresses, probably between + the Firth of Clyde and the Firth of Forth. These were changed by + Adrian into a wall along the present boundaries of Scotland. Severus + again extended the frontiers, reestablished the fortresses of + Agricola, and afterwards built a wall from sea to sea; his son, + however, gave up the conquered country, and the wall of Adrian again + became the boundary of the empire. + + AEL. SPARTIANI _Septimius Severus et Pescennius Niger_. + + JUL. CAPITOLINI _Claudius Albinus, in Script. Hist. Aug._ + +4. The deadly hatred which reigned between the two sons of Severus, M. +Aurelius Antoninus Bassianus Caracalla, aged 23-29, and his young +step-brother Geta, aged twenty-one, led to a dreadful catastrophe; for +at their return to Rome, and after a fruitless proposition had been made +for a division of the empire, Geta was assassinated in the arms of his +mother Julia Domna, together with all those who were considered as his +friends. The restless spirit of Caracalla, however, soon drew him from +Rome, and in traversing first the provinces along the Danube, and then +those of the east, he ruined them all by his exactions and cruelty, to +which he was driven for money to pay his soldiers, and to purchase peace +of his enemies on the frontiers. The same necessity led him to grant the +right of citizenship to all the provinces, that he might thereby gain +the duty of the _vicesima hereditatum et manumissionum_ (twentieth upon +inheritances and enfranchisements), which he very soon afterwards +changed into a tenth (_decima_).--With respect to his foreign wars, his +first was against the Catti and Alemanni, among whom he remained a long +time, sometimes as a friend and sometimes as an enemy. But his principal +efforts, after having previously ordered a dreadful massacre of the +inhabitants of Alexandria, to satisfy his cruel rapacity, were directed +against the Parthians (see above, p. 304); and in his wars against them +he was assassinated by Macrinus, the praefect of the praetorian guard. + + The praefect, or captain, of the praetorian guard became, from the time + of Severus, the most important officer in the state. Besides the + command of the guards, the finances were also under his control, + together with an extensive criminal jurisdiction. A natural + consequence of the continually increasing despotism. + + AEL. SPARTIANI _Antoninus Caracalla et Ant. Geta, in Script. Hist. + Aug._ + +5. His murderer, M. Opelius Macrinus, aged fifty-three, was recognized +as emperor by the soldiers, and forthwith acknowledged by the senate. He +immediately created his son, M. Opelius Diadumenus, aged nine years, +Caesar, and gave him the name of Antoninus. He disgracefully terminated +the war against the Parthians by purchasing a peace, and changed the +_decima_ (tenth) of Caracalla again into the _vicesima_ (twentieth). +However, while he still remained in Asia, Bassianus Heliogabalus, +grand-nephew of Julia Domna, and high priest in the temple of the Sun at +Emesa, whom his mother gave out for a son of Caracalla, was proclaimed +emperor by the legions, and, after a combat with the guards, +subsequently to which Macrinus and his son lost their lives, they raised +him to the throne. + + Maesa, the sister of Julia Domna, had two daughters, both widows; + Soaemis, the eldest, was the mother of Heliogabalus, Mammaea, the + youngest, the mother of Alexander Severus. + + JUL. CAPITOLINI _Opelius Macrinus, in Script. Hist. Aug._ + +6. Heliogabalus, aged 14-18, who assumed the additional name of M. +Aurelius Antoninus, brought with him from Syria the superstitions and +voluptuousness of that country. He introduced the worship of his god +Heliogabal in Rome, and wallowed openly in such brutal and infamous +debaucheries, that history can scarcely find a parallel to his +dissolute, shameless, and scandalous conduct. How low must the morality +of that age have been sunk, in which a boy could so early have ripened +into a monster!--The debasement of the senate, and of all important +offices, which he filled with the degraded companions of his own lusts +and vices, was systematically planned by him; and he deserves no credit +even for the adoption of his cousin, the virtuous Alexander Severus, as +he shortly after endeavoured to take away his life, but was himself for +that reason assassinated by the praetorian guards. + + # AEL. LAMPRIDII _Ant. Heliogabalus, in Script. Hist. Aug._ + +7. His young cousin and successor, M. Aurelius Alexander Severus, aged +14-27, who had been carefully educated under the direction of his mother +Mammaea, proved one of the best princes in an age and upon a throne where +virtues were more dangerous than vices. Under favour of his youth he +endeavoured to effect a reform, in which he was supported by the +cooperation of the guards, who had elevated him to the throne. He +restored the authority of the senate, from among whom he chose, with +rigid justice, his privy council of state, banishing the creatures of +Heliogabalus from their places. The revolution in the Parthian empire, +out of which was now formed the new Persian, was of so much importance +to Rome, that it obliged Alexander to undertake a war against +Artaxerxes, in which he was probably victorious. But while marching in +haste to protect the frontiers against the advance of the Germans upon +the Rhine, his soldiers, exasperated at the severity of his discipline, +and incited by the Thracian Maximin, murdered him in his own tent. His +praefect of the praetorian guard, Ulpian, had already, for the same cause, +fallen a victim to this spirit of insubordination, which was not checked +even by the immediate presence of the emperor himself. + + The revolution in Parthia, whereby a new Persian empire was formed + (see above, p. 304.), became a source of almost perpetual war to Rome; + Artaxerxes I. and his successors, the Sassanides, claiming to be + descendants of the ancient kings of Persia, formed pretensions to the + possession of all the Asiatic provinces of the Roman empire. + + AELII LAMPRIDII _Alexander Severus_, _in Script. Hist. Aug._ + + HEYNE _de Alexandro Severo Judicium_, Comment. i. ii. in _Opuscula + Academica_, vol. vi. + +8. The death of A. Severus raised military despotism to the highest +pitch, as it placed on the throne the half savage C. Julius Maximinus, +by birth a Thracian peasant. At first he continued the war against the +Germans with great success, repulsing them beyond the Rhine; and +resolved, by crossing Pannonia, to carry the war even among the +Sarmatians. But his insatiable rapacity, which spared neither the +capital nor the provinces, made him hateful to all; and Gordian, +proconsul of Africa, in his eightieth year, was, together with his son +of the same name, proclaimed Augustus by the people, and immediately +acknowledged by the senate. Upon this, Maximinus, eager to take +vengeance on the senate, marched directly from Sirmium towards Italy. In +the mean time, the legions of the almost defenceless Gordians were +defeated in Africa, and themselves slain by Capellianus the governor of +Numidia. Notwithstanding this, as the senate could expect no mercy, they +chose as co-emperors the praefect of the city, Maximus Pupienus, and +Clodius Balbinus, who, in conformity with the wishes of the people, +created the young Gordian III. Caesar. In the meanwhile Maximinus, having +besieged Aquileia, and the enterprise proving unsuccessful, was slain by +his own troops. Pupienus and Balbinus now seemed in quiet possession of +the throne; but the guards, who had already been engaged in a bloody +feud with the people, and were not willing to receive an emperor of the +senate's choosing, killed them both, and proclaimed as Augustus, +Gordian, already created Caesar. + + JUL. CAPITOLINI _Maximinus Gordiani tres, Pupienus et Balbinus_, _in + Script. Hist. August._ + +9. The reign of the young M. Antoninus Gordianus lasted from his twelfth +to his eighteenth year. He was grandson of the proconsul who had lost +his life in Africa, and in the early part of his reign, acquired a +degree of firmness from the support of his father-in-law, Misitheus, +praefect of the praetorian guard, as well as from the successful +expedition which he undertook into Syria against the Persians, who had +invaded that province. But after the death of Misitheus, Philip the +Arabian, being made praefect of the guards in his stead, found means to +gain the troops over to himself, and, after driving Gordian from the +throne, caused him to be assassinated. + +10. The reign of M. Julius Philippus was interrupted by several +insurrections, especially in Pannonia; until at length Decius, whom he +himself had sent thither to quell the rebellion, was compelled by the +troops to assume the diadem. Philip was soon after defeated by him near +Verona, where he perished, together with his son of the same name. In +this reign the secular games, _ludi saeculares_, were celebrated, one +thousand years from the foundation of the city. + +11. Under the reign of his successor, Trajanus Decius, aged fifty, the +Goths for the first time forced their way into the Roman empire by +crossing the Danube; and although Decius in the beginning opposed them +with success, he was at last slain by them in Thrace, together with his +son, Cl. Herennius Decius, already created Caesar. Upon this the army +proclaimed C. Trebonianus Gallus emperor, who created his son, Volusian, +Caesar; and having invited Hostilian, the yet remaining son of Decius, +with the ostensible purpose of securing his cooperation, he nevertheless +soon contrived to get rid of him. He purchased a peace of the Goths; +but, despised by his generals, he became involved in a war with his +victorious lieutenant, Aemilius Aemilianus, in Moesia, and was slain, +together with his son, by his own army. In three months, however, +Aemilianus shared the same fate; Publius Licinius Valerianus, the friend +and avenger of Gallus, advancing against him with the legions stationed +in Gaul. Both the people and army hoped to see the empire restored under +Valerian, already sixty years of age; but, although his generals +defended the frontiers against the Germans and Goths, he himself had the +misfortune to be defeated and taken prisoner by the superior forces of +the Persians. Upon this event his son and associate in the empire, P. +Licinius Gallienus, who knew everything except the art of governing, +reigned alone. Under his indolent rule the Roman empire seemed on one +hand ready to be split into a number of small states, while on the other +it seemed about to fall a prey to the barbarians; for the lieutenants in +most of the provinces declared themselves independent of a prince whom +they despised, and to which, indeed, they were driven, like Posthumius +in Gaul, for their own security.--There were nineteen of these; but as +many of them named their sons Caesars, this period has been very +improperly distinguished by the name of _the thirty tyrants_, although +their intolerable oppressions might well justify the latter expression. +The Persians at the same time were victorious in the east, and the +Germans in the west. + + The German nations which were now become so formidable to the Roman + empire, were: 1. The great confederation of tribes under the name of + _Franks_, who spread over Gaul along the whole extent of the Lower + Rhine. 2. The allied nations of the Alemanni on the Upper Rhine. 3. + The Goths, the most powerful of all, who had formed a monarchy upon + the banks of the Lower Danube and the northern coasts of the Black + sea, which soon extended from the Boristhenes to the Don; and who + became formidable, not only by their land forces, but also by their + naval power, especially after they had captured the peninsula of Crim + Tartary (_Chersonesus Taurica_); and by means of their fleets they not + only kept the Grecian, but likewise the Asiatic provinces in a + continual state of alarm. + + TREBELLI POLLIONIS _Valerianus, Gallieni duo, triginta tyranni_, _in + Script. Hist. Aug._ + + # _Concerning the thirty tyrants under the Roman emperor Gallienus_, + by J. C. F. MANSO; at the end of his _Life of Constantine_. + +12. Gallienus losing his life before Milan, in the war against Aureolus +an usurper, had nevertheless recommended M. Aurelius Claudius (aged +45-47) for his successor. The new Augustus reestablished in some degree +the tottering empire; not only by taking Aureolus prisoner and defeating +the Alemanni, but also by a decisive victory gained at Nissa over the +Goths, who had invaded Moesia. He died, however, soon after, at Sirmium, +of a pestilential disease, naming for his successor Aurelian, a hero +like himself, who mounted the throne upon the death of Quintillus the +late emperor's brother, who had at first proclaimed himself Augustus, +but afterwards died by his own hand. + + TREBELLII POLLIONIS _divus Claudius_, _in Script. Hist. Aug._ + +13. During the reign of L. Domitius Aurelianus, which lasted almost five +years, those countries which had been partly or entirely lost to the +empire were restored. Having first driven back the Goths and the +Alemanni, who had advanced as far as Umbria, he undertook his expedition +against the celebrated Zenobia, queen of Palmyra, who at that time +possessed Syria, Egypt, and part of Asia Minor. These countries he again +brought under the dominion of the empire, after having defeated Zenobia +and made her prisoner. The western provinces of Gaul, Britain, and +Spain, which since the time of Gallienus had been governed by separate +rulers, and were now under the dominion of Tetricus, he reduced to their +former obedience. Dacia, on the contrary, he willingly abandoned; and as +he transported the Roman inhabitants across the Danube into Moesia, the +latter henceforward bore the name of _Dacia Aureliani_. Hated for his +severity, which in a warrior so easily degenerates into cruelty, he was +assassinated in Illyria at the instigation of his private secretary +Mnestheus. + + FLAV. VOPISCI _divus Aurelianus_, _in Script. Hist. Aug._ + + Palmyra in the Syrian desert, enriched by the Indian trade, and one of + the most ancient cities in the world, became a Roman colony in the + time of Trajan. Odenatus, the husband of Zenobia, had acquired so much + celebrity by his victories over the Persians, that Gallienus had even + named him Augustus with himself. He was murdered, however, by his + cousin Maeonius, 267. Zenobia now took possession of the government for + her sons Vabalathus, Herennianus, and Timolaus, without, however, + being acknowledged at Rome. After this, in the time of Claudius, she + added Egypt to her dominions. Aurelian, having first defeated her near + Antioch and Emesa, soon afterwards took Palmyra, which, in consequence + of a revolt, he destroyed.--Even in its ruins Palmyra is still + magnificent. + + _The Ruins of Palmyra_, by R. WOOD. London, 1753; and the _Ruins of + Balbec, otherwise Heliopolis_, by the same author, London, 1757, give + us clear and certain ideas of the splendour and magnitude of these + cities. + + A. H. L. HEEREN, _de Commercio urbis Palmyrae vicinarumque urbium_, in + _Comment. recent. Soc. Gotting._ vol. vii. and the Appendix to + Heeren's Researches. + +14. An interregnum of six months followed upon the death of Aurelian, +till at length the senate, at the repeated solicitations of the army, +ventured to fill up the vacant throne. The object of their choice, +however, M. Claudius Tacitus, the worthiest of the senators, was +unfortunately seventy-five years old, and perished after a short reign +of six months, in an expedition against the Goths. Upon this event the +army of Syria raised M. Aurelius Probus to the purple; while Florianus +the brother of Tacitus, who had already been acknowledged at Rome, was +put to death by his own people. + + FLAV. VOPISCI _Tacitus; ejusd. Florianus_, _in Script. Hist. Aug._ + +15. The six years' reign of Probus was a warlike one. He defeated the +Germans, and forced them beyond the Rhine and Danube; strengthening the +frontiers by building a strong wall from the Danube, near Regensburg, to +the Rhine. He also obliged the Persians to make peace. Nevertheless, the +number of towns which he reestablished and peopled with prisoners of +war, and the vineyards which he caused his soldiers to plant on the +Rhine, are proofs that he had taste and inclination for the arts of +peace. This policy, however, would not suit the legions! After he had +perished, therefore, by the hands of his soldiers, they proclaimed the +praefect of the praetorian guard, M. Aurelius Carus, emperor, who created +his two sons Caesars--men very unlike each other in disposition, M. +Aurelius Carinus being one of the greatest reprobates, while M. +Aurelius Numerianus was gentle by nature, and had a mind well formed by +study. The new emperor, having defeated the Goths, marched against the +Persians, but was shortly afterwards killed, it is said, by a flash of +lightning. Nor did his son Numerianus long survive him, being murdered +by his own father-in-law, Arrius Aper, the praetorian praefect. + + FLAV. VOPISCI _Probus imper. ejusd. Carus, Numirianus et Carinus_, _in + Script. Hist. Aug._ + +16. Although this period gives us a finished picture of a complete +military despotism, it is still evident that this was owing to the +entire separation of the military order from the rest of the people, by +the introduction of standing armies, and the extinction of all national +spirit among the citizens. The legions decided because the people were +unarmed. It was, indeed, only among them, situated far from the soft +luxuries of the capital, and engaged in almost a continual struggle with +the barbarians, that a remnant of the ancient Roman character was still +preserved. The nomination of their leaders to the purple became a +natural consequence, not only of the uncertainty of the succession, +which could not be fixed by mere ordinances, but often of necessity, +from their being in the field under the pressure of urgent +circumstances. Thus a succession of distinguished generals came to the +throne: what authority, indeed, would an emperor at that time have had +who was not a general? All durable reform, however, was rendered quite +impossible by the quick succession of rulers. Even the best among them +could do but very little for the internal administration; as all their +energies were required to protect the frontiers, and defend themselves +against usurpers, who, with the exception of the formality of being +acknowledged by the senate, had claims as well founded as their own. + +17. The decline of the empire also became so much the more rapid, in +proportion as in these days of terror luxury had increased not only in +the splendour and profligate effeminacy of private life, but more +particularly in public, to a pitch almost beyond belief. The latter was +especially shown in the exhibitions of the amphitheatre and circus; by +which not only every new ruler, but even every new magistrate was +obliged to purchase the favour of the people. Thus these remnants of a +free constitution served only to accelerate the general ruin! What +enjoyments, indeed, could be found under the rod of despotism, except +those of the grossest sensuality; and to satisfy this, the intellectual +amusements of the theatre (mimes and pantomimes), and even those of +rhetoric and poetry, were made to contribute. + +18. Yet, during this general decay, the gradual spread of the Christian +religion was working a reform altogether of a different nature. Before +the end of this period it had opened itself a way into every province, +and, notwithstanding the frequent persecutions, had made converts in +every rank of society, and was now on the eve of becoming the +predominant form of worship. We shall be better able to estimate its +value, if we consider it as the vehicle by which civilization made its +way among the rude nations that now appeared on the scene, than if we +merely consider it as the means of improving the manners and morals of +the Roman world. In a political view it became of the greatest +importance on account of the hierarchy, the frame-work of which was now +in a great measure constructed among its professors. It was afterwards +adopted as a state religion; and although the ancient creed of Rome had +formerly been on the same footing, yet it was only calculated for the +republic, and not at all for the now existing monarchy. The overthrow of +paganism was necessarily attended with some violent convulsions, yet its +loss was nothing to be compared with the support which the throne +afterwards found in the hierarchy. + + The dispersion of the Jews, and especially the persecutions which were + renewed from time to time, after the reign of Nero, (but which only + served to kindle enthusiasm,) strongly cooperated in spreading the + Christian religion. These persecutions were principally called forth + against the Christians on account of their forming themselves into a + separate society, which caused them to be regarded as a dangerous sect + at Rome, notwithstanding the general toleration granted to every other + system of religious belief. Although towards the end of this period, + only a very small proportion of the inhabitants of the Roman empire as + yet professed the Christian faith, it nevertheless had followers in + every province. + + # _History of the Social Constitution of the Christian Church_, by + D. G. J. PLANCK, 4 parts, 1800. It is the first part of this excellent + work which relates to this period. + + + + +THIRD SECTION. + +_From Diocletian to the overthrow of the Roman empire in the west, +A. C. 284-476._ + + + SOURCES. It now becomes of importance to enquire whether the + historians were Christians or pagans. ZOSIMUS, the imitator of + Polybius, belonged to the last. He describes the fall of the Roman + state, as his model does the previous part. Of his _Histories_ only + five books and a half, to the time of Gratian, 410, have descended to + us. He was certainly a violent antagonist of the Christians, yet, + nevertheless, the best writer of this period. AMMIANI MARCELLINI + _Historiarum_, lib. xiv-xxxi. from the year 353-378 (the first + thirteen books are lost). Probably a Christian, but yet no flatterer; + and, notwithstanding his tiresome prolixity, highly instructive. + Together with the writers of general history already noticed at p. + 437, we must here especially add to the abbreviators, PAULI OROSII + _Hist._ lib. vii. and ZONARAE _Annales_. The _Panegyrici Veteres_, from + Diocletian to Theodosius, can only be used with circumspection.--The + writers of church history, such as EUSEBIUS, in his _Hist. Eccles._ + lib. x. and in his _Vita Constantini Magni_, lib. v. as well as his + continuators, SOCRATES, THEODORET, SOZOMENUS, and EVAGRIUS, are also + highly important for the political history of this period, though, + from their partiality towards the Christian emperors, they should + rather be classed with the panegyrists than the historians. To these + may be added another principal source, viz. the _Constitutions_ of the + emperors, which have been preserved in the _Codex Theodosianus_ and + _Justinianeus_, from the time of Constantine the Great. + + Besides the works quoted at pages 411, 437, the Byzantine historians + here become of importance. We shall mention also: + + _Histoire du Bas-Empire depuis Constantin_, _par_ M. LE BEAU, + _continuee par_ M. AMEILHON. Paris, 1824, 20 vols. 8vo. The first + seven parts only belong to this period. + + # The German translation of GUTHRIE and GRAY'S _Universal History_, + 5 sections, 1 vol. Leipsic, 1768. Rendered very useful by the + labours of Ritter. + + _Histoire du Bas-Empire, depuis Constantin jusqu' a la prise de + Constantinople en 1453_, _par_ CARENTIN ROYOU. Paris, 1803, 4 vols. + 8vo. A useful abridgement, without much research. + +1. The reign of C. Valerius Diocletian, aged 39-60, proclaimed emperor +after the murder of Numerianus, by the troops in Chalcedon, begins a new +section in Roman history. To the period of military despotism succeeded +the period of partitions. After Diocletian had defeated Carinus the yet +remaining Caesar, in Upper Moesia, where he was assassinated, he made M. +Valerius Maximianus Herculius, a rough warrior who had hitherto been his +comrade in arms, the sharer of his throne. Herculius now contended with +the Alemanni and Burgundians on the banks of the Rhine, while Diocletian +himself made head against the Persians. Nevertheless, the two Augusti +soon found themselves unable to withstand the barbarians, who were +pressing forward on every side, more especially as Carausius had usurped +and maintained the title of Caesar in Britain. Each of them, therefore, +created a Caesar: Diocletian chose C. Galerius, and Maximianus Flavius +Constantius Chlorus, both of whom had distinguished themselves as +generals, at that time the only road to advancement. The whole empire +was now divided between these four rulers; so that each had certain +provinces to govern and defend; without detriment, however, to the unity +of the whole, or to the dependence in which a Caesar stood as the +subordinate assistant and future successor of his Augustus. + + In the partition, 292, Diocletian possessed the eastern provinces; + Galerius, Thrace, and the countries on the Danube (Illyricum); + Maximianus, Italy, Africa, and the islands; and Constantius, the + western provinces of Gaul, Spain, Britain, and Mauritania. + +2. This new system could not but have a striking effect upon the spirit +of the government. It was now not only in fact, but also in form, +entirely in the hands of the rulers. By their continual absence from +Rome they became freed from that moral restraint in which the authority +of the senate, and the name of the republic, not yet entirely laid +aside, had held before them. Diocletian formally assumed the diadem, +and, with the ornaments of the east, introduced its luxuries into his +court. Thus was laid the foundation of that structure which Constantine +the Great had to complete. + +3. The consequences of this new system became also oppressive to the +provinces, inasmuch as they had now to maintain four rulers, with their +courts, and as many armies. But however loud might be the complaints of +the oppression occasioned thereby, it was, perhaps, the only means of +deferring the final overthrow of the whole edifice. In fact, they +succeeded not only in defeating the usurpers, Allectus in Britain (who +had murdered Carausius in 293), Julian in Africa, and Achilleus in +Egypt; but also in defending the frontiers, which, indeed, by the +victories of Galerius over the Persians, they extended as far as the +Tigris. Did not, however, the gloomy perspective present itself, that +among so many rulers, and the undefined relations which existed between +the Caesars and the emperors, the union could not be of long continuance? + +4. Diocletian voluntarily abdicated the throne (although the growing +power and encroaching disposition of Galerius might perhaps have had +some influence), and obliged his colleague Maximianus to do the same. +The two Caesars, Constantius and Galerius, were proclaimed Augusti, and +altered the division of the empire, so that the former possessed all the +western countries, of which, however, he freely ceded Italy and Africa +to Galerius, who had all the remaining provinces. The latter, during the +same year, created Flavius Severus, Caesar, and confided to him the +government of Italy and Africa; as he did also C. Galerius Maximin, to +whom he gave the Asiatic provinces. The administration of the two +emperors, however, was very different; Constantius was as much beloved +for his mild and disinterested government, as Galerius was hated for his +harshness and prodigality. Constantius died very soon after at York, +leaving his son Constantine heir to his dominions, who was immediately +proclaimed Augustus by the legions, although Galerius would only +acknowledge him as Caesar. + +5. Thus Constantine, who afterwards obtained the surname of Great, began +to rule, aged 33-64, though at first only over Britain, Spain, and Gaul; +nevertheless, after seventeen years of violence and warfare, he +succeeded in opening himself a way to the sole dominion of the empire. +The rulers disagreed among themselves; and formidable usurpers started +up and rendered war inevitable. + + The history of the first seven years of Constantine, 306-313, is very + complicated; after that, he had only one rival to struggle with, + 314-323. At his accession, Galerius, as Augustus, was in possession of + all the other provinces; of which, however, he had given to Caesar + Maximin the government of those of Asia, and to Caesar Severus, now + created Augustus, Italy and Africa. The latter, however, rendering + himself odious by his oppression, Maxentius, the son of the former + emperor, Maximianus, assumed the title of Augustus at Rome (Oct. 28, + 306), and associated his father with himself in the government; so + that at this time there were six rulers: Galerius, Severus, + Constantine, Maximin, and the usurpers Maxentius and his father + Maximianus. But in the year 307, Severus, wishing to oppose Maxentius, + was abandoned by his own troops, upon which he surrendered himself to + Maximianus, who caused him to be executed. In his place Galerius + created his friend Licinius, Augustus; and Maximin obtained the same + dignity from his army in Asia. In the mean time, Maximianus, after + having endeavoured to supplant his own son in Rome, fled to + Constantine, who had crossed over into Gaul and there defeated the + Franks, 306; but having made an attempt upon the life of Constantine, + who had married his daughter Fausta, that emperor caused him to be put + to death, 310. As the excesses of Galerius soon brought him to the + grave, 311, there only remained Constantine, Licinius, and Maximin, + and the usurper Maxentius. The latter was soon defeated and slain, + 312, before the gates of Rome, by Constantine, who thereby became + master of Italy and the capital. A war having broken out about the + same time between Maximin and Licinius, Maximin was defeated near + Adrianople, and then killed himself, 313. The year 314 brought on a + war between the two remaining emperors, Constantine and Licinius, + which, however, ended the same year in an accommodation, by which + Constantine obtained all the countries on the south bank of the + Danube, as well as Thrace and Moesia Inferior; it broke out again, + however, in 322, and was finally terminated by a decisive victory in + Bithynia, and the total overthrow of Licinius, whom Constantine put to + death, 324. + +6. However opposite may be the opinions formed respecting the reign of +Constantine the Great, its consequences are perfectly plain. Although he +annihilated military despotism, he established in its stead, if not +completely, yet in great measure, the despotism of the court, and +likewise the power of the hierarchy. He had already, during his +expedition against Maxentius, decided in favour of the Christian +religion; and since he thereby gained a vast number of partisans in all +the provinces, and weakened at the same time the power of his +co-emperors, or competitors, it was the surest way he could have taken +to obtain sole dominion, the great object of his ambition. This change +must nevertheless have had very considerable influence on every part of +the government, as he found in the previously established hierarchy a +powerful support of the throne; and since he, in concert with it, +settled what was, and what was not the orthodox doctrine, he introduced +a spirit of persecution heretofore unknown. + + At a period in which religious parties must almost necessarily have + become political parties, we can by no means venture to judge of the + importance of the sect by the importance of their points of doctrine. + The quarrels of the Arians, which arose at this time, gave + Constantine, by the council of Nice, 325, the opportunity he wished + for, of making good his authority in religious legislation. + +7. The removal of the seat of empire from Rome to Constantinople was +connected with this change in the form of worship--as a Christian court +would have been awkwardly situated in a city still altogether +pagan--although the need there was of protecting the frontiers against +the Goths and Persians had a considerable share therein. It did, +indeed, become the principal means of establishing the despotism of the +court; but those who regard it as one of the causes of the decline of +the empire, should remember, that for an empire fallen so low as the +Roman was at this time, despotism was almost the only support that +remained. + + The various partitions of the empire from the time of Diocletian, had + led the way to this change of the capital; because a natural result of + that system was, that the emperors and Caesars, when not with the army + as they usually were, would reside in different cities. The seat of + Diocletian's government was at Nicomedia; of Maximian's, at Milan; + even Constantine himself remained but very little at Rome. In these + new residences they felt themselves unfettered; and therefore, + although the Roman senate existed till after the time of Constantine, + its authority must have fallen of itself from the time of Diocletian. + +8. We ought not, therefore, to wonder that the consequence of this +removal was so complete a change in the whole form of government, that +after a short time it seemed to be altogether a different state. A +partition of the empire was made, which, though it might in part have +been founded on those which had previously existed, was yet so +different, that it not only changed the ancient divisions of the +provinces, but completely altered their mode of government.--The court, +with the exception of polygamy, assumed entirely the form of an eastern +court.--A revolution also had taken place in the military system, by the +complete separation of the civil and military authorities, which the +praetorian praefects had hitherto possessed, but who now became merely +civil governors. + + According to the new division the whole empire was divided into four + _praefectures_, each of which had its _dioceses_, and each diocese its + _provinces_. The praefectures were: I. The eastern (_praefectura + Orientis_); it contained five dioceses; 1. _Orientis_; 2. _Aegypti_; + 3. _Asiae_; 4. _Ponti_; 5. _Thraciae_; forming altogether forty-eight + provinces, and comprising all the countries of Asia and Egypt, + together with the frontier countries of Libya and Thrace. II. + _Praefectura Illyrici_, containing two dioceses; 1. _Macedoniae_; 2. + _Daciae_; forming eleven provinces, and comprising Moesia, Macedon, + Greece, and Crete. III. _Praefectura Italiae_, containing three + dioceses; 1. _Italiae_; 2. _Illyrici_; 3. _Africae_; forming twenty-nine + provinces, and comprising Italy, the countries on the south of the + Danube, as far as the boundaries of Moesia; the islands of Sicily, + Sardinia, and Corsica, and the African provinces of the Syrtis. IV. + _Praefectura Galliarum_, containing three dioceses; 1. _Galliae_; 2. + _Hispaniae_; 3. _Britanniae_; forming altogether twenty-eight provinces, + and comprising Spain and the Balearian islands, Gaul, Helvetia, and + Britain.--Each of these praefectures was under a _praefectus praetorio_ + (praetorian praefect), but who was merely a civil governor, and had + under him _vicarios_, in the dioceses, as well as the _rectores + provinciarum_, of various ranks and titles. They were named + _proconsules praesides_, etc. Besides these, Rome and Constantinople, + not being included in any of the four praefectures, had each its + praefect. + + As principal officers of state and the court (_s. cubiculi_), we now + for the first time meet with the _praepositus s. cubiculi_ + (grand-chamberlain), under whom were all the _comites palatii_ and + _cubicularii_, in four divisions; these, at a later period, were + frequently eunuchs of great influence; the _magister officiorum_ + (chancellor, minister of the interior); the _comes sacrarum + largitiorum_ (minister of the finances); the _quaestor_ (the organ of + the emperors in legislation; minister of justice and secretary of + state); the _comes rei principis_ (minister of the crown-treasury) + [privy-purse]; the two _comites domesticorum_ (commander of the + household guards), each of whom had his corps (_scholas_) under him. + The number of the state officers and courtiers was continually + increasing. If the good of a commonwealth consisted in forms, ranks, + and titles, the Roman empire must at this time have been truly happy! + + At the head of the troops were the _magistri peditum_ (masters of the + infantry) and the _magistri equitum_ (masters of the horse), under the + _magister utriusque militae_ (general in chief of the whole army). + Their subordinate commanders were called _comites_ and _duces_. + Constantine considerably reduced the army. In the arrangement of the + troops he also made great alterations; these, however, were but of + slight consequence compared with that which was produced by admitting + into the service a continually increasing number of barbarians. + + _Notitia dignitatem utriusque Imperii cum not._ PANCIROLLI GRAEV. + _Thesaur. Antiquitat. Rom._ vol. vii. + +9. It would naturally be expected that these great changes should lead +to others in the system of taxation. New taxes, or old ones revived, +were added to those already existing, and became, by the manner in which +they were collected, doubly oppressive. We shall particularly notice, +_a._ The annual land-tax (_indictio_). _b._ The tax upon trade (_aurum +lustrale_). _c._ The free gift (_don. gratuit._), now grown into an +obligatory tax (_aurum coronarium_). To these we must add the municipal +expenses, which fell entirely upon the citizens, and especially upon the +civic officers (_decuriones_), places which must have been generally +held by the rich, as Constantine had in great measure appropriated the +wealth of the cities to the endowment of churches, and the support of +the clergy. + + _a._ The land-tax, or _indiction_, which if not first introduced by + Constantine was entirely regulated under him, was collected after an + exact register, or public valuation, of all the landed estates. Its + amount was yearly fixed and prescribed by the emperor (_indicebatur_), + and levied by the rectors of provinces and the decurions; an arbitrary + standard (_caput_) being taken as the rate of assessment. + + As this register was probably reviewed every fifteen years, it gave + rise to the _cycle of indictions_ of fifteen years, which became the + common era, beginning from September 1, 312. In this manner the tax + included all those who were possessed of property. _b._ The tax on + commerce; which was levied on almost every kind of trade. It was + collected every four years, whence the _aurum lustrale_. _c._ The + _aurum coronarium_ grew out of the custom which obtained of + presenting the emperors with golden crowns on particular occasions; + the value of which was at last exacted in money. Every considerable + city was obliged to pay it. + +10. The rapid spread of the Christian religion, the promulgation of +which was enforced as a duty upon all its professors, was now +accelerated by the endeavours of the court. Constantine forbade +sacrifices, and shut up the temples; and the violent zeal of his +successors unfortunately soon turned them into ruins. + + _Histoire de Constantin-le-Grand_, _par le_ R. P. BERN. DE VARENNE. + Paris, 1778, 4to. + + _Vita di Constantino il Grande dell'_ ABB. FR. GUSTA. Fuligno, 1786. + Both these works, especially the first, are written in a tone of + panegyric; the latest, and by far the best, is + + # _Life of Constantine the Great_, by J. C. F. MANSO. Bresl. 1817. + With several very learned appendixes, which clear up some particular + points. + +11. The three Caesars and sons of Constantine the Great, Constantine, +337-340; Constantius, 337-361; and Constans, 337-350; had been carefully +educated, and yet resembled one another as much in their vices as they +did in their names. They indeed divided the empire again upon the death +of their father; but were so eager after territory, which neither of +them was qualified to govern, that a series of wars followed for the +next twelve years, till at last Constantius was left master of the +whole; and by the murder of most of his relations secured the throne to +himself. + + In the partition of the empire Constantine obtained the _praefectura + Galliarum_, Constans the _praefectura Italiae et Illyrici_, and + Constantius the _praefectura Orientis_. But as Constantine desired to + add Italy and Africa to his portion, he attacked Constans, and + thereby lost his life, so that Constans came into thee possession of + the western countries. In consequence, however, of his wretched + misgovernment, Magnentius, a general, proclaimed himself emperor in + Gaul, and Constans was slain in endeavouring to escape, 350. A war + with Constantius, who was then occupied in the east, became + inevitable, and broke out 351. The usurper was defeated first at Mursa + in Pannonia, then retreating into Gaul he was again defeated, 353; + upon which he slew himself, together with his family. + +12. As Constantius, however--sunk in effeminacy and debauchery, and +surrounded and governed by eunuchs--was unable to sustain the weight of +government alone, he took his cousin Constantius Gallus, hitherto a +state prisoner, and whose father he had formerly slain, to his +assistance, created him Caesar, and sent him into the east against the +Parthians. But his excessive arrogance, which was fomented by his wife +Constantina, rendered him so dangerous that Constantius recalled him, +and caused him, upon his return, to be put to death in Istria. His +younger brother Fl. Julian, from whom the suspicious Constantius +believed he had nothing to fear, was promoted in his place, created +Caesar, and sent to defend the frontiers on the Rhine. Although Julian +passed suddenly from study to warfare, he not only fought against the +Germans with success, but also made a deep inroad into their country. In +the mean time Constantius, after his generals had been beaten by the +Persians, who wished to reconquer the provinces they had ceded, was +preparing an expedition against them in person, and with that view +endeavoured gradually to withdraw the troops of Julian, in consequence +of which the latter, suspecting his design, was induced to accept the +diadem presented by his soldiers. While marching, however, along the +Danube against Constantius, he received information of that prince's +death in Asia. + +13. Fl. Julian, (the apostate,) who reigned from his twenty-ninth to his +thirty-second year, was the last and most highly gifted prince of the +house of Constantine. Instructed by misfortunes and study, he yet had +some faults, though certainly free from great vices. He began with +reforming the luxury of the court. His abjuration of the religion now +become dominant, and which he wished to annihilate by degrees, was an +error in policy, which he must have discovered to his cost had his reign +been prolonged. Wishing, however, to terminate the war against the +Persians, he penetrated as far as the Tigris, where he lost his life in +an engagement, after a reign of three years. + + # _The Emperor Julian and his Times_, by AUGUST. NEANDER. Leipsic, + 1812. An historical sketch. + +14. Fl. Jovianus, now thirty-three years of age, was immediately raised +to the purple by the army. He concluded a peace with the Persians, by +which he restored them all the territory that had been conquered from +them since the year 297. After a short reign of eight months he was +carried off by a sudden disorder; and the army proclaimed Fl. +Valentinian at Nice in his stead, Valentinian almost immediately +associated his brother Valens with himself in the government, and +divided the empire by giving him the _praefectura Orientis_, and +retaining the rest for himself. + +15. The reign of Valentinian I. in the east, who, in the year 367, +created his son Gratian Augustus with himself, is distinguished by the +system of toleration which he followed with regard to the affairs of +religion, though in other respects a cruel prince. Nearly the whole of +his reign was taken up in almost continual struggles with the German +nations, who had recovered from the losses they had suffered under +Julian. His first efforts were directed against the Franks, the Saxons, +and the Alemanni on the Rhine; and afterwards against the Quadi and +other nations on the Danube; where he died of apoplexy at Guntz in +Hungary. + +16. In the mean time his brother Valens (aged 38-52 years) had to +contend with a powerful insurrection which had broken out in the east. A +certain Procopius had instigated the people to this, by taking advantage +of the discontent occasioned by the oppression of Valens, who, having +adopted the opinion of the Arians, was more disliked in the east than +his brother was in the west. His war against the Persians ended with a +truce. But the most important event that happened during his reign, was +the entrance of the Huns into Europe, which took place towards its +close. This in its turn gave rise to the great popular migration, by +which the Roman empire in the west may properly be said to have been +overthrown. The immediate consequence was the admission of the greater +part of the Visigoths into the Roman empire, and this occasioned a war +which cost Valens his life. + + The Huns, a nomad people of Asia, belonged to the great Mongolian + race. Having penetrated to the Don, 373, they subdued the Goths upon + that river as far as the Theiss. The Goths, divided into Ostrogoths + and Visigoths, were separated from one another by the Dnieper. The + former, driven from their country, fell upon the Visigoths, in + consequence of which the emperor Valens was requested by the latter to + grant them admission into the Roman empire, and with the exception of + the Vandals, who had been seated in Pannonia from the time of + Constantine, they were the first barbarian nation that had been + settled within the boundaries of the empire. The scandalous oppression + of the Roman governor, however, drove them into rebellion; and as + Valens marched against them, he was defeated near Adrianople and lost + his life, 378. + +17. During these events, Gratian (aged 16-24 years) succeeded his father +Valentinian I. in the west, and immediately associated his brother, +Valentinian II. (aged 5-21 years) with himself in the empire; giving +him, though under his own superintendence, the _praefectura Italiae et +Illyrici_. Gratian set forward to the assistance of his uncle Valens +against the Goths, but receiving on his march an account of his defeat +and death, and fearing the east might fall a prey to the Goths, he +raised Theodosius, a Spaniard, who had already distinguished himself as +a warrior, to the purple, and gave him the _praefectura Orientis et +Illyrici_. + +18. The indolent reign of Gratian led to the rebellion of Maximus, a +commander in Britain, who, crossing into Gaul, was so strongly supported +by the defection of the Gallic legions, that Gratian was obliged to seek +safety in flight. He was, however, overtaken and put to death at Lyons. +By this event Maximus found himself in possession of all the _praefectura +Galliarum_; and by promising Theodosius not to interfere with the young +Valentinian II. in Italy, he prevailed upon him to acknowledge him +emperor. But having broken his promise by the invasion of Italy, he was +defeated and made prisoner by Theodosius in Pannonia, and soon after +executed. Upon this Valentinian II. a youth of whom great hopes were +entertained, became again master of all the west. But, unfortunately, he +was murdered by the offended Arbogast, his _magister militum_; who, +thereupon, raised to the throne his own friend Eugenius, _magister +officiorum_. Theodosius, however, so far from acknowledging, declared +war against him and made him prisoner. He himself thus became master of +the whole empire, but died in the following year. + +19. The vigorous reign of Theodosius in the east, from his thirty-fourth +to his fiftieth year, was not less devoted to politics than to religion. +The dexterity with which he at first broke the power of the victorious +Goths (though they still preserved their quarters in the provinces on +the Danube), procured him considerable influence, which the strength and +activity of his character enabled him easily to maintain. The blind +zeal, however, with which he persecuted Arianism, now the prevailing +creed in the east, and restored the orthodox belief, as well as the +persecutions which he directed against the pagans and the destruction of +their temples, occasioned the most dreadful convulsions. His efforts to +preserve the boundaries of the empire, not a province of which was lost +before his death, required an increase of taxes; and however oppressive +this might be, we cannot impute it to the ruler as a crime. In an +empire so enfeebled in itself, and which, nevertheless, had powerful +foes on every side to contend with, it followed that every active reign +would be oppressive. Yet never before had the internal depopulation of +the empire made it necessary to take so many barbarians into Roman pay, +as under this reign; whence naturally followed a change in the arms and +tactics of the Roman armies. + + P. ERASM. MULLER, _de genio saeculi Theodosiani_. Havniae, 1798, 2 vols. + A very learned and in every respect excellent description of the + deeply-decayed Roman world as it now stood. + +20. Theodosius left two sons, between whom the empire was divided. Both +parts, however, were certainly considered as forming but one empire--an +opinion which afterwards prevailed, and even till late in the middle +ages had important consequences--yet never since this period have they +been reunited under one ruler. The eastern empire, comprising the +_praefectura Orientis et Illyrici_, was allotted to the eldest son, +Arcadius (aged 18-31) under the guardianship of Rufinus the Gaul. The +western, or the _praefectura Galliarum et Italiae_, to the younger, +Honorius, aged 11-39, under the guardianship of the Vandal Stilico. + +21. The western empire, to the history of which we shall now confine +ourselves, suffered such violent shocks during the reign of Honorius, as +made its approaching fall plainly visible. The intrigues of Stilico to +procure himself the government of the whole empire, opened a way for the +Goths into its interior, just at a time when they were doubly +formidable, fortune having given them a leader greatly superior to any +they had hitherto had. Alaric king of the Visigoths established himself +and his people in the Roman empire, became master of Rome, and mounted +the throne: it was the mere effect of chance that he did not overthrow +it altogether. + + Both Honorius and Arcadius, especially the latter, belonged to that + class of men who never come to years of maturity; their favourites and + ministers therefore governed according to their own inclination. + Stilico, who made Honorius his son-in-law, was not deficient, indeed, + in abilities for governing; and his endeavour to obtain the management + of the whole empire, arose, perhaps, from the conviction that it was + necessary he should have it. He could not, however, gain his object by + intrigue; for after the murder of Rufinus; 395, he found a still more + powerful opponent in the eunuch Eutropius, his successor in the east. + Under the regency of Stilico, Gaul, in consequence of its troops being + withdrawn to oppose Alaric, 400, was inundated by German tribes--by + Vandals, Alani, and Suevi--who from thence penetrated even into Spain. + Nevertheless, he preserved Italy from their attacks by the victory + which he gained, 403, over Alaric at Verona; and again over + Radagaisus, 405, who had advanced with other German hordes as far as + Florence. But Stilico, having entered into a secret alliance with + Alaric, for the purpose of wresting eastern Illyrica from the empire + of the east, was overreached by the intrigues of the new favourite + Olympius, whose cabal knew how to take advantage of the weakness of + Honorius, and of the jealousy of the Roman and foreign soldiers. + Stilico was accused of aspiring to the throne, and was executed August + 23, 408. Rome lost in him the only general that was left to defend + her. Alaric invaded Italy the same year, 408, and the besieged Rome + was obliged to purchase peace; the conditions, however, not being + fulfilled, he was again, 409, before Rome, became master of the city, + and created Attalus, the praefect of the city, emperor instead of + Honorius, who had shut himself up in Ravenna. In 410 he assumed the + diadem; and, making himself master of the city by force, gave it up to + be plundered by his troops. Soon afterwards, while projecting the + capture of Sicily and Africa, he died in lower Italy. His + brother-in-law and successor, Adolphus, together with his Goths, left + Italy, now completely exhausted, 412, went into Gaul, and from thence + proceeding into Spain, founded there the empire of the Visigoths: he + carried with him, however, Placidia the sister of Honorius, either as + prisoner or as hostage, and married her in Gaul. During these events + an usurper arose in Britain and Gaul named Constantine, 407: he was + vanquished, and put to death, 411, by Constantius, one of Honorius's + generals. This latter prince not only gave Constantius his sister + Placidia, who had become a widow and was restored in 417, in marriage, + but also named him Augustus in 421. He died, however, a few months + after, so that Placidia henceforward had a considerable share in the + government. She went nevertheless, 423, to Constantinople, where she + remained until the death of Honorius. + + # _Fl. Stilico, or the Wallenstein of Antiquity_, by CHR. FR. SCHULZE, + 1805. Not written by way of comparison. + +22. In this manner was a great part of Spain, and part of Gaul, cut off +from the Roman empire during the reign of Honorius. After his death the +secretary John usurped the government, but was defeated by the eastern +emperor Theodosius II. The nephew of Honorius, Valentinian III. a minor +(aged 6-36), was then raised to the throne, under the guardian care of +his mother Placidia (! 450). Under his miserable reign the western +empire was stripped of almost all her provinces with the exception of +Italy. Yet the government of his mother, and afterwards his own +incapacity, were as much the cause as the stormy migration of barbarous +tribes, which now convulsed all Europe. + + Britain had been voluntarily left by the Romans since 427. In Africa, + the governor Boniface having been driven into rebellion by the + intrigues of the Roman general Aetius, who possessed the ear of + Placidia, invited the Vandals from Spain, under the command of + Genseric, to come to his assistance. The latter then obtained + possession of the country, 429-439; indeed, even as early as 435, + Valentinian was obliged to make a formal cession of it to them. + Valentinian's wife Eudoxia, a Grecian princess, was purchased by the + cession of western Illyricum (Pannonia, Dalmatia, and Noricum); so + that of all the countries south of the Danube there now only remained + those which belonged to the praefecture of Italy: Rhaetia and + Vindelicia. On the south-east of Gaul was formed, 435, the kingdom of + the Burgundians, which, besides the south-east part of France, + comprised also Switzerland and Savoy. The south-west was under the + dominion of the Visigoths. There remained only the territory north of + the Loire which still submitted to the Roman governors; the last of + whom, Syagrius, survived the fall of the empire itself; holding out + till the year 486, when he was defeated near Soissons by Clodovicus, + or Clovis, king of the Franks. + +23. But while the western empire seemed thus of itself almost to fall to +pieces, another impetuous rush of nations took place, which threatened +the whole of western Europe. The victorious hordes of Huns who now +occupied the territory formerly the seat of the Goths, between the Don +and the Theiss, and even as far as the Volga, had united themselves, +since the year 444, under one common chief, Attila; who, by this union +and his own superior talents as a warrior and ruler, became the most +powerful prince of his time. The eastern empire having bought a peace by +paying him a yearly tribute, he fell with a mighty army upon the western +provinces. The united forces, however, of the Romans under Aetius and the +Visigoths, obliged him near Chalons (_in campis Catalaunicis_) to +retreat. Nevertheless, the following year he again invaded Italy, where +he had a secret understanding with the licentious Honoria, Valentinian's +sister. The cause of his second retreat, which was soon followed by his +death, is unknown. The miserable Valentinian soon after deprived the +Roman empire of its best general, being led by his suspicions to put +Aetius to death. He himself, however, was soon doomed to undergo the +punishment of his debaucheries, being murdered in a conspiracy formed by +Petronius Maximus, whose wife he had dishonoured, and some friends of +Aetius, whom he had executed. + +24. The twenty years which intervened between the assassination of +Valentinian, and the final destruction of the Roman empire in the west, +was nearly one continued series of intestine revolutions. No less than +nine sovereigns rapidly succeeded one another. These changes, indeed, +were but of little importance in this troublesome period, compared to +the terror with which Genseric king of the Vandals filled the Roman +empire: he by his naval power having become master of the Mediterranean +and Sicily, could ravage the coasts of the defenceless Italy at his +pleasure, and even capture Rome itself. While in Italy, the German +Ricimer, general of the foreign troops in Roman pay, permitted a series +of emperors to reign in his name. It would have been his lot to put an +end to this series of Augusti, but for mere accident, which reserved +that glory for his son and successor, Odoacer, four years after his +father's death. + + After the death of Valentinian, Maximus was proclaimed emperor; but as + he wished to compel Eudoxia, Valentinian's widow, to marry him, she + called over Genseric from Africa, who took and pillaged Rome, and + Maximus perished after a reign of three months, 455. He was succeeded + by M. Avitus, who ascended the throne at Arles; and he again was soon + deposed by Ricimer, 456, who, just before, had defeated the fleet of + the Vandals. Ricimer now placed upon the throne, first Julianus + Majorianus, April 1, 457; but he, having distinguished himself in the + wars against the Vandals, 461, was set aside, and Libius Severus put + in his place, who, however, died in 465, probably of poison. His + death was followed by an interregnum of two years, during which + Ricimer ruled, though without the title of emperor. At length the + patrician Anthemius, then at Constantinople (where they never gave up + their pretensions to the right of naming or confirming the sovereigns + of the west), was, though not without the consent of the powerful + Ricimer, named emperor of the west, April 12, 467, by the emperor Leo. + But differences having arisen between him and Ricimer, the latter + retired to Milan, 469, and commenced a war, in which he took and + pillaged Rome, and Anthemius was slain. Ricimer himself followed soon + after, ! Aug. 18, 472. Upon this, Anicius Olybrius, son-in-law of + Valentinian III. was proclaimed Augustus, but dying in three + months, Oct. 472, Glycerius assumed the purple at Ravenna, without, + however, being acknowledged at Constantinople, where they in + preference named Julius Nepos Augustus. The latter, in 474, having + expelled Glycerius, became also in his turn expelled by his own + general Orestes, 475, who gave the diadem to his son Romulus + Momyllus, who, as the last in the succession of Augusti, acquired + the surname of Augustulus. In 476, however, Odoacer, the leader of + the Germans in the Roman pay at Rome, sent him, after the execution + of Orestes, into captivity, and allowed him a pension. Odoacer now + remained master of Italy till the year 492, when the Ostrogoths, + under their king Theodoric, founded there a new empire. + +25. Thus fell the Roman empire of the west, while that of the east, +pressed on every side, and in a situation almost similar, endured a +thousand years, notwithstanding its intestine broils, which would alone +have sufficed to destroy any other, and the hosts of barbarians who +attacked it during the middle ages. The impregnable situation of its +capital, which usually decides the fate of such kingdoms, joined to its +despotism, which is not unfrequently the main support of a kingdom in +its decline, can alone, in some measure, explain a phenomenon which has +no equal in the history of the world. + + + + +APPENDIX. + + CHRONOLOGY OF HERODOTUS TO THE TIME OF CYRUS, EXTRACTED FROM THE + RESEARCHES OF M. VOLNEY. See Preface. + + +Although Herodotus did not write his work in chronological order, yet +we cannot doubt that he had some general plan of computing time. By +carefully selecting and comparing the separate data scattered through +his work, this plan to a certain extent may be traced out, and early +history, with regard to settled chronology, must necessarily gain a good +deal. The following essay is founded upon a procedure of this kind; it +is drawn entirely from Herodotus, and only from data which he has +precisely determined, the passages of his work being always referred to. + +The year B. C. 561, in which the fall of Astyages and the Median empire +took place, as may be proved from Herodotus himself, is a fixed point of +time from which we may ascend into higher antiquity. This point of time +may be determined by the chronological data respecting the battle of +Marathon, four years before the death of Darius (Herodotus VII. 1. 4.) +agreeing with the general data of the Greeks, who fix it in the third +year of the 72nd Olymp. B. C. 490. By adding to this the thirty-two +years of Darius's reign that had already elapsed (Herodotus, ibid.), the +eight months of Smerdis (Herodotus, III. 68.), the seven years and five +months of Cambyses (Herodotus III. 66.), and the twenty-nine years of +Cyrus (Herodotus, I. 214.), we obtain the year 560 as the first year of +Cyrus. + + +I. CHRONOLOGY OF THE MEDIAN EMPIRE. + + B. C. + End of the Median empire 561. + Duration of the Median empire one hundred and + fifty-six years (Herodotus, I, 130.) + The beginning of it, therefore, after their separation + from the Assyrians, would be 717. + In this period, at first, six years of anarchy[a] 716-710. + Reign of Deioces fifty-three years (Herodotus, I. 102.) 710-657. + Reign of Phraortes, twenty-two years (ibid.) 657-635. + Cyaxares, forty years (I. 106.) 635-595. + Irruption and dominion of the Scythians, twenty-eight + years (I. 203. 106.) 625-598. + Conquest of Nineveh (I. 106.) 597. + Astyages reigned thirty-five years (I. 130.) 595-561. + +The succession of Median kings given by Ctesias, which entirely differs +from this, the author thinks might be explained by a duplication; +see # _Gott. Gel. Anz._ 1810, p. 4. + + [a] These are certainly not determined from Herodotus; but they + remain after subtracting the one hundred and fifty years' + reign of the four Median kings. + + +II. CHRONOLOGY OF THE ASSYRIAN EMPIRE. + +The dominion of the Assyrians over Asia, or their empire, ended with the +revolt of the Medes (Herodotus, I. 95.); although the existence of their +state did not then end, but terminated with the capture of Nineveh by +Cyaxares, B. C. 597. + + B. C. + Revolt of the Medes, as above 717. + The dominion of the Assyrians had endured five + hundred and twenty years (Herodotus, I. 95.) + The Assyrian empire lasted therefore from 1237-717. + +As Herodotus intended to write the history of this empire in a separate +work (I. 184.), he only casually mentions (I. 7.) its founder Ninus, who +began to reign 1237; and afterwards Sennacherib and his expedition (II. +141.); and the last king, Sardanapalus (II. 150.). + +The mention of Sennacherib and his expedition furnishes a point of time +for comparing the chronology of Herodotus with that of the Bible, or the +Jews. According to the latter, Sennacherib's expedition took place B. C. +714. (see above, p. 26.); his death takes place immediately after, and +he has for his successor Esar-haddon, 2 Kings, xix. 37. Here then is +certainly a contradiction, since, according to Herodotus, the Assyrian +dominion had ceased three years before, namely, 717. M. Volney +endeavours to reconcile this difficulty by the restoration of an ancient +reading in the sacred text; according to which Amon, king of Judaea, +reigned twelve years instead of two (2 Kings, xxi. 10.); from which it +would follow, that the expedition of Sennacherib took place in 724. As +this would leave seven years after his death for his successor +Esar-haddon, who agrees both in time and name with the Sardanapalus of +the Greeks (the Greek name being formed from Esar-haddon-pal, i. e. +Esar, the lord, son of Pal), the two chronologies are thus made to agree +exactly. But even in following the ancient usual reading, the greatest +difference between the two statements is only ten years; quite as little +as can be reasonably expected under such circumstances. + +With regard to the Assyrian chronology of Ctesias, M. Volney has +satisfactorily shown that it is full of contradictions, and unworthy of +any credit. + + +III. CHRONOLOGY OF THE LYDIAN EMPIRE. + +The arrangement of the Lydian chronology rests upon the settlement of +two principal facts: first, the great eclipse of the sun under Alyattes, +foretold by Thales (Herodotus, I. 74.); and secondly, the conquest of +Sardes, and overthrow of the empire under Croesus, by Cyrus; both of +which Herodotus certainly mentions, but without assigning any precise +date. But by a careful comparison of all the data it has been proved, +that the great eclipse in Asia Minor (according to the Tables of Pingre) +happened in the year 625; and the conquest of Sardes, and the end of the +Lydian empire, B. C. 557, or in the fourth year of Cyrus. Therefore: + + B. C. + End of the Lydian empire 557. + +It subsisted under three houses; under that of the Atyadae (fabulous and +uncertain); under that of the Heraclidae, five hundred and five years +(Herodotus, I. 7.); and under the last, that of the Mermnadae, one +hundred and seventy years. + +The Heraclidae and Mermnadae, then, reigned altogether six hundred and +seventy-five years. Therefore: + + B. C. + Commencement of the reign of the Heraclidae, with Agron + the son of Ninus (I. 7.) 1232. + End of this house with the murder of Candaules, by Gyges 727. + +By fixings the time of Agron, son of Ninus, Herodotus verifies himself +(I. 7.); as, by the preceding data, Ninus began his reign in Assyria, +1237; consequently, it must have been in the fifth year of his reign +that he conquered Lydia, and placed his son Agron upon the throne. + + B. C. + Dominion of the Mermnadae, one hundred and seventy + years, under kings of that house 727-557. + Gyges, thirty-eight years (Herodotus, I. 14.) 727-689. + Ardys, forty-nine years (Herodotus, I. 16.) 689-640. + First irruption of the Cimmerians 670. + Sadyattes, twelve years (Herodotus, I. 16.) 640-628. + Alyattes, fifty-seven years (Herodotus, I. 25.) 628-571. + War with Cyaxares, ending with the great eclipse, + and second irruption of the Cimmerians 625. + Croesus, fourteen years and fourteen days (Herodotus, + I. 86.) 571-557. + + +IV. CHRONOLOGY OF THE BABYLONIANS. + +For this as well as for the Egyptians there is no evidence to guide +us, the data being very scanty, and taken from Herodotus alone. The +chronology of the Babylonians, according to the canon of Ptolemy, begins +with Nabonassar, 747, who was succeeded by twelve kings (mentioned in +the same canon), down to Nabopolassar; (see above, p. 28.) + + B. C. + Nabopolassar 627-604. + Nebuchadnezzar 604-561. + Evil-Merodach 561-559. + Neriglissar 559-555. + Labynetus 555-538. + Conquest of Babylon by Cyrus 538. + + +V. CHRONOLOGY OF THE EGYPTIANS. + +M. Volney very properly commences this with the dodecarchy--as of the +earlier periods only the time of Sesostris, 1365, is ascertained;--and +arranges it in the following manner. + + B. C. + Dodecarchy 671-656. + Psammetichus's sole dominion thirty-nine years 656-617. + Reign of Neco, sixteen years 617-601. + -------- Psammis, six years 601-595. + -------- Apries, twenty-five years 595-570. + -------- Amasis, forty-four years 570-526. + Psammenitus, six months 525. + Conquest of Egypt by Cambyses + + + * * * * * + + + + +I. THE REIGNING HOUSES OF MACEDON. + + +I. HOUSE OF ALEXANDER THE GREAT. + + PHILIP ! 336. married, 1. Olympias. 2. Cleopatra. (3. Concubines.) + | + +------------------------------------------------------------------+ + | 1. 1. Cleopatra. 3. 3. | + | | | + ALEXANDER THE GREAT ! 323. PHILIP ARRHIDAEUS ! 317. | + married, 1. Roxana. (2. Barsine.) married Eurydice. | + | | + +--------------------------------------+ Thessalonice. + | 1. 2. | married Cassander. + ALEXANDER ! 311. HERCULES ! 309. + + +II. HOUSE OF ANTIPATER. + + ANTIPATER ! 320. + | + CASSANDER ! 298, married Thessalonice. + | + +-------------------------------------------------------+ + | PHILIP ! 297. ANTIPATER ! 294. ALEXANDER ! 294. | + + +III. HOUSE OF ANTIGONUS. + + ANTIGONUS ! 301. + | + DEMETRIUS I. POLIORCETES ! 284. + | + +-----------------------------------------------------------------+ + | Stratonice. ANTIGONUS I. GONATAS ! 242. | + married, 1. Seleucus I. | + 2. Antiochus I. +-------------------------------------+ + | DEMETRIUS II. ! 233. Alcyoneus. | + | | + +-------------------+ +---------------+ + | PHILIP II. ! 179. | | ANTIGONUS II. | + | DOSON ! 221 + +------------------------------------+ + | PERSEUS ! 166. Demetrius ! 180. | + + + + +II. GENEALOGICAL TABLE OF THE SELEUCIDAE. + + + SELEUCUS I. NICATOR ! 281. + married, 1. Apame. 2. Stratonice, daughter of Demetrius Poliorcetes. + | + +--------------------------------------------------------------------+ + | 1. 2. | + ANTIOCHUS I. SOTER ! 262. married, Phila married + 1. Stratonice, his mother-in-law. 2. Anonymous. Antigonus Gonatas + | king of Macedon. + | + +--------------------------------------------------------------------+ + | 1. 1. 2. | + ANTIOCHUS II. THEOS ! 247. Apame Laodice. + married, married Magas + 1. Laodice, his sister-in-law. of Cyrene. + 2. Berenice, daughter of Ptol. Philad. + | + +--------------------------------------------------------------------+ + | 1. 1. 1. | + SELEUCUS II. CALLINICUS ! 227. Antiochus Stratonice married + married Laodice, Hierax. Ariarathes IV. of + daughter of Andromachus, Cappadocia. + father of Achaeus. + | + +--------------------------------------------------------------------+ + | SELEUCUS III. Stratonice married ANTIOCHUS III. THE GREAT ! 187.| + CERAUNUS ! 224. Mithridates IV. married Laodice, daughter of + of Pontus. Mithridates IV. of Pontus. + | + +------------------------------------------------------------------+ + | Antiochus Laodice. | ANTIOCHUS IV. Cleopatra Antiochis | + ! 192. | EPIPHANES ! 164. married married + | | Ptolemy V. Ariarathes V. + | | of Cappad. + | +-----------------------------+ + | | ANTIOCHUS V. EUPATOR ! 161. | + | + SELEUCUS IV. PHILOPATOR ! 176. + married his sister Laodice. + | + +------------------------------------------------------+ + | DEMETRIUS I. Laodice | + ! 150. married Perseus king of Maced. + | + +--------------------------------------------------------------------+ + | DEMETRIUS II. NICATOR ! 126. married, ANTIOCHUS SIDETES ! 131. | + 1. Cleopatra, daughter of Ptol. Philom. married his + 2. Rhodogyne. | daughter-in-law, Cleopatra. + | | + +-------------------------------------+ +---------------------------+ + |SELEUCUS V. ANTIOCHUS GRYPHUS ! 97. | | ANTIOCHUS CYZICENUS ! 96. | + ! 125. married Cleopatra Selene, married Cleopatra, + daughter of Ptol. Phys. daughter of Ptol. Phys. + | | + | +----------------------------+ + | | ANTIOCHUS EUSEBES ! c. 90. | + | married Cleopatra Selene. + | | + | +---------------------------------------+ + | | ANTIOCHUS SELEUCUS CYBIOSACTES | + | ASIATICUS ! 58. ! 57. married + | Berenice, daughter + | of Ptol. Auletes. + | + +------------------------------------------------------------------+ + | Seleucus Antioch. Philippus Demetr. Antioch. | + Epiph. ! 94. Epiph. ! 93. Epiph. ! 83. Eucar. Dionys. + ! c. 87. ! 89. + + + + +III. GENEALOGICAL TABLE OF THE PTOLEMIES. + + + PTOLEMY I. son of LAGUS ! 284. + married, 1. Eurydice, daughter of Antipater. + 2. Berenice. + (3. Concubines.) + | + +-----------------------------------------------------+ + | | | | + 1. | | | + Ptol. Ceraunus ! 279. | 2. | + king of Macedonia. | Arsinoe | + 2. | + PTOL. II. PHILADELPHUS ! 246. 3. + married, 1. Arsinoe, daughter Magas of Cyrene. + of Lysimachus. | + 2. His sister Arsinoe. +-------------+ + | Berenice + | + +-------------------------------------------------------+ + | PTOL. III. EVERGETES ! 221. Berenice married | + Married Berenice, Antiochus Theos. + daughter of Magas. + | + +-------------------------------------------------------------+ + | PTOL. IV. PHILOPATOR ! 204. Magas. Arsinoe. | + married, 1. His sister Arsinoe. + (2. Agathoclea.) + | + +----------------------------+ + | PTOL. V. EPHIPHANES ! 181. | + married Cleopatra, + daughter of Antiochus the Great. + | + +---------------------------------------------------------------------+ + | PTOL. VI. PHILOMETOR ! 145. Cleopatra. PTOL. VII. PHYSCON ! 117.| + married his sister Cleopatra. married, + | 1. His sister Cleopatra. + | 2. Cleopatra the younger. + | (3. Irene.) + Cleopatra the younger. | + | + +-------------------------------------------------------------------+ + | 2. | 2. | 3. | + PTOL. VIII. | PTOL. ALEXANDER | Ptol. Apion. + LATHYRUS ! 81. | I. ! 88. | king of Cyrene, + married, | married Cleopatra, | ! 97. + 1, 2. his two sisters. | daughter of | + (3. Concubines.) | Ptol. Lathyrus. | + | | | + | 2. 2. + | Cleop. Selene. Cleopatra. + | + +------------------------------------------------------------+ + | | | | | | | + | 2. | 3. | | | + | Cl. Berenice. | Ptol. of Cyprus | PTOL. ALEXANDER | + | | ! 57. | II. ! 80. | + | | | married | + | | | Cleop. Berenice. | + 2. 3. 3. | + Cleopatra ! 88. PTOL. AULETES ! 51. Cleopatra. PTOL. ALEX. + married married, III. ! 66. + Alex. I. 1. His sister Cleop. + 2. Unknown. + | + +--------------------------------------------------------------------+ + | 1. | 2. | Arsinoe | + BERENICE ! 55. | PTOL. DIONYSIUS ! 47. | ! 43. + married, | married Cleopatra. | + 1. Seleucus Cybios. | | + 2. Archelaus. 1. 2. + CLEOPATRA ! 30. Ptol. the younger ! 44. + married, married Cleopatra. + 1. 2. her brothers. + (3. Jul. Caesar.) + 4. Antony + + + + +IV. THE REIGNING HOUSES OF THE JEWS. + + + HOUSE OF THE MACCABEES. + Mattathias ! B. C. 166. + | + +------------------------------------------------------------------+ + | Judas Maccabaeus, Jonathan, Simon, high priest | + general of the army high priest ! 143. and ethnarch, ! 135. + ! 161. | + +----------------------+ + | John Hyrcanus ! 107. | + | + +------------------------------------------------+ + | Aristobulus I. ! 106, Alex. I. Jannaeus ! 79. | + king and high priest. married Alexandra. + | + +------------------------------------------------+ + | Hyrcanus II. ! 30. Aristobulus. | + high priest and ethnarch. ! 49. + | + +-----------------------------------------+ + | Alexander II. ! 49. Antigonus ! 37. | + | + +-----------------------------------------------+ + | Aristobulus ! 34. Mariamne ! 28. | + married Herod the Great. + + +II. HOUSE OF HEROD. + + Antipater ! 43. + | + +----------------------------------------------------------+ + | Salome. Herod the Great ! A. C. 3. | + married, 1. Doris. 2. Mariamne. 3. Many others. + | + +--------------------------------------------------------------------+ + | Antipater Alexander Aristobulus Archelaus, | Philip, | + ! A. C. 3. ! B. C. 5. ! B. C. 5. ethnarch, | tetrarch, + | deposed | ! A. C. 34. + +-------------------+ A. C. 6. | + | Herod II. Agrippa | | + ! A. C. 44. Antipas, tetrarch, + | deposed A. C. 39. + +---------------+ married Herodias. + | Herod Agrippa | + ! A. C. 100. + + + + +V. GENEALOGICAL TABLE OF THE CAESARS. + + +I. + + C. Julius Caesar, praetor, ! 84. + | + +--------------------------------------------------------------+ + | C. JULIUS CAESAR, dictator, Julia ! 52. | + ! 44. married Accius Balbus. + | | + +-----------------------------+ +-----------------------+ + | Julia ! 52. married Pompey. | | Accia ! 42, | + married C. Octavius. + | + +--------------------------------------------------------------------+ + | Octavia the elder | C. OCTAVIUS (CAESAR AUGUSTUS) | + married M. Marcellus. | ! A. C. 14 (see No. II.) + | + Octavia the younger married, + 1. C. Marcellus. 2. Pompey. 3. M. Antony. + + +II. + + CAESAR OCTAVIANUS AUGUSTUS ! A. C. 14. + married, 1. Scribonia. 2. Livia, widow of Tiberius Claudius Nero. + | | + | +------------------------------------------------------+ + | | TIBERIUS NERO ! A.C. 37. Nero Claudius Drusus ! 9. | + | married, 1. Vipsania. married Antonia + | 2. Julia. the younger. + | | | + | +--------------------------+ | + | | DRUSUS CAESAR ! A. C. 25.| | + | | + | +---------------------------------------------------+ + | | Germanicus CLAUDIUS ! A. C. 54. | + | ! A. C. 19. married, 1. Messalina. + | married Agrippina. 2. Agrippina. + | | | + | | +------------------------------------+ + | | | 1. Britannicus 1. Octavia | + | | ! A. C. 34. ! A. C. 59. + | | married Nero. + | | + | +-------------------------------------------------------+ + | | Nero Drusus | Agrippina | + | ! A. C. 29. ! A. C. 35. | married, + | | 1. Cn. Domitius. + | CAIUS CALIGULA 2. Claudius. + | ! A. C. 41. | + | | + | +---------------------------------------+ + | | 1. | + | DOMITIUS NERO ! A. C. 68. + | married, 1. Octavia. 2. Poppaea Sabina + | + +----------------------------------------------------------+ + | 1. | + Julia ! A. C. 17. + married, 1. ! M. Cl. Marcellus. 2. Agrippa. 3. Tiberius. + | + +------------------------------------------------------------------+ + | 2. 2. 2. 2. 2. | + C. Caesar L. Caesar Agrippina Julia Agrippa + ! A. C. 4. ! A. C. 2. ! A. C. 35. ! A. C. 30. Posthumus + married ! A. C. 14. + Germanicus. + + + + +VI. GENEALOGICAL TABLE OF THE HOUSE OF CONSTANTINE. + + + CONSTANTIUS CHLORUS ! 306. + married, 1. Helena. 2. Theodora. + | + +-----------------------------------------------------------------+ + CONSTANTINE the Great ! 337. | Jul. Constantius | + married, 1. Minervina. | ! 337. married, | + 2. Fausta. Constantia 1. Galla. | + | married 2. Basilina. | + | C. Valer LICINIUS, | | + | Caesar, ! 324 +----------+ | + +--------------------------+ | Fl. Valer. | + 1. | 2. | +--------------+ Licinius | + CRISPUS | CONSTANTIUS | 1. 2. ! 326. | + ! 326. | ! 361. | Gallus JULIAN | + 2. 2. ! 354. (the apostate) | + CONSTANTINE CONSTANS ! 363. | + ! 340. ! 350. Annibalianus. + | + +-----------------------------+ + | Dalmatius Annibalianus | + Caesar ! 339. ! 338. + + + + +PRINTED BY TALBOYS AND BROWNE, OXFORD. + + + + + * * * * * + + + + +Transcriber's note: + +The original text includes Greek characters. 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