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diff --git a/39747-h/39747-h.htm b/39747-h/39747-h.htm new file mode 100644 index 0000000..515f594 --- /dev/null +++ b/39747-h/39747-h.htm @@ -0,0 +1,23665 @@ +<!DOCTYPE html PUBLIC "-//W3C//DTD XHTML 1.0 Strict//EN" + "http://www.w3.org/TR/xhtml1/DTD/xhtml1-strict.dtd"> +<html xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml"> +<head> +<meta http-equiv="Content-Type" content="text/html; charset=ISO-8859-1" /> +<title>The Project Gutenberg eBook of A Manual of Ancient History, by A. H. L. (Arnold Hermann Ludwig) Heeren</title> + <style type="text/css"> + + p { margin-top: .75em; + text-align: justify; + margin-bottom: .75em; + text-indent: 1em; + } + h1,h2,h3,h4,h5,h6 { + text-align: center; /* all headings centered */ + clear: both; + width: 70%; + margin-left: auto; + margin-right: auto; + } + hr { width: 33%; + margin-top: 2em; + margin-bottom: 2em; + margin-left: auto; + margin-right: auto; + clear: both; + } + + table {margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;} + + body{margin-left: 10%; + margin-right: 20%; + } + + .pagenum { /* uncomment the next line for invisible page numbers */ + /* visibility: hidden; */ + position: absolute; + left: 2%; + font-size: .8em; + text-align: right; + font-style: normal; + } /* page numbers */ + + .blockquot{margin-left: 5%; margin-right: 10%;} + .sblockquot{font-size: 0.9em; margin-top: 1.5em; margin-bottom: 1.5em;} + .iblockquot{margin-left: 2em; text-indent: -2em;} + .iblockquot2{margin-left: 2em; text-indent: -2em; font-size: 110%; margin-top: 1.5em;} + .cblockquot{text-align: center; text-indent: 0em; font-size: 110%; margin-top: 1.5em;} + .noin {text-indent: 0em;} + .sidenote {position: absolute; left: 82%; right: 2%; font-size: 90%; + text-align: left; text-indent: 0em;} + + .bb {border-bottom: solid 2px;} + .bl {border-left: solid 2px;} + .bt {border-top: solid 1px;} + .br {border-right: solid 2px;} + .bbox {border: solid 2px;} + + .center {text-align: center; text-indent: 0em;} + .smcap {font-variant: small-caps;} + .u {text-decoration: underline;} + + .caption {font-weight: bold;} + + .figcenter {margin: auto; text-align: center;} + + .footnotes {border: dashed 1px;} + .footnote {margin-left: 10%; margin-right: 10%; font-size: 0.9em; margin-top: 2.5em;} + .footnote .label {position: absolute; right: 84%; text-align: right;} + .fnanchor {vertical-align: super; font-size: .8em; text-decoration: none;} + + .poem {margin-left:10%; margin-right:10%; text-align: left;} + .poem br {display: none;} + .poem .stanza {margin: 1em 0em 1em 0em;} + .poem span.i0 {display: block; margin-left: 0em; padding-left: 3em; text-indent: -3em;} + .poem span.i2 {display: block; margin-left: 2em; padding-left: 3em; text-indent: -3em;} + .poem span.i4 {display: block; margin-left: 4em; padding-left: 3em; text-indent: -3em;} + + h1.pg { width: 100%; } + hr.full { width: 100%; + margin-top: 3em; + margin-bottom: 0em; + margin-left: auto; + margin-right: auto; + height: 4px; + border-width: 4px 0 0 0; /* remove all borders except the top one */ + border-style: solid; + border-color: #000000; + clear: both; } + </style> +</head> +<body> +<h1 class="pg">The Project Gutenberg eBook, A Manual of Ancient History, by A. H. L. +(Arnold Hermann Ludwig) Heeren</h1> +<p>This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with +almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or +re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included +with this eBook or online at <a +href="http://www.gutenberg.org">www.gutenberg.org</a></p> +<p>Title: A Manual of Ancient History</p> +<p> Particularly with Regard to the Constitutions, the Commerce, and the Colonies, of the States of Antiquity</p> +<p>Author: A. H. L. (Arnold Hermann Ludwig) Heeren</p> +<p>Release Date: May 21, 2012 [eBook #39747]</p> +<p>Language: English</p> +<p>Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1</p> +<p>***START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK A MANUAL OF ANCIENT HISTORY***</p> +<p> </p> +<h4>E-text prepared by Adrian Mastronardi<br /> + and the Online Distributed Proofreading Team<br /> + (<a href="http://www.pgdp.net">http://www.pgdp.net</a>)<br /> + from page images generously made available by<br /> + Internet Archive/American Libraries<br /> + (<a href="http://archive.org/details/americana">http://archive.org/details/americana</a>)</h4> +<p> </p> +<table border="0" style="background-color: #ccccff;margin: 0 auto;" cellpadding="10"> + <tr> + <td valign="top"> + Note: + </td> + <td> + Images of the original pages are available through + Internet Archive/American Libraries. See + <a href="http://archive.org/details/manualofancienth00heeriala"> + http://archive.org/details/manualofancienth00heeriala</a> + </td> + </tr> +</table> +<p> </p> +<hr class="full" /> +<p> </p> +<p> </p> +<p> </p> + +<h1>A MANUAL</h1> +<h4>OF</h4> +<h1>ANCIENT HISTORY,</h1> + +<h5>PARTICULARLY WITH REGARD TO</h5> + +<h2>THE CONSTITUTIONS, THE COMMERCE,<br /> +AND THE COLONIES,<br /> +<br /> +OF THE STATES OF ANTIQUITY.</h2> + +<p> </p> +<h3>BY A. H. L. HEEREN;</h3> + +<h5>KNIGHT OF THE NORTH STAR AND GUELPHIC ORDER; AULIC COUNSELLOR<br /> +AND PROFESSOR OF HISTORY IN THE UNIVERSITY OF GOETTINGEN;<br /> +AND MEMBER OF SEVERAL OTHER LEARNED SOCIETIES.</h5> + +<h4>Translated from the German.</h4> + +<h4>THE SECOND EDITION, CORRECTED AND IMPROVED.</h4> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 235px;"> +<img src="images/illus-001.jpg" width="235" height="281" alt="" title="" /> +</div> + +<h4><big>OXFORD:</big><br /> +PUBLISHED BY D. A. TALBOYS.<br /> +<small>M DCCC XXXIII.</small> +</h4> + + + +<hr style="width: 15%;" /> +<h5>OXFORD: PRINTED BY TALBOYS AND BROWNE.</h5> + + +<hr style="width: 100%;" /> +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_iii" id="Page_iii">[Pg iii]</a></span></p> +<h2>TRANSLATOR'S PREFACE</h2> + +<h3>TO THIS EDITION.</h3> + + +<p class="main">It is to the patient industry of the historians of +Germany, that we are indebted for the first production +of Manuals of history, and for those synchronistic +tables which have so much facilitated +the systematic study of ancient history; and +among the various and profound treatises of this +class which enrich and adorn their literature, the +works of Heeren are distinguished by their extended +range of enquiry, as well as by the minute +accuracy of their details.</p> + +<p class="main">The work before us embodies the result of his +laborious researches during the long period in +which he has been engaged as public lecturer +and professor of history in the university of Goettingen; +and if it be any recommendation of a +work to know that its writer has had ample time, +ability, and opportunity to collect and elaborate +his materials, it may be asserted, without fear of +contradiction, that the author of the present work +possessed all these advantages in an eminent degree. +He has spent the greater portion of his +life in lecturing upon the subjects of which it +treats, and has in every case gone for his information +immediately to the fountain head. It forms, +too, an important feature of his work, that a list +of the original sources, whence his own know<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_iv" id="Page_iv">[Pg iv]</a></span>ledge +has been drawn, is placed at the head of +each section; another is added of the principal +writers who have touched upon or illustrated the +particular portion of history under notice; both +being generally accompanied with a few words of +judicious criticism, in which the value of the +writer's authority is estimated, and his sources, +circumstances, and prejudices, briefly, but fairly +set forth. Besides this advantage, the work possesses +the merit of combining the convenience of +the Manuals with the synchronistic method of +instruction; as the geography, chronology, and +biography of the countries and states of the ancient +world are brought at once under the eye of +the reader; and so lucid is the arrangement, that +the darkest and most entangled portions of history +are seen in a clear and perspicuous light. +Professor Heeren seems, moreover, to possess in +a more eminent degree than any other writer, the +power of forcing, by a very few words, the attention +of the reader upon the most important facts +of history; and of conjuring up in his thoughts a +train of reflections calculated at once to instruct +and enlarge the mind. His work is not only admirably +adapted to become a text-book in the study +of history, but will be found equally serviceable as +a book of reference—it will guide the student in +his untried and intricate course, and enable the +more advanced scholar to methodize his collected +stores. Perhaps in no work has so much important +information been condensed into so small a +compass.</p> + +<p class="main">The estimation in which this Manual is held +on the continent, may be gathered from the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_v" id="Page_v">[Pg v]</a></span> +fact of its having passed through six large editions +in German, and two in French, and from its +having been translated into almost every language +of Europe.</p> + +<p class="main">The rapidity with which the first edition, as +well as the other writings of professor Heeren, +have sold in this country, is a proof that they only +required to be known here in order to be appreciated. +The favour with which these translations +have been received, both by the venerable author +himself and by the British public, has been a +source of the highest gratification to the publisher. +The encouragement, so kindly bestowed, has urged +him to new exertions, the fruits of which, he trusts, +will be observable in the present volume. The +Manual has not only been revised and corrected +throughout, but has also been diligently compared +with the German, and has received such ameliorations +as the original text or the English style +seemed to demand. When it is added to this +that a very numerous body of corrections and +improvements have been sent to the publisher by +professor Heeren himself, who has patiently examined +the translation expressly for this edition, +he trusts that the public will be satisfied that it is +as faithful a copy of the original work as the nature +of things will allow.</p> + +<p class="main">In the preface to the last edition of this Manual +the publisher announced his intention, should it +be favourably received, of following it up by the +publication of another elaborate work of the same +author, viz. A Manual of the History of the +States of Modern Europe and their Colonies, +as forming one political System. This work will<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_vi" id="Page_vi">[Pg vi]</a></span> +now very shortly appear. As an apology for the +delay which has taken place, he begs to call to +their notice another equally important work by +the same author, which he has published in the +mean time; the Historical Researches into the +Politics, Intercourse, and Trade of the Carthaginians, +Ethiopians, and Egyptians, with a general +introduction; the remainder of this work, containing +the Historical Researches into the Politics, +Intercourse, and Trade of the Ancient Asiatic +Nations—the Persians, Phœnicians, Babylonians, +Scythians, and Hindoos, will appear in a few +weeks.</p> + +<p class="main">To add to the usefulness of the work, an analysis +of the contents, with dates, has been given +in the margin. The † prefixed to some of the +books denote that they are written in German.</p> + +<p class="noin"> + <span class="smcap">Oxford</span>,<br /> + <i>March</i>, 1833.</p> + + + +<hr style="width: 100%;" /> +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_vii" id="Page_vii">[Pg vii]</a></span></p> +<h3>PROFESSOR HEEREN'S WORKS.</h3> + +<div class="sblockquot"> +<p class="main">The following catalogue of the historical works of Professor Heeren, +has been sent to the Publisher by the Professor himself. They are +uniformly printed in German, in 15 vols. 8vo. and may always be had +together or separate of the publisher of this volume.</p> +<p> </p> + +<p class="iblockquot">VOL. I. II. III. Vermischte historische Schriften. (Miscellaneous Historical +Pieces).</p> + +<p class="iblockquot">VOL. I. Einleitung. Biographische Nachrichten über den Verfasser. +(Biographical Sketch of Heeren's Life, by himself.)<br /> + + 1. Entwickelung der politischen Folgen der Reformation für +Europa. (Development of the Consequences of the Reformation +to the Politics of Europe).<br /> + + 2. * Versuch einer Entwickelung des Ursprungs und Fortganges +der britischen Continental-interesse. (Essay on the Rise and +Progress of the British Continental interests). A translation of this +Essay will be appended to the Manual of the History of Modern +Europe, see vol. viii. ix. below.<br /> + + 3. Ueber den Einfluss der politischen Theorien auf Europa. +(Of the Influence of Political Theories on Europe).</p> + +<p class="iblockquot">VOL. II. 1. Ueber die Erhaltung der Nationalität besiegter Völker. +(On the Method of Preserving the Nationality of Conquered States.) +Written in 1810, and suppressed by the French.<br /> + + 2. Entwickelung der Folgen der Kreuzzüge für Europa. (Development +of the Effects of the Crusades upon Europe: An essay +which obtained the prize of the French Institute in 1808.<br /> + + 3. Ueber den Einfluss der Normannen auf die französische +Sprache und Poësie. (On the Influence of the Normans on the +French Language and Poetry).<br /> + + 4. Ueber die Colonisation von Ægypten, und ihre Folgen für +Europa. (On the Colonisation of Egypt, and its Probable Consequences +to Europe).<br /> + + 5. Der deutsche Bund in seinen Verhaltnisse zu Europa. (The +Influence of the German Federation upon Europe).</p> + +<p class="iblockquot">VOL. III. 1. Ueber den historischen Werth der Biographien Plutarch's. +(On the Historical Value of Plutarch's Lives).<br /> + + 2. Geschichte der bürgerlichen Unruhen der Gracchen. (History +of the Civil Commotions under the Gracchi).<br /> + + 3. Fünf archæologische und antiquarische Aufsätze. (Five Archæological +and Antiquarian Tracts).</p> +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_viii" id="Page_viii">[Pg viii]</a></span></p> +<p class="iblockquot">VOL. IV. V. Geschichte der classischen Litteratur im Mittelalter. +(History of Classical Literature During the Middle Ages).</p> + +<p class="iblockquot">VOL. VI. Biographische und litterarische Denkschriften. (Biographical +and Literary Memoirs).<br /> + + 1. Christian Gottlob. Hëyne, biographisch dargestellt. (Biographical +Memoir of Heyne), the father-in-law of Heeren.<br /> + + 2. Andenken an deutsche Historiker. (Memoirs of German +Historians.)</p> + +<p class="iblockquot">VOL. VII. * Handbuch der Geschichte der Staaten des Alterthums. +(Manual of Ancient History, of which this volume is the second +edition of the English translation).</p> + +<p class="iblockquot">VOL. VIII. IX. * Handbuch der Geschichte der europäische Staaten-systems +und seiner Colonien. (Manual of the History of the European +States-system and their Colonies).</p> + +<p class="iblockquot">VOL. X. * Ideen ueber die Politik, den Verkehr und den Handel des +vornehmsten Staaten der alten Welt. (Researches into the Politics, +Intercourse, and Trade of the Principal States of Antiquity,—Asiatic +Nations). 1. General Introduction; 2. Persians.</p> + +<p class="iblockquot">VOL. XI. * Ideen, etc. (Asiatic Nations). 1. Phœnicians; 2. Babylonians; +3. Scythians.</p> + +<p class="iblockquot">VOL. XII. * Ideen, etc. (Asiatic Nations). Indians.</p> + +<p class="iblockquot">VOL. XIII. * Ideen, etc. (African Nations). 1. Carthaginians; 2. +Ethiopians.</p> + +<p class="iblockquot">VOL. XIV. * Ideen, etc. (African Nations). Egyptians.</p> + +<p class="iblockquot">VOL. XV. * Ideen, etc. (European Nations). Greeks.</p> + +<p> </p> +<p class="main">Those with a * prefixed are translated into English, and are either +now published or will very shortly be so.</p> +</div> + + + +<hr style="width: 100%;" /> +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_ix" id="Page_ix">[Pg ix]</a></span></p> +<h2>PREFACE</h2> + +<h3>TO THE FIRST EDITION.</h3> + + +<p class="main">In adding to the number of Manuals on Ancient +History already published, I feel myself bound +to give an account of the plan on which the present +has been executed.</p> + +<p class="main">It was at first designed to be used in my +public lectures, and from them it has grown up +to what it now is. In them I did not consider it +necessary to state all we know or think we know +of ancient history. Many facts highly interesting +to the learned historian are not adapted for public +lectures. It was therefore my great object to +make choice of such incidents as ought to be +known by my pupils in order to the effectual +prosecution of their historical studies. Consequently +I have not extended my labours so far as +to give an historical account of every nation, but +have limited myself to those most remarkable for +their general civilization and political eminence.</p> + +<p class="main">The subjects to which I have particularly directed +my attention are, the formation of states, +the changes in their constitution, the routes by +which commerce was carried on, the share which +the different nations respectively took in its pursuit, +and, as immediately connected with that<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_x" id="Page_x">[Pg x]</a></span> +department, their extension severally by means of +colonies.</p> + +<p class="main">The favourable reception which my larger work, +executed after a different plan, has met with, +would lead me to hope for a like indulgence in +this new attempt, even if the spirit of the age did +not so loudly call upon every historian to direct +his chief attention to these subjects. And for +this reason I could not rest satisfied with a mere +detail of isolated facts, but have made it my study +to follow the course of events, linking them into +one connected chain; so as to represent them in +a condensed form by continually and carefully +forcing together the main circumstances which +contributed to the development of the whole.</p> + +<p class="main">Without this, history in general would be but +a lifeless study, more especially that of republics, +which were so numerous in ancient times, and +which, from their constitution being made up of +political parties, everywhere present the most +difficult problems for the historian's solution. Of +all the larger divisions of my work, the arrangement +of the Greek history I have found most troublesome, +on account of the number of little states +into which it is sub-divided. Historians, indeed, +lighten this labour by confining themselves merely +to Athens and Sparta; but by so doing they give +us a very imperfect knowledge of the subject. I +have endeavoured to surmount the difficulty by +throwing the account of the smaller states and +their colonies into the second period; by which +means I have been able in the third and most +important portion, the interest of which depends +entirely upon the principal states, to carry on my<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_xi" id="Page_xi">[Pg xi]</a></span> +history, as a whole without interruption. But in +case others, who wish to make this Manual the +groundwork of their lectures, should dislike this +arrangement, they may very easily attach these +notices to the introductory geographical survey; a +plan I very often adopt in my own lectures. Upon +the arrangement of the other parts, I am not aware +of the necessity of making any observations. The +sources from which I have drawn my materials +are specified in every section. Particular references +do not come within my plan; and if I have +referred several times in the first two sections to +my larger work, it is only on particular points, +explanations of which may be sought for in vain +elsewhere.</p> + +<p class="main">Some knowledge of ancient geography and +the use of maps<a name="FNanchor_A_1" id="FNanchor_A_1"></a><a href="#Footnote_A_1" class="fnanchor">[a]</a>, if it has not been previously +acquired by the student, should, I am convinced, +always be connected with lectures on ancient +history. That this need not extend to detailed +explanations of ancient geography, but that it +should be restricted to what is merely useful in +the study of history, I have observed in the body +of my work. The geographical chapters which +are interspersed having been written with this +intent, will, I hope, be judged of accordingly. +I have taken care to arrange them so as to include +the whole of the ancient world; it depends, +therefore, only upon the teacher to form a more +or less extensive course upon them.</p> + +<p class="main">With regard to chronology, I have followed +throughout the same uniform plan of computing<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_xii" id="Page_xii">[Pg xii]</a></span> +time, viz. to and from the birth of Christ. By +preferring this method, so convenient and certain, +to the inconvenient and uncertain one of reckoning +from the year of the world, I hope I have deserved +the thanks of my readers. I relinquish, +on the other hand, all claim to merit on the score +of having more accurately defined the chronology +of events which occur before the time of Cyrus. +I have, on the contrary, in this part of my labour, +often stated round numbers, where, in many +modern publications, precise dates may be found. +Exact determinations of time are only necessary, +in my opinion, where a continuous development +of circumstances takes place; not where unconnected +facts are recorded.</p> + +<p class="main">The transactions of our own times have thrown +a light upon ancient history, and given it an interest +which it could not formerly possess. A +knowledge of history, if not the only, is at least +the most certain means of obtaining a clear and +unprejudiced view of the great drama now performing +around us. All direct comparisons, notwithstanding +the many opportunities which have +tempted me, I considered as foreign to my plan; +but if, notwithstanding in some chapters of my +work, particularly in the history of the Roman republic, +I may be thought to make a reference to +the transactions of the ten years during which +this work has been published, I do not consider +it necessary to offer any excuse for so doing. Of +what use is the study of history if it do not make +us wiser and better? unless the knowledge of the +past teach us to judge more correctly of the present? +Should I have contributed in any measure<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_xiii" id="Page_xiii">[Pg xiii]</a></span> +to promote this object, and should I be so fortunate +as to lead the minds of my young friends to +a deeper study of a science which can only in this +way reward its admirers, I shall esteem it the most +delightful recompense my labour can receive.</p> + +<p><small> +GOETTINGEN, Sept. 23, 1799.<br /> +</small></p> + + +<div class="footnote"><p class="main"><a name="Footnote_A_1" id="Footnote_A_1"></a><a href="#FNanchor_A_1"><span class="label">[a]</span></a> I have made use of D'Anville.</p></div> + + +<hr style="width: 100%;" /> +<h2>PREFACE</h2> + +<h3>TO THE SECOND AND FOLLOWING EDITIONS.</h3> + + +<p class="main">The call for a second edition of my Manual imposes +upon me an obligation to supply the deficiencies +of my former work. Corrections have +been carefully made, and many parts completely +re-written. A select list of books which treat of +the respective departments of my subject is now +first added; the former edition containing only +references to the sources from which my facts +were derived. This, I trust, will be considered an +essential service to the friends of historical science, +more especially the young, for whom and +not for the learned these additions have been +made. Their use in this place is particularly +obvious, where it is in every one's power to procure +the books referred to<a name="FNanchor_B_2" id="FNanchor_B_2"></a><a href="#Footnote_B_2" class="fnanchor">[b]</a>. The short criticisms +subjoined, where it seemed necessary, will serve +as guides for their use. In the author's depart<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_xiv" id="Page_xiv">[Pg xiv]</a></span>ment +of the work but little has been changed, +while its form and appearance have been improved +by the use of different types, by more accurate +running titles, and by ranging the dates in +the margin. By the adoption of the latter method +the increase in the number of pages is rendered +inconsiderable, notwithstanding the numerous additions +which have been made to the matter. In +its arrangement, this work is the same as my +Manual of the History of the European States +and their Colonies. Beyond this, however, these +works have no relation to each other, but have +been executed upon quite different principles; the +present as a history of the <i>separate</i> states of the +ancient world, and the other as a general history +of modern states and their colonies, as forming +altogether one political system. Each, however, +forms a complete work in itself, and it is by no +means my intention to fill up the gulf which time +has placed between them.</p> + +<p class="main">I regret that the acute researches of M. Volney<a name="FNanchor_C_3" id="FNanchor_C_3"></a><a href="#Footnote_C_3" class="fnanchor">[c]</a>, +upon the chronology of Herodotus before +the time of Cyrus, came too late into my hands +to be made use of in its proper place in my +second edition. In the third this has been +done. I lay claim, at the same time, to the +thanks of the reader for giving, in an Appendix, +the results of these researches, together with +references to the passages by which they are +supported; leaving out, however, all extraneous +matter, and everything that cannot be proved by +the positive assertions of the father of history.</p> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_xv" id="Page_xv">[Pg xv]</a></span></p> +<p class="main">I cannot close this preface without again recurring +to the advantage of the mode now becoming +more and more general, of computing +time in ancient history according to the number +of years before Christ. The fact of its being certain +and convenient has often been remarked; but +besides this it possesses the great advantage of +giving us at once a clear and precise notion of the +interval that separates us from the incidents recorded; +which it is impossible to obtain by the +use of any other era, whether the year of the +world, the olympiads, or the year of Rome, etc. +And yet this peculiar advantage, so great in the +eyes of the teacher, has not, to the best of my +knowledge, been hitherto made the subject of remark. +Even for the science of history itself, this +circumstance is of greater moment than might be +at first supposed. Should an enquirer arise who +would closely examine all ancient history according +to this era—setting out from the generally received +year of the birth of Christ as from a fixed +point, to which the labours of M. Volney are a +good beginning—the whole science would thereby +acquire a firmer consistency. For by this method +all dates would not appear equally certain and +equally uncertain, as they do in the eras which +are computed from the year of the world; but it +would be shown what is chronologically certain, +what only probable, and what completely uncertain, +according as we should recede from the +clearer into the more obscure regions of history. +The old manner of reckoning from the year of the +world, in which congruity was impossible, because +there was no agreement upon the point to<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_xvi" id="Page_xvi">[Pg xvi]</a></span> +start from, would certainly be thrown aside; but +where is the harm if something better and more +certain be substituted in its place?</p> + +<p class="main">In the third, fourth, fifth, and sixth editions, +though the increase in the number of pages is +small, yet all those additions and corrections +which I deemed necessary, and which the progress +of knowledge and discovery, as in the case +of Egypt and other countries, enabled me to +effect, have been most carefully and fully made. +The importance of these will be best seen by +comparison.</p> + +<p><small><i>Goettingen</i>, 1828.</small></p> + + + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p class="main"><a name="Footnote_B_2" id="Footnote_B_2"></a><a href="#FNanchor_B_2"><span class="label">[b]</span></a> [The author alludes to the public library at Goettingen. <span class="smcap">Tr</span>.]</p> + +<p class="main"><a name="Footnote_C_3" id="Footnote_C_3"></a><a href="#FNanchor_C_3"><span class="label">[c]</span></a> Chronologie d'Herodote, conforme à son Texte par C. F. Volney. Paris, +1809, 3 vols. See the <i>Gött. Gel. Anz.</i> for 1810 and 1816.</p> +</div> + +<hr style="width: 100%;" /> +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_xvii" id="Page_xvii">[Pg xvii]</a></span></p> +<h2>CONTENTS.</h2> + + + +<div class='center'> +<table border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" summary=""> +<tr><td align='left'> </td><td align='right'><small>Page</small></td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Introduction</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_1">1</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'><a href="#FIRST_BOOK">Book I.</a> Asiatic and African states previous to Cyrus</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_15">15</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>General geographical outline of Asia</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_15">ib.</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Preliminary and General Observations upon the History and Constitution of the great Asiatic Empires</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_22">22</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>History of the ancient Asiatic kingdoms before the reign of Cyrus</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_25">25</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'> I. Assyrian monarchy</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_25">ib.</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'> II. Median monarchy</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_26">26</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'> III. Babylonian monarchy</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_27">27</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'> IV. States in Asia Minor</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_29">29</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'> 1. Trojan empire</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_29">ib.</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'> 2. Phrygian empire</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_29">ib.</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'> 3. Lydian empire</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_29">ib.</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'> V. Phœnicia</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_30">30</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'> VI. Syrians</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_33">33</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'> VII. Jews</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_34">34</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'> 1. Period of the Nomad state from Abraham till the conquest of Palestine</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_35">35</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'> 2. Period of the federative republic</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_36">36</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'> 3. Period of the monarchy from B. C. 1100—600</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_38">38</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'> The Jewish state as one single kingdom</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_38">ib.</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'> The Jewish state as a divided kingdom</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_40">40</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>African Nations</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_45">45</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>General geographical outline of Ancient Africa</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_45">ib.</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'> I. Egyptians</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_47">47</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'> 1st Period. From the earliest times down to the Sesostridæ, about B. C. 1500</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_51">51</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'> 2nd Period. From the Sesostridæ till the sole dominion of Psammetichus, B. C. 1500—650</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_62">62</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'> 3rd Period. From the reign of Psammetichus to the Persian conquest of Egypt by Cambyses, B. C. 650—525</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_69">69</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'> II. Carthaginians</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_73">73</a><span class='pagenum'>[Pg xviii]</span></td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'> 1st Period. From the foundation of Carthage to the wars with Syracuse, B. C. 880—480</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_74">74</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'> 2nd Period. From the breaking out of the wars with Syracuse to the commencement of those with Rome, B. C. 480—264</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_80">80</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'> 3rd Period. From the beginning of the wars with Rome to the downfal of Carthage, B. C. 264—146</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_82">82</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'><a href="#SECOND_BOOK">Book II.</a> History of the Persian empire from B. C. 560—330</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_90">90</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'><a href="#THIRD_BOOK">Book III.</a> History of the Grecian states</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_112">112</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Geographical outline of Greece</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_112">ib.</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'> 1st Period. Traditional history down to the Trojan war, about B. C. 1200</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_118">118</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'> 2nd Period. From the Trojan war to the breaking out of the Persian war, B. C. 1200—500</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_127">127</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>History of the Hellenic states within Greece</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_127">ib.</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'> General history</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_127">ib.</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'> Sparta</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_131">131</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'> Athens</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_136">136</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Principal data for the history of the smaller states:</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>I. Within the Peloponnesus:</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'> <i>a.</i> Arcadia</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_142">142</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'> <i>b.</i> Argos</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_142">ib.</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'> <i>c.</i> Corinth</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_143">143</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'> <i>d.</i> Sicyon</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_144">144</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'> <i>e.</i> Achaia</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_144">ib.</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'> <i>f.</i> Elis</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_145">145</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>II. Central Greece, or Hellas:</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'> <i>a.</i> Megaris</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_146">146</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'> <i>b.</i> Bœotia</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_147">147</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'> <i>c.</i> Phocis</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_148">148</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'> <i>d.</i> Locris</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_148">ib.</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'> <i>e.</i> Ætolia</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_148">ib.</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'> <i>f.</i> Acarnania</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_149">149</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>III. Northern Greece:</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'> <i>a.</i> Thessaly</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_149">149</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'> <i>b.</i> Epirus</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_150">150</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>IV. Grecian Islands:</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'> <i>a.</i> Corcyra</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_151">151</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'> <i>b.</i> Ægina</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_151">ib.</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'> <i>c.</i> Eubœa</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_152">152</a><span class='pagenum'>[Pg xix]</span></td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'> <i>d.</i> The Cyclades</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_152">ib.</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'> <i>e.</i> Crete</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_152">ib.</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'> <i>f.</i> Cyprus</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_154">154</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>History of the Grecian colonies</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_155">155</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>General observations</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_155">ib.</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Colonies on the Western coast of Asia Minor:</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_157">157</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'> 1. Æolian colonies</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_158">158</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'> 2. Ionian colonies</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_159">159</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'> 3. Dorian colonies</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_161">161</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Colonies on the coast of the Propontis and the Black sea</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_162">162</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Colonies on the coasts of Thrace and Macedonia</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_163">163</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Colonies on the western coast of Greece</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_164">164</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Grecian settlements in Lower Italy:</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'> <i>a.</i> Tarentum</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_165">165</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'> <i>b.</i> Croton</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_166">166</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'> <i>c.</i> Sybaris</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_166">ib.</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'> <i>d.</i> Thurii</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_167">167</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'> <i>e.</i> Locri Epizephyrii</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_167">ib.</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'> <i>f.</i> Rhegium</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_168">168</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'> <i>g.</i> Cumæ</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_168">ib.</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Grecian settlements in Sicily:</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'> <i>a.</i> Syracuse</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_169">169</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'> <i>b.</i> Agrigentum</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_174">174</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'> <i>c.</i> The smaller Sicilian cities</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_175">175</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Colonies in Sardinia and Corsica</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_175">ib.</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Colonies in Gaul;—Massilia</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_176">176</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Colonies in Spain;—Saguntum</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_176">ib.</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Colonies in Africa;—Cyrene</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_176">ib.</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Period III. From the breaking out of the Persian wars to Alexander the Great, B. C. 500—336</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_178">178</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'><a href="#FOURTH_BOOK">Book IV.</a> History of the Macedonian Monarchy:</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Period I. From its origin to the death of Alexander the Great, B. C. 800—323</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_206">206</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Period II. History of the Macedonian monarchy, from the death of Alexander the Great to the battle of Ipsus, B. C. 323—301</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_222">222</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Period III. History of the separate kingdoms and states which arose out of the dismemberment of the Macedonian monarchy, after the battle of Ipsus</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_232">232</a><span class='pagenum'>[Pg xx]</span></td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'> I. History of the Syrian empire under the Seleucidæ B. C. 312—64</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_232">232</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'> II. History of the Egyptian kingdom under the Ptolemies, B. C. 323—30</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_247">247</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'> III. History of Macedonia itself and of Greece, from the death of Alexander to the Roman conquest, B. C. 323—146</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_268">268</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'> Achæan league</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_280">280</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'> Ætolian league</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_279">279</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'> IV. History of some smaller or more distant kingdoms and states formed out of the Macedonian monarchy</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_290">290</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'> The kingdom of Pergamus</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_291">291</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'> Bithynia</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_293">293</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'> Paphlagonia</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_294">294</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'> Pontus</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_295">295</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'> Cappadocia</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_297">297</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'> Armenia</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_298">298</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'> The kingdom of Parthia</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_299">299</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'> The kingdom of Bactria</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_305">305</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'> The restored kingdom of the Jews</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_306">306</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'> 1. Under the Persians</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_307">307</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'> 2. Under the Ptolemies and Seleucidæ</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_308">308</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'> 3. Under the Maccabees</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_309">309</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'> 4. Under the family of Herod</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_311">311</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'><a href="#FIFTH_BOOK">Book V.</a> History of the Roman state:</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Introductory remarks on the Geography of Ancient Italy</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_314">314</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'> Period I. From the foundation of Rome to the conquest of Italy, and the commencement of the wars with Carthage, B. C. 754—264, or A. U. C. 1—490</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_321">321</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'> Period II. From the commencement of the war with Carthage to the rise of the civil broils under the Gracchi, B. C. 264—134, or A. U. C. 490—620</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_339">339</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'> Period III. From the beginning of the civil broils under the Gracchi to the fall of the republic, B. C. 134—30, or A. U. C. 620—724</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_362">362</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'> Period IV. History of the Roman state as a monarchy till the overthrow of the western empire, B. C. 30—A. C. 476</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_402">402</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'><span class='pagenum'>[Pg xxi]</span>Geographical outline. View of the Roman empire and provinces, and other countries connected with it by war or commerce</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_402">ib.</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'> 1st Section. From Augustus Cæsar to the death of Commodus, B. C. 30—A. C. 193</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_411">411</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'> 2nd Section. From the death of Commodus to Diocletian, A. C. 193—284</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_437">437</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'> 3rd Section. From Diocletian to the overthrow of the Roman empire in the west, A. C. 284—476</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_454">454</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Appendix. Chronology of Herodotus from the time of Cyrus, according to Volney</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_475">475</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Genealogical Table of the reigning houses of Macedon</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_481">481</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Genealogical Table of the reigning houses of the Seleucidæ</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_482">482</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Genealogical Table of the reigning houses of the Ptolemies</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_483">483</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Genealogical Table of the reigning houses of the Jews</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_484">484</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Genealogical Table of the reigning houses of the Cæsars</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_485">485</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Genealogical Table of the reigning houses of Constantine</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_486">486</a></td></tr> +</table></div> + + + +<hr style="width: 100%;" /> +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_xxii" id="Page_xxii">[Pg xxii]</a></span></p> +<h5>OXFORD: PRINTED BY TALBOYS AND BROWNE.</h5> + + + +<hr style="width: 100%;" /> +<h1>MANUAL</h1> + +<h4>OF</h4> + +<h1>ANCIENT HISTORY.</h1> + + + +<hr style="width: 100%;" /> +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_1" id="Page_1">[Pg 1]</a></span></p> +<h2>INTRODUCTION.</h2> + + +<div class="sblockquot"><p>I. The sources of ancient history may be ranged under two +heads; the ancient writers, and the monuments still extant. +The various writers will be mentioned in their proper places, at +the different divisions of this work. A general view of the ancient +monuments, so far as they are sources of history, will be found in:</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Oberlin</span>, <i>Orbis antiqui monumentis suis illustrati primæ lineæ</i>. +Argentorati, 1790. Extremely defective, as many discoveries +have been made since it was published.</p> + +<p>II. <span class="smcap">General Treatises on Ancient History.</span></p> + +<p>1. <i>The more voluminous works</i> on the subject. These may be +divided in two classes: <i>a.</i> The part appropriated to ancient history, +in the general treatises on universal history; <i>b.</i> Works exclusively +devoted to ancient history.</p> + +<p><i>a.</i> To the first class belong:</p> + +<p><i>The Universal History, ancient and modern; with maps and +additions.</i> Lond. 1736, 26 vols. folio. Reprinted in 8vo. in +67 vols. and again in 60 vols. with omissions and additions.</p> + +<p>This work, compiled by a society of British scholars, has been +translated into German, and illustrated with remarks, by <span class="smcap">Siegm. +Jac. Baumgarten</span>. Halle, 1746, 4to. The Germans frequently +designate it by the name of the Halle Universal History of the +World: the first eighteen vols. comprise the ancient part.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Will. Guthrie, John Gray</span>, <i>etc.</i> <i>General History of the +World, from the creation to the present time.</i> London, 1764—1767, +12 vols. 8vo. This work, of no estimation in the original, +is rendered valuable and useful by the labours of the German +translator, <span class="smcap">C. G. Heyne</span>, (<i>Leip.</i> 1766, 8vo.) who has corrected +the errors, inserted the dates, and added his own observations.</p> + +<p><i>b.</i> To the second class belong:</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Rollin</span>, <i>Histoire ancienne des Egyptiens, des Carthaginois, +des Assyriens, des Mèdes el des Perses, des Macédoniens, des<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_2" id="Page_2">[Pg 2]</a></span> +Grecs.</i> Paris, 1824, 12 vols. 8vo.; revue par <span class="smcap">Letronne</span>: the +last and best edition. This work, which greatly promoted the +study of ancient history in France, still maintains its well-earned +reputation. [It was translated into English, 1768: best edition, +7 vols. 8vo.: frequently reprinted.] The above is generally accompanied +by the <i>Histoire Romaine</i> of the same author. See +below, book v. first period, <i>Sources</i>.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Jac. Ben. Bossuet</span>, <i>Discours sur l'Histoire Universelle</i>. +Paris, 1680, 3 vols. Frequently reprinted, being considered by +the French one of their classics.</p> + +<p>[English translation, by <span class="smcap">Rich. Spencer</span>. London, 1730, 8vo.]</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Millot</span>, <i>Elémens de l'Histoire Générale</i>. Paris, 1772, sq. +[Translated into English, 1778, 2 vols. 8vo.: and again, an improved +edition, with additions.] Edinb. 1823, 6 vols. 8vo. The +ancient history is contained in the first two volumes.</p> + +<p>†<span class="smcap">Joh. Matth. Schroeckh</span>, <i>General History of the World</i>, +for the use of children. Leipzic, 1779, sq. 6 vols.</p> + +<p>†<span class="smcap">J. G. Eichhorn</span>, <i>History of the Ancient World</i>, 1799, third +edition, 1817. (First part of the History of the World.)</p> + +<p>†<span class="smcap">Dan. G. J. Huebler</span>, <i>Sketch of the General History of the +Nations of Antiquity, from the birth of states to the end of the +Roman commonwealth</i>. Freyberg, 1798—1802. Five parts; +and a continuation: <i>History of the Romans under the Emperors, +and of the contemporary Nations, until the great migration</i>, 1803; +three parts. A work rendered extremely useful, by the judicious +advantage taken by the author of the labours of other writers.</p> + +<p>†<span class="smcap">H. Luden</span>, <i>General History of Nations</i>. 1814; three parts.</p> + +<p>†<span class="smcap">L. Von Dresch</span>, <i>General Political History</i>. 1815; three +parts. In each of the above works the first part contains the +ancient history, and exhibits the more modern views of the +subject.</p> + +<p>[The following is added, as well deserving the attention of the +English student: <span class="smcap">Ralegh</span> (Sir <span class="smcap">Walter</span>) <i>History of the World, +Part I. extending to the end of the Macedonian Empire; with his +Life and Trial, by Mr. Oldys</i>. Lond. 1736, 2 vols. folio. Formerly +the best edition; but a new and improved one has been +printed at the Clarendon press. Oxford, 1829, 8 vols. 8vo.]</p> + +<p>†<span class="smcap">F. Von Raumer</span>, <i>Lectures on Ancient History</i>, parts 1, 2. +Berlin, 1821.</p> + +<p>Works furnishing illustrations of the progressive civilization, +government, and commerce of early nations, although, strictly +speaking, not treatises on ancient history, are nevertheless very<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_3" id="Page_3">[Pg 3]</a></span> +closely connected with the subject. Among these may be mentioned:</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Goguet</span>, <i>De l'Origine des Lois, des Arts, et des Sciences, et de +leurs progrès chèz les anciens peuples; nouv. édit</i>. Paris, 1778. +[Translated by Dr. <span class="smcap">Dunn</span> and Mr. <span class="smcap">Speerman</span>. Edinb. 1761—1775, +3 vols. 8vo.]</p> + +<p>†<span class="smcap">A. H. L. Heeren</span>, <i>Reflections on the Politics, Intercourse, +and Trade of the most eminent Nations in the Ancient World</i>. +Third edition, with many additions. Gottingen, 1815, 8vo.; the +third part, 1821. Fourth edition. Gottingen, 1824. [This edition, +the last, contains many improvements and additions, suggested +by the great discoveries of modern travellers. Part I, +Asiatic Nations, in 3 vols. Persians, Phœnicians, Babylonians, +Scythians, Indians. An English translation of which is at this +moment in the press. Part II, African Nations, 2 vols. Carthaginians, +Ethiopians, Egyptians. Part III, European Nations; +of which only 1 volume, Greeks, has been published.]</p> + +<p>2. <i>Manuals</i>, or epitomes.</p> + +<p>The Germans are entitled to the merit of having first produced +manuals of ancient history, all of them useful, some excellent, in +their kind: they are a result of the progress made in this science +at the universities.</p> + +<p>†<span class="smcap">J. Chr. Gatterer</span>, <i>Attempt at an Universal History of the +World to the discovery of America</i>. Gottingen, 1792. He who +possesses this, the last and ripest fruit of Gatterer's studies, may +dispense with the earlier manuals published by that author.</p> + +<p>†<span class="smcap">Chr. Dan. Beck</span>, <i>A Short Introduction to the Knowledge +of the Universal History of the World and of Nature</i>. Leipzic, +1798. The first part connected with our subject extends to +A. D. 843. This volume is enriched with such a copious and +critical account of books relating to ancient history, that it may +supply the place of a particular work on the subject.</p> + +<p>†<span class="smcap">J. A. Remer</span>, <i>Manual of the more Ancient History, from the +creation of the world to the great migration</i>. Fourth edition. +Brunswick, 1832.</p> + +<p>†<span class="smcap">J. M. Schroeckh</span>, <i>Manual of Universal History</i>. 1774: +latest edition, 1795.</p> + +<p>†<span class="smcap">G. S. Bredow</span>, <i>Manual of Ancient History, with a sketch of +the chronology of the ancients</i>. Altona, 1799, 8vo. [Translated +into English. Lond. 1828, 12mo. In English we have:</p> + +<p><i>The Outlines of History</i>, in 1 vol. (forming part of Lardner's +Cabinet Cyclopædia) by Mr. <span class="smcap">Keightly</span>, author of a learned and<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_4" id="Page_4">[Pg 4]</a></span> +highly useful work on Grecian Mythology, is a convenient +abridgement. <span class="smcap">Tytler's</span> <i>Elements of General History</i>, improved +and continued by Dr. <span class="smcap">Nares</span>. Lond. 1825, best edition; owes +its reputation and success to the want of a better work on the +subject.]</p> + +<p>3. <i>Helps.</i></p> + +<p>Among the works subservient to the study of ancient history, +the first rank is justly due to the synchronistic tables.</p> + +<p>†<span class="smcap">D. G. J. Huebler</span>, <i>Synchronistic Tables of the History of +Nations</i>; arranged principally according to <span class="smcap">Gatterer's</span> <i>History +of the World</i>. In two numbers. Second edit. 1799 and 1804.</p></div> + +<div class="sidenote">Object of history.</div> + +<p>1. The object of <span class="smcap">Political History</span> +is to recount the destinies of nations, both in respect to +their foreign relations and internal affairs. In regard +to domestic concerns, one of its most important +objects is the <i>history of governments</i>: in +respect to external affairs, it comprises not only +an account of the wars, but likewise of the friendly +relations and intercourse with other states.</p> + +<div class="sblockquot"><p>Observe here the difference between universal history, or general +history of the human race, and the history of nations; the +latter forms part of the former. Observe also the difference between +political history and that of civilization, or of man as a +human being: the latter is merely the history of man, as man, +without regard to political circumstances.</p></div> + +<div class="sidenote">Divided into three parts:<br /> +first, to A. D. 500,<br /> +second, to A. D. 1500,<br /> +third, to our own times.</div> + +<p>2. Universal political history is usually +divided into three parts: <i>ancient history</i>, that of the <i>middle +ages</i>, and <i>modern history</i>. +The first extends to the fall of the Roman empire in the west, which took +place towards the close of the fifth century of the christian era; +the second extends to the discovery of America, and of a passage by sea to the +East Indies, about the end of the fifteenth century; +the third extends from the commencement of the sixteenth century +to the present time.</p> + +<div class="sblockquot"><p>The propriety of the above division is evinced by the nature of +the events which form these epochs. The student will easily<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_5" id="Page_5">[Pg 5]</a></span> +perceive that the division of history, into that before and after +the birth of Christ, is not judicious.</p></div> + +<div class="sidenote">Commencement +of +political +history.</div> + +<p>3. From the definition just given, it follows, +that political history does not commence till after +the first formation of states. Whatever is known, +therefore, of the period previous to this, or may +be gathered from traditions, respecting individuals +or tribes, or their migrations, affinities, or discoveries, +forms no part of political history, but must +be referred to the general history of man.</p> + +<div class="sblockquot"><p>It is well known that a great deal of information has been preserved +in the sacred writings concerning the early fortunes of +the human race. From these materials have been compiled what +has been called an <i>Historia Antediluviana</i>, sometimes considered +as forming a separate division of history. What has been said +above will satisfactorily account for the omission of this portion +of history in the present work; although none can deny the high +importance of such traditions in the investigation of the origin, +dispersion, and civilization of the human race.</p></div> + +<div class="sidenote">Sources of +history:</div> + +<p>4. The sources of history may be ranged under sources of +two general heads; <i>oral traditions</i>, and <i>written documents</i> +of various kinds. The history of every +nation usually commences with oral tradition, +which remains the only source, until the art of +writing becomes known, and in some degree +adopted by the people.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">mythology,</div> + +<p>5. Under the name of <i>traditional history</i> or <i>mythology</i>, +is comprehended all the general collection +of oral traditions preserved by a nation; and +some such traditional history or mythology is to +be found among every people in the first stage of +their existence as a community. This mythology, +however, is by no means confined to events strictly +historical, but embraces every branch of information +which may appear to a nation in its infancy,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_6" id="Page_6">[Pg 6]</a></span> +of sufficient importance to be preserved and handed +down to posterity.</p> + +<div class="sblockquot"><p>Hence the mythology of a people is invariably composed of +very heterogeneous materials; it not only preserves the remembrance +of various kinds of historical facts, but likewise the pervading +ideas of the people with respect to the nature and worship +of their deities; as well as the notions they had formed from +observations and experience respecting astronomy, morals, the +arts, etc. All these are handed down in the form of historical +narrative; because man, as yet unpractised in abstract thinking, +necessarily represents every thing to his mind under the figure +of some physical object. It is just as useless, therefore, to attempt +to mould the mythology of any people into a consistent +and connected whole, or indeed into any scientific system whatsoever, +as it is difficult to draw a strict line between what belongs +to mythology, and what to pure history. It follows, therefore, that +mythology should be employed by the historian with great caution; +and not without judicious criticism, and an accurate knowledge +of antiquity.</p> + +<p>These correct views of mythology,—the key to the whole of +earlier antiquity,—were first set forth and illustrated by Heyne, +in his commentaries upon Virgil and other poets, in his edition +of Apollodorus, and in various essays published in the Transactions +of the Gottingen Scientific Society. It is principally to +the aid of these that the Germans owe their superiority over +other nations in the science of antiquity.</p></div> + +<div class="sidenote">poetry,</div> + +<p>6. The place of writing among such nations, is +generally supplied, in a great measure, by poetry; +which being in its origin nothing more than imagery +expressed in figurative language, must spontaneously +arise among men, as yet wont to represent +every thing to their minds under the form of +images. Hence the subject matter of the poetry +of every nation, while in a state of rudeness, is +and can be nothing else but its mythology; and +the great variety in the materials of which this is +composed very naturally gave rise, at the same +early period, to various kinds of poetry; as the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_7" id="Page_7">[Pg 7]</a></span> +lyric, the didactic, the epic. The last of these, +inasmuch as it contains the historic songs and the +epopee, claims in a more especial manner the attention +of the historian.</p> + +<div class="sblockquot"><p>The mythi (or fables of which this mythology was composed) +were in later times frequently collected from the works of the +poets, and committed to writing by grammarians; such as Apollodorus +and others. This, however, can have had no effect on +their original character.</p></div> + +<div class="sidenote">written +documents,</div> + +<p>7. The second source of history, much more +copious and important than the former, are the +various kinds of written monuments. These may +be arranged according to the order of time at +which they were brought into use, into three +classes; 1st. Inscriptions on public monuments, +under which head are included the coins of later +date; 2nd. Chronological records of events, under +the form of annals and chronicles; 3rd. Real +philosophical works on history.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">inscriptions,</div> + +<p>8. Inscriptions on public monuments erected +to preserve the remembrance of certain events, +though perhaps no more than a stone set upright, +or even a bare rock, was used for that purpose, +were undoubtedly the most ancient written memorials. +These rude monuments became fashioned +by art into columns, obelisks, and pyramids, +as the taste of the nation became formed; and assumed +that definite character which local circumstances +and the natural features of the country +led it to adopt, as architecture arose and attained +to perfection among them. The very object, indeed, +for which they were erected—the commemoration +of remarkable events,—must have suggested +the practice of inscribing upon them some +particulars of the facts they were intended to per<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_8" id="Page_8">[Pg 8]</a></span>petuate. +Of this nature, no doubt, were the oldest +monuments, and more particularly those of +Egypt. Their use was much more general among +nations of a later period, especially Greece and +Rome, than among the moderns; yet of the great +mass of inscriptions still extant, but few comparatively +are of any importance as regards history.</p> + +<div class="sblockquot"><p>The characters engraved on these monuments were either symbolical +(hieroglyphics; see below under Egypt,) or alphabetical. +The invention and transmission of alphabetical writing are commonly +ascribed to the Phœnicians; although, if we may judge +by the shape of the arrow-headed character, it was made, without +communication with them, in the interior of Asia.</p> + +<p>The general collections of inscriptions are:</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Lud. Ant. Muratori</span>, <i>Novus Thesaurus veterum Inscriptionum</i>. +Mediolani, 1739, sq. 4 vols. fol. Together with <span class="smcap">Seb. Donati</span>, +<i>Supplementa</i>. Luccæ, 1764. <span class="smcap">Jan. Gruteri</span>, <i>Inscriptiones +antiquæ totius orbis Romani, cura</i> <span class="smcap">J. G. Grævii</span>. Amstel. +1707, 2 vols. fol.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">C. A. Boekhius</span>, <i>Corpus Inscriptionum Græcarum, auctoritate +et impensis Academiæ literarum Borussicæ</i>, vol. 1. 1827, +folio.</p> + +<p>Among the separate monuments, the most important for ancient +history is the Parian or Oxford Inscription, <i>Marmora Oxoniensia, +Arundeliana</i>, edited by <span class="smcap">Selden</span>, 1629; by <span class="smcap">Prideaux</span>, 1677. +The best edition is by <span class="smcap">Rich. Chandler</span>, Oxf. 1763, fol. A +useful and portable edition has been published by <span class="smcap">Fr. Ch. +Wagner</span>, <i>containing the Greek text, with a German translation +and notes</i>. Gottingen, 1790, 8vo.</p></div> + +<div class="sidenote">coins,</div> + +<p>9. Coins may likewise be regarded as a source +of ancient history, as by the light they throw upon +genealogy and chronology, the events known from +other authorities may be better arranged and understood. +The importance of coins, therefore, +becomes most sensible in those portions of history +where our information, in consequence of +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_9" id="Page_9">[Pg 9]</a></span> +the loss of the works of the original historians, is +reduced to a few insulated facts and fragments.</p> + +<div class="sblockquot"><p><span class="smcap">Ez. Spanhemii</span>, <i>Dissertatio de Usu et Præstantia Numismatum</i>. +Londini, 1707 et 1709, 2 vols. fol. The capital work, however, +on this subject, and which embraces the whole numismatic +science of antiquity is:</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Eckhel</span>, <i>De Doctrina Nummorum Veterum</i>. Viennæ, 1792—1798, +8 vols. 4to. And the epitome:</p> + +<p>† <span class="smcap">Eckhel</span>, <i>Brief Elements of Ancient Numismatics</i>. Vienna, +1707, 8vo. Another very useful work is:</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">J. C. Rasche</span>, <i>Lexicon Universæ Rei Nummariæ Veterum</i>. +1785, sq. 5 vols. 8vo.</p></div> + +<div class="sidenote">annals,</div> + +<p>10. Chronicles or annals form the second great +division of written historical monuments. These +presuppose the invention of letters, and the use +of materials for writing upon; consequently they +are of a later date than mere inscriptions. They +occur, nevertheless, in the earlier periods of nations; +and from such annals, indited by public +authority (state chronicles,) subsequent historians +have generally drawn materials for their works. +In many nations, and in nearly all the eastern +ones, history has not even yet advanced beyond +the composition of such chronicles.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">regular +histories.</div> + +<p>11. The third great division of historical writings +is formed of works composed on philosophical +principles, which differ from mere annals by their +containing not only a chronological narration of +events, but also a development of their connection +with one another, their causes and effects.</p> + +<div class="sblockquot"><p>But few nations among the moderns, and we know of none +among the ancients, except the Greeks and Romans, that had +any acquaintance with this sort of history. A fact which may +be attributed,—1st. To the government; for the more completely +the affairs of a nation are under the control of arbitrary +power and caprice, whether of one or more individuals, so much the +less apparent is a rational internal connection of events. Hence<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_10" id="Page_10">[Pg 10]</a></span> +philosophical history flourishes most under free governments; +and has not even a shadow of existence under pure despotic constitutions. +2nd. To the degree of civilization to which the nation +may have attained: for the observing and unravelling of the +political connection of events presupposes a considerable progress +in philosophical culture.</p></div> + +<div class="sidenote">Chronology +and Geography.</div> + +<p>12. Since all events are considered in reference +to the time and place in which they occur, +it follows that geography and chronology +are indispensable as auxiliary sciences in the +study of history, especially the ancient. These +sciences, however, need not, for this purpose, be +considered in their full extent and detail, but +only so far as they are of use in determining and +arranging events according to time and place. +A fixed mode of computing time is therefore necessary +in ancient history, as well as a continuous +geographical description of the countries which +were the theatres of the principal events.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">Eras.</div> + +<p>13. No method of computing time was adopted +generally in antiquity. Each nation, each state, +had its own era: yet, in the explication of ancient +history, there is an evident necessity that +some common era should be fixed upon, by which +a synchronistic view of the various events may be +obtained. For this purpose, the years may be +computed either from the creation of the world, +or before and after Christ. The latter method +has the advantage not only of greater certainty, +but also of greater convenience.</p> + +<div class="sblockquot"><p>Of the various modes of computing time, the best known are +those of the Greeks and the Romans; the former by olympiads, +the latter by years from the foundation of Rome. The era of +the olympiads commences at B. C. 776; that of the foundation +of Rome commences at B. C. 753, according to Varro; at B. C. +752, according to Cato.—The era of the Seleucidæ, in the Syrian<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_11" id="Page_11">[Pg 11]</a></span> +empire, commences with B. C. 312.—Various other eras, such as +that of Nabonnassar, commencing with B. C. 747, are founded +on observations preserved by Ptolemy, and made known by <span class="smcap">Scaliger</span>, +in his <i>Doctrina Temporum</i>.</p> + +<p>Chronology constitutes a distinct science: the best introduction +to which will be found in:</p> + +<p>† <span class="smcap">J. C. Gatterer</span>, <i>Epitome of Chronology</i>. Gottingen, 1777. +A most excellent criticism on the ancient eras has lately been +communicated to the public by:</p> + +<p>† <span class="smcap">L. Ideler</span>, <i>Historic Researches into the Astronomical Observations +of the Ancients</i>. Berlin, 1806.</p> + +<p>† <span class="smcap">D. H. Hegewisch</span>, <i>Introduction to Historical Chronology</i>; +1811. A very useful and portable work.</p> + +<p>[In English we have the laborious work of Dr. Hales:</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Hales</span> (<span class="smcap">Willm.</span>) <i>New Analysis of Chronology, explaining +the History and Antiquities of the primitive Nations of the World, +etc.</i> Lond. 1809-12, 4 vols. 4to. New edition, corrected and improved, +1830, 4 vols. 8vo.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Blair's</span> <i>Chronology and History of the World, from the Creation +to the present Time</i>. Lond. 1803, folio.</p> + +<p>And for the brilliant period of Greece and Rome the satisfactory +volumes:</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">H. F. Clynton's</span> <i>Fasti Hellenici. The civil and literary +Chronology of Greece, from the fifty-fifth to the hundred and +twenty-fourth Olympiad</i>. Second edition, with additions. Oxford, +1827, 4to. And the continuation of the same work to the +death of Augustus, Oxford, 1830, 4to. In this valuable work, +much light is also thrown upon the chronology of the times anterior +to the period with which the first volume is principally +occupied.]</p></div> + +<div class="sidenote">Geography, +mythological +and +true.</div> + +<p>14. In ancient geography there is much care +required to distinguish the fabulous from the +true. With regard to true geography, as an +auxiliary science to history, all that can be expected +is some general information respecting the +nature and peculiarities of the countries, respecting +their political divisions, and finally, respecting +the principal cities:—Long lists of the names +of places would be quite superfluous.</p> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_12" id="Page_12">[Pg 12]</a></span></p> +<div class="sblockquot"><p>Fabulous geography constitutes a part of the mythology of +every nation, and differs in each, because the ideas formed by +every early nation respecting the form and nature of the earth +are peculiar to itself. True geography gradually comes to light +as civilization increases, and discovery widens its horizon.—Necessity +of treating it historically, on account of the manifold +changes to which the division and the face of the countries of the +ancient world have been at various periods subjected.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Christoph. Cellarii</span> <i>Notitia Orbis Antiqui</i>. Lips. 1701—1706, +2 vols. 4to. <i>cum observat.</i> <span class="smcap">J. C. Schwarzii</span>. Lips. 1771, et +iterum 1773. This work was for a long time the only, and is +still an indispensable, treatise on ancient geography.</p> + +<p>† <span class="smcap">H. Mannert</span>, <i>Geography of the Greeks and Romans</i>. Nuremberg, +1788—1802. This work, now completed in 15 volumes, +may be justly designated classical, from the historical and critical +learning which the author has everywhere displayed. Vol. I, +contains Spain; II, Gallia et Britain; III, Germania, Rhætia, +Noricum; IV, The Northern parts of the World, from the Wessel +to China; V, India and the Persian Empire to the Euphrates, +2 parts; VI, Asia Minor, 3 parts; VII, Thrace, Illyria, Macedonia, +Thessaly, Epirus; VIII, Northern Greece, Peloponnesus, +and the Archipelago; IX, Italy and Sicily, Sardinia, etc. 2 parts; +X, Africa, 2 parts.</p> + +<p>† <span class="smcap">F. A. Ukert</span>, <i>Geography of the Greeks and Romans, from +the earliest periods to the time of Ptolemy</i>: first part, first division, +contains the historical, the second contains the mathematical +sections. Weimar, 1816; with maps.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Gosselin</span>, <i>Géographie des Grecs analysée</i>. Paris, 1790, 4to. +A development of the system of mathematical geography among +the Greeks. Partly continued in</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Gosselin</span>, <i>Recherches sur la Géographie des Anciens</i>. Paris, +an. vi. vol. 1—4.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">J. Rennel</span>, <i>Geographical System of Herodotus</i>. Lond. 1800, +4to.</p> + +<p>[Reprinted in 2 vols. 8vo. Lond. 1830, revised. Here, too, +for the benefit of the English reader may be mentioned:</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Rennel's</span> <i>Treatise on the Comparative Geography of Western +Asia, with an atlas</i>. London, 1831, 2 vols. 8vo.; published since +the author's death. And the learned and valuable volumes of +Dr. <span class="smcap">Cramer</span>, principal of New Inn Hall, and public orator of +the University of Oxford; they are,</p> +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_13" id="Page_13">[Pg 13]</a></span></p> +<p><i>Geographical and Historical Description of Ancient Greece, +with a map, and plan of Athens.</i> Oxford, 1826, 3 vols. 8vo.</p> + +<p><i>Geographical and Historical Description of Ancient Italy, +with a map.</i> Oxford, 1826, 2 vols. 8vo.</p> + +<p><i>Geographical and Historical Description of Asia Minor, with +a map.</i> Oxford, 1832, 2 vols. 8vo.</p> + +<p>The maps which accompany these works approach very nearly +to perfection.</p> + +<p>As useful compendiums, there are:</p> + +<p><i>An Introduction to Ancient Geography, with copious indexes +of Ancient and Modern Names</i>, by <span class="smcap">Peter Ed. Laurent</span>, +teacher in the Royal Naval Academy at Portsmouth. Oxford, +1813, 8vo.</p> + +<p><i>A Compendium of Ancient and Modern Geography, for the +use of Eton School; illustrating the most interesting points in +History, Poetry, and Fable; preceded by an Introduction to the +study of Astronomy, and containing plans of Athens, Rome, Syracuse, +and numerous diagrams explanatory of the motions of the +heavenly bodies</i>, by <span class="smcap">Aaron Arrowsmith</span>, Hydrographer to the +King, 1 vol. 8vo., with or without a copious index. London, +1830.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Butler's</span> (Dr. <span class="smcap">Sam.</span>) <i>Sketch of Ancient and Modern Geography</i>. +Seventh edition, 8vo. Also his <i>Atlas of Ancient Geography</i>, +consisting of twenty-one coloured maps, with a complete +accentuated index. 8vo.]</p> + +<p>We are indebted to d'Anville for the best charts of ancient +geography: <i>Atlas Orbis antiqui</i>, twelve leaves, fol.</p> + +<p>[The Eton Comparative Atlas of Ancient and Modern Geography, +with the index, published in several sizes; and the Maps +published by the Society for the Promotion of Useful Knowledge, +are very useful and correct.]</p></div> + +<div class="sidenote">Divisions +of this +Manual.</div> + +<p>15. Ancient history may be treated either ethnographically, +that is, according to separate nations +and states; or synchronistically, that is, +according to certain general epochs. Each of +these methods has its advantages and its disadvantages. +The two, however, may be combined, +and formed into one system; and as this seems +the most convenient, it has been adopted in the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_14" id="Page_14">[Pg 14]</a></span> +present work, which is accordingly divided as +follows:</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">First Book.</span>—History of the ancient Asiatic +and African states and kingdoms anterior to Cyrus, +or to the rise of the Persian monarchy, about the +year B. C. 560: comprising little more than insulated +fragments.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Second Book.</span>—History of the Persian monarchy, +from B. C. 560 to 330.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Third Book.</span>—History of the Grecian states, +both in Greece and other parts, to the time of +Alexander, B. C. 336.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Fourth Book.</span>—History of the Macedonian +monarchy, and of the kingdoms which arose out +of its division, until they merged into the Roman +empire.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Fifth Book.</span>—History of the Roman state, +both as a commonwealth and a monarchy, until +the fall of the western empire, A. D. 476.</p> + + + +<hr style="width: 100%;" /> +<h1>MANUAL OF ANCIENT HISTORY.</h1> + + +<hr style="width: 25%;" /> +<h1><a name="FIRST_BOOK" id="FIRST_BOOK"></a>THE FIRST BOOK.</h1> + +<p class="iblockquot2">HISTORICAL FRAGMENTS OF THE EARLIER ASIATIC AND +AFRICAN KINGDOMS AND STATES, PREVIOUS TO CYRUS, +OR THE RISE OF THE PERSIAN MONARCHY.</p> + + + +<hr style="width: 100%;" /> +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_15" id="Page_15">[Pg 15]</a></span></p> +<h2>I.—ASIATIC NATIONS.</h2> + + +<h3><i>General Preliminary Remarks on the Geography of Asia.</i></h3> + +<div class="sblockquot"><p>See the Introduction to Heeren's Researches into the Politics +and Commerce of the Nations of Antiquity, prefixed to vol. 1 of +the African Nations. Oxford, 1831.</p></div> + +<div class="sidenote">Extent and +situation.</div> + +<p>1. Asia is the largest and the most favourably +situated of the great divisions of the +globe. Its superficial contents are 11,200,000 +square geogr. miles; while those of Africa do not +exceed 4,780,000; and those of Europe are +not more than 2,560,000. As to situation, it +comprises the greatest portion of the northern +temperate zone.</p> + +<div class="sblockquot"><p>Compare it, in this point of view, with the other quarters of +the globe, especially Africa.—Advantages over the latter, in con<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_16" id="Page_16">[Pg 16]</a></span>sequence +of the convenience of its indented shores—of its surrounding +fruitful islands—of its deep gulfs and large streams—the +few sandy deserts in its interior.</p></div> + +<div class="sidenote">Natural +features.</div> + +<p>2. Natural features, and consequent division of +the land, according to the course of the larger +mountain chains and of the principal rivers.</p> + +<div class="sblockquot"><p>Two great mountain chains run from west to east; in the +north, the Altai, (nameless in antiquity): in the south, Taurus.—Branches +of both: the Caucasus, between the Black and Caspian +seas: Imaus extending along the golden desert (desert of +Cobi): the Paropamisus, on the north of India: the Ural (nameless +in antiquity).—Of the rivers remarkable in ancient history, +there are four flowing from north to south, namely, the Euphrates +and Tigris, which fall into the Persian gulf; the Indus and +Ganges, which fall into the Indian sea: two which run from east +to west, and discharged their waters into the Caspian sea, (but +now into the sea of Aral,) namely, the Oxus (or Jihon) and the +Jaxartes (or Sirr).</p></div> + +<div class="sidenote">Divisions:</div> + +<p>3. This quarter of the globe is accordingly +divided into Northern Asia, comprising the regions +north of Altai; Central Asia, or the countries +between the Altai and Taurus; and Southern +Asia, or the lands south of Taurus.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">Northern +Asia.</div> + +<p>4. Northern Asia, between the 76th and 50th +parallels of north latitude, (Asiatic Russia and +Siberia,) was almost, though not entirely, unknown +in antiquity.—Some obscure hints, though +partly true, respecting it, are found in Herodotus, +the father of history.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">Central +Asia.</div> + +<p>5. Central Asia, the regions extending between +the 50th and 40th degrees of north latitude, +Scythia and Sarmatia Asiatica, (Great Tartary +and Mongol;) for the most part a boundless, +barren table land, devoid of arable fields or +forests; and consequently a mere country of<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_17" id="Page_17">[Pg 17]</a></span> +pasture.—The inhabitants pastors, (nomads,) without +cities or fixed abodes; recognizing no other +political association than patriarchal government.</p> + +<div class="sblockquot"><p>Peculiar mode of life and character of nomad nations; powerful +influence which they have exercised, as conquerors, on political +history.—Whether we have a right to expect that the +civilization of the human race will for ever continue to advance, +when we consider that perhaps one half of it has from time immemorial +remained, and from its physical situation must for ever +remain, in a nomad state.</p></div> + +<div class="sidenote">Southern +Asia.</div> + +<p>6. Southern Asia, or the regions from the 40th +degree of N. lat. to about the equator.—Its natural +features altogether different from those of central +Asia. The great advantages of these regions +compared with all other parts of the earth, in possessing +a soil and climate highly favourable for +agriculture; and an abundance of various costly +productions. To these circumstances may be attributed, +1st. The adoption of fixed habitations +and political associations in these countries, from +the earliest times. 2ndly. Their becoming the +principal seat of trade, from the infancy of civilization +to the discovery of America.</p> + +<div class="sblockquot"><p>Reflections upon the rise of political associations.—Whether, +according to the general opinion, they were produced solely by +agriculture and the possession of land; or, whether religion, by +which I mean the common worship of one divinity as the national +god, (communia sacra,) was not the main bond which united the +earliest states of antiquity?—How shall we account for the very +remarkable fact, that in the earliest civil societies in the world, +the priesthood is generally found to be a ruling caste.—Reflections +on early trade, particularly that of the east, before it was +changed, by the discovery of America and the new passage to +India, from a land trade to a sea trade.—Observations upon ancient +commercial routes across Asia.—The banks of the large +rivers destined by nature to become the seats of commerce for the +interior; on the Oxus, Bactra and Maracanda, (Samarcand;) on<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_18" id="Page_18">[Pg 18]</a></span> +the Euphrates and Tigris, Babylon.—The sea shores on the +western coast of Asia Minor and Phœnicia, pointed out also by +nature as places of commerce;—line of Grecian and Phœnician +factories.</p></div> + +<p>7. Division of southern Asia. 1st. South-western +Asia, from the Mediterranean to the Indus; +2nd. South-eastern Asia, from the Indus to +the eastern ocean.</p> + +<p>A. South-western Asia is again subdivided into +the countries—1st. on this side the Euphrates—2ndly. +between the Euphrates and Tigris—3rdly. +between the Tigris and the Indus.</p> + +<p>1. <i>Countries on this side the Euphrates.</i></p> + +<div class="sidenote">Asia Minor.</div> + +<p>(<i>a</i>) The peninsula of Asia Minor (Natolia). +Principal rivers: the Halys and Sangarius. Countries: +three towards the west, Mysia, Lydia, +Caria. Along the shore, the Greek seaports of +Phocæa, Ephesus, Miletus, Smyrna, Halicarnassus, +etc. Inland, the cities of Sardes in Lydia, +of Pergamus in Mysia.</p> + +<p>Three towards the south, Lycia, Pamphylia, +and Cilicia, with its capital Tarsus.</p> + +<p>Three towards the north, Bithynia, Paphlagonia, +Pontus; with the Greek ports of Heraclea, +Amisus, and Sinope. Two inland, Phrygia, together +with Galatia and the capital cities of Gordium +and Celænæ; Cappadocia, with the city of +Mazaca.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">Islands.</div> + +<p>(<i>b</i>) Islands along the coast of Asia Minor: Lesbos, +with the city of Mitylene; Chios, Samos, +Cos, Rhodes, with cities of the same name.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">Syria.<br /> +Phœnicia.<br /> +Palestine.</div> + +<p>(<i>c</i>) Syria, together with Phœnicia and Palestine. 1st. Syria, properly so called. Cities: Damascus, +Emessa, Heliopolis, (Baalbec). In the desert, Palmyra. 2nd. Phœnicia, a mountainous +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_19" id="Page_19">[Pg 19]</a></span> +tract, extending along the shore. Mountains: Libanus and Antilibanus. Cities: Tyre, on an +island opposite the ancient Tyre, which was situate upon the mainland; Sidon, Byblus, Berytus, +Tripolis, Aradus. +3rd. Palestine. Mountains: Carmel, Tabor. River: Jordan, which discharges +its waters into the Dead sea. Division of Palestine; first, according to +the twelve tribes; afterwards into the provinces, of Judæa, capital +Jerusalem: of Samaria; cities, Samaria, Sichem: and of Galilee.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">Arabia.</div> + +<p>(<i>d</i>) Peninsula of Arabia, abounding in vast sandy +deserts, and almost entirely occupied by nomad +tribes. Its southern and eastern coasts render it, +nevertheless, a most important seat of trade. In +the north, Arabia Petræa, so called from the town +of Petra. Inland, Arabia Deserta. In the south, +Arabia Felix; rich, both in natural productions, +being the native land of almost every kind of perfume, +particularly frankincense; and also as being +the ancient staple for the merchandise of India. +Cities: Mariaba, Aden, etc. In the east, +the trading town of Gerra, and the islands near +the shore, Tylos and Aradus, (Bahrein,) both likewise +marts for Arabian and Indian wares, particularly +cinnamon from Taprobane (Ceylon).</p> + +<p>2. <i>Countries between the Euphrates and Tigris.</i></p> + +<div class="sidenote">Mesopotamia.</div> + +<p>(<i>a</i>) Mesopotamia; in the interior a sterile table +land, entirely occupied by nomad hordes. Cities +on the Euphrates: Thapsacus, Circesium, Cunaxa; +in the north, Zoba or Nisibis.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">Armenia.</div> + +<p>(<i>b</i>) Armenia, north of the foregoing. Very +mountainous; for a long time without cities, but +at last it had Tigranocerta. Rivers: the Cyrus<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_20" id="Page_20">[Pg 20]</a></span> +and Araxes, falling into the Caspian; and the +Phasis, falling into the Black sea.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">Babylonia.</div> + +<p>(<i>c</i>) Babylonia, the southern part of Mesopotamia, +from which it was separated by the Median +wall. A level plain, remarkable for the richness +of its soil; formerly, by its high cultivation, its +canals and lakes, and the erection of dams, the +most fruitful, and, from its situation, the most +opulent staple of inner Asia. Cities: Babylon +on the Euphrates, Borsippa.</p> + +<div class="sblockquot"><p>Whether the account given by Herodotus, as an eyewitness, of +the size and splendour of Babylon is not exaggerated?—Manner +in which the great Asiatic cities arose out of the royal encampments +of the nomad conquerors.</p></div> + +<p>3. <i>Countries between the Tigris and the Indus.</i></p> + +<div class="sidenote">Assyria.</div> + +<p>(<i>a</i>) Assyria, or the province of Adiabene; a table +land. Cities: Nineveh, (Ninus,) Arbela.</p> + +<div class="sblockquot"><p>The name of Assyria is also frequently taken by the Greeks +in a wider acceptation, as comprising both Mesopotamia and Babylonia; +it is sometimes even confounded with Syria.</p></div> + +<div class="sidenote">Susiana.</div> + +<p>(<i>b</i>) Susiana, a fruitful district, with the city +Susa on the river Choaspes, or Eulæus (Ulai), +one of the residences of the Persian monarchs.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">Persia.</div> + +<p>(<i>c</i>) Persis, rugged and mountainous towards +the north; level and fruitful in the centre; sandy +towards the south. Rivers: the Cyrus and +Araxes. Cities: Persepolis or Pasargada, the +national palace and cemetery of the kings of +Persia.</p> + +<div class="sblockquot"><p>The name of Persis was, in ancient as well as in modern geography, +taken in a more extensive sense, as comprising all the +countries between the Tigris and Indus, with the exception of +Assyria. In this sense, it contains three countries towards the +south—Persis, properly so called; Carmania, Gedrosia: three<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_21" id="Page_21">[Pg 21]</a></span> +central countries—Media, Aria, Arachosia: and three countries +towards the north—Parthia and Hyrcania, Bactria, Sogdiana.</p></div> + +<div class="sidenote">Carmania.</div> + +<p>(<i>d</i>) Carmania, an extensive country, for the +most part desert, ranging along the Persian gulf +and Indian sea. Cities: Carmana, Harmozia.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">Gedrosia.</div> + +<p>(<i>e</i>) Gedrosia, tract of land running along the +coast between Carmania and India, and washed +by the Indian sea. A mere sandy desert; towards +the north, mountainous. Town, Pura.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">Media.</div> + +<p>(<i>f</i>) Media, above Persis; an extensive and very +fruitful country; mountainous towards the north. +Rivers: Araxes, Cyrus, and Mardus. Cities: +Ecbatana, Rages. The northern district was +likewise known by the name of Atropatene (Azerbeijan), +or Lesser Media.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">Aria.</div> + +<p>(<i>g</i>) Aria, a smooth table land, with a lake and +river, Arius: and one city, Aria or Artacoana.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">Arachosia.</div> + +<p>(<i>h</i>) Arachosia; a rich and fertile country on the +frontiers of India; bounded towards the north by +the Paropamisus chain. Cities: Arachotus and +Prophthasia. The neighbouring highlands, occupied +by a numerous population, (now Cabul and +Kandahar,) are often regarded, in consequence of +their being subject to the Persian dominion, as +forming part of Persia. They are known by the +name of Paropamisus.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">Parthia.</div> + +<p>(<i>i</i>) Parthia and Hyrcania, rugged mountainous +districts to the north of Media; but abounding in +magnificent and fertile vales. Before and during +the predominance of Persia, but little known and +little valued; and without cities. It was at a +considerably later period that the inhabitants of +Parthia became a dominant nation.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">Bactria.</div> + +<p>(<i>k</i>) Bactria, the country on the south bank of +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_22" id="Page_22">[Pg 22]</a></span> +the Oxus; rich in natural productions, and one of +the most ancient marts of Asia. River: Oxus. +Cities: Bactra and Zariaspa.</p> + +<div class="sblockquot"><p>Bactria lies on the frontier of India, Little Thibet, Bukharia, +(the north India of Herodotus and Ctesias,) and the desert of +Cobi, (Herodotus's golden desert): the road to China runs +through this country. Nature, by the geographical situation in +which she has placed Bactria, seems to have destined it to be the +great emporium for the wares of south-eastern Asia; and in proportion +as we penetrate into early history, we become convinced +that Bactria, like Babylon, must have been one of the earliest +seats of international commerce, and consequently, if not the +birthplace, one of the cradles of infant civilization.</p></div> + +<div class="sidenote">Sogdiana.</div> + +<p>(<i>l</i>) Sogdiana, the territory between the upper +Oxus and upper Jaxartes, the latter dividing it +from central Asia. (A part of Great Bukharia.) +Its peculiarities and advantages similar to those +of the neighbouring Bactria. Capital: Maracanda +(Samarcand).</p> + +<p>B. South-eastern Asia, or Asia beyond the +Indus, offers nothing remarkable for history till a +later period. See Book v, Period iv.</p> + + + +<hr style='width: 25%;' /> + +<h3><i>General Preliminary Observations upon the History and +Constitution of the great Asiatic Empires.</i></h3> + + +<div class="sidenote">Magnitude +of the empires +in +Asia.</div> + +<p>1. Asia contained in ancient times, as it does +at present, empires of immense extent, differing +materially both in this respect and in their constitution +from the civilized nations of Europe. +Changes were frequent; but the form of government +continued nearly always the same. Some +deeply rooted and active principles therefore must<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_23" id="Page_23">[Pg 23]</a></span> +have been in constant operation, to have given so +repeatedly, in these various revolutions, the same +organization to the kingdoms of Asia.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">Nature of +their revolutions.</div> + +<p>2. The great revolutions of Asia, with the exception +of that caused by Alexander, were effected +by the numerous and powerful nomad races +which inhabited a large portion of that continent. +Pressed by necessity or circumstances, they forsook +their own seats, founded new kingdoms, and +carried war and conquest into the fruitful and cultivated +lands of southern Asia, until, enervated +by luxury, the consequence of the change in their +mode of life, they were in their turn, and in a +similar manner, subjugated.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">Their short +existence.</div> + +<p>3. This origin, common to all Asiatic kingdoms, +accounts for their immense extent, their rapid +establishment, and their generally brief duration.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">Similarity +in their +constitutions.</div> + +<p>4. The internal organization must, for the same +reasons, have been nearly alike in all; and the +constant reappearance of despotism is accounted +for, partly by the rights of conquest, partly by +the vast extent of the subdued countries, which +obliged the rulers to have recourse to satrap-government.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">Effects of +polygamy.</div> + +<p>5. To this, it must moreover be added, that +among all the considerable nations of inner Asia, +the paternal government of every household was +corrupted by polygamy: where that custom exists, +a good political constitution is impossible; +fathers being converted into domestic despots, +are ready to pay the same abject obedience to +their sovereign that they exact from their family +and dependants in their domestic economy.</p> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_24" id="Page_24">[Pg 24]</a></span></p> + +<div class="sblockquot"><p>To avoid confusion, it will be necessary to define the terms +despotism and despotic government. In theory, we must admit +<small>THREE</small> essentially different kinds of government. 1st. The <i>despotic</i>, +in which the members of the state are not secured in the +possession of their rights as men, (personal freedom and security +of property,) nor of their rights as citizens, (active participation +in the legislative power). Such a constitution exists only by +force, and can never be lawful. 2nd. The <i>autocratic</i>, in which +the members of the state are in full possession of their rights as +men, but not of their rights as citizens. This government, therefore, +arises from the union of the legislative and executive powers +in the person of the ruler. In form, it is either monarchical or +aristocratical (a pure monarchy, or a pure aristocracy). This kind +of government is most likely to be established by usurpation; it +may, nevertheless, be acquired by succession, or even adopted by +common consent: it may therefore be lawful. 3rd. The <i>republican</i>, +in which the members of the state are in possession of their +rights, both as men and as citizens. This government necessarily +presupposes a separation of the legislative and executive powers; +and with regard to its form, may be either monarchical or aristocratical, +(a moderate monarchy, or a moderate aristocracy).—How +far can a pure democracy be called a government, and comprised +under any of the foregoing heads?—Explanation of the +despotism in the Asiatic kingdoms, and the attempts made to +limit it by religion and religious institutions.</p></div> + +<div class="sidenote">Rise, progress, +and +fall of nomad +empires.</div> + +<p>6. General features in the gradual internal development +of all empires formed by nomad conquerors. +(<i>a</i>) At first the mere occupation of rich +territories, and levying of tribute. (<i>b</i>) Hence the +constitutions already established among the conquered +or tributary nations generally suffered to +remain. (<i>c</i>) Gradual progress towards the adoption +of a fixed abode and the building of cities, together +with the assumption of the customs and +civilization of the conquered. (<i>d</i>) Division into +provinces, and, as a necessary consequence, the +establishment of satrap-government. (<i>e</i>) Insurrections +of the satraps, and the internal ruin of +the state prepared thereby. (<i>f</i>) The influence<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_25" id="Page_25">[Pg 25]</a></span> +of the seraglio on the government has the same +effect, for its unavoidable consequences are—effeminacy +and indolence in the rulers. (<i>g</i>) Hence +the dissolution of the empire, or its total annihilation +by some violent attack from without.</p> + + +<hr style='width: 25%;' /> +<h3><i>Fragments of the History of the ancient Asiatic Kingdoms +previous to Cyrus.</i></h3> + +<div class="sblockquot"><p>Sources, and their critical examination: 1. Jewish writings, +particularly the books of Kings, Chroniclers, and the Prophets; +together with the Mosaic records. 2. Greek writers, Herodotus, +Ctesias, and Diodorus: later chroniclers, Syncellus, Eusebius, +Ptolemy. 3. Native writer, Berosus. Futility of all endeavours +to arrange into one work the accounts of authors so entirely different +by birth and the times in which they flourished: a task +attempted by the French writers, <span class="smcap">Sevin</span>, <span class="smcap">Freret</span>, and <span class="smcap">Debrosse</span>, +in their papers contained in the Mém. de l'Acad. des +Inscript.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Volney</span>, <i>Recherches nouvelles sur l'Histoire ancienne</i>. 1808—1814: +very important and authentic, so far as regards the +system of Herodotus's chronology.</p></div> + + +<p><b>I. <i>Assyrian monarchy.</i></b></p> + +<div class="sidenote">Assyrians +of the +Greeks different +from +those of the +Hebrews.</div> + +<p>1. With the Greeks, Assyrian is generally a +common name applied to the ruling nations about +the Euphrates and Tigris before the time of Cyrus. +With the Jews, on the contrary, it signifies +a distinct nation of conquerors, and the founders +of an empire. Hence a necessary discrepancy +between the Grecian and Hebrew statements.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">Grecian +account.</div> + +<p>2. Assyrian history, according to Grecian authorities, +particularly Ctesias and Diodorus, is nothing +more than mere traditions of ancient heroes +and heroines, who at some early period founded +a large kingdom in the countries about the Eu<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_26" id="Page_26">[Pg 26]</a></span>phrates +and Tigris; traditions without any chronological +data, and in the style of the east. Ninus—Semiramis—Ninyas—Sardanapalus.</p> + +<div class="sblockquot"><p>According to Herodotus, an Assyrian empire of 520 years' +duration, 1237—717. Lists of Assyrian kings in the chronicles +of Syncellus and Eusebius.</p></div> + +<div class="sidenote">Jewish account.</div> + +<p>3. Assyrian history, according to Jewish authorities. +Chronological history of an Assyrian empire +between B. C. 800 and 700.—Seat of the +nation in Assyria, properly so called.—Capital: +Nineveh on the Tigris.—Extension of their dominion +as far as Syria and Phœnicia.</p> + +<div class="sblockquot"><p>Line of Assyrian kings: 1. Pul, about 773. Invasion of Syria. +2. Tiglath-Pileser, about 740. He overthrows the kingdom +of Damascus. 3. Shalmaneser, about 720. He destroys the kingdom +of Samaria. Transplantation of the inhabitants into inner +Asia. 4. Sennacherib, about 714. Mighty expedition against +Egypt, frustrated by a pestilence. 5. Esarhaddon.</p> + +<p><i>Contemporary</i>: Jews, the divided kingdoms of Israel and +Judah.—Greeks, decennial archons at Athens.—Romans, rise +of the state and the two first kings.</p></div> + + +<p><b>II. <i>Median monarchy.</i></b></p> + +<div class="sidenote">Different +acceptations +of the +word +Medes.</div> + +<p>1. The name of Medes is undoubtedly often +used by the Greeks to designate one nation; it is, +however, frequently made use of as a common +appellation of the ruling nations in eastern Asia, +from the Tigris to the Indus, (or Persia, in the +more extensive sense of that word,) before Cyrus.—With +the Jews: nothing more than general +hints of the Medes as a conquering nation.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">Great nations +known +to have existed +east of +the Tigris.</div> + +<p>2. Although the statements of the Grecian +writers, as well as of the Zendavesta, sufficiently +prove that long before the rise of the Persian +power mighty kingdoms existed in these regions; +and particularly in the eastern part, or Bactria;<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_27" id="Page_27">[Pg 27]</a></span> +yet we have no consistent or chronological history +of these states: nothing but a few fragments, +probably of dynasties which ruled in Media, properly +so called, immediately previous to the Persians.</p> + +<div class="sblockquot"><p><i>a. Herodotus's History of the Medes.</i> Herodotus's Medes are +unquestionably the inhabitants of Media, properly so called. +Division into six tribes: among these, that of the Magi.—Ruling +nation after the overthrow of the Assyrians.—Capital of their +empire, Ecbatana.—Boundaries: west, the Tigris and Halys; +east, unknown.—Internal organization: graduated subjection of +the various nations to one another, according to their distance +from the seat of empire; rigid despotism; and imposition of tribute. +Line of kings between B. C. 717—560. Deioces, 53 <i>y.</i> +the founder of Ecbatana, <i>d.</i> 657.—Phraortes, 22 <i>y.</i> down to 635. +He conquers Persia. Cyaxares I. 40 <i>y.</i> down to 595. He establishes +military discipline among the Medes. Wages war with +the Lydians, the Assyrians.—Irruption of the Scythians and +Cimmerians, 625.—He takes Nineveh, 597. Astyages, 38 <i>y.</i> +down to 560, when he was dethroned by Cyrus. According to +Xenophon, Astyages was followed by another Median prince, +Cyaxares II. <i>b. Ctesias's History of the Medes</i>, deduced from +Persian archives, and contained in Diodorus. Probably a different +dynasty in eastern Asia. Line of kings, between B. C. 800 +and 560. Arbaces, conqueror of the Assyrians, 18 <i>y.</i> Mandaucus, +50 <i>y.</i> Sosarmes, 30 <i>y.</i> Artias, 50 <i>y.</i> Arbanes, 22 <i>y.</i> +Artæus, 40 <i>y.</i> and Artynes, 22 <i>y.</i> Sanguinary wars with the +nomad races of the east, the Sacæ, and Cadusii. Artibarnas, 14 <i>y.</i> +Astyages, the last king.</p> + +<p><i>Contemporary</i>: Jews, kingdom of Judah alone.—Greeks, +yearly archons, Draco, Solon.—Romans, kings from Tullus Hostilius +to Servius Tullius.</p></div> + + +<p><b>III. <i>Babylonian monarchy.</i></b></p> + +<div class="sidenote">Babylonians.</div> + +<p>Periods: 1st. Previous to the Chaldæan conquest, +which occurred about 630. 2nd. From the +Chaldæan conquest to the Persian, 630—538.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">1st period, +to B. C. 630.<br /> +fragments.</div> + +<p>1. Babylon was not only spoken of in the most +remote antiquity, but is mentioned in the Jewish<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_28" id="Page_28">[Pg 28]</a></span> +traditions as the earliest scene of political treaties, +and as the most ancient seat of intercourse +for the nations of Asia. Traditions concerning +Nimrod—and the erection of the tower of Babel.—Comparison +of those traditions with the Babylonian +mythology in Berosus.—Scanty historical +notices of this period in the later Jewish writers; +and probable subjection of Babylon to the Assyrian +empire.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">2nd period, to 538.<br /> + +Chaldæans.</div> + +<p>2. In the second period, 630—538, the Babylonians +were the ruling nation of western Asia.—The +Chaldæans take possession of Babylon, +there establish themselves, and ultimately extend +their empire, by conquest, to the Mediterranean.</p> + +<div class="sblockquot"><p>Origin of the Chaldæans: whether that name was applied to +a distinct nation, or to the northern nomads in general?—Line of +Chaldæan kings. In the enumeration of these rulers, as given +by Ptolemy, this line begins with Nabonassar, and the era bearing +the name of that sovereign, which commences in the year +B. C. 747: (probably because, under the reign of that prince, the +adoption of the Egyptian solar year first introduced among the +Chaldæans an exact method of reckoning time). Neither Nabonassar +himself, nor his twelve immediate successors, are remarkable +in history: the six last alone deserve notice. 1. Nabopolassar, +627—604. Settlement in Babylon; and complete establishment +of the Chaldæo-Babylonian dominion, by his victory +over Pharaoh-Nechoh, near Circesium, in 604. 2. Nebuchadnezzar, +604—561. Brilliant period of the Chaldæo-Babylonian +empire. He conquers Phœnicia and Old Tyre about 586: Jerusalem +in 587; probable irruptions into Egypt. Construction +of immense buildings and canals in and about Babylon. Rapid +decline of the empire after his death, under—3. Evil-Merodach, +561—559. 4. Neriglissar, (probably the contemporary of Herodotus's +Nitocris;)—555. Labosoarchad murdered, after a few +months' reign. Nabonadius, (Herodotus's Labynetus; and probably +the Chaldæan Belshazzar;) 555—538. attacked and conquered +by Cyrus. Sack of Babylon by the Persians, 538.</p> +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_29" id="Page_29">[Pg 29]</a></span></p> +<p>See the section concerning the Babylonians in <span class="smcap">A. H. L. Heeren's</span> +<i>Historical Researches</i>, vol. i, part. 2.</p> + +<p><i>Contemporary</i>: Jews, last sovereigns of the kingdom of +Judah.—Greeks, Solon, Pisistratus.—Romans, Tarquinius Priscus +and Servius Tullius.</p></div> + + +<p><b>IV. <i>States and kingdoms in Asia Minor.</i></b></p> + +<div class="sidenote">No lasting +empire +formed in +Asia Minor.</div> + +<p>The number and variety of the inhabitants of +this peninsula, was probably the reason why they +never became united into one empire. The most +important nations among them, were the Carians +in the west; the Phrygians in the centre, reaching +as far as the Halys; the Syro-Cappadocians +beyond the Halys; and the Thracians in Bithynia. +Nevertheless we find here but three kingdoms +deserving notice—the Trojan, the Phrygian, and +the Lydian.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">Troy.</div> + +<p><b>1. The Trojan empire</b> comprised western Mysia: +its history consists of mere traditions contained +in poets, with very uncertain chronological +data.</p> + +<div class="sblockquot"><p>Kings: Teucer, about 1400.—Dardanus—Erichthonius—Tros +(Troja)—Ilus (Ilium)—Laomedon—Priam. The destruction of +Troy, after a ten years' war, occurred, it is probable, B. C. 1190.</p> + +<p><i>Contemporary</i>: Jews, time of the Judges: before the foundation +of Rome, 450 years.</p></div> + +<div class="sidenote">Phrygia.</div> + +<p><b>2. The Phrygian empire.</b>—Almost all the kings +were named Midas and Gordius; their succession +cannot be accurately determined. After the death +of the last, called Midas V., Phrygia became a +province of the Lydian empire, about 560.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">Lydia:<br /> +three dynasties there.</div> + +<p><b>3. The Lydian empire.</b>—The Lydians (Mæonians) +were a branch of the Carian tribe. According +to Herodotus, three dynasties ruled in Lydia; +the Atyadæ down to 1232; the Heraclidæ down +to 727; and the Mermnadæ down to 557: the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_30" id="Page_30">[Pg 30]</a></span> +two first are almost wholly fabulous, and the proper +history of Lydia may be said to commence +with the last dynasty.</p> + +<div class="sblockquot"><p>Kings: Gyges, down to 689. From this period followed almost +uninterrupted wars with the Greek settlements on the seacoast. +Gyges takes Colophon. Ardys down to 640. He takes +Priene. Under his reign, an irruption of the Cimmerians. Sadyattes +down to 628. Alyattes down to 571. Expulsion of the +Cimmerians. Capture of Smyrna. Crœsus down to 557. He +takes Ephesus, and subjugates Asia Minor as far as the Halys. +Under his reign, the first rise of a Lydian empire, which however +is overthrown by Cyrus. Asia Minor becomes a province +of the Persian empire.</p> + +<p><i>Contemporary</i> with which, in Asia, were the Medic and Babylonian +empires.—Among the Jews, the last period of the kingdom +of Judah.—Among the Greeks, the yearly archons at Athens.—With +the Romans, the kings.</p></div> + + +<p><b>V. <i>Phœnicia.</i></b></p> + +<div class="sidenote">Fragments +of Phœnician +history.</div> + +<p>The Phœnicians may be regarded as one of the +most remarkable nations of Asia during this period; +yet we have no complete, or even connected +history of this people. But though a few scattered +fragments are all we possess, we may from +these trace out a general outline.</p> + +<div class="sblockquot"><p>The peculiar sources of Phœnician history.—How far Sanchoniathon +deserves to be mentioned here?—Hebrew writers, particularly +Ezekiel; Greek writers; Josephus—Eusebius, etc. and +the fragments which he has preserved of Menander of Ephesus, +and Dius, historians of Tyre.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Mignot</span>, <i>Mémoires sur les Phéniciens</i>; inserted in <i>Mém. de +l'Acad. des Inscript.</i> t. xxxiv—xlii. A series of twenty-four +papers.</p> + +<p>The section concerning the Phœnicians in <span class="smcap">A. H. L. Heeren's</span> +<i>Researches on the Politics, etc.</i></p></div> + +<div class="sidenote">Phœnician +federation +of cities.</div> + +<p>1. Observations on the internal state of Phœnicia. +It did not constitute one state, or, at least, +one single empire; but consisted of several, and<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_31" id="Page_31">[Pg 31]</a></span> +their territories. Alliances, however, were naturally +formed between them, and hence a kind +of supremacy of the more powerful, particularly of +Tyre.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">Each city +independent, +but +Tyre the +first.</div> + +<p>2. But though Tyre stood at the head, and +claimed a certain degree of superiority, each separate state still +possessed its own particular government. In all of them we meet with +kings, who appear to have possessed but a limited authority, as we +always find magistrates associated with them in power. Among a +mercantile and colonizing people, it was impossible that absolute +despotism should endure for any length of time. Of the separate states, +Tyre is the only one of which we possess +a series of kings; +<span class="sidenote">Tyrian kings.</span> +and even that series is not complete.</p> + +<div class="sblockquot"><p>This line of kings, which we derive from Menander through +Josephus, commences with Abical, the contemporary of David, +about B. C. 1050. The most remarkable among them are: Hiram, +the successor of Abical;—Ethbaal I. about 920;—Pygmalion, +Dido's brother, about 900;—Ethbaal II. in whose reign +Tyre was sacked by Nebuchadnezzar, 586.—Foundation of New +Tyre—republican constitution under suffetes: tributary kings +under the Persian rule;—conquest of New Tyre by Alexander, +332. The flourishing period of Phœnicia in general, and of +Tyre in particular, falls therefore between 1000—332.</p> + +<p><i>Contemporary</i> in inner Asia: monarchies of the Assyrians, +Medes, and the Babylonians. Jews: period of the kings after +David. Greeks: from Homer to Solon. Romans: period of +their kings in the last two centuries.</p></div> + +<div class="sidenote">Phœnician +colonies:</div> + +<p>3. During this period the Phœnicians spread +themselves by the establishment of colonies; some +of which, particularly Carthage, became as powerful +as the mother states.</p> + +<div class="sblockquot"><p>General ideas concerning colonization.—1. Colonies are absolutely +necessary to every seafaring and commercial people,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_32" id="Page_32">[Pg 32]</a></span> +whenever their trade extends to distant countries. 2. They have +likewise been established for the purpose of providing for the excessive +increase of the poor. 3. And they have sometimes arisen +from political commotion, when the malcontents, either from +free will, or force, have forsaken their country, and sought new +settlements in distant regions.</p></div> + +<div class="sidenote">in the islands;<br /> +Spain;<br /> +Africa;<br /> +Sicily;<br /> +probably in the Persian gulf.</div> + +<p>4. Geographical sketch of the Phœnician colonies. +They possessed, at a very early period, +most of the islands of the Archipelago; from +which, however, they were subsequently expelled +by the Greeks. The principal countries in which +they had settlements were the south of +Spain (Tartessus, Gades, Carteia); the north coast of +Africa, west of the Lesser Syrtis (Utica, Carthage, +Adrumetum); and the north-western coast of +Sicily (Panormus, Lilybæum). It is likewise +highly probable that they formed settlements towards +the east in the Persian gulf, on the islands +of Tylos and Aradus (Bahrein).</p> + +<div class="sidenote">Sea trade of +the Phœnicians:</div> + +<p>5. This sketch of the Phœnician colonies will +give us some idea of the extent of their sea trade +and navigation; which, however, extended much +farther than their colonies. Among them, as +among other nations, commerce took its rise in +piracy; even as late as the time of Homer, the +Phœnicians appear to have been freebooters. The +principal objects of their commerce were (<i>a</i>) the +settlements in north Africa and Spain; the latter +more particularly, on account of its rich silver +mines. (<i>b</i>) Beyond the Pillars of Hercules, the +west-coast of Africa; Britain and the Scilly islands, +for the purpose of procuring tin, and, very +probably, amber. (<i>c</i>) From Elath and Ezion-Gebar, +ports situate at the northern extremity of the +Arabian gulph, they undertook, in connection with +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_33" id="Page_33">[Pg 33]</a></span> +the Jews, voyages to Ophir, that is to say, to the +rich lands of the south, particularly Arabia Felix +and Ethiopia. (<i>d</i>) From the Persian gulf, they +extended their commerce to the western peninsula +of India and the island of Ceylon. Finally, (<i>e</i>) +<span class="sidenote">they double the cape of Good Hope.</span> +they made several extensive voyages of discovery, +among which, the most remarkable was the circumnavigation +of Africa.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">Their land +trade:</div> + +<p>6. Of no less importance was the land trade, +mostly carried on by caravans. The principal +branches of it were: (<i>a</i>) The Arabian caravan +trade for spices and incense, imported from Arabia +Felix, Gerra, and the Persian gulf. (<i>b</i>) The +trade through Palmyra with Babylon, which +opened them an indirect communication by way +of Persia, with lesser Bukharia and little Thibet, +probably even with China itself. (<i>c</i>) The trade +with Armenia and the neighbouring countries in +slaves, horses, copper utensils, etc.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">their manufactures.</div> + +<p>7. To all this must be added their own manufactures, +particularly their stuffs and dyes; (the +purple, made of the juice of a marine shellfish;) +their manufactures of glass and toys, which, in +their commerce with uncivilized nations, generally +carried on by barter, were turned to good account. +Many other important discoveries, among which +the invention of letters holds the first rank, are +attributed to the Phœnicians.</p> + + +<p><b>VI. <i>Syrians.</i></b></p> + +<div class="sidenote">Syria, an +early state;</div> + +<p>1. The inhabitants of Syria dwelt in cities as +early as B. C. 2000, when Abraham wandered +over their country. This country did not form +one single state, but consisted of several cities, +each of which had its separate territory, and its<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_34" id="Page_34">[Pg 34]</a></span> +chief or king; of these cities, Damascus, Hamath, +etc. are mentioned in the most remote antiquity.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">a frequent +object of +conquest:<br /> +about 1040.</div> + +<p>2. The Syrians were, however, often subjected +by foreign conquerors; and their country was certainly, +at least in the time of David, a Jewish province. +It shook off the yoke, however, in the +time of Solomon; when Rezon, who had formerly +been a slave, obtained possession of Damascus.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">Kingdom of +Damascus.</div> + +<p>3. After this, there arose the kingdom of Damascus, +which comprised the greatest portion of +Syria, the kings in the other cities becoming tributary +to Damascus. The boundaries of the empire, +too, were extended, and particularly at the +expense of the divided kingdoms of Judah and +Israel.</p> + +<div class="sblockquot"><p>The kings, whose names are taken from the books of Chronicles, +were: Rezon, about 980. Benhadad I. about 900. Hazael, +about 850. Benhadad II. about 830. Rezin. Under this last, +the kingdom of Damascus was overthrown by the Assyrian conqueror +Tiglath-Pileser, about 740.</p> + +<p><i>Contemporary</i> in Inner Asia: Assyrian kingdom. Jews: +kingdoms of Israel and Judah. Greeks: settlement of the Asiatic +colonies.—Lycurgus.</p></div> + + +<p><b>VII. <i>Jews.</i></b></p> + +<div class="sidenote">Periods of +Jewish history.</div> + +<p>The history of the Jewish people, begins with +Abraham the father of their race; that of the +Jewish state does not commence till after the conquest +of Palestine. It is divided into three periods. +I. History of the Jews, as a nomad horde, +from Abraham till their settlement in Palestine, +B. C. 2000—1500. II. History of the Jewish +state as a federative republic under the high +priests and judges, from B. C. 1500—1100. III. +History of the Jewish state under a monarchical +government, from B. C. 1100—600, first in one<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_35" id="Page_35">[Pg 35]</a></span> +kingdom,—975; afterwards as two separate kingdoms, +Israel and Judah, until the downfall of the +latter, 588.</p> + +<div class="sblockquot"><p>Sources of the Jewish history.—Their annals:—Books of +Judges, Samuel, Chronicles, Kings. How those books were composed, +and whether their authors may be considered as contemporary +with the events they relate? How far the Hebrew poets, +the prophets in particular, may be considered as historical authority?—<span class="smcap">Josephus</span>, +as an antiquarian in his <i>Archæologia</i>, and as a +contemporary historian in his <i>Historia Belli Romani</i>.</p> + +<p>Unfortunately there is not at present any satisfactory treatise +on the Jewish history previous to the Babylonian captivity; nor +one written in an impartial spirit, without credulity or scepticism. +The work of <span class="smcap">Berruyer</span>, <i>Histoire du Peuple de Dieu, depuis +son origine jusqu'à la Naissance de J. C.</i> Paris, 1742, 10 vols. +8vo.; and the continuation, <i>depuis la Naissance de J. C.</i> 10 +vols.; and others of the same kind do not answer this description. +<span class="smcap">Relandi</span> <i>Antiquit. Sacr. Heb.</i> The writings of <span class="smcap">J. D. Michaelis</span>, +particularly his † Remarks on the Translation of the Old +Testament, and his † <i>Mosaic Law</i>; together with † <span class="smcap">Herder</span>, +<i>On the Spirit of Hebrew Poesy</i>, furnish many excellent materials.</p></div> + + +<div class="sidenote">Jews as a nomad horde:<br /> +sojourn in Egypt 2000 to about 1500.</div> + +<p><b>I. <i>Period of the nomad state from Abraham to the conquest of +Palestine.</i></b>—Under Abraham, Isaac, and Jacob, nothing more +at first than a single nomad family; which, however, during its +sojourn in Lower Egypt, +where, during four hundred and thirty, or, according to others, two hundred and +fifty years, it roved about in subjection to the Egyptian Pharaohs,—increased +to a nomad nation, divided into twelve tribes. The nation, +however, becoming formidable from the great increase +of its numbers, the Pharaohs, following the +usual policy of the Egyptians, wished to compel +the Jews to build and inhabit cities. Unaccustomed +to restraint, they fled from Egypt under +the conduct of Moses; and conquered, under him +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_36" id="Page_36">[Pg 36]</a></span> +and his successor Joshua, Palestine, the land of +promise.</p> + +<div class="sblockquot"><p>Moses and his legislation.—What he borrowed and what he +did not borrow from the Egyptians?—The worship of Jehovah +in the national sanctuary, and by national festivals, celebrated +with ceremonies rigidly prescribed, the point of union for the +whole nation, and the political bond which held the tribes together.—The +caste of Levites, compared with the Egyptian caste +of priests.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">J. D. Michaelis</span>, <i>Mosaic Law</i>. Gottingen, 1778, etc. 6 vols. +8vo.; translated into English by Dr. <span class="smcap">Alexander Smith</span>. +Lond. 1814, 4 vols. 8vo. The commentator frequently sees more +than the lawgiver.</p></div> + + +<div class="sidenote">Jews as a +federate republic.</div> + +<p><b>II. <i>Period of the federative republic.</i></b> From the +occupation of Palestine to the establishment of +monarchy, 1500—1100.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">Heroic age.</div> + +<p>1. General character of this period as the heroic +age of the nation, which, after the gradual +adoption of fixed dwellings and agriculture, was +engaged in constant feuds with its neighbours, the +vagrant Arabs, the Philistines, and the Edomites. +Impossibility of exterminating entirely the ancient +inhabitants according to the intention of Moses.—Hence +the worship of Jehovah was never the <i>only</i> +religion in the land.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">Constitution.</div> + +<p>2. Political organization. In consequence of +the division of land, according to tribes, and their +separation from one another, the government long +remained patriarchal. Each tribe preserved its +patriarch or elder, as in the nomad state. All, +however, had, in the worship of Jehovah, one +common bond, uniting them into one federate +state. Magistrates were likewise appointed in +the cities, to whom scribes are conjoined out of +the Levite caste.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_37" id="Page_37">[Pg 37]</a></span></p> + +<div class="sidenote">Distribution +of the +Levites.</div> + +<p>3. The permanent union of the nation, and preservation +of the Mosaic law, were likewise promoted +by the distribution of the Levite caste into +forty-eight separate towns, situated in various +parts of the country, and by making the high +priesthood hereditary in Aaron's family.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">Disturbed +state of the +Jews at the +death of +Joshua.</div> + +<p>4. But when at the death of Joshua the people +were left without a common ruler, the tie of religion +became insufficient to hold them together; +especially as the weaker tribes became jealous of +the more powerful. At this time the high priests +appear to have had but little political influence; +and the national bond was only prevented from +being dissolved by the dread of a foreign yoke.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">Judges.</div> + +<p>5. The Jews were sometimes independent, at +other times tributary. In seasons of oppression +and distress heroes arose, jealous for the worship +of Jehovah, to deliver them from bondage. They +acted as chief magistrates and rulers of a part, or +even the whole of the nation, and as champions +of the worship of the true God. The judges, particularly +Othniel, Deborah, and Sampson.—Concerning +the marvellous in their history.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">Kings, +about 1150.</div> + +<p>6. Reestablishment of the worship of Jehovah +by Samuel. He becomes judge, and rules as +Jehovah's minister.—His scheme of making the +office of judge hereditary in his own family is +defeated by the conduct of his sons. The nation +demands a king, whom Samuel, as minister +of Jehovah, is called upon to appoint. His crafty +policy in the election, which he cannot impede. +He chooses Saul, politically speaking, the most +insignificant man of the nation; but the tallest +and most stately. A formal constitutional act,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_38" id="Page_38">[Pg 38]</a></span> +according to the Mosaic command, is drawn up +and deposited in the national sanctuary.</p> + +<div class="sblockquot"><p>Causes which led the nation to demand a king.—Earlier attempts +made, particularly by <i>Abimelech</i>, to obtain regal power.</p></div> + + +<p class="center"><b>III. <i>Period of the monarchy from</i> 1100—600.</b></p> + +<h4>I. <i>The Jewish state as one single kingdom from</i> +1100 (1095)—975.</h4> + +<div class="sidenote">Saul:</div> + +<p>1. <i>Saul</i>, the new king, strengthened himself on +the throne by a victory over the Ammonites; and +a general assembly of the nation, in which Samuel +laid down his office as judge, unanimously acknowledged +his sovereignty. But Saul, no sooner +became a conqueror than he threw off the tutelage +of Samuel, and ventured himself to consult Jehovah. +This was the occasion of a feud between +them. Samuel, offended, privately anointed another +young man, David the son of Jesse, as king. +David acquires fame and popularity by his heroic +conduct; but has much difficulty in escaping the +jealousy of Saul.—Saul sustains himself amid +constant wars with the neighbouring nations; +<span class="sidenote">slain about 1055.</span> +but at last defeated, he and all his sons, except +one, lose their lives.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">Jewish government +and state +under him.</div> + +<p>2. State of the nation and constitution under +Saul.—The king little more than a military leader +under the direction of Jehovah; without either +court or fixed residence.—The people still a mere +agricultural and pastoral race, without wealth or +luxury; but gradually assuming the character of +a warlike nation.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">David, +1055—1015.</div> + +<p>3. Saul was succeeded by David; but not +without opposition. Eleven tribes declare for<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_39" id="Page_39">[Pg 39]</a></span> +Ish-bosheth, the remaining son of Saul; and David +is only acknowledged by his own tribe, Judah. +It is not till seven years later, and the murder of +Ish-bosheth by his own people, that David is recognized +as king by the whole nation.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">State of the +nation and +government +in his reign.</div> + +<p>4. Complete formation of the nation, and a +change of constitution during the reign of David +over the united kingdom, which lasted thirty-three +years. Jerusalem is made the seat of government +and of the national sanctuary. Rigid observance +of the worship of Jehovah, the exclusive religion +of the nation, considered in respect to its political +consequence.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">Conquests.</div> + +<p>5. Vast aggrandizement of the Jewish state by +conquest. A war with Hadadezer opens the way +to the conquest of Syria and Idumæa. Extent of +the kingdom from the Euphrates to the Mediterranean; +from Phœnicia to the Red sea. Gradual +decline towards despotism and seraglio government; +the political consequences of which +become apparent about the end of David's reign, +in the rebellion of his sons.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">Solomon, +1015—975.</div> + +<p>6. Reign of Solomon. The brilliant government +of a despot from the interior of his seraglio; +unwarlike, but civilized, and fond of parade. New +organization of the kingdom for the support of +the court. Connections formed with the neighbouring +states, particularly with Tyre; hence a +participation in the southern trade carried on from +the ports of the Red sea, conquered by David; +but only as a monopoly of the court.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">Declension +of the state.</div> + +<p>7. The capital enriched by the splendour of the +court; but the country oppressed and impoverished, +particularly the distant tribes. Gradual<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_40" id="Page_40">[Pg 40]</a></span> +internal decay hastened by the admixture of the +worship of foreign gods with that of Jehovah; +although Solomon, by the erection of the temple +according to the plan of his father, seems to have +wished to make the worship of the true God the +only religion of the country. An unsuccessful +attempt at rebellion made by Jeroboam; and by +the Edomites, who remain tributary under their +own kings: actual secession, even during the +reign of Solomon, of the conquered province of +Syria by the foundation of the kingdom of Damascus.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">Rehoboam.</div> + +<p>8. Solomon is succeeded by his son Rehoboam, +who has scarcely ascended the throne, +before the malcontents, increased in number by +his imprudence, break into open rebellion. Jeroboam +is recalled from Egypt, and ten tribes acknowledge +him as their king. Only two tribes, +Judah and Benjamin, remain faithful to Rehoboam.</p> + + +<h4>II. <i>The Jewish state as a divided kingdom,</i> 975—588.</h4> + +<div class="sidenote">Causes of the long wars between Judah and Israel.</div> + +<p>1. Reciprocal relations between the two kingdoms +of Judah and Israel. Although Israel was +more extensive and populous than Judah, yet was +Judah, in consequence of possessing the capital, +richest of the two; thus their power was nearly +balanced; and hence the struggle between them +was the more obstinate.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">Policy of the kings of Israel:</div> + +<p>2. The kings of Israel seek to confirm the political +division of the nation, by establishing a +new form of worship within their dominions, in +order to restrain their subjects from visiting the +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_41" id="Page_41">[Pg 41]</a></span>ancient seat of the national worship at Jerusalem; +hence they were considered as the enemies of Jehovah. +Several kings, however, even of +<span class="sidenote">of those of Judah.</span> +Judah were so impolitic as to mingle the worship of +other gods with that of Jehovah. But oppression +itself serves to sustain the worship of Jehovah; +the number and political influence of the +prophets increase in proportion as men feel, amid +the turbulence of the times, need of the counsels +of the true God; the idea of some future happier +period under a mighty king—the idea of the Messiah +and of his kingdom—is more fully developed +by the lively recollection of the splendid reign of +David.—Schools of the prophets.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">Termination +of the +wars.</div> + +<p>3. The rivalry and wars between those two +states not only continue with slight interruption, +but become more and more fraught with danger, +in consequence of the alliances entered into with +foreign princes, particularly with the kings of Damascus +and Egypt. An end is at length put to +these feeble kingdoms by the rise of vast empires +in Inner Asia.</p> + +<div class="sblockquot"><p>Most important events in the history of the two kingdoms.</p> + +<p>1. <span class="smcap">Kingdom of Israel</span>, 975—722; under 19 kings, from different +families, who succeeded to the throne amid violent revolutions. +1. Jeroboam, <i>d.</i> 954. Settlement of the royal residence +at Shechem; of the sanctuaries at Bethel and Dan, and appointment +of priests, not belonging to the tribe of Levi. Constant +wars with the kings of Judah. 2. Nadab, Jeroboam's son, murdered +in 953 by 3. Baasha, <i>d.</i> 930. This prince, by his alliance +with the kings of Damascus, brought the kingdom of Judah into +great danger. 4. Elah murdered in 929 by one of his generals. +5. Zimri, in whose place the army immediately elected 6. Omri: +this prince, at the beginning of his reign, had a rival to the +throne in Tibni, <i>d.</i> 925. Omri founded the new capital, Samaria, +<i>d.</i> 918. He was succeeded by his son 7. Ahab: strong connections +by marriage with the kings of Sidon; introduction of<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_42" id="Page_42">[Pg 42]</a></span> +the Phœnician worship of Baal. Wars with Damascus, in which +Ahab at last perishes, 897. Under Ahab a league formed with +the king of Judah. He is succeeded by his sons, 8. Ahaziah, <i>d.</i> +896, and 9. Jehoram. The league with Judah continues. Jehoram +is murdered by Jehu, 883. 10. Jehu: this king destroys +the house of Ahab, which had given 4 kings to Israel, and does +away with the worship of Baal. The kings of Damascus wrest +from the kingdom of Israel the lands beyond Jordan. Jehu, <i>d.</i> +856. He is succeeded by his son 11. Jehoahaz, <i>d.</i> 840. The +wars with Damascus continue unsuccessful to Israel. 12. Jehoash, +<i>d.</i> 825. He defeats the kings of Damascus and Judah. +13. Jeroboam II. <i>d.</i> 784. He restores the kingdom of Israel to +its ancient extent. After a turbulent interregnum of 12 years, +he is succeeded by his son 14. Zechariah, 773; who was assassinated +the same year, being the last remnant of the house of +Jehu, which had given 5 kings to Israel. His murderer, 15. +Shallum, after a reign of one month, is, in his turn, assassinated +by 16. Menahem, <i>d.</i> 761: under his reign the first expedition +of the Assyrians, headed by Pul, whom he buys off by tribute. +17. His son Pekahiah murdered in 759 by 18. Pekah, under +whose reign falls the expedition of Tiglath-Pileser the Assyrian, +and destruction of Damascus. Pekah is assassinated in 740 by +19. Hoshea, who, after an anarchy of eight years, obtains possession +of the throne. Hoshea endeavours, by an alliance with +Egypt, to shake off the Assyrian yoke; but Shalmaneser, king +of Assyria, wages war against him, conquers Samaria, and puts +an end to the kingdom of Israel, whose inhabitants he transplants +to Media in Inner Asia, 722.</p> + +<p>2. <span class="smcap">Kingdom of Judah</span> under 20 kings of the house of David, +975—598. The regular line of hereditary succession is generally +followed without dispute, and is only twice interrupted by +Athaliah's usurpation, and the intervention of foreign conquerors. +1. Rehoboam, <i>d.</i> 958. Jerusalem is still the seat of government; +but even during this reign the worship of Jehovah begins to fall +into neglect, in consequence of the introduction of foreign gods. +Besides the war with Israel, Jerusalem is attacked and plundered +by Shishak, king of Egypt. 2. Abijah, <i>d.</i> 955. 3. Asa. +This prince was attacked by the combined kings of Israel and +Damascus, and, no doubt, would have sunk in the conflict, had +he not succeeded in breaking their alliance; <i>d.</i> 914. 4. Jehoshaphat, +the restorer of the worship of Jehovah and framer of a +league with the kingdom of Israel. His attempt to reestablish<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_43" id="Page_43">[Pg 43]</a></span> +the trade to Ophir, on the Red sea, is unsuccessful, <i>d.</i> 891. 5. +Jehoram. The union with Israel is confirmed by the marriage +of this prince with Ahab's daughter, Athaliah; but Idumæa, +under his reign, secedes wholly from the kingdom of Judah, <i>d.</i> +884. 6. His son Ahaziah is, in the next year, 883, assassinated +by Jehu, the murderer and successor of Jehoram king of Israel. +7. His mother, Athaliah, takes possession of the throne; murders +the whole royal family; only one son of Ahaziah, 8, Joash, +is, in consequence of his youth, rescued from the carnage, secretly +educated in the temple, and after seven years forcibly +placed upon the throne, by means of a revolution wrought by +the high priest, Jehoiada; and Athaliah is slaughtered, 877. +Joash rules under the tutelage of the priests, which leads to the +reestablishment of Jehovah's worship. This prince is menaced +by Hazael king of Damascus, and compelled to pay him tribute. +Slain 838. 9. Amaziah: he defeats the Edomites, and is in his +turn defeated by Jehoash king of Israel, by whom Jerusalem itself +is sacked. He is slain in 811, and succeeded 10. by his son +Azariah, (or Uzziah.) This prince was leprous, and <i>d.</i> 759. +His son 11. Jotham, <i>d.</i> 743, became regent during the life of +his father. The wars with Israel and Damascus recommence. +12. Ahaz, <i>d.</i> 728. The league between the kings of Damascus +and Israel induces Ahaz to call to his assistance Tiglath-Pileser +king of Assyria, who overthrows the kingdom of Damascus, and +subjects Israel and Judah to tribute. 13. Hezekiah, <i>d.</i> 699. +He shakes off the Assyrian yoke: under his reign Shalmaneser +destroys Samaria, 722: and Shalmaneser's successor, Sennacherib, +undertakes his expedition against Egypt, 714. Jerusalem +is again besieged, but fortunately relieved by the total failure of +the expedition. Isaiah prophecies during the reign of this prince. +14. Manasseh, <i>d.</i> 644. During his 55 years' reign, the worship +of the Phœnician god, Baal, becomes general; that of Jehovah +falls into contempt, and the Mosaic law into disuse. 15. Amon, +murdered as early as 642. 16. Josiah restorer of the temple, +and of the worship of Jehovah. The book of the Law, which +had been cast aside and neglected, is once more found, and a +complete reform instituted according to its principles. Palestine +however is the first country attacked by Necos, king of Egypt; +and Josiah falls in battle, 611. His son, 17. Jehoahaz, is, after +a reign of three months, dethroned by Pharaoh-Nechoh, and +his brother 18. Jehoiakim placed as a tributary prince on the +throne. But in consequence of the rise of the Chaldæo-Babylo<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_44" id="Page_44">[Pg 44]</a></span>nian +empire, Pharaoh-Nechoh is deprived of his Asiatic conquests +by the loss of the battle of Circesium, 606; and Jehoiakim +becomes tributary to Nebuchadnezzar, <i>d.</i> 599. The prophet +Jeremiah flourishes. 19. Jehoiachin, son of the former king, +after three months' reign, is, together with the greater part of +the nation, transplanted into Inner Asia by Nebuchadnezzar, +after a second expedition, (commencement of the Babylonian +captivity,) and, 20. Zedekiah, brother on the father's side to +Jehoiachin, is seated on the throne as a tributary prince. Forming, +however, a league with Egypt, in order to throw off the +Babylonian yoke, Nebuchadnezzar marches a third time against +Jerusalem, conquers it, 588, and delivers it up to pillage and +destruction. Zedekiah, after being deprived of his eye-sight, +and losing all his children by the hands of the executioner, is, +together with the remaining portion of the nation, led in captivity +to Babylon.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">S. Bernhardi</span> <i>Commentatio de causis quibus affectum sit ut +regnum Judæ diutius persisteret quam regnum Israel; cum tabula +geographica</i>, Lovanii, 1825, 4to. A prize essay, containing +also several valuable enquiries into the monarchical period of the +Jewish state.</p> + +<p>† <span class="smcap">Bauer</span>, <i>Manual of the History of the Hebrew Nation</i>, vol. +i—iii, 1800. The best introduction hitherto published, not only +to the history, but also to the antiquities of the nation, from the +rise to the fall of the state.</p></div> + + +<hr style="width: 25%;" /> +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_45" id="Page_45">[Pg 45]</a></span></p> +<h2>II. AFRICAN NATIONS.</h2> + +<h3><i>General Geographical Outline of Ancient Africa.</i></h3> + +<p class="center">See <span class="smcap">A. H. L. Heeren's</span> <i>Historical Researches</i>, etc. African +Nations. 2 vols. 8vo. Oxford, 1831.</p> + + +<div class="sidenote">Acquaintance +of the +ancients +with Africa.</div> + +<p>1. Although the Phœnicians had circumnavigated +Africa, the northern part only of that +quarter of the globe was known to antiquity. +With that part, however, the ancients were better +acquainted than we are at the present day, the +coast being then occupied by civilized and commercial +nations, who pushed their excursions far +inland. This was the case in early times with the +Carthaginians and the Egyptians; still more so +with the Macedonian Greeks, under the Ptolemies, +and under the Romans. War, hunting, and +commerce, were, generally speaking, the objects +which gave rise to those excursions.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">General +view of +Africa.</div> + +<p>2. Considered as a whole, Africa is very different +from Asia, both in situation and form. Asia +lies almost entirely within the temperate, while +Africa is almost wholly under the torrid zone. +Asia abounds in deep gulfs and large rivers; +Africa constitutes a regular triangle, and in its +northern half possesses but two large rivers, the +Nile and the Niger. No wonder, then, that this +portion of our globe should form, as it were, a +world in itself, distinguished by its productions +and its inhabitants.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">Physical +geography +of North +Africa.</div> + +<p>3. Physically considered, Northern Africa may +be divided into three regions, distinguished in +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_46" id="Page_46">[Pg 46]</a></span>early antiquity by separate names. The maritime +country along the Mediterranean, with the exception +of Tripolis, or the Regio-Syrtica, consists +principally of very fertile districts, and was consequently, +at all times, very thickly inhabited: +hence in Herodotus it bears the name of the <i>inhabited +Africa</i>; it is now called Barbary. Above +this, and under the 30th parallel of N. lat., succeeds +a mountainous tract, across which stretches +the Atlas chain of mountains; abounding in wild +beasts and dates: hence Herodotus calls it the +<i>wild beast Africa</i>: among the Arabs it is called +the land of dates, (<i>Biledulgerid</i>.) Beyond this, +and between the 30th and 20th degrees of N. lat. +the sandy region extends right across Africa and +Arabia: this part of Africa is therefore known, +both among the ancients and moderns, under the +name of Africa Deserta, or the Sandy Desert, +(Sahara). The fruitful lands beyond the desert, +stretching along the banks of the Niger, were +almost wholly unknown to the Greeks: by them +these parts were comprehended under the common +name of Ethiopia, although that name applied +more peculiarly to the districts above Egypt. +The Greeks were, however, acquainted with some +of the fruitful spots in the desert, the Oases; such +as Augila, Ammonium, and the Oases, properly +so called, in Egypt.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">Political +state.</div> + +<p>4. There exists no political division which comprises +the whole of Africa. The north coast alone +was inhabited by civilized nations: Egyptians, +Cyrenæans, and Carthaginians; of which the first +only were aboriginals. The rest of the inhabitants +either roved about as nomad hordes, or<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_47" id="Page_47">[Pg 47]</a></span> +formed insignificant states, of whose existence we +have heard some account, though we possess no +history of them. Along the shore, reckoning from +the Plinthinetic gulf, Egypt is succeeded by: 1st. +Marmarica, a tract without cities, consisting principally +of sandy deserts, occupied by nomad +hordes: this country extends from the 40—47° +E. long. from Ferro. 2nd. The fertile territory +occupied by the Greek colonies, called Cyrenaïca, +extended to the Greater Syrtis, 37—40° E. long. +Cities: Cyrene, Barca. 3rd. The territory of Carthage, +extending from the Greater Syrtis to the +Fair Promontory, 25—40° E. long. This territory +comprised (<i>a</i>) the country between the Greater +and Lesser Syrtis, (Regio Syrtica,) which constitutes +the modern kingdom of Tripoli; a sandy +tract, almost wholly occupied by nomads. (<i>b</i>) the +territory of Carthage, properly so called, (kingdom +of Tunis). A very fruitful country; the +southern part, called Byzacena, the northern part +Zeugitana. Cities: Carthage, Utica, etc. 4th. +Numidia and Mauritania; occupied during the +Carthaginian age by nomad races. Along the +shore some Carthaginian settlements.</p> + + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /> +<h3>EGYPTIANS.</h3> + +<div class="sidenote">Geography.</div> + + +<p>Preliminary remarks. Egypt in its superficial +contents is equal to about two-thirds of Germany, +and may therefore justly be ranked among the +more extensive countries of the globe; it greatly +varies, however, in its physical properties. The<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_48" id="Page_48">[Pg 48]</a></span> +soil is only sufficiently fertile for tillage on the +banks of the Nile, and as far as the floods of that +river extend; beyond that, on the west, is a sandy +desert, on the east a chain of rocky mountains. +From its entrance into Egypt at Syene, +<span class="sidenote">Course of the Nile.</span> +the Nile flows in one undivided stream to the city of Cercasorus, +60 geogr. miles above its mouth, directing +its source from south to north through a valley +from 8 to 16 geogr. miles broad, bounded on the +west by deserts of sand, and on the east by mountains +of granite. At Cercasorus the stream first +divides itself into two main branches, which formerly +discharged their waters into the Mediterranean, +the eastern near the city of Pelusium, the +western near the city of Canopus (<i>ostium Pelusiacum +et Canopicum</i>;) from these two diverged several +intermediate branches; so that in the time of +Herodotus there existed seven mouths of the Nile, +but the number has not always remained the same. +The tract between the two extreme arms of the +Nile bears, in consequence of its triangular form, +the name of the Delta; it was covered with cities, +and highly cultivated. The fertile part of Egypt, +inhabited by civilized men, was therefore confined +to the Delta and the valley of the Nile, on the two +banks of the stream from Syene to Cercasorus; +to which must be added some well watered spots +in the centre of the western desert, known under +the name of the Oases. In consequence of the +perpetual absence of rain, particularly in Upper +Egypt, the fertility of the Delta and the valley of +the Nile depends on the overflowing of the river, +which happens at stated periods. This commences +at the beginning of August and continues<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_49" id="Page_49">[Pg 49]</a></span> +to the end of October; so that during three whole +months the above-mentioned parts of the country +are under water.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">Divisions of +Egypt.</div> + +<p>Egypt is divided into Upper, extending from +Syene to the city of Chemmis, (capital, Thebes, +or Diospolis); Central from Chemmis to Cercasorus, +(capital, Memphis,) and Lower Egypt, +which comprises the Delta, and the land on both +sides: it was full of cities, among which the most +remarkable was Sais.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">Ethiopia.</div> + +<p>Next above Egypt lies Ethiopia, (<i>Æthiopia supra +Ægyptum</i>); which, from the earliest times, +principally through commerce, appears to have +been closely connected with the former country. +The regions immediately above Egypt, usually +called Nubia, are little more than deserts of sand, +still inhabited by roving hordes of nomad robbers. +The rocky mountain chain, which forms the eastern +boundary of Egypt, stretches along the Red +sea, and was formerly of great importance to +Nubia, from its containing, just above the +Egyptian frontier, productive gold mines. The +Nile, in this country, makes a wide curve to +the west, and becomes so full of shallows as to +render navigation difficult. The lands adjoining +the river, however, are fertile and well inhabited; +and contain numerous ancient monuments. Still +higher up, reckoning from 16° N. lat. the appearance +of the country changes; the region of fertility +commences, and its costly productions, its +gold and its perfumes, gave rise to a profitable +commerce. Among these countries, Meroe, with +its capital of the same name, was celebrated in the +days of Herodotus. By Meroe is understood a<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_50" id="Page_50">[Pg 50]</a></span> +tract of land bounded by two rivers, the Nile on +the west, and the Astaboras, (Tacazze,) which +falls into the Nile, on the east; for this reason it +is frequently, although improperly, called an island. +This country extended towards the sources +of the Nile, or the modern province of Gojam, +where, under the reign of Psammetichus, the +Egyptian caste of warriors, having for the most +part deserted, established themselves. Meroe +itself, like the Egyptian states, was sacerdotal, +with a king at its head.—The city of Axum, or +Auxume, is not indeed mentioned at so early a +period; but if we may judge by the ruins that +still remain, it was of equally high antiquity with +the old Egyptian towns and with Meroe. The +same observations apply to Adule, the harbour +on the Arabian gulf.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">Divisions of Egyptian history.</div> + +<p>The Egyptian history is divided into three periods +of unequal duration; the <i>first</i> of which extends +from the earliest time down to the Sesostridæ, +that is to say, to about B. C. 1500: the +<i>second</i> comprises the reigns of the Sesostridæ, or +the brilliant period of Egypt, down to Psammetichus, +1500—650: the <i>third</i> brings us from +Psammetichus down to the Persian conquest, +650—525.</p> + + +<hr style="width: 25%;" /> +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_51" id="Page_51">[Pg 51]</a></span></p> + +<h4>FIRST PERIOD.</h4> + +<h4><i>From the earliest times down to the Sesostridæ, about +B. C. 1500.</i></h4> + +<div class="sblockquot"><p>Sources: 1. Jewish writers. <i>Moses.</i> His records contain, no +doubt, a faithful picture of the Egyptian state in his day; but +no continuous history can be deduced from them.—From Moses +down to Solomon (B. C. 1500—1000.) total silence, with respect +to Egypt, of the Hebrew writers. From Solomon down to Cyrus, +(B. C. 1000—550.) a few scanty fragments.—Importance +and superiority of the Jewish accounts, so far as they are <i>purely +historical</i>. 2. Greek writers. (<i>a</i>) <i>Herodotus.</i> The first who +published a History of the Egyptians. About seventy years after +the destruction of the throne of the Pharaohs by the Persian conquerors, +this author collected, in Egypt itself, the earliest accounts +of the history of the country; he received his information +from the most capable persons, the priests; and wrote down +faithfully that information, such as he heard it. If, therefore, +we would estimate at their proper worth the accounts given by +Herodotus, it is necessary to enquire, what did the priests themselves +know of their earlier national history? And this question +cannot be answered until we have ascertained in what manner +the historical records of the earlier periods were preserved among +the Egyptians.</p> + +<p>The earliest history of the Egyptians, like that of all other +nations, was traditional. They adopted, however, before any +other nations, a sort of writing, hieroglyphics, or allegorical picture +writing; in which the signs borrowed from natural objects +served, as modern discoveries have proved, partly to represent +sounds, (<i>hiéroglyphes phonétiques</i>,) and partly to express ideas; +in the latter case they were either representative or allegorical. +This mode of writing, by its nature, is not so complete as the +purely alphabetical; since, 1. It can express only a narrow circle +of ideas, and these separately, without connection or grammatical +inflection, at least with very few exceptions. 2. As it is not +so well adapted to writing as to painting or engraving, it is not +so useful for books as for public monuments. 3. Being em<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_52" id="Page_52">[Pg 52]</a></span>blematic, +it is not intelligible without the help of a key, which +could only be preserved in some tradition connected with the +monument, and which was exclusively possessed by the priests; +this key, therefore, could hardly be preserved many centuries +without falsification. 4. The same image seems frequently to +have been used to express very different objects.—It follows, that +the Egyptian history, as deduced from the lips of the priests, can +hardly have been any thing more than records connected with, +and depending upon, public monuments: consisting, therefore, +of mere fragments, and reducible to no consistent chronology, +it ultimately admitted only of allegorical translation, and consequently +was very liable to be misinterpreted. Besides their +hieroglyphics, the Egyptians certainly had two other species of +writing: the <i>hieratic</i>, confined to the priests, and the <i>demotic</i>, +used in common life. Both, however, seem to have been nothing +more than running hands derived from the hieroglyphic system; +and we have no instance of the employment of either the one or +the other in public monuments of the time of the Pharaohs. +That the use of papyrus, a material on which all the above kinds +of writing were employed, had its origin in the highest antiquity, +or at least in the more brilliant period of the Pharaohs, we now +know for certain, written documents belonging to those times +having been obtained from the tombs.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Champollion le jeune</span>, <i>Précis du Système Hiéroglyphique +des anciens Egyptiens</i>. Paris, 1824. The main work on this +subject, of which the <i>Lettre à M. Dacier</i>, 1822, is but the precursor, +and the two <i>Lettres à M. le duc de Blacas</i> the continuation. +The new method of deciphering has received its principal +confirmation from the work of the British consul in Egypt, +<span class="smcap">Salt</span>, <i>Essay on the Phonetic System of Hieroglyphics</i>, 1825, +on the authority of a comparison with the Egyptian monuments +themselves. Hitherto, however, little more has been made out +than the names and titles of the kings, distinguished by being +always enclosed within a border.</p> + +<p>These preliminary remarks on the earlier Egyptian history, +will derive abundant support from a perusal of the account given +by Herodotus (ii, 99—150), of the Egyptian kings previous to +Psammetichus. The study of that author proves beyond all +doubt, that: I. The whole history is throughout founded on public +monuments, and on monuments too, either in or near <i>Memphis</i>. +We may even restrict ourselves to one single monument +at Memphis, to the temple of Vulcan, or Phtha, the chief temple<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_53" id="Page_53">[Pg 53]</a></span> +of that city. The history commences with Menes, the founder +of that edifice, (c. 99.), and we are informed, respecting each of +his successors, what was done towards the augmentation and +embellishment of the building: those who made no addition to +that temple, but left other monuments, (as the builders of the +pyramids,) are denominated oppressors of the people, and contemners +of the gods: of those princes who left no monuments at +all, the priests could give no other information than a catalogue +of names. II. Hence this line of kings, although the priests +gave it to Herodotus as such, is not without interruptions, but, +as is clearly proved by a comparison with Diodorus, contains +many wide chasms: therefore no chronological system can be +erected upon such a basis. III. The whole history is interwoven +with narrations derived from hieroglyphic representations, +and for that very reason allegorical, the meaning of which it is +no longer possible to unravel, the priests themselves being either +unable or unwilling to explain it, and even inclining, it appears, +to introduce false interpretations. To this class of narrations +belongs, for instance, that of the robbery of Rhampsinitus's treasury; +that of his journey into hell, where he played at dice with +Ceres, (c. 121, 122); that concerning the daughter of Cheops, +(c. 127.); concerning the blindness of Pheron, and the manner in +which he was cured, etc. (c. 111.) To prove that this charge is +not without foundation, it will suffice to adduce two examples; +one from c. 131, where Herodotus himself observes that such was +the case; the other from c. 141, the true meaning of which we +gather from other sources. Even in the time of Herodotus, it +was customary with the priests to endeavour to conciliate the +Greek and Egyptian authorities; a fact in proof of which there +are many arguments which cannot escape the critic: such, for +instance, as the completely <i>Græcised</i> history of king Proteus, +c. 112—115.—The general result of the above observations on +Herodotus's Egyptian history is, that it is nothing more than a +narration connected with public monuments. To this inference +but one objection can possibly be made, namely, that the Egyptian +priests possessed, besides their hieroglyphics, an alphabetical +mode of writing; consequently, that, over and above the public +monuments, they might likewise refer to written annals; but +this objection is overthrown by Herodotus himself. All the information +the priests could give him beyond what has been above +alluded to, consisted in the names of 330 kings subsequent to<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_54" id="Page_54">[Pg 54]</a></span> +Menes; these they read from a papyrus roll, but knew nothing +more of the kings who bore them, because <i>those sovereigns had +left no monuments behind them</i>, (c. 100.)</p> + +<p>(<i>b</i>) Besides Herodotus, <i>Diodorus</i> (lib. i.) likewise furnishes us +with the names of some Egyptian kings. This author, who +wrote 400 years subsequently to Herodotus, visited Egypt, and +collected his history, partly from the oral and written documents +of the priests of <i>Thebes</i>, partly from the more ancient Greek +writers, and particularly Hecatæus. If we consider Herodotus's +line of kings as not continuous or uninterrupted, all appearance +of contradiction between the two historians vanishes. Diodorus, +like Herodotus, did not intend to give a complete enumeration +of the Egyptian kings; but only of the most remarkable; indicating +the interruptions by the number of generations which +they contained.</p> + +<p>(<i>c</i>) Finally, different from both the above is the Egyptian +<i>Manetho</i>, high priest at <i>Heliopolis</i>, who flourished under the +reign of Ptolemy Philadelphus, about B. C. 260. He wrote the +<i>Ægyptiaca</i>, of which, besides several fragments in Josephus, the +enumeration of the kings has been preserved in the chronicles of +Eusebius and Syncellus. This catalogue is divided into three +sections, (tomos,) each of which contains several dynasties, in all +31, enumerated according to the different cities of Egypt. In +each dynasty the number of kings belonging to it and the years +of their reigns are marked. The authenticity of Manetho is now +completely established; since the names of the Pharaohs mentioned +by him have been deciphered on the Egyptian monuments. +To this period belong the first seventeen dynasties; in +the eighteenth begins the second and brilliant period, to which +the yet remaining monuments of Upper Egypt, bearing the names +of the founders, are to be ascribed. It is worthy of observation, +that in Herodotus we have the documents of the priests of Memphis, +in Diodorus those of the priests of Thebes, in Manetho +those of the priests of Heliopolis—the three principal seats of +sacerdotal learning:—perfect consistency cannot, therefore, be +expected in the accounts of those historians.</p> + +<p>The modern writers on Egyptian antiquities, from <span class="smcap">Kircher</span>, +<i>Œdipus Ægyptiacus</i>, 1670, to <span class="smcap">De Pauw</span>, <i>Recherches sur les +Egyptiens et sur les Chinois</i>, 1772, have too often substituted +their own dreams and hypotheses for truth. The principal attempts +at a chronological arrangement of the dynasties have been<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_55" id="Page_55">[Pg 55]</a></span> +made by <span class="smcap">Marsham</span>, in his <i>Canon Chronicus</i>; and by <span class="smcap">Gatterer</span>, +in his † <i>Synchronistic History of the World</i>.—Among +the principal works on this subject may be reckoned:</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Jablonski</span> <i>Pantheon Mythicum Ægyptiacum</i>, 1750, 8vo.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Gatterer</span>, <i>Commentationes de Theogonia Ægypt</i>. in <i>Commentat. +Societ. Gotting.</i> t. vii.</p> + +<p><i>De Origine et Usu Obeliscorum, auctore</i> <span class="smcap">G. Zoega</span>; Romæ, +1797.</p> + +<p><i>L'Egypte sous les Pharaons, ou Recherches sur la Géographie, +la Religion, la Langue, les Ecritures, et l'Histoire de l'Egypte +avant l'invasion de Cambyse, par</i> <span class="smcap">Champollion le Jeune</span>, +t. i, ii. 1814. These two volumes, dedicated to the geography, +contain the restoration of the ancient Egyptian names of provinces +and cities deduced from Coptic authorities.</p> + +<p><i>Commentationes Herodoteæ, scribebat</i> <span class="smcap">Frid. Creuzer</span>. <i>Ægyptica +et Hellenica, pars 1.</i> Lips. 1819. A series of most acute +and learned illustrations of different points in Egyptian antiquity, +introduced by different passages of Herodotus.</p> + +<p>The volume in <span class="smcap">Heeren's</span> <i>Historical Researches</i>, etc. 1831, +vol. ii, concerning the Egyptians; and particularly the introduction +on hieroglyphic writing. For the best representations of the +Egyptian monuments, we are indebted to the French expedition. +Those of Denon in his <i>Voyage en Egypte</i>, are far superior to +those of Pococke and Norden; but Denon's, in their turn, have +been greatly surpassed in the magnificent work:</p> + +<p><i>Description de l'Egypte, Antiquités</i>, P. i, ii, iii. P. i, contains +the monuments of Upper Egypt, from the frontiers of +Nubia to Thebes; P. ii, iii, contain the monuments of Thebes +alone.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Belzoni</span>, <i>Researches in Egypt</i>, London, 1824, with an atlas.</p> + +<p>† <span class="smcap">Minutoli</span>, <i>Journey to the Temple of Jupiter Ammon, and +Egypt</i>, 1824.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">L. Burckhardt</span>, <i>Travels in Nubia</i>, London, 1819.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">F. C. Gau</span>, <i>Antiquités de la Nubie</i>, Paris, 1824. A worthy +continuation of the great French work on Egypt.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Fr. Caillaud</span>, <i>Voyage à Méroé et au Fleuve Blanc</i>, Paris, +1825, contains the description of the monuments of Meroe.</p></div> + +<div class="sidenote">Early civilization +of +Egypt:</div> + +<p>1. Political civilization commenced in Egypt at +a much earlier period than that to which history +reaches; for even in the days of Abraham, and<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_56" id="Page_56">[Pg 56]</a></span> +still more so in those of Moses, the government +seems to have been so well organized, that a long +period must necessarily have elapsed in order to +raise the nation to that degree of civilization which +we see it had then attained. It may, therefore, +be safely asserted, that Egypt ranks among the +most ancient countries of our globe in which political +associations existed; although we cannot +determine with equal certainty whether they did +not exist still earlier +<span class="sidenote">of India.</span> +in India.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">Causes of its early civilization.<br /> +The Nile:</div> + +<p>2. The causes which contributed to render +Egypt thus early a civilized state, may be found +in the natural features of the country, and its favourable +situation, when compared with the +rest of Africa. It is the only tract in all northern +Africa situated on a large uninterrupted navigable +stream: had it not been for this, it would, like the +other parts of Africa under the same parallel, have +been a mere desert. To this must be added two +extraordinary circumstances: on the one hand, +the overflowing of the river so perfectly prepares +the soil, that to scatter the seed is almost +the only labour of the husbandman; and yet, on +the other hand, so many obstacles impede the +progress of agriculture, (by the necessity of canals, +dams, etc.) that the invention of man must necessarily have been awakened. +<span class="sidenote">commerce.</span> +When agriculture, and the kind of knowledge requisite for its ulterior +development had introduced a certain degree +of civilization into Egypt, the situation of that +country, between Asia and Africa, and in the +neighbourhood of the rich land of gold and spices, +must have been highly favourable to the purposes +of international commerce; hence Egypt appears<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_57" id="Page_57">[Pg 57]</a></span> +in all ages to have been one of the chief seats of +the inland or caravan trade.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">Egyptian +civilization +came from +the south.</div> + +<p>3. It is obvious, therefore, that in the fertile +valley of the Nile, the course of things must have +been very different from what it was in the desert +of Libya. Several small states appear to have +been formed in this valley long before the existence +of any great Egyptian kingdom. Their origin, +as might naturally be supposed, is enveloped +in an obscurity, which history can no longer entirely +penetrate. It may still, however, be gathered +from monuments and records, that Upper +Egypt was first the seat of civilization; which, originating +in the south, spread by the settlement +of colonies towards the north. It is probable +that this took place in consequence of the migration +of some tribe, differing from the negroes, as is +proved by the representations, both in sculpture +and in painting, found on the yet remaining monuments +of Egypt.</p> + +<p>4. The records of the high antiquity of political civilization, not only +in India, but likewise in Arabia Felix and Ethiopia, particularly in Meroe, +and the evident vestiges of +<span class="sidenote">Migrations from the south.</span> +ancient intercourse between the southern nations of our globe, prove +with sufficient evidence the truth of such migrations, +although they cannot be chronologically determined. +It is certain, however, that religion +had no small share in producing them. The national +bond of union in Egypt not only continued +in later times, entirely dependent upon religion, +but was originally grounded upon it. Thus every +step in political civilization must have depended,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_58" id="Page_58">[Pg 58]</a></span> +if not solely, at least principally, on the caste of +priests and on their extension.</p> + +<div class="sblockquot"><p>General development of the idea of division into castes. Originating +at first in the variety of tribes settled in one and the +same country, and their different modes of life.—Its further progress +in despotic and in theocratic kingdoms.—Application to +Egypt and to the Egyptian caste of priests, as an original, civilized +tribe.</p></div> + +<div class="sidenote">A caste of +priests introduce +their religion +and +civilization +in Egypt.</div> + +<p>5. The peculiarity of this caste was the worship +of certain deities, the principal of which were +Ammon, Osiris, and Phtha, confounded by the +Greeks with their Jupiter, Bacchus, and Vulcan. +The spread of this worship, which was always +connected with temples, affords, therefore, the +most evident vestiges of the spread of the caste +itself; and those vestiges combined with the records +of the Egyptians, lead us to conclude that +this caste was a tribe which migrated from the +south, from beyond Meroe in Ethiopia, and by +the establishment of inland colonies around the +temples founded by them, gradually extended and +made the worship of their gods the dominant religion +in Egypt.</p> + +<div class="sblockquot"><p>Proof of the accuracy of the above theory deduced from monuments +and express testimonies concerning the origin of Thebes +and Ammon from Meroe; it might have been inferred from the +preservation of the worship of Ammon in the latter place. Memphis, +again, and other cities in the valley of the Nile, are commonly +supposed to have been founded by detachments from +Thebes.</p></div> + +<div class="sidenote">Nomes.</div> + +<p>6. This conjecture, which agrees with the usual +progress of population, is corroborated by the very +ancient division of the country into districts, or +nomes. This division was intimately connected<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_59" id="Page_59">[Pg 59]</a></span> +with the chief temples, each of which represented +a separate colony of the caste of priests; so that +the inhabitants of every home belonged to the +chief temple, and joined in the religious worship +there performed.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">Separate +states +founded in +Egypt:</div> + +<p>7. To the gradual extension of this civilized +tribe, which comprised, not only the caste of the +priests, but certainly also that of the warriors, +and perhaps some others, may be attributed the +formation of several small states along the banks +of the Nile; the central point of each being always +such a colony as we have just now described; +although each state consisted both of the aboriginal +tribes of the neighbourhood, and of those that +had migrated into the country. The bond which +united every separate state was, therefore, as in +most of those formed in the infancy of mankind, +a common worship, in which all the members +participated. But what, by reason of the peculiarities +of soil and climate, could not take +place in southern Africa, took place in Egypt: +agriculture, and its progressive improvement, became +the great support of civilization; and, as +being the true foundation of states, formed the +principal political object of the ruling caste.</p> + +<div class="sblockquot"><p>Refutation of the idea, that the Egyptian priests were in possession +of great speculative knowledge; since their knowledge +rather had constant reference to practical life, and, therefore, was +in their hands the <i>instrumentum dominationis</i> over the people, +by which they rendered themselves indispensable, and kept the +former in a state of dependence.—Explanation of the close reference +which their gods, their astronomical and mathematical sciences +bore to agriculture.</p></div> + +<div class="sidenote">Manetho's +account of +them:</div> + +<p>8. According to Manetho's catalogues, these +separate Egyptian states existed first in Upper<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_60" id="Page_60">[Pg 60]</a></span> +and Middle Egypt; in the former were Thebes, +Elephantine, This, and Heraclea; in the latter, +Memphis. It is only in the last division of his +work that we meet with states in Lower Egypt, +such as Tanis, Mendes, Bubastis, and Sebennytus.</p> + +<div class="sblockquot"><p>To these states, therefore, no doubt, belong the 330 kings +after Menes, whose names the priests read to Herodotus; as also +those whom Diodorus mentions as reigning previous to Sesostris, +among whom are remarked Busiris II. founder of Thebes, and +Uchoreus, the founder of Memphis. Eusebius and Syncellus +have preserved from Manetho the names of several of those +kings, which Marsham has endeavoured to compare and arrange.</p></div> + +<div class="sidenote">obscurity +of their +chronology.</div> + +<p>9. In the absence of a certain and continuous +chronology, it is impossible to determine accurately +which of these states were contemporary, +and which succeeded the others. There can be +no question that Thebes was one of the earliest, +if not indeed the most ancient of them all; certainly +prior to Memphis, which was founded by +it. According to the natural order of things, +some of these states became wealthy and mighty, +and swallowed up the others. Even at this early +period, Thebes and Memphis had obtained a superiority +over the rest.</p> + +<div class="sblockquot"><p>This and Elephantine appear to have been united to Thebes; +as were the states of Lower Egypt to Memphis.</p></div> + +<div class="sidenote">Memphis a +powerful +state in Joseph's +time: +about 1800, +B. C.</div> + +<p>10. The Mosaic records prove, that even in Joseph's +time the state of Memphis (the real place, +it appears, of his residence, not On, or Heliopolis,) +comprised Middle and Lower Egypt. It possessed +a numerous and brilliant court; castes of priests +and warriors. Its agriculture flourished, and several +of its institutions indicated a deeply-rooted +civilization. But after the establishment of vassal<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_61" id="Page_61">[Pg 61]</a></span>age +in this state by Joseph, when the class of free +proprietors was destroyed, by making the king +the only landholder except the priests, the troubles +which already threatened the kingdom must have +assumed a more dangerous and alarming aspect.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">Invasions +by the +nomad.</div> + + +<p>11. These troubles came from abroad. Egypt, +surrounded on all sides by nomad tribes, had +often suffered from their irruptions, which sometimes +poured in from the south, sometimes from the +east. But never were these invasions so frequent +and durable as in the period which immediately +followed the administration of Joseph. Lower Egypt was overrun by +the Bedouin Arabs, whose chieftains, called by the Egyptians +<span class="sidenote">Hyksos, or Bedouins.</span> +<i>Hyksos</i>, settled +in the country, fortified Avaris, or Pelusium, +and extended their dominion to Memphis, which +they made probably the seat of their government. +They are depicted as the oppressors of religion, +and of the caste of priests; but when we consider +that Moses flourished in their time, we are led to +infer that, like the Mongols in China, they must +have gradually adopted Egyptian manners and +civilization. They do not appear to have gained +possession of Thebes in Upper Egypt; and it +seems highly probable, that the long struggle +against them was never, or at least but for a short +time, suspended.</p> + +<div class="sblockquot"><p>The dominion of the Arabian Hyksos falls between B. C. +1800—1600; and consequently was contemporary with Moses +and the exodus of the Jews. Josephus gives 500 years to their +dominion, in which he probably comprises the long periods of +earlier wars.</p></div> + +<div class="sidenote">Expulsion of the Hyksos:<br /> +and rising splendour of Egypt. +</div> + +<p>12. Defeat, and final expulsion of the Hyksos +from Upper Egypt by Thutmosis king of Thebes. +The consequence of this event was not only +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_62" id="Page_62">[Pg 62]</a></span> +the restoration of freedom and independence to +Egypt, but also the union of the different states +into one kingdom; as the rulers of Thebes now +became monarchs over all Egypt. This expulsion +of the Hyksos, which in itself cannot be considered +otherwise than as a vast national effort, +must have been the more deeply impressed on +the memory of the people, as it laid the foundation +of the splendid period which immediately +followed.</p> + +<div class="sblockquot"><p>The expulsion of the Hyksos appears to have been one of +the chief subjects on which the Egyptian artists exercised their +talents: it is supposed to have been represented upon one of the +large temples in Thebes. Denon, plate cxxxiii.</p></div> + + +<hr style="width: 25%;" /> +<h4>SECOND PERIOD.</h4> + +<h4><i>From the Sesostridæ until the sole dominion of Psammetichus. +B. C. 1500—650.</i></h4> + +<div class="sblockquot"><p>The sources for this period are the same as for the foregoing; +and the history still preserves the character of records handed +down by hieroglyphics. To this period belongs the line of kings +subsequent to Sesostris, given both by Herodotus and Diodorus. +Those two historians nearly agree, if we regard Herodotus's line +of kings, not as uninterrupted, but as the fragments of a series +deduced solely from public monuments: this will be demonstrated +by the following table, in which the predecessors of Sesostris +have likewise been indicated.</p> + + +<div class='center'> +<table border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" summary=""> +<colgroup><col width="50%" /><col width="50%" /></colgroup> +<tr><th><span class="smcap">Herodotus.</span></th><th><span class="smcap">Diodorus.</span></th></tr> +<tr><td align='left'><i>Menes.</i></td><td align='left'><i>Menes.</i></td></tr> +<tr><td align='left' rowspan='6' valign='top'>He was followed by three hundred and thirty kings belonging +to the previous period, concerning which our information is very incomplete: among +those sovereigns were eighteen Ethiopians, and one queen +named Nitocris.</td> +<td align='left'>Followed by fifty-two successors, ranging over a period of more than 1400 years.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'><i>Busiris I.</i> and eight successors; the last of whom was</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'><i>Busiris II.</i> the founder of Thebes.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_63" id="Page_63">[Pg 63]</a></span></td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'><i>Osymandyas</i> and eight successors; +the last of whom was</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'><i>Uchoreus</i>, founder of Memphis.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'><i>Ægyptus</i>, grandson of the foregoing. After the lapse of twelve generations,</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'><i>Mœris.</i></td><td align='left'><i>Mœris.</i></td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'></td><td align='left'>Seven generations.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'><i>Sesostris.</i></td><td align='left'><i>Sesostris</i> or <i>Sesoosis</i>.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left' rowspan='6' valign='top'><i>Pheron</i>, son of Sesostris.</td> +<td align='left'><i>Sesostris II.</i> son of the foregoing: +he assumed his father's name.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Interval comprising several generations.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'><i>Amasis</i>, and the Ethiopian,</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'><i>Actisanus.</i></td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'><i>Mendes</i> or <i>Manes</i>, builder of the labyrinth.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Anarchy which lasted five generations.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'><i>Proteus</i>, in the time of the Trojan war.</td><td align='left'><i>Proteus</i> or <i>Cetes</i>, in the time of the Trojan war.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left' rowspan='2' valign='top'><i>Rhampsinitus.</i></td> +<td align='left'><i>Remphis</i>, son of the foregoing.</td> +</tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Seven generations, in the course of which flourished <i>Nileus</i>, from whom the Nile derives its name.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'><i>Cheops</i>, builder of the great pyramid.</td><td align='left'><i>Chemmis</i> or <i>Chembes</i>, from Memphis, builder of the great pyramid.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'><i>Chephres</i>, brother to the foregoing, builder of a pyramid.</td><td align='left'><i>Cephren</i>, brother to the foregoing, builder of a pyramid.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'><i>Mycerinus</i>, son of Cheops, builder of a pyramid.</td><td align='left'><i>Mycerinus</i>, son of Chemmis, builder of a pyramid.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'><i>Asychis</i> the legislator.</td><td align='left'><i>Bochoris</i> the legislator.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'><i>Anysis</i>, who was blind.</td><td align='left'>Interval of several generations.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_64" id="Page_64">[Pg 64]</a></span></td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'><i>Sabaco</i>, the Ethiopian.</td><td align='left'><i>Sabaco</i>, the Ethiopian</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'><i>Anysis</i>, king for the second time.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'><i>Sethos</i>, a priest of Vulcan.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Dodecarchy.</td><td align='left'>Dodecarchy.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'><i>Psammetichus</i> of Sais, sole ruler.</td><td align='left'><i>Psammetichus</i> of Sais, sole ruler.</td></tr> +</table></div> + +<p>This comparative table demonstrates evidently, not only that +Herodotus's line is often interrupted, but likewise that it is impossible +to establish any continuous chronology, since Diodorus, +more than once leaves the number of generations undetermined. +Great importance, nevertheless, attaches to the date fixed by +Herodotus, ii, 13, where he declares that king Mœris flourished +900 years before his own visit to Egypt: consequently between +B. C. 1500 and 1450. And if, as seems highly probable, the age +of Sesostris was the 15th century B. C. (see <span class="smcap">Zoega</span>, <i>de Obeliscis</i>), +it cannot be denied but that we have some general epochs; and +with these we must remain content until more satisfactory information +can be discovered on the monuments. It should likewise +be observed, that the discrepancy between the names of the +kings mentioned by Herodotus and Diodorus, and those furnished +by Manetho, may be accounted for by the fact, that the +sovereigns were distinguished by different names on the monuments +and in common life.</p> + +<p>Of the dynasties of Manetho, the 18th, 19th, 20th, and 22nd, +belong to this period; more especially the two first, which contain +the most important of the Pharaohs.</p></div> + +<div class="sidenote">Brilliant +period of +the Pharaohs.</div> + +<p>1. The following period, nearly to its termination, +was the brilliant age of Egypt, during which +it formed but one empire; the kings being represented +as sovereign lords of the whole country. +And, indeed, it was natural that the expulsion +of the invaders should be followed by a period +in which the military force and ardour of the +nation would be developed, and directed to ex<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_65" id="Page_65">[Pg 65]</a></span>ternal +conquest. The capital of the empire was, +no doubt, Thebes, the great monuments of which +were erected in this period; that honour, however, +seems to have alternately belonged to Memphis, +Herodotus's line of kings being deduced +from the monuments of that city, and more especially +from the temple of Phtha.</p> + +<div class="sblockquot"><p>The more powerful of the Pharaohs of this period, and the +founders of the most important monuments of Upper Egypt, on +which their names are found, are the following: belonging to +the 18th dynasty, somewhere about 1600—1500.</p> + +<p><i>Amenophis I.</i> His name is likewise found beyond Egypt on +the temple of Amada, in Nubia.</p> + +<p><i>Thutmosis I.</i> Commencement of the expulsion of the Hyksos.</p> + +<p><i>Amenophis II.</i> The Memnon of the Greeks. Complete expulsion +of the Hyksos, and commencement of several of the +great edifices. His name is also found on the monuments of +Thebes, Elephantine, and even in Nubia, on the distant temple +of Soleb. Builder of the palace of Luxor.</p> + +<p><i>Thutmosis II.</i> His name found in Carnac, and on the obelisk +at the Lateran.</p> + +<p><i>Ramesses I.</i> Supposed to be the Danaus of the Greeks. Expelled +by his brother:</p> + +<p><i>Ramesses II.</i> Miamun. Builder of the palace of Medinet-Abu +in Thebes. One of the royal graves that have been opened +belongs to this king.</p> + +<p><i>Amenophis III.</i> Renewed invasion of the Hyksos; he flees +before them into Ethiopia; but returns victorious with his son +Ramesses.</p> + +<p>Belonging to the 19th dynasty, between 1500 and 1400.</p> + +<p><i>Ramesses III.</i>, called the Great, and sometimes <i>Sesostris</i>; +founder of the dynasty, liberator of Egypt, and a great conqueror. +His name and titles, his wars and triumphs, are found +on the temples and palaces of Luxor and Carnac, in Thebes and +Nubia. His son and follower:</p> + +<p><i>Ramesses IV.</i> Pheron, rules long in peace. His name is +found in the great pillared hall of the palace of Carnac, and on +many other buildings.</p> + +<p>Among his successors but few names have been preserved +until we come to Scheschonk or Sisac, of the 22nd dynasty, be<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_66" id="Page_66">[Pg 66]</a></span>tween +970 and 950; he took Jerusalem under the reign of Rehoboam, +and therefore furnishes a fixed date.</p> + +<p>† R. V. L. (<span class="smcap">Ruehle Von Lilienstern</span>), <i>Graphic Illustrations +of the most ancient History and Geography of Egypt and +Ethiopia, with an atlas, 1827</i>. A work containing every thing +necessary for understanding the discoveries hitherto made in this +department of history.</p></div> + + +<div class="sidenote">Splendid +reign of +Sesostris.</div> + +<p>2. For this splendour, the empire was principally +indebted to Sesostris, son of Amenophis. +This prince is justly entitled to the surname of +Great, which was given him by the Egyptians. +No one will, to the letter, credit the narrative of +his deeds, exaggerated as they were by the traditions +of the priests, or represented, as they still +appear, on the buildings of Thebes; but who can +doubt the existence of a monarch of whom so +many and such various monuments within and +without Egypt bear witness?</p> + +<div class="sblockquot"><p>Critical examination of the accounts of the nine years' campaign, +and conquests of Sesostris. His arms were principally +directed against wealthy commercial countries; probably by +land against Ethiopia, Asia Minor, and part of Thrace; by sea +against Arabia Felix, perhaps even the Indian peninsula. Can +the performance of these exploits be deemed improbable, in an +age when western Asia did not contain a single great empire? +The vast undertakings attributed to Sesostris in the interior of +his dominions; extensive buildings, canals, division of the land, +and imposition of taxes, according to a regular survey, prove that +he must have been the sovereign of all Egypt.</p></div> + + +<div class="sidenote">State of +the constitution.</div> + +<p>3. Notwithstanding the great changes that were +made, the constitution still bore the same general +character, that of a sacerdotal aristocracy combined +with a monarchy. Although the Egyptian +kings, like the Indian princes, were distinct from +the priests, yet their power was limited in various +ways by that caste. The high priest shared the +royal authority; the king was shackled by reli<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_67" id="Page_67">[Pg 67]</a></span>gious +ceremonies, both in public and private life; +he was obliged to evince his veneration for the +established worship by the erection of public monuments; +and all the high offices of state were +in the hands of the priests. It cannot be denied +that on the personal character of the king +depended much of his power; but how strong +must have been this aristocracy, when even successful +conquerors were obliged to conciliate its +approbation!</p> + +<div class="sidenote">Division +into castes.</div> + +<p>4. It was probably about this time that the +domestic relations of the people, the division into +castes, was completed. The sacerdotal caste +being in exclusive possession of all scientific +knowledge, remained for that reason in possession +of the offices of state. The caste of warriors +could hardly have assumed its complete form before +the country was united into one empire: in +like manner that of the navigators could not have +been completely established before the canals +were excavated; although the origin of all may +have been of a much earlier date.</p> + +<div class="sblockquot"><p>Comparison of the accounts given by Herodotus and Diodorus +of the division into castes. Not only precedence in time, but +likewise the discrepancies between the two, declare in favour of +Herodotus.</p></div> + +<div class="sidenote">Prosperous +period of Egypt,<br /> +B. C. 1500—900.<br /> +714.</div> + + +<p>5. It appears, therefore, that the most prosperous +period of the kingdom of the Pharaohs must +be placed somewhere between B. C. 1500—900: +although, according to Diodorus, even this period +was interrupted by a long anarchy. The splendour +of the empire was obscured towards the end. +Sabaco, a foreign conqueror from Ethiopia, (probably +from Meroe,) subjugated Egypt; after his +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_68" id="Page_68">[Pg 68]</a></span> +departure from the country, Sethos, a priest of +Phtha, contrary to all precedent, seated himself +upon the throne. He was, consequently, considered +an usurper; he offended the caste of +warriors, and could not have escaped the dangers +of an irruption threatened by the Assyrian, Sennacherib, +had not a pestilence compelled the invader +and his host to retreat.</p> + +<div class="sblockquot"><p>The dynasty of Sabaco, Seuechus, and Tarhaco in Meroe, +who as conquerors subjected Upper Egypt, is comprised between +B. C. 800—700. Their names likewise have been already discovered +on monuments; some at Abydos in Egypt, others in +Nubia.</p></div> + +<div class="sidenote">Dodecarchy.</div> + +<p>6. The Egyptian monarchy, however, at length +fell, and was replaced by an oligarchy; (or perhaps +a return was only made to the division of the +earlier kingdoms;) twelve princes sharing among +themselves the sovereign power. A certain degree +of unity seems to have existed at first in this +government; but quarrels soon sprung up among +the princes, and they compelled one of their +number, Psammetichus of Sais, to take flight. +<span class="sidenote">About B. C. 650.</span> +The exiled prince, supported by Greek and Carian +mercenaries, contrived to avenge his wrongs; he +drove away his rivals, and became the sole ruler.</p> + + + +<hr style="width: 25%;" /> +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_69" id="Page_69">[Pg 69]</a></span></p> +<h4>THIRD PERIOD.</h4> + +<h4><i>From the reign of Psammetichus as sole monarch to the +Persian conquest of Egypt by Cambyses.<br /> +B. C. 650—525.</i></h4> + +<div class="sblockquot"><p>Herodotus, (l. ii, c. 125, etc.) is still the principal authority for +this portion of history. His statements, however, are no longer +derived from hieroglyphics: they are purely historical. During +the reign of Psammetichus, the Greeks who had migrated into +Egypt gave rise to the caste of interpreters, +ἑρμηνεῖς, who acted +both as ciceroni for strangers, and as brokers between the Egyptians +and Greeks: these people were enabled to give information +respecting the history of the country. It is not, therefore, surprising +that Herodotus should assure us, that from this time the +history was authentic.—The names of the succeeding Pharaohs +are likewise found on the monuments; in the erection of which +they rivaled their predecessors.</p> + +<p><i>Contemporary</i>: Asia: rise and fall of the Chaldæo-Babylonian +empire; rise of the Persian monarchy.—Rome: kings from +Numa Pompilius to Servius Tullius.—Athens: Draco; Solon; +Pisistratus.—Jews: the last period and fall of the kingdom of +Judah; Babylonish captivity.</p></div> + + +<div class="sidenote">Revolutions +in +Egypt.</div> + +<p>1. From this epoch Egypt remained uninterruptedly +one kingdom, the capital of which was +Memphis, although Sais, in Lower Egypt, was the +general residence of the royal family. Strangers, +and more particularly Greeks, admitted into +Egypt; partly as mercenaries, partly as merchants. +Influence of this innovation upon the +national character, and upon the political system +in particular. A spirit of conquest gradually inherited +by the Egyptian kings, is directed principally +against Asia: hence the formation of a navy,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_70" id="Page_70">[Pg 70]</a></span> +and wars with the great rising monarchies of Asia. +Continued, but declining influence of the sacerdotal +caste, and proofs of the veneration of the +kings for the priesthood deduced from the erection +and embellishment of temples, particularly of that +consecrated to Phtha in Memphis.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">Psammetichus +<i>d.</i> +B. C. 610.</div> + +<p>2. <i>Psammetichus.</i> He obtains sole power +through the assistance of Greek and Carian mercenaries, +who are continued as a standing army in +the country. The caste of Egyptian warriors, +taking umbrage in consequence, emigrate for the +most part to Ethiopia, where they settle. The +southern portico of the temple of Phtha is erected, +and projects of conquest are formed against Asia.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">Neco <i>d.</i> +594.</div> + +<p>3. <i>Neco</i>, son and successor of Psammetichus. +His extensive plans of conquest. First formation +of a naval power; and unsuccessful attempt to +unite by a canal the Mediterranean with the Red +sea. Conquests in Asia as far as the Euphrates; +but quick secession of the conquered, in consequence +of the loss of the battle of Circesium. +<span class="sidenote">606.</span> +Circumnavigation of Africa undertaken at his +command by the Phœnicians, and successfully +performed.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">Psammis <i>d.</i> +458.</div> + +<p>4. <i>Psammis his son and successor.</i> Expedition +against Ethiopia, and conquests in the interior of +Africa.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">Apries <i>d.</i> +563.</div> + +<p>5. Reign of <i>Apries</i>, (the Pharaoh-hophra of the +Hebrews). Plans of conquest against Asia;—siege +of Sidon, and naval battle with the Tyrians;—expedition +against Cyrene in Africa; its fatal +result. A revolution caused thereby in Egypt, +the inhabitants of which were averse to foreign +wars, carried on mostly by mercenary aliens: the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_71" id="Page_71">[Pg 71]</a></span> +revolution headed by Amasis. In the civil war +which Apries now wages with his mercenaries +against the Egyptians commanded by Amasis, +he loses both his throne and life; and with him +ends the family of Psammetichus, which had +reigned to this time.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">Amasis <i>d.</i> +525.</div> + +<p>6. The usurper <i>Amasis</i> took possession of the +sovereign power; and although he had to contend +with a strong party, who despised him on account +of his low origin, he contrived by popular measures, +and by the respect he showed to the sacerdotal +caste, to establish himself upon the throne.—His +monuments, both at Sais and Memphis.—The +Egyptians and Greeks become better acquainted +and more closely connected with each +other, partly in consequence of the marriage of +the king with a Greek woman; but principally +owing to the mouths of the Nile being opened to +the Greek merchants, and the cession of Naucratis +as a factory for their merchandise. Great +and beneficial consequences to Egypt, which, +under the long reign of Amasis, reaches its highest +pitch of prosperity. This prince had already been +engaged in disputes with the Persian conqueror, +Cyrus, whose son and successor, Cambyses, led +an expedition against Egypt, which Amasis, however, +luckily for himself, escaped by a seasonable +death.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">Psammenitus.<br /> +525.</div> + +<p>7. His son Psammenitus, the last of the Egyptian +Pharaohs, is attacked by Cambyses in the +very first year of his reign. After a single battle, +fought at Pelusium, and a short siege of Memphis, +the empire of the Pharaohs is overthrown, and +Egypt merges into a Persian province. The<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_72" id="Page_72">[Pg 72]</a></span> +powerful caste of the priests suffered most from +the hatred of the conqueror; but the persecution +to which they were subjected must be attributed +rather to policy than fanaticism.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">Egypt a +province of +Persia.</div> + +<p>8. Condition and fate of Egypt as a Persian +province. After the death of Cambyses, the +country received a Persian governor, and consequently +became a satrapy. Immediately after +the first tempest of war had blown over, Egypt +was treated with mildness by the Persians. The +country paid a moderate tribute, together with +some royal gifts, among others the produce of the +<span class="sidenote">Revolts</span> +fisheries in lake Mœris; nevertheless, +repeated revolts occurred, which may be principally attributed +to the hatred and influence of the sacerdotal caste. +The first took place under Darius Hystaspes, +<span class="sidenote">488 to 484.</span> +and was quelled by Xerxes. An increase +of tribute was the consequence. +The second, under king Inarus, fomented and supported +by the Athenians, happened during the reign of Artaxerxes I.; +<span class="sidenote">463 to 456.</span> +it was quelled by Megabyzus. +The third occurred under Darius II. and in consequence +of the support which the Egyptians received +from the Greeks, was of longer duration +than either of the former, the throne of the Pharaoh's +<span class="sidenote">414.</span> +being in some measure restored.</p> + +<div class="sblockquot"><p>This third secession of the Egyptians lasted till 354. During +this period various kings were appointed; Amyrtæus, <i>d.</i> 408; +Psammetichus, about 400; Nephreus, about 397; Pausiris, <i>d.</i> +375; Nectanebus I. <i>d.</i> 365; Tachos, <i>d.</i> 363; Nectanebus II. +conquered by Artaxerxes III. 354.</p></div> + + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /> +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_73" id="Page_73">[Pg 73]</a></span></p> +<h3>CARTHAGINIANS.</h3> + + +<div class="sblockquot"><p>Sources. The first great republic which ancient records mention +as applying both to trade and war, is undoubtedly a phenomenon +well deserving the attention of the historical enquirer. +Our knowledge, however, of Carthaginian history is unfortunately +very deficient, as we possess no author who has made it the principal +object of his attention. The immediate subject of the +Greek and Roman writers was the history of their own country, +and they only allude to that of Carthage in so far as it is connected +with their main topic. This observation applies as well +to Polybius and Diodorus, as to Livy and Appian. Even the +information given by Justin, the only author who says any thing +concerning the early state of Carthage, is miserably defective, +although taken from Theopompus. (Cf. <i>Comment. de fontibus</i> +<span class="smcap">Justini</span> <i>in Commentat. Soc. Gotting.</i> vol. xv.) Moreover, as +Herodotus here fails us, we have not the writings of any author +whatever who witnessed Carthage in the days of her prosperity: +Polybius did not see that country till after the decline of its +power; the other historians, wrote long afterwards. But although +an uninterrupted history of Carthage does not exist, we are yet +able to trace the main outlines of the picture of that state.—The +modern writers on Carthage are:</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Hendrich</span>, <i>de Republica Carthaginiensium</i>, 1664. A useful +compilation.</p> + +<p>† <i>History of the Republic of Carthage</i>, 2 vols. Franckfort, +1781. A mere history of the wars.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Dampmartin</span>, <i>Histoire de la Rivalité de Carthage et de +Rome</i>, tom. i, ii. Very superficial.</p> + +<p>† <span class="smcap">W. Boetticher</span>, <i>History of Carthage</i>, part i. Berlin, +1827. The best work on the subject; in which use has been +made of modern researches.</p> + +<p>Concerning the Carthaginians, see <span class="smcap">Heeren's</span> <i>African Nations</i>, +2 vols. 8vo. Oxford, 1831.</p></div> + + +<div class="sidenote">Periods of +Carthaginian +history.</div> + +<p>The history of Carthage is most conveniently +divided into three periods: I. From the foundation +of the city to the commencement of the wars +with Syracuse, B. C. 880—480. II. From the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_74" id="Page_74">[Pg 74]</a></span> +commencement of the wars with Syracuse to +those with Rome, 480—264. III. From the +commencement of the wars with Rome to the +destruction of Carthage, 264—146.</p> + + +<hr style="width: 25%;" /> +<h4>FIRST PERIOD.</h4> + +<h4><i>From the foundation of Carthage to the wars with Syracuse, +B. C. 880—480.</i></h4> + +<div class="sblockquot"><p><i>Contemporary</i>: Inner Asia: kingdoms of the Assyrians, Babylonians, +and first half of the Persian monarchy. Greeks: +period from Lycurgus to Themistocles. Romans: period of the +kings, and of the commonwealth until the establishment of the +tribunes of the people.</p></div> + +<div class="sidenote">Early history +of Carthage</div> + +<p>1. The foundation and primitive history of Carthage, +like all very early and important events in +national history, have, by long tradition, been +wrapt in the veil of romance. The account given +of Dido, the supposed founder of the city, cannot +be reduced to the standard of pure historical +truth, though it appears to justify the inference +that some political commotions in the mother city, +Tyre, induced a party of emigrants to proceed to +the northern shores of Africa; where other Phœnician +establishments had already taken place: +here, by engaging to pay a yearly tribute, they +purchased from the natives permission to found a +city, the site of which was so happily chosen, +that it only depended upon the inhabitants to +raise it to that greatness which it afterwards attained.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">Vast extent +of the Carthaginian +dominions.</div> + +<p>2. It is probable that Carthage advanced at +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_75" id="Page_75">[Pg 75]</a></span>first by slow steps; yet even at the end of this +first period she had reached to such a height of +power, that she was mistress of a large territory +in Africa, and of foreign possessions still more +extensive. Establishment of the Carthaginian +dominion in Africa by the subjection of the neighbouring +aboriginal tribes, and the foundation of +Carthaginian settlements within their territories; +the natives, Liby-Phœnicians, gradually mingled +with the inhabitants of those colonies, and imbibed +from them a love of agriculture and fixed +abodes. The inhabitants of the fertile territory +extending southward as far as the lake Triton, +were, without exception, Carthaginian subjects.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">Relation of +Carthage +with the +other Tyrian +colonies of +Africa:</div> + +<p>3. Her connection, however, with the ancient +Phœnician towns along the coast, particularly +Utica, was of a different nature. For although +possessed a certain authority over them, +she did not claim absolute dominion, but rather +stood at the head of a federation; thus affording +a protection which must frequently have degenerated +into oppression.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">with the +Greek colony +of Cyrene.</div> + +<p>4. In consequence of a treaty with the neighbouring +republic of Cyrene, the whole territory +extending between the two Syrtes was also ceded +to the Carthaginians. The Lotophagi and Nasamones, +inhabitants of this district, preserved their +nomad mode of life; they must, however, from +their trade with the interior parts of Africa, have +been of the highest importance to Carthage.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">Carthaginian colonies:<br /> +Sardinia;<br /> +Baleares;<br /> +Corsica:<br /> +part of Sicily:<br /> +Canaries;<br /> +Madeira.</div> + +<p>5. System of colonization, and, as a necessary +result, that of conquest without Africa. It was +evidently the aim of the Carthaginians to settle +on islands, and to subject them to their dominion. +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_76" id="Page_76">[Pg 76]</a></span>Those lying in the western part of the Mediterranean +occupied the first place in their plan of conquest, +which was completely executed in Sardinia, +the Baleares, and other small islands; perhaps +in Corsica; in Sicily, however, they could +never succeed to the full extent of their wishes. +There is also every probability that the Canary +islands and Madeira were entirely in their possession. +On the other hand, the Carthaginians, +previous to their wars with Rome, were in the +practice of establishing separate settlements on +the main land, partly in Spain, and partly on the +western shore of Africa. In the latter, they +adopted the policy of their ancestors, the Phœnicians, +making the settlements so small, and +confining them within such narrow bounds, that +the mother country might always ensure their +dependence.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">Conquests of Mago and his family.<br /> +Carthage connected with Persia, B. C. 550—480.<br /> +Sea fight between the Carthaginians and Phocæans.<br /> +Colonies without the straits of Gibraltar.<br /> +539.<br /> +First treaty with Rome, 509.</div> + + +<p>6. The glory of extending the territory of Carthage, +by important conquests, belongs principally +to the family of Mago, who, together with his two +sons and six grandsons, established the dominion +of the republic in Sicily, Sardinia, and Africa. +This occurred about the same time that Cyrus, +Cambyses, and Darius were laying the foundation +of the Persian monarchy, with which +Carthage even then entered into connection. The Carthaginians, +therefore, made their first appearance, as +extensive conquerors, in the fourth century from +the foundation of their commonwealth; and it is +at this period that mention is made of their first +naval engagement, in which the Phocæans were +their adversaries. In the same period may be +dated the establishment of their colonies beyond +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_77" id="Page_77">[Pg 77]</a></span> +the Pillars of Hercules by Hanno and Himilco—both +probably sons of Mago;—by the former on +the coast of Africa, by the latter on that of Spain. +To the same period likewise is referred the first +commercial treaty between the Carthaginians and +Romans, in which the former appear as already +masters of Sardinia, Africa, and a portion of +Sicily.</p> + +<p>7. To complete these conquests, and to preserve +them when completed, the formation and +support of vast fleets and armies were indispensably +necessary. According to the usual practice +<span class="sidenote">Arts military and naval of Carthage.</span> +of those nations who apply both to trade and to +war, the Carthaginian armies were composed for +the most part of mercenaries. No nation, however, +followed this plan so extensively as the +Carthaginians, for to them half Africa and Europe +furnished warriors.—Description of a Carthaginian +army; development of the advantages +and disadvantages of its organization.—Organization +of their navy. The state supported very numerous +fleets of war-ships, with a multitude of +slaves who laboured at the oar, and were it seems +public property.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">Constitution +of Carthage:<br /> + +suffetes;<br /> + +senate;<br /> + +state council;<br /> + +commons.<br /> + +Military +and civil +functions +generally +divided.</div> + +<p>8. The political constitution of Carthage, like +that of all wealthy trading states, was an aristocracy +composed of the noble and the opulent, +though at all times combined with a certain admixture +of democracy. The affairs of the state +were confided to the hands of the two suffetes or +kings,—who, in all probability, held their office +for life—and to those of the senate (βουλὴ) which +contained within itself a more select council (the +γερουσία). The privilege of electing the magistrates +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_78" id="Page_78">[Pg 78]</a></span>resided with the people at large, who also shared +the legislative power with the suffetes. Civil and +military power was usually divided: the offices +of general and magistrate not being always, as at +Rome, united in the same individual,—although +such an instance might not be of impossible occurrence:—to +each military chief, on the contrary, +was appointed a committee from the senate, on +which he was more or less dependent.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">Supreme +court of the +<i>hundred</i>:<br /> +its object;</div> + + +<p>9. The high state tribunal of the <small>HUNDRED</small> was +instituted as a barrier to the constitution against +the attempts of the more powerful aristocrats, +particularly the military leaders; indeed the brilliancy +of Mago's conquests seemed to threaten +the republic with a military government; and immediately +previous to his time one of the generals, +Malchus, had actually made an attempt to +enslave Carthage. The object of the institution +was no doubt attained; but in later times the +council assumed to itself a power which increased +<span class="sidenote">its evils.</span> +to absolute despotism. It is not improbable that +this court likewise constituted the select committee +(the γερουσία) of the senate.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">Finances of Carthage.<br /> +Tributes from the African federates:<br /> +Sardinia, etc.<br /> +the Syrtic hordes:<br /> +dues and customs:<br /> +mines.</div> + +<p>10. Our information respecting the financial +system of the Carthaginians is extremely meagre. +The following seem to have been the principal +sources of the public revenue. 1. The tribute +drawn from the federate cities, and their African +subjects. The former paid in money, the latter +for the most part in kind; this tribute was imposed +at the will of the government, so that in +pressing cases the taxed nations were obliged to +give one half of their income. 2. The case was +the same with their external provinces, parti<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_79" id="Page_79">[Pg 79]</a></span>cularly +with Sardinia. 3. The tribute furnished +by the nomad hordes, partly by those in the +Regio-Syrtica, and occasionally also by those on +the western side. 4. The customs, which were +levied with extreme rigour, not only in Carthage, +but likewise in all the colonies. 5. The products +of their rich mines, particularly those of Spain. +In considering the financial system of the Carthaginians, +it should not be forgotten that many of +the nations with whom they traded, or who served +in their armies, were unacquainted with the use +of money.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">Trade of +Carthage:</div> + +<p>11. System and extent of their commerce. +Their object was to secure a monopoly of the +western trade; hence the practice of restricting +the growth of their colonies, and of removing as +much as possible all strangers from their commercial +marts. Their trade was carried on partly +<span class="sidenote">by sea to Britain and the Guinea coast;</span> +by sea, and partly by land. Their sea trade, +arising from the colonies, extended beyond the +Mediterranean, certainly as far as the coasts of +Britain and Guinea. Their land trade was carried +on by caravans, consisting principally of the +nomad tribes resident between the Syrtes: the +<span class="sidenote">by land to the interior of Africa.</span> +caravans travelled eastward to Ammonium and +Upper Egypt, southward to the land of the Garamantes, +(Fezzan,) and even still further into the +interior of Africa.</p> + + +<hr style="width: 25%;" /> +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_80" id="Page_80">[Pg 80]</a></span></p> + +<h4>SECOND PERIOD.</h4> + +<h4><i>From the breaking out of the wars with Syracuse, to the +commencement of those with Rome, B. C. 480—264.</i></h4> + +<div class="sidenote">Views of +Carthage +upon Sicily.</div> + +<p>1. The great object of Carthaginian policy +during the whole of the above period, was to +subdue Sicily; this object the nation pursued +with extraordinary pertinacity, often approximating +to, but never obtaining, complete success. +The growing power of Syracuse, which likewise +aimed at the sole possession of the island, laid +the foundation of that national hatred which now +arose between the Sicilian Greeks and the Carthaginians.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">rout at Himera +by +Gelon, +B. C. 480.</div> + +<p>2. First attempt, arising out of the league +formed with Xerxes I. upon his irruption into +Greece. Gelon of Syracuse, in a victory more +decisive even than that gained by Themistocles +over the Persians at Salamis, routs the Carthaginians +near Himera, and compels them to accede +to a disgraceful peace.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">General extension +of +the Carthaginian +empire +in +Africa, +480—410.</div> + +<p>3. This defeat was followed by a period of +tranquillity lasting seventy years, during which +we know little about Carthage. All that we can +say with any probability is, that in the mean time +the struggle for territory between Cyrene and +Carthage commenced and terminated to the advantage +of the latter state, whose dominion was +generally extended and confirmed in Africa by +wars with the aboriginal tribes.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_81" id="Page_81">[Pg 81]</a></span></p> + +<div class="sidenote">War in +Sicily renewed, +410.</div> + +<p>4. But the accession of Dionysius I. to the +throne of Syracuse, and the ambitious project +formed by him and his successors, of subjecting +to their rule all Sicily and Magna-Grecia, rekindled +once more the embers of war, which had +only smouldered for a short time, to burst forth +with additional violence.</p> + +<div class="sblockquot"><p>Repeated and bloody wars with Dionysius I. between the +years 410—368. Neither party able to expel the other: terms +of the last peace; that each party should remain in possession of +what he then occupied. Second commercial treaty with Rome.</p> + +<p>Crafty advantage taken by the Carthaginians of the internal +commotions at Syracuse during and subsequent to the reign of +Dionysius II: they endeavour to obtain their end; but are +thwarted by the heroism of Timoleon, 345—340.</p> + +<p>A new and frightful war with Agathocles, the seat of which +is transferred from Sicily into Africa itself; it at last terminates +in favour of Carthage, 311—307.</p> + +<p>The war with Pyrrhus, 277—275, whose ambition gave rise to +an alliance between Carthage and Rome, contributed likewise to +increase the preponderance of the Carthaginians in Sicily; and +probably the perseverance of that people, and their skill in profiting +by circumstances, would at last have enabled them to +attain their object, had not the seeds of war been thereby scattered +between Carthage and Rome.</p></div> + +<div class="sidenote">Two attempts +at +revolution. +340; +308.<br /> + +Excellent +state of the +Carthaginian +finances +at +the beginning of the +first Punic +war.</div> + +<p>5. What effect these Sicilian wars had upon +the state we are not informed. They were probably +regarded in Carthage as a beneficial channel +for carrying off the popular fermentation;—nevertheless, +two attempts, both unsuccessful, +were made by some of the aristocratical party, to +overthrow the constitution; first by Hanno, 340, +and afterwards by Bomilcar, 308.—At the breaking +out, however, of the war with Rome, the +commonwealth was so formidable and mighty, +that even the finances of the state do not appear +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_82" id="Page_82">[Pg 82]</a></span>to have been at all affected; a circumstance of +the highest importance. What consequence was +it to Carthage whether 100,000 barbarians more +or less existed in the world, so long as there remained +plenty of men willing to suffer themselves +to be sold, and she possessed money to purchase +them?</p> + +<hr style="width: 25%;" /> +<h4>THIRD PERIOD.</h4> + +<h4><i>From the beginning of the wars with Rome, to the downfal +of Carthage, B. C. 264—146.</i></h4> + +<div class="sidenote">Causes of +the Punic +wars.</div> + +<p>1. The wars between Carthage and Rome were +the necessary consequences of a desire of aggrandizement +in two conquering nations; any one +might have foreseen the struggle between the +two rivals as soon as their conquests should once +begin to clash. It is, therefore, a question of +little importance, to enquire which was the aggressor; +and although Rome may not be entirely +cleared of that charge, we cannot help observing +that, according to the principles of sound policy, +the security of Italy was hardly compatible with +the sole dominion of the Carthaginians over the +island of Sicily.</p> + +<div class="sblockquot"><p>First war with Rome, 264—241, (twenty-three years,) waged +for the possession of Sicily, and decided almost at its commencement +by Hiero's passing over to the Roman side. (For the history +of it, see below, in the Roman history, Book V. Period ii, +parag. 2 sq.)</p></div><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_83" id="Page_83">[Pg 83]</a></span></p> + +<div class="sidenote">Fatal consequences +of the first +Punic war +to Carthage.</div> + +<p>2. This war cost the republic, Sicily and the +sovereignty of the Mediterranean, by which the +fate of its other external possessions was already +predetermined. But that which appeared at the +first view to threaten the greatest danger, was +the total exhaustion of its finances; a circumstance +which will no longer surprise us, when we +consider how many fleets had been destroyed and +replaced, how many armies had been annihilated +and renewed. Carthage had never before been +engaged in such an obstinate struggle as this; and +the immediate consequences were more terrific +even than the war itself.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">Dreadful +civil war, +B. C. 240—237.</div> + +<p>3. The impossibility of paying the mercenaries +produced a mutiny among the troops, which rapidly +grew into a rebellion of the subject nations, +who had been most cruelly oppressed during the +war. The consequence was a civil war of three +years and a half, which probably would have +spared the Romans the trouble of destroying Carthage, +had not the state been snatched from ruin +by the heroism of Hamilcar.</p> + +<div class="sblockquot"><p>This war, which lasted from 240 to 237, produced lasting consequences +to the state; it gave rise to the feud between Hamilcar +and Hanno the Great, which compelled Hamilcar to seek +for support against the senate by becoming the leader of a democratic +faction.</p></div> + +<div class="sidenote">Sardinia is +lost, 237.</div> + +<p>4. The revolt spread abroad; it reached Sardinia +and caused the loss of that most important +island, of which the Romans, flushed with power, +took possession, in spite of the terms of the +peace.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">Rise of the +house of the +Barcas:</div> + +<p>5. The influence of the family of the Barcas, +supported in their disputes with the senate by the +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_84" id="Page_84">[Pg 84]</a></span>popular party, now got the upper hand in Carthage; +and the first fruit of their power was the +new and gigantic project of repairing the loss of +Sicily and Sardinia by the conquest of Spain; a +<span class="sidenote">vast projects upon Spain,</span> +country where the Carthaginians already had +some possessions and commercial connections. +The immediate object of the Barcas was the support +of their family and party; but the Spanish +silver mines soon furnished the republic with the +means of renewing the contest with Rome also.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">executed by +Hamilcar +and Hasdrubal, +237—221.<br /> + +By treaty +with the +Romans +the Ebro is +fixed as the +boundary of +their possessions +in +Spain, 226.<br /> + +Carthagena founded.<br /> + +Hannibal succeeds to the command of the +army, 221;<br /> + +and begins the second Punic war, +218.</div> + +<p>6. During the nine years in which Hamilcar +commanded, and in the following eight in which +Hasdrubal, his son-in-law and successor, was at +the head of the army, the whole of the south of +Spain, as far as the Iberus, was brought under +subjection to Carthage, either by negotiation or +force of arms. The further progress of the Carthaginians +was only arrested by a treaty with the +Romans, in which the Iberus was fixed upon as +a frontier line, and the freedom of Saguntum acknowledged +by both powers. Hasdrubal crowned +his victories as a general and as a statesman by +the foundation of New Carthage, (Carthagena,) +which was to be the future seat of Carthaginian +power in the newly-conquered country. Hasdrubal +having fallen by the hand of an assassin in +the year 221, the party of the Barcas succeeded +in appointing Hamilcar's son, Hannibal, a young +man of one-and-twenty, for his successor. Hannibal +found every thing already prepared in Spain +for the furtherance of the hereditary project of his +family, which was a renewal of the contest with +Rome; and the vigour with which this project +was pursued, clearly proves how great must have<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_85" id="Page_85">[Pg 85]</a></span> +been the preponderance of the Barcine influence, +at that time, in Carthage. Had the commonwealth +attended to the marine with the same +ardour as their great general did to the land service, +the fate of Rome would perhaps have been +very different.</p> + +<div class="sblockquot"><p>Second war with Rome, 218—201, (seventeen years,) first in +Italy and Spain, afterwards, from 203, in Africa itself. (See +the history of this war below, in the Roman history, Book V, Period +ii, parag. 6 sqq.)</p></div> + +<div class="sidenote">Internal +state of +Carthage +during the +second Punic +war.</div> + +<p>7. Until Africa became the scene of action, the +second war cost the republic much less than the +first; the expenses being principally defrayed by +Spain and Italy. Hanno, however, was at the +head of a powerful party at home, who were clamorous +for peace, and who can say they were +wrong? As might be expected, the family of the +Barcas were for war, and their influence carried +the day. That general who, with hardly any support +from Carthage, was yet able to maintain a +footing in the country of his powerful foes for no +less than fifteen years, and that, too, as much by +policy as by force of arms, must extort our admiration. +It cannot, however, be denied, that +during the struggle one favourable opportunity, +at least, was let slip of making peace; a fatal +omission, for which the hero of Cannæ paid +dearly enough, by the failure of his darling project.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">A disgraceful +peace the result of the war.</div> + +<p>8. By the second peace with Rome, Carthage +was deprived of all her possessions out of Africa, +and her fleet was delivered into the hands of the +Romans. She was now to be a mere trading city +under the tutelage of Rome. But Carthage found +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_86" id="Page_86">[Pg 86]</a></span>by this peace her most formidable enemy on the +soil of Africa itself. Massinissa had been elevated +to the dignity of king of Numidia; and his endeavours +to form his nomads into an agricultural +<span class="sidenote">Massinissa of Numidia a new instrument of Roman policy.</span> +people, and to collect them into cities, must have +changed the military system that Carthage had +hitherto followed. Roman policy, moreover, had +taken care that the article inserted in his favour +in the last treaty of peace, should be so ambiguously +worded, as to leave abundant openings for +dispute.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">Hannibal at +the head of affairs;<br /> + +attempts to check the oligarchy.</div> + +<p>9. Even after this disgraceful peace, the family +of the Barcas still preserved their influence, and +Hannibal was placed as supreme magistrate at +the head of the republic. He attempts to reform +the constitution and the finances, by destroying +the oligarchy of the hundred, by whom the finances +had been thrown into confusion. Complete as +was the success of the first blow, it soon became +apparent that aristocratic factions are not so readily +annihilated as armies.</p> + +<div class="sblockquot"><p>The democratic faction to which even the Barcas owed their +first elevation, was the cause of the degeneracy of the Carthaginian +constitution. By that faction the legislative authority of the +senate and magistrates was withdrawn and transferred to the <i>ordo +judicum</i>—probably the same as the high state tribunal of the +hundred—which now assumed the character of an omnipotent +national inquisition; and the members being chosen for life exercised +oppressive despotism. This tribunal was formed of those +who had served the office of ministers of finance, with whom it +shared unblushingly the revenues of the state. Hannibal destroyed +this oligarchy by a law, enacting that the members should +hold their office but for one year; whereas before they held it +for life. In the reform wrought by this law in the finances it +was seen, that after all wars and losses, the revenues of the republic +were still sufficient, not only for the usual expenditure<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_87" id="Page_87">[Pg 87]</a></span> +and the payment of tribute to Rome, but also for leaving a surplus +in the public treasury. Ten years had hardly elapsed before +Carthage was enabled to pay down at once the whole of the +tribute which she had engaged to furnish by instalments.</p></div> + +<div class="sidenote">Hannibal +compelled +to fly to Syria.</div> + +<p>10. The defeated party, whose interests were +now the same with those of Rome, joined the Romans, +to whom they discovered Hannibal's plan +of renewing the war in conjunction with Antiochus +the Great, king of Syria. A Roman embassy +was sent over to Africa, under some other pretext, +to demand that Hannibal should be given +up. The Carthaginian general secretly fled to +<span class="sidenote">195.</span> +king Antiochus, at whose court he became the +chief fomenter of the war against Rome; although +unsuccessful in his endeavour to implicate the +Carthaginian republic in the struggle.</p> + +<div class="sblockquot"><p>See hereafter the history of Syria, Book IV, Period iii, separate +kingdoms. I. Seleucidæ, parag. 18; and Book V, Period +ii, parag. 10 sq.</p></div> + +<div class="sidenote">Roman influence +completely +established +in Carthage.</div> + +<p>11. In consequence of the absence of Hannibal, +Carthage fell once more under the dominion of +the Romans, who contrived, by taking a crafty advantage +of the state of parties, to give a show of +generosity to the exercise of their power. Even +the patriotic faction, if we may judge by the violent +steps which they took more than once against +Massinissa and his partisans, seem to have been +but a tool in the hands of Rome.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">The Carthaginian +territory +gradually +dismembered.</div> + +<p>12. Disputes with Massinissa, which led to the +gradual partition of the Carthaginian territory in +Africa. The manner in which this territory had +been acquired, facilitated the discovery of claims +upon each of the component parts; and the interference +of Rome, sometimes disinterested, but of<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_88" id="Page_88">[Pg 88]</a></span>tener +swayed by party feeling, ensured the possession +of the territory to the Numidian.</p> + +<div class="sblockquot"><p>Even in 199, a disadvantageous treaty framed with Massinissa +for fifty years: nevertheless the rich province of Emporia is lost +in 193.—Loss of another province unnamed, to which Massinissa +inherited some claims from his father.—Seizure of the province +of Tysca, with fifty cities, about 174. Probable date of Cato's +embassy, who returned in disgust, because his decision had been +rejected, and became the fomenter of a project to destroy Carthage.—New +disputes about 152.—Massinissa's party is expelled +Carthage.—War breaks out in consequence, during which the +king in his ninetieth year personally defeats the Carthaginians; +and what with famine and the sword, Hasdrubal's army, which +had been surrounded by the enemy, was nearly exterminated; in +the mean while the Roman ambassadors, who had come to act as +mediators, obeying their private instructions, looked on with +quiet indifference.</p></div> + +<div class="sidenote">Destruction +of Carthage; +third Punic +war;</div> + + +<p>13. Though it is evident that the party spirit +raging between Cato and Scipio Nasica had a +considerable influence in hastening the destruction +of Carthage; and though it is equally clear +that Massinissa's late victory paved the way for +the immediate execution of that project; yet it is +difficult to unravel the web, by which, long before +the declaration of war now about to follow, +treachery prepared the final scene of this great +tragedy. Was the account that Cato at his return +gave of the resuscitated power of Carthage consonant +<span class="sidenote">brought about probably by Roman duplicity.</span> +to truth? Was not the sudden secession +of Ariobarzanes, the grandson of Syphax, who +was to have led a Numidian army to defend Carthage +against Massinissa, previously arranged with +Rome? Was not the turbulent Gisgo, who first +incited the populace to insult the Roman ambassadors, +and then opportunely rescued them from +the fury of the mob, in the pay of Rome? These<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_89" id="Page_89">[Pg 89]</a></span> +questions give rise to suspicions, although they +cannot satisfactorily be answered. At any rate, +it may be said, that the conduct of Rome, after +war had broken out, corroborates the suspicion. +The whole history of the last period sufficiently +proves, that it was not so much the debased character +of the nation, as party spirit, and the avarice +of the great, which produced the fall of Carthage. +Advantage was taken of that party spirit and avarice +by Roman policy, which, although acting according +to the dictates of blind passion, knew +how to profit by dark and base intrigue.</p> + +<div class="sblockquot"><p>Third war with Rome and destruction of Carthage, 150—146. +See hereafter the Roman history, Book V, Period ii, parag. 19 sq.</p></div> + + +<hr style="width: 100%;" /> +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_90" id="Page_90">[Pg 90]</a></span></p> +<h1><a name="SECOND_BOOK" id="SECOND_BOOK"></a>SECOND BOOK.</h1> +<hr style="width: 100%;" /> + +<h3><i>History of the Persian Empire, from B. C. 560—330.</i></h3> + + +<div class="sblockquot"><p>Sources. Preservation of historic records among the Persians +themselves under the form of royal annals; origin and nature of +those annals. As these have been destroyed, we are obliged to +deduce the history from foreign writers, some of whom, however, +availed themselves of the Persian annals. 1. <i>Greeks</i>: their +authority as writers, contemporary, but not always sufficiently +acquainted with the east. (<i>a</i>) <span class="smcap">Ctesias.</span> His court history compiled +from Persian annals, would be the principal work did we +possess the whole; we have, however, only an extract from it +preserved by Photius. (<i>b</i>) <span class="smcap">Herodotus</span>: who probably availed +himself of similar sources in some portion of his work. (<i>c</i>) <span class="smcap">Xenophon.</span> +To this period of history belong, not only his Anabasis +and Hellenica, but also his Cyropædia, or portraiture of a happy +empire and an accomplished ruler, according to eastern ideas, exhibited +in the example of Cyrus: of use so far as pure historic records +are interwoven with the narrative. (<i>d</i>) <span class="smcap">Diodorus</span>, etc. +2. <i>Jewish writers.</i> The books of <span class="smcap">Esdras</span> and <span class="smcap">Nehemiah</span>; and +more particularly that of <span class="smcap">Esther</span>, as containing a faithful representation +of the Persian court and its manners. 3. The accounts +of the later <i>Persian chroniclers</i>, <span class="smcap">Mirkhond</span> in particular, who +flourished in the thirteenth century of the christian era, can have +no weight in the scale of criticism; they are nevertheless interesting, +inasmuch as they make us acquainted with the ideas that +the inhabitants of the east form of their early history.</p> + +<p>The modern authors on Persian history are principally those +who have written on ancient history in general: see p. 2. A +treatise on Persian history, deduced from eastern sources, will +be found in the <i>Ancient Universal History</i>, vol. iv.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Brissonius</span>, <i>de Regno Persarum</i>, 1591, 8vo. A very laborious +compilation.</p> + +<p>The section concerning the Persians in † <span class="smcap">Heeren</span>, <i>Ideas</i>, etc. +vol. i, part 1.</p> + +<p>[<span class="smcap">Malcolm, Sir John</span>, <i>History of Persia</i>, from the earliest +ages to the present times. Lond. 1816, 4to. 2 vols. "A valuable +work."]</p></div><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_91" id="Page_91">[Pg 91]</a></span></p> + +<div class="sidenote">Original +condition +of the Persians.</div> + + +<p>1. State of the Persian nation previous to Cyrus; +a highland people, subject to the Medes, +dwelling in the mountainous parts of the province +of Persis, and leading wholly, or for the most +part, a nomad life. Division into ten clans, +among which that of the <i>Pasargadæ</i>, the noblest +<span class="sidenote">The horde of the Pasargadæ,</span> +and ruling horde, is particularly remarkable on +account of the figure it makes in subsequent history.—The +result of this division was a patriarchal +government, the vestiges of which remain visible +in the whole of the following history of the Persians. +Permanent distinction between the tribes +in reference to their mode of life, observable even +during the most flourishing period of the Persian +state: three of the nobles or warriors, three of +the husbandmen, and four of the shepherds. +Argument thence deduced, that the history of the +<span class="sidenote">has the ascendant.</span> +Persians as a dominant nation, <i>is that of the +nobler clans alone, and of the</i> <span class="smcap">Pasargadæ</span> <i>more +especially</i>.</p> + +<div class="sidenote"><span class="smcap">Cyrus</span>, +similar to +Gengis-khan +and other +Asiatic +conquerors;</div> + +<p>2. The personal history of Cyrus, the founder +of the Persian monarchy, was, even in the time of +Herodotus, so obscured under the veil of romance, +that it was no longer possible to detect the real +truth. It is, however, evident, that the course of +the revolution wrought by him was, on the whole, +the same as was followed in all similar empires +founded in Asia. Gengis-khan, in a later age, +was placed at the head of all the Mogol hordes; +in the same manner was Cyrus elected chief of +all the Persian tribes, by whose assistance he +<span class="sidenote">founds the Persian empire about B. C. 561.</span> +became a mighty conqueror, at the time that the +Babylonian and Median kingdoms of Inner Asia +were on the decline, and before the Lydian<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_92" id="Page_92">[Pg 92]</a></span> +empire, under Crœsus, had been firmly established.</p> + +<div class="sblockquot"><p>Descent of Cyrus from the family of Achæmenes, (Jamshid?). +That family belonged to the Pasargadæ tribe, and therefore remained +the ruling house.</p></div> + +<div class="sidenote">Of the Medo-Bactrian empire, destroyed 561.<br /> +of the Lydian empire:<br /> +Asiatic Greeks subjected, about 557<br /> +of Babylon, 538.<br /> +Cyrus is slain in battle with the Massagetæ, 529.</div> + +<p>3. Rise of the Persian dominion, in consequence +of the overthrow of the Medo-Bactrian +empire, after the defeat of Astyages at Pasargada. +Rapid extension by further conquest. Subjection +of Asia Minor after the victory won by Cyrus in +person over Crœsus, and capture of the Greek +colonies by the generals of the Persian monarch. +Conquest of Babylon and all the Babylonian provinces. +The Phœnician cities submit themselves +of their own accord. Even in Cyrus's time, +therefore, the frontiers of the Persian empire had +been extended in southern Asia to the Mediterranean, +to the Oxus, and to the Indus; but the +campaign against the nomad races, inhabiting the +steppes of Central Asia, was unsuccessful; and +Cyrus himself fell in the contest.</p> + +<div class="sblockquot"><p>It cannot be denied but that in the narration of the separate +wars waged by Cyrus, discrepancies are found in Herodotus and +Ctesias; those two authors, however, agree in the main facts: +and, indeed, the differences which exist between them cannot be +considered always as direct contradictions.</p></div> + +<div class="sidenote">The Persians +adopt +the religion, +laws, and +civility of +the conquered +Medes.</div> + +<p>4. Immediate consequences of this great revolution +in respect both of the conquerors and the +conquered. Among the former, even in the time +of Cyrus, the civilization and luxury of the Medes, +their legislation and national religion, and the +sacerdotal caste of the magi, who were guardians +of that religion, had been introduced, and the +whole system of the Persian court had been remodelled +upon that of the Medes.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_93" id="Page_93">[Pg 93]</a></span></p> + +<div class="sblockquot"><p>Description of Zoroaster's legislation, and of the magian national +religion, according to the Zend-avesta. How far the +dogmas of Zoroaster can be considered as dominant among the +Persians?—Proof that they were adopted only by the nobler +tribes, more particularly the Pasargadæ. Their great and beneficial +influence on agriculture.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Anquetil Du Perron</span>, <i>Zend-avesta, ouvrage de</i> <span class="smcap">Zoroastre</span>, +<i>traduit en François sur l'original Zend</i>. Paris, 1771. 4to. This +work has been much improved by the critical discussions added +to the German translation by <span class="smcap">J. L. Kleuker</span>. Compare the +dissertations on Zoroaster by <span class="smcap">Meiners</span> and <span class="smcap">Tychsen</span>, in <i>Comment. +Soc. Gotting.</i> and <span class="smcap">Heeren</span>, <i>Ideas</i>, etc. vol. i.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Hyde</span>, <i>De Religione veterum Persarum</i>; Oxon. 1700, 4to. +Replete with learned research, and the first work that excited +enquiry on the subject.</p> + +<p>† <span class="smcap">J. S. Rhode</span>, <i>Sacred Traditions of the East</i>; Breslau, +1821. An excellent work for the study of the Zend-avesta, the +magian religion, and the antiquities of the Medes and Persians.</p></div> + + +<div class="sidenote">Expedients adopted to keep possession +of the conquered territories.<br /> +Tribute.<br /> +Standing armies.<br /> +Transfer of whole nations.</div> + +<p>5. First political constitution of the Persian empire under Cyrus. No general new organization; +but for the most part the original institutions are preserved among the conquered, who +are compelled to pay tribute. Royal officers, appointed to collect +the tribute, are associated with the generals, who with numerous armies +keep in subjection the inhabitants of the conquered +countries. For the support of the empire +large standing armies are kept in pay, besides +which, recourse is frequently had to the transplanting +of whole nations; while, as was the case +with the Jews, some who had been formerly transplanted +are restored to their country. With the +same view injunctions are issued, as in the case +of the Lydians, to effect the enervation of warlike +races by a luxurious and effeminate system of +education.</p> + +<p>6. Cyrus leaves two sons, the elder of whom,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_94" id="Page_94">[Pg 94]</a></span> +Cambyses, succeeds as king; the younger, Smerdis, +(the <i>Tanyoxarces</i> of Ctesias,) becomes independent +lord of Bactria and the eastern territories; +but is soon after murdered by the command +of his elder brother.</p> + +<div class="sidenote"><span class="smcap">Cambyses</span> +529—522.<br /> +conquers +Egypt, etc.</div> + +<p>7. Under Cambyses the conquering arms of +the Persians are directed against Africa. Egypt +becomes a Persian province, and the neighbouring +Libya, together with Cyrene, assume the yoke of +their own accord. But the twofold expedition +against the opulent commercial establishments, +Ammonium in the west, and Meroe in the south, +is wholly unsuccessful; that against Carthage is +arrested in its commencement by the refusal of +the Tyrians to join the naval armament. A colony +of six thousand Egyptians is transplanted into +Susiana.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">His policy +in persecuting +the Egyptian priesthood:<br /> +his vices probably much exaggerated.</div> + +<p>8. The cruelty with which Cambyses is accused +of treating the Egyptians was directed +rather against the powerful caste of the priests, +than against the whole nation; and originated +more in political than in religious motives. It +must be observed, however, that we ought to be +particularly on our guard against all the evil that +is related of Cambyses, inasmuch as our information +respecting that prince is derived entirely from +his enemies, the Egyptian priests.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">Usurpation of the magi:<br /> +death of Cambyses, 522.</div> + +<p>9. The usurpation of the Pseudo-Smerdis, (or +<i>Tanyoxarces</i>,) was an attempt of the magi to replace +a Median dynasty on the throne, by means +of a plot hatched within the seraglio. It was the +occasion of an accident which cost Cambyses his +life, after a reign of seven years and a half: (or, +according to Ctesias, of eighteen.)</p> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_95" id="Page_95">[Pg 95]</a></span></p> +<div class="sidenote">The false +<span class="smcap">Smerdis</span>, +after a reign +of eight +months, is +slain by the +seven grandees.</div> + +<p>10. The Pseudo-Smerdis kept his seat on the +throne eight months, during which he attempted +to bring over the conquered nations to his interest +by a remission of all tribute for three years; but +the discovery of his cheat gave rise to a conspiracy +of seven of the chief Persians, who could +not brook the rule of a Mede, and the usurper lost +his life.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">No progress made towards an established +government under Cambyses and Smerdis.<br /> + +The Persians having forsaken the nomad life,<br /> + +Persepolis is built.</div> + +<p>11. It could not be expected that the political +organization of the kingdom should advance to +completion during the reign of Cambyses, who +was almost always absent in the prosecution of +war; or during the brief rule of the Pseudo-Smerdis. +It remained, therefore, in the same +state as under Cyrus. But the introduction of +the Median court-ceremonial among the ruling +tribe of the Persians, and the adoption of fixed +dwellings by that tribe, rendered it necessary that +royal residences should be erected for the reception +of the king's court; among these Persepolis, +(see above, p. 20,) probably commenced by Cyrus, +was completed under Darius and Xerxes.</p> + +<div class="sblockquot"><p>The best drawings of the monuments of Persepolis, remarkable +alike for their architecture, their sculpture, and their inscriptions +in the arrow-headed character, are to be found in the Travels of +<span class="smcap">Chardin</span> and <span class="smcap">Niebuhr</span>. Illustrations:</p> + +<p>† <span class="smcap">Herder's</span> <i>Persepolis</i>, in the collection of his works, vol. i.</p> + +<p>† <span class="smcap">Heeren</span>, <i>Ideas</i>, etc. Part I. vol. i. Great assistance in +studying the inscriptions, is furnished by</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">De Sacy</span>, <i>Mémoires sur diverses Antiquités de la Perse</i>; +Paris, 1793, 4to. It must be observed, however, that this work +is confined to the illustration of the later monuments, belonging +to the <i>Sassanidæ</i>. The most successful attempt at deciphering +the arrow-headed inscriptions of the old Persic, since <span class="smcap">Tychsen</span>, +<span class="smcap">Muenter</span>, and <span class="smcap">Lichtenstein</span>, will be found in</p> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_96" id="Page_96">[Pg 96]</a></span></p> + +<p>† <span class="smcap">Grotefend</span>, <i>On the Interpretation of the Arrow-headed +Characters, particularly of the Inscriptions at Persepolis</i>, contained +in the appendix to <span class="smcap">Heeren</span>, <i>Ideas</i>, etc. vol. ii. with an +accompanying Zend alphabet.</p></div> + + +<div class="sidenote">The seven +grandees +hold council +on the future +form of +government.</div> + +<p>12. After a very remarkable debate held by +the seven conspirators, concerning the form of +of government which should be established, Darius, +the son of Hystaspes, one of the family of the +Achæmenides, was raised to the throne by an +oracle; this king endeavoured to strengthen his +right to the sceptre by marrying two of Cyrus's +daughters.</p> + + +<div class="sidenote"><span class="smcap">Darius</span> +(522—486.) +a great +statesman +and conqueror:</div> + +<p>13. The reign of Darius I. which lasted thirty-six +years, (according to Ctesias 31,) is remarkable +for the improvements made both in the external +and internal administration of the Persian empire. +In the former, by the great expeditions and conquests, +which extended the Persian realm to its +utmost limits; in the latter, by several important +institutions, established for the internal organization +of the state.</p> + + +<div class="sidenote">the first +Persian +that carries +his arms +into Europe:<br /> +and is embroiled with the European Greeks.</div> + + +<p>14. The expeditions of the Persians under Cyrus +were directed against the countries of Asia; +those of Cambyses against Africa. But those +undertaken by Darius I. were directed against +Europe, though the Persian territory was at the +same time extended in the two other quarters of +the world. In the reign of this king likewise +commenced those wars with the Greeks, so fatal +to the Persians; constantly fomented and supported +by emigrant or exile Greeks, who found +an asylum in the Persian court, and there contrived +to raise a party.—First example of the kind +exhibited shortly after the accession of Darius, in<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_97" id="Page_97">[Pg 97]</a></span> +the case of Syloson, brother to Polycrates, who +had been tyrant of Samos: at his request the +island was taken possession of by the Persians, +and delivered up to him after the almost total destruction +of the male population.</p> + + +<div class="sidenote">Babylon secedes, +and +is reduced: +516.</div> + +<p>15. Great revolt in Babylon, which would not +submit tamely to a foreign yoke. After a siege +of twenty-one months, Darius by stratagem regains +possession of the city. The power of +Babylon and the importance of its situation increased +the jealousy with which it was guarded +by the Persian kings; so much so, that they +were wont to reside there a certain portion of the +year.</p> + + +<div class="sidenote">Campaign against the Scythians: 513.<br /> +The Persians, though unsuccessful, establish themselves in Europe.</div> + +<p>16. First great expedition of Darius undertaken +against the Scythians inhabiting the lands north +of the Black sea: the former irruption of the +Scythians into Asia afforded a pretext for the +war, which, therefore, was considered as a general +national undertaking. Unsuccessful as the +Persian arms were in this vast expedition against +the Scythians, and disgraceful as was the retreat +from the barren steppes of the Ukrain, yet the +power of Darius was established in Thrace and +Macedonia, and the Persians obtained firm footing +in Europe.</p> + +<div class="sblockquot"><p>Concerning the peculiar character of the Persian national wars, +or great campaigns, in which all the conquered nations were +obliged to participate, contrasted with the other wars waged by +Persian troops alone.</p></div> + + +<div class="sidenote">Campaign against western India, 509:</div> + + +<p>17. The next expedition made by Darius was +more successful. It was carried on along the +banks of the Indus, down which river Scylax, a +Greek, had previously sailed on a voyage of +discovery. The highlands north of the Indus +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_98" id="Page_98">[Pg 98]</a></span>were then subjected to the Persian dominion, +and the Indus became the boundary of the +kingdom. About the same time that Darius +was engaged on the Danube and the Indus, +Aryandes, his viceroy in Egypt, led an expedition against +<span class="sidenote">against Barca in Africa.</span> +Barca, to avenge the murder of king +Arcesilaus; a war which terminated in the destruction +of the city, and the transplantation of +its inhabitants into Asia.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">Secession of the Asiatic Greeks, 502—496;<br /> +who, assisted by Athens, fire Sardes, 500,<br /> +but are completely routed off Miletus, 496.</div> + +<p>18. However trifling the first occurrence which +gave rise to the revolt of the Asiatic Greeks, +it was much more important in its consequences. +It was set on foot by Aristagoras, lieutenant-governor +of Miletus, who was secretly supported +by his relation, the offended Histiæus, +then resident at the Persian court. The share +taken by the Athenians in this rebellion, which +led to the burning of Sardes, was the origin of the +national hatred between Persia and European +Greece, and of the long series of wars that ensued. +The confederates were this time defeated; +but the naval battle off the island of Lada, could +hardly have had such a fatal result, had not the +league been previously corrupted by the craft and +gold of Persia. Be that as it may, this war +ended in the reduction of the Ionians, and the +destruction of Miletus, their flourishing capital; a +city which in those days, together with Tyre and +Carthage, engrossed the trade of the world.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">First campaign against Greece.<br /> +under Mardonius, frustrated by a tempest off Athos, 492.<br /> +Second campaign.<br /> +Battle of Marathon, Sept. 29, 490.</div> + +<p>19. First attack upon Greece, particularly +Athens. Darius, already enraged against the +Athenians by the firing of Sardes, is still further +instigated by the suggestions of the banished tyrant +of Athens, Hippias, the son of Pisistratus. +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_99" id="Page_99">[Pg 99]</a></span> +This prince, who had fled to the Persian court, +was evidently the animating spirit of the whole +undertaking. Although the first attempt, made +under the command of Mardonius, was thwarted +by a tempest, yet the mighty expedition which +afterwards followed, was undertaken with so much +more prudence, and conducted with so much +knowledge of the country, that no one can fail to +recognize the guiding hand of Hippias. Even the +battle of Marathon, which seems to have been +but a diversion on the side of the Persians, would +not have decided the war, had not the activity of +Miltiades defeated the principal design of the +enemy upon Athens.</p> + + +<div class="sidenote">Progress of +the Persians +towards a +regular +constitution.</div> + +<p>20. It may be said that Darius, by these foreign +wars, debilitated the kingdom which he endeavoured +to extend; this circumstance, however, +it cannot be denied, increases the merit which he +has of perfecting the internal organization of the +empire. His reign constitutes precisely that period +which must enter into the history of every +nomad race that has attained to power, and is +advancing towards political civilization; a period +at which it becomes visible that the nation is endeavouring +to obtain a constitution, however gradual +the progress towards it.</p> + + +<div class="sidenote">Division of +the empire +into <i>satrapies</i>.</div> + +<p>21. Division of the empire into twenty <i>satrapies</i>, +and the imposition of a regular tribute on +each. This division at first depended solely on +that of the various tributary races, but from it +gradually arose a geographic division, in which +the ancient distinction of countries was for the +most part preserved.</p> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_100" id="Page_100">[Pg 100]</a></span></p> +<div class="sblockquot"><p>Proofs that the division into satrapies was originally a mere +arrangement for the civil government and collection of taxes, +distinct from military power. Duties of the satraps. The attention +they were to pay to the cultivation and improvement of +the land; to the collection of the imposts; to the execution of +the royal commands relating to provincial affairs. An abuse of +this institution, at a later period, placed in the hands of these +satraps the command also of the troops.—Various means of keeping +the satraps in a state of dependence: royal secretaries appointed +for each, who were to be the first to receive the king's +commands.—Periodical visits paid to the provinces by commissioners +under the direct appointment of the king, or by the king +himself accompanied with an army.—Establishment of couriers +in every part of the empire, for the purpose of securing a safe +and rapid communication with the provinces, as was the case +also in the Mongol countries; (not a regular post, however, the +institution here alluded to being intended only for the court.)</p></div> + + +<div class="sidenote">Persian +finances: +the conquered +to +support the +conquerors.</div> + +<p>22. The Persian finance continues to preserve +those peculiarities which naturally result from the +formation of an empire by a nomad race of conquerors, +desirous of living at the expense of the +conquered, and under a despotic form of government.</p> + +<div class="sblockquot"><p>Collection of tribute, mostly in kind, for the support of the +court and the armies; and in precious metals, not coined, but in +their raw state. Application of the treasure thus collected towards +constituting a private chest for the king. Various other +royal imposts.—Mode of providing for the public expenditure by +assignments on the revenues of one or several places.</p></div> + + +<div class="sidenote">Art military.</div> + +<p>23. Organization of the military system, conformably +to the primitive state of the nation, and +the necessity now felt of keeping the conquered +countries in subjection by means of standing armies.</p> + +<div class="sblockquot"><p>Military organization of the Persian nations, by means of a +decimal division pervading the whole.—Royal troops cantoned in +the open field, according to a certain division of the empire, or +stationed as garrisons in the cities, and distinct from the encampments.—Manner +in which the troops were supported at the cost +and by the taxes of the provinces.—Introduction of mercenaries<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_101" id="Page_101">[Pg 101]</a></span> +and Greeks, more particularly among the Persians, and fatal consequences +of that measure. Military household of the satraps +and grandees.—Institution of a general conscription in national +wars. Formation of the Persian navy, consisting of the Phœnician, +and not unfrequently of the Asiatic Greek fleets.</p></div> + + +<div class="sidenote">The Persian +court both a +seraglio and +the head +quarters of +the army.</div> + +<p>24. From the time of Darius, the court of the +kings of Persia attained its complete form, and +the government soon after was wholly concentrated +in the seraglio. Yet the mode of life which +the kings led, surrounded by a court, taken principally +if not wholly from the tribe of the Pasargadæ, +and changing their residence according to +the revolutions of the seasons, still preserved the +traces of nomad origin.</p> + +<div class="sblockquot"><p>Babylon, Susa, and Ecbatana, the usual residences; Persepolis +now used as a royal cemetery. The court supported by the +most costly productions of each province; hence arose the rigid +ceremonial observed at the royal table.—Internal organization of +the seraglio.—Influence of the eunuchs and queen-mothers on +the government.</p></div> + + +<div class="sidenote">Revolt of Egypt, 488:<br /> +death of Darius, 486.</div> + +<p>25. Already had Darius commenced preparations +to wreak his vengeance on Athens, when a +revolution broke out in Egypt, and hindered him +from prosecuting his design. He died after nominating +for his successor Xerxes I. grandson of +Cyrus, and his eldest son by a second wife, +Atossa, whose influence over her husband was +boundless.</p> + + +<div class="sidenote"><span class="smcap">Xerxes I.</span> 486—465:<br /> +recovers Egypt, 484:</div> + +<p>26. Xerxes I. A prince educated in the seraglio, +who knew nothing beyond the art of representing +the pomp of royalty. Subjection of +Egypt, and severe treatment of that country under +the satrap Achæmenes, brother to Xerxes.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">leads a +mighty +army +against +Greece.</div> + +<p>27. Xerxes' famous expedition against Greece +was again the result of the cabals and intrigues of +the Greek exiles, the Pisistratidæ, the soothsayer +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_102" id="Page_102">[Pg 102]</a></span>Onomacritus, the Thessalian princes or Aleuadæ, +who contrived to exert their influence on the +king's mind, and to raise a party in their favour +among the grandees. But the progress of the +campaign showed that no Hippias was at the +head of the invading army, although the Persian +king did certainly succeed in his avowed object, +the capture and destruction of Athens.</p> + +<div class="sblockquot"><p>Critique on the detailed account given by Herodotus of this +expedition, as a national undertaking in which all the subjugated +nations were obliged to take a share.—Preparations which last +for three years in the Persian empire; league framed with Carthage +for the subjection of the Sicilian Greeks, 483—481. The +expedition itself in 480; over Asia Minor and the Hellespont, +through Thrace and Macedonia.—Muster of the army and division +of the troops according to nations at Doriscus; the detailed +description of which found in Herodotus, was most probably borrowed +from some Persian document.—The pass of Thermopylæ +taken by treachery; on the same day a naval engagement off +Artemisium.—Athens captured and burnt. Battle of Salamis, +Sept. 23, 480. Retreat of Xerxes; an army of picked men left +behind, under the command of Mardonius.—Fruitless negotiations +with the Athenians.—Second campaign of Mardonius: he +is routed at Platææ, Sept. 25, 479; and that event puts an end +for ever to the Persian irruptions into Greece: on the same day +the Persian army is defeated, and their fleet burnt at Mycale in +Asia Minor.</p></div> + + +<div class="sidenote">Persia now +obliged to +concentrate +her forces in +Asia Minor.</div> + +<p>28. The consequences of these repeated and +unsuccessful expeditions, in which almost the +whole population was engaged, must be self-evident. +The empire was weakened and depopulated. +The defensive war which the Persians for +thirty years were obliged to maintain against the +Greeks, who aimed at establishing the independence +of their Asiatic countrymen, completely +destroyed the balance of their power, by compelling +them to transfer their forces to Asia<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_103" id="Page_103">[Pg 103]</a></span> +Minor, the most distant western province of the +empire.</p> + + +<div class="sidenote">Policy of +the Persians +in bribing +the Greeks.<br /> +Cimon wrests from Persia the sovereignty of the sea:<br /> +battle of the Eurymedon, 469.</div> + +<p>29. Little as the Greeks had to fear from the +Persian arms, the danger with which they were +now threatened was much more formidable, when +the enemy began to adopt the system of bribing +the chieftains of Greece; a system which succeeded +beyond expectation in the first trial made +of it with Pausanias, and perhaps was not wholly +unsuccessful with Themistocles himself.—But the +Persians soon found in Cimon an adversary who +deprived them of the sovereignty of the sea; who +in one day destroyed both their fleet and their +army on the Eurymedon; and by the conquest of +the Thracian Chersonese, wrested from them the +key of Europe.</p> + + +<div class="sidenote">Bloody deeds in the Persian seraglio:<br /> +Xerxes murdered.</div> + +<p>30. What little we know further concerning the +reign of Xerxes, consists in the intrigues of the +seraglio, which now, through the machinations of +queen Amestris, became the theatre of all those +horrors which are wont to be exhibited in such +places, and to which Xerxes himself at last fell a +victim, in consequence of the conspiracy of Artabanes +and the eunuch Spamitres.</p> + +<div class="sblockquot"><p>Was Xerxes the Ahasuerus of the Jews?—On the difference +between the names of the Persian kings in Persian and Chaldee; +not to be wondered at when we consider that they were mere +titles or surnames, assumed by the sovereigns after their accession.</p></div> + + +<div class="sidenote"><span class="smcap">Artaxerxes</span>, 465—424.<br /> +during his reign Persia is on the decline.</div> + +<p>31. Artaxerxes I. surnamed Longimanus. In +consequence of the murder of his father and his +elder brother, in the conspiracy of Artabanes, this +prince ascended the throne, but was unable to +keep possession of the sceptre without assassi<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_104" id="Page_104">[Pg 104]</a></span>nating, +in his turn, Artabanes. His reign, which +lasted forty years, exhibits the first symptoms of +the decline of the empire, which this king, although +possessed of many good qualities, had not +the talent or spirit to arrest.</p> + + +<div class="sidenote">Rebellions +in the provinces.</div> + +<p>32. At the very commencement of his reign +rebellions are excited in the provinces; in the +mean while the war with Athens continues. Two +battles are required to repress the insurrection of +his brother Hystaspes in Bactria.</p> + + +<div class="sidenote">Second secession of Egypt, 463:</div> + +<p>33. Second revolt of Egypt, excited by the +Libyan king, Inarus of Marea, in conjunction +with the Egyptian, Amyrtæus, and supported by +an Athenian fleet. Although the confederates +did not make themselves masters of Memphis, +they defeated the Persian army, commanded by +the king's brother, Achæmenes, who lost his life +in the battle; they were at last overpowered by +Megabyzus, satrap of Syria, and shut up together +with Inarus in the town of Byblus. Inarus and +<span class="sidenote">partly quelled, 456.</span> +his party were admitted to capitulation; but +Amyrtæus, having taken refuge in the morasses, +continued to make head against the Persians.</p> + + +<div class="sidenote">Persian fleet and +army defeated by Cimon, 449.<br /> + +Disgraceful peace with Athens, 449.</div> + +<p>34. The Grecian war takes, once more, an unfavourable +turn for the Persians: Cimon defeats +the enemy's fleet and army near Cyprus. The +fear of losing the whole of the island accordingly +compels Artaxerxes I. to sign a treaty of peace +with Athens, in which he recognizes the independence +of the Asiatic Greeks, and agrees that +his fleet shall not navigate the Ægæan sea, nor +his troops approach within three days' march of +the coast.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">Megabyzus, +the first example +of a +rebellious +satrap, +447.</div> + +<p>35. But the haughty and powerful Megabyzus, +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_105" id="Page_105">[Pg 105]</a></span>enraged at the execution of Inarus, in violation of +the promise made by him to that prince, excites +a rebellion in Syria; repeatedly defeats the royal +armies, and prescribes himself the conditions upon +which he will be reconciled to his sovereign. +This was the first great example of a successful +insurrection excited by one of the Persian satraps; +and chequered as were the subsequent +fortunes of Megabyzus, his party continued to +subsist after his death in the persons of his sons. +He possessed in the centre of the court a support +in the dowager queen Amestris, and the reigning +<span class="sidenote">Death of Artaxerxes, 424.</span> +queen Amytis; (both notorious for their excesses;) +who kept Artaxerxes I. in a constant state of tutelage +to the hour of his death.</p> + + +<div class="sidenote"><span class="smcap">Xerxes +II.</span> 424.</div> + +<p>36. Revolutions in the government now succeed each other with rapidity and violence. +Xerxes II. the only legitimate son and successor of Artaxerxes, is slain, after forty-five days' reign, +by his bastard brother +<span class="sidenote"><span class="smcap">Sogdianus.</span></span> +Sogdianus; the latter, in his turn, after a reign of six months, is deposed +by another bastard brother, Ochus, who ascends the throne, and assumes the name of Darius II.</p> + + +<div class="sidenote"><span class="smcap">Darius II.</span> 423—404.<br /> +Rapid decline of the state.</div> + +<p>37. Darius II. surnamed the Bastard, or Nothus. +He reigns nineteen years under the tutelage +of his wife, Parysatis, and of three eunuchs, +one of whom, Artoxares, even attempts to open a +way to the throne, but is put to death. In this +period the decline of the state advances with hurried +steps; partly by reason of the extinction of +the legitimate royal line, partly by the increased +practice of placing more than one province, together +with the military command, in the hands of +the same satrap. Although the repeated insur<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_106" id="Page_106">[Pg 106]</a></span>rections +of the satraps are repressed, the court, +by the breach of faith to which it is obliged to +have recourse, in order to succeed in its measures, +<span class="sidenote">422.</span> +exhibits to the world a convincing proof of its infirmity. +The revolt of Arsites, one of the king's +brothers, who was supported by a son of Megabyzus, +and that of Pisuthnes, satrap of Lydia, are +quelled only by obtaining treacherous possession of their +<span class="sidenote">414.</span> +persons.</p> + + +<p>38. In consequence of the weak state of the +empire, the fire, which had hitherto been smouldering +under the ashes, burst forth in Egypt. +Amyrtæus, who had remained till now in the morasses, +issued forth, supported by the Egyptians; +<span class="sidenote">Third revolt of Egypt, 414.</span> +and the Persians were again expelled the land. +Obscure as the subsequent history may be, we +see that the Persians were obliged to acknowledge, +not only Amyrtæus, but his successors. +[See page 72].</p> + + +<div class="sidenote">Peloponnesian +war favorable +to +the Persian +interests.</div> + +<p>39. The Persians must have regarded it as a +happy event, that the Peloponnesian war, kindled +in Greece during the reign of Artaxerxes, and +protracted through the whole of that of Darius II. +had prevented the Greeks from unitedly falling +upon Persia. It now became, and henceforward +continued to be, the chief policy of the Persians +to foment quarrels and wars between the Grecian +republics, by siding at various times with various +parties; and the mutual hatred of the Greeks +rendered this game so easy, that Greece could +hardly have escaped total destruction, had the +Persian plans been always as wisely laid as they +were by Tissaphernes; and had not the caprice +and jealousy of the satraps in Asia Minor gene<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_107" id="Page_107">[Pg 107]</a></span>rally +had more effect than the commands of the court.</p> + +<div class="sblockquot"><p>Alliance of the Persians with Sparta, framed by Tissaphernes, +441; but in consequence of the policy of Alcibiades, and the +artful principles of Tissaphernes, followed by no important results, +until the younger Cyrus, satrap of all Asia Minor, was by +Lysander, 407, brought over to the Spartan interest. (See below, +the Grecian history, III. Period, parag. 23.)</p></div> + + +<div class="sidenote"><span class="smcap">Artaxerxes II.</span> +405—362.</div> + +<p>40. Artaxerxes II. surnamed Mnemon. Although +this prince was the eldest son of Darius, +his right to the throne might, according to the +Persian ideas of succession, have appeared dubious, +since his younger brother, Cyrus, had the +advantage over him of being the first born subsequent +to the accession of his father. +<span class="sidenote">Anabasis of Cyrus.</span> +Relying on the support of his mother Parysatis, Cyrus, +even without this claim to the throne, would, no +doubt, have asserted his pretence to the sovereign +power. It would have been, in all probability, a +fortunate event for the Persian empire, had the +fate of battle, in the ensuing war between the two +brothers, assigned the throne to him whom nature +seems to have pointed out as the fittest person.</p> + +<div class="sblockquot"><p>History of this war according to Xenophon. Battle of Cunaxa, +in which Cyrus falls, 401. Retreat of the ten thousand Greek +mercenaries in the service of Cyrus, under the guidance of Xenophon.</p></div> + + +<div class="sidenote">Weak reign of Artaxerxes II.</div> + +<p>41. During the whole of this reign, Artaxerxes, +now firmly seated on the throne, remained under +the tutelage of his mother, Parysatis, whose inveterate +hatred against his wife, Statira, and +against all who had any share in the death of her +darling son, Cyrus, converted the seraglio into a +theatre of bloody deeds, such as can be conceived +and committed only in similar places.</p> +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_108" id="Page_108">[Pg 108]</a></span></p> + +<div class="sidenote">War with Sparta, 400.<br /> +Agesilaus in Asia, 396—394.<br /> +Peace of Antalcidas, 387.<br /> +Policy of Persia in keeping on good terms with Thebes.<br /> +War with Evagoras of Cyprus, 385.</div> + +<p>42. The insurrection and rout of Cyrus produced +a corresponding change in the political relations +between the Persian court and Sparta: +which, however, were now determined, not so +much by the will of the monarch himself, as by +the satraps of Asia Minor, Tissaphernes and Pharnabazus, +of whose jealousy Sparta knew how to +take advantage. The former, by his severity towards +the Asiatic Greeks, who had supported the +cause of Cyrus, excited a war with Sparta, in +which he himself fell a victim. The death of the +satrap is not, however, succeeded by tranquillity; +for Agesilaus commands in Asia, and threatens to +overthrow the Persian throne itself. The policy +of the Persians is shown by the war which they +foment in Greece against Sparta: Conon is placed +at the head of their fleet, and extricates Persia +from her difficulties better than could have been +done by her own generals; +in the peace of Antalcidas she herself dictates the terms, by which +the Grecian colonies of Asia Minor, together with +Cyprus and Clazomenæ, are again delivered into +her possession. The rising power of Thebes +under Epaminondas and Pelopidas, with whom +Persia keeps up a friendly connection, ensures +her from any future blow at the hands of the +Spartans.—War for the possession of Cyprus with +Evagoras, who, however, by the subsequent peace +retains the sovereignty of Salamis.</p> + + +<div class="sidenote">War with the Cadusii, 384.<br /> +Attempt to recover Egypt, 374.</div> + +<p>43. The war against the Cadusii in the mountains +of Caucasus, proves that Artaxerxes II. was +not fitted for military command; and his attempt +to recover Egypt from king Nectanebus I. which +was defeated by the feud between Iphicrates<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_109" id="Page_109">[Pg 109]</a></span> +and Artabazus, evinces that the most numerous +Persian host could achieve nothing without the +assistance of Grecian troops and Grecian generals.—It +could hardly be expected that an empire +should endure much longer, when in the court all +was ruled by the desire of revenge in the women; +when the political organization was already so +corrupt, that the satraps waged war against each +other; and when those generals who gave any +proof of talent received no better reward than +that of Datames.</p> + + +<div class="sidenote">The succession +to the +throne of +Persia is +disputed +and almost +produces +the downfal +of the empire +before +the death of +Artaxerxes.<br /> +Rebellion in the west dispelled by treachery, 362.</div> + +<p>44. In fact, it seemed not unlikely that the +Persian empire would fall asunder a little before +the death of Artaxerxes Mnemon. A quarrel +about the succession arose in the court between +the three legitimate sons of the king, the eldest +of whom, Darius, was put to death: the standard +of rebellion was erected in the western half of the +empire, and joined by all the governors of Asia +Minor and Syria, supported by Tachos, king of +Egypt, to whose assistance the Spartans had sent +Agesilaus. The insurrection, however, was quelled +in consequence of the treachery of the chief leader, +Orontes, who was bribed over to the court.</p> + + +<div class="sidenote"><span class="smcap">Artaxerxes +III.</span> about 362—338.<br /> +contemporary with Philip, the father of Alexander the Great.</div> + +<p>45. In the midst of these commotions died Artaxerxes II.: his youngest son, +Ochus, took possession of the throne, and assumed the name of Artaxerxes III. +This king conceived that he could not establish his power but by the total +destruction of the royal family, numerous as it was. He was +contemporary with Philip of Macedon, in whom he soon found a more formidable +rival than any he could have met with in his own family.</p> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_110" id="Page_110">[Pg 110]</a></span></p> + +<div class="sidenote">Insurrection +in Asia +Minor, +358.</div> + +<p>46. The new insurrection fomented by Artabazus +in Asia Minor, was accompanied with success +so long as it was backed by the Thebans; +but the reception which Artabazus met +with at the hands of Philip soon betrayed the +secret intentions of the Macedonian king.</p> + + +<div class="sidenote">Rebellion +of the Phœnicians +and +Cyprians, +356.</div> + +<p>47. But the extensive rebellion of the Phœnicians +and Cyprians, in conjunction with Egypt, +compelled the king to undertake another expedition, +which succeeded almost beyond expectation; +although in this case the object was again +attained principally by treachery and by Grecian +auxiliaries.</p> + +<div class="sblockquot"><p>Treachery of Mentor, the leader of the confederates: the consequent +capture and destruction of Sidon, followed by the subjection +of Phœnicia, 356. Capture of Cyprus by Grecian troops, +under the command of Phocion and the younger Evagoras, 354. +Expedition of the king in person against Egypt: victory of Pelusium, +won over king Nectanebus II. with the help of Grecian +mercenaries. Egypt becomes, once more, a Persian province.</p></div> + + +<div class="sidenote">The Persian empire once more +restored to its ancient bounds.<br /> + +The king poisoned by the eunuch Bagoas,</div> + +<p>48. This restoration of the empire to its former +limits was followed by a period of tranquillity, +the result of force, as Mentor and the eunuch Bagoas, +holding the king in complete dependence, +divided the kingdom, as it were, between themselves; +until Bagoas was pleased, by poison, to +remove Artaxerxes out of his way.</p> + + +<div class="sidenote">Bagoas +places Arces +on the +throne, but +soon after +makes away +with him. +336.</div> + +<p>49. After the assassination of the royal family, +Bagoas placed on the throne the king's youngest +and only surviving son, Arces. Bagoas was desirous +of reigning in the name of that prince; but +after the lapse of two years, he found it necessary +to depose him, and to substitute in his place a +distant relation of the reigning family, Darius<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_111" id="Page_111">[Pg 111]</a></span> +Codomannus, who commenced his reign by putting +to death the wretch himself.</p> + + +<div class="sidenote"><span class="smcap">Darius III.</span> 336.<br /> +His kingdom invaded by Alexander the Great, 334.</div> + +<p>50. Darius III. Codomannus, not having been educated, like his predecessors, +in the seraglio, gave proof of virtues which entitled him to a better fate. +Attacked in the second year of his +reign by Macedon, against which Persia had +hitherto made no preparation for resistance,—unless, +perhaps, the dagger which pierced Philip +was pointed by Persian hands,—Darius was unable +at once to reestablish a kingdom which of +itself was mouldering away. And yet, had not +death defeated the invasion of Macedonia by his +general, Memnon, it might have been matter of +doubt, whether Alexander would ever have shone +as the conqueror of +<span class="sidenote">Alexander's dominion established in Asia, 330.</span> +Asia.—After the loss of two +battles, in which he fought in person, Darius III. +fell a victim to the treachery of Bessus, and the +burning of Persepolis made known to Asia that the +realm of Persia was destroyed, and that the east +must acknowledge a new lord and master.</p> + +<div class="sblockquot"><p>For the history of the war, see below: the history of Macedon.</p></div> + + +<hr style="width: 100%;" /> +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_112" id="Page_112">[Pg 112]</a></span></p> +<h1><a name="THIRD_BOOK" id="THIRD_BOOK"></a>THIRD BOOK.</h1> + +<h3>HISTORY OF THE GRECIAN STATES.</h3> +<hr style="width: 100%;" /> + + +<h3><i>Geographical Outline.</i></h3> + + +<div class="sidenote">Boundaries of Greece:</div> + +<p><i>Greece</i> is bounded on the north by the Cambunian +mountains, which separate it from Macedonia; +on the south and east by the Ægæan, on +the west by the Ionian sea. +<span class="sidenote">its dimensions:</span> +Greatest length from south to north = 220 geog. miles, greatest breadth +from west to east, = 140 geog. miles. Superficial +contents, = 29,600 square miles.—Principal +<span class="sidenote">rivers:</span> +rivers: the Peneus, which discharges its waters +into the Ægæan, and the Achelous, which flows +into the Ionian sea. Advantages in respect to +fertility, resulting from the mildness of the climate, +<span class="sidenote">physical advantages.</span> +between 37—40° N. lat.; from the number +of small streams; from the qualities and variety +of the soil, in which this country has been so +much more blessed by nature than any other of +similar extent, that every branch of cultivation +may be prosecuted equally and in conjunction.—Advantages +in reference to navigation and commerce: +situated in the vicinity of the three +quarters of the world, on three sides washed by +the sea, and by reason of its irregular, indented +coast, abounding with commodious ports and +havens.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">Divisions.</div> + +<p>It may be divided into Northern Greece, from +the north boundary to the chain of Œta and +Pindus, between the Ambracian gulf west, and<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_113" id="Page_113">[Pg 113]</a></span> +the Maliac east. Central Greece, or Hellas, down +to the isthmus of Corinth: and the southern peninsula, +or Peloponnesus.</p> + +<div class="sidenote"><span class="smcap">Northern +Greece.</span></div> + +<p>Northern Greece comprises two countries; +Thessaly east, Epirus west.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">Thessaly.</div> + +<p>1. Thessaly, the largest and one of the most +fruitful of the Grecian countries. Length from +north to south 60 geog. miles; breadth from west +to east 64 geog. miles. Rivers: the Peneus, Apidanus, +and several smaller streams. Mountains: +Olympus, residence of the fabulous gods, and +Ossa in the north; the chain of Œta, Othrys, and +Pindus in the south. Division into five provinces: +1. Estiæotis; cities: Gomphi, Azorus: +2. Pelasgiotis; cities: Larissa, Gonni, the vale +of Tempe: 3. Thessaliotis; cities: Pharsalus, +etc. 4. Phthiotis; cities: Pheræ, etc. 5. The +foreland of Magnesia, with a city of the same +name. Other territories, such as Perrhæbia, etc. +for instance, derived their names from the non-Greek +races who inhabited them.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">Epirus.</div> + +<p>2. Epirus. Next to Thessaly, the largest, although +one of the least cultivated countries of +Greece: 48—60 geog. miles long, and the same +in breadth. Divisions: Molossis; city, Ambracia: +Thesprotia; city, Buthrotum; in the interior, +Dodona.</p> + +<div class="sidenote"><span class="smcap">Central +Greece.</span></div> + +<p>Central Greece, or Hellas, comprises nine +countries.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">Attica.</div> + +<p>1. Attica, a foreland, extending towards the +south-east, and gradually diminishing. Length, +60 geog. miles; greatest breadth, 24 geog. miles. +Rivers: Ilissus, Cephissus. Mountains: Hymettus, +Pentelicus, and the headland of Sunium.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_114" id="Page_114">[Pg 114]</a></span> +City: Athens, with the harbours Piræus, Phalereus, +and Munychius; in the other parts no +towns, but hamlets, δήμοι, such as Marathon, Eleusis, +Decelea, etc.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">Megaris.</div> + +<p>2. Megaris, close to the isthmus of Corinth. +The smallest of the Grecian countries; 16 geog. +miles long, and from 4—8 broad. City, Megara.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">Bœotia.</div> + +<p>3. Bœotia, a mountainous and marshy country, +52 geog. miles long, and from 28—32 broad. +Rivers: Asopus, Ismenus, and several smaller +streams. Mountains: Helicon, Cythæron, etc. +Lake: Copais.—Bœotia was, of all the Grecian +countries, that which contained the greatest number +of cities, each having its own separate territory. +Among these, the first in importance, and +frequently mistress of the rest, was Thebes on the +Ismenus. The others, Platææ, Tanagra, Thespiæ, +Chæronea, Lebadea, Leuctra, and Orchomenus, +are all celebrated in Grecian history.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">Phocis.</div> + +<p>4. Phocis, smaller than Attica; 48 geog. miles +long, from 4—20 broad. River: Cephissus. +Mountain: Parnassus. Cities: Delphi, on Parnassus, +with the celebrated oracle of Apollo. +Crissa, with the harbour of Cirrha, and up the +country Elatea. The other cities are insignificant.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">Locris 1st +and 2nd.</div> + +<p>5, 6. The two countries called Locris. The +eastern on the Euripus, territory of the Locri +Opuntii and Epicnemidii is the lesser of the two; +being but little larger than Megaris. City: Opus; +pass, Thermopylæ. The western Locris on the +Corinthian gulf, station of the Locri Ozolæ, is +from 20—24 geog. miles long, and from 16—20 +broad. Cities: Naupactus on the sea, Amphissa +up the country.</p> +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_115" id="Page_115">[Pg 115]</a></span></p> + +<div class="sidenote">Doris.</div> + +<p>7. The small country of Doris, or the Tetrapolis +Dorica, on the south side of mount Œta, +from 8—12 geog. miles long, and the same in +breadth.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">Ætolia.</div> + +<p>8. Ætolia, somewhat larger than Bœotia; from +40—52 geog. miles long, and from 28—32 broad; +but the least cultivated country of all. Rivers: +Achelous, which skirts Acarnania, and the Evenus. +Cities: Calydon, Thermus.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">Acarnania.</div> + +<p>9. Acarnania, the most western country of Hellas, +32 geog. miles long, from 16—24 broad. +River: Achelous. Cities: Argos Amphilochicum, +and Stratus.</p> + +<div class="sidenote"><span class="smcap">Peloponnesus.</span></div> + +<p>The peninsula of Peloponnesus contains eight +countries.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">Arcadia.</div> + +<p>1. Arcadia, a mountainous country, abounding +in pastures, and situate in the centre of the peninsula; +greatest length, 48 geog. miles; greatest +breadth, 36 geog. miles. Mountains: Cyllene, +Erymanthus, etc. Rivers: Alpheus, Erymanthus, +and several smaller streams. Lake: Styx. +Cities: Mantinea, Tegea, Orchomenus, Heræa, +Psophis; subsequently Megalopolis, as a common +capital.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">Laconia.</div> + +<p>2. Laconia, likewise mountainous. Greatest +length, 66 geog. miles; greatest breadth, 36 geog. +miles. River: Eurotas. Mountains: Taygetus, +and the headlands Malea and Tenarium. Cities: +Sparta on the Eurotas; other places: Amyclæ, +Sellasia, and others of little importance.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">Messenia.</div> + +<p>3. Messenia, west of Laconia; a more level +and extremely fertile country, subject to the +Spartans from B. C. 668. Greatest length, 28 +geog. miles: greatest breadth, 36 geog. miles.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_116" id="Page_116">[Pg 116]</a></span> +City: Messene. Frontier places, Ithome and +Ira: of the other places, Pylus (Navarino) and +Methone are the most celebrated.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">Elis.</div> + +<p>4. Elis, with the small territory of Triphylia, on +the west of the Peloponnesus. Length, 60 geog. +miles: greatest breadth, 28 geog. miles. Rivers: +Alpheus, Peneus, Sellis, and several smaller +streams. Cities: in the north, Elis, Cyllene, and +Pylus. On the Alpheus, Pisa and the neighbouring +town of Olympia. In Triphylia, a third Pylus.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">Argolis.</div> + +<p>5. Argolis, on the east side of the peninsula; +a foreland opposite to Attica, with which it forms +the Sinus Saronicus. Length, 64 geog. miles: +breadth, from 8—28 geog. miles. Cities: Argos, +Mycenæ, Epidaurus. Smaller but remarkable +places; Nemea, Cynuria, Trœzen.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">Achaia.</div> + +<p>6. Achaia, originally Ionia, called likewise +Ægialus, comprises the north coast. Length, 56 +geog. miles: breadth, from 12—24. It contains +twelve cities, of which Dyme, Patræ, and Pellene +are the most important.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">Sicyonia.</div> + +<p>7. The little country of Sicyonia, 16 geog. miles +long, 8 broad, with the cities of Sicyon and Phlius.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">Corinth.</div> + +<p>8. The small territory of Corinth, of the same +extent as the foregoing, adjoining the isthmus +which connects Peloponnesus with the main land. +City: Corinth, originally Ephyra, with the ports +of Lechæum and Cenchreæ; the former on the +Corinthian, the latter on the Saronic gulf.</p> + +<div class="sidenote"><span class="smcap">Islands.</span></div> + +<p>The Greek islands may be divided into three +classes; those which lie immediately off the +coasts, those which are collected in groups, and +those which lie separate in the open sea.</p> +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_117" id="Page_117">[Pg 117]</a></span></p> + +<div class="sidenote"><i>Off the coasts.</i><br /> + +Corcyra; Leucadia; Cephalonia and Ithaca; Zacynthus; Cythera; Ægina and Salamis;<br /> + +Eubœa;</div> + +<p>1. Islands off the coasts. Off the west coast +in the Ionian sea: Corcyra, opposite Epirus, 32 +geog. miles long, from 8—16 broad. City: Corcyra. +A Corinthian colony. Opposite Acarnania; +Leucadia, with the city and headland of +Leucas.—Cephalonia or Same, originally Scheria, +with the cities of Same and Cephalonia. In the +neighbourhood lies the small island of Ithaca.—Opposite +Elis: Zacynthus. Off the south coast: +Cythera, with a town of the same name. Off the +east coast, in the Saronic gulf: Ægina and Salamis. +Opposite Bœotia, from which it is separated +by the strait named Euripus, +Eubœa, the most extensive of all; 76 geog. miles long, from +12—16 geog. miles broad. Cities: Oreus, with the headland of +Artemisium on the north, in the centre Chalcis, Eretria. Off Thessaly, +<span class="sidenote">Scyathus, Thasus, Imbrus, Samothrace, Lemnos, etc.</span> +Scyathus and Halonesus. Farther north, Thasus, Imbrus, Samothrace, and Lemnos.</p> + + +<div class="sidenote"><i>Groups.</i><br /> + +Cyclades and Sporades;</div> + +<p>2. Clusters of islands in the Ægæan sea: the +Cyclades and Sporades; the former of which comprise +the western, the latter the eastern islands +of the Archipelago. The most important among +them are, Andros, Delos, Paros, Naxos, Melos, +all with cities of the same names.</p> + + +<div class="sidenote"><i>Separate.</i><br /> + +Crete;<br /> + +Cyprus.</div> + +<p>3. The more extensive separate islands: 1. +Crete, 140 geog. miles long, from 24—40 broad. +Mountain: Ida. Cities: Cydonia, Gortyna, Cnossus. +2. Cyprus, 120 geog. miles long, from 20—80 +broad. Cities: Salamis, Paphos, Citium, and +several smaller places.</p> + +<div class="sblockquot"><p>Concerning the principal Greek islands off the coast of Asia +Minor, see above, p. 18.</p> +<p>† <span class="smcap">Fr. Carl. Herm. Kruse</span>, <i>Geographico-Antiquarian delineation +of ancient Greece and its colonies, with reference to mo<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_118" id="Page_118">[Pg 118]</a></span>dern +discoveries</i>. Illustrated with maps and plates: first part, +1825. General Geography: second part, first division, 1826. +Second division, 1827. Special Geography of Central Greece. +A most minute and careful description of Greece, founded on +modern discoveries.</p></div> + + + +<hr style="width: 25%;" /> +<h2>FIRST PERIOD.</h2> + +<p class="cblockquot"><i>The most ancient traditional history, down to the Trojan +war, about B. C. 1200.</i></p> + + +<div class="sblockquot"><p>Sources: On the formation and progress of history among the +Greeks. Preliminary enquiry into the peculiarities of Grecian +mythology in a historical point of view, as comprising the most +ancient history of the national tribes and heroes. A history rich +in itself, on account of the number of tribes and their leaders; +but embellished and altered in various ways by the poets, particularly +the great early epic writers, and afterwards by the tragedians.—First +advance of history from tradition, wrought by the +logographi, especially those of the Ionian cities, Hecatæus, Pherecydes, +etc. until <span class="smcap">Herodotus</span>, so justly called the Father of History, +raised it at once to such a lofty pitch of eminence. (Compare +† <i>The historical Art of the Greeks considered in its Rise and Progress, +by</i> <span class="smcap">G. F. Creuzer</span>; 1803.) Nevertheless, in Herodotus, +and even later writers, history continued to savour of its origin; +and so far as the realm of tradition extended, even Theopompus +and Ephorus felt no disinclination to borrow their materials from +mythologists or poets. It need scarcely be observed, that in this +first period the history is merely traditional.</p> + +<p>Among the moderns, the English have most successfully treated +the subject of Grecian history: the principal works are:</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">John Gillies</span>, <i>The History of Ancient Greece, its colonies +and conquests, from the earliest accounts till the division of the +Macedonian empire in the east, including the history of literature, +philosophy, and the fine arts</i>. London, 1786, 2 vols. 4to. and</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">William Mitford</span>, <i>The History of Greece</i>. London, 1784,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_119" id="Page_119">[Pg 119]</a></span> +4 vols. 4to. Several new editions have since appeared. Translated +into German, Jena, 1800, sqq. by <i>H. L. Eichstädt</i>. Mitford +is perhaps superior in learning, copiousness, and solidity, +but he certainly is greatly surpassed by Gillies in genius and taste, +and more especially in a proper conception of the spirit of antiquity. +[Few English critics will here coincide with our author.]</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">De Pauw</span>, <i>Recherches sur les Grecs</i>, 1701, 2 vols. 8vo. Replete +with partial views and hypotheses.</p> + +<p>† <span class="smcap">Heeren</span>, <i>Researches into the politics, intercourse, and trade +of the most celebrated nations of antiquity</i>: 3 vols. 1st part, 4th +edit. 1826. [Translated into English, Oxford, 1830, 8vo.]</p> + +<p>Many important enquiries on various portions of Grecian history +and antiquities will be found in the great collection:</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Gronovii</span>, <i>Thesaurus Antiquitatum Græcarum</i>, 12 vols. folio.</p> + +<p>Others are contained in the transactions of different learned +societies; particularly in</p> + +<p><i>Mémoires de l'Académie des Inscriptions et des Belles Lettres</i>, +Paris, 1709, sqq. 49 vols. 4to.</p> + +<p><i>Commentarii</i>, (4 vols.) <i>Commentarii novi</i>, (8 vols.) <i>Commentationes</i>, +(16 vols.) and <i>Commentationes recentiores Societatis Scientiarum +Gotting.</i> (5 vols.)</p></div> + + +<div class="sidenote">Early inhabitants of Greece.</div> + +<p>1. Although Greece was originally inhabited +by several insignificant races, two principal tribes +claim our attention, the <i>Pelasgi</i> and the <i>Hellenes</i>. +Both probably were of Asiatic origin; but the +difference of their language characterized them as different tribes. +<span class="sidenote"><span class="smcap">Pelasgi.</span></span> +The Pelasgi were the first that extended their dominion in Greece.</p> + +<div class="sblockquot"><p>First seat of the Pelasgians in the Peloponnesus, under Inachus, +about B. C. 1800. According to their own traditions, they +made their first appearance in this quarter as uncultivated savages; +they must, however, at an early period, have made some +progress towards civilization, since the most ancient states, Argos +and Sicyon, owed their origin to them; and to them, perhaps, +with great probability, are attributed the remains of those most +ancient monuments generally termed <i>cyclopian</i>.—Extension of +this tribe towards the north, particularly over Attica; settlement +in Thessaly under their leaders Achæus, Phthius, and Pelasgus; +here they learned to apply themselves to agriculture, and re<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_120" id="Page_120">[Pg 120]</a></span>mained +for a hundred and fifty successive years; about 1700—1500.</p></div> + +<div class="sidenote"><span class="smcap">Hellenes</span>:</div> + +<p>2. The Hellenes,—subsequently so called from +Hellen, one of their chieftains,—originally the +weaker of the two tribes, make their first appearance +in Phocis, near Parnassus, under king Deucalion; +from whence they are driven by a flood. +<span class="sidenote">descend southward, about B. C. 1550.</span> +They migrate into Thessaly, and drive out the +Pelasgi from that territory.—The Hellenes soon +after this become the most powerful race; and +spreading over Greece, expel the Pelasgi from +almost every part. The latter tribe maintain their +<span class="sidenote">and obtain the ascendant</span> +ground only in Arcadia, and the land of Dodona; +some of them migrate to Italy, others to Crete, +and various islands.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">Hellenic +tribes.</div> + +<p>3. The Hellenic tribe is subdivided into four +principal branches, the <i>Æolians</i>, <i>Ionians</i>, <i>Dorians</i>, +and <i>Achæans</i>, which continue afterwards to be +distinguished and separated by many peculiarities +of speech, customs, and political government. +These four tribes, although they must not be considered +as comprising all the slender ramifications +of the nation, are derived by tradition from Deucalion's +immediate posterity; with whose personal +history, therefore, the history of the tribes +themselves and their migrations is interwoven.</p> + +<p>This derivation of the tribes will be better understood by an +inspection of the following genealogical table:</p> + +<div class='center'> +<table border="0" cellpadding="6" cellspacing="0" summary=""> +<tr> + <td colspan='4'></td> + <td colspan='2' align='center'>DEUCALION.</td> + <td colspan='4'></td> +</tr> +<tr><td colspan='5' class='br'></td></tr> +<tr> + <td colspan='4'></td> + <td colspan='2' align='center'>HELLEN.</td> + <td colspan='4'></td> +</tr> +<tr><td colspan='5' class='br'></td></tr> +<tr><td></td><td colspan='8' class="bt bl br"></td><td></td></tr> +<tr> + <td colspan='2' align='center'>DORUS.</td> + <td colspan='2'></td> + <td colspan='2' align='center'>XUTHUS.</td> + <td colspan='2'></td> + <td colspan='2' align='center'>ÆOLUS.</td> +</tr> +<tr><td colspan='1' class='br'></td><td colspan='4' class='br'></td><td colspan='4' class='br'></td></tr> +<tr><td></td><td></td><td></td><td colspan='4' class="bt bl br"></td><td></td><td></td><td></td></tr> +<tr> + <td colspan='2' align='center'>DORIANS.</td> + <td colspan='2' align='center'>ACHÆUS.</td> + <td colspan='2'></td> + <td colspan='2' align='left'>ION.</td> + <td colspan='2' align='center'>ÆOLIANS.</td> +</tr> +<tr><td colspan='3' class='br'></td><td colspan='4' class='br'></td></tr> +<tr> + <td colspan='2'></td> + <td colspan='2' align='center'>ACHÆANS.</td> + <td colspan='2'></td> + <td colspan='2' align='center'>IONIANS.</td> + <td colspan='2'></td> +</tr> +</table></div> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_121" id="Page_121">[Pg 121]</a></span></p> + +<p>4. The gradual spread of the various branches +of the Hellenic tribe over Greece was effected by +several migrations, between B. C. 1500—1300; +after which they preserved the settlements they +had already obtained until the later migration of +the Dorians and Heraclidæ, about 1100.</p> + +<h4><i>Principal data for the history of the separate tribes in +this period.</i></h4> + +<div class="sblockquot"> +<p>1. <span class="smcap">Æolus</span> follows his father Hellen into Phthiotis, which consequently +remains the seat of the Æolians; they spread from +thence over western Greece, Acarnania, Ætolia, Phocis, Locris, +Elis in the Peloponnesus, and likewise over the western islands.</p> + +<p>2. <span class="smcap">Dorus</span> follows his father into Estiæotis, the most ancient +seat of the Dorians. They are driven from thence after the +death of Dorus by the Perrhæbi; spread over Macedonia and +Crete; part of the tribe return, cross mount Œta, and settle +in the Tetrapolis Dorica, afterwards called Doris, where they +remain until they migrate into Peloponnesus, under the guidance +of the Heraclidæ; about 1100. (See below, p. 127).</p> + +<p>3. <span class="smcap">Xuthus</span>, expelled by his brothers, migrates to Athens, +where he marries Creusa, daughter of Erectheus, by whom he +has sons, Ion and Achæus. Ion and his tribe, driven out of +Athens, settle in that part of Peloponnesus called Ægialus, a +name which by them was converted into Ionia, and in later times +exchanged for Achaia. The Achæans preserve their footing in +Laconia and Argos, until the time of the Dorian migration.</p> + +<p>† <span class="smcap">L. D. Huellman</span>, <i>Early Grecian History</i>, 1814. Rich in +original views and conjectures, beyond which the early history +of nations seldom extends.</p> + +<p>† <span class="smcap">D. C. Otfried Mueller</span>, <i>History of the Hellenic Tribes +and Cities</i>, 1820, vol. 1. containing, O<i>rchomenus and the Minyæ</i>; +vols. 2, 3, containing the <i>Dorians</i>, 1825.</p> +</div> + +<div class="sidenote">Colonies +settle in +Greece.</div> + +<p>5. Besides these original inhabitants, colonies +at the same early period came into Greece from +civilized countries, from Egypt, Phœnicia, and<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_122" id="Page_122">[Pg 122]</a></span> +Mysia. The settlements of these strangers occurred +probably between B. C. 1600—1400.</p> + +<div class="sblockquot"><p>Establishment in Attica of the colony of Cecrops, from Sais in +Egypt, about 1550; in Argos, of the colony of Danaus, likewise +from Egypt, about 1500.—The colony of Cadmus, from Phœnicia, +settles in Bœotia about 1550.—The colony of Pelops, from +Mysia, settles in Argos about 1400.</p></div> + +<div class="sidenote">Progress of +civilization +among the +Hellenes.</div> + +<p>6. The mythology of the Hellenes proves beyond +a doubt, that they were at first savages, like +the Pelasgi since they had to learn even the use +of fire from Prometheus; yet it is equally clear +that they must, even in the earliest period, particularly +from 1300—1200, when they had ceased +to migrate, have made the first important steps +towards the attainment of a certain degree of +civilization. About the time of the Trojan war +they appear to have been still barbarians, though +no longer savages.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">Was the +Hellenic +civilization +of native or +foreign +growth?</div> + +<p>7. The origin and progress of this national organization, +and the influence wrought upon it by +settlers from foreign countries, are difficult subjects +to determine. If we allow that Cecrops was +the first who introduced marriage in Attica, and +that agriculture and the cultivation of the olive +were discovered in that country, it unquestionably +follows, that the Hellenes were indebted to +strangers for the foundation of domestic civilization. +And when we consider that the families +which subsequently held sway were descended +directly from the most powerful of these strangers, +their lasting influence can hardly be a matter of +doubt. It must, however, be observed, that what +the Greeks borrowed from foreigners they previously +stamped with their own peculiar charac<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_123" id="Page_123">[Pg 123]</a></span>ter, +so that it became, as it were, the original +property of the nation. The question, therefore, +is deprived of much of the importance which it +assumes at the first glance.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">Hellenic religion +derived from +foreigners.</div> + +<p>8. The case was the same with regard to all +branches of intellectual civilization, particularly +religion. That many deities and religious +rites were introduced into Greece from Egypt, +Asia, and Thrace, and generally through Crete, +hardly admits of a doubt; but they did not therefore +remain Egyptian, Asiatic, or Thracian; they +became Grecian gods. Hence it appears that the +investigation of those relations can hardly lead to +any important conclusion. It is a fact, however, +of the highest importance, that whatever gods the +<span class="sidenote">No sacerdotal caste in Greece.</span> +Greeks adopted, no separate order of priesthood +was established among them, still less any caste +laying claim to the exclusive possession of knowledge. +Several traces, nevertheless, make it probable, +that many of the most ancient sanctuaries +were settlements of Egyptian, Phœnician, or +Cretan priests, who imported with them their +own peculiar forms of worship. And notwithstanding +this worship consisted merely of outward +ceremonies, many ideas and institutions +which were attached to it, became, in this manner, +the common property of the nation.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">Influence of +the bards:</div> + +<p>9. It was principally, therefore, by religion, +that the rude mind became in some degree polished. +But it was the ancient minstrels, +(ἀοιδοὶ,) +Orpheus, Linus, etc., who, by disseminating religious +principles, contributed so much towards +abolishing revenge, and with it the perpetual +state of warfare which had hitherto distracted the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_124" id="Page_124">[Pg 124]</a></span> +country. These it was who in their mysteries +contrived in some measure to impress the narrow +circle of the initiated with the advantages resulting +from a civilized life.</p> + +<div class="sblockquot"><p><span class="smcap">Sainte-Croix</span>, <i>Recherches sur les Mystères du Paganisme</i>, +Paris, 1765. Translated into German, with valuable observations, +by <span class="smcap">C. G. Lenz</span>; Gotha, 1790.</p></div> + +<div class="sidenote">of the oracles:</div> + +<p>10. The influence of religion, through the medium +of oracles, especially those of Dodona and +Delphi, was not less powerful. The two latter, +with that of Olympia, were perhaps, originally +ancient settlements of priests, such as have been +already alluded to. The necessity of consulting +these sanctuaries naturally led men to regard the +oracles as the common property of the nation, +to which every one should have access; it followed +therefore as an inevitable consequence, that +the direction of affairs in which all were engaged, +depended principally on those oracles.</p> + +<div class="sblockquot"><p><span class="smcap">A. Van Dalen</span>, <i>De Oraculis veterum Ethnicorum Dissertationes</i>6. Amstel. 1700. A very valuable work. A comprehensive +dissertation on the subject, however, is still wanting: a portion +of it is treated of in</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">J. Groddek</span>, <i>De Oraculorum veterum, quæ in Herodoti libris +continentur, natura, commentatio</i>; Gotting. 1786.</p></div> + +<div class="sidenote">of the religious +festivals:</div> + +<p>11. It happened with Greece as with other +countries; the tender plant of civilization grew +up under the shelter of the sanctuary. There the +festivals were celebrated, and there the people +assembled; and there various tribes, who had +hitherto been strangers to one another, met in +peace, and conversed on their common interests. +Hence arose spontaneously the first idea of a law +of nations, and those connections which led to its<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_125" id="Page_125">[Pg 125]</a></span> +development. Among these connections, that of +the Amphictyons at Delphi was the most important, +and continued the longest: it is probable +that it did not assume its complete form till a +later period; yet it appears in early times to have +adopted the principle, that none of the cities belonging +to the league should be destroyed by the +others.</p> + +<div class="sblockquot"><p>† <span class="smcap">Fr. Wilh. Tittmann</span>, <i>Upon the Amphictyonic League</i>; +1812. A dissertation which gained the prize of the Academy of +Sciences at Berlin.</p></div> + +<div class="sidenote">of navigation:</div> + + +<p>12. To religion must likewise be added navigation, +and the consequent intercourse which +brought the nation into contact with strangers, and +prepared it to receive civilization. It cannot be +denied that the navigators continued long to be +mere pirates; but as Minos of Crete cleared the +<span class="sidenote">about 1400</span> +sea of freebooters, the want of another state of +things must have been felt long before.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">Age of chivalry.</div> + +<p>13. In the mean time the chivalrous spirit of +the nation was gradually aroused; and developed +the first bloom of its youthful vigour in the heroic +ages. An affection for extraordinary undertakings +was excited; and conducted the chieftains, not +only individually, but also in confederate bodies, +beyond the limits of their father-land. These undertakings +were not only important in themselves, +but their advantages were increased by their +being preserved in the songs of their bards by +means of a national poesy, such as no other people +possessed, and such as contributed to the further +development of the national genius.</p> + +<div class="sblockquot"><p>Expedition of the Argonauts to Colchis, somewhere about +B. C. 1250; war of the seven confederate princes against Thebes<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_126" id="Page_126">[Pg 126]</a></span> +about 1225; the town, however, was not taken until the second +attempt made by the sons of the chiefs (Epigoni) in 1215.</p></div> + +<div class="sidenote">Effects of +the Trojan +war.</div> + + +<p>14. Thus every thing was now ripe for some +great national undertaking of all the combined +Hellenic nations; and that object was attained in +the war against Troy. The most important result of +that expedition was the kindling of one common +national spirit,—a spirit which in spite of dissensions +and feuds, was never wholly extinguished, +and which must almost necessarily have arisen +<span class="sidenote">1194—1184</span> +from an expedition carried on in so distant a +field, which lasted ten years, in which all were +joined, and which was crowned with such signal +success. From the time of the Trojan war downwards +the Hellenes always looked upon themselves +as but one people.</p> + +<div class="sblockquot"><p>General view of the political state of Greece about the time +of the Trojan war.—Division into several small states, the most +powerful of which were Argos and Mycenæ.—All those states +were governed by hereditary chieftains or princes from a certain +<i>family</i> (kings, βασιλεῖς,) +who combined the offices of leaders in +war and judges in peace. Their authority being more or less +extended in proportion to the qualities they possessed, and particularly +to their valour in battle.—Manner of life among the +people: a nation dwelling in cities, but at the same time cultivating +the land and tending cattle; applying also to war, and +already somewhat advanced in the art of navigation.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">A. W. Schlegel</span>, <i>De Geographia Homeri Commentatio</i>. +Hannov. 1788. A review of the political geography of Greece +at this period.—On the topography of Troy:</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Lechevalier</span>, <i>Description de la Plaine de Troie</i>. Translated +and accompanied with notes by <span class="smcap">Heyne</span>, Leipzig, 1794. Compare +<span class="smcap">Clarke</span>, <i>Travels</i>, vol. i, c. 4—6, who has thrown doubts +on the system of Lechevalier, which has, however, been again +confirmed by <span class="smcap">Leake</span>, <i>Travels in Asia Minor</i>.</p></div> + + +<hr style="width: 25%;" /> +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_127" id="Page_127">[Pg 127]</a></span></p> +<h2>SECOND PERIOD.</h2> + +<p class="cblockquot"><i>From the Trojan war to the breaking out of the Persian +war, B. C. 1200—500.</i></p> + +<div class="sblockquot"><p>Sources. On no portion of the Grecian history is our information +so scanty as upon this long period, in which we can be +hardly said to have more than a general knowledge of many of +the most important events. As in the foregoing period, its commencement +is but a traditional and poetical history. It was not +till towards the end of it that the use of writing became common +among the Greeks; add to which the period itself was not rife +in great national undertakings, such as might afford appropriate +materials for the poet or historian. Besides the scattered information +which may be gathered from Herodotus, Plutarch, +Strabo, and above all from the introduction to Thucydides's history, +Pausanias must not be forgotten; who, in his description +of Greece, has preserved an abundance of most valuable documents +relating to the separate histories of the minor states. The +Books of Diodorus belonging to this period are lost.</p> + +<p>† <span class="smcap">Fr. Wilhelm Tittmann</span>, <i>Delineation of the Grecian +Forms of Government</i>, 1822. An industrious collection of all +the information we possess respecting this subject.</p> + +<p>† <span class="smcap">W. Wachsmuth</span>, <i>Grecian Antiquities with regard to Politics</i>, +4 vols. An excellent work.</p></div> + + +<h3>1. <i>History of the Hellenic states within Greece.</i></h3> + +<div class="sidenote"><span class="smcap">Return of +the Heraclidæ</span>:<br /> +about B. C. +1100.</div> + +<p>1. The Trojan war was followed by a very +stormy period, in consequence of the many disorders +prevalent in the ruling families, especially +in that of Pelops. But more violent commotions +soon arose, caused by the attempts of +the rude tribes of the north, particularly of the +Dorians combined with the Ætolians, who, under +the guidance of the descendants of Hercules,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_128" id="Page_128">[Pg 128]</a></span> +exiled from Argos, strove to obtain possession of +Peloponnesus. Those commotions shook Greece +during a whole century, and as the seats of most +of the Hellenic tribes were then changed, the +consequences were lasting and important.</p> + +<div class="sblockquot"><p>First unsuccessful attempt under Hyllus, son of Hercules, +about 1180.—Repeated attempts, until at last the claims of the +Heraclidæ are made good by the grandsons of Hyllus, viz. Telephus +and Cresphontes, together with Eurysthenes and Procles, +sons of their brother Aristodemus, 1100.</p></div> + +<div class="sidenote">Consequences +of +that great +revolution.</div> + + +<p>2. Consequences resulting to the Peloponnesus +from this migration. The territories of Argos, +Sparta, Messene, and Corinth, wrested from the +Achæans who had hitherto inhabited them, become +the property of the Dorians; Elis falls +to the share of the Ætolians, who had accompanied +the former. The Achæans expelled, in their +turn expel the Ionians and settle in the country +since called Achaia; the fugitive Ionians are received +by their ancient kinsmen the Athenians.—But +among the consequences of this migration of +the Hellenic races must be reckoned likewise the +<span class="sidenote">Colonies sent to Asia.</span> +establishment of Greek colonies in Asia Minor; +an occurrence of the highest importance to the +ulterior development of the nation. This colonization +was commenced by the Æolian Hellenes, +whose example was soon after followed by the +Ionians, and even by the Dorians.</p> + +<div class="sblockquot"><p>For the history of these colonies, see the following section.</p></div> + +<div class="sidenote">Monarchies +succeeded +by republics.</div> + +<p>3. Although the effect of these migrations and +wars, in which the ruder tribes oppressed the +more civilized, must inevitably have been, not +only to interrupt the progress of civilization, but +even almost entirely to annihilate it, yet in this<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_129" id="Page_129">[Pg 129]</a></span> +universal movement the foundation was laid of +that constitution of things which afterwards existed +in Greece. The tribes which had migrated, +as well as those which had been expelled, remained +at first under the dominion of their hereditary +princes, some for a longer, others for a +shorter time. In the two centuries, however, +immediately subsequent to the migrations, B. C. +1100—900, republican constitutions took the place +of hereditary clanship in all the Grecian countries, +the distant Epirus excepted. These republics +continued to exist amid the various revolutions +which happened; and the love of political freedom, +deeply impressed on the minds of the people, +constituted from this time the principal feature +in the national character.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">Origin of +the small +republics.</div> + +<p>4. The sequel proves, that the principal cause +of this change so important for Greece,—this +change, by which her future internal policy was +for ever determined, originated in the progress +made by the newly come tribes towards civic life, +and consequently at the same time towards national +civilization. In this newly constituted +order of things, each city, with the territory +around it, formed a separate state, and framed +its own constitution; hence there arose as many +free states as cities.</p> + +<div class="sblockquot"><p>The notion that Greece contained the same number of states +as countries is completely false, although it cannot be denied that +the mode of expression in most writings upon Greek history +seems to authorize the assertion. It is true that some of those +countries, such as Attica, Megaris, Laconia, may be each regarded +as a separate state, because each constituted the territory +of one city. The others, however, such as Arcadia, Bœotia, etc. +did not each form one state, but comprised as many separate +states as there were free and independent cities, each of which,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_130" id="Page_130">[Pg 130]</a></span> +with its territory, formed one. Still, however, it must be observed, +(<i>a</i>) that the natural ties of kindred subsisted; Arcadians, +Bœotians, etc. spoke of one another as countrymen. (<i>b</i>) Voluntary +connections were entered into between different cities, +and sometimes all the cities of a country, as, for instance, in +Achaia, so that the whole formed one confederation; each individual +city nevertheless still preserved its own system of laws +and government. Again, (<i>c</i>) in consequence of a greater share +of power, one city assumed a sort of dominion over the other; +as, for instance, that of Thebes over the Bœotian cities. This +dominion, however, was always precarious, and depended upon +the state of affairs. (<i>d</i>) It must likewise be observed, that +the constitution of each separate city underwent many changes, +wrought generally by influential citizens, (tyrants,) who not +only possessed themselves of the supreme power, but also contrived +frequently to make it for some time hereditary in their +families. Every one will easily discern that the above are the +fundamental principles of Greek history, which cannot be too +clearly conceived, or too correctly defined; since it is self-evident +what a wide field was by such a constitution of things +thrown open to practical politics. The more improbable the attainment +of fixed constitutions in the separate cities was, the +more frequent must have been the political attempts; (attempts +facilitated by the narrow extent of the state;) and the more frequently +those attempts failed, the more extensive in this intellectual +people became the mass of political ideas; the results +of which in later times were the legislative codes of Solon and +others.</p></div> + +<div class="sidenote">Unity of the +small Grecian +states.</div> + +<p>5. Although Greece was thus parcelled out +into a number of small states, united by no common +political bond, yet there existed a certain +unity of the Hellenic race, a certain national +spirit: this was produced in part by national +festivals and games, occurring at stated periods, +among which those in honour of Jupiter at Olympia +were the chief. The nation at these appeared +in all its splendour; and all Hellenes, but no +others, were allowed to join in them. This union, +too, was promoted by the extension of the Am<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_131" id="Page_131">[Pg 131]</a></span>phictyonic +council: and the reason why this last +institution was not followed by all the consequences +which might have been expected from +it, may perhaps be found in what naturally takes +place in every great confederation whenever any +of the component states become too powerful.</p> + +<div class="sblockquot"><p>The Amphictyonic council was certainly not a states-general, +in which all national affairs were discussed. Its immediate office +was to attend to the temples and the oracles of Delphi. But +then it must be observed, 1st, that from this council originated +the Grecian ideas of the law of nations; over the preservation +of which the Amphictyons watched. 2. In consequence of its +political influence on the oracle, this council, in certain cases, +was enabled to take a share in the affairs of different states. +3. The Amphictyons always formed a national institution, since +none but Hellenes were admitted.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">St. Croix</span>, <i>Des anciens gouvernemens fédératifs, et de la législation +de Crète</i>, Paris, 1796. One of the most invaluable inquiries, +not only into the institutions of the Amphictyons, but +also into other matters of Grecian history connected with them.</p></div> + +<div class="sidenote">Sparta and +Athens.</div> + +<p>6. Among the different states of Greece, Sparta +and Athens, even at this period, became celebrated, +not only for their greater power, but also +for their superior constitutions and their laws: +and though it may not perhaps be strictly true, +that the history of the rest of Greece is connected +with that of these two cities, yet they certainly +possess the highest claim to our attention.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">Revolutions +in the government +of +Sparta.<br /> +1100.</div> + +<p>7. History of Sparta. The Achæans at first were +governed by princes of the house of Perseus, but +after Menelaus's accession to the throne in virtue +of his wife, by princes of the house of Pelops. +When the latter had been expelled by the Dorians, +Laconia fell by lot to the sons of Aristodemus, +Procles and Eurysthenes, between whose +families the royal power was divided, so that two<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_132" id="Page_132">[Pg 132]</a></span> +kings constantly reigned in common, one from +each family.</p> + +<div class="sblockquot"><p>Families of the Proclidæ and Ægidæ; the latter so called +from Agis, the son and successor of Eurysthenes.</p> + +<p>† <span class="smcap">J. C. F. Manso</span>, <i>An Essay on the History and Constitution +of Sparta</i>, Leipzig, 1800 sqq. 3 vols. The most important work +upon this subject, and which likewise contains much information +upon various points of Grecian history connected with it.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Cragius</span>, <i>De Republica Lacedæmoniorum</i>, 1642.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Meursius</span>, <i>De regno Laconico</i>; and <i>Miscellanea Laconica</i>. +Both laborious compilations.</p></div> + +<div class="sidenote">Conquests +of the Dorians.</div> + +<p>8. The Dorians now gradually conquered, and +established themselves in many cities of the peninsula; +forming, if not the whole population, at +least the only part of it that enjoyed any power, +as the Achæans that remained were reduced to +slavery. No long time, however, elapsed ere the +city of Sparta usurped an authority over the +whole country, which it ever afterwards preserved; +the other towns, formerly considerable, +becoming unfortified, defenceless, and insignificant.</p> + +<div class="sblockquot"><p>Relation between the Spartan citizens of the capital as a +ruling body, and the Lacedæmonians, or +περίοικοι, inhabitants of +the country, as subjects who paid tribute and military service. +Even in the time of Agis, the successor of Eurysthenes, this +subjection was effected by force; the inhabitants of Helos were +made slaves, as a punishment for their opposition; while the +others, by the sacrifice of their political freedom, preserved their +personal liberty, however confined it might be.</p></div> + +<div class="sidenote">Repeated +wars of the +Spartans.</div> + +<p>9. The history of the two following centuries, +to the time of Lycurgus, exhibits nothing but the +repeated wars of the Spartans with their neighbours +the Argives; their domestic broils, occasioned +by the too unequal division of property, +by the feuds, and the diminished power of the +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_133" id="Page_133">[Pg 133]</a></span>kings, and which lasted until Lycurgus, the uncle +and guardian of the minor king, Charilaus, about +the year 880, gave to Sparta that constitution to +which she was principally indebted for her subsequent +splendour.</p> + +<div class="sblockquot"><p><i>Illustration of the principal features in the Spartan constitution.</i> +Some preliminary observations are necessary. (<i>a</i>) As the +legislation of Lycurgus occurred at so early a period, and as his +laws were not written, but conveyed in apophthegms, +(ῥήτραι,) +which were confirmed by the oracle of Delphi, many things of +later origin have been attributed to Lycurgus. (<i>b</i>) Much that is +rightly attributed to him was not original, but deduced from ancient +Dorian institutions, which being now upon the decline, +were reestablished by force of law. Hence it follows, that the +legislation of Lycurgus must naturally have had many points +of resemblance with that of the Cretans, likewise of Dorian +origin, although much, as we are told, was directly borrowed from +them. (<i>c</i>) The principal object of the laws of Lycurgus was to +ensure the existence of Sparta by creating and supporting a +vigorous and uncorrupted race of men. Hence those laws had a +more peculiar reference to private life and physical education, +than to the constitution of the state, in which the legislator appears +to have introduced but few alterations.</p> + +<p>In reference to the constitution: 1. The relation which had +hitherto existed between the Spartans as a dominant people, and +the Lacedæmonians as subjects, was preserved. 2. The two +kings, from the two ruling families, were likewise continued, as +leaders in war and first magistrates in peace. On the other hand, +3. to Lycurgus is attributed the institution of a senate, +(γερούσια,) +consisting of twenty-eight members, none of whom could be less +than sixty years old, who were to be chosen by the people for +life, and were to constitute the king's council in public affairs. +4. Whether the college of the five Ephori annually chosen, was +originally instituted by Lycurgus, or at some later period, is a +question impossible to decide, but of little importance, since the +great power of this college, to which every thing was finally referred +as the highest tribunal of the state, was certainly assumed +after the time of Lycurgus. 5. Besides the above, there were +likewise the popular assemblies, convened according to the division +into φύλας and +ὤβας, at which none but Spartans could assist:<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_134" id="Page_134">[Pg 134]</a></span> +their privileges extended no further than to approve or reject the +measures proposed to them by the kings and the senate.</p> + +<p>In the laws relating to private life, Lycurgus aimed at making +the Spartans a society of citizens, equal as far as possible with +respect to their property and mode of life, and each deeply impressed +with the conviction that he was the property of his +country, to which he was bound to yield an unconditional obedience. +Hence, 1. The new division of land, 9000 portions to +the Spartans, and 30,000 to the Lacedæmonians; permission +being given to dispose of those portions by entail or gift, but +not by sale. 2. The removal as far as possible of every species +of luxury, particularly by means of the daily public tables +(συσσίτια) +of all the citizens, according to their divisions, in which +the commons were settled by law. 3. The complete organization +of domestic society in relation both to husband and wife, parents +and children, which was so framed as to further, even at the cost +of morality, the grand political object, the production of vigorous +and healthy citizens. 4. Hence, finally, the condition of the +slaves, comprehended under the general name of helots, who, +although they may be regarded nearly as serfs, were likewise the +property of the state, which had the right of claiming their services +in war.—Easy, however, as it is to enumerate thus generally +the principal heads of the Spartan constitution, the want of +sufficient documents renders it difficult and oftentimes impossible +to answer a crowd of questions, which present themselves on our +penetrating more deeply into the subject. Still, however, its +long duration, (nearly four hundred years,) without any observable +change, is more remarkable even than the constitution itself. +More remarkable, inasmuch as the Spartans soon after this time +appear as conquerors. Indeed, it could no longer be expected +that any durable peace should exist in Greece, while the centre +of the country was occupied by a military commonwealth, whose +citizens must have been, by the restlessness common to man, impelled +to war, since all the occupations of household life and of +agriculture were left to the care of slaves.</p> + +<p>Besides the works mentioned above, p. 119.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Heyne</span>, <i>De Spartanorum republica Judicium</i>; inserted in +<i>Commentat. Soc. Gotting.</i> vol. ix. Intended to correct the partial +opinions of <span class="smcap">De Pauw</span>.</p></div> + +<div class="sidenote">Wars of the +Spartans in +Peloponnesus.</div> + +<p>10. Soon after the time of Lycurgus com<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_135" id="Page_135">[Pg 135]</a></span>menced +the war of the Spartans with their neighbours, +the Argives, the Arcadians, but more particularly +the Messenians. The wars with these +last appear to have originated in an old grudge +on the part of the Dorian tribe, proceeding from +the unequal division of lands at the occupation of +Peloponnesus: it is nevertheless evident, that +the quarrel between the two nations was mainly +fostered by the ambition of the Spartan kings, +who wrought upon a superstitious multitude by +oracular responses and interpretations.</p> + +<div class="sblockquot"><p>Unimportant wars with Tegea and Argos; and disputes with +Messene, 783—745.</p> + +<p>First Messenian war, 742—722, terminated by the capture of +the frontier fortress Ithome, after the voluntary death of the +Messenian king, Aristodemus.—The Messenians become tributary +to the Spartans, and are obliged to give up one half of the +revenues of their lands.—Occurrences during this war: 1. Institution, +according to some authorities, of the college of Ephori as +vicegerents of the kings in their absence, and arbitrators in the +quarrels which might arise between the kings and the senate. +2. The power of the people so far limited as to restrain the +popular assemblies from making alterations in the resolutions +proposed to them by the senate or the kings, and confining them +merely to a vote of approval or rejection. 3. Insurrection of the +Parthenii and Helots becomes the motive for sending out colonies; +a measure to which Sparta had more than once resorted +for the purpose of maintaining domestic tranquillity.</p> + +<p>Second Messenian war, 682—668, waged by the Messenians +under the command of their hero Aristomenes, by the Spartans +under that of Tyrtæus, who fanned the flame of war until the +contest was terminated by the capture of the strong town Ira. +The Messenian territory is divided among the conquerors, and +the conquered inhabitants become, like the helots, agricultural +slaves.</p></div> + +<div class="sidenote">Sparta takes +the lead +among the +Dorian +states</div> + +<p>11. Although the territory of the Spartans was +greatly increased by these Messenian wars, the +nation seems to have been a long time before it<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_136" id="Page_136">[Pg 136]</a></span> +recovered from the struggle, and to have raised +itself by slow steps to the first rank among the +Dorian states, extending its boundaries at the +expense of the Argives and Arcadians.</p> + +<div class="sblockquot"><p>Wars with Tegea for the most part unsuccessful; and with +Argos, for the possession of Thyrea and the island of Cythera; +by the accession of which the Spartan territory received an important +augmentation, about 550.</p></div> + +<div class="sidenote">First interference +of Sparta in +affairs without +the +peninsula.</div> + +<p>12. These wars within Peloponnesus were not +of such a nature as to give rise to any remarkable +changes in the Spartan constitution, and for a +long time the nation refused to take any share in +foreign affairs. But no sooner did king Cleomenes, +who in the end procured the deposition of +his colleague, Demaratus, interfere in the affairs +of the Athenians, than the seeds of strife were +sown between these two republics. The Persian +war next ensued, in which Sparta was obliged +to bear a part, although Cleomenes had refused +to participate in the insurrection of Aristagoras: +that struggle, together with the idea of supremacy +in Greece which now took its rise, introduced +a series of political relations before +unknown.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">History of +Athens.</div> + +<p>13. The history of Athens during this period is +rendered important rather by domestic revolutions, +which gradually tended to convert the +state into a republic, than by external aggrandizement. +The situation and peculiarities of Attica, +which rendered it less exposed than other parts +of Greece to the attacks and forays of wandering +hordes, favoured the gradual and tranquil growth +of national prosperity; the traces of which are +incontestable, though it would be difficult for the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_137" id="Page_137">[Pg 137]</a></span> +most profound research to point out the whole +course of its progress so perspicuously as the historian +might wish.</p> + +<div class="sblockquot"><p>The history of Athens, of course, constitutes a main part of the +works mentioned above, p. 119. Besides which:</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">W. Young</span>, <i>The history of Athens politically and philosophically +considered</i>. London, 1796. 4to. Argumentation rather +than history.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Corsini</span>, <i>Fasti Attici</i>. Florent. 1747. 4 vols. 4to. A most +careful chronological essay.</p> + +<p>1. Period of kingly government down to 1068. The history +of Athens as a state begins properly with Theseus, who succeeded +his father Ægeus, about B. C. 1300. Although certain +institutions, such as that of the areopagus, the division of the +people into nobles, (εὐπατρίδαι,) +husbandmen, (γεώργοι,) +and mechanics: (δημιούργοι·) +a division which recals to our memory the +Egyptian institution of castes, are perhaps of an earlier date, and +may be ascribed to the colony of Cecrops. Theseus was, however, +in some measure the founder of the state, since, instead of +the four districts, (δήμοι,) +hitherto independent of one another, he +constituted the city of Athens as the only seat of government. +Among his successors the attention of the student is directed to +Mnestheus, who fell before Troy; and the last king, Codrus, +who by a voluntary sacrifice of his life rescued Attica from the +inroads of the Dorians, 1068.</p> + +<p>2. Period of archons for life, taken from the family of Codrus, +thirteen of whom ruled; 1068—752. The first was Medon, the +last, Alcmæon. These archons succeeded, like the kings, by inheritance, +but were accountable for their administration, +(ὑπεύθυνοι.)—At +the commencement of this period occur the migrations +of the Ionians from Attica to Asia Minor, 1044. See +below.</p> + +<p>3. Period of the decennial archons, seven of whom succeeded +between 752—682. These likewise were taken from the family +of Codrus. This period is devoid of any remarkable occurrences.</p> + +<p>4. Period extending to Solon, 682—594. that of nine archons +yearly chosen, but so arranged that the prerogatives of the former +kings, and the preceding archons, were divided among the three +first of the nine. With respect to this, as well as to the other +changes above mentioned, we know little of the causes which +produced them, or of the manner in which they were brought +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_138" id="Page_138">[Pg 138]</a></span>about. Rise of an oppressive aristocracy, (like that of the patricians +at Rome, immediately after the expulsion of the kings,) +both the archons and the members of the areopagus being elected +only from noble families. First attempt at legislation by Draco, +622, which appears only to have consisted in a criminal code, +rendered unavailing by its severity.—The insurrection of Cylon, +598, in consequence of the manner in which it was quelled, +turned out most injurious to the aristocratical party, inasmuch as +the nobles drew upon themselves the pollution of blood, which, +even after the purification of Epimenides, 593, was long used as +a pretext for commotion. The political factions of the Pediæi, +of the Diacrii, and of the Parhali, produced an anarchy at Athens, +during which the neighbouring Megarians took possession of the +island of Salamis; a conquest which, however, was subsequently +wrested from them by Solon.</p></div> + +<div class="sidenote">Solon's +legislation,<br /> +594.</div> + +<p>14. From this state of anarchy Athens was +rescued by Solon; a man to whom not only +Athens, but the whole human race, are deeply +indebted. He was chosen archon, and at the +same time commissioned to remodel the constitution +of Athens: and the successful manner in +which he executed this task, laid the foundation +of the happiness of his native country.</p> + +<div class="sblockquot"><p><i>Review of the prominent features in Solon's legislation.</i> Its +main object was to abolish the oppressive aristocracy, without +however introducing a pure democracy. 1. Provisional laws: +abolition of the statutes of Draco, those against murder excepted: +law enacted for the relief of debtors, +(σεισαχθεία, novæ tabulæ,) +not so much by cancelling the debts as by diminishing their +amount by a rise in the value of money; and likewise by ensuring +the personal liberty of the debtor. 2. Fundamental laws, +both in reference to the constitution and in reference to private +life and private rights.—Constitution of the state. (<i>a</i>) Organization +of the people by means of divisions: according to property +into four classes; the Pentacosimedimni, or those who had +a yearly income of 500 medimni; the Equites, (ἱππεῖς,) who had +400; the Zeugitæ, who had 300; and the Thetes, (capite censi,) +whose yearly revenue did not amount to so much.—The ancient +divisions according to heads, into wards, (φύλαι,) of which there +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_139" id="Page_139">[Pg 139]</a></span>were four, and according to residence into demi, (hundreds,) of +which a hundred and seventy are enumerated, were preserved. +(<i>b</i>) None but citizens of the three first classes could fill all the +offices of state; but all were admitted to the popular assemblies, +and had a right of voting in the courts of judicature. (<i>c</i>) The +nine archons annually chosen, who acted as supreme magistrates, +although not permitted to assume military office at the same +time, remained at the head of the state; the first bearing the +name of ἐπώνυμος, the second of +βασιλεὺς, the third of +πολέμαρχος, +the remaining six that of θεσμοθὲται. +Combined with the archons was (<i>d</i>) The council, +(βουλὴ,) which consisted of a body of four +hundred persons annually taken from the three first classes of +citizens; (a hundred from each ward;) these were chosen by +lot, but were obliged to submit to a rigid examination (δοκιμασία) +before they entered upon office. The archons were obliged to +consult the four hundred on every occurrence; and nothing +could be carried down to the commons until it had been previously +debated in this council. (<i>e</i>) To the people, consisting of +the whole four classes, was reserved the right in its assemblies +(ἐκκλησίαι) +of confirming the laws, of electing the magistrates, of +debating all public affairs referred to them by the council, and +likewise the public distribution of justice. (<i>f</i>) The areopagus +was, according to Solon's plan, to be the main buttress of the +constitution; that tribunal had hitherto been a mere tool in the +hands of the aristocracy. It was composed of retired archons, +and remained not only the supreme tribunal in capital cases, but +likewise was charged with the superintendence of morals, with +the censorship upon the conduct of the archons who went out of +office, and had the prerogative of amending or rescinding the +measures that had been approved of by the commons. The +power of this court, which might easily have become equal to the +college of Ephori at Sparta, might at first have been supposed +too extensive, had not experience shown the fatal consequences +of the reduction of that power by Pericles. This alloy of aristocracy +and democracy certainly gives proof of a deep insight into +the nature of republican constitutions; but Solon is not less entitled +to praise for his endeavours to place the helm of government +in the hands only of the most enlightened and prudent +citizens. It must likewise be observed, that the code for private +life given by Solon exhibits the genius of a man who regarded +polity as subordinate to morals, and not, like Lycurgus, morals as +subordinate to polity.</p> +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_140" id="Page_140">[Pg 140]</a></span></p> +<p><span class="smcap">Sam. Petitus</span>, <i>De Legibus Atticis</i>, 1635. fol. The best compilation +and illustration of the fragments remaining of the Attic +law.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Chr. Bunsen</span>, <i>De jure Atheniensium hereditario, ex Isæo +cæterisque oratoribus Græcis ducto</i>, Goett. 1812. The law of +inheritance was a principal feature in Solon's legislation; the +explanation of it requires a profound acquaintance with the constitution, +so far as it was connected with government by clans +or families.</p> + +<p>An explanation of the Athenian constitution will be likewise +found in the above-mentioned works of Tittmann, Kruse, and +Wachsmuth.</p></div> + +<div class="sidenote">Tyranny established in Athens by Pisistratus.</div> + +<p>15. The legislation of Solon, like all other state +reforms, was not followed by the total extinction +of party spirit. It was natural that the commons, +now free, should wish to try their strength with +the aristocratical party, and that, after the defeat +of the latter, Pisistratus, who headed the commons, +should grasp the rudder of the state without, +therefore, necessarily abrogating the constitution +of Solon. Modern history has proved +with sufficient evidence, that the frame-work of a +republic may easily subsist under the rule of an +usurper. And would that no republics might +fall into the hands of a worse tyrant than Pisistratus!</p> + +<div class="sblockquot"><p>First exaltation of Pisistratus, 561, procured by his obtaining +a body guard; flight of the Alcmæonidæ under Megacles. Pisistratus +expelled, 560. Second exaltation of Pisistratus procured +by his matrimonial connection with the family of Megacles, +556—552.—His second expulsion by Megacles, 552—538.—His +third exaltation; obtains the power by force of arms, and preserves +it to the day of his death, 538—528. Flight of the Alcmæonidæ +into Macedonia, where they attach the malcontents to +their party. Pisistratus is succeeded by his sons Hipparchus +and Hippias, who rule conjointly until 514, when the elder is +murdered by Harmodius and Aristogiton. The exiled Alcmæonidæ, +having bribed the Delphian oracle, gain over the Spartans<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_141" id="Page_141">[Pg 141]</a></span> +to their interest: backed by a Spartan army, they take possession +of Athens in 510; Hippias is deposed, and flies over to the Persians.</p></div> + +<div class="sidenote">Changes in Solon's constitution.</div> + +<p>16. This return of the Alcmæonidæ was followed +by a change in the constitution of Solon. +Clisthenes, the son of Megacles, with a view of +quenching party spirit by a new combination of +the citizens, increased the number of wards to +ten, and that of the members of the council to +five hundred.—But the Athenians had to purchase +the continuance of their freedom by a struggle +with Sparta, who, united with the Bœotians +and Chalcidians, and aided by Ægina, sought to +<span class="sidenote">527—504.</span> +reestablish monarchy in Attica; first in the person +of Isagoras, the rival of Clisthenes, and afterwards +in that of the exiled Hippias. But the +glorious success of the republic in this first struggle +in the cause of liberty, gave an additional +impulse to the national spirit. Impelled by that +spirit, Athens suffered herself to be induced to +share in the war of freedom carried on by the +Asiatic Greeks under Aristagoras; and the audacity +<span class="sidenote">500.</span> +which led to the firing of Sardis, drew upon +Attica the vengeance of the Persians, without +which, doubtless, neither Athens or Greece would +ever have risen to that degree of eminence which +they ultimately attained.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">History of +the other +Grecian +states.</div> + +<p>17. Of the history of the other states of Greece +we have at best but few data, and even these in +most instances are very scanty. Towards the +end of this period Sparta and Athens had, undoubtedly, +exalted themselves above the rest, and +were recognized, one as the first among the Dorian, +the latter as the first among the Ionian<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_142" id="Page_142">[Pg 142]</a></span> +states; yet did Sparta more than once meet +with rivals in Messene, Argos, and Tegea: while +Athens had to contend with Megara and Ægina. +Sparta and Athens had, nevertheless, not only +the best constitutions, but possessed also a more +extended territory than any other of the great +cities.</p> + + +<h3><i>Principal data for the history of the smaller states.</i></h3> + +<p class="cblockquot">I. <i>Within the Peloponnesus.</i></p> + +<div class="sblockquot"><p><i>a.</i> Arcadia. The Arcadian traditions enumerate a line of +kings or hereditary princes, said to have ruled over the whole of +Arcadia; the line commences with Arcas and his son Lycaon, +whose successors kept possession of the supreme power, and +shared more or less in the ancient feuds of the Hellenic princes. +Upon the conquest of Peloponnesus by the Dorians, Arcadia was +the only land that did not suffer by the irruption: an advantage +for which it was probably indebted more to its mountains, than +to the skill of Cypselus its king. The successors of that prince +took a part in the wars between the Messenians and Spartans, +siding with the former: but in the second Messenian war, the +last Arcadian king, Aristocrates II. having betrayed his allies, +was in consequence stoned to death by his subjects, and the regal +dignity was abolished in 668. Arcadia now became divided into +as many small states as it contained cities with their respective +districts; among these Tegea and Mantinea were the chief, and +probably held the others in a certain state of control, without, +however, depriving them wholly of their independence. As +might have been expected in a pastoral nation, the constitution +was democratical. In Mantinea there were wardens of the people, +(δημιούργοι,) +and a senate, (βουλή.) The wars of separate cities +are frequently mentioned, but no general confederation united +them.</p> + +<p>† See <span class="smcap">A. von Breitenbauch</span>, <i>History of Arcadia</i>, 1791.</p> + +<p><i>b.</i> Argos. Even previously to the Dorian migration, the +country of Argolis was parcelled out into several small kingdoms, +such as those of Argos, Mycenæ, and Tiryns. In Argos, the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_143" id="Page_143">[Pg 143]</a></span> +oldest Grecian state next to Sicyon, ruled the forefathers of Perseus, +who exchanged the kingdom of his ancestors for Tiryns: +here his successors continued to reign till the time of Hercules, +whose sons, expelled by Eurystheus, sought an asylum among +the Dorians.—In Mycenæ, said to have been built by Perseus, +the throne was occupied by the family of Pelops: and at the +period of the Trojan war, this little state, to which Corinth and +Sicyon then belonged, was the most powerful in Greece, and governed +by Agamemnon. The migration into this country by +Pelops from Asia Minor, must have been attended with important +consequences, since it has given a name to the whole peninsula: +the object of Pelops, as we may infer from the riches he brought +with him, was probably to establish a trading settlement.—At +the Dorian conquest Argos fell to the share of Temenus, the +Achæans were expelled, and the country was peopled by Dorians. +As early as the reign of Cisus, son of Temenus, the royal power +was so limited, that the successors of that prince hardly preserved +any thing but the mere name: about 984 the regal dignity +was wholly abrogated, and its place supplied by a republican +constitution, concerning the domestic organization of which we +know nothing more than that at Argos the government was in +the hands of a senate, (βουλὴ,) of a college of eighty citizens, +(οἱ ὀγδοήκοντα,) +and of magistrates, who bore the name of +ἀρτύνοι: in Epidaurus, however, there was a body of one hundred and eighty +citizens who chose from among themselves the senate, the members +of which were called ἀρτύνοι. As in the other states of +Greece so in Argolis, there were as many independent states as +there were cities; in the north Argos, Mycenæ, and Tiryns; in +the south Epidaurus and Trœzen. The two last preserved their +independence; but Mycenæ was destroyed by the Argives in 425, +and the inhabitants of Tiryns were forcibly transplanted to Argos. +The district of Argos, therefore, comprised the northern portion +of the country called Argolis; but not the southern portion, which +belonged to the towns situated therein.</p> + +<p><i>c.</i> Corinth. In this place, previous to the time of the Dorian +migration, the house of Sisyphus held the royal power; and +even at that early period Corinth is extolled by Homer for its +wealth. The Dorians drove out the original inhabitants; and +Aletes, belonging to the race of Hercules, became king about +1089; the posterity of that prince held the sceptre down to the +fifth generation. After the death of the last king, Telessus, 777,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_144" id="Page_144">[Pg 144]</a></span> +the family of the Bacchiadæ, likewise a branch of the family of +Hercules, took possession of the government and introduced an +oligarchy, electing annually from among themselves a Prytane. +At last, in 657, Cypselus got the upper hand; he was succeeded, +627, by his son Periander; both father and son were equally +conspicuous for their avarice and cruelty. Periander (<i>d.</i> 587) +was succeeded by his nephew Psammetichus, who reigned till +584, when the Corinthians asserted their freedom. With regard +to the internal organization of the republic, little more is known +than that there were at Corinth assemblies of the commons and a +senate, (γερουσία): the government appears to have been the +aristocracy of a trading state; for even the Bacchiadæ, at least +some of them, were merchants.—The Corinthian commerce consisted +chiefly in the exchange of Asiatic and Italian goods, and +therefore was mostly carried on by sea: for such a trade the city +of Corinth offered many advantages, particularly if we consider +the state of navigation in those times; but the sea trade of +Corinth, however profitable to the citizens, and even to the +state, in consequence of the customs, cannot be considered as +very extensive.—The colonies of Corinth in the west were principally +Corcyra, Epidamnus, Leucas, Syracuse; in the east Potidæa: +these colonies would fain have asserted a sort of independence, +but never succeeded for any length of time in so doing.</p> + +<p>From the possession of these colonies, and from the necessity +of protecting the trader from pirates, Corinth grew to be a naval +power; she invented triremes, and at the early date of 664 gave +battle to the Corcyræans at sea. On the other hand, her wars by +land were generally waged with the assistance of foreign subsidiaries; +and from the facility with which she was enabled to pay +her mercenary troops, she was the more ready to interfere in the +domestic wars of Greece.</p> + +<p><i>d.</i> Sicyon. Tradition represents this state, together with Argos, +as the most ancient in Greece; the catalogues of early kings +and princes, who are said to have reigned at this place, make it +probable that in early antiquity some settlements of priests were +made in this quarter. In the times previous to the migration of +the Dorians, Sicyon was first inhabited by the Ionians; at the +Trojan war, however, it made part of Agamemnon's kingdom. +At the Dorian irruption, Phalces, son of Temenus, took possession +of Sicyon, which then became a Dorian city. After the +abrogation of the kingship, the date of which is not precisely<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_145" id="Page_145">[Pg 145]</a></span> +known, the constitution assumed the form of an uncurbed democracy, +which, as usual, paved the way for the usurpation of one +individual. Orthagoras and his posterity, the last and most celebrated +of whom was Clisthenes, ruled over Sicyon during a whole +century; 700—600. After the restoration of her freedom, Sicyon +frequently suffered from revolutions; and the period of her +highest splendour was during the latter days of Greece, when she +became a member of the Achæan league.</p> + +<p><i>e.</i> Achaia. During the spread of the Hellenes, this country, +which till then had borne the name of Ægialus, was taken possession +of by Ion, who had been expelled from Athens, and his +tribe, who from their leader took the name of Ionians: the country +remained in the hands of the Ionians until the Dorian migration, +when the Achæans, driven out of Argos and Laconia, pressed +into the northern parts of Peloponnesus under Tisamenus, son +of Orestes: they settled in the land of the Ionians, and the power +of the chieftain descended to his posterity, until the tyranny of +the last sovereign of that race, Gyges, (of date undetermined,) +produced the abolition of monarchy. Achaia thereupon was parcelled +into twelve small republics, or so many cities with their +respective districts, each of which comprised seven or eight cantons. +All these republics had democratic constitutions, and were +mutually united by a league, founded on the most perfect equality, +and which nothing but the policy of the Macedonian kings +could dissolve; and even this dissolution gave rise to the <i>Achæan</i> +league, of such high importance in subsequent times. The +Achæans lived in peace and happiness, inasmuch as they had not +the vanity, before the Peloponnesian war, to interfere in the +affairs of foreign states: their constitutions were so renowned, +that they were adopted by several other Grecian cities.</p> + +<p><i>f.</i> Elis. The inhabitants in earlier times bore the name of +Epeans, which, like that of Eleans, was traced to one of their +ancient kings. The names of their most ancient hereditary +princes, Endymion, Epeus, Eleus, Augias, are celebrated by the +poets. It appears that this country was divided into several +small kingdoms, since, at the period of the Trojan war it contained +four, to which however must be added Pylus in Triphylia, a +territory usually reckoned as belonging to Elis. At the epoch +of the Dorian migration the Ætolians, who had accompanied the +Dorians, headed by their chieftain Oxylus, settled in Elis; but +permitted the ancient inhabitants to remain in the country.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_146" id="Page_146">[Pg 146]</a></span> +Among the successors of Oxylus was Iphitus the contemporary of +Lycurgus, and celebrated as the restorer of the Olympian games, +to the celebration of which Elis was indebted for the tranquil +splendour that distinguished her from this time: her territory +being regarded as sacred, although she had occasional disputes +with her neighbours, the Arcadians, for precedence at the games. +After the abolition of the royal power supreme magistrates were +chosen, to whose office was added the charge of superintending +the games: (Hellanodicæ). These magistrates were at first two; +they were afterwards increased to ten, one from each tribe, +although their number frequently changed with that of the tribes +themselves. There must likewise have been a senate, consisting +of ninety persons, who held their places for life, since Aristotle +makes mention of that branch of the Elean constitution. The +city of Elis was first built in 477, before which time the Eleans +resided in several small hamlets.</p></div> + + +<p class="cblockquot">II. <i>Central Greece, or Hellas.</i></p> + +<div class="sblockquot"><p><i>a.</i> Megaris. Until the epoch of the Dorian migration, this +state generally formed part of the domain of the Attic kings; or +at least was governed by princes of that house. Immediately +previous to that event, the Megarians, after the assassination of +their last sovereign, Hyperion, placed the government in the +hands of magistrates elected for stated periods. At the time of +the Dorian irruption, under the reign of Codrus, Megara was occupied +by Dorians, more especially those of Corinth, who consequently +reckoned the city among their colonies, and during the +sway of the Bacchiadæ endeavoured to keep it in a state of +dependency; a circumstance which gave rise to several wars. +Nevertheless Megara supported her rank as a separate state, both +in those and many subsequent wars among the Greeks, in which +she took a share both by sea and land. About the year 600, +Theagenes, step-father of the Athenian Cylon, had possessed +himself of the supreme power: after the expulsion of that tyrant, +the republican constitution was once more restored, but soon +after merged into the lowest species of democracy. Megara, +however, even at the period of the Persian war, in which it took +a glorious share, appears to have recovered the character of a +well-ordered state, although we have no information respecting +its internal organization.</p> +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_147" id="Page_147">[Pg 147]</a></span></p> +<p><i>b.</i> Bœotia. History mentions several very early races in Bœotia, +such as the Aones, Hyantes, etc.; with these were mingled +Phœnician emigrants, who had come into the country under the +guidance of Cadmus. The stock of Cadmus became the ruling +family, and remained so for a long time: the history of his descendants, +who were kings of Thebes, and comprised under their +dominion the greatest part of Bœotia, constitutes a main branch +of Grecian mythology: among them were Œdipus, Laïus, Eteocles, +and Polynices. After the capture of Thebes by the Epigoni, +1215, the Bœotians were expelled by Thracian hordes, and +settled at Arne in Thessaly; at the time of the Dorian migration +they returned to the land of their forefathers, and mingled with +the Æolians of those quarters. Not long after, upon the death +of Xuthus, royalty was abolished, 1126. Bœotia was now divided +into as many small states as it contained cities; of these, +next to Thebes, the most eminent were the towns of Platææ, +Thespiæ, Tanagra, and Chæronea, each of which had its own +separate district and peculiar form of government; but all those +constitutions appear to have been commuted into oligarchies +about the time of the Persian war. Such had been the case even +with Thebes, although she had received as a legislator, Philolaus +from Corinth; but the code given by this individual cannot have +been attended with the desired effect, as the government was +continually fluctuating between a licentious democracy and an +overbearing oligarchy. The Bœotian cities were, however, mutually +united by a league, at the head of which stood Thebes, +who gradually converted her right of precedence into a right of +power, although her ambitious attempts were resisted to the last +extremity by the separate cities, and by Platææ in particular: +hence sprung many wars. The general affairs were decided upon +in four assemblies, (βουλαὶ,) held in the four districts into which +Bœotia was divided; these assemblies in conjunction elected +eleven Bœotarchs, who stood at the head of the federation as supreme +magistrates and field marshals. The great extent and +population of their territory might have enabled the Bœotians to +act the first part on the theatre of Greece, had they not been impeded +by their pernicious form of government, by the envy felt +against Thebes, and by the want of union which naturally ensued. +Yet in subsequent times the example of Epaminondas and Pelopidas +gave proof that the genius of two men was sufficient to surmount +all these obstacles.</p> +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_148" id="Page_148">[Pg 148]</a></span></p> +<p><i>c.</i> Phocis was originally ruled by kings descended, it is said, +from Phocus, the leader of a colony from Corinth. The sovereign +power was abolished about the time of the Dorian migration; +but the form of the republican constitution which succeeded +remains undetermined; and of the undertakings of the +Phocians previous to the Persian invasion, we know nothing more +than that they waged war with the Thessalians, and were successful. +As history never mentions the Phocians but in the +aggregate, the whole territory must have formed but one independent +state. To that state, however, the city of Delphi, which +had its own constitution, did not belong: the city of Crissa +with its fertile district, and the harbour of Cirrha, constituted a +separate state, which became opulent by practising extortions +upon the pilgrims to Delphi: this state lasted till 600, when, in +consequence of the insults of the Crissæans to the Delphian oracle, +a war was proclaimed against them by the Amphictyons, +which ended in 590 with the rasing of Crissa; the land of which +was thenceforward added to the sacred glebe of Delphi.</p> + +<p><i>d.</i> Locris. Although we learn from early history that the +Locrians also had their kings,—among whom Ajax, the son of +Oileus, is renowned in the Trojan war,—and that they likewise +in subsequent times adopted a republican form of government; +yet the date of that revolution, and the manner in which it was +brought about, are not known. The three tribes of Locrians remained +politically distinct. The Locri Ozolæ, west of Phocis, +possessed the most extensive territory; each city of which stood +independent, though Amphissa is mentioned as the capital. The +country of the Locri Opuntii, eastward, consisted of the district +appertaining to the city of Opus; of their domestic organization, +as well as that of their neighbours, the Locri Epicnemidii, we +know nothing.</p> + +<p><i>e.</i> Ætolia. The Ætolians remained the most rude and uncivilized +of all the Hellenic races; they were little more than a +band of freebooters, and carried on their predatory excursions +both by sea and land. Renowned as are the names of their earliest +heroes, Ætolus, Peneus, Meleager, Diomede, the nation +has no place in the history of the flourishing times of Greece. +Nor did they acquire any celebrity until the Macedo-Roman +period, when the various insignificant tribes of which they were +composed gathered themselves together and chose one common +leader, for the purpose of carrying on a war with the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_149" id="Page_149">[Pg 149]</a></span> +Achæans. The earlier period of their history seems, however, +to afford no previous example of such an union; their political +constitution in those times is wholly unknown.</p> + +<p><i>f.</i> Acarnania. This country derived its name from Acarnan, +son of Alcmæon, both of whom are adduced as its earliest kings. +In the Trojan age it appears beyond a doubt, that some part at +least of this country was subject to the governors of the island of +Ithaca. When and how a republican government was introduced +among the Acarnanians, and what were the peculiarities of that +government we know not. All that can be distinguished through +the veil of time is, that here likewise the different cities, the +most important of which was Stratus, had each its own form of +government. Those cities upon particular emergencies were wont +to combine; and out of that practice in later times, during the +Macedonian period, grew up a permanent confederation. The +city and district of Argos Amphilochicum constituted a separate +state, which endured a long time, and flourished greatly; it derived +its name from Amphilochus, the founder. The inhabitants, +however, being driven out by the Ambracians, whom they had +themselves called in, sought assistance at the hands of the Acarnanians, +who with the help of Athens, replaced the exiles in possession +of their city, which thenceforward was inhabited in common +by Amphilochians and Acarnanians, and was almost constantly +engaged in war with Ambracia.</p></div> + + +<p class="cblockquot">III. <i>Northern Greece.</i></p> + +<div class="sblockquot"><p><i>a.</i> The importance of Thessaly in the earliest history of Greece, +may be gathered from the principal data enumerated above for +the history of the Pelasgi and the Hellenes. From this country +it was that the Hellenes proceeded and spread over Greece; and +here likewise they maintained their original seat. In the Trojan +age Thessaly contained ten small kingdoms, governed by hereditary +princes, several of whom, such as Achilles and Philoctetes, +were among the most renowned heroes of the time. In the period +subsequent to the Trojan war and the Dorian migration, +Thessaly must have experienced political revolutions similar to +those of the other Grecian countries; but neither the time nor +the manner in which those revolutions occurred can be ascertained. +All that can be deduced from the subsequent history is,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_150" id="Page_150">[Pg 150]</a></span> +that if the Thessalian cities ever did recover their political freedom, +they were unable to maintain it; for in the two most eminent +cities, Pheræ and Larissa, with whose history that of the +whole country is closely connected, the supreme power had fallen +into the hands of arbitrary individuals, who appear to have kept +possession of it almost without interruption. Even before the +breaking out of the Persian war, Larissa was under the rule of +the Aleuadæ; a family who claimed descent from Hercules, and +are specially denominated by Herodotus kings of the Thessalians. +They preserved their power until the Macedonian period.—In +Pheræ there arose about the year 380, a tyrant, by the name of +Jason, who extended his dominion not only over Thessaly, but +likewise over several of the neighbouring barbarous tribes. The +sceptre of Jason passed rapidly and successively into the hands +of his three brothers, Polydorus, Polyphron, and Alexander. The +last was first driven out of Larissa by the Aleuadæ, assisted by +the Macedonians; was afterwards worsted in war by Pelopidas; +and finally, at the instigation of his wife Thebe, was murdered, +356, by her brothers, Lycophron and Tisiphonus. The two murderers +then assumed the supreme power, but were, in compliance +with the request of the Aleuadæ, deposed by Philip of Macedon.—Some +other such tyrants are met with at intervals in the rest +of the Thessalian cities, such as <i>Pharsalus</i>, etc.</p> + +<p><i>b.</i> Epirus. This country was occupied by several tribes, partly +Greek and partly barbarian. The most powerful of these was +that of the Molossi, who were governed by kings of the house of +the Æacidæ, descendants of Pyrrhus, the son of Achilles. This +Greek family was the only one that held the kingly power for a +permanency; it must be observed, however, that previous to the +Macedonian period, those sovereigns were by no means lords of +the whole of Epirus; for the other non-Hellenic races, such as the +Thesprotii, Orestii, etc. had their own separate kings. Moreover +the Corinthian colony of Ambracia constituted a distinct state, +generally governed as a republic, although sometimes subject to +the rule of tyrants. But, in consequence of an alliance framed +with the Macedonian kings, the whole of Epirus, and even Ambracia +itself, was placed under the sceptre of the Molossian kings; +and some of those princes, Pyrrhus II. more especially, rose to +be mighty conquerors. See below.</p></div> +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_151" id="Page_151">[Pg 151]</a></span></p> + +<p class="cblockquot">IV. <i>Grecian Islands.</i></p> + +<div class="sblockquot"><p>Both the islands off the coast of Greece, and those of the Archipelago, +all underwent the same political revolutions as occurred +in the states on the main land. But those events did not +take place till after the more ancient non-Hellenic inhabitants, +such as the Phœnicians, Carians, etc. had been driven out, and +the land had been taken possession of by the Hellenes. In the +more extensive islands, which contained several cities, there generally +arose as many small republics as there were towns, and +those little states were wont to enter into mutual alliances. The +smaller islands, containing but one city, formed each one small +independent state, the territory of which comprised the whole +island. The respective independence of these islands ceased to +exist at the period of the Trojan war; for after the Athenians +had by their success placed themselves at the head of confederate +Greece, and possessed themselves of the sovereignty of the sea, +these smaller states, although called confederates, were treated +little better than subjects, except that their political constitutions +were not changed.—Among the islands of the Grecian coast, the +most remarkable in history are the following:</p> + +<p><i>a.</i> Corcyra, a colony of Corinth, important for its naval power +and trade, in which it rivalled the mother state itself: a rivalry +which occasioned many feuds and wars, and was even one of the +principal motives that led to the Peloponnesian war. About the +time this struggle began Corcyra had attained the height of her +power, being able, without foreign aid, to man a fleet of 120 +galleys. The constitution appears, as at Corinth, to have been +aristocratic, or oligarchical: but after the Persian war a democratic +faction arose, which produced the most violent internal +commotions, and ended in the total ruin of Corcyra.</p> + +<p><i>b.</i> Ægina. This small island was, after the Dorian migration, +occupied by colonists from Epidaurus; it however soon shook +off the yoke of the mother city, and rapidly grew by commerce +and navigation, to be one of the first Grecian states. Ægina was +for a long time the rival of Athens; over whom her naval power +enabled her to maintain a superiority until the time of the Persian +war. Humbled, however, by Themistocles, 485, she could +no longer support herself against the preponderating influence of +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_152" id="Page_152">[Pg 152]</a></span>Athens; and although subsequently she made another stand for +independence, 458, the consequences were but an increase of oppression. +Neither must it be forgotten, that Ægina suffered +much, even before the Persian war, from internal broils, caused +by the bitterness of party spirit engendered between the aristocratic +and democratic factions.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">C. O. Mueller</span>, <i>Ægineticorum liber</i>, 1817. This treatise +contains not only the political history, but likewise that of trade +and arts.</p> + +<p><i>c.</i> Eubœa. The different cities of this island, Chalcis and +Eretria in particular, had each its separate domestic constitution: +in the two towns above mentioned the constitution was aristocratic, +since the government was in the hands of the opulent, +(Hippobatæ;) nevertheless we hear of tyrants in Chalcis. After +the Persian war Eubœa became dependent upon Athens, which +drew from that island a portion of her supplies and provisions. +The oppression of the Athenians stirred up the minds of the +Eubœans to rebellion, and the islanders were in the sequel ever +ready to throw up their allegiance when a suitable opportunity +presented itself; such an opportunity was seized in 446, when +the island was recovered by Pericles; and the attempt was renewed +in the Peloponnesian war.</p> + +<p><i>d.</i> The Cyclades were first colonized by Crete, during the +reign of Minos. The Carian race had in earlier times spread +over these islands, but were gradually driven out by Hellenic +invaders, belonging principally to the Ionian and Dorian families. +The most important was Delos, chief seat of the Ionians. Sheltered +under the protection of Apollo, this place became the +centre of an extensive trade, and during the Persian war, 479, +was selected for the treasury of Greece. Next was Paros, famed +for its marble, and for the stand it made against Miltiades, 489, +although it afterwards shared the fate of the other islands, and +passed under the dominion of the Athenians. We know little of +the constitution of the other smaller islands; each of them contained +one city of the same name as the island which constituted +its territory.</p> + +<p><i>e.</i> Crete. The inhabitants of Crete were not pure Hellenes, +but of alloyed origin, such as Curetes, Pelasgi, etc. mingled with +whom were Hellenes, of the Dorian and Æolían stock. In the +earlier periods, Crete had her kings, the most celebrated of whom +were Minos, about 1300, probably first sovereign of the whole<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_153" id="Page_153">[Pg 153]</a></span> +island; his brother Rhadamanthus, Idomeneus, Meriones, who +followed Idomeneus to the Trojan war, and succeeded him upon +the throne: the last king Etearchus, about 800, after whose +death a republican form of government was introduced. Under +these kings Crete was powerful on sea: to Minos is ascribed the +honour of having by his fleets purged the Ægæan of pirates, occupied +the islands, and ensured security to the mariner. To him +likewise is attributed the Cretan legislation, the model, it is said, +of that given to Sparta by Lycurgus. But the uncertainty as to +what does and what does not belong to Minos, is in this case +even greater than in that of Lycurgus; many of the laws referred +to Minos are probably nothing more than ancient Dorian institutions. +The insular situation which in some measure ensured +Crete from foreign inroads, and the proximity of Egypt and +Phœnicia must indubitably have contributed to expand the germ +of political civilization. The abolition of the kingly office seems +to have been the effect of internal commotions, to which Crete +continued to be frequently exposed, even under a republican +form of government. Those commotions originated in the jealousy +between the two largest cities, Gortina and Cnossus, which, +when united, ruled the rest; but when at war, shook the whole +island, until the city of Cydonia, passing over to one of the sides, +gave a turn to the balance. The laws instituted by Minos respecting +private life were enforced in all the cities of the island; +but declined at an earlier period than in the country. Each +city had its own constitution; each possessed it senate, (γερούσια,) +at the head of which were ten censors, (κόσμοι,) chosen from certain +families: these cosmi were not only prime magistrates, but +likewise invested with the command in war, not often, it is true, +waged by the Cretans against other nations, but, for that reason, +more frequently with one another; a circumstance which must +have necessarily contributed to corrupt, not only their constitution, +but likewise their national character.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Meursii</span> <i>Creta, Rhodus, Cyprus</i>, 1675, 4to. Very laborious +compilations. New light, however, has been thrown upon the +subject by the inscriptions published in</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Chishull's</span> <i>Antiq. Asiaticæ</i>; 1728, folio. A work which has +been made use of by</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">St. Croix</span>, <i>Des anciens gouvernemens</i>, etc. (See above, +p. 131.) The principal work upon Crete.</p> +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_154" id="Page_154">[Pg 154]</a></span></p> +<p>† <span class="smcap">C. Hoeck</span>, Crete. An attempt to explain the mythology, +history, etc. of this island, 1823.</p> + +<p><i>f.</i> Cyprus. This island, like Crete, was inhabited by a race of +mixed origin, who, even in the time of Herodotus, traced their +descent from Phœnicians, Africans, (Ethiopians,) from Greeks +out of Arcadia, Attica, and the island of Salamis; of which last +the city of Salamis, founded by Teucer about 1160, was a colony. +There can be no doubt, that in earlier times the Phœnicians were +for a long period the dominant race in the island; since in the +flourishing days of Tyre the Cyprians rebelled against their +oppressors, at the same time that Psalmanezer led an expedition +against the former city, about 720: moreover, even in the present +day, Phœnician monuments are still found in the island. From +that time to the Persian period, there appears to have been a close +connection between this island and the Phœnicians, although the +Cyprians preserved their independence. Several smaller kingdoms +afterwards arose in various cities of the island; the number +of which in subsequent times amounted to nine, and under +Amasis, about 550, were tributary to the Egyptians; and under +Cambyses, 525, to the Persians: notwithstanding this species of +subjection, the various states preserved their own kings. During +the Persian dominion, the Cyprians more than once joined in the +insurrections against the Persians; more particularly the kings +of Salamis, now become the most powerful. So early as the year +500, Onesilus joined the Ionian rebels, but was defeated. In the +wars which afterwards ensued between the Persians and Greeks, +Cyprus was frequently attacked by the combined Grecian fleets; +as in 470 by Pausanias, and during the reign of Evagoras I. 449, +by Cimon, who died at the siege of Citium; yet the Persians were +not driven out, but appear to have kept their footing even after +the peace of 449. Among the subsequent kings of Salamis was +Evagoras II. (400—390,) who was master of the greatest portion +of the island; but as in the peace of Antalcidas Cyprus was +ceded to the Persians, he was obliged to wage a hot war against +them, in which he lost every thing but Salamis. Finally, the +Cyprians, in 356, took a part in the insurrection of the Phœnicians +and Egyptians: thereupon the Persians sent an army +against them, under the command of a younger Evagoras, (who +had been banished by his uncle Protagoras,) and under that of +the Athenian Phocion Salamis was besieged, but matters were +made up by a negotiation. The nine small kingdoms of the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_155" id="Page_155">[Pg 155]</a></span> +island continued to exist till the time of Alexander, whom they +voluntarily joined during the siege of Tyre, 332, and thenceforward +Cyprus constituted a part of the Macedonian monarchy.</p></div> + + +<h3>2. <i>History of the Grecian Colonies.</i></h3> + +<div class="sblockquot"><p>To assist the student in obtaining a general view of the events +connected with the Greek colonies, the history of them will be +here carried on through the subsequent period.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Raoul Rochette</span>, <i>Histoire critique de l'établissement des Colonies +Grecques</i>, Paris, 1815, 4 vols. The most comprehensive +treatise on the subject: it comprises the earlier Pelasgian and the +later Macedonian colonies, as well as those of the Hellenes. +There is much erudition displayed in this work, but sufficient attention +is not paid to the value of the authorities made use of.</p> + +<p>† <span class="smcap">D. H. Hegewisch</span>, <i>Geographic and Historic Documents relative +to the Colonies of the Greeks</i>, Altona, 1808, 8vo. A brief +review of the subject.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">St. Croix</span>, <i>De l'état et du sort des Colonies des anciens peuples</i>, +Paris, 1786. A series of valuable and important enquiries.</p></div> + +<div class="sidenote">Historic importance of the Greek colonies.</div> + +<p>1. No nation of antiquity ever founded so many +colonies as the Greeks: these colonies became so +important in various respects, that an acquaintance +with them is indispensably requisite towards +understanding the more early history of the world. +Not only is the history of the civilization of the +mother country and that of early trade intimately +connected with these settlements, but some of +them grew to such power as to have the greatest +influence on political history.</p> + +<p>2. The Grecian colonies, to which the following +observations apply, are those founded by the +Hellenes in the time which elapsed between the +Dorian migration and the Macedonian period. It<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_156" id="Page_156">[Pg 156]</a></span> +appears certain that before the date of that migration +some Pelasgian, and perhaps even some +Hellenic settlers passed over into Italy. The +history of these colonies however is not only involved +in obscurity, but it is besides known that +they ceased after a time to be Greek. The later +settlements of the Macedonians were of a quite +different nature from those of the Hellenes, to +which we now allude.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">Hellenic colonies.</div> + +<p>3. The Hellenic race spread alike to the east +and to the west of Greece, their settlements, however, +were confined to the shores of the Mediterranean +and Black sea. The countries in which +their principal colonies were established, were +Asia Minor and Thrace in the east; the coasts of +Lower Italy and Sicily in the west. Nevertheless +particular settlements were to be found scattered +here and there on the shores of most other countries.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">Origin of these colonies.</div> + +<p>4. The Grecian colonies had their origin either +in political motives, being generally made in accordance +with the express command or advice of +an oracle, (for the propagation of the religion of +the parent state was always connected therewith,) +or, in commercial speculations; the former was +the case, almost without exception, with the settlements +made by the mother country herself; +the latter, with those which had branched out of +such colonies as had already exalted themselves +by their commerce. In fact, almost all the Grecian +colonies applied more or less to trade, even +when that was not the sole object of their foundation.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">Relations +between colony and metropolis.</div> + +<p>5. The connection existing between the colo<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_157" id="Page_157">[Pg 157]</a></span>nies +and the mother cities was generally determined +by the same causes that led to their foundation. +In those cases where a city had been +founded by malcontent or banished emigrants, all +dependence on the mother country was naturally +out of the question; and even in the colonies established +for the purposes of trade, that dependence +was but feeble and brief; the mother cities +failing in power, if not in will, to enforce it. The +very independence of so many colonies, made (almost +without exception) in countries preeminently +favoured by nature in productions and climate, +and so situated as to oblige the inhabitants to navigation +and commerce, must have given a great +impulse to the civilization of the Hellenic race, +and may be regarded as the main cause of its +rapid progress and wide extension; wider indeed +than that of any other nation of the ancient world. +What a variety of political ideas must have been +formed among a people whose settlements, more +than a hundred in number, had each its own peculiar +form of government.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">Importance of the Asiatic Greek settlements.</div> + +<p>6. Of the Greek colonies, the most ancient, and +in many respects the most important, were those +along the western coast of Asia Minor, extending +from the Hellespont to the boundary of Cilicia. +Here, ever since the Trojan war, which first +made these countries generally known, Hellenes +of the three great families, Æolians, Ionians, and +Dorians had planted settlements. These were +the most important for trade; and here likewise +in the native country of Homer, the father of Grecian +civilization, of Alcæus, and of Sappho, poesy, +both epic and lyric, expanded her first and fairest<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_158" id="Page_158">[Pg 158]</a></span> +blossoms; and hence too, the mother country herself +received the first impulse of moral and cultivated +taste.</p> + +<div class="sblockquot"><p>1. The Æolian colonies. Their original foundation dates about +1124: they appear to have been a consequence of the Dorian +migration, having been established during that great movement +in Greece. The Pelopidæ, who had been driven out of Peloponnesus, +Orestes, his son Penthilus, his grandson Archelaus, +and his great grandson Grais, successively headed the emigrants, +who proceeded slowly by land, divided, it appears, into several +companies, with which some Bœotians and others gradually +coalesced. In Asia they occupied the coasts of Mysia and +Caria; a strip of land which from thence derived the appellation +of Æolis. They moreover possessed the islands of Lesbos, +Tenedos, and the Hecatonnesi. On the main land, in the +quarter named from them Æolis, they erected twelve cities, the +most eminent of which were Cyme and Smyrna; the latter, +however, afterwards fell into the hands of the Ionians. But +their chief settlements were on the island of Lesbos; here they +inhabited five cities, at the head of which, and likewise of +all their other colonies, stood Mitylene. They had likewise +spread inland as far as mount Ida. All these towns were independent +of one another, and possessed their own peculiar forms +of government: our information, however, respecting these constitutions +extends no further than to enable us to ascertain that +they were subject to many disorders, which it was often attempted +to quell by nominating rulers of unlimited power, under +the title of Æsymnetæ. These were elected sometimes for a +stipulated period, at others for life; the most celebrated of the +number was Pittacus of Mitylene, who flourished about 600, and +was the contemporary of Sappho and Alcæus. The Æolians +maintained their independence till the time of Cyrus, with the +exception of Smyrna, which as early as 600, was captured and +destroyed by the Lydians, and not rebuilt till four hundred years +afterwards, when it was restored by Antigonus, and entered upon +its flourishing period. The cities of the main land were compelled +to acknowledge the supremacy of the Persian conqueror; +but not the islands. The Æolian cities were not leagued together +by any permanent bond; it was only in peculiar cases that +they debated in common. Mitylene, which they all regarded as<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_159" id="Page_159">[Pg 159]</a></span> +their capital, was the only one of their colonies that became rich +by trade, and formidable by its naval power. Yet in 470 it was +tributary to Athens; having seceded in 428, at the time of the +Peloponnesian war, it was recaptured and almost levelled to the +earth by the Athenians.</p> + +<p>2. The Ionian colonies. These were, no doubt, founded at a +later period than those of the Æolians; like them, however, +they were a consequence of the Dorian migration. The Ionians, +driven out of Peloponnesus by the Achæans, had withdrawn to +Athens, from whence, sixty years afterwards, that is to say about +1044, they proceeded by sea to Asia, headed by Neleus and others +of the sons of Codrus. They were joined, however, by some +Thebans, Phocians, Eubœan Abantes, and various other Greeks. +In Asia they settled on the southern coast of Lydia and the +northern shore of Caria; which, together with the islands of Samos +and Chios, took from them the name of Ionia. Here they +built twelve cities on the main land; namely, reckoning from +north to south, Phocæa, Erythræ, Clazomene, Teos, Lebedus, +Colophon, Ephesus, Priene, Myus, Miletus, and in the islands, +Samos and Chios. They possessed in common one sanctuary, +the Panionium temple of Neptune, built on the headland of Mycale. +Here they celebrated their festivals, and assembled to +deliberate upon matters affecting the general interest, although +it must still be remembered that each city was in itself independent. +This independence was maintained until the time of +the Lydian dynasty of the Mermnadæ, and that of Cyrus, under +whose reign they were compelled to submit to the Persian yoke. +Still, under the Persian rule, they for the most part preserved +their own form of government, and were subject only so much as +they had to pay tribute. Nevertheless they seized every opportunity +of delivering themselves from this species of thraldom; +and hence their history in the following period is closely interwoven +with that of Greece. The political constitution was, no +doubt, at an early period republican in all; but these colonies +likewise were oppressed by continual factions, and frequently +by tyrants. Among the towns situate on the continent, the +most remarkable were Miletus, Ephesus, and Phocæa. Miletus +was the principal seat of trade. It had been founded by +the Carians before the arrival of the Ionians; but was by the +latter raised to opulence and power. The most flourishing period +of its existence was between 700—500: in the latter year it was +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_160" id="Page_160">[Pg 160]</a></span>implicated in the insurrection of Aristagoras against the Persians, +in consequence of which it was destroyed in 496. From that +time Miletus never recovered its ancient splendour. Nevertheless, +in the days of her prosperity Miletus was, next to Tyre and +Carthage, the first emporium of the world. Her sea trade was +chiefly carried on in the Euxine, and the Palus Mæotis, whose +shores, on all sides, were occupied by her colonies, amounting, +according to some authorities, to more than a hundred. By +means of these settlements she monopolized the whole of the +northern trade in pulse, dry fish, slaves, and furs. Her land +trade was carried on by the great <i>military</i> road, constructed by +the Persians, far into the interior of Asia. Four harbours admitted +her vessels; and her naval power was so great, that she +had been known, more than once, to fit out, unaided, fleets of +from eighty to a hundred sail.—Phocæa. The flourishing period +of this establishment was contemporary with that of Miletus; +but ended at the rise of the Persian dominion, 540, when the +Phocæans, rather than submit to the Persian yoke, chose to forsake +the city of their fathers and migrate to Corsica, although +one half of the inhabitants repented of their resolution and returned. +Phocæa had the most extensive trade by sea of all the +Grecian cities; they were to the west what the Milesians were +to the north. Their navigation extended as far as Gades; and +they not only visited the coasts of Italy, Gaul, and Corsica, but +even founded colonies in these countries; as for instance, Aleria +in Corsica, Elea in Italy, and, above all, Massilea, (Marseilles,) on +the coast of Gaul.—Ephesus. This city was likewise originally +founded by the Carians, but subsequently occupied by the Ionians. +Its independence was maintained until the time of Crœsus, +who annexed it to his other conquests about 560. The constitution +was aristocratic; the government being in the hands of +a senate, (γερούσια,) combined with the magistrates, +(ἐπίκλητοι): +and the family which had once possessed the throne preserved +certain prerogatives. Ephesus was not so important in a commercial +point of view as Phocæa and Miletus; but was much +celebrated for its temple of Diana, which in 355 was fired by +Erostratus, and afterwards rebuilt with more sumptuous splendour. +The flourishing period of Ephesus appears to have commenced +at this time, long after that of Miletus and Phocæa had +terminated; for both in the Macedonian and Roman ages Ephesus +was regarded as the first city of Asia Minor.—Of the cities +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_161" id="Page_161">[Pg 161]</a></span>on the islands, Samos was the most important, for its trade, +and for its naval power. The period of its splendour was under +the reign of the tyrant Polycrates, 540—523, whose sway extended +over the sea and islets of the neighbourhood. Syloson, +brother to the tyrant, having by the assistance of the Persians, +517, obtained possession of Samos, the island was almost depopulated. +Soon afterwards Samos became dependent upon the +Athenians, who in 440 introduced a democratic form of government, +and made it the rendezvous for her troops and fleets +during the war with Sparta.—Chios was scarcely inferior to Samos, +either in power or wealth. It submitted to the Persian +yoke with the rest of the Ionian colonies; but was so powerful, +that in 500, at the insurrection of Aristagoras, ninety-eight sail +of the combined fleet belonged to Chios. After the defeat of +Xerxes, 469, it entered into the Athenian league, from which it +endeavoured to secede in the Peloponnesian war, 412. The +naval power of the Chians was still considerable; and those +islanders had the high honour of not suffering prosperity to inflate +them with overweening ambition.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">F. G. Rambach</span>, <i>De Mileto ejusque coloniis</i>, 1790, 4to.</p> + +<p>3. The Dorian colonies. These were situated in Asia Minor, +upon the southern coast of Caria, and in the islands of Cos and +Rhodes, but were all planted at a later period than the Ionian +colonies, and, no doubt, were the result of successive migrations. +The Dorians appear to have gradually spread beyond Peloponnesus, +over the islands of the Archipelago to the Asiatic coast: +in Rhodes they erected the cities of Ialyssus, Camirus, and Lindus; +in Cos a city of the same name; on the main land two +cities, Halicarnassus and Cnidus. These six ancient colonies +had, like the Ionians, one common sanctuary, the temple of +Apollo Triopius, where they celebrated their festivals and held +their deliberative assemblies. Halicarnassus, however, was afterwards +excluded from the confederation. They remained independent +until the Persian period, although the constitutions of +the separate cities were subject to violent revolutions; thus at +Cnidus the oligarchy was converted into a democracy; Halicarnassus +was likewise generally subject to the Carian sovereigns, +among whom Mausolus and Artemisia are names familiar to all.—The +three cities in Rhodes appear never to have grown to any +importance; that of Rhodes, not built till after the irruption of +Xerxes into Greece, 480, soon eclipsed the others: its flourish<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_162" id="Page_162">[Pg 162]</a></span>ing +period began after the death of Alexander. At no period of +early history could the Dorian colonies, or those of the Æolians, +compete in wealth and commerce with the Ionians.</p></div> + +<p>7. The shores of the Propontis, the Black sea, +and the Palus Mæotis, were likewise covered +with Grecian settlements. Nearly all these were +colonies of the city of Miletus alone, and were, +without exception, all of them the marts of a +prosperous trade. Although the date of each +cannot be precisely defined, they must have arisen +between the eighth and sixth centuries before the +Christian era. They were not only sovereigns of +the Black sea, but likewise extended their trade +over the whole of southern Russia, and eastward +to the regions beyond the Caspian sea; that is, +to great Bukharia.</p> + +<div class="sblockquot"><p>On the Propontis stood Lampsacus (adjoining the Hellespont) +and Cyzicus, on an island connected with the continent by means +of bridges. The latter town certainly was one of the most beautiful +and flourishing cities of Asia; but this did not occur until +the Roman age, and was in consequence of the fostering protection +of the Romans.—Opposite to Cyzicus, on the Thracian coast, +was Perinthus, subsequently called Heraclea; at the mouth of +the Thracian Bosporus stood Byzantium, over against which +was Chalcedon. The prosperity of all these towns affords sufficient +proof of the skill with which sites were chosen for the establishment +of colonies.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Heyne</span>, <i>Antiquities Byzantina: Commentationes duæ</i>, 1809. +The first of which contains the fragments of the earlier history of +Byzantium.</p> + +<p>The colonies of the Black sea were: on the southern coast of +Bithynia, Heraclea, in the territory of the Maryandini. This +place preserved its republican constitution amid frequent broils +and revolutions, brought about by the oligarchic and democratic +factions, until about B. C. 370, when the democrats having gained +the upper hand, a path was opened to Clearchus, who became tyrant, +and abrogated the senate, (βουλὴ;) the family of the tyrant +continued for a long time in possession of power, after he himself<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_163" id="Page_163">[Pg 163]</a></span> +had been murdered by two disciples of Plato.—In Paphlagonia +was Sinope, the most powerful of all the Grecian settlements on +the Black sea, of which it long held the sovereignty. The freedom +and independence of this place lasted to about 100, when it +fell under the dominion of the kings of Pontus, and afterwards +under that of the Romans. The principal source from which it +derived its wealth were the shoals of migratory fish +(πηλάμυδες,) +which, issuing from the Palus Mæotis, spread along the shore of +the Black sea down to the Thracian Bosporus.—In Pontus was +Amisus, the mother city of Trapezus, and which shared the fate +of Sinope.—On the eastern coast stood the cities of Phasis, Dioscurias, +and Phanagoria: this last was the principal mart of the +slave trade, and, during the Macedonian period, the staple for +Indian commodities imported across the Oxus and the Caspian +sea.—In the Chersonesus Taurica stood Panticapæum, capital +city of the little Grecian kingdom of Bosporus, whose kings +(among whom Spartacus, about 439, and more especially Leucon, +about 350, are celebrated) remained in alliance with Athens till +Mithridates the Great laid there the foundation of his dominion.—On +the northern coast was the city of Tanais, on the mouth of +a river of the same name at the bottom of the Palus Mæotis. +Olbia was situated at the mouth of the Borysthenes. These two +places, and Olbia in particular, were of the highest importance +for the inland trade, which issuing from thence in a northern and +easterly direction, was extended to the very centre of Asia.—The +colonies of the western coast, such as Apollonia, Tomi, and +Salmidessus, were of less notoriety.</p></div> + +<p>8. The coast of Thrace and Macedonia, washed +by the Ægæan sea, was likewise covered with +Grecian colonies, from various cities, and especially +from Corinth and Athens. The Athenians +having obtained in the Persian war the sovereignty +of the sea, endeavoured to establish their +dominion in this part of the world; hence the +cities in that quarter were closely implicated in +the quarrels and wars excited, first by the jealousy +between Sparta and Athens, and afterwards by +that which sprang up between Athens and Macedonia, +in the reign of Philip.</p> +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_164" id="Page_164">[Pg 164]</a></span></p> +<div class="sblockquot"><p>On the Thracian coast of the Chersonesus, regarded as the +key of Europe, and ranging along the Hellespont, were the +towns of Sestos, Cardia, and Ægospotamos; farther to the west +stood Maronea and Abdera, the latter a colony of Teos. Of far +greater importance, however, were the towns on the Macedonian +coast, Amphipolis, Chalcis, Olynthus, Potidæa. The first of these +towns, founded about B. C. 464, was a colony from Athens, which +endeavoured to keep it in a state of dependence. Chalcis was a +colony from a city of the same name in Eubœa. In 470 it was +dependent on Athens; but in 432, the inhabitants having raised +the standard of rebellion, forsook their houses and voluntarily +withdrew to Olynthus.—Olynthus derived its name from the +founder, one of the sons of Hercules: in the course of time it +ranked among the most powerful cities of Thrace, although it was +tributary to the Athenians. It took a share in the war between +Athens and Sparta, and continued to be a flourishing city until +348, when it was taken by Philip of Macedon, and destroyed.—Potidæa +was a colony of Corinth, from which it received annual magistrates, +(ἐπιδημιούργοι,) +having become tributary to Athens +after the Persian war, it revolted in 431: obliged to yield to the +Athenian arms, its inhabitants were expelled, and their place supplied +by an Athenian colony. It now became a possession of +Athens, and remained so till it was taken by Philip in 358.</p></div> + +<p>9. The Grecian settlements westward of the +mother country were, almost without exception, +made at a later period than those in the Ægean +and Black seas: they reached nevertheless to an +equal degree of splendour; and though their +trade was not so extensive, it was equally profitable: +these colonies not only rivalled those we +have above described, in wealth, but surpassed +them in power, being generally characterized by +the wisdom and prudence displayed in their respective +constitutions. The foundation of most of +them may be dated between B. C. 750 and 650; +consequently at a period when all the cities in +the mother country had already been republicanized: +and at a time when there could be no lack<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_165" id="Page_165">[Pg 165]</a></span> +of domestic troubles, which would furnish sufficient +motives for emigration.</p> + +<div class="sblockquot"><p>1. Grecian settlements in Lower Italy. The most numerous +and important of these were scattered around the bay of Tarentum; +they extended likewise along the western coast of Italy up +to Naples. These colonies were variously traced to the Dorian, +Achæan, and Ionian families: they were likewise distinguished +by political characteristics, the government in the Dorian settlements +being generally more aristocratic, in the rest more democratic: +it must be observed, however, that, with respect to the +various revolutions which the respective constitutions underwent, +it is hardly possible to give any general information, excepting +so far as regards the earliest times. Of Dorian origin were Tarentum, +and its colonies Heraclea and Brundusium. Of Achæan +origin were Sybaris and Croton, together with the colonies of the +latter, Laus, Metapontum, Posidonia; which last founded in its +turn, Terina, Caulonia, and Pandosia. Of Ionian origin were +Thurii, (built on the site where Sybaris had formerly stood,) +Rhegium, Elea, Cumæ, and its branch settlement of Neapolis. +Locri Epizephyrii, a colony of the Locri Ozolæ, may be regarded +as an Æolian city. The most remarkable of these cities in respect +of general history are:</p> + +<p><i>a.</i> Tarentum, founded by the Parthenii, from Sparta, about +707. It waged several wars with the aboriginal tribes in the +vicinity, the Messapians, Lucanians, etc. and grew to be one of the +richest and most powerful of the maritime towns. The brilliant +period of Tarentum appears to have fallen between 500 and 400. +Excess of wealth subsequently introduced luxury, which extinguished +the national spirit. Nevertheless Tarentum preserved +its independence until 273, when, after the war with Pyrrhus, +it fell under the Roman dominion. The constitution was originally +a moderate aristocracy; but was commuted soon after the +Persian war into a democracy, which was, however, curbed by +prudent restrictions. Tarentum had its senate, (βουλὴ,) without +whose consent war could not be undertaken; its magistrates +elected half by lot, half by majority of votes given in the assemblies +of the commons. Among its most celebrated citizens is +reckoned the Pythagoræan Archytas, who, after the year B. C. +390, was frequently at the head of the state, filling the offices of +general and supreme magistrate. The constitution appears to +have preserved its form until the Roman period, although the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_166" id="Page_166">[Pg 166]</a></span> +national spirit was greatly corrupted by a luxury almost exceeding +the limits of credibility.</p> + +<p><i>b.</i> Croton, founded 710 by the Achæans, under the guidance +of Myscellus from Rhype in Achaia. This city must have attained +to very great power during the very first century of its +existence; since in the battle of Sagra against the Locrians, +which may with probability be dated about 600, the Crotoniates +were able to set on foot an army of 120,000 men. Neither does +the defeat which they there suffered appear to have debilitated +the settlement for any length of time; for in 510, with nearly +the same number of forces, they attacked the Sybarites, and destroyed +their city. The original constitution was, no doubt, a +moderate democracy; but we are unacquainted with the details +of its organization. Pythagoras was the reformer of customs, +moral and political, not only at Croton, but in several other of +the Italico-Greek cities. This philosopher arrived at Croton +about 540, and there laid the foundation of the league or secret +association named after him; the object of which was, not to +change the form of government in the Italian cities, but to create +men capable of managing the helm of state. This reform and +influence of the Pythagoræans lasted about thirty years, when +their order underwent the same fate as generally befalls a secret +association founded with a political view. Probably about 510 +the Pythagoræean league was broken asunder by the democratic +faction under Cylon. The consequence was universal anarchy, +not only in Croton, where, about 494, a certain Clinias usurped +the supreme power, but likewise in the other cities: these disorders, +however, were quelled by the intervention of the Achæans; +and the Achæan colonies not only adopted the laws of their +mother cities, but likewise soon afterwards signed a league in the +temple of Jupiter Homorius, about 460: it appears that Croton, +having already recovered from the blow it had received, was at +the head of this league. In this happy posture affairs remained +till about 400. After the kings of Syracuse had commenced +their attacks on Magna Græcia, Croton was repeatedly captured; +as in B. C. 389 by Dionysius I. and about 321; and again, in +299, by Agathocles. Finally, after the war with Pyrrhus, 277, +it became dependent on Rome.</p> + +<p><i>c.</i> Sybaris was founded about 720, like the foregoing, by the +Achæans, who were mingled with Trœzenians: this settlement +existed till 510, when it was destroyed by Croton. Soon after +its foundation it became one of the most extensive, populous, and<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_167" id="Page_167">[Pg 167]</a></span> +luxurious cities, so much so, that the effeminacy of the Sybarites +became proverbial. Sybaris appears to have been at the height of +her prosperity from about 600—550; she then possessed a respectable +territory, comprising four of the neighbouring tribes, +and twenty-five cities or places. The extraordinary fertility of +the soil, and the admission of all strangers to the rights of citizenship, +tended to increase the population so much, that Sybaris, +in the war against Croton, is said to have brought into the field +300,000 men. The vast wealth possessed, not only by Sybaris, +but by the other cities in this quarter, was probably derived from +the great trade in oil and wine carried on with Africa and Gaul: +that such was the case at Agrigentum we know with certainty. +The constitution of Sybaris was likewise, it appears, a moderate +democracy: towards the year 510 one Telys took possession of +the supreme power, and drove out five hundred of the optimates, +who fled to Croton. The Crotoniates received the exiles, and +the Sybarites having put to death their ambassadors, a war was +kindled between the two cities, and ended in 510 by the defeat +of the Sybarites and the destruction of their city.</p> + +<p><i>d.</i> Thurii, founded near the site of ancient Sybaris in 446 by +Athens, although the inhabitants were of mixed origin; a circumstance +which gave rise at first to many domestic broils, the +citizens disputing as to who was the real founder; at last, 433, +the Delphian oracle declared the city to be a colony of Apollo. +The constitution was at first a moderate democracy; but this was +soon converted into an oligarchy, all the power and the best lands +having been taken possession of by the Sybarite families who +had joined the settlement. The Sybarites were, however, again +expelled, and Thurii grew into importance by the confluence of +several new colonies out of Greece; its constitution was meliorated +by the adoption of the laws of Charondas of Catana. +The principal enemies of the Thurians were the Lucanians, by +whom they were beaten, 390. The desultory attacks of that +tribe obliged them, 286, to crave the assistance of the Romans, +which soon after afforded the Tarentines an excuse for attacking +them. Thurii now formed a part of the Roman dependencies, +and after suffering much in the Carthaginian wars, was at last, +B. C. 190, occupied by a Roman colony.</p> + +<p><i>e.</i> Locri Epizephyrii. The question of their origin is subject +to dispute: the causes of this uncertainty are, that here, as in +most other of the cities, various bands of colonists arrived at various +times, and those bands themselves were composed of a mix<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_168" id="Page_168">[Pg 168]</a></span>ture +of several Grecian stocks. The chief colony was sent out, +B. C. 683, by the Locri Ozolæ. After suffering much from violent +internal commotions, Locri found, about 660, a lawgiver in +Zaleucus, whose institutions remained more than two centuries +inviolate. The constitution was aristocratic, the administration +being in the hands of a hundred families. The supreme magistrate +was called cosmopolis. The senate consisted of a thousand +members, probably elected from the commons, with whom resided, +either wholly or partially, the legislative power. The +maintenance of the laws was, as in other Grecian cities, committed +to the nomophylaces. Locri was certainly neither so +wealthy nor so luxurious as the cities above mentioned; but she +was honourably distinguished by the good manners and quiet +conduct of her citizens, who were contented with their government. +The flourishing period of this city lasted till the time of +Dionysius II. who having been driven out of Syracuse, fled with +his dependents to Locri, the native country of his mother: by +his insolence and licentiousness of manners the city was brought +to the verge of ruin; after his return to Syracuse, 347, the Locrians +avenged their wrongs upon his family. Locri afterward +maintained its recovered independence until the time of Pyrrhus, +who, 277, placed a garrison in the town; the Locrians, however, +put the troops to the sword, and passed over to the Roman side: +the city was in consequence sacked by Pyrrhus in 275. From +that time Locri remained a confederate town dependent on Rome, +and suffered much in the second Punic war.</p> + +<p><i>f.</i> Rhegium, a colony from Chalcis in Eubœa, 668: here also +the government was aristocratic, the supreme power being in the +hands of a council of a thousand men, selected only from Messenian +families, which had joined the original settlers. Hence arose +an oligarchy, of which Anaxilaus took advantage to assume the +sole dominion, 494, in which he was succeeded by his sons. These +having been driven out, 464, commotions ensued, which, after a +time, were quelled by adopting the laws of Charondas. Rhegium +now enjoyed a period of happiness, which lasted till B. C. +392, when it was captured and destroyed by Dionysius I. Dionysius +II. restored it in some measure; but in 281 the city was +taken possession of by a Roman legion, who being sent for the +purpose of garrisoning the place, murdered the inhabitants. The +soldiers were punished with death, 271; but Rhegium thenceforth +remained in a state of dependence upon Rome.</p> + +<p><i>g.</i> Cumæ, founded as early as 1030, from Chalcis in Eubœa.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_169" id="Page_169">[Pg 169]</a></span> +This city attained at an early period to a high degree of power +and prosperity; its territory being of considerable extent, its +navy respectable, and Neapolis and Zancle (or Messana) among +its colonies. The government was a moderate aristocracy: this +constitution was subverted about 544, by the tyrant Aristodemus; +but restored after his assassination. Cumæ was subject to +repeated annoyances from the petty Italian nations; and in 564 +she was invaded and defeated by the Etruscans and Daunians +combined; in 474 she beat the Etruscans at sea: but in 420 +was captured by the Campanians; together with whom she became +a dependent of Rome in 345. Cumæ, nevertheless, in consequence +of its harbour of Puteoli, preserved a share of importance, +even under the Roman dominion.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Heyne</span>, <i>Prolusiones 16 de civitatum Græcarum per magnam +Græciam et Siciliam institutis et legibus</i>. Collected in his <i>Opuscula</i>, +vol. vii.</p> + +<p>2. Grecian settlements in Sicily. These occupied the eastern +and southern shores of the island: they were founded in the +same period as those of Magna Græcia, and belonged partly to +the Dorian, partly to the Ionian stocks. Of Dorian origin were +Messana and Tyndaris, from Messene; Syracuse, who in her +turn founded Acræ, Casmenæ, and Camarina, from Corinth; +Hybla and Thapsus from Megara; Segesta from Thessaly; Heraclea +Minoa from Crete; Gela, which founded Agrigentum, +from Rhodes; and Lipara, on the small island of that name, +from Cnidus. Of Ionian origin were Naxus, the founder of +Leontini; Catana and Tauromenium, from Chalcis; Zancle, +(after its occupation by Messenian colonists, called Messana,) +founded by Cumæ, and in its turn founder of Himera and Mylæ. +The most remarkable of these towns in ancient history are:</p> + +<p><i>a.</i> Syracuse, the most powerful of all the Greek colonies, and +consequently that concerning which our information is the most +copious. The history of Syracuse, on which, as that town was +for a long time mistress of the greatest part of the island, depends +nearly the whole history of Sicily, comprises four periods. +1. From the foundation, B. C. 735, to Gelon, 484; a space of +two hundred and fifty-one years. During this period Syracuse +was a republic, but does not appear to have risen to any very +great height of power: yet she founded the colonies of Acræ, +665, Casmenæ, 645, and Camarina, 600. The assistance of her +parent city, Corinth, and Corcyra, alone prevented her falling a +prey to Hippocrates, sovereign of Gela; and even then she was<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_170" id="Page_170">[Pg 170]</a></span> +obliged to cede Camarina, 497. The constitution was aristocratic; +but not free from domestic troubles. The administration +was in the hands of the opulent, +(γαμόροι;) but these were, about +485, expelled by the democratic faction and their own mutinous +slaves. They fled to Casmenæ, and by the help of Gelon, sovereign +of Gela, were restored to their homes; Gelon retaining the +power in his own hands. 2. From Gelon to the expulsion of +Thrasybulus, 484—466. The three brothers, Gelon, Hiero, and +Thrasybulus, successively ruled over Syracuse. Gelon, 484—477. +He was at once the founder of the greatness of Syracuse, +and of his own power: this he effected partly by increasing the +population, bringing in new inhabitants from other Greek cities, +and partly by the great victory he won over the Carthaginians, +in alliance with the Persians, 480. At this early period Syracuse +was so powerful, both by sea and by land, as to justify Gelon +in claiming the office of generalissimo of Greece, when Sparta +and Athens came to solicit his aid. His beneficent reign not only +gained him the love of the Syracusans during his life, but likewise +procured him heroic honours after death at the hands of a +grateful people. He died in 477, and was succeeded by his +brother Hiero I. who had till then ruled over Gela. The reign +of this prince was splendid, his court was brilliant, and a fostering +protection was extended to arts and sciences. Hiero's power +strengthened by the establishment of new citizens, both in Syracuse +and its subordinate towns of Catana and Naxus, whose original +inhabitants are translated to Leontini.—Wars waged against +Thero, 476, and his son Thrasidæus, tyrants of Agrigentum: +after the expulsion of Thrasidæus, that town forms an alliance +with Syracuse; the Syracusan fleet sent to the assistance of +Cumæ, wins a victory over the Etruscans. Hiero, dying in 467, +was succeeded by his brother Thrasybulus, who, after a short +reign of eight months, was expelled for his cruelty by the Syracusans +and the confederate cities. 3. From the expulsion of +Thrasybulus to the elevation of Dionysius I.; Syracuse a free +democratic state: from 466—405. Reestablishment of republican +forms of government in Syracuse and the other Grecian cities; +accompanied, however, with many commotions and civil wars, +proceeding from the expulsion of the new citizens and the restoration +of the ancient inhabitants to their property.—Increasing +power and prosperity of Syracuse, who is now at the head of the +confederate Grecian cities in the island, and soon endeavours to +convert her precedence into supremacy. The new democratic<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_171" id="Page_171">[Pg 171]</a></span> +constitution quickly suffers from the diseases incident to that +form of government; a vain attempt is made to apply a remedy +by the introduction of the petalismus, B. C. 454; in the mean +time the Siculi, aboriginal inhabitants of Sicily, unite in closer +league under their leader Ducetius; attempting to expel the +Greeks, 451, they engage the Syracusans in reiterated wars; the +arms of Syracuse are successful, her authority is confirmed by the +subjection of the ambitious Agrigentum, 446, and by her naval +victory over the Etruscans. First but unsuccessful attempt of +the Athenians to interpose in the domestic affairs of Sicily, by +siding with Leontini against Syracuse, 427; eleven years afterward +occurs the great expedition against Syracuse, 415—413, +caused by the disputes between Segesta and Selinus; the expedition +ends in the total rout of the Athenian fleet and army, (see +below,) and the power of Syracuse reaches its zenith. A constitutional +reform takes place, 412, brought about by Diocles, +whose laws were subsequently adopted by several other of the +Sicilian cities. The magistrates were chosen by lot. The rest +of the laws, which appear to have had reference to the criminal +code, were the production of a committee over which Diocles presided; +these enactments were so beneficial to Syracuse, that the +author of them was honoured with a temple after his death. Yet +as early as 410, a renewal of the differences between Segesta and +Selinus afforded a pretext for war with Carthage, from whom the +Segestani had besought assistance; by this war the whole state +of affairs in Sicily was subverted. The rapid strides made by +the Carthaginians, who, under the command of Hannibal the son +of Gisgo, took, 409, Selinus and Himera, and even Agrigentum, +406, engendered domestic factions and commotions within Syracuse; +and amid those disorders the crafty Dionysius succeeded +first in obtaining the office of general, and then, after supplanting +his colleagues, the sovereign power of Syracuse, 405. 4. From +Dionysius I. to the Roman occupation, 405—212. Dionysius I. +405—368. Ominous commencement of his reign, by a defeat at +Gela and the mutiny of his troops.—A plague wasting the Carthaginian +army, he is enabled to patch up a peace, B. C. 405, by +which it is agreed, that Carthage, besides her territory in the +island, shall retain all the conquests made during the war, together +with Gela and Camarina. But the project of expelling +the Carthaginians out of Sicily, in order to subject the whole +island, and to fall upon Magna Grecia, kindles a long series of +wars both with Carthage and the cities of Magna Grecia. Second +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_172" id="Page_172">[Pg 172]</a></span>war with Carthage against Hannibal and Himilco, 398—392. +Dionysius loses all that he before had conquered, and is himself +besieged in Syracuse; but a plague once more attacking the +Carthaginians, rescues him from his predicament, 396; deeds of +hostility continued notwithstanding till 392, when a peace was +signed, by which Carthage ceded the town of Tauromenium.—From +394, desultory attacks on the confederate Grecian cities in +Lower Italy, particularly on Rhegium, the chief seat of the +Syracusan emigrants, which, after repeated invasions, is at last +compelled to yield, 387. Third war with Carthage, 383, against +Mago; Dionysius wins a victory, which is however followed by +a greater defeat; and the war ends the same year by the adoption +of a peace, according to which each party is to retain what +he then had; the Halycus is fixed as the boundary line; so that +Selinus and a portion of the territory of Agrigentum remain in +the hands of the Carthaginians. Fourth war: inroad upon the +Carthaginian states; it ends, however, in the signing of a treaty. +The decision of these wars generally depended on the side taken +by the Siculi, the most powerful aboriginal race in Sicily. Dionysius +I. having died by poison, 368, was succeeded by Dionysius +II. his eldest son by one of his two wives, Doris of Locri, +but under the guardianship of his step-uncle Dio, the brother of +Dionysius's other wife Aristomache. Neither Dio or his friend +Plato, who was three times invited to Syracuse, were able to improve +the character of a prince whose mind had been corrupted +by bad education.—Dio is banished, 360. He returns, 357, and, +in the absence of Dionysius, takes possession of Syracuse, all but +the citadel. Dionysius now has recourse to stratagem; he excites +in the city distrust of Dio, and foments dissension between him +and his general Heraclidas; meanwhile he himself withdraws to +Italy, taking with him his treasures. Dio is compelled to retire +from the city, which is sacked by the troops garrisoned in the +citadel; hereupon the Syracusans themselves fetch back Dio; he +possesses himself of the citadel and wishes to restore the republican +government, but soon falls a victim to party spirit, being +murdered by Callipus, B. C. 354, who usurped the government +till 353, when he is driven out by Hipparinus, a brother of Dionysius, +who keeps possession till 350. After ten years' absence, +Dionysius II. by a sudden attack, becomes once more master of +the city, 346. The tyranny of this prince, and the treachery of +Icetas of Gela, whom the Syracusans called in to their assistance, +but who leagues himself with the Carthaginians, and the for<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_173" id="Page_173">[Pg 173]</a></span>midable +attempts of the latter, compel the citizens to apply to +the mother city Corinth: Corinth sends to their assistance Timoleon +with a small force, 345. Rapid change of affairs wrought +by Timoleon: he beats Icetas and the Carthaginians: in 343 +Dionysius is forced to deliver up the citadel and evacuate the +country; he retires to Corinth, where he leads a private life. +Restoration of the republican government, not only in Syracuse, +where the laws of Diocles are reinstituted, but also in the rest of +the Grecian cities: the revolution confirmed by a great victory +over the Carthaginians, 340. In the midst of the execution of +his plans Timoleon dies, 337, the most splendid example of a +republican that history affords! From 337—317; almost a chasm +in the history of Syracuse. Wars with Agrigentum; the usurpation +of Sosistratus, disturbs the peace, both external and internal. +The character of the Syracusans was already too foully corrupted +for one to expect that liberty could again be established among +them, without the personal superintendence of a Timoleon. They +deserved the fate that befell them, when, in 317, that daring adventurer +Agathocles assumed the sovereign power, which he +maintained till 289. Renewal of the plan for expelling the +Carthaginians from the island, and subjecting Magna Græcia. +Hence arises a new war with Carthage, in which Agathocles is +defeated, 311, and besieged in Syracuse: by a bold stroke he +passes over into Africa, accompanied by part of his fleet and +army, and there with general success prosecutes the war until +307: the insurrection of most of the Grecian cities in Sicily recalls +him from the theatre of war; his views in Africa are consequently +defeated. In the peace of 306 both parties retain what +they had at the beginning of the war. The wars in Italy are +confined to the sacking of Croton, and a victory won over the +Bruttii; and are rather predatory expeditions than regular wars. +In the year 289, Agathocles died by poison, and his murderer, +Mænon, seized the power; he is expelled by the general Icetas, +and flies over to the Carthaginians. Icetas rules as pretor till +278, when, in his absence, the government is usurped by Thynion, +who meets with a rival in the person of Sosistratus; in the +mean while the mercenaries of Agathocles (the Mamertini) possess +themselves of Messana, and the Carthaginians press forward +to the very gates of Syracuse. The Syracusans invite Pyrrhus +of Epirus over from Italy; that prince takes possession of the +whole of Sicily as far as Lilybæum; but having by his haughtiness +incurred general hatred and disgust, he is obliged to eva<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_174" id="Page_174">[Pg 174]</a></span>cuate +the island, B. C. 275. The Syracusans now appoint +Hiero, a descendant of the ancient royal family, to the office of +general: after defeating the Mamertini he is called to the +throne, 269. At the breaking out of the war between Carthage +and Rome, the new king forsakes his alliance with Carthage, +and, passing over to the Roman side, thereby purchases a long +and tranquil reign until 215, when he dies of old age. Under +this wise prince Syracuse enjoyed a degree of happiness and +prosperity which none of her demagogues had been able to effect. +After his death the Carthaginian party became predominant; +Hieronymus the grandson of Hiero is murdered, 214, and Hannibal's +intrigues enable the Carthaginian party to keep the upper +hand, by contriving to place at the head of affairs his friends +Hippocrates and Epicydes, who entangle Syracuse in a war with +Rome; and the city, after a long siege, celebrated by the inventions +of Archimedes, is brought to ruin, 212.—The history of +Syracuse is a practical compendium of politics: what other state +ever underwent so many and such various revolutions?</p> + +<p>The history of Syracuse was at an early period disfigured by +partiality. For the topography, see † <span class="smcap">Bartel's</span> +<i>Letters from Calabria and Sicily</i>, vol. iii. with a plan.</p> + +<p>† <span class="smcap">A. Arnold</span>, <i>History of Syracuse, from its foundation to the +overthrow of liberty by Dionysius</i>. Gotha, 1816.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Mitford</span>, <i>History of Greece</i>: the fourth volume contains the +history of Syracuse, and a defence of the elder Dionysius. It +would seem that even now it is difficult to write this history in +an impartial spirit.</p> + +<p><i>b.</i> Agrigentum, a colony of Gela, founded 582. The first city +of Sicily next to Syracuse, of which it was frequently the rival. +Its first constitution was that of the mother city; that is to say, +Dorian or aristocratic. It fell, however, soon after its foundation, +under the dominion of tyrants; the first of whom noticed in history +is Phalaris, who flourished probably 566—534. He was +succeeded by Alcmanes, 534—488, who was followed by Alcander, +an indulgent ruler, in whose reign the wealth of Agrigentum +seems to have already been considerable. More renowned +than the foregoing was Theron, the contemporary and stepfather +of Gelon; he ruled from B. C. 488—472: in conjunction with +Gelon he routed the Carthaginian army, 480, and subjected Himera. +His son and successor, Thrasydæus, was beaten by Hiero +and expelled, 470; whereupon the Agrigentines, as allies of +Syracuse, introduced a democracy. The period following, 470<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_175" id="Page_175">[Pg 175]</a></span>—405, +is that in which Agrigentum, blessed with political freedom, +attained the highest degree of public prosperity. She was one of +the most opulent and luxurious cities in the world, and in the +display of public monuments one of the most magnificent. For +her wealth she was indebted to the vast trade in oil and wine +that she carried on with Africa and Gaul, in neither of which +were those productions hitherto naturalized. In the year 446 +the Agrigentines, excited by envy, fell upon the Syracusans, but +were defeated. In the war with Athens they took no share; but +in the Carthaginian invasion of Sicily, 405, Agrigentum was +taken and destroyed; from this blow she recovered but slowly, +and never effectually. By Timoleon she was, in some measure, +restored, 340; and under Agathocles, 307, was able to head the +cities combined against him, but was beaten. After the death +of Agathocles, a tyrant, by the name of Phintias, took possession +of the sovereign power; and was attacked, 278, by Icetas of +Syracuse. At the breaking out of the first Punic war, Agrigentum +was used by the Carthaginians as a military depôt; but was +taken by the Romans as early as 262.</p> + +<p><i>c.</i> The fate of the other Sicilian cities was more or less dependent +on that of Agrigentum and Syracuse: they all had originally +republican forms of government; but though the Ionian +colonies had a celebrated legislator in the person of Charondas, +(probably about 660,) they had the same fortune with the rest, +of being frequently oppressed by tyrants, either from among their +own citizens, or by those of Syracuse, who often used to drive +out the old inhabitants, and introduce a new population more devoted +to their interest: hence must have sprung manifold wars. +The foregoing history shows how grievously they likewise suffered +in the wars between Syracuse and Carthage. Following the +dates of their respective foundations, they may be thus arranged: +Zancle, (after 664, known by the name of Messana,) the earliest, +though of uncertain date; Naxus, 736; Syracuse, Hybla, 735; +Leontini, Catana, 730; Gela, 690; Acræ, B. C. 665; Casmenæ, +645; Himera, 639; Selinus, 630; Agrigentum, 582. The +dates of the rest cannot be ascertained with any degree of +accuracy.</p> + +<p>3. On the other islands and coasts of the Mediterranean we +meet with various insulated Grecian settlements; in Sardinia, +the cities Garalis and Olbia: the date of their foundation unknown; +in Corsica, Alaria, (or Alalia,) a colony of Phocæans +founded, 561; hither the inhabitants of the mother city betook +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_176" id="Page_176">[Pg 176]</a></span>themselves in 541; and subsequently, after the naval engagement +with the Etruscans and Carthaginians, withdrew, some to +Rhegium, others to Massilia, 536.</p> + +<p>4. On the coast of Gaul stood Massilia, founded by the Phocæans, +who had been driven out of Corsica after the above mentioned +naval engagement, 536; or rather, there was on the same +site an old settlement which was now increased. Massilia rapidly +grew in wealth and power. Our information respecting +the wars she waged on the sea against Carthage and the Etruscans +is but of a general kind. Her territory on the main land, +although rich in wine and oil, was limited in extent; she established, +nevertheless, several colonies along the shores of Spain +and Gaul, among which Antipolis, Nicæa, and Olbia are the best +known. The trade of Massilia was carried on partly by sea, and +partly by land, through the interior of Gaul. The constitution was +a moderate aristocracy. The chief power was in the hands of six +hundred individuals; the members of this council were called +timuchi, they held their places for life, were obliged to be married +men with families, and descended at least to the third generation +from citizens. At the head of this council stood fifteen +men, three of whom were chief magistrates. As early as 218 +Massilia was in alliance with Rome, under whose fostering protection +she grew in prosperity; her freedom was preserved to her +until the war between Pompey and Cæsar; having sided with +the former, she was stormed, 49, by Cæsar's army. She soon retrieved +herself, and, under the reign of Augustus, Massilia was +the seat of literature and philosophy, in which public lectures +were there given as at Athens.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Aug. Bruekner</span>, <i>Historia Reipublicæ Massiliensium</i>. Gotting. +1826. A prize essay.</p> + +<p>5. On the Spanish coast stood Saguntum, +(Ζακυνθὸς,) +a colony from the island of Zacynthus; the date of its foundation is undetermined. +It became opulent by its commerce; but at the +opening of the second Punic war, B. C. 219, was destroyed by +Hannibal, as being an ally of Rome.</p> + +<p>6. On the coast of Africa lay Cyrene, founded at the suggestion +of the Delphic oracle in 631, by the island of Thera. The +constitution was at first monarchical. Kings: Battus I. the +founder, 631—591. In whose family the sceptre remained. +Arcesilaus I. <i>d.</i> 575. Under the reign of his successor, Battus +II. surnamed the happy, (<i>d.</i> 554,) the colony was much strengthened +by new comers from Greece. The Libyans, bereaved of +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_177" id="Page_177">[Pg 177]</a></span>their lands, seek for help at the hands of Apries, who is defeated +by the Cyrenæans, 570, and in consequence loses his +crown.—Arcesilaus II. <i>d.</i> 550. Rebellion of his brothers, and +foundation of Barca, an independent town ruled by its own separate +kings. Secession of the Libyan subjects. He is put to +death by his brother or friend Learchus, who in his turn is poisoned +by Eryxo the widow of Arcesilaus. Her son, Battus III. +surnamed the lame, (<i>d.</i> about 529,) succeeds to the throne. The +royal power confined within narrow limits by the laws of Demonax +of Mantinea: the king retains nothing more than the revenue +and priestly office. His son Arcesilaus III. becomes of his +own accord tributary to the Persians; in conjunction with his +mother, Pheretime, he seeks to reestablish the regal supremacy, +but is expelled; nevertheless he regains possession of Cyrene. +In consequence of his cruelty he is assassinated in Barca, about +516. Pheretime seeks for help from the Persian satrap of Egypt, +Aryandes, who by craft gets possession of Barca; the inhabitants +are carried away and translated into Bactria, 512. Soon after +Pheretime dies. It seems probable that another Battus IV. and +Arcesilaus IV. must have reigned at Cyrene, to whom Pindar's +fourth and fifth Pythian Odes are addressed: their history, however, +is veiled in obscurity. Cyrene then received a republican +constitution, probably somewhere about 450; but we are unacquainted +with the internal details of the government. Yet +though Plato was invited by the Cyrenæans to give them laws, +and though they had for their legislator Democles of Arcadia, +they appear never to have been blessed with a good and stable +constitution. Not only is mention often made of domestic troubles, +as in 400, when amid the uproar excited by Ariston most +of the aristocratic party were cut off; but we likewise frequently +meet with tyrants. Concerning the external affairs of this state +we know nothing but a few general facts relative to the border +wars with Carthage. Subsequently to Alexander, Cyrene became +a part of the Egyptian kingdom; so early as the reign of +Ptolemy I. it was added to that realm by his general Ophellas, +about B. C. 331. It now continued to receive various rulers +from the family of the Ptolemies (see below) until the reign of +Ptolemy Physcon, when it became a separate state, the bastard +son of that prince, Apion by name, having made it over to the +Romans, 97. Cyrene possessed a considerable share of trade, +consisting partly in the exportation of country produce, more especially +the Silphium, (Laser,) partly in a varied intercourse +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_178" id="Page_178">[Pg 178]</a></span>with Carthage, Ammonium, and thence with the interior of +Africa. The former splendour and importance of this city and +the neighbouring country are testified by an abundance of most +noble ruins; a more accurate research into which every friend of +antiquity must desire.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Hardion</span>, <i>Histoire de Cyrène</i>, in <i>Mém. de l'Académie des +Inscriptions</i>, t. iii.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">J. P. Thrige</span>, <i>Historia Cyrenes, inde a tempore quo condita +urbs est, usque ad ætatem, qua in provinciæ formam a Romanis +redacta est: particula prior, de initiis coloniæ Cyrenen deductæ, +et Cyrenes Battiadis regnantibus historia</i>. Havniæ, 1819. The +best work on Cyrene. It is hoped that the author will not disapppoint +our expectations of the second part, which is to contain +the period of republican government. [The whole was completed +in 1828. The learned and ingenious author has neglected no authority +whether ancient or modern, and is particularly cautious +and judicious in his researches.]</p> + +<p>A ray of light has lately, for the first time, been thrown on +the remains still found in Cyrenaica by <span class="smcap">Della Cella</span>, <i>Viaggio +di Tripoli</i>; translated by Spieker, in the † <i>Journal of the latest +travels by sea and by land</i>, Sept. 1820.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">W. Beechey</span>, <i>Proceedings to explore the northern coast of +Africa from Tripoli eastward</i>, 1827.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">F. R. Pacho</span>, <i>Relation d'un voyage à Marmarique et Cyrenaique</i>, +1828. A most accurate description.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">T. Ehrenberg</span>, <i>Travels through North Africa</i>, in the +years 1820—1825, by Dr. W. F. Hemprich and Dr. C. G. +Ehrenberg. Berlin, 1828.</p></div> + + +<hr style="width: 25%;" /> +<h2>THIRD PERIOD.</h2> + +<p class="cblockquot"><i>From the commencement of the Persian wars to the time of +Alexander the Great, B. C. 500—336.</i></p> + + +<div class="sblockquot"><p>Sources. The chief writers in this period are: For the history +of the Persian wars to the battle of Platææ, 479, Herodotus. +For the period between 479 and the breaking out of the Peloponnesian +war, we must, in the absence of contemporary authors,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_179" id="Page_179">[Pg 179]</a></span> +consider Diodorus Siculus as the principal authority.—The beginning +of the 11th book, which commences with the year 480, +(the 6th, 7th, 8th, 9th, and 10th books being lost,) to the middle +of the 12th; the chronology of this author, however, must in +several cases be rectified after Thucydides's summary in lib. i. +For the period of the Peloponnesian war, 431—410, the history +of Thucydides is the capital work; but it must be accompanied +by Diodorus, from the middle of the 12th book to the middle of +the 13th.—From the year 410 to the battle of Mantinea, 362, +the principal sources are the Hellenics of Xenophon, and occasionally +his Anabasis and Agesilaus; together with Diodorus, +from the middle of the 13th book to the end of the 15th. For +the years intervening from 362—336, no contemporary historian +has been preserved; Diodorus's 16th book must therefore here be +considered as the chief source: for the times of Philip, however, +recourse may likewise be had to the speeches of Demosthenes +and Æschines. The Lives of Plutarch and Nepos often touch +upon this period, but cannot be regarded as authentic sources; +of still less authority are the abridged documents given by Justin +and some others.</p> + +<p>The modern authors on this, the brilliant period of Greece, +are, of course, the same as have been enumerated above: (see +p. 118.) To whom must here be added:</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Potter</span>, <i>Archæologia Græca; or the Antiquities of Greece:</i> +2 vols. 8vo. Lond. 1722. Translated into German by J. J. Rambach, +3 vols. 1775.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Barthelemy</span>, <i>Voyage du Jeune Anacharsis en Grèce</i>. (Between +the years B. C. 362 and 338.) Paris, 1788, 5 vols. Accompanied +with charts and plans, illustrating the topography of +Athens, etc. This work is conspicuous for a rare union of good +taste and erudition; unattended, however, with an equal share +of critical acumen and a correct appreciation of antiquity.</p> + +<p>† <i>History of the Origin, Progress, and Fall of Science in +Greece and Rome</i>, by <span class="smcap">C. Meiners</span>. Gottingen, 1781. It contains +also a delineation of the political state of affairs; but does +not extend beyond the age of Philip.</p> + +<p>The principal works on the monuments of ancient Greece are:</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Le Roy</span>, <i>Les Ruines des plus beaux Monumens de la Grèce</i>. +Paris, 1758, 2nd edit. 1770, fol. The first in point of time; but +far surpassed by:</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">J. Stuart</span>, <i>The Antiquities of Athens measured and deli<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_180" id="Page_180">[Pg 180]</a></span>neated</i>; +3 vols. Lond. 1762: the 4th vol. published in 1816. +In beauty and accuracy of execution superior to all.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">R. Dalton</span>, <i>Antiquities and Views of Greece and Egypt</i>, +1691, fol. The Egyptian monuments are confined to those of +Lower Egypt.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">R. Chandler</span>, <i>Ionian Antiquities</i>. London, 1796, 1797, +2 vols. fol. A worthy companion to Stuart.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Choiseul Gouffier</span>, <i>Voyage pittoresque dans la Grèce</i>, +vol. i, 1779: vol. ii, 1809. Confined principally to the islands +and Asia Minor.</p></div> + +<div class="sidenote">Beneficial +effects of +the Persian +invasion.</div> + +<p>1. From a multitude of small states, never +united but continually distracted by civil broils—and +such at the beginning of this period were +the states of Greece—any thing important could +hardly be expected without the occurrence of +some external event, which, by rallying the divided +forces round one point, and directing them +toward one object, should hinder them from mutually +exhausting one another. It was the hostile +attempt of Persia that first laid the foundation of +the future splendour of Greece; certain states +then grew so rapidly in power, that upon their +particular history hinges the general history of all +the rest.</p> + +<div class="sblockquot"><p>Causes which led to the Persian war. Share taken by Athens +in the Ionian insurrection and firing of Sardes, B. C. 500. (see +above, p. 98.) Intrigues of Hippias, first with the satraps, and +afterwards at the Persian court itself.—First expedition, that of +Mardonius, thwarted by a storm, 493.</p></div> + +<div class="sidenote">Athens and +Sparta +alone reject +the demands +of Persia:<br /> +B. C. 491.</div> + +<p>2. Not even the summons to acknowledge the +Persian authority was sufficient to rouse the national +energy of the Greeks. All the islands, and +most of the states on the main land, submitted +to the yoke; Sparta and Athens alone boldly rejected +it. The Athenians, unassisted, under their +leader Miltiades, acquainted from his youth with<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_181" id="Page_181">[Pg 181]</a></span> +the Persians and their mode of warfare, and with +the superiority of the arms of his countrymen, became +the saviours of Greece.</p> + +<div class="sblockquot"><p>Quarrel of Athens and Sparta with Ægina, which sides with +the Persians, 491; and consequent deposition of Demaratus, king +of Sparta, by his colleague Cleomenes.</p> + +<p>Persian expedition of Datis and Artaphernes under the guidance +of Hippias: frustrated by the battle of Marathon, B. C. +Sept. 29, 490, and the failure of an attempt upon Athens.</p></div> + +<div class="sidenote">Expedition +against Paros +by Miltiades.</div> + +<p>3. The immediate consequence of this victory +was a naval expedition against the islands, more +particularly Paros, to which Miltiades, out of a +private grudge, persuaded the Athenians. It was +undertaken for the purpose of levying contributions; +and seems to have given the Athenians the +first idea of their subsequent dominion of the sea. +The Athenians punished Miltiades for the failure +of this expedition, although the effect of their own +folly; yet was this act of injustice a source of happiness +to Athens; as the fall of Miltiades made +room for the men who laid the solid foundation of +her glory and greatness.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">Internal +state of +Athens.</div> + +<p>4. As usual in every democratic state rising to +power, the history of Athens now becomes that +of eminent individuals, standing at the head of +affairs, as generals or demagogues. Themistocles, +who united to an astonishing degree in his own +person the most splendid talents of statesman and +general, with a spirit of intrigue, and even of +egotism; and Aristides, whose disinterestedness, +even in those days, was singular at Athens, were +the real founders of the power of this commonwealth. +Athens, however, was more indebted to +the first than to the latter.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_182" id="Page_182">[Pg 182]</a></span></p> + +<div class="sblockquot"><p>Rivalry of these two men, 490—486. While Themistocles at +the head of the Athenian fleet prosecutes the design of Miltiades +against the islands, the management of state affairs is confided to +Aristides. On the return, however, of Themistocles as conqueror, +Aristides is by ostracism banished Athens, 486. Themistocles +alone, at the head of affairs, pursues his plan for making Athens +a maritime power. In consequence of a war against the object +of popular hatred, Ægina, B. C. 484, he prevails on the Athenians +to devote the income from the mines to the formation of a +navy. While Athens is thus rising to power, Sparta suffers from +the insanity of one of her kings, Cleomenes, (succeeded in 482 by +his half brother Leonidas,) and the arrogance of the other, Leotychides.</p></div> + +<div class="sidenote">Second expedition +of +the Persians +defeated +by +Themistocles: +480.</div> + +<p>5. The glory of frustrating the second mighty +Persian invasion of Greece under Xerxes I. belongs +to Themistocles alone. Not only his great +naval victory off Salamis, but still more the manner +in which he contrived to work upon his countrymen, +proves him to have been the greatest +man of the age, and the deliverer of Greece, now +united by one common bond of interest.—All +national leagues are weak in themselves: yet how +strong may even the weakest be made when held +together by one great man, who knows how to animate +it with his own spirit!</p> + +<div class="sblockquot"><p>Themistocles' plan for the conduct of the war; first, a common +union of all the Hellenic states; a measure which succeeds to a +certain degree, the honour of the command being left to the +Spartans; secondly, the sea made the theatre of war.—Gallant +death of Leonidas with his three hundred Spartans and +seven hundred Thespians, July 6, 480. An example of heroism +which contributes as much to the greatness of Greece as the victory +of Salamis. About the same time naval engagements off +Artemisium in Eubœa, with two hundred and seventy-one sail. +The leaders of the Greeks are kept to their posts merely by bribery; +the means of purchasing their services being for the most +part furnished by Themistocles himself.—Athens, deserted by +its inhabitants, is taken and burnt by Xerxes, July 20. Retreat<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_183" id="Page_183">[Pg 183]</a></span> +of the Grecian fleet into the bay of Salamis: revocation of all +exiles, Aristides among the rest.—Politic measures adopted by +Themistocles to hinder the dispirited Greeks from taking flight, +and at the same time to secure to himself, in case of need, +an asylum with the Persian monarch.—Naval engagement and +victory off Salamis, Sept. 23, 480, with three hundred and eighty +sail, (one hundred and eighty of which were Athenian,) against +the Persian fleet, already much weakened: retreat of Xerxes.—Poets +and historians have disfigured these events by fanciful exaggerations: +still, however, they may show us how commonly +human weakness is attended with human greatness!</p></div> + +<div class="sidenote">Battles of +Platææ and +Mycale, +Sept. 25, 479.</div> + +<p>6. The victory of Salamis did not conclude the +war; but the negotiations entered into during the +winter months with the Persian general, Mardonius, +left in Thessaly, and with the Asiatic +Greeks, to excite them to throw off the yoke, +show how far the confidence of the nation in its +own strength had increased. But by the battle +fought on land at Platææ, under the command +of the Spartan, Pausanias, (guardian to Plistarchus, +son of Leonidas,) and the Athenian, Aristides; +together with the naval battle at Mycale +on the same day, and the destruction of the Persian +fleet, the Persians are for ever driven from +the territory of Greece, though the war continues +for some time longer.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">Sparta has +the ascendancy +to 470.</div> + +<p>7. The expulsion of the Persians wrought an +entire change in the internal and external relations +of Greece. From being the aggressed the +Greeks became the aggressors; to free their +Asiatic countrymen is now the chief object or +pretext for the continuation of a war so profitable; +the chief command of which abides with +Sparta until B. C. 470.</p> + +<div class="sblockquot"><p>Athens rebuilt and fortified by Themistocles despite of Spartan +jealousy, 478: formation of the Piræus, an event of still<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_184" id="Page_184">[Pg 184]</a></span> +greater importance, 477.—Naval expedition under Pausanias, +accompanied by Aristides and Cimon, undertaken against Cyprus +and Byzantium, for the purpose of expelling the Persians, 470. +Treachery and fall of Pausanias, 469. In consequence of the +Spartans' haughtiness, the supreme command devolves upon the +Athenians.</p></div> + +<div class="sidenote">Athens assumes +the +chief command:</div> + +<p>8. This transfer of the command to Athens had +a decided effect on all the subsequent relations +of Greece, not only because it augmented the +jealousy between Sparta and Athens, but because +Athens exercised her predominance for a purpose +entirely different from that of Sparta.—Establishment +of a permanent confederacy, comprising most +of the Grecian states without Peloponnesus, especially +the islands, and an adjustment of the contributions +to be annually furnished by each, with +the view of prosecuting the Persian war, and +liberating the Asiatic Greeks from the Persian +yoke. Although the common treasury was first +established at Delos, the superintendence of it +was confided to Athens; and such a manager as +Aristides was not always to be found.—Natural +consequence of this new establishment: 1. What +had hitherto been mere military precedence, becomes +in the hands of Athens a right of political +prescription, and that, as usual, is soon converted +into a sovereignty. Hence her idea of the supremacy of Greece, +(ἀρχὴ τῆς Ἑλλάδος,) +as connected with that of the sea, +(θαλασσοκρατία.) +2. The oppression of the Athenians, sometimes real, at +other times presumed, after a short time, rouses +the spirit of discontent and contumacy among +several of the confederates: hence, 3. The gradual +formation of a counter league, headed by<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_185" id="Page_185">[Pg 185]</a></span> +Sparta, who maintains her supremacy over the +greatest part of the Peloponnesus.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">consequences +of that +change.</div> + +<p>9. The changes introduced into the internal organization +are not to be determined solely by the +palpable alterations made in any of Lycurgus's +or Solon's institutions. In Sparta, the general +frame-work of Lycurgus's constitution subsisted; +nevertheless the power was virtually in the hands +of the ephori, whose dictatorial sway placed +Sparta in the formidable posture she now assumed.—At +Athens, in proportion as the importance +of foreign relations increased, and amid the +protracted struggles between the heads of the democratic +and aristocratic parties, the real power, +under the outward appearance of a democracy, +gradually centered in the hands of the ten annually elected generals, +(στρατηγοὶ,) who with more +or less effect played the parts of demagogues.</p> + +<div class="sblockquot"><p>Abrogation of the law that excluded the poorer citizens from +official situations, B. C. 478.</p> + +<p>Expulsion of Themistocles, implicated in the fall of Pausanias, +principally through the intrigues of Sparta: he is first banished +by ostracism, 469, but in consequence of further persecution he +flies over to the Persians, 466.</p></div> + +<div class="sidenote">Brilliant +period of +Athens.</div> + +<p>10. The following forty years, from 470—430, +constitute the flourishing period of Athens. A +concurrence of fortunate circumstances happening +among a people of the highest abilities and +promoted by great men, produced here phenomena, +such as have never since been witnessed. Political +greatness was the fundamental principle of the +commonwealth; Athens had been the guardian, +and the champion of Greece, and she wished to +appear worthy of herself. Hence in Athens alone +were men acquainted with public splendour, exhi<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_186" id="Page_186">[Pg 186]</a></span>bited +in buildings, in spectacles, and festivals, the +acquisition of which was facilitated by private +frugality. This public spirit animating every citizen, +expanded the blossoms of genius; no broad +line of distinction was anxiously drawn between +private and public life; whatever great, whatever +noble was produced by Athens, sprung up verdant +and robust out of this harmony, this buxom +vigour of the state. Far different was the case +with Sparta; there rude customs and laws arrested +the development of genius: there men +were taught to die for the land of their forefathers: +while at Athens they learnt to live for it.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">Athenian +civilization.</div> + +<p>11. Agriculture continued the principal occupation +of the citizens of Attica; other employments +were left to the care of slaves. Commerce +and navigation were mainly directed towards the +Thracian coast and the Black sea; the spirit of +trade, however, was never the prevailing one. +As affairs of state became more attractive, and +men desired to participate in them, the want of +intellectual education began to be felt, and sophists +and rhetoricians soon offered their instruction. +Mental expertness was more coveted than +mental knowledge; men wished to learn how to +think and to speak. A poetical education had +long preceded the rise of this national desire; +poesy now lost nothing of its value: as heretofore +Homer remained the cornerstone of intellectual +improvement. Could it be that such blossoms +would produce other fruits than those which ripened +in the school of Socrates, in the masterpieces +of the tragedians and orators, and in the +immortal works of Plato?<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_187" id="Page_187">[Pg 187]</a></span></p> + +<div class="sidenote">Changes in +the persons +at the head +of affairs.</div> + +<p>12. These flowers of national genius burst forth +in spite of many evils, inseparable from such a +constitution established among such a people. +Great men were pushed aside; others took their +places. The loss of Themistocles was supplied +by Miltiades's son Cimon; who to purer politics +united equal talents. He protracted the war +against the Persians in order to maintain the +union of the Greeks; and favoured the aristocratic +party at the same time that he affected popularity. +Even his enemies learnt by experience, that the +state could not dispense with a leader who +seemed to have entered into a compact for life +with victory.</p> + +<div class="sblockquot"><p>Another expedition under Cimon; and victory by sea and land +near the Eurymedon, B. C. 469. He takes possession of the +Hellespontine Chersonesus, 468. Some of the Athenian confederates +already endeavour to secede. Hence, 467, the conquest +of Caristus in Eubœa; subjection of Naxos, 466, and from +465—463, siege and capture of Thasos, under Cimon. The +Athenians endeavour to obtain a firmer footing on the shore of +Macedonia; and for that purpose send out a colony to Amphipolis, +465.</p> + +<p>Great earthquake at Sparta; gives rise to a ten years' war, +viz. the third Messenian war or revolt of the Helots, who fortify +themselves in Ithome, 465—455: in this war the Athenians, at +the instigation of Cimon, send assistance to the Spartans, 461, +who refuse the proffered aid. The democratic party seize the +opportunity of casting on Cimon the suspicion of being in the +interest of Sparta; he is banished by ostracism, 461.</p></div> + +<div class="sidenote">Aristides +dies, 467.</div> + +<p>13. The death of Aristides, and the banishment +of Cimon, concur in elevating Pericles to the +head of affairs; a statesman whose influence had +begun to operate as early as 469. Less a general +than a demagogue, he supported himself in authority +during forty years, until the day of his +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_188" id="Page_188">[Pg 188]</a></span>death, and swayed Athens without being either +archon or member of the areopagus. That under +him the constitution must have assumed a more +democratic character, is demonstrated by the fact +<span class="sidenote">Pericles dies, 429.</span> +of his exaltation as leader of the democratic +party. The aristocrats, however, contrive until +444 to set up rivals against him in the persons of +the military leaders, Myronides, Tolmidas, and +more particularly the elder Thucydides.</p> + +<div class="sblockquot"><p>Change in the spirit of administration under Pericles, both in +reference to internal and external relations. A brilliant management +succeeds to the parsimonious economy of Aristides; and +yet, after the lapse of thirty years, the state treasury was full.—Limitation +of the power of the areopagus by Ephialtes, B. C. 461. +The withdrawal of various causes which formerly came under the +jurisdiction of that tribunal must have diminished its right of +moral censorship.—Introduction of the practice of paying persons +who attended the courts of justice.</p> + +<p>With regard to external relations, the precedence of the Athenians +gradually advanced toward supremacy; although their relations +with all the confederates were not precisely the same. Some +were mere confederates; others were subjects.—Augmentation +in the imposts on the confederates, and transfer of the treasury +from Delos to Athens, 461. The jealousy of Sparta and the +discontent of the confederates keep pace with the greatness of +Athens.</p> + +<p>Unsuccessful attempt to support by the help of an Athenian +fleet and troops, Inarus of Egypt in his insurrection against the +Persians, 462—458.</p> + +<p>Wars in Greece: the Spartans instigate Corinth and Epidaurus +against Athens. The Athenians, at first defeated near Haliæ, +in their turn rout the enemy, 458, and then carry the war against +Ægina, which is subdued, 457. In the new quarrel between +Corinth and Megara respecting their boundaries, the Athenians +side with Megara; Myronides conquers at Cimolia, 457. Expedition +of the Spartans to the support of the Dorians against +Phocis; and hence arises the first rupture between Athens, +Sparta, and Bœotia. First battle of Tanagra, in which the +Spartans are victorious in the same year, 457. The Bœotians,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_189" id="Page_189">[Pg 189]</a></span> +incited by the Spartans, are in the second battle of Tanagra +worsted by Myronides, 456. The recall of Cimon, at the suggestion +of Pericles himself, in consequence of the first defeat.</p></div> + +<div class="sidenote">Cimon restored.<br /> + +450.<br /> + +449.</div> + +<p>14. Cimon recalled from exile, endeavours to +reestablish the domestic tranquillity of Greece, and +at the same time to renew the war against the Persians. +He succeeds in his attempt after the lapse +of five years; and the consequence is a victorious +expedition against the Persians. He defeats their +fleet off Cyprus, and routs their army on the +Asiatic coast. The fruit of this victory is the +celebrated peace with Artaxerxes I. (see above, +p. 104.) Ere that peace is concluded Cimon dies, +too soon for his country, while occupied with the +siege of Citium.</p> + +<div class="sblockquot"><p>Termination of the third Messenian war in favour of Sparta, +by the cession of Ithome, B. C. 455. Meantime Athens continues +the war with Peloponnesus; Tolmidas and Pericles +making an incursion by sea on the enemy's territory, 455—454. +At the same time Pericles, by sending out colonies to the Hellespont, +endeavours to secure more firmly the Athenian power in +that quarter: a colony is likewise sent out to Naxos, 453.—Cimon +negotiates a truce, which is adopted first (451) tacitly, +afterwards formally, (450,) for five years. The result of this +truce is his victorious expedition against the Persians, and the +consequent peace with that nation. Although the conditions of +the peace prescribed by Cimon were sometimes infringed, they +appear to have been ratified by all parties.</p></div> + +<div class="sidenote">State of +Greece after +the peace +with Persia.<br /> + +431.</div> + +<p>15. The conclusion of peace with Persia, glorious +as it was, and the death of the man whose +grand political object was to preserve union among +the Greeks, again aroused the spirit of internal +strife. For notwithstanding nearly twenty years +intervened before the tempest burst with all its +fury, this period was so turbulent during its course, +that Greece seldom enjoyed universal peace.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_190" id="Page_190">[Pg 190]</a></span> +While Athens by her naval strength was maintaining +her ascendancy over the confederates, and +while some of those confederates were raising the +standard of rebellion and passing over to Sparta, +every thing was gradually combining towards the +formation of a counter league, the necessary consequence +of which must have been a war, such as +the Peloponnesian. Up to this time Athens was +at the height of her power; she was governed by +Pericles, who, in every thing but the name, was +sole ruler during this period, and for that reason +she experienced few of the evils resulting from +a democratic constitution. Who, indeed, could +overthrow a demagogue whose presence of mind, +even in the greatest good fortune, never once deserted +him; who knew how to keep alive among +his fellow-citizens the conviction that, however +exalted they might be, it was to him alone they +were indebted for it?</p> + +<div class="sblockquot"><p>During the five years' truce the sacred war for the possession +of the Delphian oracle took place, and it is given by the Spartans +to the city of Delphi; but after their return is given back again +by the Athenians to the Phocians, B. C. 448. The Athenians +commanded by Tolmidas, are defeated by the Bœotians, 447. +This expedition, undertaken in opposition to the advice of Pericles, +contributes to increase his influence; particularly as he reduces +to obedience the revolted Eubœa and Megara, 446. End +of the five years' truce with Sparta; and renewal of hostilities, +445; further warlike proceedings are repressed by a new thirty +years' peace, which lasts, however, only fourteen years.—Complete +suppression of the aristocratic party, by the banishment of +the elder Thucydides, 444; the whole administration of the state +consequently centres in the hands of Pericles.—Democracy in +the confederate states favoured; forcibly introduced in Samos, +which, after a nine months' siege, is obliged to submit to Pericles, +440.—Commencement of the war between Corinth and Corcyra, +on the subject of Epidamnus, 436, which the Corcyræans take<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_191" id="Page_191">[Pg 191]</a></span> +possession of after winning a naval victory, 435. The Athenians +take part in the quarrel, and side with the Corcyræans, 432. +The rupture with Corinth, and the policy of Perdiccas II. king +of Macedonia, lead to the secession of the Corinthian colony of +Potidæa, which previously belonged to the Athenian confederacy: +the war thereby is extended to the Macedonian coast. Engagement +near Potidæa, and siege of that town, 432. The Corinthians +direct their steps to Sparta, and excite the Spartans to war; which +is further accelerated by the attack of the Thebans upon Platææ, +the confederate of Athens, 431.</p></div> + +<div class="sidenote">Peloponnesian +war,<br /> +431—404.</div> + +<p>16. The history of the twenty-seven years' war, +known by the name of the Peloponnesian, or great +Grecian war, which swept away the fairest flowers +of Greece, is the more deserving attention from +its being not merely a struggle between nations, +but likewise against certain forms of government. +The policy of Athens, which to establish or preserve +her influence in foreign states, excited the +multitude against the higher orders, had on all +sides given rise to two factions, the democrat or +Athenian, and the aristocrat or Spartan; and the +mutual bitterness of party spirit produced the +most violent disorders.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">Power and +influence of +Athens and +Sparta.</div> + +<p>17. The respective relations of the two head +states of Greece to their confederates, were at +this time of a very opposite nature. Athens, as +a naval power, was mistress of most of the islands +and maritime cities, which, as tributary confederates, +rendered for the most part a forced obedience. +Sparta, as a land power, was allied with +most of the states on the continent, which had +joined her side of their own accord, and were +not subject to tribute. Sparta therefore presented +herself as the deliverer of Greece from the Athenian +yoke.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_192" id="Page_192">[Pg 192]</a></span></p> + +<div class="sblockquot"><p>Confederates of the Athenians: the islands Chios, Samos, Lesbos, +all those of the Archipelago, (Thera and Melos excepted, +which stood neutral,) Corcyra, Zacynthus; the Grecian colonies +in Asia Minor, and on the coast of Thrace and Macedonia; in +Greece itself, the cities of Naupactus, Platææ, and those of Acarnania.—Confederates +of the Spartans: all the Peloponnesians, +(Argos and Achaia excepted, which stood neutral,) Megara, Locris, +Phocis, Bœotia, the cities of Ambracia and Anactorium, +and the island of Leucas.</p></div> + +<div class="sidenote">Internal state of +Athens and +Sparta.</div> + +<p>18. Sketch of the internal state of Athens and +Sparta at this period. The power of Athens depended +mainly on the state of her finances; without +which she could not support a fleet, and without +a fleet her ascendancy over the confederates +would of course fall to ground. And although +Pericles, notwithstanding his lavish public expenditure, +was able to enter upon the war with +6,000 talents in the treasury, experience could +not fail to show that, in such a democratic state +as Athens was now become under Pericles, the +squandering of the public money was an unavoidable +evil. This evil was produced, however, at +Athens much less by the peculations of individual +state officers than by the demands of the multitude, +who for the most part lived at the expense +of the state treasury. On the other hand, Sparta +as yet had no finance; and only began to feel the +want of it as she began to acquire a naval power, +and entered upon undertakings more vast than +mere incursions.</p> + +<div class="sblockquot"><p>Financial system of the Athenians. Revenue: 1. The tribute +paid by the confederates (φόροι) +increased by Pericles from four +hundred and sixty to six hundred talents. 2. Income from the +customs, (which were farmed,) and from the mines at Laurium. +3. The caution money of the non-citizens: (μέτοικοι.) +4. The taxes on the citizens, (εἰσφοραὶ,) +which fell almost entirely on the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_193" id="Page_193">[Pg 193]</a></span> +rich, more particularly on the first class, the members of which +were not only to bear the burthen of fitting out the fleet, +(τριεραρχίαι,) +but were likewise to furnish means for the public festivals +and spectacles, (χορηγίαι.) +The whole income of the republic at +this time was estimated at 2,000 talents. But the disbursements +made to the numerous assistants at the courts of justice (the principal +means of existence with the poorer citizens, and which, +more than any thing else, contributed to the licentiousness of the +democracy and the oppression of the confederates, whose causes +were all brought to Athens for adjudication,) together with the +expenditure for festivals and spectacles, even at this time, absorbed +the greatest part of the revenue.</p> + +<p>† <span class="smcap">F. Boekh</span>, <i>Public Economy of the Athenians</i>, 2 parts, +Berlin, 1816. The chief work on the subject. [Ably translated +by <span class="smcap">J. C. Lewis</span>, esq. of Christ Church in this university.]</p> + +<p><i>Athenian Letters, or the Epistolary Correspondence of an +Agent of the King of Persia, residing at Athens during the Peloponnesian +war.</i> London, 1798, 2 vols. 4to. The production +of several young authors; first printed, but not published, in +1741. This sketch comprises, not only Greece, but likewise +Persia and Egypt.</p></div> + +<div class="sidenote">First period +of the war,<br /> +431—422.<br /> +429.<br /> +430.</div> + +<p>19. First period of the war until the fifty years' +peace. Beginning of the war unsuccessful to +Athens during the first three years, under the +conduct of Pericles, in whose defensive plan we +may perhaps discern the infirmities of age. The +Athenians, however, suffered less from the annual +inroads of the Spartans than from the plague, to +which Pericles himself at last fell a victim. The +alliance of the Athenians with the kings of Thrace +and Macedonia extended the theatre of war; on +the other hand, Sparta had already conceived the +idea of an alliance with Persia.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">Consequence +of +the death +of Pericles.<br /> +427.<br /> +424.<br /> +422.</div> + +<p>20. The death of Pericles was, for the next +seven years, during which the place of that great +man was supplied by Cleon a currier, followed +by all the evils of an uncurbed democracy. The +atrocious decrees with respect to Mitylene, which +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_194" id="Page_194">[Pg 194]</a></span>after seceding, had been recaptured, and the insurrection +of the Corcyræan populace against the +rich, characterized the party spirit then dominant +in Greece better than the few insignificant events of +a war conducted without any plan. Sparta, however, +found in young Brasidas a general, such as +are wont to arise in revolutionary times. His prosecution +of the war on the Macedonian coast +might have brought great danger to Athens, had +he so early not fallen a victim to his own gallantry.</p> + +<div class="sblockquot"><p>Capture of Amphipolis by Brasidas, and exile of Thucydides, +424. Engagement near Amphipolis between Brasidas and +Cleon; and death of those two generals, 422.</p></div> + +<div class="sidenote">Peace not +lasting. +422.<br /> + +Alcibiades +at the head +of affairs, +420.</div> + +<p>21. The peace now concluded for fifty years +could not be of long duration, as many of the confederates +on either side were discontented with +its terms. All hope of tranquillity must have +been at an end when the management of Athenian +affairs fell into the hands of a youth like Alcibiades, +in whom vanity and artifice held the place +of patriotism and talent, and who thought war +the only field in which he could gain credit. +Against him what availed the prudence of Nicias?—Happy +was it for Athens that during the whole +of this period Sparta never produced one man +who could match even with Alcibiades!</p> + +<div class="sblockquot"><p>Attempt of some states, Corinth especially, to set Argos at the +head of a new confederacy; this measure Athens likewise favours, +421.—Violation of the peace, 419; the war indirect until +415, and limited to assisting the confederates on either side.—Alcibiades's +plan of giving Athens the preponderance in Peloponnesus, +by an alliance with Argos, is defeated by the battle +of Mantinea, 417.—Exterminating war of the Athenians waged +against the Melians, who wish to preserve their neutrality,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_195" id="Page_195">[Pg 195]</a></span> +whereas neutrality in the weaker party now becomes a crime, +416.</p></div> + +<div class="sidenote">Project +upon Sicily.</div> + +<p>22. Alcibiades's party brings forward at Athens +the project of conquering Sicily, under the pretence +of succouring the Segestani against the Syracusans. +This rash expedition, in which the +hopes both of the Athenians and of its instigator +Alcibiades were blighted, gave to Athens the first +great blow, from which she never after, even with +the utmost exertion of her strength, recovered; +especially as Sparta also was now become a naval +power.</p> + +<div class="sblockquot"><p>Early interference of the Athenians with the concerns of the +Sicilian Greeks.—A fleet and army under the command of Nicias, +Lamachus, and Alcibiades, sent against Sicily, 415.—Accusation, +recall, and flight of Alcibiades to Sparta: formal rupture +of the peace by an inroad of the Spartans into Attica, where +they fortify Decelea, 414. Unsuccessful siege of Syracuse, 414; +and total annihilation of the Athenian fleet and army by the +assistance of the Spartans under Gylippus, 413.</p></div> + +<div class="sidenote">Athens after +the war +in Sicily.</div> + +<p>23. Fatal as in the present circumstances the +blow struck in Sicily must appear to have been +to Athens, yet the calamity was surmounted by +Athenian enthusiasm, never greater than in times +of misfortune. They maintained their supremacy +over the confederates; but the part which Alcibiades, +in consequence of the new posture his +own personal interest had assumed at Sparta, +took in their affairs, brought about a twofold domestic +revolution, which checked the licentious +democracy.</p> + +<div class="sblockquot"><p>Alliance of the Spartans with the Persians, and indecisive engagement +off Miletus—Flight of Alcibiades from Sparta to Tissaphernes; +his negotiations to gain the satrap over to the interests +of Athens, 411.—Equivocal policy of Tissaphernes.—Negotiations +of Alcibiades with the chiefs of the Athenian army<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_196" id="Page_196">[Pg 196]</a></span> +at Samos, and the consequent revolution at Athens, and overthrow +of the democracy by the appointment of the supreme +council of four hundred in place of the βουλὴ, and of a committee +of five thousand citizens in place of the popular assembly, 411.—The +army assumes the right of debate; names Alcibiades to be +its leader; but declares again for democracy.—Great commotions +at Athens in consequence of the discomfiture of the fleet at Eretria, +and the secession of Eubœa. Deposition of the college of +four hundred, after a despotic rule of four months;—Reformation +of the government;—Transfer of the highest power to the +hands of the five thousand;—Recall of Alcibiades, and reconciliation +with the army.</p></div> + +<div class="sidenote">Brilliant +period of +Alcibiades,<br /> +411—410.<br /> + +410.</div> + +<p>24. Brilliant period of Alcibiades's command. +The reiterated naval victories won by the Athenians +over the Spartans under Mindarus, who, +mistrusting Tissaphernes, now forms an alliance +with Pharnabazus, satrap of the north of Asia +Minor, oblige the Spartans to propose peace, +which haughty Athens, unluckily for herself, rejects.</p> + +<div class="sblockquot"><p>Two naval engagements on the Hellespont, 411.—Great victory +by sea and land won near Cyzicus, 410.—Confirmation of +the Athenian dominion over Ionia and Thrace by the capture of +Byzantium, 480. Alcibiades returns covered with glory; but in +the same year is deposed, and submits to a voluntary exile, 407.</p></div> + +<div class="sidenote">Anabasis of +Cyrus, +407.<br /> + +406.<br /> + +406.<br /> + +405—403.</div> + +<p>25. Arrival of the younger Cyrus in Asia Minor; +the shrewdness of Lysander wins him over +to the Spartan interest. The republican haughtiness +of Lysander's successor, Callicratidas, +shown to Cyrus, was a serious error in policy; +for, unassisted by Persian money, Sparta was +not in a condition to pay her mariners, nor consequently +to support her naval establishment. +After the defeat and death of Callicratidas, the +command is restored to Lysander, who terminates +the twenty seven years' war triumphantly for +Sparta.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_197" id="Page_197">[Pg 197]</a></span></p> + +<div class="sblockquot"><p>Naval victory of Lysander over the Athenians at Notium, 407; +in consequence of which Alcibiades is deprived of the command.—Appointment +of ten new leaders at Athens; Conon among the +number.—Naval victory of Callicratidas at Mitylene; Conon is +shut up in the harbour of that place, 406.—Great naval victory +of the Athenians; defeat and death of Callicratidas at the Æginussæ +islands, near Lesbos, 406.—Unjust condemnation of the +Athenian generals.—Second command of Lysander, and last <i>decisive</i> +victory by sea over the Athenians at Ægospotamos on the +Hellespont, Dec. 406.—The loss of the sovereignty of the sea is +accompanied by the defection of the confederates, who are successively +subjected by Lysander, 406.—Athens is besieged by +Lysander in the same year, 405; the city surrenders in May, +404.—Athens is deprived of her walls; her navy is reduced to +twelve sail; and, in obedience to Lysander's commands, the constitution +is commuted into an oligarchy, under thirty rulers, (tyrants.)</p></div> + +<div class="sidenote">End of the +Peloponnesian +war.</div> + +<p>26. Thus ended a war destructive in its moral, +still more than in its political, consequences. +Party spirit had usurped the place of patriotic +feeling; as national prejudice had that of national +energy. Athens being subdued, Sparta stood at +the head of confederate Greece; but Greece very +soon experienced the yoke of her deliverers to be +infinitely more galling than that of the people hitherto +called her oppressors. What evils must +not have ensued from the revolutions Lysander +now found it necessary to effect in most of the +Grecian states, in order to place the helm of government +in the hands of his own party under the +superintendence of a Spartan harmost?—How +oppressive must not have been the military rule +of the numerous Spartan garrisons?—Nor could +any alleviation of tribute be hoped for, now that +in Sparta it was acknowledged that the "state +must possess an exchequer."—The arrogance and +rapacity of the new masters were rendered more<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_198" id="Page_198">[Pg 198]</a></span> +grievous by their being more uncivilized and destitute.</p> + +<div class="sblockquot"><p>History of the reign of terror at Athens under the thirty tyrants, +403.—What happened here must likewise have happened +more or less in the other Grecian cities, which Lysander found +it necessary to revolutionize. In all quarters his party consisted +of men similar to Critias and his colleagues, who appear to have +been long before united in clubs +(ἑταιρείαι) intimately connected +with each other; from which were now taken the most daring +revolutionists, in order to place them everywhere at the head of +affairs.</p></div> + +<div class="sidenote">Expulsion +of the thirty +tyrants.<br /> + +403.</div> + +<p>27. Happy revolution in Athens, and expulsion +of the thirty tyrants by Thrasybulus, favoured by +the party at Sparta opposed to Lysander, and +headed by king Pausanias. Restoration and reform +of Solon's constitution; general amnesty. +It was easy to reestablish forms;—to recall the +departed spirit of the nation was impossible!</p> + +<div class="sblockquot"><p><span class="smcap">Ed. Ph. Hinrichs</span>, <i>De Theramenis, Critiæ et Thrasybuli, +virorum tempore belli Peloponnesiaci inter Græcos illustrium, +rebus et ingenio, Commentatio</i>, Hamburgi, 1820. An inquiry +which exhibits much research and impartiality.</p></div> + +<div class="sidenote">War of the +Spartans +with Persia, +400.</div> + +<p>28. The defeat of the younger Cyrus entangles +the Spartans in a war with the Persians, the same +year that, after the death of king Agis, Agesilaus +takes possession of the regal dignity. We willingly +forget his usurpation as we follow him +in his heroic career. None but a man of genius +could have instructed Sparta how to support for +so long a time the extravagant character which +she had now undertaken to play.</p> + +<div class="sblockquot"><p>Opening of the war with Persia by Tissaphernes's attack on +the Æolian cities of Asia Minor, 400.—Command of Thimbron, +who, 398, is succeeded by the more successful and fortunate Dercyllidas.—Availing +himself of the jealousy between Tissaphernes +and Artabazus, he persuades the latter to a separate truce, 397.—Command +of Agesilaus; his expedition into Asia, from the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_199" id="Page_199">[Pg 199]</a></span> +spring of 396 until 394. The conviction which he obtained of +the domestic weakness of the Persian empire in the successful +invasion of Phrygia, 395, seems to have matured in the mind of +Agesilaus the idea of overturning the Persian throne: this design +he would have accomplished had not the Persians been politic +enough to kindle a war against Sparta in Greece itself.</p></div> + +<div class="sidenote">Corinthian +war, 394.<br /> + +387.</div> + +<p>29. The Corinthian war, waged against Sparta +by Corinth, Thebes, and Argos, to which Athens +and the Thessalians unite, terminated by the +peace of Antalcidas. The tyranny of Sparta, and +more particularly the recent devastation of Elis, +a sacred territory, were the alleged pretexts; +but the bribes of Timocrates, the Persian envoy, +were the real causes of this war.</p> + +<div class="sblockquot"><p>Irruption of the Spartans into Bœotia; they engage and are +routed at Haliartus, 394. Lysander falls on the field of battle; +and Agesilaus is recalled out of Asia.—His victory at Coronea +ensures to the Spartans the preponderance by land; but the discomfiture +of their navy near Cnidus at the same time, gives to +their enemies the sovereignty of the sea: Conon, who commanded +the combined Persian and Athenian fleets, avails himself, +with consummate skill, of this success to reestablish the independence +of Athens, 393.—Sparta endeavours by apparently +great sacrifices to bring over the Persians to her interests: the +peace at last concluded by the efforts of the skilful Antalcidas, +(see above, book ii, parag. 42), was readily agreed to by the +Spartans, as they gave up only what otherwise they could not +have retained. The preponderance of Sparta on the continent +of Greece was established by the article which invested them +with the power of seeing the conditions of the treaty fulfilled: +the stipulated freedom of the Grecian cities was but an apparent +disadvantage; and now that the Asiatic colonies were given up, +the contest for power in Greece itself must be decided by land, +and not by sea.</p></div> + +<div class="sidenote">386.<br /> + +384.<br /> + +383—380.<br /> + +382.</div> + +<p>30. The quarrels which, after the peace of +Antalcidas, Sparta began to have with Mantinea +and Phlius, and still more so her participation in +those between the Macedo-Greek cities and the +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_200" id="Page_200">[Pg 200]</a></span>over-powerful Olynthus, prove too plainly the arrogance +with which Sparta behaved to the weaker +states. But the arbitrary appropriation of the +citadel of Thebes by Phœbidas,—an act not indeed +commanded, yet approved by Sparta,—was +attended with more serious consequences than +were at first expected. Would that all authors +of similar breaches of good faith and the law of +nations were visited with the same vengeance!</p> + +<div class="sidenote">Rivalry of Sparta and Thebes.</div> + +<p>31. Period of the rivalry of Sparta and Thebes, +Thebes, from the year 378. The greatness of Thebes was +the work of two men, who knew how to inspire +their fellow-citizens and confederates with their +own heroic spirit: with them Thebes rose, with +them she fell. Rarely does history exhibit such +a <i>duumvirate</i> as that of Epaminondas and Pelopidas. +How high must our estimation of Pythagoras +be, even had his philosophy formed but one +such man as Epaminondas!</p> + +<div class="sblockquot"><p>Liberation of Thebes from Spartan rule by the successful attempt +of Pelopidas and his fellow-conspirators, 378. Vain attempts +against Thebes, by the Spartans under Cleombrotus, 378, +and Agesilaus, 377 and 376. The defensive war conducted by +Pelopidas, during which he established the Theban supremacy in +Bœotia, and brought over the Athenians, (whose fleet, 376, beat +that of the Spartans,) deserves our admiration more than the +winning of a battle.—The vast plans of Thebes were not unfolded, +however, till Epaminondas was at the head of affairs.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Seran de la Tour</span>, <i>Histoire d'Epaminondas</i>. Paris, 1752.</p> + +<p>† <span class="smcap">Meissner</span>, <i>Life of Epaminondas</i>. Prague, 1801, 2 parts. +In which the authorities are duly considered.</p> + +<p>† <span class="smcap">J. G. Scheibel</span>, <i>Essays towards a better understanding of +the Ancient World</i>, 1809. The second part contains an essay +upon the history of Thebes, as the first does on that of Corinth.</p></div> + +<div class="sidenote">General peace in Greece +mediated by +Persia: +374.<br /> + +372.</div> + +<p>32. A general peace is concluded in Greece +through the mediation of the Persians, (who wish +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_201" id="Page_201">[Pg 201]</a></span>to obtain auxiliaries against the Egyptians,) under +the condition that all the Grecian cities shall be +free: it is acceded to by Sparta and Athens, but +rejected by Thebes, because she cannot admit the +condition without again falling under the Spartan +yoke. In fact, the lofty language used by Epaminondas, +as envoy to Sparta, shows that it was +problematic whether Sparta or Thebes should +now be at the head of Greece. Could the idea, +therefore, of a perfect equality between the states +of Greece be other than chimerical?</p> + +<div class="sidenote">Epaminondas: +371—362.</div> + +<p>33. The long struggle maintained so gloriously +by Epaminondas against Sparta is remarkable +both in a political and military point of view. +The power of Sparta was abased; Epaminondas +invented a new system of tactics, (out of which +soon after sprang the Macedonian art of war;) +and as soon as he found confederates in Peloponnesus +itself, he made his way to the very gates +of Sparta.</p> + +<div class="sblockquot"><p>Victory won by the Thebans at Leuctra, July 8, 371, and annihilation +of what hitherto had been called the supremacy of +Sparta.—First irruption into Peloponnesus preceded by alliances +with Arcadia, Elis, and Argos.—The attack upon Sparta itself +is unsuccessful; but the freedom of Messene is restored, 369.</p></div> + +<div class="sidenote">Sparta in alliance +with +Athens.</div> + +<p>34. Sparta in distress forms an alliance with +Athens, under the stipulation that the command +shall alternately be in the hands of the two confederates; +conditions, no doubt, humiliating to +Spartan pride! It however affords them the +means of frustrating Epaminondas's new attempt +on Corinth and the Peloponnesus. Even Dionysius +I. of Syracuse, thinks himself bound to assist +the Spartans as being Dorians.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_202" id="Page_202">[Pg 202]</a></span></p> + +<p>35. Thebes played a no less brilliant part in the +north than she did in the south. And had the +attempts to liberate Thessaly from the rule of the +tyrant, Alexander of Pheræ, been attended with +success, Thebes would have received a vast increase +of power. Even in Macedonia she acted +as arbitress.</p> + +<div class="sblockquot"><p>First and successful expedition of Pelopidas into Thessaly, +368.—After the decision of the disputed succession to the Macedonian +throne, young Philip is brought as hostage to Thebes, and +educated in the house of Epaminondas.—Pelopidas is sent as +ambassador, and taken prisoner by Alexander; hence the second +expedition of the Thebans, in which Epaminondas rescues the +army and delivers his friend, 367.</p></div> + +<div class="sidenote">Alliance of +Thebes and +Persia.</div> + +<p>36. Alliance of Thebes with Persia successfully +brought about by Pelopidas. In the intrigues +of the opponents at the Persian court, the +object of each was to bring that court over to his +own interest. Yet the domineering tone in which +the Persians wished to dictate peace, had not the +consequences that might have been expected; +and although Sparta consented to her confederates +remaining neutral, she would not forego her +claims on Messene. The establishment of a navy +would have been of more important consequences +to Thebes than this alliance, had not all these +plans, together with the greatness of Thebes, been +<span class="sidenote">365.</span> +swept away by the premature death of her two +leading men.</p> + +<div class="sblockquot"><p>Last expedition of Pelopidas against Alexander of Pheræ, in +which he himself falls, 364.—New irruption into Peloponnesus +caused by the commotions in Arcadia.—Battle of Mantinea, and +death of Epaminondas, June 27, 362.—General peace in Greece +mediated by the Persians; Sparta does not assent to it on account<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_203" id="Page_203">[Pg 203]</a></span> +of Messene, but sends Agesilaus to Egypt, there to support the +insurrection of Tachos.</p></div> + +<div class="sidenote">State of +Greece after +the war +between +Thebes and +Sparta.</div> + +<p>37. The result of this bloody struggle for the +supremacy of Greece was, that neither Sparta +nor Thebes obtained it; the former of these states +being weakened by the loss of Messene, the latter +by the loss of its leaders, and both strained by +their violent exertions. The situation of Greece +after this war seems to have been thus far +changed, that no state had the predominance; an +independence proceeding from enervation. Even +Athens, who by means of her naval power still +preserved her influence over the cities on the +coast and in the islands, lost the greater part in +the war of the allies, together with three of her +most celebrated leaders, Chabrias, Timotheus, +and Iphicrates, whose places were ill supplied by +Chares.</p> + +<div class="sblockquot"><p>Confederacy of the islands Cos, Rhodes, and Chios, and the +city of Byzantium; their secession from Athens, 358.—Unsuccessful +siege of Chios, before which Chabrias falls, 358; of Byzantium, +357. Athens suffers a still greater injury from the +cabals of Chares against his colleagues Timotheus and Iphicrates, +and from her imprudent participation in the insurrection of Artabazus, +356. The threats of Artaxerxes III. force Athens to make +a peace, in which she is obliged to acknowledge the freedom of +her confederates.</p></div> + +<div class="sidenote">Sacred war.<br /> +356—346.</div> + +<p>38. At the very time when the growing power +of Macedonia under Philip ought to have united +all the Grecian states, had such an union been +within the range of possibility, Greece plunged +into another civil war of ten years' duration, which +is known by the name of the sacred or Phocian +war. The Amphictyonic assembly, whose duty +it was to maintain peace, and whose influence had<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_204" id="Page_204">[Pg 204]</a></span> +been in the present circumstances reinstated, +abused its authority by kindling discord. The +hatred of the Thebans, who sought for new opportunities +of quarrel with Sparta, and the ambition +of the Phocian Philomelus, were the real +causes which led to the war, which the policy +of Philip knew how to prolong till the precise +moment favourable to his own particular views +arrived. The treasures of Delphi circulating in +Greece, were as injurious to the country as the +ravages which it underwent. A war springing out +of private passions, fostered by bribes and subsidiary +troops, and terminated by the interference +of foreign powers, was exactly what was requisite +for annihilating the scanty remains of morality and +patriotism still existing in Greece.</p> + +<div class="sblockquot"><p>Sentence of the Amphictyons against Sparta on account of the +former surprise of the citadel of Thebes by Phœbidas; and +against Phocis on account of the tillage of the sacred lands of +Delphi, 357.—Philomelus is elected general of the Phocians; the +rifling of the treasury of Delphi enables him to take into his pay +Athenian and other auxiliaries, and to carry war against the +Thebans and their confederates, the Locrians, etc. under pretence +of their being the executors of the Amphictyonic decrees. +Philomelus having fallen, 353, is succeeded by his brother Onomarchus, +more skilful than himself in intrigue and war: but +Onomarchus having fallen, 352, in the battle with Philip in +Thessaly, is followed by Phayllus. Philip even thus early endeavours +to push through Thermopylæ into Greece, but is repelled +by the Athenians. He executes this plan after his peace +with Athens, 347, and having procured the expulsion of the +Phocians from the Amphictyonic council, gets their place and +right of vote to be transferred to himself.</p></div> + +<div class="sidenote">Philip's advance +into +Greece.<br /> +338.<br /> +336.</div> + +<p>39. From the very first advance of Philip, the +fate of Greece could scarcely afford matter for +doubt; although the eloquence of Demosthenes +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_205" id="Page_205">[Pg 205]</a></span>warded it off until the second invasion, caused by +the Amphictyonic sentence passed on the Locrians. +(See below, book iv. parag. 15.) The +battle of Chæronea laid the foundation of Macedonia's +complete ascendancy over the Grecian +republics: by the appointment of Philip to be +generalissimo of Greece in the Persian war, that +ascendancy was, as it were, formally acknowledged; +nor did it end with the assassination of +that prince.</p> + + +<hr style="width: 100%;" /> +<h1><a name="FOURTH_BOOK" id="FOURTH_BOOK"></a>FOURTH BOOK.</h1> + +<h3>HISTORY OF THE MACEDONIAN MONARCHY.</h3> + + + +<hr style="width: 100%;" /> +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_206" id="Page_206">[Pg 206]</a></span></p> +<h2>FIRST PERIOD.</h2> + +<p class="cblockquot"><i>From its origin to the death of Alexander the Great. B. C.</i> 800—323.</p> + + +<div class="sblockquot"><p>Sources. We have no historian who wrote, particularly, on +Macedonia, before the time of Alexander. The facts relative to +the earlier history previous to Philip are collected from Diodorus, +Justin, Thucydides, and Arrian; from Diodorus more especially. +In consequence of the loss of the other historians, Diodorus +is the chief authority for the history of Philip; the +speeches of Demosthenes and Æschines must likewise be consulted, +but not made use of without caution and judicious historical +criticism. With respect to Alexander the Great, as so many +writers on his reign have been destroyed by time, Arrian must +now be considered as the chief authority, on account of the care +he has shown in the selection of his authorities, conjointly with +the seventeenth book of Diodorus. Plutarch's biography contains +several valuable additional facts; and even the superficial Curtius +might furnish us with abundance of information, did his accounts +offer higher claims to our credit.</p></div> + +<div class="sidenote">Origin of +the kingdom: +about<br /> +B. C. 813.</div> + +<p>1. An Hellenic colony from Argos, headed by +the Temenidæ, a branch of the Heraclidæ, settled +in Emathia, and laid the feeble foundation of the +Macedonian empire, which was in time to rise to +such power. Not only did the settlers keep their +footing in the country, in spite of the aboriginal +inhabitants; but their princes gradually extended +their territory, by subjecting or expelling several +of the neighbouring tribes. Their earlier history,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_207" id="Page_207">[Pg 207]</a></span> +not excepting even the names of their kings, is +buried in obscurity till the time of the Persian +invasions.</p> + +<div class="sblockquot"><p>The three first Macedonian kings, Caranus said to have ruled +twenty-eight years, Cœnus twenty-three, Tyrmas forty-five, +were unknown to Herodotus, who names as founder of the Macedonian +monarchy, Perdiccas, 729—678. Of this prince and +his successors Argæus, <i>d.</i> 640, Philip I. <i>d.</i> 602, Æropus, <i>d.</i> 576, +and Alcetas, <i>d.</i> 547, nothing more is known than that they waged +war, with various success against the neighbouring Pierians and +Illyrians, who had their own kings.</p></div> + +<div class="sidenote">Situation at +the time of +the Persian +invasion.<br /> +479.</div> + + +<p>2. When the Persians commenced their incursions +into Europe, Macedonia, by its situation, +must have been one of the first countries they +ravaged. Accordingly, as early as the reign of +Darius Hystaspis, the Macedonian kings were +tributary to the Persians; and were indebted for +their deliverance from that yoke, not to their own +valour, but to the victories of the Greeks. The +battle of Platææ restored independence to the +Macedonian kingdom, although that independence +was not formally acknowledged by the Persians.</p> + +<div class="sblockquot"><p>Immediately after the Scythian campaign, 513, Amyntas +(<i>d.</i> 498,) became tributary to the Persians; his son and successor, +Alexander, (<i>d.</i> 454,) was in the same state of subjection, and +was even compelled to join the expedition of Xerxes.</p></div> + +<div class="sidenote">Situation +after the retreat +of the +Persians.<br /> + +<i>d.</i> 424.</div> + +<p>3. But the expulsion of the Persians still left +Macedonia exposed to the attacks of other formidable +neighbours; on one side there was the +Thracians, among whom, under Sitalces, and his +successor, Seuthes, arose the powerful kingdom +of the Odrysæ; on the other, the Athenians, +who, availing themselves of their extensive navy, +reduced to subjection the Grecian settlements<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_208" id="Page_208">[Pg 208]</a></span> +on the Macedonian shores. Harassing as these +neighbours were to the Macedonian kings, they +proved to be the very instruments by which Macedonia +became so early and so deeply involved +in the affairs of Greece.</p> + +<div class="sblockquot"><p>Commencement of the differences with Athens, under the +reign of Perdiccas II, 454—413; Athens having supported his +brother Philip against him.—Defection of Potidæa, and fortification +of Olynthus, into which the Greeks from Chalcis and other +cities are transplanted, 432. Potidæa being forced to surrender +to Athens, 431, Perdiccas contrives to play so skilful a part in +the Peloponnesian war just now commencing, that he outwits the +Athenians, parrying the attack of Sitalces by a marriage of his +sister with Seuthes, the heir to that prince, 429. His alliance +with Sparta, 424, is very detrimental to the Athenians, Brasidas +wresting Amphipolis from their hands; nevertheless Perdiccas +chooses rather to conclude a peace with Athens, 423, than to +throw himself entirely into the arms of his new allies.</p></div> + +<div class="sidenote">Archelaus +lays the +foundation +of Macedonia, +413—400.</div> + +<p>4. Archelaus, the successor of Perdiccas, introduced +agriculture and civilization among the +Macedonians, who were never, however, recognized +by the Hellenes as their legitimate brethren: +highways and military roads were constructed; +forts were erected; and the court became +the seat of literature. In these days the +Macedonian kingdom seems to have comprised +Emathia, Mygdonia, and Pelagonia, to which +may be added some of the neighbouring tribes, +who, although governed by their own kings, were +tributary. The power of the kings was insignificant +when unaided by the nobles, among whom, +as was the case with all the hereditary princes of +Greece, they merely held the right of precedence. +How difficult was it, even in Alexander's time, to +erase from the minds of the Macedonian nobility +the recollection of their former importance!<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_209" id="Page_209">[Pg 209]</a></span></p> + +<p>5. The murder of Archelaus was followed by a +stormy period, wrapped in obscurity: the unsettled +state of the succession raised up many +pretenders to the throne, each of whom easily +found the means of supporting his claims, either +in some of the neighbouring tribes, or in one of +the Grecian republics.</p> + +<div class="sblockquot"><p>Æropus, as guardian to the young king Orestes, usurps the +supreme power, B. C. 400—394. After his death, and the murder +of his son Pausanias, 393, the throne was seized by Amyntas +II. son of Philip, and brother to Perdiccas II. who was +nevertheless unable to maintain his power until he had gained +a victory over Argæus, the brother of Pausanias, who was backed +by the Illyrians, 390—369. The war with Olynthus, 383—380, +could not be brought to a successful conclusion until he had +formed an alliance with Sparta.</p></div> + +<p>6. The three sons of Amyntas II, Alexander, +Perdiccas, and Philip, successively ascended the +throne after the death of their father; but so violent +were the commotions during the reigns of +the two former, that the future existence of Macedonia +as a kingdom might have been regarded +as problematical: it is certain that they were +obliged to submit to the payment of tribute to +the Illyrians.</p> + +<div class="sblockquot"><p>Alexander, in opposition to his rival, Ptolemy of Alorus, +placed on the throne by Pelopidas, sends his youngest brother +Philip as hostage to Thebes: in the same year he is deposed by +Ptolemy, 368. Reign of Ptolemy, 388—365, with the stipulation +imposed, 367, by Pelopidas, that he shall only hold the +sceptre in reserve for the two younger brothers. Murder of +Ptolemy, 365, by Perdiccas III. who is nearly overwhelmed +by Pausanias, another and earlier pretender to the crown; he is +at last firmly seated on the throne by the Athenians, under Iphicrates, +364. But as early as 360 he falls in the war against the +Illyrians, leaving behind him a son, Amyntas, still a minor, and +a younger brother Philip, who escapes from Thebes in order to +gain possession of the throne.</p></div><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_210" id="Page_210">[Pg 210]</a></span></p> + +<div class="sidenote">Philip, +360—336.</div> + +<p>7. The reign of Philip, which lasted twenty-four +years, is one of the most instructive and interesting +in the whole range of history, as well on +account of the prudence he displayed, as for the +manner in which his plans were arranged and +executed. Though it may be difficult to trace in +his morals the pupil of Epaminondas, yet it is impossible +to view without feelings of astonishment +the brilliant career of a man, who, under the almost +hopeless circumstances in which he commenced +his course, never lost his firmness of +mind, and who in the highest prosperity preserved +his coolness of reflection.</p> + +<div class="sblockquot"><p>The history of Philip, even in his own days, was distorted to +his disadvantage by orators and historians. Demosthenes could +not, Theopompus would not, be impartial; and the information +contained in Diodorus and Justin is mostly derived from the +work of the latter.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Olivier</span>, <i>Histoire de Philippe, roi de Macédoine</i>. Paris, +1740, 2 vols. 8vo. A defence of Philip.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">De Bury</span>, <i>Histoire de Philippe, et d'Alexandre le grand</i>. +Paris, 1760, 4to. A very mean performance.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Th. Leland</span>, <i>The History of the Life and Reign of Philip +king of Macedon</i>. London, 1761, 4to. Dry, but exhibiting much +reading and strict impartiality.</p> + +<p>In <span class="smcap">Mitford</span>, <i>History of Greece</i>, vol. iv, Philip has found his +most zealous panegyrist and defender. It would seem that, even +in the present day, it is impossible to write an impartial history +of this monarch.</p></div> + +<p>8. Melancholy posture of the Macedonian affairs +at the beginning of Philip's reign. Besides +victorious foes abroad, there were at home two +pretenders to the throne, Argæus, backed by +Athens, Pausanias, supported by Thrace; and +Philip himself, at first, was merely regent, and +not king. In the two first years, however, every<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_211" id="Page_211">[Pg 211]</a></span> +thing was changed, and Macedonia recovered her +independence. The newly-created phalanx ensured +victory over the barbarians; recourse was +had to other means than force for success against +the suspiciousness of Athens and the neighbouring +Greek settlements, particularly against the +powerful Olynthus. It is in the conduct of these +affairs that the peculiar sagacity of Philip is displayed.</p> + +<div class="sblockquot"><p>After the defeat of Argæus, peace is purchased from Athens +by a momentary recognition of the freedom of Amphipolis, 360.—Removal +of Pausanias by means of an accommodation with +Thrace.—By the conquest of the Pæonians and Illyrians, 359, +the boundaries of Macedonia are extended to Thrace, and westward +to the lake Lychnitis.—As early as 360 Philip was proclaimed +king.</p></div> + +<div class="sidenote">Policy of +Philip:</div> + +<p>9. Development of Philip's further plans of +aggrandizement.—By the gradual subjection of +the Macedo-Greek cities, he proposed, not only +to make himself sole master in Macedonia, but +also to remove the Athenians from his domain.—The +first object of his policy against Greece was +to get himself acknowledged as a Hellen, and Macedonia +as a member of the Hellenic league. +Hence the subsequent tutelage in which Macedonia +held Greece was not converted into a +formal subjection, a proceeding which would have +savoured too much of barbarian origin.—The execution +of all these plans was facilitated by the +possession of the Thracian gold mines, which enabled +Philip to create finances as well as the +phalanx.</p> + +<div class="sblockquot"><p>Capture of Amphipolis, 358; in the mean while Athens is +amused with promises, and Olynthus with the momentary cession +of Potidæa, which had likewise been captured: this event is followed +by the conquest of the mountainous districts, abounding in<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_212" id="Page_212">[Pg 212]</a></span> +gold, which extend from the Nestus to the Strymon, and furnished +an annual income of nearly 1,000 talents.</p></div> + +<div class="sidenote">possesses +himself of +Thessaly:</div> + +<p>10. The interference of Philip in the affairs of +Thessaly dates from the year 357; the possession +of that country was an object equally important +for the furtherance of his views upon Greece, as +for the improvement of his finances. He first +stepped forth as the deliverer of Thessaly, and +ended in making it a province of Macedonia.</p> + +<div class="sblockquot"><p>Expulsion of the tyrants from Pheræ, at the request of the +Aleuadæ, 356; the tyrants, however, receive support in the sacred +war from the Phocians under Onomarchus. The final defeat +of Onomarchus, 352, makes Philip master of Thessaly; he places +Macedonian garrisons in the three chief places, and thus supports +his authority in the country until he is pleased to make it entirely +a Macedonian province, 344.</p></div> + +<div class="sidenote">takes advantage +of +the sacred +war:</div> + +<p>11. The protraction of the sacred war in +Greece furnished Philip with an excellent opportunity +of promoting his views upon that country; +although his first attempt at an irruption, too +precipitately undertaken, was frustrated by the +Athenians. The capture of Olynthus, notwithstanding +the assistance afforded it by the Athenians, +after a season of apparent inaction, insured +the safety of the frontiers in his rear; and by a +master stroke of policy, almost at the very moment +in which he was driving the Athenians out +of Eubœa, he found means to enter with them +into negotiations, which, after repeated embassies, +were closed by a peace, opening to him the +way through Thermopylæ, and enabling him to +raise a party favourable to himself within the very +walls of Athens.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">invades +Greece:</div> + +<p>12. First descent of Philip into Greece, and +termination of the sacred war by reducing the +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_213" id="Page_213">[Pg 213]</a></span> +Phocians. The place which he now obtained in +the Amphictyonic council, had been the height +of his wishes; and the humility of Sparta proved +how firmly his ascendancy over Greece was already +established.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">fosters a +party in +Greece;</div> + +<p>13. Brief view of the state of Greece, and more +particularly of Athens, after the sacred war; description +of the means by which Philip succeeded +in creating and supporting parties favourable to +his own interests in the Grecian states. Bribery +was not his only instrument; what he gave he +borrowed from others; the main feature of his +policy was, that he seldom or ever recurred to the +same means. Scheming and consistent even in +his drunken revels, he hardly ever appears under +the same form.</p> + +<div class="sblockquot"><p>Dreadful consequences to the morals of the Greeks, resulting +from the spirit of party, the decline of religion, and the vast increase +in the circulating medium, produced by the treasures of +Delphi and Macedonia.—Estimate of the power of Athens during +the period of Demosthenes and Phocion. It seems that, unfortunately, +the eloquence and political acuteness of the former +was not accompanied with sufficient talents for negotiation; the +latter, perhaps, did not place confidence enough in his country, +while Demosthenes placed too much. In spite of public indolence +and effeminacy, Athens was still enabled to support her +rank as a maritime power, the navy of Philip not being equal to +hers.</p> + +<p>† <span class="smcap">A. G. Becker</span>, <i>Demosthenes as a Statesman and an Orator</i>. +An historico-critical introduction to his works: 1815. A very +useful work, both as a history and as an introduction to the political +orations of Demosthenes.</p></div> + +<div class="sidenote">is thwarted +by Phocion;</div> + +<p>14. New conquests of Philip in Illyria and +Thrace. The Adriatic sea and the Danube appear +to have been the boundaries of his empire +on this side. But the views of the Macedonian<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_214" id="Page_214">[Pg 214]</a></span> +king were directed less against the Thracians, +than against the Grecian settlements on the Hellespont; +and the attack of the Athenian Diopithes +furnished him a pretext for making war +against them. The siege, however, of Perinthus +and Byzantium, was frustrated by Phocion, to the +great vexation of Philip; an event which aroused +the Athenians, and even the Persians, from their +lethargy.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">but obtains +the command +in the +second sacred +war;</div> + +<p>15. Policy of Philip after this check.—At the +very time that, engaged in a war against the barbarians +on the Danube, he appears to have wholly +lost sight of the affairs of Greece, his agents redouble +their activity. Æschines, richly paid for +his services, proposes in the Amphictyonic council, +that, to punish the sacrilegious insults of the +Locrians to the Delphian oracle, he should be +elected leader of the Greeks in this new sacred +war. Following his usual maxim, Philip suffers +himself to be entreated.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">and falls +upon +Greece.</div> + +<p>16. Second expedition of Philip into Greece. +His appropriation of the important frontier town +of Elatea soon showed that, for this time at least, +he was not contending merely for the honour of +Apollo.—Alliance between Athens and Thebes +brought about by Demosthenes.—But the defeat +of Chæronea in the same year decided the dependence +of Greece. Philip now found it easy to +play the magnanimous character towards Athens.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">Philip's +designs +against +Persia.</div> + +<p>17. Preparations for the execution of his plan +against Persia, not as his own undertaking, but as +a national war of the Hellenes against the barbarians. +Thus, while Philip, by obtaining from the +Amphictyons the appointment of generalissimo<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_215" id="Page_215">[Pg 215]</a></span> +of Greece against the Persians, secured in an <i>honourable</i> +manner the dependence of the country, +the splendour of the expedition flattered the nation +at whose expense it was to be conducted. +It is a question, indeed, whether Philip's own private +views extended much further!</p> + +<div class="sidenote">Internal +state of +Macedonia +under Philip.</div> + +<p>18. The internal government of Macedonia, +under so skilful and successful a conqueror, must +necessarily have been absolute. No pretender +would dare to rise up against such a ruler, and +the body guard (δορυφόροι) established by him at the +beginning of his reign, and taken from the Macedonian +nobility, contributed much to keep up a +proper understanding between the prince and the +nobles. The court became a military staff, while +the people, from a nation of herdsmen, was converted +into a nation of warriors.—Philip was unfortunate +only in his own family; but the blame +is not to be attributed to him if he could not agree +with Olympias.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">Philip murdered, +336.</div> + +<p>19. Philip murdered by Pausanias at Ægæ, +probably at the instigation of the Persians, while +celebrating the marriage of his daughter.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">Alexander: +336—323.</div> + +<p>20. The reign of <span class="smcap">Alexander</span> the <span class="smcap">Great</span>, in +the eyes of the historical inquirer, derives its +great interest, not only from the extent, but +from the permanence, of the revolution which he +effected in the world. To appreciate properly +the character of this prince, who died just as he +was about to carry his mighty projects into execution, +is no easy task; but it is totally repugnant +to common sense to suppose that the pupil +of Aristotle was nothing more than a wild and +reckless conqueror, unguided by any plan.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_216" id="Page_216">[Pg 216]</a></span></p> + +<div class="sblockquot"><p><span class="smcap">St. Croix</span>, <i>Examen critique des anciens historiens d'Alexandre-le-grand</i>, +2nd. edition, <i>considérablement augmentée</i>. Paris, +1804, 4to. The new edition of this, which is the principal work +on the history of Alexander, and important in more respects than +one, contains more than the title implies, though by no means a +strictly impartial estimate of that prince's character.</p></div> + +<div class="sidenote">Disturbances +of the +Macedonian +court.</div> + +<p>21. Violent commotions at court, in the conquered +countries, and in Greece, after the death of Philip. +Great as his power appeared to be, the preservation +of it depended entirely on the first display of +character in his successor. Alexander showed +himself worthy to inherit the sceptre by his victorious +expedition against the Thracians; (to whom, +and more especially to his alliance with the +Agrians, he was afterwards indebted for his light +horse;) and by the example which he exhibited +to Greece in his treatment of Thebes.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">Alexander, +generalissimo +of +Greece.</div> + +<p>22. Appointment of Alexander in the assembly +at Corinth to be generalissimo of the Greeks. +Yet what his father would probably have turned +to a very different account, he allowed to remain +a mere nominal office.—Development of his plan +of attack upon Persia.—The want of a navy, soon +experienced by Alexander, would probably have +frustrated his whole project, had not Memnon's +counterplan of an inroad into Macedonia been +thwarted by the celerity of the Macedonian king.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">Battle of the +Granicus.</div> + +<p>23. Passage over the Hellespont, and commencement +of the war. The tranquillity of his +kingdom and of Greece appeared to be secured, +Antipater being left at the head of affairs.—The +victory on the Granicus opens to Alexander a +path into Asia Minor; but the death of Memnon, +which soon after followed, was perhaps a greater +advantage than a victory.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_217" id="Page_217">[Pg 217]</a></span></p> + +<div class="sidenote">Battle of +Issus.<br /> +333.<br /> +332.</div> + + +<p>24. The victory of Issus, gained over Darius in +person, appears to have given Alexander the first +idea of completely overturning the Persian throne, +as was proved by the rejection of Darius's offers +of peace. When indeed have not the plans of +conquerors been dependent on the course of +events? Yet Alexander must have been pretty +certain of his future victory, since he permitted +Darius to escape, while he sat down seven months +before Tyre, in order to make himself master of +the sea; and, after the conquest of Egypt without +a battle, to which the possession of Tyre opened +the way, to build Alexandria, and erect to himself +a monument more lasting than all his victories.</p> + +<div class="sblockquot"><p>Although Alexandria perhaps in the end may have surpassed +the expectations of the founder, yet the selection of the site, favourable +only for navigation and commerce, shows that an eye +was originally had to those objects.</p></div> + +<div class="sidenote">Decisive battle of +<span class="smcap">Arbela</span>.<br /> + +Oct. 1, 331.</div> + +<p>25. Invasion of Inner Asia, facilitated by the +tacit submission of the ruling tribes, and by the +state of cultivation in which the country was +found. On the plains of Arbela the Macedonian +tactics were completely triumphant. It might +now be said that the throne of Persia was overturned; +and the unexpectedly easy capture of +Babylon, Susa, and Persepolis, was surely of +more importance for the moment than the pursuit +of a flying king.</p> + +<div class="sblockquot"><p>Insurrection of the Greeks quelled by Antipater; Alexander +himself falls in with the malcontent envoys to Darius in the interior +of Asia.</p></div> + +<div class="sidenote">Persia wholly subjected.</div> + +<p>26. The subjection of the north-eastern provinces +of the Persian empire would perhaps have +been attended with the greatest difficulties, had +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_218" id="Page_218">[Pg 218]</a></span>not the astonishing activity of the conqueror +crushed in their birth the schemes of the treacherous +<span class="sidenote">330.</span> +Bessus, who, after the assassination of Darius, +wished to erect a separate kingdom in Bactria. +The Jaxartes was now the northern boundary +of the Macedonian monarchy, as it had hitherto +<span class="sidenote">329.</span> +been that of the Persian. Besides, the +possession of the rich trading countries, Bactria +and Sogdiana, was in itself an object of vast importance.</p> + +<div class="sblockquot"><p>During this expedition, the execution of Philotas and his father +Parmenio took place, though both were, probably, guiltless +of the conspiracy laid to their charge, 330. After the death of +Darius, Alexander met with almost constant opposition in his +own army: the majority of the troops fancying that that event +precluded the necessity of any further exertions. Cautious as +Alexander was in his treatment of the Macedonian nobles, we +may discern, not however by the mere example of Clitus, how +difficult they found it to banish from their memory the relations +in which they had formerly stood to their kings.</p></div> + +<div class="sidenote">Alexander +marches +against +India.<br /> +328—326.</div> + +<p>27. Alexander's expedition against India had, +no doubt, its origin in that propensity to romantic +enterprise which constituted a main feature in his +character. Yet what could be more natural than +that a close view of Persian splendour, the conquest +of such wealthy countries, and the desire of +prosecuting his vast commercial designs, should +gradually mature in the mind of the Macedonian +king the plan of subjecting a country which +was represented as the golden land of Asia. To +this likewise the scantiness of geographic information +must have greatly contributed; if he pressed +forward to the eastern seas, the circle of his dominion +would, it was supposed, be complete.—It +appears very certain that Alexander was destitute<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_219" id="Page_219">[Pg 219]</a></span> +of a sufficient knowledge of the country when he +entered upon this expedition.</p> + +<div class="sblockquot"><p>Alexander's invasion was directed against Northern India, or the +Panjab; in those days a populous and highly cultivated country; +now the seat of the Seiks and Mahrattas; and then, as now, inhabited +by warlike races. He crossed the Indus at Taxila (Attock,) +passed the Hydaspes (Behut or Chelum,) and, availing +himself of the quarrels between the Indian princes, defeated the +king, Porus. He then proceeded across the Acesines (Jenaub) +and Hydraotes (Rauvee). The eastern verge reached in this expedition +was the river Hyphasis (Beyah;) here, having already +proceeded half way to the Ganges, the conqueror was, by a +mutiny in his army, compelled to retreat. His return was +through the country of the Malli (Multan) as far as the Hydaspes, +when the majority of his troops took ship, and were floated +along that stream into the Acesines, and from thence into the +Indus, which they followed down to its mouth.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Rennel</span>, <i>Memoir of a Map of Hindostan</i>. London, 1793, +(3d. edit.) and</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">St. Croix</span>, <i>Examen</i>, etc. (see p. 216.) furnish all the necessary +historical and geographical explanations relative to the Persian +and Indian campaigns of Alexander.</p></div> + +<div class="sidenote">Consequences +of +this expedition.</div> + +<p>28. Although Alexander was obliged to give up +the project of conquering India, yet the connection +between Europe and the east, which has +continued from that time, was the work of his +hands. While the communication on land was +secured by the establishment of various settlements, +the communication by sea was opened by +the voyage of his admiral, Nearchus, from the +Indus to the Euphrates. In the mean time +Alexander himself proceeded to Persis and Babylon, +across the desert, and the unexplored provinces +of Gedrosia and Carmania.</p> + +<div class="sblockquot"><p>Nearchus's voyage (our knowledge of which is derived from his +own journal, preserved in Arrian's <i>Indica</i>) lasted from the be<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_220" id="Page_220">[Pg 220]</a></span>ginning +of October, 326, to the end of February, 325: nearly the +same time was occupied in the almost incredible land march of +the king.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Vincent</span>, <i>The Voyage of Nearchus from the Indus to the +Euphrates</i>. London, 1797, 4to. Exhibiting the most learned +researches, and illustrated with excellent charts.</p></div> + +<div class="sidenote">Alexander's +policy in the +conquered +countries:</div> + +<p>29. After the abandonment of India, the whole +circuit of Alexander's conquests was precisely +that of the former Persian empire; his later projects +were probably directed against Arabia alone. +However easy it had been to make these conquests, +it was a more difficult task to retain them; +for Macedonia, exhausted by continual levies of +men, could not furnish efficient garrisons. Alexander +removed this difficulty, by protecting the +conquered from oppression; by showing proper +respect to their religion; by leaving the civil +government in the hands of the native rulers who +had hitherto possessed it; and by confiding to +Macedonians the command only of the garrisons +left in the chief places, and in the newly established +colonies. To alter as little as possible in +the internal organization of countries was his fundamental +principle.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">his views.</div> + +<p>30. Simple as Alexander's plans were in the +outset, their simplicity was more than compensated +by the magnitude and importance of their results. +Babylon was to be the capital of his empire, and +consequently of the world. The union of the +east and the west was to be brought about by +the amalgamation of the dominant races by intermarriage, +by education, and, more than all, by +the ties of commerce, the importance of which +much ruder conquerors, in Asia itself, soon learnt<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_221" id="Page_221">[Pg 221]</a></span> +to appreciate. In nothing probably is the superiority +of his genius more brilliantly displayed, +than in his exemption from all national prejudice, +particularly when we consider that none of his +countrymen were in this respect to be compared +with him. To refuse him this merit is impossible, +whatever judgment we may form of his general +character.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">Death of +Alexander,<br /> +April 21, +323.</div> + +<p>31. Sudden death of Alexander at Babylon by +fever; under the peculiar circumstances of the +time, the greatest loss mankind could experience. +From the Indus to the Nile the world lay in +ruins; and where was now the architect to be +found, that could gather up the scattered fragments +and restore the edifice?</p> + +<div class="sblockquot"><p>Alexander's disorder may be easily accounted for by the hardships +he had undergone, and the impure air to which he exposed +himself in cleaning out the canals about Babylon. He certainly +was not poisoned; and in the charge of immoderate drunkenness +brought against him, we must take into account the manners of +the Macedonian and Persian courts. Was it not the same with +Peter the Great? In estimating his moral character we must +bear in mind the natural vehemence of his passions, ever inclined +to the most rapid transitions; nor should we forget the unavoidable +influence of constant success upon mankind.</p></div> + + + +<hr style="width: 25%;" /> +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_222" id="Page_222">[Pg 222]</a></span></p> + +<h2>SECOND PERIOD.</h2> + +<p class="cblockquot"><i>History of the Macedonian monarchy, from the death of +Alexander the Great to the battle of Ipsus, B. C.</i> +323—301.</p> + + +<div class="sblockquot"><p>To enable the reader to take a general view, the history of the +European events is resumed below, under the head of the history +of Macedonia Proper.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Sources.</span> Diodorus, lib. xviii—xx. is the great authority +for this portion of history. He compiled mostly, for this period, +from a contemporary historian, Hieronymus of Cardia. He is +followed by Plutarch in the Lives of Eumenes, Demetrius, and +Phocion; and by Justin, lib. xiii, etc. Of Arrian's history of +Alexander's successors, nothing unfortunately remains but a few +fragments in Photius.</p> + +<p>† <span class="smcap">Mannert</span>, <i>History of Alexander's successors</i>. Nuremberg, +1787. Composed with the usual judgment and learning of that +author.</p></div> + +<div class="sidenote">Measures +adopted at +the death of +Alexander.</div> + +<p>1. The very first measure adopted after the +death of Alexander contained within itself the +seeds of all the dire revolutions that afterwards +ensued. Not only were the jealousy and ambition +of the nobles aroused, but even the interference +of the army was exhibited in the most +terrific manner. Although the idea of the supremacy +of the royal family was cast off only by +degrees, yet the dreadfully disturbed state in +which that family stood, rendered its fall unavoidable.</p> + +<div class="sblockquot"><p>State of the royal family at the death of Alexander. He left +his wife Roxana pregnant, who at the end of three months +brought into the world the rightful heir to the sceptre, Alexander; +he left likewise an illegitimate son, Hercules; a bastard<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_223" id="Page_223">[Pg 223]</a></span> +half-brother, Arrhidæus; his mother, the haughty and cruel +Olympias, and a sister, Cleopatra, both widows; the artful Eurydice, +(daughter to Cyane, one of Philip's sisters,) subsequently +married to the king, Arrhidæus; and Thessalonica, Philip's +daughter, afterwards united to Cassander of Macedonia.</p></div> + +<div class="sidenote">Arrhidæus and Alexander joint kings:<br /> + +<span class="smcap">Perdiccas</span> regent.<br /> + +<span class="smcap">Antipater</span> in Europe.</div> + +<p>2. The weak Arrhidæus, under the name of +Philip, and the infant Alexander were at last +proclaimed kings, the <i>regency</i> being placed in +the hands of Perdiccas, Leonnatus, and Meleager; +the last of whom was quickly cut off at the instigation +of Perdiccas. Meanwhile Antipater, with +whom Craterus had been joined as civil ruler, had +the management of affairs in Europe.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">Violent revolutions.</div> + +<p>3. The sequel of the history becomes naturally +that of satraps, who fell out among themselves, +all being ambitious to rule, and none willing to +obey. Twenty-two years elapsed ere any massy +edifice arose out of the ruins of the Macedonian +monarchy. In few periods of history are the revolutions +of affairs so violent, in few periods, +therefore, is it so difficult to unravel the maze of +events. For this purpose the most convenient +division of the history is into <i>three</i> periods: the +first extending to the death of Perdiccas, 321: +the second to the death of Eumenes, 315: the +third to the defeat and death of Antigonus at the +battle of Ipsus, 301.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">Division of +the empire.<br /> +B. C. 323.</div> + +<p>4. First grant of the provinces made by Perdiccas. +The vanity of this man seems to have induced +him to select the office of regent, in order +that no separate province might fall to his share; +he placed his whole reliance on having the command +of the royal army, although it had already +given so many proofs of its determination to command +rather than to obey.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_224" id="Page_224">[Pg 224]</a></span></p> + +<div class="sblockquot"><p>In this division Ptolemy son of Lagus received Egypt; Leonnatus, +Mysia; Antigonus, Phrygia, Lycia, and Pamphylia; Lysymachus, +Macedonian Thrace; Antipater and Craterus remained +in possession of Macedonia.—The foreigner, Eumenes, would +hardly have received Cappadocia, although yet to be conquered, +had Perdiccas been able to dispense with his services. The remaining +provinces either did not come under the new division, or +else their governors are unworthy of notice.</p></div> + +<div class="sidenote">First acts of Perdiccas.</div> + +<p>5. The first acts of Perdiccas's government +showed how little dependence he could place on +the obedience of men who hitherto had been his +colleagues. The general insurrection among the +mercenaries who had been settled by Alexander +<span class="sidenote">Insurrection in Upper Asia.</span> +in Upper Asia, and now wished to return to their +homes, was, no doubt, quelled by Python's destruction +of the rebels; but it was not Python's +fault that he did not make himself independent +master of the scene of mutiny.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">Disobedience of Antigonus and Leonnatus.</div> + +<p>6. Still more refractory was the behaviour of +Leonnatus and Antigonus, when they received +orders to put Eumenes in possession of his province. +Antigonus was too haughty to obey; and +Leonnatus preferred going over into Europe to +marry Cleopatra; there, however, he almost immediately +met with his death in the Lamian war. +(See below, book iv. period iii. parag. 2.) Perdiccas, +therefore, was himself obliged to undertake +the expedition with the royal army; he succeeded +<span class="sidenote">322.</span> +by the defeat of Ariarathes.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">Perdiccas +wishes to +marry Cleopatra, +but is +frustrated;</div> + +<p>7. Ambitious views of Perdiccas, who, in order +to ascend the throne by a marriage with Cleopatra, +repudiates Nicæa, the daughter of Antipater. +Cleopatra actually came over to Asia; +but Perdiccas, being obliged, at the request of +the army, to marry Eurydice, Philip's niece, after<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_225" id="Page_225">[Pg 225]</a></span> +the murder of her mother Cyane, to the king +Arrhidæus, found her a troublesome rival and +opponent in the government.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">seeks to ruin +Antigonus +and Ptolemy.</div> + +<p>8. Attempts of Perdiccas to overthrow Antigonus +and Ptolemy, by accusing them before the +army. Antigonus passes over to Antipater in +Macedonia; and gives rise to the league between +Antipater, Craterus, and Ptolemy, against Perdiccas +and Eumenes.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">War between the two parties, 321.</div> + +<p>9. Commencement and termination of the first +war. Perdiccas himself marches against Egypt, +leaving his friend Eumenes to command in Asia +Minor: meanwhile Antipater and Craterus fall +upon Asia; the former advances towards Syria +against Perdiccas; the latter is defeated and slain +by Eumenes. Before the arrival, however, of +Antipater, Perdiccas, after repeated and vain attempts +to cross the Nile, falls a victim to the insurrection +<span class="sidenote">320.</span> +of his own troops.—Thus three of the +principal personages, Perdiccas, Craterus, Leonnatus, +were already removed from the theatre of +action; and the victorious Eumenes, now master +of Asia Minor, had to maintain, unaided, the +struggle against the confederates.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">320—315.<br /> + +<span class="smcap">Antipater</span> regent.<br /> + +320.</div> + +<p>10. Second period, from the death of Perdiccas +to that of Eumenes.—Python and Arrhidæus +quickly resigning the regency, it is assumed by +Antipater.—New division of the provinces at Trisparadisus +in Syria. Seleucus receives Babylon; +Antigonus is promised, besides his former possessions, +all those of the outlawed Eumenes.</p> + +<p>11. War of Antigonus with Eumenes. The latter, +defeated by treachery, shuts himself up in the +mountain fastness of Nora, there to await more<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_226" id="Page_226">[Pg 226]</a></span> +favourable times; and Antigonus remains master +of all Asia Minor: in the mean time Ptolemy +ventures to take possession of Syria and Phœnicia.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">Antipater dies. 320.<br /> + +<span class="smcap">Polysperchon</span> regent.<br /> + +319.</div> + +<p>12. Death of the regent Antipater, in the same +year, (320;) he bequeaths the regency to his friend, +the aged Polysperchon, to the exclusion of his own +son Cassander. Antigonus now begins to unfold +his ambitious plans; he endeavours vainly to win +over Eumenes, who deceives him in the negotiations, +and seizes the opportunity of leaving his +mountain fastness.</p> + +<p>13. Eumenes's plan to strengthen himself in +Upper Asia; as he is on the way he receives +tidings of his being appointed generalissimo of the +royal troops. What better man could Polysperchon +have selected for the office than he who in +his conduct towards Antigonus exhibited so striking +an example of attachment to the royal house?</p> + +<div class="sidenote">318.</div> + +<p>14. Exertions of Eumenes to maintain himself +in Lower Asia, ineffectual, the naval victory +won by Antigonus over the royal fleet, commanded +by Clitus, depriving him of the empire +of the sea. He bursts into Upper Asia; where, +in the spring, he unites with the satraps, who had +<span class="sidenote">317.</span> +taken arms against the powerful Seleucus of Babylon.</p> + +<p>15. Antigonus following up the royal general, +Upper Asia becomes the theatre of war. Victorious +as was at first the stand made by Eumenes, +neither valour nor talent were of any avail against +the insubordination of the royal troops, and the +jealousy of the other commanders. Attacked in +winter quarters by Antigonus, he was, after the +battle, delivered into the hands of his enemy by +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_227" id="Page_227">[Pg 227]</a></span>the mutinous Argyraspidæ, who had lost their +<span class="sidenote">315.</span> +baggage: he was put to death, and in him the +king's family lost its only loyal supporter.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">317.<br /> + +315.<br /> + +315—301.</div> + +<p>16. Great changes had also taken place in the +royal family. Her enemy Antipater having deceased, +Olympias, invited by Polysperchon, who +wished to strengthen himself against Cassander, +had returned from Epirus, and put to death Arrhidæus +together with his wife, Eurydice: in the +year following she was besieged in Pydna by +Cassander, and being obliged to surrender, was +in her turn executed; meanwhile Cassander held +Roxana and the young king in his own power.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">Predominance of Antigonus.</div> + + +<p>17. Third period, from the death of Eumenes +to that of Antigonus.—The rout of Eumenes +seemed to have established for ever the power of +Antigonus in Asia; still animated with the fire of +youth, though full of years, he saw himself revived +in his son Demetrius, fond of boisterous +revelry, but gallant and talented.—Even Seleucus +<span class="sidenote">315.</span> +thought it time to consult his safety by flying +from Babylon into Egypt.</p> + +<p>18. Changes introduced by Antigonus into the +upper provinces; return to Asia Minor, where his +presence seemed indispensable, by reason of the +aggrandizement of Ptolemy in Syria and Phœnicia, +of the Macedonian Cassander in Europe, +of Lysimachus in Mysia, and the Carian Cassander +in Asia Minor.—He repossesses himself of +Phœnicia, a country of the first importance for +the construction of a fleet.</p> + +<div class="sblockquot"><p>Siege of Tyre, 314—313: it lasts fourteen months; a proof +that the city was certainly not razed by Alexander.</p></div> + +<p>19. The fugitive Seleucus forms a league<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_228" id="Page_228">[Pg 228]</a></span> +against Antigonus and Demetrius, between Ptolemy, +the two Cassanders, and Lysimachus. But +Antigonus frustrates their combination, himself +driving out the Carian Cassander, and his son +marching against Ptolemy.</p> + +<div class="sblockquot"><p>Victory won by Ptolemy over Demetrius at Gaza, 312; after +which Seleucus marches back to Babylon, and, although subsequently +followed up by Demetrius, permanently maintains his +footing in Upper Asia.—On the other hand, Ptolemy, at the first +approach of Antigonus with the main body, surrenders back Syria +and Phœnicia, 312.</p></div> + +<div class="sidenote">Peace +concluded, +311.</div> + +<p>20. A general peace concluded between Antigonus +and his enemies, Seleucus only excepted, +from whom Upper Asia is to be again wrested. +The first article, that each should retain what he +had, demonstrates pretty evidently that the treaty +was dictated solely by Antigonus; the second, +that the Greek cities should be free, was pregnant +with the seeds of a new war, ready to burst +forth at every favourable opportunity; the third, +that the young Alexander should be raised to the +throne upon attaining his majority, was probably +the death warrant of the hapless prince, who, that +same year, together with his mother, was murdered +by Cassander.—Shortly after, at the instigation +of Antigonus, Cleopatra was put to death, +in order that Ptolemy might be thwarted in his +object, which depended on a matrimonial connection +with that princess.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">Disputes on +the liberation +of +Greece.</div> + +<p>21. Even the execution of the articles must +have given rise to hostilities; Ptolemy wishing +to force Antigonus, and he, on his side, to compel +Cassander, to withdraw the garrisons from the +Grecian towns; a condition which neither party +felt inclined to fulfil. Grecian freedom was now<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_229" id="Page_229">[Pg 229]</a></span> +but a name; this, however, is not the only example +history furnishes of political ideas making +the greatest stir long after they have survived +their own existence; for then they become excellent +tools in the hands of artful designers.</p> + +<div class="sblockquot"><p>Expedition of Demetrius to liberate Athens, 308. The day +when he announced freedom to the Athenians, must have been +the happiest of his life! Few portions of history present such a +scope for the contemplation of human nature as the twofold sojourn +of Demetrius at Athens.</p></div> + +<p>22. The growing power of Ptolemy on the +sea, and the capture of Cyprus, determines Antigonus +to an open rupture: he commands his son +to drive Ptolemy out of the island.</p> + +<div class="sblockquot"><p>Naval victory of Demetrius off Cyprus, 307, perhaps the +greatest and most bloody in history; nevertheless, as little decisive +to the general question as are most naval battles. The assumption +of the royal title, first by the conqueror, afterwards by +the conquered, and ultimately by all the rest, was but a mere +form now that the royal family was extirpated.</p></div> + +<div class="sidenote">Rhodes besieged.</div> + +<p>23. The conquerors having failed in their project +of subduing Egypt, made the wealthy republic +of the Rhodians, as an ally of that country, +the victim of their fury. But though in the renowned +siege of their capital, Demetrius earned +<span class="sidenote">305.</span> +his title of Poliorcetes, the noble defence of the +Rhodians afforded an illustrious example of the +power of discipline in conjunction with well-guided +patriotism. The invitation of the Athenians +came seasonably to Demetrius; he raised +the blockade and proceeded to complete the +<span class="sidenote">304.</span> +liberation of Greece, the necessity of which became +every day more pressing.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">Demetrius +again visits +Greece.</div> + +<p>24. Second sojourn of Demetrius in Greece. +The expulsion of Cassander's garrisons from the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_230" id="Page_230">[Pg 230]</a></span> +Grecian cities, and more particularly from those +in Peloponnesus; the appointment of Demetrius +as generalissimo of Greece, for the conquest of +Macedonia and Thrace; proved not only to Cassander, +but also to the other princes, that their +common interest loudly called upon them to resist +the over-powerful Antigonus.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">League +against +Antigonus, +302.</div> + +<p>25. Third grand league of Cassander, Ptolemy, +and Seleucus, against Antigonus and his son; +brought about by Cassander. How easily, even +after the violent irruption of Lysimachus into +Asia Minor, might Antigonus have dispersed the +gathering storms, had not his presumption led +him to place an overweening reliance on his own +good fortune!</p> + +<div class="sidenote">Junction of +Seleucus +and Lysimachus, +301.</div> + +<p>26. Junction of Seleucus of Babylon and Lysimachus, +in Phrygia. Antigonus, to concentrate +his forces, recalls his son, who had pushed +on to the borders of Macedonia. The cautious +Ptolemy, on the other hand, is afraid to invade +Syria; and, in consequence of a false report, that +Lysimachus had been defeated, retires full of +alarm, into Egypt.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">Battle of +Ipsus, +301.</div> + +<p>27. Great and decisive battle fought at Ipsus +in Phrygia, in the spring of 301, which costs Antigonus +his life, and annihilates his empire, as +the two conquerors divide it between themselves, +without taking any account of the absent confederates. +Asia Minor, as far as mount Taurus, +falls to the share of Lysimachus; and all the rest, +with the exception of Cilicia, which is given to +Plisthenes, Cassander's brother, is left to Seleucus.—Demetrius, +by the help of his navy, +escapes into Greece.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_231" id="Page_231">[Pg 231]</a></span></p> + +<div class="sidenote">Domestic organization +of the +monarchy.</div> + +<p>28. The almost unbroken series of wars which +had raged from the time of Alexander, must have +precluded the possibility of much being effected +with respect to domestic organization. It appears +to have been nearly, if not wholly, military. +Yet were the numerous devastations in some +measure compensated by the erection of new cities, +in which these princes vied with one another, +impelled partly by vanity to immortalize +their names, partly by policy to support their dominion, +most of the new settlements being military +colonies. Nevertheless this was but a sorry +reparation for the manifold oppressions to which +the natives were exposed by the practice of quartering +the army upon them. The spread of the +language and civilization of the Greeks deprived +them of all national distinction; their own languages +sinking into mere provincial dialects. +Alexander's monarchy affords a striking example +of the little that can be expected from a forced +amalgamation of races, when the price of that +amalgamation is the obliteration of national character +in the individuals.</p> + +<div class="sblockquot"><p><span class="smcap">Heyne</span>, <i>Opum regni Macedonici auctarum, attritarum et +eversarum, causæ probabiles; in Opusc.</i> t. iv. This collection +contains several other treatises on Grecian and Macedonian history, +which cannot be all separately enumerated.</p></div> + + + +<hr style="width: 25%;" /> +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_232" id="Page_232">[Pg 232]</a></span></p> + +<h2>THIRD PERIOD.</h2> + +<p class="cblockquot"><i>History of the kingdoms and states which arose upon the +dismemberment of the +Macedonian Monarchy after the battle of Ipsus.</i></p> + + +<p class="cblockquot">I. <span class="smcap">History of the Syrian empire under the Seleucidæ</span>, +B. C. 312—64.</p> + +<div class="sblockquot"><p><span class="smcap">Sources.</span> Neither for the history of the Syrian, nor for that +of the Egyptian and Macedonian kingdoms, has any eminent +writer been preserved. The fragments of the lost books of Diodorus, +and, from the time that these kingdoms became allies of +Rome, those of Polybius, several narratives of Livy, the Syriaca +of Appian, and a few of Plutarch's Lives, are the principal authorities; +too frequently we are obliged to rely upon the extracts +of Justin. For the history of the Seleucidæ, in consequence of +the political connection between these princes and the Jews, the +Antiquities of Josephus and the book of Maccabees become of +importance. Besides these authorities, the many coins that have +been preserved of these kings, afford much information respecting +their genealogy and chronology.</p> + +<p>Of modern publications on the subject, the principal work is</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Vaillant</span>, <i>Imperium Seleucidarum sive historia regum Syriæ</i>, +1681, 4to. The enquiry is principally grounded on coins, as is +the case with</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Froelich</span>, <i>Annales rerum et regum Syriæ</i>. Viennæ, 1754.</p></div> + +<div class="sidenote">Seleucus +Nicator,</div> + +<p>1. The kingdom of the Seleucidæ was founded +in Upper Asia by Seleucus Nicator. It was an +extensive empire; but, being composed of various +countries united only by conquest, it could possess +but little internal stability except what it derived +from the power of its rulers. That power fell +with the founder; and the transfer of the seat of<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_233" id="Page_233">[Pg 233]</a></span> +empire from the banks of the Tigris to Syria, entangled +the Seleucidæ in all the political disputes +of the western world, and facilitated the insurrection +of the upper provinces. The history of this +kingdom divides itself into the periods before and +after the war with Rome; although at the breaking +out of this war the seeds of its decline and +fall had already been sown.</p> + +<div class="sblockquot"><p>Seleucus received, 321, Babylon as his province; but after the +defeat of Eumenes was obliged to take to flight, 315, in order to +avoid subjection to the conqueror Antigonus. But his moderate +government had rendered him so popular, that after the victory +won by Ptolemy over Demetrius at Gaza, 312, he could safely +venture to return with only a few adherents to Babylon. In this +year commences the kingdom of the Seleucidæ.</p></div> + +<div class="sidenote">founds the kingdom of the Seleucidæ.<br /> + +B. C. 313.<br /> + +311.</div> + +<p>2. In the ten following years, and while Antigonus +was busied in Asia Minor, Seleucus laid +the foundation of his power over all Upper Asia, +with a facility to which the detestation excited +by the rigid government of Antigonus mainly contributed. +After his victory over Nicanor of +Media, all in that quarter declared spontaneously +for him; and the unsuccessful expedition of Demetrius +taught Antigonus himself, that it would +no longer be prudent to assert his claims. As +early as 307, Seleucus was in possession of all +the countries between the Euphrates, Indus, and +Oxus.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">Campaign +against +India,<br /> +305.</div> + +<p>3. Great campaign in India undertaken by Seleucus +against king Sandracottus. He penetrated +as far as the Ganges, and the close alliance he +formed with the Indian sovereign lasted a long +time after, and was kept up by embassies. The +great number of elephants which he brought back<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_234" id="Page_234">[Pg 234]</a></span> +with him was not the only advantage accruing +from this expedition; the intercourse with the +east seems to have been permanently reestablished.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">Seat of government +removed +into Syria,<br /> +301.</div> + +<p>4. By the battle of Ipsus Seleucus added to +his dominions the greater part of the territories +of Antigonus;—Syria, Cappadocia, Mesopotamia, +and Armenia. Unfortunately Syria now became +the head province, notwithstanding Cœle-Syria +and Phœnicia were left in the hands of Ptolemy. +How widely different would have been the course +of historic events, had the seat of empire remained +at Seleucia on the Tigris, and the Euphrates +continued to be the western boundary of +the Seleucidæ!</p> + +<p>5. Reciprocal relations between the several +kings, who now combine in forming a kind of political +system, in which continued exertions to +maintain a balance of power by alliance and marriage +are plainly discernible.</p> + +<div class="sblockquot"><p>Connection between Seleucus and Demetrius Poliorcetes, by +the marriage of the former with the beautiful Stratonice, daughter +of the latter; made with the view of counterbalancing a +similar connection between Ptolemy and Lysimachus; Lysimachus +and his son Agathocles having united themselves with two +daughters of Ptolemy.</p></div> + +<div class="sidenote">Long peace +in Asia,<br /> +301—283.</div> + +<p>6. The eighteen years of tranquillity enjoyed +by Asia after the battle of Ipsus, prove that Seleucus +was one of the few followers of Alexander +who had any genius for the arts of peace. He +either founded or embellished a vast number of +cities, the most important of which were the +capital, Antiochia in Syria, and the two Seleucias, +one on the Tigris, the other on the Orontes: the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_235" id="Page_235">[Pg 235]</a></span> +flourishing prosperity of several of these places +was the result of the restoration of eastern trade; +new channels for which appear to have been +opened at this period on the main streams of Asia, +and more particularly on the Oxus.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">The empire +divided into +satrapies.</div> + +<p>7. The home department of his empire was +organized into satrapies, of which there were +seventy-two. But Alexander's maxim, "to give +the satrapies to natives," was wholly forgotten by +his followers; and the Seleucidæ were not long +before they experienced the evil consequences of +swerving from that practice. Under such a prince +as Seleucus scarce any kingdom could of itself +fall to pieces; but the king himself paved the way +for the dismemberment of his empire, by ceding +<span class="sidenote">293.</span> +Upper Asia, together with his consort Stratonice, +to his son Antiochus; not, however, without the +previous approbation of the army.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">Conquest of Asia Minor.<br /> +282.<br /> +281.</div> + +<p>8. War with Lysimachus, kindled by ancient +jealousy, and now fomented by family feuds. The +battle of Curopedion cost Lysimachus his throne +and his life; and Asia Minor became a part of the +Syrian realm. But as Seleucus was crossing over +to Europe, to add Macedonia to his dominions, he +fell by the hand of an assassin, Ptolemy Ceraunus, +and with him the splendour of his kingdom was +extinguished.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">Antiochus +Soter,<br /> +281—262.</div> + +<p>9. The reign of his son, Antiochus I. surnamed +Soter, seemed not unprosperous, inasmuch as the +empire preserved its former extension; but in +any state founded upon conquest, the failure of +new attempts at an increase of territory is a sure +token of approaching ruin; and this was the case +here.—In such a state, the more immediately all<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_236" id="Page_236">[Pg 236]</a></span> +depends on the person of the ruler, the more +rapid and sensible are the effects of degeneration +in a family like that of the Seleucidæ.</p> + +<div class="sblockquot"><p>The late conquests of his father in Asia Minor entangled Antiochus +in new wars; although, by the marriage of his stepdaughter +Phila with Antigonus Gonatas, he ceded his claims on +Macedonia, 277.—Fruitless attempt at subjecting Bithynia, +279; the king of that country, Nicomedes, calls in the Gauls, +who had invaded Macedonia, and gives them a settlement in Galatia, +277, where they keep their footing, even after the victory +won over them by Antiochus, 275, and by their participation in +the wars, as mercenaries, become of importance.—The newly +risen state of Pergamus likewise thrives, at the expense of the +Syrian empire, in spite of Antiochus's attack, 263; and the inroad +into Egypt, for the purpose of supporting the rebel Magas, +is anticipated by Ptolemy II. 264.</p></div> + +<div class="sidenote">Antiochus Theus,<br /> +262—247.<br /> +Rise of the Parthian and Bactrian kingdoms.</div> + +<p>10. Antiochus II. surnamed Θεός. During his +reign the sway was in the hands of women; and +the diseased state of the interior of the empire +became palpable by the secession of various eastern +provinces, out of which arose the Parthian +and Bactrian kingdoms. The boundless luxury +of the court hurried on the decline of the ruling +family; having once begun to sink, it could not +without difficulty have retrieved its virtue independently +of the matrimonial connections now +constantly formed from within itself.</p> + +<div class="sblockquot"><p>Ascendancy of his stepsister and wife Laodice, and of his sister +Apame, relict of Magas; the latter involves him in war with +Ptolemy II. to vindicate her claims upon Cyrene; it ends by +Antiochus's marriage with Berenice, daughter of Ptolemy, and +his repudiation of Laodice, 260—252. Having, after the death +of Ptolemy, 247, put away Berenice and taken back Laodice; the +latter, distrusting his motives, cuts him off by poison.—The secession +of Parthia happened in consequence of the expulsion of +the Macedonian governor by Arsaces, founder of the house of the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_237" id="Page_237">[Pg 237]</a></span> +Arsacidæ: that of Bactria, on the other hand, was brought about +by the Macedonian governor himself, Theodotus, who asserted +his independence. (Concerning these two kingdoms, see below, +book iv. period iii. Dist. Kingdoms iv. parag. 4, 5.) At first, the +former of these kingdoms comprised but a part of Parthia; the +latter only Bactria, and, perhaps, Sogdiana; both, however, were +soon enlarged at the expense of the Seleucidæ.</p></div> + +<div class="sidenote">Seleucus +Callinicus,<br /> +247—227.</div> + +<p>11. Seleucus II. surnamed Callinicus. His +reign, twenty years in duration, is one unbroken +series of wars; in which the kingdom, already +enfeebled, was subverted, partly by the struggle +with Egypt, caused by the hatred between Laodice +and Berenice; partly by the jealousy of his +brother Antiochus Hierax; and partly by vain +attempts at recovering the upper provinces.</p> + +<div class="sblockquot"><p>Assassination of Berenice, and most unfortunate war thereby +kindled with Ptolemy Evergetes of Egypt, 247—244. The assistance +which Seleucus obtains from his junior brother, Antiochus, +governor of Asia Minor, induces Ptolemy to a truce, 243; +but another war ensues between the two brothers, in which Antiochus, +at first conqueror, is himself soon afterwards conquered +in his turn, 243—240; and during this contest, Eumenes of +Pergamus greatly increases his territory at the expense of Syria, +242.—His first campaign against Arsaces, who had formed an +alliance with the Bactrian king, ended in a defeat, 238, regarded +by the Parthians as the real epoch of the foundation of their +kingdom. In the second campaign, 236, he himself fell into the +hands of the Parthians, and remained a prisoner till the day of his +death, 227.</p></div> + +<div class="sidenote">Seleucus +Ceraunus, +227.<br /> +224.</div> + +<p>12. His elder son Seleucus III. surnamed Ceraunus, +on the point of taking the field against +Attalus king of Pergamus, was removed by poison. +But the dominion of the Seleucidæ was +reestablished in Asia Minor by his mother's fraternal +nephew, Achæus; and the crown ensured +to the younger brother Antiochus, governor of +Babylon.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_238" id="Page_238">[Pg 238]</a></span></p> + +<div class="sidenote">Antiochus +the Great,<br /> +224—187.</div> + +<p>13. The long reign of Antiochus III. surnamed +the Great, is not only the most eventful in Syrian +history, but likewise marks an epoch, by the +relations now commencing between Syria and +Rome.—To earn the title of <i>great</i> was a task of +no extreme difficulty in such a line of princes.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">Insurrection +in Media +and +Persia.<br /> +218.<br /> +220.</div> + +<p>14. Great power of Hermias the Carian, who +soon became so formidable to the young monarch, +that he was obliged to rid himself of him by murder. +The great stand made by the brothers, +Molo and Alexander, satraps of Media and Persia, +who probably had an understanding with +Hermias, threatened the king with the loss of all +the upper provinces: it ended in the defeat of +Molo, Hermias being at last no longer able to +hinder the king from marching against him in +person.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">War with +the Ptolemies: +insurrection +of Asia +Minor, 220.<br /> + +219.<br /> + +217.<br /> + +216.</div> + +<p>15. The intrigues of Hermias excited Achæus +to rebellion in Asia Minor: but Antiochus held +more important, first to execute the plan he +had previously traced, of ejecting the Ptolemies +from their possessions in Syria; great as the success +which at first attended this expedition, it +was completely traversed by the battle of Raphia.—Combining +with Attalus of Pergamus, Antiochus +then defeated Achæus, who, being shut up +in the citadel of Sardes, was treacherously delivered +into his hands.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">Campaign +in the upper +provinces,<br /> +214—205.<br /> + +210.<br /> + +206.</div> + +<p>16. Great campaign of Antiochus in the upper +provinces, in consequence of the seizure of Media +by Arsaces III.—Hostilities ended in a compact, +by which Antiochus agreed formerly to cede Parthia +and Hyrcania; Arsaces, on his side, pledging +himself to furnish assistance against Bactria.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_239" id="Page_239">[Pg 239]</a></span>—But +the war with Bactria was also followed by a +peace, leaving the king, Euthydemus, in possession +of his crown and dominions.—The expedition +now undertaken by Antiochus, in company with +Demetrius of Bactriana, against India, extended, +probably far up the country, and was attended +with important consequences to Bactriana. (See +below, history of Bactria, book iv. per. iii. Dist. +Kingdoms iv. parag. 5.)</p> + +<p>The result of these great expeditions was the +establishment of the supremacy of the Seleucidæ +in Upper Asia; those countries excepted which +had been formally resigned.</p> + +<div class="sblockquot"><p>On his return through Arachotus and Carmania, where he wintered, +he likewise undertook a naval expedition on the Persian +gulf: here Gerrha, in possession of its freedom, appears a flourishing +place of trade.</p></div> + +<div class="sidenote">War with Egypt,<br />203.</div> + +<p>17. Resumption of the plan against Egypt, +after the death of Ptolemy Philopator; and alliance +with Philip of Macedonia, then carrying on +war in Asia. Antiochus, it is true, attained his +end in the expulsion of the Ptolemies from their +possessions in Syria, Cœle-Syria, and Phœnicia; +but then, his success brought him in contact with +<span class="sidenote">203—198.</span> +Rome, an event of decisive importance to himself +and his successors.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">War with Rome.<br /> +197.<br /> +195.</div> + +<p>18. Growth of the disputes between the king +and Rome, proceeding from the conquest of the +major part of Asia Minor and the Thracian Chersonesus; +meanwhile Hannibal had taken refuge +at the Syrian court, and the probability daily increased +of a great league being formed against +Rome, although that power, after conquering Carthage, +201, and Macedonia, 197, had succeeded +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_240" id="Page_240">[Pg 240]</a></span>in winning over Greece even, by the magic spell +of <i>freedom</i>. But Antiochus ruined all: instead of +following Hannibal's advice, and attacking the +Romans on their own ground, he stood on the defensive, +and suffered himself to be invaded by +them in Asia. His defeat at Magnesia near +Mount Sipylus compelled him to accede to such +<span class="sidenote">190.</span> +conditions as Rome chose to dictate, and the +power of the Syrian empire was for ever broken.</p> + +<div class="sblockquot"><p>For the history of this war, see below in the Roman history. +Book v. per. ii. parag. 10, 11.</p></div> + +<div class="sidenote">Conditions +of peace +with Rome.</div> + +<p>19. The conditions of the peace were: 1st. +That Antiochus should evacuate Asia Minor; +(Asia cis Taurum.) 2nd. That he should pay +down 15,000 talents; and to Eumenes of Pergamus +four hundred. 3rd. That Hannibal and some +others should be delivered up, and the king's +younger son Antiochus, be given as an hostage.—The +loss of the surrendered countries was a consequence +of this peace, less disadvantageous to +the Syrian kings, than the use made of it by the +conquerors. By adding the greatest part of the +ceded territories to those of the kings of Pergamus, +the Romans raised up alongside of their enemy a +rival, whom they might at their own will use as a +political engine against him.—Rome took care +likewise that the stipulated sum should be paid +by instalments in twelve years, to the end that +Syria might be kept in a permanent state of dependence.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">Seleucus +Philopator,<br /> +187—176.</div> + +<p>20. Murder of the king, 187. The reign of his +elder son, Seleucus IV. surnamed Philopator, was +a period of tranquillity; peace arising from weakness.—Though +once he unsheathed his sword in<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_241" id="Page_241">[Pg 241]</a></span> +defence of Pharnaces king of Pontus, against Eumenes, +his fear of Rome soon compelled him to +restore it to the scabbard. He exchanged his son +for his brother at Rome; but fell a victim to the +ambition of his minister Heliodorus.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">Antiochus +Epiphanes,<br /> +176—164.</div> + +<p>21. Antiochus IV. surnamed Epiphanes. Educated +at Rome, he sought to combine the popular +manners of a Roman with the ostentatious luxury +of a Syrian; and thereby became an object of +universal hatred and contempt. Our information +respecting his history is too meagre to allow of our +deciding whether most of the evil reported of him, +in the Jewish accounts especially, may not be +exaggerated. At any rate, among all his faults, +we may still discern in him the germs of good +qualities.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">His war +against +Egypt,<br /> +172—168:</div> + +<p>22. War with Egypt, springing out of Ptolemy +Philometor's claims upon Cœle-Syria and Palestine. +Obscure as many parts are in the history +of this war yet it is evident that success attended +the arms of Antiochus, and that he would have +become master of Egypt had not Rome interfered.</p> + +<div class="sblockquot"><p>The pretext for war, on the Egyptian side, was, that those +provinces had by Antiochus III. been promised as a dowry to +Cleopatra, sister of Antiochus and the mother of Philometor: +Antiochus Epiphanes, on his side, laid claim to the regency of +Egypt, as uncle to the young king, who, however, was soon declared +of age.—Opening of the war, and victory won by Antiochus +at Pelusium, 171; in consequence of which Cyprus is betrayed +into his hands.—Pelusium is fortified with a view of insuring +the possession of Cœle-Syria, and of facilitating an irruption +into Egypt.—Another victory, 170, and Egypt subdued as +far as Alexandria. Philometor driven by a sedition out of Alexandria, +where his brother Physcon is seated on the throne, falls +into the hands of Antiochus, who concludes with him a most ad<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_242" id="Page_242">[Pg 242]</a></span>vantageous +peace, and takes his part against Physcon. Hence +siege is laid to Alexandria, 169; attended with no success. +Upon the retreat of Antiochus, Philometor, concluding a separate +peace with his brother, according to which both are to rule in +conjunction, is admitted into Alexandria. Antiochus, bitterly +enraged, now declares war against both brothers, who crave assistance +from Rome: he once more penetrates into Egypt, 168; +where the Roman ambassador, Popillius, assumes so lofty a tone, +that the Syrian king is glad to purchase peace by the surrender +of Cyprus and Pelusium.</p></div> + +<div class="sidenote">his intolerance:</div> + +<p>23. The religious intolerance of Epiphanes, +exhibited in his wish to introduce the Grecian +worship everywhere among the subjects of his +empire, is the more remarkable, as such instances +were less frequent in those times. This intolerance +seems to have taken its rise, not only in the +love of pomp, but in the cupidity of the king, who +by that means was enabled to appropriate to himself +the treasures of the temples, no longer inviolate, +since the defeat of his father by Rome. The +<span class="sidenote">167.</span> +consequent sedition of the Jews, under the Maccabees, +laid the foundation of the future independence +of that people, and contributed not a +little to weaken the Syrian kingdom.</p> + +<div class="sblockquot"><p>See below; History of the Jews, book iv. per. iv; Small +states Jews, parag. 6. The deep decay of the finances of the +Seleucidæ, palpable from the latter days of Antiochus the Great, +may be accounted for well enough, by the falling off of the revenue, +accompanied with increased luxury in the kings, (an instance +of which is furnished in the festivals celebrated by Antiochus +Epiphanes at Daphne, 166,) and in the vast presents constantly +sent to Rome, in addition to the tribute, for the purpose +of keeping up a party there.</p></div> + +<div class="sidenote">his death,<br /> +165.</div> + +<p>24. His expedition also into Upper Asia, Persis +especially, where great disorders were likewise +excited by the introduction of the Grecian reli<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_243" id="Page_243">[Pg 243]</a></span>gion, +had for its object not only the recovery of +Armenia, but the rifling of the temples. He died, +however, on his way to Babylon.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">Antiochus Eupator.<br /> + +164—161.</div> + +<p>25. The real heir to the throne, Demetrius, +being detained at Rome as an hostage, Epiphanes +was first succeeded by his son Antiochus V. surnamed +Eupator, a child nine years old. During +his short reign, the quarrels of his guardians, the +despotism of the Romans, the protracted war with +the Jews, and the commencing conquests of the +Parthians, reduced the kingdom of the Seleucidæ +to a powerless state.</p> + +<div class="sblockquot"><p>Contest between Lysias, regent in the absence of Epiphanes, +and Philip, appointed by the king, previously to his death, as +guardian of the young prince, terminated by the defeat of Philip, +162.—Eupator's right acknowledged at Rome, in order that the +guardianship might fall into the hands of the senate, who administer +the government by means of a commission sent over into +Syria, and completely deprive the king of all power of resistance. +Octavius, head of the commission, put to death, probably at the +instigation of Lysias.—While the Parthian king, Mithridates I. +is prosecuting his conquests at the expense of the Syrian kingdom +in Upper Asia, Demetrius secretly escapes out of Rome, +takes possession of the throne, and causes Eupator and Lysias to +be put to death, 161.</p></div> + +<div class="sidenote">Demetrius +Soter,<br /> +161—150.</div> + +<p>26. Demetrius I. surnamed Soter. He succeeded +in getting himself acknowledged at Rome, +on which all now depended. The attempts to +extend his power, by supporting Orofernes, the +pretender to the crown of Cappadocia, against +the king Ariarathes, had their origin partly in +family relations, but still more, as was the case +with almost all political transactions of those +times, in bribery. By this act he only drew upon +himself the enmity of the kings of Egypt and +Pergamus; as, moreover, he was hated by his sub<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_244" id="Page_244">[Pg 244]</a></span>jects +on account of his intemperance, the chances +of success were greatly in favour of the shameful +<span class="sidenote">154.</span> +usurpation of Alexander Balas, brought about +by Heraclidas the expelled governor of Babylon, +and backed by the yet more shameful conduct of +the Roman senate, who acknowledged his title to +the throne. The Syrian kingdom was now fallen +so low, that both king and usurper were obliged +to court the favour of the Jews under Jonathan, +hitherto regarded as rebels. In the second battle +Demetrius lost his life.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">Alexander +Balas,<br /> +150—145.</div> + +<p>27. The usurper Alexander Balas endeavoured +to confirm his power by a marriage with Cleopatra, +daughter of Ptolemy Philometor: but he +soon evinced himself more unworthy even than +his predecessor of wielding the sceptre. While +he abandoned the government to his favourite, +the detested Ammonius, the eldest remaining son +of Demetrius succeeds not only in raising a party +against the usurper, but even in prevailing on +Philometor to side with himself, and give him in +marriage Cleopatra, whom he takes away from +Balas. The consequence of this alliance with +<span class="sidenote">145.</span> +Egypt was the defeat and downfal of Balas, although +it cost Philometor his life.</p> + +<div class="sblockquot"><p>The account, that Philometor wished to conquer Syria for +himself, must probably be understood as meaning that he had +formed the design of recovering the ancient Egyptian possessions, +Cœle-Syria and Phœnicia. Otherwise, why should he +have given his daughter to a second pretender to the throne?</p></div> + +<div class="sidenote">Demetrius Nicator, 145—126.<br /> + +145.<br /> + +144.<br /> + +143.<br /> + +142.<br /> + +140—130.</div> + +<p>28. Demetrius II. surnamed Nicator, 145—141, +and for the second time, 130—126. The disbanding +of his father's mercenaries having roused +the indignation of the army, the cruelty of his +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_245" id="Page_245">[Pg 245]</a></span>favourite Lasthenes kindled a sedition in the capital, +which could not be quenched without the +assistance of the Jews, under their high priest and +military chieftain, Jonathan.—While affairs were +in this posture, Diodotus, subsequently called +Tryphon, a dependent of Balas, excited an insurrection, +by bringing forward Antiochus, the latter's +son, and even, with the help of Jonathan, +seating him on the throne of Antioch: soon after, +Tryphon, having by treachery got Jonathan into +his power, removed Antiochus by murder, and +assumed the diadem himself.—Notwithstanding +Demetrius kept his footing only in a part of Syria, +he was enabled to obey the call of the Grecian +colonists in Upper Asia, and support them against +the Parthians, who had overrun the country as +far as the Euphrates.—Although victorious in the +commencement of the contest, he was soon after +taken by the Parthians, and remained ten years +a prisoner, though treated meanwhile as a king.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">Antiochus of Sida.<br /> +139.<br /> +132.<br /> +131. +</div> + +<p>29. In order to maintain herself against Tryphon, +Cleopatra marries the younger, and better +brother, Antiochus of Sida, (Sidetes); he being +at first in alliance with the Jews,—who, however, +were soon after subdued—defeats and overthrows +Tryphon. Being now lord and master of Syria, +he undertakes a campaign against the Parthians; +at the commencement, befriended by the subjects +of the Parthians, he is successful, but soon afterwards +is attacked in winter quarters by those +very friends, and cut to pieces, together with all +his army.</p> + +<div class="sblockquot"><p>If the accounts of the wanton licentiousness of his army are +not exaggerations, they furnish the clearest proof of the military<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_246" id="Page_246">[Pg 246]</a></span> +despotism of those times. By continued pillage and extortion, +the wealth of the country had been collected in the hands of the +soldiers; and the condition of Syria must have been pretty nearly +the same as that of Egypt under the Mamluk sultans.</p></div> + +<div class="sidenote">Demetrius Nicator restored,<br /> +130—126.<br /> +126.</div> + +<p>30. Meanwhile Demetrius II. having escaped +from prison, again seated himself on the throne. +But being now still more overbearing than before, +and meddling in the Egyptian affairs, Ptolemy +Physcon set up against him a rival in the +person of Alexander Zebinas a pretended son of +Alexander Balas; by him he was defeated and +slain.</p> + +<div class="sblockquot"><p>The Parthian king Phraates II. had, at first, liberated Demetrius, +to whom his sister Rhodogune was united by marriage, in +order that, by appearing in Syria, he might oblige Antiochus to +retreat. Antiochus having fallen, Phraates would fain have recaptured +Demetrius, but he escaped.</p></div> + +<div class="sidenote">126—85.</div> + +<p>31. The ensuing history of the Seleucidæ is a +picture of civil wars, family feuds, and deeds of +horror, such as are scarcely to be paralleled. The +utmost verge of the empire was now the Euphrates; +all Upper Asia acknowledging the dominion +of the Parthians. The Jews, moreover, +having completely vindicated their independence, +the kingdom was consequently confined to Syria +and Phœnicia. So thoroughly decayed was the +state, that even the Romans—whether because +there was no longer anything to plunder, or because +they conceived it more prudent to suffer +the Seleucidæ to wear themselves out in mutual +quarrels—do not seem to have taken any account +<span class="sidenote">Syria becomes a Roman province, 64.</span> +of it, until, at the conclusion of the last war with +Mithridates, they thought proper formally to annex +it to their empire as a province.</p> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_247" id="Page_247">[Pg 247]</a></span></p> + +<div class="sblockquot"><p>War between Alexander Zebinas and the ambitious relict of +Demetrius, Cleopatra, who with her own hand murders her eldest +son Seleucus, B. C. 125, for pretending to the crown, which she +now gives to her younger son, Antiochus Gryphus; the new +king, however, soon saw himself compelled to secure his own life +by the murder of his mother, 122; Alexander Zebinas having +been the year before, 123, defeated and put to death. After a +peaceful rule of eight years, 122—114, Antiochus Gryphus is involved +in war with his half-brother Antiochus Cyzicenus, son of +Cleopatra by Antiochus Sidetes: it ends, 111, in a partition of +territory. But the war between the brothers soon burst out +anew, and just as this hapless kingdom seemed about to crumble +into pieces, Gryphus was murdered, 97.—Seleucus, the eldest of +his five sons, having beaten and slain Cyzicenus, 96; the eldest +son of the latter, Antiochus Eusebes, prosecuted the war against +the sons of Gryphus; Eusebes being at last defeated, 90, the +surviving sons of Gryphus fell to war among themselves, and the +struggle continued until the Syrians, weary of bloodshed, did +what they ought to have done long before, viz. made over the +sovereign power to Tigranes the king of Armenia, 85. Yet +Eusebes's widow, Selene, retained Ptolemais till 70; and her elder +son Antiochus Asiaticus, at the time that Tigranes was beaten +by Lucullus, in the Mithridatic war, took possession of some +provinces in Syria, 68; these were wrested from him after the +total defeat of Mithridates by Pompey, when Tigranes was +obliged to give up his claim, and Syria became a province of the +Roman empire, 64. Antiochus Asiaticus died 58; his brother +Seleucus Cybiosactes, having married Berenice, was raised to +the Egyptian throne, but murdered at her command, 57; and +thus the family of the Seleucidæ was completely swept away.</p></div> + + +<p class="cblockquot">II. <i>History of the Egyptian kingdom under the Ptolemies,</i> +323—30.</p> + +<div class="sblockquot"><p>The sources of this history are for the most part the same as +in the foregoing section; see above, p. 232; but unfortunately +still more scanty; for in the first place, less information can here +be derived from the Jewish writers; secondly, as on the coins +struck under the Ptolemies no continuous series of time is +marked, but only the year of the king's reign, they are by no +means such safeguards to the chronology as those of the Seleu<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_248" id="Page_248">[Pg 248]</a></span>cidæ. +With respect to some few events, important illustrations +are supplied by inscriptions.</p> + +<p>By modern writers, the history of the Ptolemies has been +composed under a form almost entirely chronological, and by no +means treated of in the spirit which it deserves.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Vaillant</span>, <i>Historia Ptolemæorum</i>, fol. Amstelodam. 1701. +Illustration by the aid of coins.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Champolion Figeac</span>, <i>Annales des Lagides, ou Chronologie +des Rois d'Egypte, successeurs d'Alexandre le Grand</i>. Paris, +1819, 2 vols. This treatise, which was honoured with a prize +by the Académie des Inscriptions, has by no means exhausted +the whole of the subject. See</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">J. Saint-Martin</span>, <i>Examen Critique de l'ouvrage de</i> <span class="smcap">M. Ch. +F.</span> <i>intitulé Annales des Lagides</i>. Paris, 1820.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Letronne</span>, <i>Recherches pour servir à l'histoire de l'Egypte +pendant la domination des Grecs et des Romains, tirées des inscriptions +Grecques et Latines, relatives à la chronologie, à l'etat +des arts aux usages civils et religieux de ce pays</i>. Paris, 1828. +It cannot be denied that the author has thrown a much clearer +light on the subjects mentioned in his title.</p></div> + +<div class="sidenote">Flourishing +state of +Egypt +under the +Ptolemies.</div> + +<p>1. Egypt, under the Ptolemies, fulfilled, and +perhaps more than fulfilled, the designs projected +by Alexander; it became not only a mighty +kingdom, but likewise the centre of trade, and of +science. The history of Egypt, however, confines +itself, almost solely, to that of the new capital, +Alexandria; the foundation of that city produced, +imperceptibly, a change in the national character, +which never could have been wrought by main +force. In the enjoyment of civil welfare and religious +freedom, the nation sunk into a state of +political drowsiness, such as could scarce have +been expected in a people who so often rose up +against the Persians.</p> + +<div class="sblockquot"><p>Alexandria, originally, was no doubt a military colony; it was +not long, however, before it became a general place of resort for +all nations, such as was scarcely to be met with in any other town +of that day. The inhabitants were divided into three classes;<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_249" id="Page_249">[Pg 249]</a></span> +<i>Alexandrines</i>, (that is to say, foreigners of all nations, who had +settled in the place; next to the Greeks, the Jews were, it appears, +the most numerous,) <i>Egyptians</i>, and <i>Mercenaries</i> in the +king's service. The Greeks and Macedonians divided into wards +(φυλας), constituted the citizens; they were under municipal +government; the others, such as the Jews, formed bodies corporate +according to their respective nations. The more important, +in so many respects, that Alexandria is for history, the more it +is to be regretted that the accounts respecting it, which have +reached us, are so far from satisfactory!—Concerning the topography +of ancient Alexandria:</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Bonamy</span>, <i>Description de la ville d'Alexandrie</i> in the <i>Mém. de +l'Académie des Inscript.</i> vol. ix. Compare:</p> + +<p>† <span class="smcap">J. L. F. Manso</span>, <i>Letters upon ancient Alexandria</i>, in his +<i>Vermischte Schriften</i>, vol. i.</p></div> + +<div class="sidenote">Ptolemy +Soter,<br /> +B. C. 323—284.<br /> + +321.<br /> + +307.</div> + +<p>2. Ptolemy I. surnamed Soter, the son of +Lagus, received Egypt for his share, at the first +division after the death of Alexander. Aware of +the value of his lot, he was the only one of +Alexander's successors that had the moderation +not to aim at grasping all. No doubt he was, by +the ambition of the other princes, entangled in +their quarrels, but his conduct was so cautious, +that Egypt itself was never endangered. Twice +attacked in that country, first by Perdiccas, afterwards +by Antigonus and Demetrius, he availed +himself successfully of his advantageous position, +and moreover, in this period, added to his dominion +several countries without Africa, such as +Phœnicia, Judæa, Cœle-Syria, and Cyprus.</p> + +<div class="sblockquot"><p>The possession of Phœnicia and Cœle-Syria, by reason of their +forests, was of indispensable necessity to Egypt as a naval power. +They frequently changed masters. The first occupation of those +provinces by the Egyptian government, occurred in 320, soon +after the rout of Perdiccas by Ptolemy's general Nicanor, who +took the Syrian satrap Laomedon prisoner, established his footing +in the whole of Syria, and placed garrisons in the Phœnician<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_250" id="Page_250">[Pg 250]</a></span> +cities. In 314 it was again lost to Antigonus, after his return +out of Upper Asia, and the siege of Tyre. Ptolemy having +defeated Demetrius at Gaza, 312, repossessed himself of those +countries, but soon after evacuated them on the appearance of +Antigonus, to whom they were ceded by the peace of 311. At +the conclusion of the last grand league against Antigonus, 303, +Ptolemy once more occupied them: but alarmed at a false report, +that Antigonus had gained a victory, he retreated into Egypt, +leaving nevertheless troops in the cities. After the battle of +Ipsus, 301, those countries were made over to him, and continued +in the hands of the Ptolemies until they were lost at the +second invasion of Antiochus the Great, 203.</p> + +<p>Cyprus, (see p. 154) like most other islands, acknowledged +submission to those who possessed the sovereignty of the sea, and +therefore could not escape the dominion of the Ptolemies. It +was taken possession of by Ptolemy as early as 313. Still the +separate cities of the islands preserved their kings, among whom +Nicocles of Paphos, having entered into a secret league with +Antigonus, was put to death, 310. After the great seafight, +307, Cyprus fell into the hands of Antigonus and Demetrius. +Subsequently to the battle of Ipsus, 301, it remained indeed at +first in the power of Demetrius; but that prince being gone over +to Macedonia, Ptolemy, 294, seized an opportunity of recovering +it, and the island from that time remained under the dominion +of Egypt. Availing themselves of their naval strength, the +Egyptian kings frequently exerted sovereign power over the +coasts of Asia Minor, especially Cilicia, Caria, and Pamphylia, +which appear to have absolutely formed a part of their territory +under the second Ptolemy. It is, however, hardly possible to +define with accuracy what were their real possessions in those +quarters.</p></div> + +<div class="sidenote">Cyrene and +Libya annexed +to +Egypt.</div> + +<p>3. Ptolemy likewise extends his territory within +Africa, by the capture of Cyrene; in consequence +of which Libya, or the neighbouring +countries betwixt Cyrene and Egypt, fell under +his dominion. It is probable, also, that even in +his reign the frontier of the Egyptian empire was +advanced into Æthiopia; but for this assertion we +have no positive authority.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_251" id="Page_251">[Pg 251]</a></span></p> + +<div class="sblockquot"><p>The fall of Cyrene was brought about by domestic broils: at +the time the place was besieged by Thimbron, a portion of the +exiled nobles fled to Ptolemy; the Egyptian prince commanded +that they should be reinstated by his general Ophellas, who took +possession of the town itself, 321. An insurrection in 312 was +quelled by Agis, Ptolemy's general: nevertheless it would appear +that Ophellas had almost established his independence, when, +by the treachery of Agathocles, with whom he had entered into a +league against Carthage, he perished, about 308. Cyrene was +now seized by Ptolemy, and given to his son Magas, who ruled +over it fifty years.</p></div> + +<div class="sidenote">Constitution +of the +government.</div> + +<p>4. With respect to the internal government of +Egypt, our information is far from complete. The +division into districts or nomes was continued; +subject perhaps, in some cases, to alterations. +The power of the king appears to have been unlimited; +the extreme provinces were administered +by governors, appointed by the sovereign; +similar officers were probably placed at the head +of the various districts of Egypt itself; but hardly +any document relative to the home department of +that country has reached our time. High public +situations, at least in the capital, appear exclusively +reserved to Macedonians or Greeks; no +Egyptian is ever mentioned as holding office.</p> + +<div class="sblockquot"><p>There were four magistrates at Alexandria: the Exegetes, +whose office was to provide for the wants of the city; the Chief +Judge; the Hypomnematographus—(Registrar of the archives?)—and the +Στρατηγὸς νυκτερινὸς, +no doubt, the supervisor of the +police, whose duty it was to watch over the peace of the city at +night. We have the express testimony of Strabo, that these +offices, which continued under the Romans, had already existed +under the kings; whether their establishment can be dated as +far back as the time of Ptolemy I. is a question that does not +admit of a solution.—The number of the districts or nomes appears +to have been augmented; probably with a political view, +in order that no governor or monarch should be invested with too +great a share of power.</p></div><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_252" id="Page_252">[Pg 252]</a></span></p> + +<div class="sidenote">The priest-caste +and +religion remain.</div> + +<p>5. Be that as it may, it is an undoubted fact, +that the ancient national constitution and administration +were not entirely obliterated. The +caste of priests, together with the national religion, +continued to exist; and though the influence +of the former was considerably diminished, +it did not entirely cease. A certain sort of +worship was, by appointed priests, paid to the +kings, both in their lifetime and after their death. +Memphis, though not the usual residence of the +court, remained the capital of the kingdom; there +the ceremony of coronation was performed; and +its temple of Phtha was still the head sanctuary. +What influence had not the religion of the Egyptians +upon that of the Greeks! It were difficult +to say which nation borrowed most from the +other.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">Character +of the first +of the Ptolemies.</div> + +<p>6. The regeneration of Egypt from the state of +general ruin into which she had been plunged, +and the permanent tranquillity she enjoyed during +nearly thirty years, the duration of the reign of +Ptolemy I.—at a time when the rest of the world +was harassed by continual wars,—must have +heightened her prosperity under so mild and beneficent +a ruler. But Ptolemy was certainly the +only prince who could have taken advantage of +these favourable circumstances. Though a soldier +by profession he was highly accomplished, +was himself a writer, and had a genius for all the +arts of peace, which he fostered with the open-handed +liberality of a king: while amidst all the +brilliant splendour of his court, he led himself the +life of a private individual.</p> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_253" id="Page_253">[Pg 253]</a></span></p><div class="sblockquot"><p>Increase of Alexandria by the importation of vast numbers of +colonists; especially Jews.—Erection of several superb buildings, +more particularly the Serapeum.—Measures taken for the extension +of trade and navigation.—The twofold harbour on the +sea, and on the lake Mareotis.—The Pharus built.</p></div> + +<div class="sidenote">Literature +encouraged.</div> + +<p>7. But what more than any thing else distinguished +Ptolemy from his contemporaries was his +regard for the interests of science. The idea of +founding the Museum sprung out of the necessities +of the age, and was suited to the monarchical +form of government now prevalent. Where +in those days of destruction and revolution could +the sciences have found a shelter, if not under +the protection of a prince? But under Ptolemy +they found more than a shelter, they found a rallying +point. Here accordingly the exact sciences +were perfected: and although the critic's art +which now grew up could not form a Homer or a +Sophocles, should <i>we</i>, had it not been for the +Alexandrines, be at present able to read either +Homer or Sophocles?</p> + +<div class="sblockquot"><p>Foundation of the Museum, (Society of the learned,) and of +the first library in Bruchium, (afterwards removed to the Serapeum;) +probably under the direction of Demetrius Phalereus. +A proper estimation of the services rendered by the Museum is +yet wanting: what academy in modern Europe, however, has +done so much?</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Heyne</span>, <i>De genio Sæculi Ptolemæorum</i>. <i>In Opuscul.</i> t. i.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Matter</span>, <i>Essai historique sur l'école d'Alexandrie</i>, 1820.</p></div> + +<div class="sidenote">Ptolemy +Philadelphus,<br /> +284—246.</div> + +<p>8. Ptolemy II. surnamed Philadelphus, son of +Berenice, the second wife of his father, had +ascended the throne in 286 as joint king. His +reign, which lasted thirty-eight years, was more +peaceful even than that of his predecessor, whose<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_254" id="Page_254">[Pg 254]</a></span> +spirit seemed to inspire him in every thing, save +that he was not a warrior: but, by that very +reason, the arts of peace, trade, and science were +promoted with the greater energy. In his reign +Egypt was the first power by sea, and one of the +first by land, in the world; and even though the +account given by Theocritus of its thirty-three +thousand cities may be regarded as the exaggeration +of a poet, it is very certain that Egypt +was in those days the most flourishing country in +existence.</p> + +<div class="sblockquot"><p>The commerce of Alexandria was divided into three main +branches: 1. The land-trade over Asia and Africa. 2. The sea-trade +on the Mediterranean. 3. The sea-trade on the Arabian +gulf, and Indian ocean.—With regard to the land-trade of Asia, +especially that of India carried on by caravans, Alexandria was +obliged to share it with various cities and countries: since one of +its chief routes traversed the Oxus, and Caspian, to the Black +sea; while the caravans, travelling through Syria and Mesopotamia, +spread for the most part among the seaports of Phœnicia +and Asia Minor.—The trade over Africa extended far west, and +still farther south. Westward it was secured by the close connection +between Cyrene and Alexandria; and no doubt followed +the same roads as in earlier times: of far greater importance was +that carried on with the southern countries, or Æthiopia, into the +interior of which they now penetrated, principally for the purpose +of procuring elephants. The navigation on the Arabian and +Indian seas had likewise for its immediate object the Æthiopian +trade, rather than the Indian.—The measures taken by Ptolemy +with this view, consisted partly in the building of harbours +(Berenice, Myos Hormos) on the Arabian gulf; partly in establishing +a caravan from Berenice to Coptos on the Nile, down +which latter the goods were further transmitted to their destination; +for the canal connecting the Red sea with the Nile, although, +perhaps, completed at this time, was nevertheless but +little used. The grand deposit for these wares was the lesser +harbour of Alexandria, united by a canal with the lake Mareotis, +which in its turn communicated by another canal with the Nile; +so that the account we receive of the lesser harbour being more<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_255" id="Page_255">[Pg 255]</a></span> +thronged and full of bustle than the larger one, need not excite +our surprise. With regard to the trade on the Mediterranean, it +was shared between Alexandria, Rhodes, Corinth, and Carthage. +The chief manufactories appear to have been those of cotton +stuffs, established in or near the temples.</p> + +<p>The best inquiry into the trade of Alexandria will be found in +<span class="smcap">J. C. D. De Schmidt</span>, <i>Opuscula, res maxime Aegyptiorum illustrantia</i>, +1765, 8vo.</p></div> + +<div class="sidenote">Revenue +of Egypt.</div> + +<p>9. It would be important to know what, in a +state like Egypt, was the system of imposts, +which under Philadelphus produced 14,800 silver +talents, (four millions sterling,) without taking into +account the toll paid in grain. In the extreme +provinces, such as Palestine, the taxes were annually +farmed to the highest bidder, a mode of +levy attended with great oppression to the people. +The case appears to have been very different with +regard to Egypt itself; the customs, however, +constituted the main branch of the revenue.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">Events of +the reign +of Philadelphus.</div> + +<p>10. The wars waged by Ptolemy II. were +limited to those against Antiochus II. of Syria, +and Magas of Cyrene, half-brother to the Egyptian +king; the former sprung out of the latter. +Luckily for Egypt, Ptolemy II. was of a weak +constitution, and by his state of health was incapacitated +from commanding his armies in person.—Under +his reign the first foundation was laid, +by means of reciprocal embassies, of that connection +with Rome which afterwards decided the fate +of Egypt.</p> + +<div class="sblockquot"><p>Magas had, after the defeat of Ophellas, received Cyrene, 308. +He had married Apame, daughter of Antiochus I., and in 266 +had raised the standard of rebellion with the intention of invading +Egypt itself, when an insurrection in Marmarica compelled him +to retreat; he contrived, notwithstanding, to prevail upon his<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_256" id="Page_256">[Pg 256]</a></span> +father-in-law to undertake an expedition against Egypt, which, +however, was frustrated by Philadelphus, 264. To terminate this +contest, Magas was about to unite his daughter Berenice with +the eldest son of Philadelphus; Apame, wishing to thwart the +negotiation, fled over to her brother, Antiochus II. whom, after +her husband's death, 258, she excited to a war against Egypt, +which closed in 252.—The embassy to Rome originated in the +victory won by the Romans over Pyrrhus, 273; it was answered +by another from the Romans, 272.</p></div> + +<div class="sidenote">Character +of Ptolemy +Philadelphus.</div> + +<p>11. The son inherited from his father all but +the simplicity of domestic life: under the reign of +Philadelphus, the court was first thrown open to +that effeminate luxury, which soon wrought the +destruction of the Ptolemies as it had previously +done that of the Seleucidæ; at the same time was +introduced the pernicious practice of intermarriages +in the same family, by which the royal +blood was more foully contaminated here even +than in Syria. Philadelphus set the first example, +by repudiating Arsinoe the daughter of Lysimachus, +and then marrying his own sister, likewise +named Arsinoe; this princess preserved her influence +over the king as long as she lived, although +she did not bring him an heir, but adopted the +children of her predecessor.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">Ptolemy +Evergetes,<br /> +246—221.</div> + +<p>12. Ptolemy III. surnamed Evergetes. Under +him, Egypt, from being merely mercantile, assumed +the character of a conquering state; notwithstanding +his warlike spirit, he was not uninspired +with that genius for the arts of peace peculiar +to his family. His conquests were directed +partly against Asia in the war with Seleucus II. +and extended as far as the borders of Bactria; and +partly, it is probable, against the interior of Ethiopia, +and the western coast of Arabia. Countries<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_257" id="Page_257">[Pg 257]</a></span> +so wealthy, and with which commerce had made +men so well acquainted, could hardly escape the +arms of such a formidable power as Egypt; yet +she seems to have made scarcely any other use +of this extension of territory, than to insure the +safety of her commercial routes.</p> + +<div class="sblockquot"><p>The main source of the history of Ptolemy Evergetes, is the +inscription on the monument erected by that prince at Adule +in Ethiopia: it contains a chronological list of his conquests, +a copy of which has been preserved to us by Cosmas Indicopleustes; +modern researches, however, have shown the probability +of its having consisted of two inscriptions, one referring +to Evergetes, the other to a later king of Abyssinia.—According +to this monument, Ptolemy inherited from his father, besides +Egypt itself, Libya, that is to say, western Africa as far as +Cyrene, Cœle-Syria, Phœnicia, Lycia, Caria, Cyprus, and the +Cyclades.—War with Seleucus Callinicus caused by the murder +of Berenice (see above, p. 237.); lasted until the ten years' truce, +246—240. During this war, he conquered the whole of Syria as +far as the Euphrates, and most of the maritime countries in Asia +Minor, from Cilicia to the Hellespont: an easy prey to a naval +power. Whether the conquest of the countries beyond the Euphrates, +Mesopotamia, Babylonia, Persis, Susiana, and Media +as far as Bactria, was effected in these four years, or not till between +240 and 230, is a question which cannot be determined +with certainty. If we may judge by the booty brought back, +this campaign was rather a foray than a regular expedition for +conquest, though Ptolemy, indeed, appointed governors in Cilicia +and Babylonia; yet the peculiar situation of affairs in Asia +at the time, Seleucus being at war with his brother Antiochus +Hierax, and the Parthian and Bactrian kingdoms being also in a +state of infant feebleness, afforded unusual opportunities for an +expedition of this sort.</p> + +<p>The southern conquests, so far as they may be referred to +Evergetes, were effected during the last period of his reign, in a +separate war. They comprised: 1st. The greatest part of modern +Abyssinia,—for as the catalogue of nations commences with +that of Abyssinia, it necessarily follows that Nubia had already +been subjected to Egypt.—The mountain range along the Arabian +gulf, the plain of Sennaar as far as modern Darfur, the lofty<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_258" id="Page_258">[Pg 258]</a></span> +chain of mountains to the south, beyond the fountains of the +Nile. All these conquests were made by the king in person; +and from those distant lands to Egypt, commercial roads were +opened. 2nd. The western coast of Arabia, from Leuke Kome +to the southern point of Arabia Felix, was conquered by his +generals and admirals: here, likewise, the security of the commercial +roads was established.</p> + +<p><i>Monumentum Adulitanum</i>, published in <span class="smcap">Fabricius</span>, <i>B. Græc.</i> +t. ii.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Montfaucon</span>, <i>Coll. Patr.</i> t. i. and in <span class="smcap">Chishull</span>, <i>Antiquit. +Asiaticæ</i>.</p> + +<p>The assertion that the monument bears two different inscriptions +is made by <span class="smcap">Salt</span>, in the narrative of his travels contained +in the <i>Travels of Lord Valentia</i>.</p></div> + +<p>13. Egypt was singularly blessed in having +three great kings, whose reigns filled one whole +century. A change now ensued; but that change +was brought about by the natural course of +events; in fact, it could scarcely be expected that +the court should remain untainted by such luxury +as must have prevailed in a city, which was the +main seat of trade, and the deposit of the treasures +of the richest countries.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">Ptolemy +Philopator,<br /> +221—234.</div> + +<p>14. Ptolemy IV. surnamed Philopator. A debauchee +and a tyrant, who, during the greater +portion of his reign, remained under the tutelage +of the crafty Sosibius, and, after the decease of +that individual, fell into the yet more infamous +hands of Agathocles and his sister Agathoclea. +Philopator being contemporary with Antiochus +the Great, the dangers that threatened Egypt +under such a reign seemed to be doubled; they +were, however, averted by the ill-deserved victory +of Raphia (see above, p. 238).</p> + +<div class="sidenote">Ptolemy +Epiphanes,<br /> +204—181.<br /> + +203.<br /> + +202.</div> + +<p>15. Agathocles and his sister would fain have +taken into their own hands the guardianship of +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_259" id="Page_259">[Pg 259]</a></span>his son Ptolemy V. surnamed Epiphanes, a child +only five years old; but the people having risen +up and made a terrible example of them, the +office of guardian was confided to the younger +Sosibius and to Tlepolemus. The reckless prodigality +of the former soon gave rise to a feud between +him and his colleague, who was at least +cunning enough to keep up appearances. Meanwhile +the critical posture in which the kingdom +was placed, by the attack of the enleagued kings +of Syria and Macedonia, compelled the nation to +defer the regency to Rome and the senate, who +had hitherto carefully cherished an amicable connection +with Egypt.</p> + +<div class="sblockquot"><p>The regency confided to M. Lepidus, 201, who hands over the +administration to Aristomenes of Acarnania. The sequel will +show how decidedly important this step was for the ulterior destinies +of Egypt. By the war of the Romans against Philip, and +their differences with Antiochus, Egypt was, no doubt, for the +present extricated from her embarrassment; but nevertheless in +198 she lost her Syrian possessions, notwithstanding Antiochus +III. had promised to give them as a dowry to Cleopatra, the affianced +bride, and subsequently the consort of the young king of +Egypt.</p> + +<p>To this time, or about 197, belongs the celebrated inscription +on the Rosetta stone, erected by the caste of priests as a tribute of +gratitude for past benefits, after the consecration of the king at +Memphis upon his coming of age: a monument important alike +for palæography, and for the knowledge of Egyptian administration.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Ameilhon</span>, <i>Eclaircissemens sur l'inscription Grecque du monument +trouvé à Rosette</i>. Paris, 1803.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Heyne</span>, <i>Commentatio de inscriptione Græca ex Aegypto Londinum +apportata</i>, in the <i>Commentat. Societ. Gotting.</i> vol. xv.</p></div> + +<div class="sidenote">Character +of Epiphanes.<br /> + +184.<br /> + +183.</div> + +<p>16. The hopes conceived of Epiphanes, were +grievously disappointed as he grew up to manhood. +His guardian Aristomenes fell a victim to +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_260" id="Page_260">[Pg 260]</a></span>his tyranny; nay, his cruelty drove even the patient +Egyptians to rebel, although the insurrections +were stilled by his counsellor and general +Polycrates. His reign happened during the period +in which Rome crushed the power of Macedonia +and Syria; and notwithstanding the close alliance +between Epiphanes and Antiochus III. the Romans +succeeded in holding the Egyptian king in +dependence; he was, however, in the twenty-eighth +year of his age, brought to an early grave +by intemperance and debauchery.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">Ptolemy +Philometor,<br /> +181—145.</div> + +<p>17. Of his two sons, the elder, a child five years +old, was his immediate successor; this prince, by +the title of Ptolemy VI. surnamed Philometor, ascended +the throne under the guardianship of his +mother Cleopatra, who fulfilled the duties of her +office to the satisfaction of all, until 173. But, +after her death, the regency having fallen into the +hands of Eulæus an eunuch, and Lenæus, these +individuals, asserting their claims to Cœle-Syria +and Phœnicia, engaged with Antiochus Epiphanes +in a war exceedingly detrimental to Egypt, until +Rome commanded peace to be made.</p> + +<div class="sblockquot"><p>Antiochus, after the victory of Pelusium, B. C. 171, and the +treacherous surrender of Cyprus, having possessed himself of +Egypt as far as Alexandria, a faction arose in the city; Philometor +was expelled, and his younger brother Physcon seated on +the throne, 170.—The exile Philometor fell into the power of +Antiochus, who compelled the fugitive to sign a separate peace, +highly injurious to the interests of Egypt. The articles were +not, however, ratified; Philometor secretly entering into an +agreement with his brother that they should both rule in common, +169. Antiochus having in consequence again made an inroad +into Egypt, the two kings addressed themselves for assistance +to the Achæans and to the Romans: the latter forthwith +despatched an embassy to Antiochus, commanding him to<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_261" id="Page_261">[Pg 261]</a></span> +evacuate the territory of their allies, which happened accordingly, +168.</p></div> + +<div class="sidenote">Disputes +between the +sons of +Epiphanes.</div> + +<p>18. In the contest, which soon afterwards ensued +between the two brothers, the younger was +driven out and sought a refuge at Rome; when a +partition of the kingdom between the princes was +determined upon: the senate, however, after due +consideration, refused to confirm the decision, so +that the disputes between the two kings were rekindled +and protracted, until the younger fell into +the power of the elder.</p> + +<div class="sblockquot"><p>In the first division, 164, Philometor received Egypt and +Cyprus; and the infamous Physcon had for his share Cyrene +and Libya. But, during his stay at Rome, Physcon, contrary to +all justice, obtained the promise of Cyprus; Philometor refusing +to give up that portion of his share, and Cyrene having risen up +against its king, Physcon ran the risk of losing the whole of his +dominions. In the war which, supported by Rome, he waged +against his brother, Physcon fell, 159, into the hands of Philometor, +who not only forgave him, but, leaving him in possession +of Cyrene and Libya, added some cities in the place of Cyprus, +and promised him his daughter in marriage.</p></div> + +<div class="sidenote">Philometor +interferes +in the affairs +of Syria.</div> + +<p>19. During the last period of his reign, Philometor +was almost exclusively busied with Syrian +affairs. He supported Alexander Balas against +Demetrius, and even gave him his daughter Cleopatra. +Nevertheless, he afterwards passed over +to the side of Demetrius, seated him on the +throne, gave him in marriage this same Cleopatra, +who had been taken away from Balas. But in +the battle in which Balas was overthrown, the +Egyptian king also received his death wound. +<span class="sidenote">145.</span> +He may be regarded as one of the good princes +of the Ptolemaic dynasty, especially if compared +with his brother.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_262" id="Page_262">[Pg 262]</a></span></p> + +<div class="sidenote">Ptolemy +Physcon,<br /> +145—117.</div> + +<p>20. His younger brother Ptolemy VIII. surnamed +Physcon, and likewise Evergetes II. a +monster both in a moral and a physical sense, +who had hitherto been king of Cyrene, now possessed +himself of the throne of Egypt by marrying +his predecessor's widow and sister, Cleopatra, +whom, however, after having murdered her son, +he repudiated for her daughter of the same name. +This prince accordingly, once more united the divided +kingdom; but at the same time that he was +purchasing the sanction of Rome by vile adulation, +he maintained himself at Alexandria by +means of military law, which soon converted the +city into a desert, and obliged him to attract +foreign colonists by large promises. Another +<span class="sidenote">130.</span> +bloody massacre, however, produced an insurrection +in the town, which compelled the king to flee +to Cyprus, the Alexandrines, meanwhile, raising +to the throne his repudiated wife Cleopatra. +Physcon, nevertheless, with the assistance of his +mercenaries, recovered the sceptre, and wielded +it to the day of his death.</p> + +<div class="sblockquot"><p>That a prince of such a character should nevertheless be a +friend to science, and himself an author, must ever be regarded +as a singular phenomenon; yet his exaction of manuscripts, and +his treatment of the learned, whole crowds of whom he expelled, +betray the despot.</p></div> + +<div class="sidenote">Ptolemy +Lathyrus, +116—81.<br /> + +116.<br /> + +107.<br /> + +89.<br /> + +88.</div> + +<p>21. His widow, the younger Cleopatra, to gratify +the Alexandrines, was obliged to place on the throne +the elder of her two sons, Ptolemy IX. surnamed +Lathyrus, who was living in a sort of banishment +at Cyprus: to the younger, Ptolemy Alexander +I. who was her favourite, she accordingly gave the +island of Cyprus. But Lathyrus not choosing to +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_263" id="Page_263">[Pg 263]</a></span>obey her in everything, she compelled him to exchange +Egypt for Cyprus, and gave the former to +her younger son. But neither was the new king +able to brook the tyranny of his mother: as she +threatened even his life, he saw no other means +of escape than to anticipate her design; but failing +in his project, he was obliged to take to flight, +and, after a vain attempt to recover the throne, +perished. The Alexandrines then reinstated in +the government his elder brother Lathyrus, who +ruled till the year 81, possessing both Egypt and +Cyprus.</p> + +<div class="sblockquot"><p>Revolt and three years' siege of Thebes in Upper Egypt, still +one of the most wealthy cities even in those days, but after its +capture almost levelled to the earth; about 86.—Complete separation +of Cyrenaica from Egypt: this province had been bequeathed +by Physcon as a separate branch-state to his illegitimate +son, Apion, 117; that prince, after a tranquil reign, bequeathed +it, in his turn, to the Romans, 96, who at first allowed it to retain +its independence.</p></div> + +<div class="sidenote">Obscure +period of +the history.<br /> +81—66.</div> + +<p>22. Lathyrus left one daughter born in wedlock, +Berenice, and two illegitimate sons, Ptolemy +of Cyprus and Ptolemy Auletes. Besides the +above, there was a lawful son of Alexander I. of +the same name as his father, and at that time residing +at Rome with the dictator Sylla. The following +history is obscured by clouds, which, +amid the contradiction of accounts, cannot be entirely +dispelled. Generally speaking, Egypt was +now a tool in the hands of powerful individuals at +Rome, who regarded it but as a financial speculation +whether they actually supported a pretender +to the Egyptian crown, or fed him with +vain hopes. All now saw that Egypt presented<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_264" id="Page_264">[Pg 264]</a></span> +a ripe harvest; but they could not yet agree by +whom that harvest should be reaped.</p> + +<div class="sblockquot"><p>The first successor of Lathyrus in Egypt was his legitimate +daughter Cleopatra Berenice, 81: at the end of six months, however, +Sylla, then dictator at Rome, sent his client Alexander II. +to Egypt, 80; that prince married Berenice, and with her ascended +the throne. Nineteen days after Alexander murdered his consort, +and, according to Appian, was himself about the same time cut +off by the Alexandrines, on account of his tyranny. We afterwards +hear, notwithstanding, of a king Alexander, who reigned +until 73, or, according to others, until 66; when, being driven +out of Egypt, he fled to Tyre, and called upon the Romans for +that aid, which probably through Cæsar's intercession, would +have been granted, had not the supplicant soon after died at the +place of his refuge. He is said to have bequeathed by will his +kingdom to Rome; and although the senate did not accept the +legacy, it does not appear to have formally rejected the offer; in +consequence of which, frequent attempts were made at Rome for +effecting the occupation.—Either, therefore, Appian's account +must be false, and this person was the same Alexander II. or he +was some other person bearing that name, and belonging to the +royal house.—Be this as it may, after the death of Lathyrus the +kingdom was dismembered: and one of his illegitimate sons, +Ptolemy, had received Cyprus, but that island was taken from +him, 57, and converted into a Roman province: the other, Ptolemy +Auletes, seems to have kept his footing either in a part of +Egypt, or in Cyrene, and was probably the cause of Alexander's +expulsion, at whose decease he ascended the throne; although +the Syrian queen Selene, sister to Lathyrus, asserted her son's +claims at Rome, as legitimate heir to the throne of Egypt. With +Cæsar's assistance, Auletes, however, succeeded in obtaining the +formal acknowledgment of his right at Rome, 59. But the measures +taken by the Romans with regard to Cyprus, gave rise to +a sedition at Alexandria, 57, in consequence of which Auletes, +being compelled to flee, passed over into Italy: or, perhaps, he +was ordered to take this step by the intrigues of some Roman +grandees, anxious of an opportunity to reinstate him. Pompey's +attempts, with this view, are thwarted by Cato, 56. Meanwhile +the Alexandrines placed Berenice, the eldest daughter of Auletes, +on the throne; she married first Seleucus Cybiosactes, as<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_265" id="Page_265">[Pg 265]</a></span> +being the lawful heir; and after putting that prince to death, +united herself to Archelaus, 57.—Actual restoration of Auletes +by the purchased assistance of Gabinius, the Roman governor of +Syria; and execution of Berenice, whose husband had fallen in +the war, 54. Not long after, this miserable prince, no less +effeminate than tyrannical, died, 51.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">J. R. Forster</span>, <i>Commentatio de successoribus Ptolemæi VII.</i> +Inserted in <i>Comment. Soc. Gotting.</i> vol. iii.</p></div> + +<div class="sidenote">Cleopatra,<br /> +51—31.</div> + +<p>23. Auletes endeavoured by his last testament +to insure the kingdom to his posterity, nominating +as his successor, under the superintendence of the +Roman nation, his two elder children. Ptolemy +Dionysos, then thirteen years old, and Cleopatra, +seventeen, who were to be united in wedlock: +his two younger children, Ptolemy Neoteros and +Arsinoe, he recommended to the Roman senate. +Notwithstanding these measures, Egypt would +not have escaped her fate upwards of twenty +years longer, had not the impending calamities +been diverted by the internal posture of affairs +at Rome, and still more by the charms and policy +of Cleopatra, who through her alliance with Cæsar +and Antony not only preserved but even aggrandized +her kingdom. From this time, however, +the history of Egypt is most closely implicated +with that of Rome.</p> + +<div class="sblockquot"><p>Feuds between Cleopatra and her brother, excited and fomented +by the eunuch Pothinus, in whose hands the administration +was: they lead to open war: Cleopatra, driven out, flees to +Syria, where she levies troops: Cæsar in pursuit of the conquered +Pompey arrives at Alexandria, and in the name of Rome, assumes +the part of arbitrator between the king and queen, but +suffers himself to be guided by the artifices of Cleopatra, 48. +Violent sedition in Alexandria, and Cæsar besieged in Bruchium, +the malcontent Pothinus having brought Achillas, the commander +of the royal troops into the city. The hard struggle in +which Cæsar was now engaged, demonstrates not only the bit<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_266" id="Page_266">[Pg 266]</a></span>terness +of the long rankling grudge of the Alexandrines against +Rome, but shows also how decisive, to the whole of Egypt, were +the revolutions of the capital. Ptolemy Dionysos having fallen +in the war, and Cæsar being victorious, the crown fell to Cleopatra, +47, upon condition of marrying her brother, when he +should be of age: but as soon as the prince grew to manhood, +and had been crowned at Memphis, she removed him by +poison, 44.</p></div> + +<div class="sidenote">Egypt becomes +a +Roman +province.</div> + +<p>24. During the life of Cæsar, Cleopatra remained +under his protection, and consequently in +a state of dependence. Not only was a Roman garrison +stationed in the capital city, but the queen +herself, together with her brother, were obliged to +visit him at Rome. After the assassination of +Cæsar, she took the side of the triumviri, not +without endangering Egypt, threatened by Cassius +who commanded in Syria; and after the +death of her brother, succeeded in getting them +to acknowledge as king, Ptolemy Cæsarion, a +son whom she pretended to have had by Cæsar.—But +the ardent passion conceived by Antony +for her person, soon after the discomfiture of the +republican party, now attached her inseparably +to his fortunes; which, after vainly attempting +to win over the victorious Octavius, she at last +shared.</p> + +<div class="sblockquot"><p>The chronology of the ten years in which Cleopatra lived, for +the most part, with Antony, is not without difficulty, but, according +to the most probable authorities, may be arranged in the +following manner. Summoned before his tribunal, on account of +the pretended support afforded by some of her generals to Cassius, +she appears in his presence at Tarsus, in the attire, and +with the parade, of Venus, 41; he follows her into Egypt. In +the year 40, Antony, called back to Italy by the breaking out of +the Perusine war, is there induced, by political motives, to +espouse Octavia; meanwhile Cleopatra abides in Egypt. In the +autumn of 37, she goes to meet him in Syria, where he was<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_267" id="Page_267">[Pg 267]</a></span> +making ready for the war against the Parthians, until then prosecuted +by his lieutenants; here she obtained at his hands Phœnicia—Tyre +and Sidon excepted,—together with Cyrene and +Cyprus; and in 36 went back to Alexandria, where she remained +during the campaign. The expedition ended, Antony +returned into Egypt and resided at Alexandria. From thence +it was his intention to attack Armenia in 35; this design, however, +he did not effect until 34, when, after taking the king prisoner, +he returned in triumph to Alexandria, and presented to +Cleopatra, or to his three children by her, all the countries of +Asia from the Mediterranean to the Indus, already conquered +or to be conquered. Preparing then to renew, in conjunction +with the king of Media, his attack on the Parthians, he is prevailed +upon by Cleopatra to break with Octavia, who was to +bring over troops to him, 38. A war between him and Octavius +being now unavoidable, the Parthian campaign already opened +is suspended, and Cleopatra accompanies Antony to Samos, 32, +where he formally repudiated Octavia. From hence she followed +him in his expedition against Octavius, which was decided +by the battle of Actium, fought September 2, 31.—Octavius +having pursued his enemy into Egypt, Alexandria was besieged, +30, and after Antony had laid violent hands on himself, +the place surrendered; and Cleopatra, not brooking to be dragged +a prisoner to Rome, followed the example of her lover, and procured +her own death.</p></div> + +<div class="sidenote">Flourishing +state of +Egypt.</div> + +<p>25. Even in this last period, Egypt appears to +have been the seat of unbounded wealth and effeminacy. +The line of infamous princes who had +succeeded to the third Ptolemy were unable to +destroy her prosperity. Strange, however, as this +seems, it may be easily accounted for when we +consider that the political revolutions scarcely +ever overstepped the walls of the capital, and that +an almost perpetual peace ruled in the country: +that Egypt was the only great theatre of trade; +and that that trade must have increased in the +same proportion as the spirit of luxury increased +in Rome, and in the Roman empire. The power<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_268" id="Page_268">[Pg 268]</a></span>ful +effects wrought on Egypt by the growth of +Roman luxury, are most convincingly demonstrated +by the state of that country when it had +become a Roman province; so far from the trade +of Alexandria decreasing in that period,—though +the city suffered in the first days after the conquest—it +subsequently attained an extraordinary +and gigantic bulk.</p> + + +<p class="cblockquot">III. <i>History of Macedonia and of Greece in general, from +the death of Alexander to the Roman conquest, B. C. +323—146.</i></p> + +<div class="sblockquot"><p>The sources for this history are the same as have been quoted +above: see p. 232. Until the battle of Ipsus, 301, Diodorus is +still our grand authority. But in the period extending from 301 +to 224, we meet with some chasms: here almost our only sources +are the fragments of Diodorus, a few of Plutarch's lives, and the +inaccurate accounts of Justin. From the year 224, our main +historian is Polybius; and even in those parts where we do not +possess his work in its complete form, the fragments that have +been preserved must always be the first authorities consulted. +Livy, and other writers on Roman history, should accompany +Polybius.</p> + +<p>Among modern books, besides the general works mentioned +above p. 1. we may here in particular quote:</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">John Gast, D. D.</span> <i>The History of Greece, from the accession +of Alexander of Macedon, till the final subjection to the +Roman power, in eight books.</i> London, 1782, 4to. Although +not a master-piece of composition, yet too important to be passed +over in silence.</p></div> + +<div class="sidenote">Extent of +Macedonia.</div> + +<p>1. Of the three main kingdoms that arose out +of Alexander's monarchy, Macedonia was the most +insignificant, not only in extent,—particularly as +till B. C. 286 Thrace remained a separate and +independent province,—but likewise in population +and wealth. Yet, being, as it were, the +head country of the monarchy, it was considered<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_269" id="Page_269">[Pg 269]</a></span> +to hold the first rank; and here at first resided +the power which, nominally at least, extended +over the whole. As early, however, as the year +311, upon the total extermination of Alexander's +family, it became a completely separate kingdom. +From that time its sphere of external operation +was for the most part confined to Greece, the history +of which, consequently, is closely interwoven +with that of Macedonia.</p> + +<div class="sblockquot"><p>Posture of affairs in Greece at Alexander's decease: Thebes +in ruins: Corinth occupied by a Macedonian garrison: Sparta +humiliated by the defeat she had suffered at the hands of Antipater +in her attempt at a revolt against Macedonia, under Agis +II. 333—331: Athens on the other hand flourishing, and although +confined to her own boundaries, still by her fame, and +her naval power, the first state in Greece.</p></div> + +<div class="sidenote">Antipater.<br /> +Lamian war,<br /> +B. C. 323.</div> + +<p>2. Although at the first division of the provinces, +Craterus, as civil governor, was united +with Antipater, the latter had the management of +affairs. And the termination, as arduous as it +was successful, of the Lamian war,—kindled immediately +after the death of Alexander, by the +Greeks, enthusiastic in the cause of freedom,—enabled +him to rivet the chains of Greece more +firmly than they had ever been before.</p> + +<div class="sblockquot"><p>The Lamian war—the sparks of which had been kindled by +Alexander's edict, granting leave to all the Grecian emigrants, +twenty thousand in number, nearly the whole of whom were in +the Macedonian interest, to return to their native countries,—was +fanned to a flame by the democratic party at Athens. Urged +by Demosthenes and Hyperides, almost all the states of central +and northern Greece, Bœotia excepted, took up arms in the cause; +and their example was quickly followed by most of those in Peloponnesus, +with the exception of Sparta, Argos, Corinth, and +the Achæans. Not even the Persian war produced such general +unanimity! The gallant Leosthenes headed the league.—Defeat +of Antipater, who is shut up in Lamia; Leosthenes, however,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_270" id="Page_270">[Pg 270]</a></span> +falls in the siege of that place, B. C. 323, and although Leonatus—who +with the view of ascending the throne by his marriage +with Cleopatra, had come to the assistance of the Macedonians—was +beaten and slain, 322, the Greeks were finally overwhelmed +by the reinforcements, brought to Antipater out of Asia, by +Craterus. And Antipater having fully succeeded in breaking +the league, and negotiating with each separate nation, was enabled +to dictate the terms. Most of the cities opened their gates +to Macedonian troops; besides this, Athens was obliged to purchase +peace through the mediation of Phocion and Demades, by +an alteration in her constitution,—the poorer citizens being excluded +from all share in the government, and for the most part +translated into Thrace—and by a pledge to deliver up Demosthenes +and Hyperides; whose place Phocion occupied at the +head of the state.—The Ætolians, the last against whom the +Macedonian wars were directed, obtained better terms than they +had ventured to expect, Antipater and Craterus being obliged to +hurry over to Asia in order to oppose Perdiccas.</p></div> + +<div class="sidenote">Olympias +retires to Epirus.<br /> + +Antipater dies, and +names Polysperchon +his successor,<br /> +320—316.</div> + +<p>3. That hatred which, even in the lifetime of +Alexander, had sprung up between Antipater and +Olympias, in consequence of his not permitting +the dowager queen to rule, induced her to withdraw +to Epirus; her rankling envy being still +more embittered by the influence of the young +queen Eurydice. See above, p. 224. Antipater, +dying shortly after his expedition against Perdiccas, +in which his colleague Craterus had fallen, +and he himself had been appointed regent, nominates +his friend, the aged Polysperchon, to succeed +him as regent and head guardian, to the exclusion +of his own son Cassander. Hence arose +a series of quarrels between the two, in which, +unfortunately for themselves, the royal family +were implicated and finally exterminated, Cassander +obtaining the sovereignty of Macedonia.</p> + +<div class="sblockquot"><p>Cassander having secured the interest of Antigonus and Ptolemy, +makes his escape to the former, 319: he had previously en<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_271" id="Page_271">[Pg 271]</a></span>deavoured +also to raise a party in Macedonia and Greece, particularly +by getting his friend Nicanor to be commander at Athens.—Measures +taken by Polysperchon to oppose him; in the first +place, he recalls Olympias out of Epirus, but the princess dares +not come without an army; in the next place, he nominates Eumenes +commander of the royal troops in Asia (see above, p. 225); +he likewise endeavours to gain the Grecian cities, by recalling +the Macedonian garrisons, and changing the governors set over +them by Antipater. These latter, however, were in most of the +cities too firmly established to suffer themselves thus to be deposed; +and even the expedition into Peloponnesus, undertaken +by Polysperchon to enforce his injunctions was attended but with +partial success.—In the same year occurs a twofold revolution in +Athens, whither Polysperchon had sent his son Alexander, nominally +for the purpose of driving out Nicanor, but virtually to +get possession of that important city. In the first place, Alexander +and Nicanor appearing to unite both for the attainment of +one and the same object, the democratic party rise up, and overthrow +the rulers, hitherto taken from Antipater's party, and +headed by Phocion, who is compelled to swallow poison: soon +after, however, Cassander occupies the city, excludes from the +administration all that possess less than ten mines, and places at +the head of affairs Demetrius Phalereus, who, from 318 to 307, +ruled with great prudence.—Not long after, Olympias returns +with an army from Epirus; the Macedonian troops of Philip +and Eurydice having passed over to her side, she wreaks her revenge +on the royal couple, and on the brother of Cassander, all of +whom she puts to death, 317. Cassander, nevertheless, having +obtained reinforcements in Peloponnesus, takes the field against +her; she is besieged in Pydna, where, disappointed in the hope +of being relieved either by Polysperchon or by Æacidas of Epirus, +both of whom were forsaken by their men, she is obliged to surrender, +316. Cassander, having caused her to be condemned by +the Macedonian people, has her put to death.</p></div> + +<div class="sidenote">Cassander.</div> + +<p>4. Cassander being now master, and, from +302, king of Macedonia, confirmed his dominion +by a marriage with Thessalonice, half-sister to +Alexander, and at the same time endeavoured to +corroborate as far as possible his authority in +Greece. Polysperchon and his son Alexander, +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_272" id="Page_272">[Pg 272]</a></span>it is true, still made head in Peloponnesus; but +the states without the peninsula, Ætolia excepted, +were all either allies of Cassander, or occupied +by Macedonian troops. +<span class="sidenote">314.</span> +After the defeat of the +league against Antigonus, in which Cassander +had borne a part, general peace was concluded, +with the proviso, that the Grecian cities should +be free, and that the young Alexander, when of +age, should be raised to the throne of Macedonia: +<span class="sidenote">311.</span> +this induced Cassander to rid himself both of the +young prince and his mother Roxana by murder: +but he thereby exposed himself to an attack from +Polysperchon, who, availing himself of the discontent +of the Macedonians, brought back Hercules, +the only remaining illegitimate son of Alexander. +Cassander diverted the storm by a new crime, +instigating Polysperchon to murder the young +Hercules, under promise of sharing the government: +Polysperchon, however, unable to possess +himself of the Peloponnesus which had been promised +him, appears to have preserved but little +influence. Cassander met likewise with formidable +opponents in the persons of Antigonus and +his son; and although delivered by the breaking +<span class="sidenote">308.</span> +out of the war with Ptolemy from the danger of +the first invasion of Greece by Demetrius, his +situation was more embarrassing at the second +irruption; from which, however, he was extricated +by the circumstance of Antigonus being obliged +<span class="sidenote">307.</span> +to recall his son, on account of the newly formed +league (see above, p. 230).</p> + +<div class="sblockquot"><p>Antigonus, on his return from Upper Asia, declares loudly +against Cassander, B. C. 314; despatches his general Aristodemus +to Peloponnesus, and frames a league with Polysperchon<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_273" id="Page_273">[Pg 273]</a></span> +and his son Alexander; the latter, however, Cassander succeeds +in winning over by a promise of the command in Peloponnesus. +Alexander was soon after murdered, but his wife Cratesipolis +succeeded him, and commanded with the spirit of a man. Meanwhile, +Cassander carried war against the Ætolians, who sided +with Antigonus, 313; but Antigonus, 312, having sent his general +Ptolemy into Greece with a fleet and army, Cassander lost +his supremacy. In the peace of 311, the freedom of all the +Grecian cities was stipulated; but this very condition became +the pretext of various and permanent feuds; and Cassander having +murdered the young king, together with his mother, drew +upon himself the arms of Polysperchon, who wished to place +Hercules on the throne, 310; but the pretender was removed in +the manner above described, 309.—Cassander now endeavouring +to reestablish his power over Greece, Demetrius Poliorcetes was +by his father sent into that country in order to anticipate Ptolemy +of Egypt, in the enforcement of the decree for the freedom +of the Greeks, 308; the result at Athens was the restoration of +democracy, and the expulsion of Demetrius Phalereus.—From +any further attack of Demetrius, Cassander was delivered by the +war which broke out between Antigonus and Ptolemy, (see +above, p. 229.) and had the leisure, once more, to strengthen his +power in Greece, until 302, when Demetrius arrived a second +time, and, as generalissimo of liberated Greece, pressed forward +to the borders of Macedonia; Demetrius was, however, recalled +by his father into Asia, and at the battle of Ipsus, 301, lost all +his dominions in that quarter of the world. Yet although Athens +closed her harbours against him, he still maintained his possessions +in Peloponnesus, and even endeavoured to extend them; +from thence, in 297, he sallied forth, and once more took possession +of his beloved Athens, and after driving out the usurper +Lachares, forgave her ingratitude.</p></div> + +<div class="sidenote">Cassander +dies, and +leaves the +throne to +his sons;</div> + +<p>5. Cassander survived the establishment of his +throne by the battle of Ipsus only three years: +and bequeathed Macedonia as an inheritance to +his three sons, the eldest of whom, Philip, shortly +after followed his father to the grave.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">Antipater +and Alexander.</div> + +<p>6. The two remaining sons, Antipater and +Alexander, soon worked their own destruction. +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_274" id="Page_274">[Pg 274]</a></span>Antipater having murdered his own mother Thessalonice, +on account of the favour she showed his +brother, was obliged to flee; he applied for help +to his father-in-law Lysimachus of Thrace, where +he soon after died. Meanwhile Alexander, fancying +that he likewise stood in need of foreign assistance, +addressed himself to Pyrrhus, king of +Macedonia, and to Demetrius Poliorcetes, both of +whom obeyed the call only with the expectation +of being paid. After various snares reciprocally +laid for each other, the king of Macedonia was +murdered by Demetrius, and with him the race +<span class="sidenote">295.</span> +of Antipater became extinct.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">Demetrius, +294—287.</div> + +<p>7. The army proclaimed Demetrius king; and +in his person the house of Antigonus ascended +the throne of Macedonia, and, after many vicissitudes, +established their power. His seven years' +reign, in which one project succeeded the other, +was a constant series of wars; and as he never +could learn how to bear with good fortune, his +ambition was at last his ruin.</p> + +<div class="sblockquot"><p>The kingdom of Demetrius comprised Macedonia, Thessaly, +and the greatest part of the Peloponnesus; he was also master +of Megara and Athens.—Twofold capture of Thebes, which had +been rebuilt by Cassander, 293, and 291; unsuccessful attempt +upon Thrace, 292. His war with Pyrrhus, 290, in whom men +fancied they beheld another Alexander, had already alienated +the affections of the Macedonians; but his grand project for the +recovery of Asia induced his enemies to get the start of him; +and the hatred of his subjects compelled him secretly to escape +to Peloponnesus, to his son Antigonus, 287. Athens, taking advantage +of his misfortunes, drove out the Macedonian garrison, +and, by the election of archons, reestablished her ancient constitution; +although Demetrius laid siege to the town, he allowed +himself to be pacified by Crates. Having once more attempted +to prosecute his plans against Asia, he was obliged, 286, to sur<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_275" id="Page_275">[Pg 275]</a></span>render +to Seleucus his father-in-law, who, out of charity, kept +him till the day of his death, 284.</p></div> + +<div class="sidenote">Pyrrhus of +Epirus,<br /> +287, +286.</div> + + +<p>8. Two claimants to the vacant throne now +arose, viz. Pyrrhus of Epirus and Lysimachus of +Thrace; but although Pyrrhus was first proclaimed +king, with the cession of half the dominions, +he could not, being a foreigner, support his +power any longer than the year 286, when he was +deposed by Lysimachus.</p> + +<div class="sblockquot"><p>The sovereigns of Epirus, belonging to the family of the +Æacidæ, were properly kings of the Molossi. See above, p. 150. +They did not become lords of all Epirus, nor consequently of any +historical importance, until the time of the Peloponnesian war. +After that period Epirus was governed by Alcetas I. about 384, +who pretended to be the sixteenth descendant from Pyrrhus, the +son of Achilles; Neoptolemus, father to Olympias, by whose +marriage with Philip, 358, the kings of Epirus became intimately +connected with Macedonia, <i>d.</i> 352; Arymbas, his brother, <i>d.</i> +342; Alexander I. son of Neoptolemus, and brother-in-law to +Alexander the Great; he was ambitious to be as great a conqueror +in the west as his kinsman was in the east, but he fell in +Lucania, 332. Æacides, son of Arymbas, <i>d.</i> 312. Pyrrhus II. +his son, the Ajax of his time, and, we might almost say, rather an +adventurer than a king. After uninterrupted wars waged in +Macedonia, Greece, Italy, and Sicily, he fell at last at the +storming of Argos, 272. He was followed by his son Alexander +II. in the person of whose successor, Pyrrhus III. 219, the +male line became extinct. Although the daughter of this last +prince, Deidamia, succeeded to the throne, the Epirots were not +long before they established a democratic government, which endured +till such time as they were, together with Macedonia and +the rest of Greece, brought under the Roman yoke, 146.</p></div> + +<div class="sidenote">Lysimachus.<br /> + +282.</div> + +<p>9. In consequence of the accession of Lysimachus, +Thrace, and for a short time even Asia +Minor, were annexed to the Macedonian kingdom. +But rankling hatred and family relations soon +afterwards involved Lysimachus in a war with<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_276" id="Page_276">[Pg 276]</a></span> +Seleucus Nicator, in which, at battle of Curopedion, +he lost both his throne and his life.</p> + +<div class="sblockquot"><p>Execution of the gallant Agathocles, eldest son of Lysimachus, +at the instigation of his step-mother Arsinoe: his widow Lysandra +and her brother Ptolemy Ceraunus, who had already been +driven out of Egypt by his step-mother Berenice, go over, followed +by a large party, to Seleucus, whom they excite to war.</p></div> + +<div class="sidenote">Seleucus.</div> + +<p>10. The victorious Seleucus, already lord of +Asia, now causing himself to be proclaimed likewise +king of Macedonia, it seemed as if that +country was again about to become the head seat +of the whole monarchy. But shortly after he +had crossed over into Europe, Seleucus fell by +the murderous hand of Ptolemy Ceraunus, who, +<span class="sidenote">281.</span> +availing himself of the treasures of his victim, and +of the yet remaining troops of Lysimachus, took +possession of the throne; by another act of treachery +he avenged himself of Arsinoe, his half-sister; +but just as he conceived himself securely +established, he lost both his crown and his life +by the irruption of the Gauls into Macedonia.</p> + +<div class="sblockquot"><p>The irruption of the Gauls, threatening desolation not only to +Macedonia but to the whole of Greece, took place in three successive +expeditions. The first under Cambaules, (probably 280,) +advanced no further than Thrace, the invaders not being sufficiently +numerous. The second in three bodies; against Thrace +under Ceretrius; against Pæonia under Brennus and Acichorius; +against Macedonia and Illyria under Belgius, 279. By the last-mentioned +chieftain Ptolemy was defeated; he fell in the contest. +In consequence, Meleager first, and Antipater subsequently, +were appointed kings of Macedonia; but both, on account +of incapacity, being soon afterwards deposed, a Macedonian +noble, Sosthenes, assumed the command, and this time liberated +his country. But the year 278 brought with it the main storm, +which spent its fury principally on Greece: Sosthenes was defeated +and slain: and although the Greeks brought all their<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_277" id="Page_277">[Pg 277]</a></span> +united forces into the field, Brennus and Acichorius burst into +Greece on two different sides, and pushed on to Delphi, the object +of their expedition; from hence, however, they were compelled +to retreat; and most of them were cut off by hunger, cold, +or the sword. Nevertheless a portion of those barbarians stood +their ground in the interior of Thrace, which, consequently, was +for the most part lost to Macedonia: another portion, consisting +of various hordes, the Tectosagæ, Tolistobii, and Trocmi, crossed +over to Asia Minor, where they established themselves in the +country called after them Galatia (see above, p. 236). Although +there can be no doubt that the Tectosagæ must have come from +the innermost parts of Gaul, the mode of attack demonstrates +that the main tide of invaders consisted of the neighbouring +races; and, in fact, in those days the countries from the Danube +to the Mediterranean and Adriatic were mostly occupied by +Gauls.—Greece, though she strained every nerve, and with the +exception of Peloponnesus, was united in one league, could scarcely +bring forward more than 20,000 men to stem the torrent.</p></div> + +<div class="sidenote">Antigonus +Gonnatas.</div> + +<p>11. Antigonus of Gonni, son to Demetrius, now +seated himself on the vacant throne of desolated +Macedon; he bought off his competitor, Antiochus +I. named Soter, by treaty and marriage. +Successfully as he opposed the new irruption of +the Gauls, he was dethroned by Pyrrhus, who, +<span class="sidenote">274.</span> +on his return from Italy, was a second time proclaimed +king of Macedonia. That prince, however, +having formed the design of conquering the +Peloponnesus, and, after an ineffectual attack on +Sparta, which was repelled with heroic gallantry, +wishing to take possession of Argos, fell at the +<span class="sidenote">272.</span> +storming of the latter place.</p> + +<div class="sblockquot"><p>Extraordinary as these frequent revolutions appear, they may +be easily accounted for by the mode of warfare in those days. +Every thing depended on the armies; and these were composed +of mercenaries, ever willing to fight against him they had defended +the day before, if they fancied his rival to be a more +valiant or fortunate leader. Since the death of Alexander, the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_278" id="Page_278">[Pg 278]</a></span> +Macedonian phalanx was no longer dependent on its captains, +but they on their men. The impoverishment of the countries, in +consequence of war, was such, that the soldier's was almost the +only profitable trade; and none prosecuted that trade more ardently +than the Gauls, whose services were ever ready for any +one who chose to pay for them.</p></div> + +<p>12. After the death of Pyrrhus, Antigonus +Gonnatas recovered the Macedonian throne, of +which he and his descendants kept uninterrupted +possession, yet not till after a violent contest with +Alexander, the son and successor of Pyrrhus. +But no sooner were they secure from foreign +rivals, than the Macedonian policy was again +directed against Greece, and the capture of +Corinth seemed to insure the dependence of the +whole country, when the formation of the Ætolian, +and the yet more important Achæan, league, +gave rise to relations entirely new, and of the +highest interest, even for the universal history of +the world. After so many storms, the sun of +Greece was about to set in all his splendour!</p> + +<div class="sblockquot"><p>The ancient confederacy of the twelve Achæan cities (see +above, p. 145.) had subsisted until the death of Alexander, but +was dissolved in the subsequent commotions; particularly when, +after the battle of Ipsus, 301, Demetrius and his son made Peloponnesus +the principal seat of their power. Some of these cities +were now garrisoned by those princes, while in others arose +tyrants, generally favourable to their interests. In 281, four +asserted their freedom and renewed the ancient federation; +which, five years afterwards, was gradually joined by the rest, +Antigonus being busied elsewhere, in consequence of his occupation +of the Macedonian throne. But the league did not become +formidable till the accession of foreign states. This took place, +in the first instance, with Sicyon, through the exertions of the +liberator of that town, Aratus, who now became the animating +spirit of the federation; and in 243 brought over Corinth, after +the expulsion of the Macedonian garrison, and Megara. Afterwards +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_279" id="Page_279">[Pg 279]</a></span> +the league gradually acquired strength, by the junction of +several Grecian cities, Athens among others, 229; and thereby +excited the jealousy of the rest. And as Aratus, who was more +of a statesman than a general, and possessed but little independence, +had in the very outset joined the party of Ptolemy II. the +league soon became involved in the disputes of the great powers, +and was too often but a mere tool in their hands. The main +principles on which it was founded were the following: 1. Complete +political equality of all the federate cities; in this respect +it essentially differed from all the earlier federations in Greece. +2. Unconditional preservation of the domestic government in +every one of the cities. 3. The meeting twice a year of deputies +from all the cities, at Ægium, and afterwards at Corinth; for +transacting all business of common interest, particularly foreign +affairs, and also for the purpose of electing the strategus, or military +leader and head of the union, and the ten demiurgi, or supreme +magistrates.—But what more than all contributed to exalt this +league, founded on pure liberty, was the virtue of Aratus, 213, +Philopœmen, 183, and Lycortas, 170; men who breathed into +it the spirit of union, until, enfeebled by Roman policy, it was +overthrown.</p> + +<p>† <span class="smcap">Breitenbauch</span>, <i>History of the Achæans and their league</i>, +1782.</p> + +<p>The Ætolian league was formed about 284, in consequence of +the oppressions of the Macedonian kings. The Ætolians had +likewise a yearly congress, panætolium, at Thermus; where they +chose a strategus and the apocleti, who constituted the state +council. They had, besides, their secretary, +γραμματεύς; +and supervisors, ἔφοροι, +whose particular functions are, however, matter +of doubt. This federation did not increase like the Achæan, +none but Ætolians being admitted. The more unpolished this +piratical nation remained, the more frequently it was used as the +tool of foreign, and particularly of Roman, policy.</p></div> + +<div class="sidenote">Demetrius +II. +243—233.</div> + +<p>13. Antigonus, in the latter part of his reign, +had recourse to various means, and more especially +to an alliance with the Ætolians, for the +purpose of counterpoising the Achæans. He died +in his eightieth year, and was succeeded by his +son, Demetrius II. who waged war upon the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_280" id="Page_280">[Pg 280]</a></span> +Ætolians, now, however, supported by the Achæans; +and endeavoured to repress the growth of +the latter, by favouring the tyrants of particular +cities. The remainder of the reign of this prince +is little more than a chasm in history.</p> + +<div class="sblockquot"><p>The vulgar assertion that this prince conquered Cyrene and +Libya, originates in a confusion of names; his uncle Demetrius, +son of Poliorcetes of Ptolemais, being mentioned by Plutarch as +king of Cyrene. The history of that town, from 258 to 142, is +enveloped in almost total darkness: cf. Prolog. Trogi, l. xxvi. ad +calcem Justini.</p></div> + +<div class="sidenote">Antigonus +Doson,<br /> +233—221.</div> + +<p>14. Demetrius's son Philip was passed over; +his brother's son, Antigonus II. surnamed Doson, +being raised to the throne. This king was occupied +the most of his time by the events in Greece, +where a very remarkable revolution at Sparta, +as we learn from Plutarch, had raised up a formidable +enemy against the Achæans; and so +completely altered the relative position of affairs, +that the Macedonians, from having been opponents, +became allies of the Achæans.</p> + +<div class="sblockquot"><p>Sketch of the situation of Spartan affairs at this period: the +ancient constitution still continued to exist in form; but the +plunder of foreign countries, and particularly the permission to +transfer landed estates, obtained by Epitadeus, had produced +great inequality of property. The restoration of Lycurgus's constitution +had, therefore, a twofold object; to favour the poor by +a new agrarian law and release from debts, and to increase the +power of the kings by repressing that of the ephori.—First attempt +at reform 244, by king Agis III; attended in the beginning +with partial success, but eventually frustrated by the +other king, Leonidas, and terminating in the extinction of Agis +and his family, 241. Leonidas, however, was succeeded, 236, +by his son Cleomenes, who victoriously defeated the plans of +Aratus to force Sparta to accede to the Achæan league, 227; +this king, by a forcible revolution, overthrew the ephori, and +accomplished the project of Agis, at the same time increasing<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_281" id="Page_281">[Pg 281]</a></span> +the Spartans by the admission of a number of periæci; and enforcing +the laws of Lycurgus referring to private life; but as in +a small republic a revolution cannot be confirmed without some +external war, he attacked the Achæans as early as 224; these +being defeated, implored, through Aratus, the help of Antigonus; +Cleomenes in consequence was, at the battle of Sellasia, 222, +obliged to yield to superior force, and with difficulty escaped +over to Egypt; while Sparta was compelled to acknowledge her +independence as a gift at the hands of Antigonus. Such was +the miserable success of this attempt made by a few great men +on a nation already degenerate. The quarrels between the ephori +and king Lycurgus and his successor Machanidas, placed Sparta +in a state of anarchy, which ended, 207, in the usurpation of the +sovereign power by one Nabis, who destroyed the ancient form +of government. Let him who would study great revolutions +commence with that just described; insignificant as it is, none +perhaps furnishes more instructive lessons.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Plutarchi</span> <i>Agis et Cleomenes</i>. The information in which +is principally drawn from the Commentaries of Aratus.</p></div> + +<div class="sidenote">Philip II. +221—179.</div> + +<p>15. Philip II. son of Demetrius. He ascended +the throne at the early age of sixteen, endowed +with many qualities, such as might, under favourable +circumstances, have formed a great prince. +Macedonia had recruited her strength during a +long peace; and her grand political aim, the supremacy +of Greece, secured by the connection of +Antigonus with the Achæans, and by the victory +of Sellasia, seemed to be already within her grasp. +But Philip lived in a time when Rome was pursuing +her formidable plans of aggrandizement: +the more vigorous and prompt his efforts were to +withstand that power, the more deeply was he +entangled in the new maze of events, which embittered +the rest of his life, and at last brought +him to the grave with a broken heart, converted +by misfortune into a despot.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">War of the +two leagues,<br /> +221—217.</div> + +<p>16. The first five years of Philip were occupied +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_282" id="Page_282">[Pg 282]</a></span>by his participation in the war between the +Achæans and Ætolians, called the war of the two +leagues; notwithstanding the treachery of his +minister Apellas and his dependents, the prince +was enabled to dictate the conditions of peace, +according to which both parties were to remain +in possession of what they then had. The conclusion +of this peace was hastened by the news +of Hannibal's victory at Thrasymenus, Philip being +then instigated to form more extensive projects +by Demetrius of Pharus, who had fled before the +Romans, and soon acquired unlimited influence +with the Macedonian king.</p> + +<div class="sblockquot"><p>The war of the two leagues arose out of the piracies of the +Ætolians on the Messenians, the latter of whom the Achæans +undertook to protect, 221. The errors committed by Aratus +compelled the Achæans to have recourse to Philip, 220; whose +progress, however, was for a long time impeded by the artifices +of Apellas's faction, who wished to overthrow Aratus. The +Acarnanians, Epirots, Messenians, and Scerdilaidas of Illyria, +(who, however, soon after declared against Macedonia,) combined +with Philip and the Achæans; the Ætolians, on the other +hand, commanded by their own general, Scopas, had for their +allies the Spartans and Eleans.—The most important consequence +of this war for Macedonia was, that she began again to +be a naval power.—About the same time a war broke out between +the two trading republics of Byzantium and Rhodes (the +latter supported by Prusias I. of Bithynia) insignificant in itself, +but which, as a commercial war, originating in the duties imposed +by the Byzantines, was the only one of its kind in this +age, 222. The Rhodians, so powerful in those days by sea, compelled +their adversaries to submit.</p></div> + +<div class="sidenote">Negotiations +between +Philip +and +Hannibal, +214.</div> + +<p>17. The negotiations between Philip and Hannibal +concluded with an alliance, in which reciprocal +help was promised towards annihilating +Rome. But Rome contrived to excite so many +foes against Philip on the borders of his own<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_283" id="Page_283">[Pg 283]</a></span> +kingdom, and availed herself so skilfully of her +naval power, that the execution of this plan was +prevented until it became possible to attack the +Macedonian king in Greece; where he had made +himself many enemies, by the domineering tone +he had assumed towards his allies at the time +that, sensible of his power, he was about to enter +upon a wider sphere of action.</p> + +<div class="sblockquot"><p>Commencement of hostilities by Rome, against Philip: immediately +that the alliance of Philip and Hannibal was known, a +squadron with troops on board was stationed off the coast of +Macedonia, by which the king himself was defeated at Apollonia, +214.—Alliance of Rome with the Ætolians, joined likewise +by Sparta and Elis, Attalus king of Pergamus, and Scerdilaidas +and Pleuratus, kings of Illyria, 211. On Philip's side were the +Achæans, with whom Philopœmen more than supplied the loss +of Aratus, occasioned, 213, by the Macedonian king; to them +were joined the Acarnanians and Bæotians.—Attacked on every +side, Philip successfully extricated himself from his difficulties; +in the first place, he compelled the Ætolians, who had been +abandoned by Attalus and Rome, to accept separate terms, +which, shortly after, Rome, consulting her own convenience, +converted into a general peace, inclusive of the allies on either +side, 204.</p></div> + +<div class="sidenote">War with +Attalus, +203—200.</div> + + +<p>18. New war of Philip against Attalus and the +Rhodians, carried on for the most part in Asia +Minor; and his impolitic alliance with Antiochus +III. to attack Egypt. But can Philip be blamed +for his endeavours to disarm the military servants +of the Romans? Rome, however, did not grant +him time to effect his designs; the Macedonian +king was taught at Chios, by woeful experience, +<span class="sidenote">202.</span> +that his navy had not increased proportionably +with that of the Rhodians.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">War with +Rome, +200—197.</div> + +<p>19. The war with Rome suddenly hurled the +Macedonian power from its lofty pitch; and by +laying the foundation of Roman dominion in the +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_284" id="Page_284">[Pg 284]</a></span>east, wrought a change in almost all the political +relations of that quarter. The first two years of +the war showed pretty evidently, that mere force +<span class="sidenote">198.</span> +could scarcely overturn the Macedonian throne. +But T. Quintius Flaminius stepped forward; with +the magic spell of freedom he intoxicated the +Greeks; Philip was stripped of his allies; and +the battle of Cynoscephalæ decided everything. +<span class="sidenote">197.</span> +The articles of the peace were: 1. That all Grecian +cities in Europe and Asia should be independent, +and Philip should withdraw his garrisons. +2. That he should surrender the whole of +his navy, and never afterwards keep more than +500 armed men on foot. 3. That he should not, +without previously informing Rome, undertake +any war out of Macedonia. 4. That he should +pay 1,000 talents by instalments, and deliver up +his younger son Demetrius as an hostage.</p> + +<div class="sblockquot"><p>The Roman allies in this war were: the Ætolians, Athenians, +Rhodians, the kings of the Athamanes, Dardanians, and Pergamus.—The +Achæans at the beginning sided with Philip, but +were subsequently gained over by Flaminius. See below, in the +Roman History.</p></div> + +<div class="sidenote">196.</div> + +<p>20. Soon after, the freedom of Greece was +solemnly proclaimed at the Isthmian games by +Flaminius: but loud as the Greeks were in their +exultations, this measure served merely to transfer +the supremacy of their country from Macedonia +to Rome: and Grecian history, as well as the +Macedonian, is now interwoven with that of the +Romans. To foster quarrels between the Greek +states, with the especial view of hindering the +Achæans from growing too formidable, now became +a fundamental principle at Rome; and<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_285" id="Page_285">[Pg 285]</a></span> +Roman and anti-Roman parties having quickly +arisen in every city, this political game was easily +played.</p> + +<div class="sblockquot"><p>Flaminius even took care that the Achæans should have an +opponent in the person of Nabis, although under the necessity of +waging war against him previous to his return into Italy, 194.—In +192, war between Nabis and the Achæans; followed after +the murder of Nabis, at the hands of the Ætolians, by the accession +of Sparta to the Achæan league.—But about the same time +Greece once more became the theatre of foreign war; Antiochus +having firmly seated himself in the country, and enleagued +himself with several tribes, but more particularly the Ætolians, +inspired with bitter and long-standing hatred against the +Romans. These last, however, after the expulsion of Antiochus +from Greece, 191, paid dearly for their secession; nor was peace +granted them by Rome till after long and unsuccessful supplications, +189.</p></div> + +<div class="sidenote">Fate of +Philip.</div> + + +<p>21. While war was pending between the Romans +and Antiochus, Philip, in the character of +one of the numerous allies of Rome, ventured to +increase his territory at the expense of the Athamanes, +Thracians, and Thessalians. To keep +him in good humour he was permitted to effect +those conquests; but after the termination of +the war the oppression of Rome became so galling, +<span class="sidenote">190.</span> +that it could not be otherwise than that all +his thoughts should centre in revenge, and all his +exertions be directed towards the recovery of +power. Meanwhile the violent measures adopted +for repeopling his exhausted kingdom—such is +the punishment of ambition which usually awaits +even the victorious!—the transplantation of the +inhabitants of whole cities and countries, and the +consequent and unavoidable oppression of several +of his neighbours, excited universal complaints; +and where was the accuser of Philip to whom +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_286" id="Page_286">[Pg 286]</a></span>Rome would not now lend a ready ear?—His +younger son, Demetrius, the pupil of Rome, and +<span class="sidenote">183.</span> +by her intended, it is probable, to succeed to the +crown, alone diverted the impending fate of Macedonia. +But after the return of that prince from +his embassy, the envy of his elder and bastard +brother, Perseus, grew into an inveterate rancour, +such as could not be quenched but by the death +<span class="sidenote">181.</span> +of the younger. The lot of Philip was indeed +hard, compelled as a father to judge between his +two sons; but the measure of human woe was +filled, when after the death of his favourite child +he discovered that he was innocent; are we to +wonder that sorrow should soon have hurried him +<span class="sidenote">179.</span> +to a premature grave!</p> + +<div class="sidenote">Roman policy +against +the Achæan +league.<br /> +189.<br /> +183.</div> + +<p>22. The same policy which was observed by +the Romans towards Philip, they pursued towards +the Achæans, with whom, since the termination +of the war with Antiochus, they had assumed a +loftier tone; and this artful game was facilitated +by the continual quarrels among the Greeks themselves. +Yet the great Philopœmen, worthy of a +better age, maintained the dignity of the league +at the very time that the Romans presumed to +speak as arbitrators. After his decease they +found it easy to raise a party among the Achæans +themselves, the venal Callicrates offering his services +for that purpose.</p> + +<div class="sblockquot"><p>The Achæans was continually embroiled either with Sparta or +with Messene: the grounds of difference were, that in both of +those states there were factions headed by persons who, out of +personal motives, and for the most part hatred to Philopœmen, +wished to secede from the league; on the other hand, the prevailing +idea among the Achæans was, that this league ought to +comprise the whole of the Peloponnesus. In the war against the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_287" id="Page_287">[Pg 287]</a></span> +Messenians, 183, Philopœmen, at the age of seventy, was taken +prisoner by the enemy and put to death.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Plutarchi</span>, <i>Philopœmen</i>. Nearly the whole of which is compiled +from the lost biography of Polybius.</p></div> + +<div class="sidenote">Perseus, +179—168.</div> + +<p>23. The last Macedonian king, Perseus, had +inherited his father's perfect hatred of the Romans, +together with talents, if not equal, at least +but little inferior. He entered into the speculations +of his predecessor, and the first seven years +of his reign was occupied in constant exertions +to muster forces against Rome; with this view +he called the Bastarnæ out of the north, in order +to settle them in the territories of his enemies the +Dardanians; he endeavoured to form alliances +with the kings of Illyria, Thrace, Syria, and Bithynia; +above all, he strove by negotiations and +promises to reestablish the ancient influence of +Macedonia in Greece.</p> + +<div class="sblockquot"><p>The settlement of the Bastarnæ (probably a German race, resident +beyond the Danube) in Thrace and Dardania, in order +with them to carry war against the Romans, was one of the plans +traced out by Philip, and now partially executed by Perseus.—In +Greece the Macedonian party, which Perseus formed chiefly +out of the great number of impoverished citizens in the country, +would probably have gained the upper hand, had not the fear inspired +by Rome, and the active vigilance of that power, interposed +an effectual bar. Hence the Achæans, apparently at least, +remained on the Roman side; the Ætolians, by domestic factions, +had worked their own destruction; the case was the same +with the Acarnanians; and the federation of the Bœotians had +been completely dissolved by the Romans, 171. On the other +hand, in Epirus the Macedonian party was superior; Thessaly +was occupied by Perseus; several of the Thracian tribes were +friendly to him; and in king Gentius he found an ally who +might have been highly useful, had not the Macedonian prince, +by an ill-timed avarice, deprived himself of his assistance.</p></div> + +<div class="sidenote">Defeat at Perseus at +Pidna.</div> + +<p>24. The commencement of open hostilities was +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_288" id="Page_288">[Pg 288]</a></span>hastened by the bitter hatred existing between +Perseus and Eumenes, and by the intrigues of +the latter at Rome. Neglect of the favourable +moment for taking the field, and the defensive +system, skilfully in other respects as it was +planned, caused the ruin of Perseus, as it had +done that of Antiochus. Nevertheless he protracted +<span class="sidenote">172—168.</span> +the war to the fourth year, when the battle +of Pidna decided the fate both of himself and +his kingdom.</p> + +<div class="sblockquot"><p>Miserable condition of Perseus until his capture at Samothrace; +and afterwards until his death at Rome, 166.</p></div> + +<p>25. According to the system at that period followed +by Rome, the conquered kingdom of Macedonia +was not immediately converted into a province; +it was first deprived of all offensive power, +by being republicanized and divided into four +districts, wholly distinct from one another, and +bound to pay Rome half the tribute they were +before wont to furnish to their kings.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">Fall of the +Achæan +league.</div> + +<p>26. It was in the natural order of things that +the independence of Greece, and more especially +that of the Achæan league, should fall with Perseus. +The political <i>inquisition</i> of the Roman commissaries +not only visited with punishment the declared +partizans of Macedonia; but even to have +stood neutral was a crime that incurred suspicion. +Rome, however, amid the rising hatred, did not +deem herself secure until by one blow she had +rid herself of all opponents of any importance. +Above a thousand of the most eminent of the +Achæans were summoned to Rome to justify +themselves, and there detained seventeen years +<span class="sidenote">Callicrates, 167—150.</span> +in prison without a hearing. While at the head<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_289" id="Page_289">[Pg 289]</a></span> +of the league, stood the man who had delivered +them up, Callicrates, (<i>d.</i> 150.) a wretch who could, +unmoved, hear "the very boys in the streets taunt +him with treachery."—A more tranquil period, it +is true, now ensued for Greece, but it was the +result of very obvious causes.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">Greece becomes +a +Roman +province, +150—148.</div> + +<p>27. The ultimate lot both of Macedon and +was decided by the system now adopted +at Rome, that of converting the previous dependence +of nations into formal subjection. The insurrection +of Andriscus in Macedonia, an individual +who pretended to be the son of Perseus, was +quelled by Metellus, the country being constituted +a Roman province; two years afterwards, at +the sack of Corinth, vanished the last glimmer of +Grecian freedom.</p> + +<div class="sblockquot"><p>The last war of the Achæans arose out of certain quarrels with +Sparta, 150, fomented by Diæus, Critolaus, and Damocritus, who +had returned bitterly enraged from the Roman prison; in these +disputes Rome interfered, with the design of wholly dissolving +the Achæan league. The first pretext that offered for executing +this scheme was the ill-treatment of the Roman ambassadors at +Corinth, 148; war, however, still raging with Carthage and +Andriscus, the Romans preserved for the present a peaceful tone. +But the party of Diæus and Critolaus would have war; the +plenipotentiaries of Metellus were again insulted, and the +Achæans declared war against Sparta and Rome. In the very +same year they were routed by Metellus, and their leader Critolaus +fell in the engagement; Metellus was replaced in the +command by Mummius, who defeated Diæus the successor of +Critolaus, took Corinth and razed it to the ground, 146. The +consequence was, that Greece, under the name of Achaia, became +a Roman province, although to a few cities, such as Athens, for +instance, some shadow of freedom was still left.</p></div> +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_290" id="Page_290">[Pg 290]</a></span></p> + +<p class="cblockquot">IV. <i>History of some smaller or more distant Kingdoms +and States erected out of the Macedonian monarchy.</i></p> + +<div class="sblockquot"><p><span class="smcap">Sources.</span> Besides the writers enumerated above, (see p. 232.) +Memnon, an historian of Heraclea in Pontus, deserves particular +mention in this place, (see p. 162): some extracts from his work +have been preserved to us by Photius, Cod. 224. In some individual +portions, as, for instance, in the Parthian history, Justin<a name="FNanchor_A_4" id="FNanchor_A_4"></a><a href="#Footnote_A_4" class="fnanchor">[a]</a> +is our main authority; as are likewise Ammianus Marcellinus, +and the extracts from Arrian's <i>Parthica</i>, found in Photius. The +coins of the kings are also of great importance; but unfortunately +Vaillant's Essay shows, that even with their assistance the chronology +still remains in a very unsettled state. For the Jewish +history, Josephus (see p. 35.) is the grand writer: of the Books +of the Old Testament, those of Ezra and Nehemiah, together +with the Maccabees, although the last are not always to be depended +upon.</p> + +<p>The modern writers are enumerated below, under the heads of +the different kingdoms. Much information is likewise scattered +about in the works on ancient numismatics.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_A_4" id="Footnote_A_4"></a><a href="#FNanchor_A_4"><span class="label">[a]</span></a> As Justin did no more than extract from Trogus Pompeius, a question +presents itself of great consequence to various portions of ancient history; what +authorities did Trogus Pompeius follow? The answer will be found in two +treatises by <span class="smcap">A. L. L. Heeren</span>: <i>De fontibus et auctoritate Trogi Pompeii, ejusque +epitomatoris Justini</i>, inserted in <i>Comment. Soc. Gott.</i> vol. 15.</p></div> + +<div class="sidenote">Smaller +states rising +out of Alexander's +empire.</div> + +<p>1. Besides the three main empires into which +the monarchy of Alexander was divided, there +likewise arose in those extensive regions several +branch kingdoms, one of which even grew in time +to be among the most powerful in the world. To +these belong the kingdoms of, 1. Pergamus. +2. Bithynia. 3. Paphlagonia. 4. Pontus. 5. Cappadocia. +6. Great Armenia. 7. Little Armenia. +8. Parthia. 9. Bactria. 10. Jewish state subsequent +to the Maccabees.</p> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_291" id="Page_291">[Pg 291]</a></span></p> +<div class="sblockquot"><p>We are acquainted with the history of these kingdoms, the +Jewish state alone excepted, only so far forth as they were implicated +in the concerns of the greater empires; of their internal +history we know little, often nothing. With respect to many of +them, therefore, little more can be produced than a series of +chronological data, indispensable, notwithstanding, to the general +historian.</p></div> + +<div class="sidenote">Kingdom of +Pergamus,<br /> +B. C. 283—133.</div> + +<p>2. The kingdom of Pergamus, in Mysia, arose +during the war between Seleucus and Lysimachus. +It owed its origin on the one hand to the +prudence of its rulers, the wisest of whom luckily +reigned the longest; and, on the other, to the +weakness of the Seleucidæ: for its progressive +increase it was indebted to the Romans, who in +aggrandizing the power of Pergamus acted with a +view to their own interest. History exhibits +scarcely one subordinate kingdom whose princes +took such skilful advantage of the political circumstances +of the times; and yet they earned +still greater renown by the anxiety they showed, +in rivalling the Ptolemies, to foster the arts of +peace, industry, science, architecture, sculpture, +and painting. How dazzling the splendour with +which the small state of Pergamus outshines +many a mighty empire!</p> + +<div class="sblockquot"><p>Philetærus, lieutenant of Lysimachus, in Pergamus, asserts +his independence; and maintains possession of the citadel and +town, 283—263. His nephew, Eumenes I. 263—241, defeats +Antiochus I. at Sardes, 263, and becomes master of Æolis and +the circumjacent country. His nephew, Attalus I. 241—197, +after his victory over the Galatians, 239, becomes king of Pergamus: +a noble prince, and one whose genius and activity embraced +everything. His wars against Achæus brought him in +alliance with Antiochus III. 216. Commencement of an alliance +with Rome, arising out of his participation in the Ætolian league +against Macedon, 211, in order to thwart Philip's project of conquest. +Hence, after Philip's irruption into Asia, 203, participa<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_292" id="Page_292">[Pg 292]</a></span>tion +on the side of Rome, in the Macedonian war. His son Eumenes +II. the inheritor of all his father's great qualities succeeds +him, 197—158. As a reward for his assistance against Antiochus +the Great, the Romans presented him with almost all the +territories possessed by the vanquished king in Asia Minor, +(Phrygia, Mysia, Lycaonia, Lydia, Ionia, and a part of Caria,) +which thereafter constituted the kingdom of Pergamus; this +prince extended his frontiers, but lost his independence. In the +war with Perseus he was scarce able to preserve the good will of +the senate, and therewith his kingdom. His brother, Attalus II. +158—138, a more faithful dependent of Rome, took part in +nearly all the concerns of Asia Minor, more especially Bithynia. +His nephew, Attalus III. 138—133, a prince of unsound mind, +bequeathed his kingdom to the Romans, who, after vanquishing +the lawful heir, Aristonicus, 130, took possession of it, annexing +it to their empire, under the shape of a province called Asia.—Great +discoveries and vast establishments made at Pergamus. +Rich library; subsequently transferred by Antony to Alexandria, +as a present for Cleopatra. Museum. Discovery of parchment, +an invaluable auxiliary to the preservation of works of literature.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Choiseuil Gouffier</span>, <i>Voyage pittoresque de la Grèce</i>, vol. +ii. 1809. Containing excellent observations, both on the monuments +and history of Pergamus, as well as on those of all the +neighbouring coasts and islands.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Sevin</span>, <i>Recherches sur les rois de Pergame</i>, inserted in the +<i>Mém. de l'Acad. des Inscript.</i> vol. xii.</p> + +<p>From the fall of Tyre and the unsuccessful attempt of Demetrius, +B. C. 307, to the establishment of Roman dominion in the +east, 300—200, was the brilliant period of Rhodes; alike important +for political wisdom, naval power, and extensive trade. +At the head of the senate (βουλὴ) were presidents, +(πρυτανεῖς,) +who went out of office every half year, and were honoured with +precedence in the meetings of the commons. Friendship with +all, alliance with none, was the fundamental maxim of Rhodian +policy, until subverted by Rome. Thus was preserved the dignity +of the state, together with its independence and political +activity—where do we not meet with Rhodian embassies?—and +permanent splendour, resulting from the cultivation of arts and +sciences. What proofs of general commiseration did not Rhodes +enjoy after that dreadful earthquake, which threw down even the +famous colossus, 227! Long did her squadrons command the +Ægæan; over that sea, the Euxine, and the western parts of the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_293" id="Page_293">[Pg 293]</a></span> +Mediterranean as far as Sicily, her commerce extended, consisting +in the rich exchange of commodities between three quarters +of the globe. Her revenue proceeded from the customs, and was +abundant; until, blinded by avarice, she sought to obtain at +Peræa a territory on the mainland; an ambition of which the +Romans availed themselves to her detriment, by presenting her +with Lycia and Caria, 190. And yet did this republic outlive that +of Rome! Great, indeed, is the chasm left in general history by +the loss of the internal history of this island!</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">P. D. Ch. Paulsen</span>, <i>Commentatio exhibens Rhodi descriptionem +Macedonica ætate, Gottingæ</i>, 1818. A prize essay.</p></div> + +<p>3. The other small kingdoms of Asia Minor are +fragments rather of the Persian than of the Macedonian +monarchy; for Alexander's march following +another direction, they were not formally +subjugated by that conqueror. The lines of their +kings are generally traced back to an early period +of the Persian age; but, properly speaking, their +rulers in those days were nothing more than viceroys: +selected indeed, for the most part, from the +royal family, they bore the title of princes, and, +in the gradual decline of the empire, not unfrequently +threw up their allegiance. Nevertheless +these kingdoms do not appear as really independent +until after the time of Alexander. Connected +with the Grecian republics Heraclea, Sinope, +Byzantium, etc. they formed, both in the +Macedonian and Roman ages, a system of small +states, often distracted by internal wars, and still +oftener mere tools in the hands of the more +powerful.</p> + +<div class="sblockquot"><p>1. <i>Bithynia.</i> As early as the Persian period, mention is made +of two kings in Bithynia, Dydalsus and Botyras. The son of +the latter, Bias, B. C. 378—328, made head against Caranus, +one of Alexander's generals; as did also his son Zipœtas, <i>d.</i> 281, +against Lysimachus.—Lycomedes I. <i>d.</i> 248. He called the Gauls<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_294" id="Page_294">[Pg 294]</a></span> +over from Thrace, 278, and with their assistance deposed his +brother Zipœtas; the Gauls in consequence kept their footing in +Galatia, and were for a long time an object of terror to Asia +Minor. Zelas, <i>d.</i> about 232; established his dominion after a +war with his half-brothers. Prusias I. son-in-law and ally of +Philip II. of Macedon, <i>d.</i> 192. He sided with the Rhodians +in the commercial war against Byzantium, 222, (see above, +p. 282.) and directed his arms, 196, against Heraclea, a Grecian +city in Bithynia, with a respectable territory along shore. Prusias +II. waged war against Eumenes II. at the instigation of +Hannibal, who had fled to his court, 184; he was subsequently +about to deliver up the fugitive to the Romans; had not Hannibal +put a period to his existence, 183: this king likewise waged +war against Attalus II. 153; in both these contests Rome acted +as mediator. Prusias, who had the meanness to style himself a +freedman of the Romans, was dethroned by his own son, Nicomedes +II. <i>d.</i> 92; a confederate of Mithridates the Great, with +whom, nevertheless, he afterwards fell out concerning the appropriation +of Paphlagonia and Cappadocia. Nicomedes was murdered +by his son Socrates, who was, however, compelled to flee; +in consequence of which Nicomedes III. succeeded to the crown. +Deposed by Mithridates, who supported his half-brother Socrates, +he was reinstated by Rome, 90. Having, however, at the instigation +of the Romans, 89, attacked Mithridates, he was defeated +and expelled in the first Mithridatic war, now kindled; but in +the peace of 85, he was again reinstated by Sulla. At his death, +75, he bequeathed Bithynia to the Romans; and this legacy gave +rise to the third Mithridatic war.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Vaillant</span>, <i>Imperium Arsacidarum</i>, vol. ii. See below.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Sevin</span>, <i>Recherches sur les rois de Bithynie</i>; inserted in the +<i>Mém. de l'Académie des Inscript.</i> vol. xii.</p> + +<p>2. <i>Paphlagonia.</i> Even in the Persian age, the rulers of this +country were but nominally subject. After Alexander's death, +B. C. 323, it fell into the hands of the kings of Pontus; it was, +however, subsequently, again ruled by its own monarchs; among +whom we hear of Morzes, about 179; Pylæmenes I. about 131: +who assisted the Romans in the war against Aristonicus of Pergamus.—Pylæmenes +II. <i>d.</i> before 121; who is said to have bequeathed +his kingdom to Mithridates V. of Pontus. Hence +Paphlagonia came to be implicated in the fortunes of Pontus, +(see just below,) until after the fall of Mithridates the Great, 63,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_295" id="Page_295">[Pg 295]</a></span> +that kingdom was converted into a province, with the exception +of one of the southern districts, to which the Romans left some +shadow of freedom.</p> + +<p>3. <i>Pontus.</i> The later kings of this country derived their origin +from the family of the Achæmenidæ, or house of Persia. In the +Persian age they remained dependent or tributary princes: and +as such we must consider Artabazes, son of Hystaspes, <i>d.</i> 480, +Mithridates I. <i>d.</i> 368, and Ariobarzanes, <i>d.</i> 337, mentioned as +the earliest kings of Pontus. Mithridates II. surnamed Ctistes, +<i>d.</i> 302, was one of the first to acknowledge subjection to Alexander; +after the death of the conqueror he sided with Antigonus, +who treacherously caused him to be murdered. His son, Mithridates +III. <i>d.</i> 266, (the Ariobarzanes of Memnon,) not only maintained +himself after the battle of Ipsus against Lysimachus, but +likewise possessed himself of Cappadocia and Paphlagonia. Mithridates +IV. father-in-law to Antiochus the Great, waged an unsuccessful +war against Sinope. The year of his death is undetermined, +Pharnaces, <i>d.</i> about 156. He conquered Sinope 183; +and that town then became the royal residence. War with Eumenes +II. whom Rome had made so powerful, and with his allies; +terminated by a treaty, according to which Pharnaces ceded +Paphlagonia, B. C. 179. Mithridates V. <i>d.</i> about 121. He was +an ally of the Romans, from whom, after the defeat of Aristonicus +of Phrygia, he contrived to obtain Great Phrygia. Mithridates +VI. surnamed Eupator, about 121—64. He bore the title of +Great, an epithet to which he was as fully entitled as Peter I. in +modern history; indeed he resembled the Russian prince in +almost everything except in good fortune. His reign, although +of the highest importance to general history, is, particularly in +the portion previous to the wars with Rome, replete with chronological +difficulties.—At the age of twelve years he inherits from +his father not only Pontus, but likewise Phrygia, and a reversionary +title to the throne of Paphlagonia, vacated by the death +of Pylæmenes II.—During his nonage, 121—112, while by +voluntarily inuring himself to hardships, he contrived to elude +the treacherous hostility of his guardians, Rome deprived him of +Phrygia. His conquests in Colchis and on the eastern side of +the Black sea, 112—110.—Commencement of the Scythian wars. +Called by the Greeks of Crimea to their assistance, he expelled +the Scythians; subjected several insignificant Scythian princes +on the mainland; and entered into alliances with the Sarmatic<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_296" id="Page_296">[Pg 296]</a></span> +and even Germanic races as far as the Danube, 108—105, having +already a view to the invasion of Italy from the north.—This war +ended, he travels over Asia, (Asia Minor?) about 104—103.—At +his return, after punishing with death his faithless sister and wife, +Laodice, he makes good his pretensions to Paphlagonia, which he +divides with Nicomedes II. 102. The Roman senate demanding +the restoration of that province, Mithridates not only refuses to +accede, but likewise takes possession of Galatia; meanwhile Nicomedes +places on the throne of Paphlagonia one of his own sons, +whom he gives out to be a son of Pylæmenes II. and denominates +Pylæmenes III.—Rupture with Nicomedes II. 101; the +subject of dispute, Cappadocia, which, after removing the king, +Ariarathes VII. his brother-in-law, with the assistance of Gordius, +Mithridates himself now wished to possess; he is anticipated, +however, by Nicomedes II. who marries Laodice, Ariarathes's +widow.—Mithridates, notwithstanding, expels his rival, under +pretence of holding the kingdom for his sister's son, Ariarathes +VIII. whom at the end of a few months he puts to death at a +private conference, 94; he defeats the brother of the murdered +prince, Ariarathes IX. and then places on the throne, under the +name of Ariarathes X. his own son, who is given out to be a third +son of Ariarathes VII; in opposition to whom Nicomedes sets up +another pretended Ariarathes. The Roman senate, meanwhile, +declare both Paphlagonia and Cappadocia free, B. C. 92; attending, +however, to the desires of the Cappadocians, they sanction +the election of Ariobarzanes to the crown; and he is put in possession +of the kingdom by Sylla, as proprætor of Cilicia, likewise +in 92.—Mithridates, on the other hand, forms an alliance with +the king of Armenia, Tigranes, to whom he gives his daughter in +marriage; and employs him in expelling Ariobarzanes.—He +himself, after the death of Nicomedes II. 92, supports the claims +of the deceased king's exiled son, Socrates Chrestus, against the +bastard Nicomedes III. and in the mean time takes possession of +Paphlagonia. Nicomedes and Ariobarzanes are reinstated by a +Roman embassy, 90, Mithridates, in order to gain time against +Rome, causing Socrates to be put to death. The hostilities of +Nicomedes, instituted by Rome, gave rise to the first Roman war, +89—85, carried on in Asia and Greece, and brought to a conclusion +by Sylla. By the peace of 85, Mithridates restores Bithynia, +Cappadocia, and Paphlagonia.—War with the revolted +Colchians and Bosporans, 84.—Second war with Rome brought<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_297" id="Page_297">[Pg 297]</a></span> +about by the Roman governor, Murena, 83—81. Mithridates +hereupon appoints his son, Machares, king of Bosporus, (Crimea,) +whom he afterwards himself causes to be put to death, 66; he +was likewise, in all probability, the instigator of the migration of +the Sarmatæ out of Asia into Europe, in order to maintain his +conquests in that quarter, about 80. Fresh disputes with Rome +about Cappadocia, of which Tigranes takes possession, and third +war with Rome, 75—64. The contest ended in the downfal of +Mithridates, caused by the treachery of his son Pharnaces; +Pontus became a Roman province; although the Romans, in the +sequel, appointed over a portion of the country princes from the +royal house, Darius, Polemo I. Polemo II. until Nero reduced +it again wholly to the state of a province.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Vaillant</span>, <i>Imperium Achæmenidarum</i> in his <i>Imperium Arsacidarum</i>, +tom. ii. With the assistance of the coins.</p> + +<p>For the history of Mithridates the Great, previously treated +without sufficient chronological accuracy, see <span class="smcap">De Brosses</span>, <i>Histoire +de la Rép. Romaine</i>, and more especially</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Joan. Ernst. Woltersdorf</span>, <i>Commentatio vitam Mithridatis +Magni, per annos digestam, sistens; præmio ornata ab A. Phil. +Ord. Gottingæ:, A</i>. 1812.</p> + +<p>4. <i>Cappadocia.</i> Until the time of Alexander this country +remained a province of the Persian empire, although the governors +occasionally made attempts at insurrection. The ruling family +was here likewise a branch of the royal house; Ariarathes I. was +particularly distinguished about B. C. 354. The prince contemporary +with Alexander was Ariarathes II. who, being attacked +by Perdiccas and Eumenes, fell in the contest, 322. Nevertheless, +his son, Ariarathes III. supported by the Armenians, recovered +the sceptre about 312. The son of this king, Ariaramnes, +formed a matrimonial connection with the Seleucidæ, uniting his +son Ariarathes IV. with the daughter of Antiochus Θεός. Ariarathes +IV. during his lifetime, associated in the government his son +Ariarathes V. <i>d.</i> 162. who married Antiochis, daughter to Antiochus +the Great: this princess, finding herself at first barren, +procured two supposititious sons, one of whom, Orophernes, subsequently +wrested the sceptre from the legitimate and later born +son, Ariarathes VI. but was afterwards expelled by the rightful +heir, 157. In the war against Aristonicus of Pergamus, 131, he +fell, as an ally of the Romans, leaving behind him six sons; five of +whom were cut off by his ambitious relict Laodice; the sixth<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_298" id="Page_298">[Pg 298]</a></span> +however, Ariarathes VII. ascended the throne, and was married +to Laodice, sister of Mithridates the Great, at whose instigation +he was murdered by Gordius, under pretence of placing on the +throne his sister's son, Ariarathes VIII; this last prince was soon +after treacherously put to death by Mithridates, 94, and his brother +Ariarathes IX. defeated 93, died of a broken heart; Mithridates +then placed on the throne his own son, Ariarathes X. a lad +eight years old. The independence of Cappadocia having meanwhile +been proclaimed at Rome, the inhabitants of the country, +in order to preclude domestic broils, themselves elect a king, appointing +to that dignity Ariobarzanes I. who was installed by +Sylla, 92, and, backed by the Romans, kept his footing in the +Mithridatic wars. In 63 he made the crown over to his son, +Ariobarzanes II. who was slain by the army of Brutus and Cassius, +43, as was his brother, Ariobarzanes III. 34, by Mark +Antony; Antony then appointed Archelaus to be king, who enticed +to Rome by Tiberius, A. D. 17, was there assassinated; +and Cappadocia then became a Roman province.</p> + +<p>5. <i>Armenia</i> was a province of the Syrian empire until the defeat +of Antiochus the Great by Rome, 190. That defeat was +followed by the accession of Antiochus's lieutenants, Artaxias +and Zariadras; and now arose the two kingdoms of Armenia +Major and Armenia Minor (the latter on the west bank of the +Upper Euphrates). In Armenia Major the family of Artaxias +kept possession of the throne, under eight (according to others +<i>ten</i>) consecutive kings, until B. C. 5.—The only remarkable +prince of this line was Tigranes I. 95—60, son-in-law and ally +of Mithridates the Great, and lord of Asia Minor, Cappadocia, +and Syria. He was, however, at the peace of 63, obliged to give +up all, so that Armenia was dependent on the Romans, and remained +so until B. C. 5, when it became the object of contention +between the Romans and Parthians, being ruled at intervals by +kings appointed by both parties, who endeavoured thereby to +protect their own provinces. Finally, in A. D. 412, Armenia became +a province of the new Persian empire.—In Asia Minor the +descendants of Zariadras ruled dependently on Rome; after its +defection under Mithridates the Great it usually formed part of +some one of the neighbouring kingdoms, until in the reign of +Vespasian it was converted into a province of the Roman empire.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Vaillant</span>, <i>Elenchus regum Armeniæ Majoris</i>, in his <i>Hist. +Imp. Arsacidarum</i>.</p></div><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_299" id="Page_299">[Pg 299]</a></span></p> + +<div class="sidenote">Bactrian +and Parthian +empires.</div> + +<p>4. Besides the above small kingdoms, two +mighty empires arose in Inner Asia, both out +of Alexander's monarchy, and at the same time: +these were the Parthian and the Bactrian; each +having previously constituted a part of the empire +of the Seleucidæ, from which they seceded under +Antiochus II. The Parthian kingdom, or that of +the Arsacidæ, B. C. 256—A. D. 226, at the maximum +of its extension, comprised the countries +between the Euphrates and Indus. Its history, +so far as we are acquainted with it, is divided +into four periods (see below); but unfortunately +our information is so imperfect respecting all that +relates to the Parthians, except their wars, that +even the most important particulars are beyond +the reach of conjecture.</p> + +<div class="sblockquot"><p>Main facts in the history and constitution of the Parthian kingdom. +<i>a.</i> Like the ancient Persian empire, the Parthian arose out +of the conquests made by a rude mountain race of Central Asia, +whose Scythian (probably Tatarian) origin, betrayed itself even in +later times by their speech and mode of life: their conquests, +however, were not effected with the same rapidity as those of the +Persians. <i>b.</i> This empire increased at the expense of the Syrian +in the west, and of the Bactrian in the east; but its dominion was +never permanently established beyond the Euphrates, Indus, and +Oxus. <i>c.</i> The wars with Rome, commencing in B. C. 53, and +springing out of disputes for the possession of the Armenian +throne, were for a long time unfortunate for the Romans. Success +did not accompany the arms of Rome until she had discovered the +art of raising her own parties within the kingdom itself, by lending +her support to pretenders, an art rendered comparatively easy, +by the unfavourable situation of the Parthian capital Seleucia +and the neighbouring town of Ctesiphon, the real head quarters +of the court. <i>d.</i> The empire was indeed divided into satrapies, +eighteen of which are enumerated; nevertheless it comprised +likewise several small kingdoms, which preserved their own<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_300" id="Page_300">[Pg 300]</a></span> +rulers, only that they were tributary, such, for instance, as Persis, +etc. The Græco-Macedonian settlements were also in possession +of great privileges, and of their own civic governments; +Seleucia more especially, where the coins of the Parthian sovereigns +were struck. <i>e.</i> The constitution was monarchal-aristocratic, +something like that of the Poles, in the period of the +Jagellons. At the king's side sat a supreme state council, (<i>senatus</i>, +in all probability what was called the <i>megistanes</i>,) who had +the power of deposing the king, and the privilege, it is supposed, +of confirming his accession previous to the ceremony of coronation, +performed by the field-marshals (<i>surenas</i>). The right of +succession was only so far determined as belonging to the house +of the Arsacidæ; the many pretenders to which this uncertainty +gave rise, produced factions and domestic wars, doubly injurious +to the empire when fomented and shared by foreigners. <i>f.</i> With +regard to Asiatic commerce, the Parthian supremacy was of importance, +inasmuch as it interrupted the direct intercourse between +the western and eastern countries: it being a maxim of +the Parthians not to grant a passage through their country to any +stranger. This destruction of the trade occurs in the third period +of the empire, being a natural result of the many wars with +Rome, and the distrust thence ensuing. The East India trade, +in consequence, took another road through Palmyra and Alexandria, +which were indebted to it for their splendour and prosperity. +<i>g.</i> It is probable that this was the reason why excessive +luxury took a less hold on the Parthians than on the other ruling +nations of Asia, notwithstanding their predilection for Grecian +manners and literature, at that time generally prevalent throughout +the east.</p> + +<p><i>Line of the kings.</i> I. Syrian period; that of reiterated wars +with the Seleucidæ, until 130. Arsaces I. 256—253, founder of +the Parthian independence, by procuring the death of the Syrian +viceroy, Agathocles, to which he was instigated by the insult +offered to his brother Tiridates. Arsaces II. (Tiridates I.) brother +of the foregoing, <i>d.</i> 216. He possessed himself of Hyrcania, +about 244, confirmed the Parthian power by a victory on Seleucus +Callinicus, 238, whom he took prisoner, 236. Arsaces III. +(Artabanus I.) <i>d.</i> 196. In his reign occurred the unsuccessful +attempt of Antiochus III. who, in the treaty of 210, was obliged +to renounce all claims on Parthia and Hyrcania, in return for +which Arsaces lent his assistance to Antiochus in the war against<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_301" id="Page_301">[Pg 301]</a></span> +Bactria. Arsaces IV. (Priapatius,) <i>d.</i> about 181. Arsaces V. +(Phraates I.) <i>d.</i> about 144; he conquered the Mardians on the +Caspian. His brother, Arsaces VI. (Mithridates I.) <i>d.</i> 136. He +raised the hitherto confined kingdom of Parthia to the rank of a +mighty empire, having, after the decease of Antiochus Epiphanes, +164, by the capture of Media, Persis, Babylonia, and other +countries, extended the frontiers westward to the Euphrates, and +eastward to the Hydaspes, beyond the Indus. The invasion of +Demetrius II. of Syria, supported by an insurrection of the conquered +races, ended, 140, in the capture of the aggressor. Arsaces +VII. (Phraates II.) <i>d.</i> about 127. Invasion of Antiochus +Sidetes, 132, who was at first successful, but being soon afterwards +cut off together with his whole army, 131, the Parthian +empire was for ever freed from the attacks of the Syrian kings.</p> + +<p>II. Period of the eastern nomad wars; from 130—53. After +the fall of the Bactrian empire, which had hitherto formed the +eastern rampart of the Parthians, violent wars took place with +the nomad tribes of Central Asia (Scythæ, Dahæ, Tochari, etc.) +in which Arsaces VII. was slain. Arsaces VIII. (Artabanus II.) +shared the same fate about 124. Arsaces IX. (Mithridates II.) +<i>d.</i> 87. This prince appears to have restored tranquillity to the +east after bloody wars; he met, however, with a powerful rival +in Tigranes I. of Armenia. In his reign occurred the first transactions +between the Parthians and Romans, 92, Sylla being proprætor +of Cilicia. Arsaces X. (Mnasciras,) <i>d.</i> about 76, waged +a long war for the succession with his follower on the throne, the +septuagenarian, Arsaces XI. (Sinatroces,) <i>d.</i> about 68. Unsuccessful +war with Tigranes I. In consequence of civil wars, and of +that with Tigranes, together with the formidable power of Mithridates +the Great, the Parthian empire was now greatly weakened. +Arsaces XII. (Phraates III.) <i>d.</i> 60, contemporary with the third +Mithridatic war. Although both parties eagerly courted his alliance, +and he himself was engaged in the contest with Tigranes, +he, notwithstanding, observed an armed neutrality, and made the +Parthian empire continue to be respected as far as the Euphrates. +Neither Lucullus nor Pompey durst attack him. The fall of +Mithridates and of his empire, 64, constitutes, however, an epoch +in the Parthian history, the Romans and Parthians having now +become immediate neighbours.—Arsaces XIII. (Mithridates II.) +<i>d.</i> 54, deposed after several wars, by his younger brother Orodes,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_302" id="Page_302">[Pg 302]</a></span> +and at last put to death, after the capture of Babylonia, where +he had taken refuge.</p> + +<p>III. Roman period; from B. C. 53, to A. D. 226; comprising +the wars with Rome. Arsaces XIV. (Orodes I.) <i>d.</i> 36. In his +reign the first war with Rome, caused by the invasion of Crassus; +it ends in the annihilation of the invading army and general, +53. In consequence of this victory the Parthians acquired such +preponderance, that during the civil wars they were frequently +masters on this side of the Euphrates, and in 52—51 proceeded +to attack Syria.—In the war between Pompey and Cæsar they +sided with the former, and thus furnished the latter with a pretext +for his Parthian expedition, which, however, was prevented +by his murder in 44; again in the war between the triumviri +and Brutus and Cassius, 42, they took the republican side. After +the defeat of Brutus and Cassius, the Parthians, at the instigation +of the Roman general and ambassador Labienus, and commanded +by him and Pacorus, (eldest son to Arsaces,) spread over the +whole of Syria and Asia Minor, 40; but, after violent exertions, +were driven back by Ventidius, Antony's general, 39, 38; Pacorus +lost his life, and his father died of grief. Arsaces XV. +(Phraates IV.) <i>d.</i> A. D. 4, contemporary of Augustus. He confirmed +his power by murdering his brothers and their dependents; +his views were likewise furthered by the failure of Antony's +expedition, B. C. 36, which ended pretty nearly in the +same manner as that of Crassus. The remainder of his reign +was disturbed by a pretender to the throne, Tiridates, who, after +his defeat, 25, found an asylum at the court of Augustus. The +threatened attack of Augustus was diverted by Phraates's restoration +of the standards taken from Crassus, 20; a dispute, +however, subsequently arose respecting the possession of the Armenian +throne, A. D. 2, on which account Caius Cæsar was despatched +into Asia, and accommodated matters by a treaty. The +ultimate fate both of the king and the empire was principally +decided by a female slave, Thermusa, sent as a present from Augustus; +this woman, wishing to ensure the succession to her own +son, prevailed upon the king to send his four sons to Rome as +hostages, under the pretext of anticipating domestic troubles, 18.—A +practice which from that time became frequent, the Parthian +kings thinking it a convenient mode of ridding themselves of +dangerous competitors, while the Romans knew how to make the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_303" id="Page_303">[Pg 303]</a></span> +proper use of them.—Thermusa's son having grown up, she removed +the king, and seated Phraataces on the throne, under the +name of Arsaces XVI; he was, however, put to death by the +Parthians, A. D. 4; and the crown given to one of the Arsacidæ, +Orodes II, (Arsaces XVII.) who was, however, immediately afterwards +slain by reason of his cruelty. In consequence, Vonones +I. the eldest of the sons of Phraates sent to Rome, was +called back and placed on the throne (Arsaces XVIII.); but +that prince having brought with him Roman customs and luxury, +was expelled, A. D. 14, with the assistance of the northern nomads, +by Artabanes III. (Arsaces XIX.) <i>d.</i> 44, a distant relation: +the fugitive took possession of the vacant throne of Armenia, +but was soon after driven from thence likewise by his rival. +Tiberius took advantage of the consequent disorders to send Germanicus +into the east, A. D. 17, from whence he was never to return. +The remainder of the reign of Artabanus was very stormy, +Tiberius on the one hand taking advantage of the factions +between the nobles to support pretenders to the crown; the +revolts of the satraps, on the other hand, giving proof of the declension +of the Parthian power. After his death war raged between +his sons; the second, Vardanes, (Arsaces XX.) <i>d.</i> 47, +made good his pretensions to the crown, and took North Media, +(Atropatene;) he was succeeded by his elder brother Gotarzes, +(Arsaces XXI.) <i>d.</i> 50, to whom Claudius unsuccessfully opposed +Meherdates, educated as an hostage at Rome. Arsaces XXII. +(Vonones II.) succeeded, after a reign of a few months, by Arsaces +XXIII. (Vologeses I.) <i>d.</i> 90. The possession of the Armenian +throne, given by this prince to his brother Tiridates, by the +Romans to Tigranes, grandson of Herod the Great, excited a +series of disputes, which began so early as the reign of Claudius, +A. D. 52, and under Nero broke out into open war, waged with +some success on the Roman side by Corbulo, 56—64, and closed +by Tiridates going, after the death of Tigranes, to Rome, and +there accepting the crown of Armenia as a gift at the hands of +Nero, 65. Arsaces XXIV. (Pacorus,) <i>d.</i> 107, contemporary with +Domitian. All that we know of him is, that he embellished the +city of Ctesiphon. Arsaces XXV. (Cosroes,) <i>d.</i> about 121. The +claims to the throne of Armenia implicated him in a war with +Trajan, 114, during which Armenia, together with Mesopotamia +and Assyria, were converted into Roman provinces. Trajan's +consequent and successful inroad into the interior parts of the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_304" id="Page_304">[Pg 304]</a></span> +Parthian dominions, 115—116, followed by the capture of Ctesiphon, +and the appointment of Parthamaspates as king, appears +to have been facilitated by the domestic commotions and civil +wars which had for a long time harassed the empire. Nevertheless, +in the following year, 117, Hadrian was compelled to give +up all the conquered country; the Euphrates was again acknowledged +as the boundary; Parthamaspates was appointed king of +Armenia; and Cosroes, who had taken refuge in the upper satrapies, +was reinstated on the throne, of which he seems ever after +to have kept quiet possession. Arsaces XXVI. (Vologeses II.) +<i>d.</i> 149. Parthia under his reign, and Rome under that of Antoninus +Pius, remained on good terms. Arsaces XXVII. (Vologeses +III.) <i>d.</i> 191. Under the reign of this king, the contemporary +of Marcus Aurelius and L. Verus, the war with Rome was +again kindled, 161, by Verus, and carried on in Armenia and +Syria; Cassius, the legate of Verus, at last got possession of +Seleucia, and demolished that city, 165.—Arsaces XXVIII. +(Ardawan or Vologeses IV.) <i>d.</i> 207. This king having taken +the part of Pescenninus Niger, in the war between him and Septimius +Severus, was, after the defeat of his friend, 194, routed in +a war with Septimius Severus, 197, and the chief towns of Parthia +were sacked by the invaders. He is, without authority, represented +as succeeded by a Pacorus, who took the name of Arsaces +XXIX.: his real successor, however, appears to have been Arsaces +XXIX. (Vologeses V.) <i>d.</i> 216. Domestic wars among his +sons, fomented by Caracalla. Arsaces XXX. (Artabanus IV.) +At the beginning of his reign, this prince likewise was contemporary +with Caracalla, who, in order to pick a quarrel, demanded +his daughter in marriage; according to some, Arsaces refused +her, in consequence of which the Roman emperor undertook a +campaign into Armenia; according to others, Arsaces having assented, +and escorted his daughter to Caracalla, was, by an abominable +stroke of treachery, cut off, together with all his train, +A. D. 216. Caracalla having been murdered, 217, his successor, +Macrinus, signed a peace with the Parthians. But Arsaces subsequently +raised his brother Tiridates to the throne of Armenia; +this act spurred the Persian Artaxerxes, son of Sassan, to rebellion; +the Parthian king, defeated in three battles, fell in the last, +thus putting a period to the family and dominion of the Arsacidæ, +226, and Artaxerxes became the founder of the New Persian +kingdom, or that of the Sassanidæ. The revolution was +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_305" id="Page_305">[Pg 305]</a></span> +accompanied not only with a change of dynasty, but with a total +subversion of the constitution.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Vaillant</span>, <i>Imperium Arsacidarum et Achæmenidarum</i>, Paris, +1725, 2 vols. 4to. The first part comprises the Arsacidæ; the +second the kings of Bithynia, Pontus, and Bosporus. It is an +attempt, not altogether faultless, to arrange the series of kings, +by the assistance of coins.</p> + +<p>† <span class="smcap">C. F. Richter</span>, <i>Historico-critical essay upon the dynasties +of the Arsacidæ and Sassanidæ, according to the Persian, Grecian, +and Roman authorities</i>. A prize essay. Leipzic, 1804. +A comparative research into the eastern and western sources. +The chronology in the above sketch has been corrected by this +work, in conjunction with</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Th. Chr. Tychsen</span>, <i>Commentationes de Nummis Persarum et +Arsacidarum</i>; inserted in <i>Commentat. Nov. Soc. Sc. Gotting.</i> +vol. i. iii.</p></div> + +<div class="sidenote">Bactria.</div> + +<p>5. The Bactrian kingdom arose nearly at the +same time as the Parthian, 254; its origin, however, +was of a different nature,—the independence +of this state being asserted by the Grecian +governor, who was consequently succeeded by +Greeks;—its duration likewise was much shorter, +extending only from B. C. 254 to B. C. 126. +Scarce any fragments have been preserved of the +history of this empire, the borders of which appear +at one time to have extended to the banks +of the Ganges, and the frontiers of China.</p> + +<div class="sblockquot"><p>Founder of the empire, Diodatus or Theodotus I. B. C. 254; +he threw off his allegiance to the Syrian king, under Antiochus +II. He appears to have been master not only of Bactria, but +also of Sogdiana. He likewise threatened the Parthians; after +his decease, 243, his son and successor, Theodotus II. signed a +treaty and alliance with Arsaces II. but was nevertheless deprived +of his crown by Euthydemus of Magnesia, about 221. Antiochus +the Great, at the conclusion of the Parthian war, directed his +arms against Euthydemus, 209—206; the contest ended in a +peace, by which Euthydemus, after delivering up his elephants,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_306" id="Page_306">[Pg 306]</a></span> +was not only left in possession of the crown, but was allied to the +Syrian family by the marriage of his son Demetrius with a +daughter of Antiochus. Demetrius, though a great conqueror, +does not seem to have been king of Bactria; his dominions comprised, +it is probable, North India and Malabar, whose history +now becomes closely connected with that of Bactria, although +consisting only of mere fragments. The throne of Bactria fell to +Apollodotus, and after him to Menander, who extended his conquests +as far as Serica, while Demetrius was establishing his dominion +in India, [as sovereign of which country he is represented +in a medal lately discovered,] and where, about this time, several +Greek states appear to have existed, perhaps ever since the expedition +of Antiochus III. 205. Menander was succeeded, about +181, by Eucratidas, under whose reign the Bactrian empire attained +its greatest extension; after defeating the Indian king, +Demetrius, who had been the aggressor, he, with the assistance +of the Parthian conqueror, Mithridates, (Arsaces VI.) annexed +India to his own empire, 148. On his return, he was murdered +by his son; the same, probably, that is mentioned afterwards by +the name of Eucratidas II. He was the ally of Demetrius II. of +Syria, and the main instigator of his expedition against the Parthians, +142; Demetrius being defeated by Arsaces VI. Eucratidas +was, in consequence, deprived of a portion of his territory; +overpowered soon after by the nomad races of Central Asia, the +Bactrian empire fell to the ground, and Bactria itself, together +with the other countries on this side of the Oxus, became a prey +to the Parthians.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Th. Sieg. Bayer</span>, <i>Historia regni Græcorum Bactriani</i>. Petropol. +1738, 4to. The few remaining fragments are in this work +collected with industry and arranged with skill.</p> + +<p>[<span class="smcap">Tod</span>, <i>Account of Greek, Parthian, and Hindu Medals</i>, in +<i>Transactions of the R. Asiatic Society</i>, vol. i. part ii, p. 316.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Tychsen</span>, <i>De Nummis Græcis et Barbaris in Bochara nuper +retectis</i>, in <i>Comment. Nov. Soc. Sc. Gotting.</i> vol. vi.]</p></div> + +<div class="sidenote">Kingdom of +the Jews.</div> + +<p>6. The restored kingdom of the Jews was likewise +a fragment of the Macedonian monarchy; +and although it ranked only with the smaller +states, its history in various respects deserves our +attention, few nations having had so powerful an<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_307" id="Page_307">[Pg 307]</a></span> +influence on the progress of human civilization. +The foundation of the independence of the Jews +was not, it is true, laid before the year 167; +yet their domestic constitution had previously +assumed its main features, and their history, +reckoning from the return of the Babylonian captivity, +accordingly divides itself into four periods: +1. Under the Persian supremacy, 536—323. 2. +Under the Ptolemies and Seleucidæ, 323—167. +3. Under the Maccabees, 167—39. 4. Under +the Herodians and Romans, B. C. 39. to A. D. 70.</p> + +<div class="sblockquot"><p>First period under the Persians. By permission from Cyrus, +a colony of Jews belonging to the tribes of Benjamin, Judah, and +Levi, returned to the land of their forefathers, 536: this colony, +headed by Zorobabel, of the ancient royal family, and the high +priest Joshua, consisted of about 42,000 souls; the far more important +and wealthy portion of the nation preferred to remain on +the other side of the Euphrates, where they had been settled for +seventy years, and continued to be a numerous people. The new +settlers found it difficult to keep their footing, principally in consequence +of differences, produced by the intolerance they themselves +evinced at the building of the temple, with their neighbours +and kinsmen the Samaritans, to whom the colony was only a +cause of expense. The Samaritans, subsequently, having erected +a separate temple at Garizim, near Sichem, about 336, not only +separated completely, but laid the foundation of an inveterate +hatred between the two nations. Hence the prohibition to rebuild +the city and temple, brought about by their means, under +Cambyses, 529, and Smerdis, 522, and not taken off until 520, +in the reign of Darius Hystaspes. The new colony did not receive +a permanent internal constitution till the time of Ezra and +Nehemiah; both brought in fresh colonists, the former in 478, +the latter in 445. The country was under the dominion of the +satraps of Syria; but in the increasing domestic declension of the +Persian empire, the high priests gradually became the virtual +rulers of the nation. Nevertheless, even at the time of Alexander's +conquest, 332, the Jews seem to have manifested proofs of +fidelity to the Persians.</p> +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_308" id="Page_308">[Pg 308]</a></span></p> +<p>Second period under the Ptolemies and Seleucidæ, 323—167. +After the death of Alexander, Palestine, in consequence of its +situation, generally shared the fate of Phœnicia and Cœle-Syria, +(see above, p. 249.) being annexed to Syria.—Capture of Jerusalem, +and transplantation of a vast colony of Jews to Alexandria +by Ptolemy I. 312; from thence they spread to Cyrene, and +gradually over the whole of North Africa, and even into Æthiopia. +From 311—301 the Jews remained, however, subject to +Antigonus. After the overthrow of his empire, they remained, +301—203, under the dominion of the Ptolemies; the most conspicuous +of their high priests during this interval were Simon the +Just, <i>d.</i> 291, and afterwards his son, Onias I. <i>d.</i> 218, who, by +withholding the tribute due to Ptolemy III. exposed Judæa to +imminent danger.—In the second war of Antiochus the Great +against Egypt, 203, the Jews, of their own free will, acknowledged +themselves his subjects, and assisted in driving out the +Egyptian troops, who, under their general, Scopas, had again +possessed themselves of the country, and the citadel of Jerusalem, +198. Antiochus confirmed the Jews in the possession of all their +privileges; and although he promised their country, together +with Cœle-Syria and Phœnicia, to Ptolemy Epiphanes, as the +future dowry of his daughter, Judæa still remained under the +Syrian supremacy; except that the revenue was for a time divided +between the Syrian and Egyptian kings.—The high priests +and self-chosen ethnarchs or alabarchs were at the head of the +people; and we now find mention made for the first time of a +senate, or the sanhedrim. But the rout of Antiochus the Great +by the Romans was also the remote cause of the subsequent misfortunes +of the Jews. The consequent dearth of money in which +the Syrian kings found themselves, and the riches of the temple +treasures, the accumulation of the sacred income and gifts, made +the office of high priest an object of purchase under Antiochus +Epiphanes: hence arose quarrels between the pontifical families, +and out of those sprung factions, which Antiochus Epiphanes was +desirous to turn to his own account, by the introduction of Grecian +institutions among the Jews, in order thereby to promote the +subjection of that people, now raised by its privileges almost to +the rank of a state within that of Syria. Deposition of the high +priest, Onias III. 175; his brother Jason having obtained the +mitre by purchase, and the introduction of Grecian customs: +Jason, however, was in his turn supplanted by his brother Mene<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_309" id="Page_309">[Pg 309]</a></span>laus, +172. During the civil war arising out of these events, Antiochus +Epiphanes, at that time conqueror in Egypt, (see above, +p. 241.) takes possession of Jerusalem, 170, being provoked by +the behaviour of the Jews to Menelaus, the high priest of his own +appointment: the consequent oppression of the Jews, who now +were to be Hellenized by main force, soon occasioned the rise +under the Maccabees.</p> + +<p>Third period under the Maccabees, 167—39. Commencement +of the rebellion against Antiochus IV. brought about by the +priest Mattathias, 167, who was almost immediately succeeded, +166—161, by his son Judas Maccabæus. Supported by the +fanaticism of his party, Judas defeats in several battles the generals +of Antiochus, who was absent in Upper Asia, where he died, +164; the Jewish leader is even said to have been favoured by +Rome. The primary object of the insurrection was not, however, +political independence; they fought only for religious freedom. +Under Antiochus V. the sedition continued successful, both +against the Syrian king and the high priest Alcimus, his creature, +163; Judas having died soon after his defeat by Demetrius I. +was succeeded by his brother Jonathan, 161—143. The death +of the high priest, Alcimus, 160, opened the path of Jonathan to +that office, which he received in the ensuing war between Demetrius +I. and Alexander Balas, 143, (see above, p. 244, 245.) both +rivals courting his alliance: Jonathan sided with Balas, and consequently, +from being merely the leader of a party, came to be +head of the nation, which still, nevertheless, continued to pay +tribute to the kings. Notwithstanding the favour he had shown +to Balas, after the overthrow of that pretender, he was confirmed +in his dignity by Demetrius I. 145; to whose assistance he +marched at the subsequent great revolt in Antioch. Jonathan +however, in 144, passed over to the side of the usurper, Antiochus, +the son of Balas, (see above, p. 245.) and was by embassy +presented with the friendship of the Romans in the same year, +but by the treachery of Tryphon was taken and put to death, +143. His brother and successor, Simon, 143—135, having declared +against Tryphon, was by Demetrius II. not only confirmed +in his dignity, but excused from paying tribute; he likewise received +the title of prince, (ethnarch;) and appears to have struck +coins. After the capture of Demetrius, Antiochus Sidetes allowed +Simon to remain in possession of those privileges so long as he +stood in need of his assistance against Tryphon; but after the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_310" id="Page_310">[Pg 310]</a></span> +death of that usurper, he caused him, 130, to be attacked by +Cendebæus, who was defeated by the sons of Simon. Simon +having been murdered by his son-in-law, Ptolemæus, who aspired +to the government, 135, was succeeded by his son, John Hyrcanus, +135—107, who was compelled again to acknowledge submission +to Antiochus Sidetes; but after the defeat and death of +that prince by the Parthians, 130, he asserted his entire independence. +The deep decline of the Syrian kingdom, the constant +civil wars by which it was distracted, and the renewed league +with the Romans, not only enabled Hyrcanus easily to maintain +his independence, but likewise to increase his territory, by the +conquest of the Samaritans and Idumæans. But with him ended +the heroic line. Scarcely was he delivered from foreign oppression, +when domestic broils arose; the Pharisees and Sadducees +had hitherto been mere religious sects, but were converted into +political factions by Hyrcanus, who, offended with the Pharisees, +probably in consequence of their wish to separate the pontifical +and princely offices, went over to the Sadducees; the former sect, +the orthodox, were as usual supported by the many; the latter, +the innovators, in consequence of the laxity of their principles, +were favoured by the wealthy. Hyrcanus's eldest son, the cruel +Aristobulus, 107, assumed the royal title, but soon after dying, +106, was succeeded by his younger brother, Alexander Jannæus, +106—79. His reign was an almost unbroken series of insignificant +wars with his neighbours, this prince wishing to play the +conqueror; and having likewise had the imprudence to irritate +the powerful party of the Pharisees, these made him the object +of public insult, and excited a tumult, 92, which was followed +by a bloody civil war which lasted six years. Jannæus, it is +true, maintained himself during the struggle; but the opposite +party was so far from being annihilated, that, at his death, when +passing over his sons, the feeble Hyrcanus (who possessed the +pontifical dignity) and the ambitious Aristobulus, he bequeathed +the crown to his widow Alexandra, it was with the understanding +that she should join the party of the Pharisees: during her reign, +therefore, 79—71, the Pharisees held the reins of government, +and left her only the name. Provoked at this, Aristobulus, +shortly before the death of the queen, endeavoured to obtain +possession of the throne, and ultimately obtained his ends, notwithstanding +Alexandra nominated Hyrcanus to be her successor. +Hyrcanus, at the instigation of his confidant, the Idumæan Anti<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_311" id="Page_311">[Pg 311]</a></span>pater, +who was the progenitor of the Herodians, and assisted by +the Arabian prince Aretas, waged war against his brother, 65, and +shut him up in Jerusalem: but the Romans were arbitrators, +and Pompey, then all-powerful in Asia, decided for Hyrcanus, +64; the party of Aristobulus, however, refusing to accede, the +Roman general took possession of Jerusalem; made Hyrcanus +high priest and prince, under condition that he should pay tribute; +and took as prisoners to Rome Aristobulus and his sons, +who, however, subsequently escaped and caused great disturbances. +The Jewish state being now dependent on Rome, remained +so, and the yoke was confirmed by the policy of Antipater +and his sons, who followed the general maxim of entire devotion +to Rome, in order thereby to succeed in wholly removing the +reigning family. As early as 48, Antipater was appointed procurator +of Judea by Cæsar, whom he had supported at Alexandria, +and his second son Herod, governor in Galilee, soon became sufficiently +powerful to threaten Hyrcanus and the sanhedrim, 45. +He gained the favour of Antony, and thus maintained himself +amid the tempests which, after the assassination of Cæsar, 44, +shook the Roman world, powerful as the party opposed to him +were: that party, however, at last, in lieu of the ill-fated Hyrcanus, +the only surviving son of Aristobulus, placed Antigonus at +their head, and, assisted by the Parthians, then flourishing in +power, seated him on the throne, 39. Herod having fled to +Rome, not only met with a gracious reception at the hands of the +triumviri, but was by them appointed king.</p> + +<p>Fourth period under the Herodians, B. C. 39 to A. D. 70. +Herod the Great, B. C. 39 to A. D. 1. put himself in possession +of Jerusalem and all Judæa, B. C. 37, and confirmed his power +by marrying Mariamne of the house of the Maccabees. Notwithstanding +his severity shown to the party of Antigonus, and +the house of the Maccabees, the total extinction of which Herod +deemed necessary for his own safety; yet so greatly did the +wasted country stand in need of peace, that for that very reason +his reign may be said to have been a happy one. Availing himself +of the liberality of Augustus, whose favour he contrived to +obtain after the defeat of Anthony, B. C. 31, Herod gradually +increased the extent of his kingdom, which at last comprised +Judæa, Samaria, Galilee, and beyond the Jordan, Peræa, Ituræa, +and Trachonitis, (that is to say, the whole of Palestine,) together +with Idumæa; from these countries he derived his income with<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_312" id="Page_312">[Pg 312]</a></span>out +being obliged to pay any tribute. The deference consequently +shown by Herod to Rome, was but the effect of a natural policy, +and his conduct in that respect could be objected to him only by +bigoted Jews. To his whole family, rather than to himself individually, +are to be attributed the executions which took place +among its members; happy had it been if the sword had smitten +none but the guilty and spared the innocent. In the last year +but one of his reign is placed the birth of Christ (according to +the usually adopted computation, made in the sixth century by +Dionysius Exiguus. But the more accurate calculations of modern +chronologists show that the real date of the Saviour's birth was +probably four years earlier).—According to his will, with some +few alterations made by Augustus, his kingdom was divided +among his three surviving sons; Archelaus, as ethnarch, receiving +the greater moiety, Judæa, Samaria, and Idumæa; the two +others, as tetrarchs, Philip a part of Galilee and Trachonitis, Antipas +the other part of Galilee, and Peræa, together with Ituræa; +subsequently to which division, the various parts did not, in consequence, +all share the same fate.—Archelaus, by misgovernment, +soon lost his portion, A. D. 6; Judæa and Samaria were +consequently annexed as a Roman province to Syria, and placed +under procurators subordinate to the Syrian governors: among +these procurators, the most famous is Pontius Pilate, about A. D. +27—36, under whom the founder of our religion appeared and +suffered, not as a political—although accused of being so—but as +a moral reformer. On the other hand, Philip retained his tetrarchy +until the day of his death, A. D. 34, when his country +had the same lot with Judæa and Samaria. Soon after, that is +to say, in A. D. 37, it was, however, given by Caligula, with the +title of king, to Agrippa, (grandson of Herod by Aristobulus,) as +a recompense for his attachment to the family of Germanicus; +and when Antipas, who wished to procure a similar favour for +himself but instead of it, was deposed, 39, Agrippa received his +tetrarchy also, 40, and soon afterwards, by the possession of the +territory which had belonged to Archelaus, became master of the +whole of Palestine. Agrippa having died in A. D. 44, the whole +country being appended to Syria, became a Roman province, and +received procurators, although Chalcis, 49, and subsequently also, +53, Philip's tetrarchy, were restored as a kingdom to his son +Agrippa II. <i>d.</i> 90. The oppression of the procurators, and of +Gessius Florus in particular, who obtained the office, A. D. 64, +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_313" id="Page_313">[Pg 313]</a></span> +excited the Jews to rebellion, which, 70, ended in the capture +and destruction of their city and temple by Titus. The spread +of the Jews over the whole civilized world of that time, although +previously commenced, was by this event still further increased; +and at the same time the extension of Christianity was prepared +and facilitated. Even after the conquest, Jerusalem not only +continued to exist as a city, but was also still considered by the +nation as a point of union; and the attempt, under Adrian, to +establish a Roman colony there, produced a fearful sedition.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Basnage</span>, <i>Histoire des Juifs depuis J. C. jusqu' à present</i>. +La Haye, 1716, 15 vols. 12mo. The first two parts only, properly +speaking, belong to this period; but the others likewise +contain several very valuable historical researches.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Prideaux</span>, <i>The Old and New Testament connected in the +history of the Jews and their neighbouring nations</i>. Lond. 1714, +2 vols. This work, together with that above quoted, have always +been esteemed the grand books on the subject. The French +translation of Prideaux's Connection is, by its arrangement, more +convenient for use than the original: this translation was published +at Amsterdam, 1722, 5 vols. 8vo. under the title of <span class="smcap">Prideaux</span>, +<i>Histoire des Juifs et des peuples voisins depuis la décadence +des Royaumes d'Israel et de Juda, jusqu' à la mort de J. C.</i></p> + +<p>† <span class="smcap">J. D. Michaelis</span>, <i>Translation of the Books of Esdras, Nehemiah, +and Maccabees</i>, contains in the observations several historic +discussions of high importance.</p> + +<p>† <span class="smcap">J. Remond</span>, <i>Essay towards a history of the spread of Judaism, +from Cyrus to the total decline of the Jewish state</i>. +Leipzig, 1789. The industrious work of a young scholar.</p> + +<p>To the works enumerated p. 34, 35, must be added, for the +more ancient history of the Jews:</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">J. L. Bauer</span>, <i>Manual of the history of the Hebrew nation, +from its rise to the destruction of its state</i>. Nuremberg, 1800, +2 parts, 8vo. As yet the best critical introduction, not only to +the history, but also to the antiquities of the nation.</p> + +<p>† In the works of <span class="smcap">J. J. Hess</span>, belonging to this subject, namely, +<i>History of Moses</i>; <i>History of Joshua</i>; <i>History of the Rulers +of Judah</i>, 2 parts; <i>History of the Kings of Judah and Israel</i>: +the history is throughout considered in a theocratic point of +view.</p></div> + + + +<hr style="width: 100%;" /> +<h1><a name="FIFTH_BOOK" id="FIFTH_BOOK"></a>FIFTH BOOK.</h1> +<h3>HISTORY OF THE ROMAN STATE.</h3> +<hr style="width: 100%;" /> +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_314" id="Page_314">[Pg 314]</a></span></p> +<p class="cblockquot"><i>Introductory remarks on the Geography of Ancient Italy.</i></p> + + +<div class="sidenote">General +outline of +Italy.</div> + +<p>Italy constitutes a peninsula, bounded on the +north by the Alps, on the west and south by the +Mediterranean, and on the east by the Adriatic +sea. Its greatest length from north to south is +600 geogr. miles; its greatest breadth, taken at +the foot of the Alps, is 320 geogr. miles; but that +of the peninsula, properly so called, is not more +than 120 geogr. miles. Superficial contents, +81,920 sq. geogr. miles. The principal mountain +range is that of the Apennines, which, diverging +occasionally to the west, or east, stretch +from north to south through Central and Lower +Italy. In the earlier times of Rome, these mountains +were covered with thick forests. Main +streams: the Padus (Po) and the Athesis, (Adige,) +both of which discharge their waters in the Adriatic; +and the Tiberis, (Tiber,) which falls into +the Mediterranean. The soil, particularly in the +plains, is one of the most fertile in Europe; on +the other hand, many of the mountain tracts +admit but of little cultivation. In that period +when the Mediterranean was the grand theatre +of trade, Italy, by her situation, seemed destined +to become the principal mart of Europe; but she<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_315" id="Page_315">[Pg 315]</a></span> +never in ancient times availed herself sufficiently +of this advantage.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">Divisions +of Italy.</div> + +<p>It is divided into <i>Upper</i> Italy, from the Alps to +the small rivers of Rubicon and Macra; (this +part, however, of Italy, until presented with the +right of citizenship under Cæsar, was, according +to the Roman political geography, considered as +a province;) into <i>Central</i> Italy, from the Rubicon +and the Macra down to the Silarus and Frento; +and into <i>Lower</i> Italy from those rivers to the +southern land's end.</p> + + +<p class="center">I. <i>Upper Italy comprises the two countries, Gallia Cisalpina +and Liguria.</i></p> + +<div class="sidenote">Cisalpine +Gaul.</div> + +<p>1. Gallia Cisalpina, or Togata, in contradistinction +to Gallia Transalpina. It bears the name +of Gallia, in consequence of being for the most +part occupied by Gallic races. This country is +one continuous plain, divided by the Padus into +two parts, the northernmost of which is therefore +denominated Gallia Transpadana, (inhabited by +the Taurini, Insubres, and Cenomani,) while the +southern part (inhabited by the Boii, Senones, +and Lingones) is known by the name of Gallia +Cispadana. Various streams contribute to swell +the Padus; from the north the Duria, (Durance,) +the Ticinus, (Tessino,) the Addua, (Adda,) the +Ollius, (Oglio,) the Mintius, (Minzio,) and several +less important rivers; from the south, the Tanarus, +(Tanaro,) the Trebia, etc. The Athesis, +(Adige,) the Plavis, (Piave,) and a number of +smaller mountain streams, roll their waters directly +into the Adriatic.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_316" id="Page_316">[Pg 316]</a></span></p> + +<p>The cities in Gallia Cisalpina were, generally +speaking, Roman colonies; and most of them +have preserved to this day their ancient names. +Among these are reckoned in Gallia Transpadana, +principally, Tergeste, Aquileia, Patavium, (Padua,) +Vincentia, Verona, all east of the Athesis; +Mantua, Cremona, Brixia, (Brescia,) Mediolanum, +(Milan,) Ticinum, (Pavia,) and Augusta +Taurinorum, (Turin,) all west of the Athesis. In +Gallia Cispadana we meet with Ravenna, Bononia, +(Bologna,) Mutina, (Modena,) Parma, Placentia, +(Piacenza). Several of the above places +received municipal rights from the Romans.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">Liguria.</div> + +<p>2. Liguria. This country deduced its name +from the Ligures, one of the old Italic tribes: it +extended from the river Varus, by which it was +divided from Gallia Transalpina, down to the +river Macra; northward it extended to the Padus, +and comprised the modern territory of Genoa.—Cities: +Genua, an extremely ancient place; Nicæa, +(Nice,) a colony of Massilia; and Asta, +(Asti.)</p> + + +<p class="center">II. <i>Central Italy comprises six countries; Etruria, Latium, +and Campania on the west; Umbria, Picenum, +and Samnium on the east.</i></p> + +<div class="sidenote">Etruria.</div> + +<p>1. Etruria, Tuscia, or Tyrrhenia, was bounded +north by the Macra, which divided it from Liguria; +south and east by the Tiberis, which separated +it from Latium and Umbria. Main river, +the Arnus, (Arno). It is for the most part a +mountainous country; the seashore only is level. +This country derives its name from the Etrusci,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_317" id="Page_317">[Pg 317]</a></span> +a very ancient people, composed, it is probable, +of an amalgamation of several races, and even +some early Grecian colonies, to which latter they +were indebted, not indeed for all their arts, but +for that of writing; to commerce and navigation +the Etrusci were indebted for their opulence +and consequent splendour. Cities: between the +Macra and Arnus, Pisæ, (Pisa,) Florentia, Fæsulæ; +between the Arnus and Tiberis, Volaterræ, +(Volterra,) Volsinii, (Bolsena,) on the Lacus Volsiniensis, +(Lago di Bolsena,) Clusium, (Chiusi,) +Arretium, (Arrezzo,) Cortona, Perusia, (Perugia,) +in the neighbourhood of which is the Lacus Thrasimenus, +(Lago di Perugia,) Falerii, (Falari,) and +the wealthy city of Veii. Each of the above +twelve cities had its own individual ruler, <i>lucumo</i>; +although frequent associations were formed among +them, yet no firm and lasting bond seems to have +united the nation into one.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">Latium.</div> + +<p>2. Latium, properly the residence of the Latini, +from the Tiberis north, to the promontory of Circeii, +south; hence that country was likewise denominated +Latium Vetus. Subsequently, under +the name of Latium was likewise reckoned the +country from Circeii, down to the river Liris, +(Latium Novum;) so that the boundaries came to +be, north, the Tiberis, south, the Liris: the seat +of the Latins, properly speaking, was in the fruitful +plain extending from the Tiber to Circeii; +around them, however, dwelt various small tribes, +some eastward, in the Apennines, such as the +Hernici, Sabini, Æqui, and Marsi; others southward, +such as the Volsci, Rutuli, and Aurunci.—Rivers: +the Anio (Teverone) and Allia, which<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_318" id="Page_318">[Pg 318]</a></span> +fall into the Tiber, and the Liris, (Garigliano,) +which empties itself into the Mediterranean. Cities +in Latium Vetus: Rome, Tibur, Tusculum, +Alba Longa, Ostia, Lavinium, Antium, Gabii, Velitræ, +the capital of the Volsci, and several smaller +places. In Latium Novum: Fundi, Terracina, +or Anxur, Arpinum, Minturnæ, Formiæ.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">Campania.</div> + +<p>3. Campania. The country lying between the +Liris, north, and the Silarus, south. One of the +most fruitful plains in the world, but at the same +time greatly exposed to volcanic eruptions. Rivers: +the Liris, the Vulturnus, (Voltorno,) the +Silarus, (Selo). Mountain: Vesuvius. Campania +derived its name from the race of the Campani. +Cities: Capua the principal one; and also Linternum, +Cumæ, Neapolis, Herculaneum, Pompeii, +Stabiæ, Nola, Surrentum, Salernum, etc.</p> + + +<p class="center"><i>The three eastern countries of Central Italy are as follows</i>:</p> + +<div class="sidenote">Umbria.</div> + +<p>1. Umbria. It is bounded, north, by the river +Rubico, south, by the river Æsis, (Gesano,) dividing +it from Picenum, and by the Nar, (Nera,) dividing +it from the Sabine territory. It is for the +most part plain. The Umbrian race had in early +times spread over a much larger portion of Italy. +Cities: Ariminium, (Rimini,) Spoletium, (Spoleto,) +Narnia, (Narni,) and Ocriculum, (Otriculi.)</p> + +<div class="sidenote">Picenum.</div> + +<p>2. Picenum. Bounded, north, by the Æsis, +south, by the Atarnus, (Pescara.) The people are +called Picentes. This country consists in a fertile +plain. Cities: Ancona and Asculum Picenum, +(Ascoli.)<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_319" id="Page_319">[Pg 319]</a></span></p> + +<div class="sidenote">Samnium.</div> + +<p>3. Samnium, the name of a mountain tract extending +from the Atarnus, north, to the Frento, +south; although that country reckoned among its +inhabitants, not only the rude and powerful Samnites, +but also several less numerous races; for +instance, the Marrucini and Peligni in the north, +the Frentani in the east, and the Hirpini in the +south. Rivers: the Sagrus and the Tifernus. +Cities: Allifæ, Beneventum, and Caudium.</p> + + +<p class="center">III. <i>Lower Italy, or Magna Grecia, comprised four countries; +Lucania and Bruttium on the western side, Apulia +and Calabria on the eastern.</i></p> + +<div class="sidenote">Lucania.</div> + +<p>1. Lucania. Boundaries: north, the Silarus, +south, the Laus. For the most part a mountain +tract. It derived its name from the race of the +Lucani, a branch of the Ausones, or chief nation +of Lower Italy. Cities: Pæstum, or Posidonia, +still renowned for its ruins, and Helia, or Velia.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">Bruttium.</div> + +<p>2. Bruttium, (the modern Calabria,) or the +western tongue of land from the river Laus to the +southern land's end at Rhegium. The river +Brandanus constitutes the eastern frontier. A +mountainous country, deriving its name from the +Bruttii, (a half savage branch of the Ausones,) +who dwelt in the mountains, while the seashores +were occupied by Grecian settlements. Cities: +Consentia, (Cosenza,) Pandosia, Mamertum, and +Petilia. (Concerning the Greek colonies see +above p. 155.)</p> + +<div class="sidenote">Apulia.</div> + +<p>3. Apulia. The country ranging along the +eastern coast, from the river Frento to the commencement +of the eastern tongue of land; an ex<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_320" id="Page_320">[Pg 320]</a></span>tremely +fertile plain, and particularly adapted to +grazing cattle. Rivers: the Aufidus (Ofanto) and +the Cerbalus. This country is divided into two +parts by the Aufidus, the northern called Apulia +Daunia, the southern called Apulia Peucetia. Cities: +in Apulia Daunia; Sipontum and Luceria: +in Apulia Peucetia; Barium, Cannæ, and Venusia.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">Calabria.</div> + +<p>4. Calabria or Messapia, the smaller eastern +tongue of land, which terminates in the promontory +of Iapygium. Cities: Brundusium (Brindisi) +and Callipolis (Gallipoli). Concerning Tarentum +and other Grecian colonies, see above, p. 155.</p> + +<p>Three large islands are likewise reckoned as +appertaining to Italy: they are Sicily, Sardinia, +and Corsica. According to the political geography +of the Romans they were, however, considered +as provinces. Although the above islands +were, along the coast, occupied by aliens, the aboriginals, +under their own kings, maintained a +footing in the inland parts; among these the Siculi, +said to have migrated from Italy, were the +most celebrated; they remained in Sicily, and +gave their name to the whole island. Concerning +the cities, the more important of which were, +some of Phœnician, but the most part of Grecian, +origin, see above, p. 30, and p. 155, sqq.</p> + + + +<hr style="width: 25%;" /> +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_321" id="Page_321">[Pg 321]</a></span></p> +<h2>FIRST PERIOD.</h2> + + +<p class="iblockquot2"><i>From the foundation of Rome to the conquest of Italy and +the commencement of the wars with Carthage, B. C. 754—264, +or A. U. C. 1—490.</i></p> + +<div class="sblockquot"> +<p><span class="smcap">Sources.</span> The most copious author, and, if we except his +system of deducing everything connected with Rome from +Greece, the most critical of all those who have written on the +earlier history of Rome and Italy, is Dionysius Halicarnassensis, +in his <i>Archæologia</i>: of this work only the first eleven books, +reaching down to the year 443, have been preserved; to these, +however, must be added the fragments of the nine following +books, xii—xx. discovered in 1816, and published by the Abbate +Mai of Milan. Next to Dionysius is Livy, who as far as lib. iv, +c. 18, is our main authority, till B. C. 292. Of the Lives of +Plutarch the following belong to this period, Romulus, Numa, +Coriolanus, Poplicola and Camillus; which for the knowledge +and criticism they display, are perhaps more important even than +Livy and Dionysius, see <span class="smcap">A. H. L. Heeren</span>, <i>De fontibus et auctoritate +vitarum Plutarchi</i>, inserted in <i>Comment Recentiores Soc. +Scient. Gott. Comment. I. II. Græci, III. IV. Romani</i>; reprinted +also as an appendix to the editions of Plutarch by Reiske +and Hutten, <i>Gottingen</i>, 1821, <i>ap. Dieterich</i>. The sources of the +most ancient Roman history were extremely various in kind. +The traditions of the Fathers were preserved in historical ballads; +(no mention is ever made of any grand epic poem;) and in this +sense there existed a bardic history; by no means, however, +wholly poetic, for even the traditions of Numa's Institutes are +without the characteristics of poetry. The art of writing was in +Italy of earlier origin than the city of Rome; how far, consequently, +the public annals, such as the <i>Libri Pontificum</i>, extended +back in early time remains undetermined. Several of +the memorials are, beyond a doubt, mere family records, whether +preserved by vocal tradition or in written documents. To the +above must be added monuments, not only buildings and works +of arts, but also treaties engraved on tables; of which, nevertheless, +too little use seems to have been made. The Romans having +learnt the art of writing from the Greeks, their history was as<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_322" id="Page_322">[Pg 322]</a></span> +frequently written in Greek as in Latin; and that not only by +Greeks, such as, in the first place, Diocles of Peparethus, but +likewise by Romans, such as Fabius Pictor, at an early period. +From these last sources Dionysius and Livy compiled. The +more ancient Roman history given by these authorities rests, +therefore, in part, but by no means entirely, on tradition and +poetry; still further amplified by the rhetoric style, that of the +Greeks more especially. At what epoch the Roman history lays +aside the poetic character can hardly be determined with certainty; +it may be traced even in some parts of the period extending +from the expulsion of the kings to the conquest by the +Gauls.—For the purposes of chronology, great importance attaches +to the <i>fasti Romani</i>, contained partly in inscriptions, (<i>fasti +Capitolini</i>,) partly in manuscripts. They have been collected +and restored by Pighius, Noris Sigonius, etc. in <span class="smcap">Grævii</span>, <i>Thes. +A. R.</i> vol. xi.; likewise in <span class="smcap">Almeloveen</span>, <i>Fast. Rom.</i> I. II. +Amstel. 1705, etc.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Pighii</span> <i>Annales Romanorum</i>. Antwerp, 1615, fol. 2 vols. +An essay towards a chronological arrangement; it reaches down +to Vitellius.</p> + +<p>The Roman history has been copiously treated of by the moderns +in many works besides those on universal ancient history +before enumerated, (p. 2.). We shall mention only the more important.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Rollin</span>, <i>Histoire Romaine, Depuis la foundation de Rome +jusqu' à la bataille d'Actium</i>. 13 vols. 8vo. Paris, 1823, édit. +revue par Letronne. This history, which extends to B. C. 89, +has been continued and terminated by <span class="smcap">Crevier</span>. Although the +critical historian might suggest much that is wanting in this +work, it nevertheless contributed to advance the study.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Ed. Ferguson</span>, <i>The History of the Progress and Termination +of the Roman Republic</i>. London, 1783, 4to. On the whole, +the best work on the history of the Roman republic; it has superceded +the earlier work of <span class="smcap">Goldsmith</span>.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">P. Ch. Levesque</span>, <i>Histoire de la République Romaine</i>, 3 vols. +Paris, 1807. He who would still wish to admire with blind enthusiasm +the glory of ancient Rome, had better not read this +work.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">B. G. Niebuhr</span>, <i>Roman History</i>.</p> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_323" id="Page_323">[Pg 323]</a></span></p> + +<p>Rather criticism than history; the author seems to be perpetually +endeavouring to overthrow all that has hitherto been admitted. +The spirit of acuteness is not always that of truth; and +men do not so lightly assent to the existence of a constitution +which not only is contrary to the broad view of antiquity—inferences +drawn from some insulated passages not being sufficient to +overturn what is corroborated by all the others—but likewise, according +to the author's own avowal, stands opposed to all analogy +in history. But truth gains even where criticism is wrong; and +the value of some deep researches will not for that reason be +overlooked.—Consult on this subject:</p> + +<p>† <span class="smcap">W. Wachsmuth</span>, <i>Researches into the more Ancient History +of Rome</i>. Halle, 1819.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">C. F. Th. Lachmann</span>, <i>Commentatio de fontibus T. Livii in +prima Historiarum Decade</i>. Gottingæ, 1821. A prize essay.</p> + +<p>For the works upon the Roman constitution see below, at the +end of this and at the beginning of the third period.</p> + +<p>Abundance of most important writings upon Roman antiquities +will be found in the great collections:</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Grævii</span> <i>Thesaurus Antiquitatum Romanarum</i>. Lugd. Batav. +1694, sq. 12 vols. fol. and likewise in</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Salengre</span>, <i>Thesaurus Antiquitatum Romanarum</i>. Venet. +1732, 3 vols. fol.</p> + +<p>Many excellent papers, particularly in</p> + +<p><i>Mémoires de l'Académie des Inscriptions</i>.</p> + +<p>With the exception of <span class="smcap">Nardini</span>, <i>Roma Vetus</i>, inserted in +<span class="smcap">Grævii</span> <span class="smcap">Thes. A. R.</span> t. iv. the best work on the topography of +ancient Rome is</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Venuti</span>, <i>Descrizione Topografica delle Antichità di Roma</i>. +P. I. II. Roma, 1763; and especially the new edition of that +work by <span class="smcap">Visconti</span>, 1803. There is also:</p> + +<p>† <span class="smcap">S. H. L. Adler</span>, <i>Description of the city of Rome</i>. Altona, +1781, 4to.</p> + +<p>The best representation of the monuments of ancient Rome +will be found in</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Piranesi</span>, <i>Antichità di Roma</i>, 3 vols. fol.</p> +</div> + + +<div class="sidenote">General +characteristic +of Roman +history.</div> + +<p>1. In certain respects, the history of Rome is +always that of one town, inasmuch as until the +period of the Cæsars, the city continued mistress<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_324" id="Page_324">[Pg 324]</a></span> +of her extensive territory. The main parts of the +internal constitution of Rome were formed during +this first period; which, considered in an historical +point of view, can hardly be said to be void +of interest. Whether every fundamental institution +had its origin precisely at the epoch to which +it is attributed, is a question of little importance; +it is sufficient to observe, that they certainly arose +in this period; and that the steps by which the +constitution was developed are, upon the whole, +determined beyond the possibility of a doubt.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">Romans +of Latin +origin.</div> + +<p>2. Exaggerated and embellished as the most +ancient traditions of the Romans respecting their +origin may be, they all agree in this, that the +Romans belonged to the race of the Latini, and +that their city was a colony of the neighbouring +Alba Longa. Long before this the custom seems +to have obtained with the Latini, of extending the +cultivation of their country by colonies.</p> + +<div class="sblockquot"><p>The primitive history of Rome is as difficult to reduce to pure +historic truth as that of Athens, or any other city of antiquity; +this proceeds from its being principally founded on traditions, +handled by poets and rhetoricians, and likewise differing from +one another; as may be seen in Plutarch's Romulus. As the +knowledge of those traditions, such as they are found in Dionysius +and Livy, attaches to so many other subjects, it would be +improper to pass them over in silence; and that they contained +truths as well as poetic fictions is proved most evidently by the +political institutions of which they narrate the origin, and which +certainly reached back to those times. To attempt to draw a +line of demarcation between mythical and historic times would +be to mistake the real nature of mythology.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">L. de Beaufort</span>, <i>Sur l'incertitude des cinq premiers siècles de +l'histoire Romaine</i>, nouv. éd. à la Haye, 1750, 2 vols. 8vo. Every +thing that can be said against the credibility of the primitive +Roman history has been developed by Beaufort with abundant, +and often with laboured, acuteness.</p></div><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_325" id="Page_325">[Pg 325]</a></span></p> + +<div class="sidenote">Kings of +Rome.</div> + +<p>3. During the first two hundred and forty-five +years subsequent to its foundation this city was +under the rule of governors, denominated kings; +these, however, were not hereditary, still less +were they invested with unlimited power, although +they exerted themselves to become both +perpetual and absolute. On the contrary, in this +period was framed a municipal constitution, demonstrative +of the existence, even at this early +date, of a considerable degree of political civilization; +in its principal parts this constitution was, +no doubt,—as in every colony,—copied from that +of the mother city. Its principal features were: +<i>a.</i> Establishment and internal organization of the +senate. <i>b.</i> Establishment and progress of the +patrician or hereditary nobility, which, supported +by the privilege of administering the sacred affairs, +and by the introduction of family names, +quickly formed, in opposition to the plebeians, a +political party ever growing in power, although +not, therefore, a mere sacerdotal caste. <i>c.</i> Organization +of the people (<i>populus</i>), and modes of +popular assembly (<i>comitia</i>), founded thereupon; +besides the original division according to heads +into <i>tribus</i> and <i>curiæ</i>, another was subsequently +introduced according to property into <i>classes</i> and +<i>centuriæ</i>, out of which, besides the more ancient +<i>comitia curiata</i>, arose the very artificially constructed +<i>comitia centuriata</i>. <i>d.</i> Religious institutions, +(<i>religiones</i>,) which being most closely connected +with the political constitution, formed a +state religion, by means of which everything in +the state was attached to determined forms, and +received a higher sanction. Nor must we omit +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_326" id="Page_326">[Pg 326]</a></span><i>e.</i> the relations in private life established by law, +the clientship, marriage, and especially paternal +authority. In consequence of those domestic relations, +a spirit of subordination and discipline, +from the earliest times, pervaded the people; and +to that spirit the Romans were indebted for the +glory to which they attained.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">Destruction +of Alba +Longa.</div> + +<p>4. Notwithstanding many little wars with their +immediate neighbours the Sabines, Æqui, and +Volsci, together with various cities of the Etrusci, +and even with the Latins themselves, Rome added +but little to her territory: nevertheless she took +the first step towards her aggrandizement; from +the time of the destruction of Alba Longa, she +aimed at being the head of the collected cities of +the Latins, and finally attained the object of her +ambition.</p> + +<div class="sblockquot"><p>Line of kings. Romulus, 754—717. First establishment of +the colony; augmentation in the number of the citizens, produced +by the establishment of an asylum, and an union with +part of the Sabines. Numa Pompilius, <i>d.</i> 679. By representing +this prince as the founder of the religion of the Roman state, +that religion received the high sanction of antiquity. Tullus +Hostilius, <i>d.</i> 640. The conquest and destruction of Alba lays +the foundation of Roman supremacy in Latium. Ancus Martius, +<i>d.</i> 618. He extends the territory of Rome to the sea; the +foundation of the port of Ostia proves that Rome already applied +to navigation, the object of which was perhaps as yet rather +piracy than trade. Tarquinius Priscus, <i>d.</i> 578. A Grecian by +descent. Under his conduct Rome was already able to enter the +field against the confederate Etrusci. Servius Tullius, <i>d.</i> 534. +The most remarkable in the line of Roman kings. He placed +Rome at the head of the confederacy of the Latins, which he +confirmed by <i>communia sacra</i>. On his new division of the +people according to property were raised the highly important +institutions of the <i>census</i> and <i>comitia centuriata</i>. The necessity +of this measure is demonstrative of the great and increasing +prosperity of the Roman citizens; there can be no doubt, how<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_327" id="Page_327">[Pg 327]</a></span>ever, +that by its adoption the frame of the republic was already +completed. Tarquinius Superbus, (the tyrant,)—509. This individual, +having taken forcible possession of the throne as nephew +to Priscus, endeavoured to confirm his power by a close connection +with the Latins and Volsci; by this, as well as by his tyranny, +he offended both the patrician and plebeian parties. His +deposition, and the consequent reformation of the government, +were however, properly speaking, brought about by the ambition +of the patricians.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Algarotti</span>, <i>Saggio sopra la durata de' regni de' rè di Roma</i>. +(Op. t. iii.) Chronological doubts. Can the raising of difficulties +deserve the name of criticism?</p></div> + +<div class="sidenote">Consular +government, +B. C. 509.</div> + +<p>5. The only direct consequence to the internal +constitution of Rome, proceeding from the abolition +of royalty was, that that power, undetermined +as it had been while in the hands of the kings, +was transferred to two consuls, annually elected. +Meanwhile the struggle for liberty, in which the +new republic was engaged with the Etrusci and +Latins, contributed much to arouse the republican +spirit which henceforward was the main +feature of the Roman character—the evils of popular +<span class="sidenote">498.</span> +rule being in times of need remedied by the +establishment of the dictatorship. The party, +however, which had deposed the ruling family, +took wholly into their own hands the helm of +state; and the oppression of these aristocrats, +shown principally towards their debtors, who had +become their slaves, (<i>nexi</i>,)—notwithstanding +<span class="sidenote">507.</span> +the <i>lex de provocatione</i> established by Valerius Poplicola, +ensuring to the people the highest judicial +power—was so galling, that after the lapse of a +few years it gave rise to a sedition of the commons, +(<i>plebis</i>,) the consequence of which was the +establishment of annually elected presidents of the people +<span class="sidenote">493.</span>(<i>tribuni plebis</i>).</p> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_328" id="Page_328">[Pg 328]</a></span></p> +<div class="sblockquot"><p>First commercial treaty with Carthage, 508, in which Rome +appears certainly as a free state, but not yet as sovereign of all +Latium; the most important monument of the authenticity of +the earlier Roman history.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Heyne</span>, <i>Fœdera Carthaginiensium cum Romanis super navigatione +et mercatura facta</i>: contained in his Opusc. t. iii. Cf. +† <span class="smcap">A. H. L. Heeren</span>, <i>Ideas</i>, etc. Appendix to the second vol.</p></div> + +<div class="sidenote">Rise of the +Roman +constitution.</div> + +<p>6. The further development of the Roman constitution +in this period, hinges almost wholly on +the struggle between the new presidents of the +commons and the hereditary nobility; the tribunes, +instead of confining themselves to defend +the people from the oppression of the nobles, soon +began to act as aggressors, and in a short time +so widely overstepped their power, that there remained +no chance of putting an end to the struggle +but by a complete equalization of rights. A +long time elapsed ere this took place; the aristocracy +finding a very powerful support both in +the clientship and in the religion of the state, +operating under the shape of auspices.</p> + +<div class="sblockquot"><p>Main facts of the contest: 1. In the trial of Coriolanus the +tribunes usurp the right of summoning some patricians before +the tribunal of the people.—Hence arise the <i>comitia tributa</i>; +that is to say, either mere assemblies of the commons, or assemblies +so organized that the commons had the preponderance. +This institution gave the tribunes a share in the legislation, +subsequently of such high importance, those officers being allowed +to lay proposals before the commons. 2. More equitable distribution +among the poorer classes of the lands conquered from the +neighbouring nations, (the most ancient <i>leges agrariæ</i>,) suggested +by the ambitious attempts of Cassius, 486. 3. Extension of the +prerogatives of the <i>comitia tributa</i>, more especially in the election +of the tribunes, brought about by Volero, 472. 4. Attempts +at a legal limitation of the consular power by Terentillus, (<i>lex +Terentilla</i>,) 460, which, after a long struggle, at last leads to +the idea of one common written code, 452, which is likewise<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_329" id="Page_329">[Pg 329]</a></span> +realized in spite of the opposition at first made by the patricians.</p> + +<p>† <span class="smcap">Chr. F. Schulze</span>, <i>Struggle between the Democracy and +Aristocracy of Rome, or History of the Romans from the Expulsion +of Tarquin to the Election of the first Plebeian Consul</i>. +Altenburgh, 1802, 8vo. A most satisfactory development of this +portion of Roman history.</p></div> + +<div class="sidenote">Code of the +twelve tables.</div> + +<p>7. The code of the twelve tables confirmed the +ancient institutions, and was in part completed by +the adoption of the laws of the Greek republics, +among which Athens in particular is mentioned, +whose counsels were requested by a special deputation. +In this, however, two faults were committed; +not only were the commissioners charged +with drawing up the laws elected from the patricians +<i>alone</i>, but they were likewise constituted +sole magistrates, with <i>dictatorial</i> power, (<i>sine provocatione</i>;) +whereby a path was opened to them +for an usurpation, which could be frustrated only +by a sedition of the people.</p> + +<div class="sblockquot"><p>Duration of the power of the Decemviri, 451—447. The +doubts raised as to the deputation sent to Athens are not sufficient +to invalidate the authenticity of an event so circumstantially +detailed. Athens, under Pericles, was then at the head of +Greece; and, admitting the proposed design of consulting the +Greek laws, it was impossible that Athens should have been +passed over. And indeed, why should it be supposed, that a +state which fifty years before had signed a commercial treaty +with Carthage, and could not be unacquainted with the Grecian +colonies in Lower Italy, might not have sent an embassy into +Greece?</p> + +<p>The yet remaining fragments of the code of the twelve tables +are collected and illustrated in <span class="smcap">Bachii</span> <i>Hist. Jurisprudentiæ Romanæ</i>; +and in several other works.</p></div> + +<div class="sidenote">Its enactments.</div> + +<p>8. By the laws of the twelve tables the legal +relations of the citizens were the same for all; but +as that code seems to have contained very little<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_330" id="Page_330">[Pg 330]</a></span> +in reference to any peculiar constitution of the +state, the government not only remained in the +hands of the aristocrats, who were in possession +of all offices, but the prohibition, according to the +new laws of marriage between patricians and plebeians, +appeared to have raised an insurmountable +barrier between the two classes. No wonder, +then, that the tribunes of the people should +have immediately renewed their attacks on the +patricians; particularly as the power of those popular +leaders was not only renewed, but even +augmented, as the only limit to their authority +was the necessity of their being unanimous in +their acts, while each had the right of a negative.</p> + +<div class="sblockquot"><p>Besides the other laws made in favour of the people at the renewal +of the <i>tribunicia potestas</i>, 446, that which imported <i>ut +quod tributim plebes jussisset, populum teneret</i>, frequently renewed +in subsequent times, and meaning, in modern language, +that the citizens constituted themselves, must, it would appear, +have thrown the supreme power into the hands of the people; +did not the Roman history, like that of other free states, afford +examples enough of the little authority there is to infer from the +enactment of a law that it will be practically enforced.</p></div> + +<div class="sidenote">Dissensions +between patricians +and +plebeians.</div> + +<p>9. The main subjects of the new dissensions +between patricians and plebeians, excited by the +tribune Canuleius, were now the <i>connubia patrum +cum plebe</i>, and the exclusive participation of the +patricians in the consulship, of which the tribunes +demanded the abolition. The repeal of the former +law was obtained as early as 445, (<i>lex Canuleia</i>;) +the right of admission to the consulship was +not extended to the Plebeians, till after a struggle +annually renewed for eighty years; during which, +when, as usually was the case, the tribunes forbade +the military enrolment, recourse was had to +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_331" id="Page_331">[Pg 331]</a></span>a transfer of the consular power to the yearly +elected commanders of the legions; a place to +which plebeians were entitled to aspire, (<i>tribuni +militum consulari potestate.</i>)—Establishment of the +<span class="sidenote">Censors.</span> +office of <small>CENSORS</small>, designed at first for nothing +more than to regulate the taking of the census, +and invested with no higher authority than what +that required, but who soon after, by assuming +to themselves the <i>censura morum</i>, took rank +among the most important dignitaries of the +state.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">Petty wars.</div> + +<p>10. Meanwhile Rome was engaged in wars, +insignificant but almost uninterrupted, arising out +of the oppression, either real or imaginary, which +she exercised as head of the neighbouring federate +cities, (<i>socii</i>,) comprising not only those of the +Latins, but likewise, after the victory of lake Regillus, +those of the other nations: the cities embraced +every opportunity of asserting their independence, +and the consequent struggles must +have depopulated Rome, had not that evil been +diverted by the maxim of increasing the complement +of citizens by admitting the freedmen, and +not unfrequently even the conquered, to the enjoyment +of civic privileges. Little as these feuds, +abstractedly considered, deserve our attention, +they become of high interest, inasmuch as they +were not only the means by which the nation +was trained to war, but also led to the foundation +of that senatorial power, whose important +consequences will be exhibited hereafter.</p> + +<div class="sblockquot"><p>Among these wars attention must be directed to the last, +that against Veii, the richest city in Etruria; the siege of that +place, which lasted very nearly ten years, 404—395, gave rise<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_332" id="Page_332">[Pg 332]</a></span> +to the introduction among the Roman military of winter campaigning, +and of pay; thus, on the one hand, the prosecution of +wars more distant and protracted became possible, while on the +other the consequences must have been the levy of higher taxes, +(<i>tributa</i>).</p></div> + +<div class="sidenote">Rome burnt +by the +Gauls.</div> + +<p>11. Not long after, however, a tempest from the +north had nearly destroyed Rome. The Sennonian +Gauls, pressed out of northern Italy through +Etruria, possessed themselves of the city, the +capitol excepted, and reduced it to ashes; an +event which made so deep an impression on the +minds of the Romans, that few other occurrences +in their history have been more frequently the object +of traditional detail. Camillus, then the deliverer +of Rome, and in every respect one of the +chief heroes of that period, laid a double claim to +the gratitude of his native city, by overruling, +after his victory, the proposal of a general migration +to Veii.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">Feuds revived.</div> + +<p>12. Scarcely was Rome rebuilt ere the ancient +feuds revived, springing out of the poverty of the +citizens, produced by an increase of taxation consequent +on the establishment of military pay, and +by the introduction of gross usury. The tribunes, +Sextius and Licinius, by prolonging their term of +office to five years, had established their power; +while Licinius, by an agrarian law, decreeing that +no individual should hold more than five hundred +<i>jugera</i> of the national lands, had ensured the popular +favour; so that at last they succeeded in +<span class="sidenote">A consul chosen from the commons.</span> +obtaining, that one of the consuls should be chosen +from the commons; and although the nobility, by +the nomination of a prætor from their own body, +and of <i>ædiles curules</i>, endeavoured to compensate<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_333" id="Page_333">[Pg 333]</a></span> +for the sacrifice they were obliged to make, yet +the plebeians having once made good a claim to +the consulship, their participation in the other +magisterial offices, (the dictatorship, 353, the censorship, +348, the prætorship, 334,) and even the +priesthood, (300,) quickly followed as a matter of +course. Thus at Rome the object of political +equality between commons and nobles was attained; +and although the difference between the +patrician and plebeian families still subsisted, +they soon ceased to form political parties.</p> + +<div class="sblockquot"><p>A second commercial treaty entered into with Carthage, 345, +demonstrates that even at this time the navy of the Romans was +anything but contemptible; although its principal object as yet +was mere piracy. Roman squadrons of war however appear +more than once within the next forty years.</p></div> + +<div class="sidenote">Samnite +war.</div> + +<p>13. Far more important than any wars in which +Rome had hitherto been engaged, were those +soon about to commence with the Samnites. In +former contests the object of Rome had been to +establish her supremacy over her immediate +neighbours; but in these, during a protracted +contest of fifty years, she opened a way to the +subjugation of Italy, and laid the foundation of +her future greatness.</p> + +<div class="sblockquot"><p>Commencement of the wars against the Samnites, the Campanians +having called the Romans to their assistance against that +nation, 343. These wars, carried on with vigorous exertion and +various success, lasted, with but short intermissions, till 290. +This is the true heroic age of Rome, ennobled by the patriotic +valour of Decius Mus, (father and son, both voluntary victims,) +Papirius Cursor, Q. Fabius Maximus, etc. The consequences of +this struggle were: <i>a.</i> The Romans learnt the art of mountain +warfare, and thereby for the first time acquired a peculiar system +of military tactics; not, however, till they had been, 321, obliged +to pass under the <i>furcas Caudinas</i>. <i>b.</i> Their relations were<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_334" id="Page_334">[Pg 334]</a></span> +more firmly established with their neighbours the Latins and +Etrurians, by the complete conquest of the former, 340, and by +repeated victories over the latter, more especially in 308. <i>c.</i> +Great national federations having arisen in Italy, particularly +during the last period of the Samnite wars, the Romans entered +into connection with the more distant nations of the country; +with the Lucanians and Apulians, by the first league, 323, with +the Umbri, from the year 308; and although the nature of this +connection frequently varied, the different nations were perpetually +struggling for independence, and were consequently at enmity +with Rome. In this period, moreover, commenced the +practical illustration of the leading ideas of Rome upon the political +relations in which she placed the conquered with regard to +herself.</p></div> + +<div class="sidenote">War against +the Tarentines, +who +are assisted +by Pyrrhus.</div> + +<p>14. After the subjection of the Samnites, Rome, +wishing to confirm her dominion in Lower Italy, +was thereby, for the first time, entangled in war +with a foreign prince; the Tarentines, too feeble +to maintain alone their footing against the Romans, +called Pyrrhus of Epirus to their assistance. +He came, indeed, but not so much to further the +views of the Tarentines as to advance his own; +but even in victory, he learnt by experience that +the Macedonian tactics gave him but a slight preponderance, +which the Romans soon transferred +to their own side, exhibiting the truth of the principle, +that a good civic militia, sooner or later, +will always get the upper hand of mercenary +troops.</p> + +<div class="sblockquot"><p>The idea of calling upon Pyrrhus for assistance was the more +natural, as the predecessor of that prince, Alexander I. (see +above p. 275.) had endeavoured, but without success, to effect +conquests in Lower Italy. In the first war with Pyrrhus, 280—278, +two battles were fought, the first at Pandosia, 280, the other +at Asculum, 279; in both of which Rome was unsuccessful. +But Pyrrhus, after crossing over into Sicily, 278, (see above, p. +173, 174.) once more returned into Italy, 275, when he was de<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_335" id="Page_335">[Pg 335]</a></span>feated +by the Romans at Beneventum, and compelled to evacuate +Italy, leaving a garrison at Tarentum. That city, however, soon +afterwards, 272, fell into the hands of the Romans, whose dominion +was consequently extended to the extremity of Lower Italy.</p></div> + +<div class="sidenote">Roman colonies.</div> + +<p>15. The chief means to which, even from the +earliest times, the Romans had recourse for the +foundation of their dominion over the conquered, +and at the same time for the prevention of the too +great increase of the needy classes at Rome, was +the establishment of colonies of their own citizens, +which, being settled in the captured cities, served +likewise as garrisons. Each colony had its own +distinct internal constitution, modelled, for the +most part, upon that of the mother city itself; +hence to keep the colonies in perfect dependence +naturally became an object of Roman policy. +This colonial system of the Romans, necessarily +and spontaneously arising out of the rude custom +of bereaving the conquered of their lands and +liberty, assumed its main features in the Samnite +war, and gradually embraced the whole of Italy. +Closely connected with this system was the construction +of military highways, (<i>viæ militares</i>,) one +of which, the Appian Way, was constructed so +early as 312, and to this day remains a lasting +monument of the greatness of Rome at that +period.</p> + +<div class="sblockquot"><p>Even at the time of Hannibal's invasion, the number of Roman +colonies amounted to 53: but several which had been settled +returned to the mother city.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Heyne</span>, <i>De Romanorum prudentia in coloniis regendis</i>: inserted +in <i>Opusc.</i> vol. iii. Cf. <i>Prolusiones de veterum coloniarum +jure ejusque causis</i>, in his <i>Opusc.</i> vol. i.</p></div> + +<div class="sidenote">Relations +between +Rome and +the Italian +nations.</div> + +<p>16. But the relations existing between Rome +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_336" id="Page_336">[Pg 336]</a></span>and the Italian nations were extremely various in +kind. 1. A few cities and nations enjoyed the +full privileges of Roman citizenship; in some instances, +however, without the right of voting in +the <i>comitia</i> (<i>municipia</i>). 2. The privileges of the +colonies (<i>jus coloniarum</i>) were of a more restricted +nature; the colonists were indeed in possession +of their own civic government, but had no further +share whatever either in the <i>comitia</i> or magistracies +of Rome. The other inhabitants of Italy +were either federates (<i>socii, fœdere juncti</i>) or subjects +(<i>dedititii</i>). The first (<i>a</i>) preserved their internal +form of government; but on the other hand +(<i>b</i>) were obliged to furnish tribute and auxiliary +troops (<i>tributis et armis juvare rempublicam</i>). +Their further relation with Rome depended upon +the terms of the league. The most advantageous +of these terms were 3. in favour of the Latins, +although each of their cities had its own separate +league (<i>jus Latii</i>;) as 4. the rest of the Italian +nations had their <i>jus Italicum</i>. On the other +hand, 5. the subjects, <i>dedititii</i>, were deprived of +their internal constitutions, and were governed +by Roman magistrates, (<i>præfecti</i>,) annually renewed.</p> + +<div class="sblockquot"><p><span class="smcap">C. Sigonius</span>, <i>De antiquo jure civium Romanorum</i>; and his +treatise <i>De antiquo jure Italiæ</i>, inserted both in his <i>Opera</i> and +in <span class="smcap">Grævii</span> <i>Thes. Ant. Rom.</i> t. ii. contain the most learned researches +on the details of these relations.</p></div> + +<div class="sidenote">The Roman +constitution +a democracy.</div> + +<p>17. The internal constitution of Rome itself, +now completed, bore the character of a democracy, +inasmuch as equality of rights existed both +for nobles and commons. Yet this democracy was +modified by expedients so various and wonderful<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_337" id="Page_337">[Pg 337]</a></span>—the +rights of the people, of the senate, of the +magistrates, fitted so nicely into each other, and +were so firmly supported by the national religion, +connecting every thing with determinate forms—that +there was no reason, at that time, to fear the +evils either of anarchy, or, what is much more +astonishing when we consider the warlike character +of the people, those of military despotism.</p> + +<div class="sblockquot"><p>The rights of the people consisted in the legislative power, so +far as fundamental national principles were concerned, and in the +election of the magistrates. The distinction between the <i>comitia +tributa</i> (as independent of the senate) and the <i>comitia centuriata</i> +(as dependent on the senate) still existed as to form, but +had lost all its importance, the difference between patricians and +plebeians being now merely nominal, and the establishment of +the <i>tribus urbanæ</i>, 303, excluding the too great influence of the +people (<i>forensis factio</i>) upon the <i>comitia tributa</i>. The rights of +the senate consisted in administering and debating all transitory +national affairs, whether foreign relations, (war and peace only +excepted, in which the consent of the people was requisite,) +financial concerns, or matters regarding domestic peace and security. +But the manner in which the senate was supplied must +have made it the first political body at that time in the world. +The rights and rank of magistrates were founded on their greater +or lesser <i>auspicia</i>, no public affair being entered upon except +<i>auspicato</i>. Consequently he only who was in possession of the +former could hold the highest civic and military power; (<i>imperium +civile et militare; suis auspiciis rem gerere</i>;) as dictator, +consul, prætor; such was not the case with those who had only +the lesser <i>auspicia</i>. The union of civil and military power in +the person of the same individual was not without its inconveniences, +but military despotism was in some measure guarded +against by the prohibition of any magistrate possessing military +command within Rome itself. We must not dismiss this subject +without observing, that as the Roman constitution arose merely +out of practice, there never having been any completely written +charter, we cannot expect that all the details should be clearly +ascertained; to attempt, therefore, in default of such authority, +to describe all the minutiæ would be the surest way to fall into +error.</p> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_338" id="Page_338">[Pg 338]</a></span></p> +<p>Of the numerous works on the Roman constitution and on +Roman antiquities, we shall mention:</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">De Beaufort</span>, <i>La République Romaine, ou plan général de +l'ancien gouvernement de Rome</i>. La Haye, 1766, 2 vols. 4to. +A most copious work, and one of the most solid in regard to the +matters discussed; although it does not embrace the whole of the +subject.</p> + +<p><i>Histoire critique du gouvernement Romain</i>; Paris, 1765. +Containing some acute observations.</p> + +<p><i>Du Gouvernement de la republique Romaine</i>, <i>par</i> <span class="smcap">A. Ad. de +Texier</span>, 3 vols. 8vo. Hamburg, 1796. This contains many +enquiries peculiar to the writer.</p> + +<p>Some learned researches respecting the principal points of the +Roman constitution, as <span class="smcap">Sigonius</span> and <span class="smcap">Gruchius</span> <i>de comitiis Romanorum</i>, +<span class="smcap">Zamocius</span> <i>de Senatu Romano</i>, etc. will be found collected +in the first two vols, of <span class="smcap">Grævius</span>, <i>Antiq. Roman.</i></p> + +<p>For the popular assemblies of the Romans, an antiquarian +essay by Chr. Ferd. Schulze, Gotha, 1815, chiefly according to +Niebuhr, may be consulted.</p> + +<p>Among the numerous manuals of Roman antiquities, <span class="smcap">Nieuport</span>, +<i>explicatio rituum Romanorum, ed. Gesner</i>. Berol. 1743, +promises at least as much as it performs. Of those which profess +to treat of Roman antiquities in general, none have yet risen +above mediocrity. Jurisprudence, however, has been much more +successfully handled. We cite the two following excellent compendiums:</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Bachii</span>, <i>Historia Jurisprudentiæ Romanæ</i>. Lips. 1754. +1796.</p> + +<p>† <span class="smcap">C. Hugo</span>, <i>Elements of the Roman Law</i>; 7th edit. Berlin, +1820.</p></div> + +<hr style="width: 25%;" /> +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_339" id="Page_339">[Pg 339]</a></span></p> +<h2>SECOND PERIOD.</h2> + +<p class="iblockquot2"><i>From the commencement of the war with Carthage to the +rise of the civil broils under the Gracchi, B. C. 264—134. +Year of Rome, 490—620.</i></p> + + +<div class="sblockquot"><p><span class="smcap">Sources.</span> The principal writer for this highly interesting +period, in which was laid the foundation of the universal dominion +of Rome, is Polybius as far as the year 146, not only in the +complete books preserved to us, which come down to 216, but +also in the fragments. He is frequently followed by Livy, lib. +xxi—xlv. 218—166. Appian, who comes next, does not confine +himself merely to the history of the war; Florus gives us only an +abridgement. The lives of Plutarch which relate to this portion +of history, are <span class="smcap">Fabius Maximus</span>, <span class="smcap">P. Æmilius</span>, <span class="smcap">Marcellus</span>, +<span class="smcap">M. Cato</span>, and <span class="smcap">Flaminius</span>.</p> + +<p>Of modern writers we dare only mention one:—and who is +worthy to be ranked beside him?</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Montesquieu</span>, <i>Considerations sur les causes de la grandeur +et de la décadence des Romains</i>.</p></div> + + +<p>1. The political division of Italy laid the foundation +for the dominion of Rome in that country; +the want of union and political relations in the +world paved the way to her universal empire. +The first step cost her much, the succeeding followed +<span class="sidenote">Struggle between Carthage and Rome;</span> +easily and rapidly; and the history of the +struggle between Rome and Carthage only shows +on a larger scale what the history of Greece exhibits +on a smaller. The whole of the following +history confirms the fact, that two republics cannot +exist near each other, without one being destroyed +<span class="sidenote">its extent.</span> +or subjected: but the vast extent of this +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_340" id="Page_340">[Pg 340]</a></span>struggle, the important consequences which followed, +together with the wonderful exertions +made, and the great men engaged on both sides, +gave it an interest which cannot be found in that +<span class="sidenote">State of the two parties.</span> +of any other nations. Though the power and resources +of both states were nearly equal in appearance, +they were widely different in quality +and circumstances. Carthage, besides her dominion +over the seas, had also a better furnished +treasury, by which she was enabled to enlist into +her service as many <i>mercenaries</i> as she pleased: +Rome, on the contrary, <i>strong in herself</i>, had all +the advantages possessed by a nation of warriors +over one partly commercial, partly military.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">The first +war of twenty-three +years, B. C. +264—241.</div> + +<p>2. The first war of twenty-three years between +the two republics, arose from very slight causes: +it soon, however, became a struggle for the possession +of Sicily, which in the end naturally extended +itself to the dominion of the sea. Rome, +by the aid of her newly-built fleet, having obtained +for some time this power, was enabled to +attack Africa, and succeeded in driving the Carthaginians +from Sicily.</p> + +<div class="sblockquot"><p>The occupation of Messina by the Romans, 264, gave rise to +this war. The defection of Hiero king of Syracuse from the +side of Carthage, and his joining the Romans, first gave the latter +the idea of expelling the Carthaginians from the island. The +victory near Agrigentum, and capture of that city in 262, seemed +to facilitate the execution of this project: it also convinced the +Romans of the necessity of their having a naval power. We +shall the less wonder at their forming a fleet in Italy, where wood +was then plentiful, if we remember their previous experience in +naval affairs; these were not the first vessels of war which they +constructed, but only the first large ones which they built upon +a Carthaginian model. The first naval victory of the Romans +under Duilius, by the aid of grappling machines, 260. The<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_341" id="Page_341">[Pg 341]</a></span> +project then conceived of carrying the war into Africa was one of +the great ideas of the Romans, and from that time it became a +ruling maxim of the state, to attack the enemy in his own territory. +The second and very remarkable naval victory of the Romans, +257, opened the way for them to Africa, and shows their +naval tactics in a very brilliant light: but the unfortunate issue +of their expedition to Africa, restored the equilibrium; and the +struggle for the dominion of the sea became the more obstinate, +as success did not altogether favour one party. The result of the +contest appears to have turned upon the possession of the eastern +promontories of Sicily, Drepanum, and Lilybæum, which were +in a manner the bulwarks of the Carthaginians, and seemed impregnable +since Hamilcar Barca had taken the command of them, +247. The last naval victory of the Romans, however, under the +consul Lutatius, 241, having cut off the communication between +Sicily and Carthage, and the finances of both parties being completely +exhausted, a peace was concluded upon the conditions: +1. That the Carthaginians should evacuate Sicily and the small +islands adjacent. 2. That they should pay to Rome, by instalments +in ten years, for the expenses she had been at in carrying +on the war, the sum of 2,200 talents. 3. That they should not +make war against Hiero king of Syracuse.</p></div> + +<p>3. The issue of this war placed the political +connections of Rome in a new situation, and necessarily +extended her influence abroad. The +length of the war and the manner of its conclusion +had, moreover, inspired a national hatred, +such as is only found in republics; the conviction +also that they could not remain independent of +one another, must have become much more striking, +as the points of contact had greatly increased +since the beginning of the war. Who does not +know the arrogance of a republic after the first +essay of her power has been crowned with success! +Rome gave a striking example of this by +her invasion of Sardinia in the midst of peace. +<span class="sidenote">Effect of these successes on the constitution.</span> +These successes had also a sensible effect on the +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_342" id="Page_342">[Pg 342]</a></span>Roman constitution. For although in appearance +its form was not in the least changed, yet the +power of the senate now acquired that preponderance +which the ruling authority of a republic +never fails to do after long and successful wars.</p> + +<div class="sblockquot"><p>Origin and nature of the governments of the first Roman provinces, +in part of Sicily and in Sardinia.</p></div> + +<div class="sidenote">Chastisement +of the +Illyrian pirates.</div> + +<p>4. An opportunity was soon afforded the Romans, +in the Adriatic sea, of making use of their +superior naval power, in chastising the pirates of +Illyria under their queen Teuta. By effecting +this, they not only secured their authority over +that sea, but at the same time formed their first +political relations with the Grecian states; relations +which soon afterwards became of great importance.</p> + +<div class="sblockquot"><p>Commencement of the first Illyrian war, 230, which ended with +the subjugation of Teuta, 226. The war, however, again broke out, +222, against Demetrius of Pharus, who conceived himself inadequately +rewarded by Rome for the services he had rendered her +in the preceding war. The Romans found him a much more +dangerous adversary than had been expected, even after his expulsion +and flight to Philip, 220, (see above, p. 282.) Throughout +this war, Rome appeared as the deliverer of the Grecian +states, which had suffered extremely from the plunder of these +freebooters; Corcyra, Apollonia, and other cities placed themselves +formally under her protection, while the Achæans, Ætolians, +and Athenians vied with each other in showing their gratitude.</p></div> + +<div class="sidenote">Relations +with +Greece.</div> + +<p>5. In the mean time, while Carthage endeavoured +to make up for the loss of Sicily and Sardinia by +extending her Spanish dominions, which the +jealousy of Rome restrained her from carrying +beyond the Ebro (p. 84.), Rome herself had a +new war to maintain against her northern neigh<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_343" id="Page_343">[Pg 343]</a></span>bours +the Gauls, which ended after a violent contest +with the establishment of her authority over +the north of Italy.</p> + +<div class="sblockquot"><p>From the first Gallic war to the burning of Rome, 390, the +Gauls had repeated their attacks in 360 and 348, even to the +conclusion of the peace in 336. But in the latter part of the +Samnite war, a formidable confederacy having taken place among +the Italian tribes, some of the Gauls enlisted as mercenaries in +the service of the Etruscans, while others allied themselves to +the Samnites. This led them to take part in these wars in 306, +302, and 292, until they were obliged, together with the Etruscans, +to sue for peace in 284, before which time the Romans had +sent a colony into their country, near Sena. This peace lasted +till 238, when it was disturbed by the incursion of the transalpine +Gauls; without, however, their coming to any war with Rome. +But in 232, the proposition of Flaminius the tribune, (<i>lex Flaminia</i>), +to divide the lands conquered from the Senones, became +the cause of new disturbances. Upon this occasion, the Gauls +entered into an alliance with their transalpine countrymen, the +Gæsates on the Rhone, who had been accustomed to engage as +mercenaries. These having crossed the Alps, the dreadful war +of six years (226—220) began, in which, after defeating the +Gauls near Clusium, 225, the Romans pursued them into their +own territory, and encamped upon the Po, 223. The Gauls +having been again completely overthrown by Marcellus, were +obliged to sue for peace; when the Roman colonies of Placentia +and Cremona were established. The number of men capable of +bearing arms in all Italy subject to the Romans during this war +amounted to 800,000.</p></div> + +<div class="sidenote">Hannibal +takes the +command +in Spain,</div> + + +<p>6. Before this storm was totally appeased, in +which it is probable that Carthaginian policy was +not altogether inactive, Hannibal had obtained the +chief command in Spain. From the reproach of +having first begun the war, he and his party +cannot be cleared; Rome, in the situation she +then was, could hardly desire it; he however +who strikes the first blow is not always the real +aggressor. The plan of Hannibal was the de<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_344" id="Page_344">[Pg 344]</a></span>struction +of Rome; and by making Italy the +<span class="sidenote">and makes Italy the seat of war.</span> +principal seat of the war, he necessarily turned +the scale in his favour; because Rome, obliged +to defend herself, left to him all the advantages +of attack. The preparations she made for defence, +show that it was not believed possible he +could execute his enterprise by the route which +he took.</p> + +<div class="sblockquot"><p>The history of this war, 218—201, of which no later transaction +has been able to destroy the interest, is divided into three +parts: the history of the war in Italy; the contemporary war in +Spain; and from 203, the war in Africa. Hannibal's invasion +of Italy in the autumn, 218—engagement near the river Ticinus +and the battle of Trebia, in the same year. Battle near the lake +Thrasymenus in the spring, 217. Seat of the war transferred +to Lower Italy, and the defensive system of the dictator Fabius +until the end of the year. Battle of Cannæ, 216, followed by +the conquest of Capua and the subjection of the greater part of +Lower Italy. The defensive mode of warfare afterwards adopted +by the Carthaginian, arose partly from his desire to form a junction +with his brother Asdrubal and the Spanish army, and partly +from his expectation of foreign support by means of alliances, +with Syracuse, after the death of Hiero, 215, and with Philip of +Macedon, 216. These hopes, however, were frustrated by the +Romans.—Syracuse was besieged and taken, 214—212, (see +above, p. 174.) and Philip kept employed in Greece, (see above, +p. 282.) In addition to this, the Romans retook Capua, notwithstanding +the audacious march of Hannibal towards Rome, +211, and he had now no succour left except the reinforcement +which Asdrubal was bringing from Spain. The latter, however, +was attacked immediately upon his arrival in Italy, near Sena, +by the consuls Nero and Livius, and left dead on the field, 207. +From this time the war in Italy became only of secondary importance, +as Hannibal was obliged to act on the defensive in +Bruttium.</p> + +<p><i>The Course of Hannibal over the Alps ascertained</i>, by <span class="smcap">J. +Whittaker</span>. London, 1794, 2 vols. 8vo. The author endeavours +to prove that the passage of Hannibal was over the great +St. Bernard, and criticises the opinions of other writers.</p> +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_345" id="Page_345">[Pg 345]</a></span></p> +<p>[We may likewise mention the learned treatise:—</p> + +<p><i>A Dissertation on the Passage of Hannibal over the Alps.</i> +By <span class="smcap">H. L. Wickham</span>, M. A. and the Rev. <span class="smcap">J. A. Cramer</span>, M. A. +second edition, Oxon.]</p> + +<p>The war in Spain began nearly about the same time between +Asdrubal and the two brothers, Cn. and P. Cornelius Scipio, +and was continued, with various success, till the year 216, the +issue depending much upon the disposition of the Spaniards +themselves. The plan of Carthage after the year 216, was to +send Asdrubal with the Spanish army into Italy, and to supply +its place by an army from Africa; two victories, however, gained +by the Scipios near the Ebro, 216, and the Illiberis, 215, prevented +this from being effected, till at last both fell under the +superior power and cunning of the Carthaginians, 212. But the +arrival of the youthful P. Cornelius Scipio, who did not appear +merely to his own nation as an extraordinary genius, entirely +changed the face of affairs, and the fortunes of Rome soon became +attached to his name, which alone seemed to promise victory. +During his command in Spain, 210—206, he won over +the inhabitants while he defeated the Carthaginians, and for the +furtherance of his great design, contracted an alliance with Syphax +in Africa, 206. He was unable, however, to prevent the +march of Asdrubal into Italy, 208, which nevertheless rendered +it an easy task for him to subdue all Carthaginian Spain as far +as Gades, 206, and thus procured him the consular dignity at his +return, 205.</p> + +<p>The carrying of the war into Africa by Scipio, notwithstanding +the opposition of the old Roman generals, and the desertion +of Syphax, who at the persuasion of Sophonisba again went over +to the Carthaginians (whose loss however was well repaid by +Masinissa, whom Scipio had won over to his side in Spain), was +followed by an important consequence; for after he had gained +two victories over Asdrubal and Syphax, 203, and taken the +latter prisoner, the Carthaginians found it necessary to recall +Hannibal from Italy, 202; and the battle of Zama terminated +the war, 201. The following were the conditions of peace: +1. That the Carthaginians should only retain the territory in +Africa annexed to their government. 2. That they should give +up all their ships of war, except ten triremes, and all their elephants. +3. That they should pay, at times specified, 10,000 +talents. 4. That they should commence no war without the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_346" id="Page_346">[Pg 346]</a></span> +consent of Rome. 5. That they should restore to Masinissa all +the houses, cities, and lands that had ever been possessed by +himself or his ancestors.—The reproach usually cast upon the +Carthaginians, of having left Hannibal unsupported in Italy, in +a great measure vanishes, if we remember the plan formed in +216, to send the Spanish army into Italy, and to replace it by +an African one: a plan formed with much ability, and followed +with as much constancy. We may add to this, that the Barcine +faction maintained its influence in the government even to the +end of the war. But why they, who by the treaty of peace gave +up five hundred vessels of war, suffered Scipio to cross over +from Sicily, without sending one to oppose him, is difficult to +explain.</p></div> + +<div class="sidenote">Power of +Rome increased +by +the war.</div> + +<p>7. Notwithstanding her great loss of men, and +the devastation of Italy, Rome felt herself much +more powerful at the end of this war than at the +beginning. Her dominion was not only established +over Italy, but extensive foreign countries +had been brought under it; her authority over the +seas was rendered secure by the destruction of the +naval power of the Carthaginians. The Roman +<i>form</i> of government, it is true, underwent no +change, but its <i>spirit</i> much, as the power of the +senate became almost unlimited; and although +the dawn of civilization had broken over Rome, +since her intercourse with more civilized foreigners, +the state still remained altogether a nation +of warriors. And now, for the first time, +appears in the page of history the fearful phenomenon +<span class="sidenote">She becomes a military republic.</span> +of a great military republic; and the history +of the next ten years, in which Rome overthrew +so many thrones and free states, gives a +striking proof, that such a power is the natural +enemy to the independence of all the states within +the reach of her arms. The causes which led +Rome from this time to aspire after the dominion +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_347" id="Page_347">[Pg 347]</a></span>of the world are to be found neither in her geographical +situation, which for a conquering power +by land seemed rather unfavourable; nor in the +inclination of the people, who were opposed to +the first war against Philip; but singly and entirely +in the spirit of her government. The means, +however, whereby she obtained her end, must +not be sought for merely in the excellence of her +armies and generals, but rather in that uniform, +sharp-sighted, and dexterous +<span class="sidenote">Her policy.</span> +policy, by which +she was enabled to frustrate the powerful alliances +formed against her, notwithstanding the +many adversaries who at that time sought to form +new ones. But where could be found such another +council of state, embodying such a mass +of practical political wisdom, as the Roman senate +must have been from the very nature of its organization? +All this, however, would not have been +<span class="sidenote">State of the rest of the world.</span> +sufficient to have subjugated the world, if the +want of good government, the degeneracy of the +military art, and an extremely corrupt state of +morals among both rulers and people, in foreign +states, had not seconded the efforts of Rome.</p> + +<div class="sblockquot"><p>View of the political state of the world at this period. In +the west, Sicily (the whole island after 212), Sardinia, and Corsica, +from the year 237, and Spain, divided into citerior and +ulterior (the latter rather in name than in fact), had become +Roman provinces 206; the independence of Carthage had been +destroyed by the last peace, and her subordination secured by +the alliance of Rome with Masinissa; Cisalpine Gaul, formed +into a province, served as a barrier against the inroads of the +more northern barbarians. On the other side, in the east, the +kingdom of Macedonia, and the free states of Greece, forming +together a very complicated system, had opened a connection +with Rome since the Illyrian war, 230, and Philip's alliance +with Hannibal, 214. Of the three powers of the first rank,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_348" id="Page_348">[Pg 348]</a></span> +Macedonia, Syria, and Egypt, the two former were allied against +the latter, who, on her part, maintained a good understanding +with Rome. The states of secondary rank were, those of the Ætolian +league, the kings of Pergamus, and the republic of Rhodes, +with some smaller, such as Athens: these had allied themselves +to Rome since the confederacy against Philip, 211. The +Achæan league, on the contrary, was in the interests of Macedonia, +which Rome always endeavoured to attach to herself, in +order to make head against those of the first rank.</p></div> + +<div class="sidenote">War +against +Philip, +200.<br /> + +T. Quintius +Flaminius, +198,<br /> + +lays the +foundation +of Roman +power in the +east.<br /> + +179.<br /> + +198.</div> + +<p>8. A declaration of war against Philip, notwithstanding +the opposition of the tribunes of the people, +and an attack upon Macedonia itself, according +to the constant maxim of carrying the war +into the enemy's country, immediately followed. +They could not, however, drive Philip so soon +from the fastnesses of Epirus and Thessaly, which +were his bulwarks. But Rome possessed in T. +Quintius Flaminius, who marched against Philip +as the deliverer of Greece, a statesman and general +exactly fitted for a period of great revolutions. +By the permanency of his political influence +he became indeed the true founder of the +Roman power in the east. Who could better +cajole men and nations, while they were erecting +altars to him, than T. Quintius? So artfully indeed +did he assume the character of a great +genius, such as had been given by nature to +Scipio, that he has almost deceived history itself. +The struggle between him and Philip consisted +rather in a display of talents in political stratagem +and finesse than in feats of arms: even before the +battle of Cynoscephalæ had given the finishing +stroke, the Romans had already turned the balance +in their favour, by gaining over the Achæan +league.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_349" id="Page_349">[Pg 349]</a></span></p> + +<div class="sblockquot"><p>The negotiations between Rome and Macedonia, from the +year 214, give the first striking examples of the ability and +address of the Romans in foreign policy; and they are the more +remarkable, as the treaty with the Ætolians and others, 211 (see +above, p. 283), was the remote cause of the transactions which +afterwards took place in the east. The peculiar system adopted by +the Romans, of taking the lesser states under their protection as +allies, must always have given them an opportunity of making +war on the more powerful whenever they chose. This in fact +happened in the present case, notwithstanding the peace concluded +with Philip, 204. The chief object of the Romans in +this war, both by sea and land, was to drive Philip completely +out of Greece. The allies on both sides, and the conditions of +peace, were similar to those concluded with Carthage (see above, +p. 284). The destruction of the naval power of her conquered +enemies became now a maxim of Roman policy in making peace; +and she thus maintained the dominion of the seas without any +great fleet, and without losing the essential character of a dominant +power by land.</p></div> + +<p>9. The expulsion of Philip from Greece brought +that country into a state of dependence upon +Rome; an event which could not have been better +secured than by the present of liberty which T. +Quintius conferred upon its inhabitants at the +Isthmian games. The system of surveillance, +which the Romans had already established in the +west over Carthage and Numidia, was now adopted +in the east over Greece and Macedonia. Roman +commissioners, under the name of ambassadors, +were sent into the country of the nations in alliance, +and were the principal means by which this +system of espionage was carried on. These however +did not fail to give umbrage to the Greeks, +particularly to the turbulent Ætolians; more especially +as the Romans seemed in no hurry to withdraw +their troops from a country which they had +declared to be free.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_350" id="Page_350">[Pg 350]</a></span></p> + +<div class="sblockquot"><p>Liberty was expressly granted to the state which had taken +the part of Philip, namely, to the Achæans; to the others it was +naturally understood to belong. It was nevertheless three years, +194, before the Roman army evacuated Greece and withdrew +from the fortified places. The conduct of T. Quintius during +this period fully shows what he was. The Greeks indeed had +much want of such a guardian if they wished to remain quiet: +his conduct, however, in the war against Nabis, 195, shows that +he had not really at heart the tranquillity of Greece.</p></div> + +<div class="sidenote">War with +Syria.</div> + + +<p>10. The treaty of peace with Philip contained +the seeds of a new and greater war with Syria; +but though this seemed inevitable at that time, +it did not break out till six years afterwards; and +in but few periods of the history of the world is +so great a political crisis to be found, as in this +short interval. The fall of Carthage and Macedonia +had shown the rest of the world what it +had to expect from Rome; and there was no +lack of great men sufficiently endowed with courage +and talents to resist her. +<span class="sidenote">Danger of a formidable league against Rome;</span> +The danger of a formidable league between Carthage, Syria, and +perhaps Macedonia, was never so much to be +feared, as when Hannibal, now at the head of +affairs, laboured to effect it with all the zeal which +his hatred of Rome could inspire; and they might +calculate with certainty beforehand on the accession +of many smaller states. Rome, however, by +<span class="sidenote">which she frustrates.</span> +her equally decided and artful policy procured +Hannibal's banishment from Carthage, amused +Philip by granting him some trifling advantages, +and gained over the smaller states by her ambassadors. +By these means, and by taking advantage +of the intrigues in the court of Syria, she +prevented this coalition from being formed. Antiochus +was therefore left without assistance in<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_351" id="Page_351">[Pg 351]</a></span> +Greece, except from the Ætolians, and a few other +unimportant allies; while Rome drew from hers, +especially the Rhodians and Eumenes, advantages +of the greatest consequence.</p> + +<div class="sblockquot"><p>The first cause of contention between Rome and Antiochus +was the liberty of Greece, which the former wished to extend to +the Grecian cities of Asia, and to those in particular which had +belonged to Philip, and afterwards to Antiochus; while the latter +contended, that Rome had no right to intermeddle with the affairs +of Asia. The second cause of dispute was the occupation +of the Thracian Chersonesus by Antiochus, 196, in right of some +ancient pretensions; and Rome, on her part, would not tolerate +him in Europe. This quarrel therefore commenced as early as +196, but did not become serious till the year 105, when in consequence +of Hannibal's flight to Antiochus, together with the +turbulence and excitement of the Ætolians, whose object it was +to embroil the rival powers, the political horizon was completely +overcast. What a fortunate thing it was for Rome that such +men as Hannibal and Antiochus could not understand each +other!</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Heyne</span>, <i>de fœderum ad Romanorum opes imminuendas initorum +eventis eorumque causis; in Opusc.</i> vol. iii.</p></div> + + +<p>11. This war was much sooner brought to a +termination than the Macedonian, owing to the +<span class="sidenote">191.</span> +half-measures adopted by Antiochus. +After having been driven from Greece by Glabrio, and +after two naval victories had opened to the Romans +the way to Asia, he felt inclined to act on +the defensive; but in +<span class="sidenote">Battle of Magnesia, 192.</span> +the battle near Magnesia at +the foot of Mount Sipylus, L. Scipio gathered the +laurels which more properly belonged to Glabrio. +The total expulsion of Antiochus from Asia Minor, +even before this victory, had been the chief object +of the war. +<span class="sidenote">Conditions of peace.</span> +The conditions of peace (see above, p. 284.) were such, as not only weakened +Antiochus, but reduced him to a state of dependence.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_352" id="Page_352">[Pg 352]</a></span></p> + +<div class="sblockquot"><p>During this contest in the east, a sanguinary war was going on +in the west; from the year 201 in Spain, where the elder Cato +commanded; and from 193 in Italy itself, against the Ligurians. +Whatever may be said upon the means made use of by Rome to +increase the number of her citizens, it will always be difficult to +comprehend, not only how she could support all these wars without +being thereby weakened, but how at the same time she could +found so many colonies!</p></div> + +<div class="sidenote">Moderation +of Rome.</div> + + +<p>12. Even after the termination of this war, +Rome refrained with astonishing moderation from +appearing in the light of a conqueror: it was only +for the liberty of Greece, and for her allies, that +she had contended! Without keeping a foot of +land for herself, she divided, with the exception +of the free Grecian cities, the conquered Asia +Minor between Eumenes and the Rhodians; +the manner, however, in which she dealt with +the Ætolians, who after a long supplication for +peace were obliged to buy it dearly, shows that +she also knew how to treat unfaithful allies. The +<span class="sidenote">War against the Gauls in Asia Minor, 189.</span> +war against the Gauls in Asia Minor was not less +necessary for the preservation of tranquillity in +that country, than it was injurious to the morals +and military discipline of the Roman army. They +here learned to levy contributions.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">200—190.<br /> +Rome the arbitress of the world.</div> + +<p>13. Thus, within the short space of ten years, +was laid the foundation of the Roman authority +in the east, and the general state of affairs entirely +changed. If Rome was not yet the ruler, +she was at least the arbitress of the world from +the Atlantic to the Euphrates. The power of the +three principal states was so completely humbled, +that they durst not, without the permission of +Rome, begin any new war; the fourth, Egypt, +had already, in the year 201, placed herself under<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_353" id="Page_353">[Pg 353]</a></span> +the guardianship of Rome; and the lesser powers +followed of themselves: esteeming it an honour +to be called the <i>allies of Rome</i>. With this name +the nations were lulled into security, and brought +under the Roman yoke; the new political system +of Rome was founded and strengthened, partly +by exciting and supporting the weaker states +against the stronger, however unjust the cause +of the former might be, and partly by factions +which she found means to raise in every state, +even the smallest.</p> + +<div class="sblockquot"><p>Although the policy of Rome extended itself everywhere by +means of her commissioners, or ambassadors, yet she kept a +more particular guard against Carthage by favouring Masinissa +at her expense, against the Achæan league by favouring the +Spartans, and against Philip of Macedon by favouring every one +who brought any complaint against him (see above, p. 285).</p></div> + +<p>14. Although these new connections and this +intercourse with foreign nations greatly aided the +diffusion of knowledge and science, and was followed +by a gradual improvement in her civilization, +yet was it nevertheless, in many respects, +detrimental to the internal state of Rome. The +introduction of the scandalous Bacchanalia, which +were immediately discovered and forbidden, shows +how easily great vices may creep in among a +people who are only indebted for their morality to +their ignorance. Among the higher classes also +the spirit of intrigue manifested itself to an astonishing +degree; particularly by the attacks directed +against the Scipios by the elder Cato, +whose restless activity became the instrument of +his malignant passions. The severity of his censorship +did not repair the evils caused by his immorality +and pernicious politics.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_354" id="Page_354">[Pg 354]</a></span></p> + +<div class="sblockquot"><p>Voluntary exile of Scipio Africanus to Linternum, 187. He +dies there, 183, the same year in which Hannibal falls under the +continued persecution of Rome. His brother Scipio Asiaticus is +also unable to escape a trial and condemnation, 185. One would +have expected a sensible effect from the exile of these two great +men; but, in a state where the ruling power is in the hands of a +body like what the Roman senate was, the change of individuals +is but of little consequence.</p></div> + +<div class="sidenote">New broils with Philip, 185.<br /> +His death, 179.</div> + +<p>15. Fresh disputes arose, as early as 185, with +Philip of Macedon, who soon found that they had +spared him no longer than it suited their own +convenience. Although the intervention of Philip's +youngest son, upon whom the Romans had +formed some design, prevented the powers from +coming to an immediate rupture, and war was +still further delayed by Philip's death, yet the +national hatred descended to his successor, and +continued to increase, notwithstanding an alliance +concluded with him, until the +<span class="sidenote">Open war, 172.</span> +war openly broke out (see above, p. 287).</p> + +<div class="sblockquot"><p>The first circumstance which gave umbrage to Philip was the +small portion they permitted him to conquer in Athamania and +Thessaly during the war against Antiochus. But what sharpened +his animosity, much more than the object in dispute, was the +conduct of the Roman commissioners, before whom he, the king, +was called upon to defend himself as an accused party, 184. +The exclamation of Philip, that "the sun of every day had not +yet set," showed his indignation, and at the same time betrayed +his intention. The interval previous to the breaking out of the +war was anything rather than a time of peace for Rome; for +besides that the Spanish and Ligurian wars continued almost +without intermission, the revolts which broke out in Istria, 178, +and in Sardinia and Corsica, 176, produced much bloodshed.</p></div> + +<div class="sidenote">Second Macedonian +war, ends +with the +ruin of +the kingdom, +168.</div> + +<p>16. In the second Macedonian war, which +ended with the destruction of Perseus and his +kingdom (see above, p. 288), it required the ac<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_355" id="Page_355">[Pg 355]</a></span>tive +efforts of Roman policy to prevent a powerful +confederacy from being formed against her; as +Perseus used all his endeavours to stimulate, not +only the Grecian states, and Thrace and Illyria, +but also Carthage and Asia, to enter into alliance +with him. Where was it that Rome did not at +this crisis send her ambassadors? She did not, +indeed, succeed so far as to leave her enemy quite +alone, but prepared new triumphs for herself over +the few allies she left him. The devastated Epirus, +and Gentius king of Illyria, suffered dearly for the +assistance they had lent him; the states also which +had remained neuter, the Rhodians and Eumenes, +were made to feel severely that they were the +mere creatures of Rome.</p> + +<div class="sblockquot"><p>Beginning of the Macedonian war, 171, before Rome was prepared; +a deceitful truce, which raised the indignation even of +the elder senators, was the means resorted to for gaining time. +Notwithstanding this, the war at first, 170 and 169, was favourable +to Perseus; but he wanted resolution and judgment to +enable him to turn his advantages to account. In 168, Paulus +Æmilius, an old general, against the usual custom of the Romans, +took the command. Bloody and decisive battle near Pydna, +June 22, 168. So completely may one day overturn a kingdom +which has only an army for its support! Contemporary with this +war, and highly fortunate for Rome, was the war of Antiochus +Epiphanes with Egypt. No wonder that Rome did not, till 168, +through Popilius, command peace between them! (See above, +p. 261.)</p></div> + +<div class="sidenote">Its consequences.</div> + +<p>17. The destruction of the Macedonian monarchy +was attended with consequences equally +disastrous to the conquerors and the conquered. +To the first it soon gave the notion of becoming +the masters of the world, instead of its arbiters; +and it exposed the latter, for the next twenty<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_356" id="Page_356">[Pg 356]</a></span> +years, to all the evils inseparable from such a +catastrophe. The system of politics hitherto pursued +by Rome could not last much longer; for if +nations suffered themselves to be brought under +the yoke by force, it was not to be expected that +they would long be held in dependence under the +specious name of liberty. But the state of things +after this war was such as contributed to hasten a +change in the form of the relations which existed +between Rome and her allies.</p> + +<div class="sblockquot"><p>The republican constitution given to the already ruined and +devastated Macedonians (see above, p. 288.) and Illyrians, and +which, according to the decree of the senate, "showed to all +people that Rome was ready to bestow liberty upon them," was +granted upon such hard conditions, that the enfranchised nation +soon used every endeavour to procure themselves a king. Greece +however suffered still more than Macedonia. Here, during the +war, the spirit of faction had risen to the highest pitch; and the +arrogant insolence of the Roman party, composed for the most +part of venal wretches, was so great, that they persecuted not +only those who had espoused an opposite faction, but even those +who had joined no faction at all. Rome nevertheless could not +believe herself secure, until she had destroyed, by a cruel artifice, +all her adversaries (see above, p. 288).</p></div> + +<p>18. Entirely in the same spirit did Rome proceed +against the other states from whom she had +anything to fear. These must be rendered defenceless; +and every means of effecting that purpose +was considered justifiable by the senate. +The quarrels between the successors to the throne +of Egypt were taken advantage of to cause dissensions +in that kingdom (see above, p. 260); +while Syria was retained in a state of tutelage, +by keeping the rightful heir to the throne at +Rome; and its military power neutralized by +means of their ambassadors (see above, p. 243).<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_357" id="Page_357">[Pg 357]</a></span></p> + +<p>19. From these facts we may also conclude, +that the injuries now meditated against Carthage +were not separate projects, but rather formed part +of the general system of Roman policy at this +period, although particular events at one time retarded +their execution, and at another hastened it. +History, in recounting the incredibly bad treatment +which Carthage had to endure before her +fall, seems to have given a warning to those nations +who can take it, of what they may expect +from the domination of a powerful republic.</p> + +<div class="sblockquot"><p>Cato was chief of the party which sought the destruction of +Carthage, both from a spirit of envy against Scipio Nasica, whom +he hated for his great influence in the senate; and because, when +ambassador to Carthage, he thought they did not treat him with +sufficient respect. But Masinissa's victory, 152 (see above, +p. 88), and the defection of Utica, brought this project into immediate +play. Beginning of the war, 150, the Carthaginians +having been previously inveigled out of their arms. The city, +however, was not captured and destroyed till 146, by P. Scipio +Æmilianus. The Carthaginian territory, under the name of +Africa, was then made a Roman province.</p></div> + +<div class="sidenote">A new war +with Macedonia +and +Greece.</div> + +<p>20. During this third war with Carthage, hostilities +again broke out in Macedonia, which +brought on a new war with Greece, and entirely +changed the state of both these countries. In +Macedonia, an impostor named Andriscus, who +pretended to be the son of Philip, placed himself +at the head of that highly disaffected people, +assumed the name of Philip, and became, particularly +<span class="sidenote">148.</span> +by an alliance with the Thracians, very +formidable to the Romans, until overcome by +Metellus. Rome wishing to take advantage of +this crisis to dissolve the Achæan league, the +Achæan war broke out (see above, p. 289). This +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_358" id="Page_358">[Pg 358]</a></span>war was begun by Metellus, and terminated by +Mummius with the +<span class="sidenote">Terminated by the destruction of Corinth, 146.</span> +destruction of Corinth. By +reducing both Macedonia and Greece to the form +of provinces, Rome now gave evident proof that +no existing relations, nor any form of government, +can prevent nations from being subjugated by a +warlike republic, whenever circumstances render +it possible.</p> + +<div class="sblockquot"><p>It might have been expected, that the destruction of the two +first commercial cities in the world, in the same year, would have +been followed by important consequences to the course of trade; +but the trade of Carthage and Corinth had already been drawn +to Alexandria and Rhodes, otherwise Utica might, in some respects, +have supplied the place of Carthage.</p></div> + +<div class="sidenote">War in Spain, 146.<br /> +140.<br /> +133.</div> + +<p>21. While Rome was thus destroying thrones +and republics, she met in Spain with an antagonist—a +simple Spanish countryman named Viriathus—whom, +after six years' war, she could only +rid herself of by assassination. The war, nevertheless, +continued after his death against the Numantines, +who would not be subjected, but were +at last destroyed by Scipio Æmilianus.</p> + +<div class="sblockquot"><p>The war against the Spaniards, who of all the nations subdued +by the Romans defended their liberty with the greatest obstinacy, +began in the year 200, six years after the total expulsion +of the Carthaginians from their country, 206. It was exceedingly +obstinate, partly from the natural state of the country, which was +thickly populated, and where every place became a fortress; +partly from the courage of the inhabitants; but above all, owing +to the peculiar policy of the Romans, who were wont to employ +their allies to subdue other nations. This war continued, almost +without interruption, from the year 200 to 133, and was for the +most part carried on at the same time in Hispania Citerior, where +the Celtiberi were the most formidable adversaries, and in Hispania +Ulterior, where the Lusitani were equally powerful. Hostilities +were at the highest pitch in 195, under Cato, who reduced<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_359" id="Page_359">[Pg 359]</a></span> +Hispania Citerior to a state of tranquillity 185—179, when +the Celtiberi were attacked in their native territory; and 155—150, +when the Romans in both provinces were so often beaten, +that nothing was more dreaded by the soldiers at home than to +be sent there. The extortions and perfidy of Servius Galba +placed Viriathus, in the year 146, at the head of his nation, the +Lusitani: the war, however, soon extended itself to Hispania +Citerior, where many nations, particularly the Numantines, took +up arms against Rome, 143. Viriathus, sometimes victorious and +sometimes defeated, was never more formidable than in the +moment of defeat; because he knew how to take advantage of +his knowledge of the country, and of the dispositions of his countrymen. +After his murder, caused by the treachery of Cæpio, +140, Lusitania was subdued; but the Numantine war became +still more violent, and the Numantines compelled the consul +Mancinus to a disadvantageous treaty, 137. When Scipio, in +the year 133, put an end to this war, Spain was certainly tranquil; +the northern parts, however, were still unsubdued, though +the Romans penetrated as far as Galatia.</p></div> + +<div class="sidenote">Attalus III. +leaves his +kingdom to +the Romans.<br /> + +133—130.</div> + +<p>22. Towards the end of this period, the Romans +obtained at a much cheaper rate the possession +of one of their most important provinces; +for the profligate Attalus III. king of Pergamus, +bequeathing them the whole of his kingdom (on +what account is uncertain, see above, p. 292.), +they immediately took possession of it, and kept +in spite of the resistance of the legitimate heir +Aristonicus, merely ceding, as a recompense, +Phrygia to Mithridates V. king of Pontus. Thus, +by a stroke of the pen, the largest and finest part +of Asia Minor became the property of Rome. +If this extraordinary legacy was the work of +Roman policy, she paid dearly enough, in the +long run, for this accession to her power and +riches, by the destruction of her morals, and the +dreadful wars to which this legacy gave rise +under Mithridates.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_360" id="Page_360">[Pg 360]</a></span></p> + +<div class="sidenote">Roman +provinces.</div> + + +<p>23. The foreign possessions of Rome, besides +Italy, comprised at this time under the name of +provinces, a name of much higher signification +in the Latin language than in any other, Hispania +Citerior and Ulterior, Africa (the territory of Carthage), +Sicily, Sardinia and Corsica, Liguria, and +Cisalpine Gaul, in the west; and in the east, +Macedonia, Achaia, and Asia (territory of Pergamus). +The inhabitants of these countries were +<span class="sidenote">How governed.</span> +entirely subject to Rome. The administration +of them was carried on by those who had enjoyed +the office of consul, and by prætors, subordinate +to whom were the quæstors, or collectors +of the revenue. The highest military and +civil powers were united in these governors; a +principal cause of that horrible oppression which +was soon felt. Troops were always kept up in +the provinces; and the Latin language everywhere +introduced (except only where Greek was +spoken), that the inhabitants might be made as +much like Romans as possible.</p> + +<div class="sblockquot"><p>Till nearly the end of this period, prætors were expressly appointed +to each province. It was not till after the origin of the +<i>quæstiones perpetuæ</i>, that it became the custom for the prætors +who had vacated office, to succeed to the provinces (<i>proprætores</i>), +a principal cause of the degeneracy of the Roman constitution.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">C. Sigonius</span>, <i>de Antiquo jure provinciarum in Grævii Thes. +Antiq. Rom.</i> vol. ii.</p></div> + +<div class="sidenote">Roman revenue.</div> + +<p>24. The acquisition of these rich countries +naturally had great influence in augmenting the +revenue of the Romans. Though Rome was not +indeed a state, like Carthage, altogether dependent +upon finances, yet she kept these ad<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_361" id="Page_361">[Pg 361]</a></span>justed +in a wonderful manner; a spirit of nice +order being observed in this as well as in every +other department of her administration. If in +extraordinary emergencies recourse were had to +native loans, to a change in the value of money, +or a monopoly of salt, order was soon restored; +while the booty obtained from conquered countries +was also a great source of the public income +so long indeed as it was reserved for the state, +and did not become the prey of the generals.</p> + +<div class="sblockquot"><p>Sources of the Roman revenue (<i>vectigalia</i>) were: 1. Tribute +<i>a.</i> from the Roman citizens; that is to say, a property-tax imposed +by the senate according to the urgency of the case (which, +however, was remitted, for a long time, after the war with Perseus, +168, being no longer necessary). <i>b.</i> Tribute of the allies +(<i>socii</i>) in Italy: which seems also to have been a property-tax; +differing in different places. <i>c.</i> Tribute of the provinces: in +some a heavy poll-tax, in others taxes on property; in all, however, +they were paid in natural productions, mostly ordinary, +though sometimes extraordinary, as well for the salary of the +governor as for the supply of the capital. 2. The revenue from +the national domains (<i>ager publicus</i>), both in Italy (especially +Campania) and in the provinces; the tythes (<i>decumæ</i>) of which +were paid by means of leases for four years, granted by the censors. +3. The revenue from the customs (<i>portoria</i>), collected in +the seaports and frontier towns. 4. The revenue arising from +the mines (<i>metalla</i>), particularly the Spanish silver mines; the +proprietors of which were obliged to pay a duty to the state. +5. The duty upon enfranchised slaves (<i>aurum vicesimarium</i>). +All receipts flowed into the national treasury, the <i>ærarium</i>; all +outgoings were exclusively ordered by the senate; and the people +were consulted as little with regard to them as they were respecting +the imposts. The officers employed were the <i>quæstores</i>, +under whom were the <i>scribæ</i>, divided into <i>decurias</i>, who, though +certainly subordinate, had nevertheless great influence. Their +services, as they were not yearly changed, must have been indispensable +to the <i>quæstores</i> for the time being; and the whole +management of affairs, at least in detail, must have fallen into +their hands.</p> +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_362" id="Page_362">[Pg 362]</a></span></p> +<p>Upon the finances of Rome, the best work at present is:—</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">P. Burmanni</span>, <i>Vectigalia Populi Romani</i>. Leyden, 1734, +4to.</p> + +<p>Two excellent treatises have since appeared in German upon +this subject:—</p> + +<p>† <span class="smcap">D. H. Hegewisch</span>, <i>Essay upon Roman Finances</i>. Antona, +1804, and</p> + +<p>† <span class="smcap">R. Bosse</span>, <i>Sketch of the System of Finance in the Roman +State</i>. Brunswick, 1803, 2 parts. Both include the periods of +the republic and the monarchy.</p></div> + + + +<hr style="width: 25%;" /> +<h2>THIRD PERIOD.</h2> + +<p class="iblockquot2"><i>From the beginning of the civil broils under the Gracchi, +to the fall of the republic. B. C. 134—30. Year of +Rome, 620—724.</i></p> + + +<div class="sblockquot"><p><span class="smcap">Sources.</span> Concerning the first half of this important period +of the republic, down to the time of Cicero, we are sadly in +want of precise information. Not one of the contemporary +writers has been preserved to us, nor indeed any one of the +later historians who have compiled a history of the whole period. +<span class="smcap">Appian</span>, <i>de Bellis Civilibus</i>; <span class="smcap">Plutarch</span>, in his <i>Lives of the +Gracchi</i>; and the spirited <i>Compendium</i> of <span class="smcap">Vel. Paterculus</span>, +are, for this portion, our principal authorities; and even the imperfect +summaries of the lost books of Livy, so masterly supplied +by Freinshemius here become of importance. For the times +which follow, the <i>Jugurtha</i> and <i>Cataline</i> of Sallust, are two excellent +historical cabinet pieces, and become the more valuable +for the insight they at the same time give us of the internal condition +of Rome. His great work, however, <i>The Histories</i>, is, +with the exception of a few precious fragments, unfortunately +lost. For the times of <span class="smcap">Cæsar</span> and <span class="smcap">Cicero</span>, we have the <i>Commentaries</i> +of the first, and the <i>Orations</i> and <i>Letters</i> of the latter; +both fertile sources of information. What is left us of <span class="smcap">Dio Cassius's</span> +<i>History</i>, begins with the year 69 before Christ. Of <span class="smcap">Plu<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_363" id="Page_363">[Pg 363]</a></span>tarch's</span> +<i>Lives</i>, besides those of the Gracchi, the following are +connected with this period: <span class="smcap">C. Marius, Sylla, Lucullus, +Crassus, Sertorius, Cato of Utica, Cicero, Brutus</span>, and +<span class="smcap">Antonius</span>. Upon the sources for these lives, see my treatises +cited above, p. 321.</p> + +<p>Among the moderns, the greater part of this period is particularly +treated of by:—</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">De Brosses</span>, <i>Histoire de la République Romaine dans le +cours du VII<sup>e</sup> Siècle par Salluste</i>, à Dijou, 1777, 3 vols. 4to.</p> + +<p>In German by <span class="smcap">J. C. Schleuter</span>, 1790, etc. with remarks, +4 vols. The editor of this capital work had an idea of translating +Sallust, and supplying what is lost. It contains, besides +a translation of Jugurtha and Cataline, the period between both, +of which Sallust treats in his <i>Histories</i>: that is, from Sylla's +abdication, B. C. 79—67; and is equally important for its own +merits and for the period to which it belongs.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Vertot</span>, <i>Histoire des révolutions arrivées dans le gouvernement +de la République Romaine</i>. Paris, 1796, 6 vols. 12mo. Although +this justly esteemed work includes the foregoing period, +it is particularly valuable for the present.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Mably</span>, <i>Observations sur les Romains</i>. Genève, 1751, 2 vols. +8vo. A survey of the internal history; ingenious, but as superficial +as the <i>Observations sur les Grecs</i> by the same author.</p></div> + +<div class="sidenote">Civil wars.<br /> + +Power of the senate creates an aristocracy,<br /> + +which is opposed by the tribunes of the people.</div> + +<p>1. The foregoing period is composed of the +history of foreign wars alone; in this, on the contrary, +Rome appears in a continual state of internal +commotion. And if foreign hostilities interrupt +this state of things for a short time, it is +only that it may be renewed with more violence, +till at last it ends in a furious civil war. As the +almost boundless power of the senate had laid +the foundation of an exceedingly hateful family +aristocracy, against which the tribunes of the +people arrayed themselves, in the character of +powerful demagogues, there arose a new struggle +between the aristocratic and democratic parties, +which almost immediately grew into two powerful<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_364" id="Page_364">[Pg 364]</a></span> +factions. This contest, from its extent and its +consequences, soon became much more important +than the ancient one between the patricians and +the plebeians.</p> + +<div class="sblockquot"><p>This family aristocracy gradually arose from the power of the +magistrates, who now not only enjoyed a very high political importance, +but, by the government of the provinces, acquired +immense wealth. The present aristocracy, then, consisted of the +ruling families (<i>nobiles</i>) concentrated in the senate. The struggle +with the opposite party, the people (<i>plebs</i>), became so much the +more violent in consequence of the great abuses which had +crept into the administration, particularly in the division of the +lands of the republic; the ruling families securing to themselves +the fruits of all the victories and conquests, while the power of +the democracy, by the vast accumulation of people (without the +means of livelihood, although voting in the <i>comitia</i>), especially +of enfranchised slaves, who, though strangers, mostly without +power or property, formed, nevertheless, the greater part of +what was then called the Roman people.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">G. Al. Ruperti</span>, <i>Stemmata gentium Romanarum</i>. Goett. +1795, 8vo. Almost indispensable for obtaining a clear insight +into the history of the Roman families, and of course into that +of the state.</p></div> + +<div class="sidenote">First disturbances +under T. S. +Gracchus. +B. C. 133.<br /> + +He desires +to relieve +the distress +of the lower +orders, +and dies in +the attempt:</div> + + +<p>2. Commencement of the disturbances under +the tribunate of Tib. Sempronius Gracchus, whom +former connections had long made the man of the +people. His desire was to relieve the distress +of the lower orders; and the means whereby he +hoped to do this was a better division of the +lands of the republic, now almost exclusively in +the hands of the aristocracy. His reform, therefore, +naturally led at once to a struggle with that +party. Tib. Gracchus however soon found, by +experience, that a demagogue cannot stop where +he would, however pure his intentions may be +at first; and no sooner had he obtained a pro<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_365" id="Page_365">[Pg 365]</a></span>longation +of his term of office, in opposition to +the usual custom, than he fell a sacrifice to his +undertaking.</p> + +<div class="sblockquot"><p>The first agrarian law of Gracchus was confirmed by the +people, notwithstanding the fruitless opposition of his colleague +Octavius, who was deposed; it decreed, that no person should +possess above five hundred acres of land, nor any child above half +that quantity. This law was, in fact, only a renewal of the +ancient <i>lex Licinia</i>; in the condition, however, in which Rome +now was, it bore much harder upon the property usurped by the +great families, than it did in former times. Appointment of +a committee for dividing the national lands, and for enquiring +also at the same time which were the property of the state (<i>ager +publicus</i>) and which were not. New popular propositions of the +elder Gracchus, especially that for the division of the treasures +left by king Attalus of Pergamus, with the view of securing his +continuance in office; great insurrection of the aristocratic party +under Scipio Nasica, and murder of Tiberius Gracchus, on the +day of electing the new tribunes of the people.</p></div> + +<div class="sidenote">his fall does +not destroy +his party.</div> + + +<p>3. The fall of the chief of the new party, +however, occasioned any thing rather than its destruction. +Not only was there no mention of an +abrogation of the agrarian law, but the senate +was obliged to allow the place in the commission, +which had become vacant by the death of Gracchus, +to be filled up; and Scipio Nasica himself +was sent out of the way, under the pretext of an +embassy to Asia. The party of the senate did, +<span class="sidenote">132.</span> +indeed, find a powerful support for a short time +in the return of Scipio Æmilianus (<i>d.</i> 129) from +Spain; but its greatest support was found in the +difficulties of the law itself, which prevented its +execution.</p> + +<div class="sblockquot"><p>Great revolt of the slaves in Sicily under Eunus, 134—131. +This contributed not a little to keep alive the dissensions, as it +showed the necessity of a reform.</p></div><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_366" id="Page_366">[Pg 366]</a></span></p> + +<div class="sidenote">The tribunes +endeavour +to +increase +their power. +130.</div> + +<p>4. Evident endeavours of the tribunes of the +people to increase their power, Gracchus having +now awakened them to a sense of it. Not satisfied +with a seat and voice in the senate, Carbo +wished that the renewing of their dignity should +be passed into a law. By the removal, however, +of the chiefs of the lower party, upon honourable +pretexts, new troubles were put off for some +years.</p> + +<div class="sblockquot"><p>First establishment of the Roman power in Transalpine Gaul +by M. Fulvius Flaccus, on the occasion of his being sent to the +assistance of Massilia, 128. Southern Gaul became a Roman +province as early as 122, in consequence of the defeat of the +Allobrogi and Averni by Q. Fabius, who had been sent against +them to support the Ædui, the allies of Rome. Capture of the +Balearian isles by Metellus, 123. Quæstorship of C. Gracchus +in Sicily, 128—125.</p></div> + +<div class="sidenote">C. Gracchus.</div> + +<p>5. These palliative remedies, however, availed +nothing after the return of C. Gracchus from +Sicily with a full determination to tread in the +footsteps of his brother. Like him, it is true, +he fell a victim to his enterprise; but the storm +that he raised during the two years of his tribunate +fell so much the more heavily, as the +popular excitement was more general, and from +his possessing more of the shining talents necessary +to form a powerful demagogue than his +brother.</p> + +<div class="sblockquot"><p>First tribunate of C. Gracchus, 123. Renewal of the agrarian +law, and rendering its provisions more strict. Nevertheless, as +he increased the fermentation by his popular measures and by +acting the demagogue, and obtained the renewal of the tribunate +for the following year, 122, he so far extended his plan, as to +render it not only highly dangerous to the aristocracy, but even +to the state itself. Establishment of distributions of corn to the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_367" id="Page_367">[Pg 367]</a></span> +poor people. Plan for the formation of the knights (<i>ordo equestris</i>) +into a political body, as a counterbalance to the senate, by +conferring on it the right of administering justice, (<i>judicia</i>,) +which was taken from the senate. Still more important project +of granting to the Italian allies the privileges of Roman citizenship; +and also the formation of colonies, not only in Campania, +but also out of Italy, in Carthage. The highly refined policy of +the senate, however, by lessening this man of the people in the +eyes of his admirers, through the assistance of the tribune Livius +Drusius, prevented his complete triumph; and, once declining, +Gracchus soon experienced the fate of every demagogue, whose +complete fall is then irretrievable. General insurrection, and +assassination of C. Gracchus, 121.</p></div> + +<div class="sidenote">Victory of +the aristocratic +faction.</div> + +<p>6. The victory of the aristocratic faction was +this time not only much more certain and bloody, +they turned the advantages it gave them to +such good account, that they eluded the agrarian +law of Gracchus, and indeed, at last, completely +abrogated it. But the seeds of discord already +disseminated, especially among the Italian allies, +could not be so soon checked, when once the +subjects of these states had conceived the idea +that they were entitled to a share in the government. +How soon these party struggles might +be renewed, or indeed a civil war break out, depended +almost entirely upon foreign circumstances, +and the chance of a bolder leader being +found.</p> + +<div class="sblockquot"><p>Agrarian law evaded: at first by repealing an act which prohibited +the transfer of the national lands already divided, whereby +the patricians were enabled to buy them again;—afterwards by +the <i>lex Thoria:</i> complete stop put to all further divisions, a land-tax, +to be distributed among the people, being instituted in its +stead; but even this latter was very soon annulled.</p> + +<p>† <span class="smcap">D. H. Hegewisch</span>, <i>History of the Civil Wars of the +Gracchi</i>. Altona, 1801.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_368" id="Page_368">[Pg 368]</a></span></p> + +<p>† <i>History of the Revolution of the Gracchi in my Miscellaneous +Historical Works.</i> Vol. iii. 1821.</p></div> + +<div class="sidenote">Effects of +this party-spirit +in +corrupting +the nation.</div> + +<p>7. Visible effects of this party spirit upon +public morals, which now began to decline the +more rapidly, in proportion to the increase of +foreign connections. Neither the severity of the +censorship, nor the laws against luxury (<i>leges +sumtuariæ</i>), nor those which now became necessary +against celibacy, could be of much service in +this respect. This degeneracy was not only to be +found in the cupidity of the higher ranks, but also +in the licentiousness of the lower orders.</p> + +<div class="sblockquot"><p>Luxury in Rome was first displayed in the public administration +(owing to the excessive accumulation of wealth in the treasury, +especially during the Macedonian wars) before it infected +private life; and the avarice of the great long preceded the latter. +The sources from whence they satisfied this passion were found +in the extortions of the governors of provinces, their great power, +and the distance from Rome rendering the <i>leges repetundarum</i> of +but little effect. Probably the endeavours of the allied princes +and kings to gain a party in the senate was a still more fruitful +source, as they could obtain their end only by purchase, and so +gave a new impulse to the cupidity and intriguing disposition of +the members of that council. But private luxury requires everywhere +some time to ripen. It attained its height immediately +after the Mithridatic wars.</p> + +<p>† <span class="smcap">D. Meiner</span>, <i>History of the Corruption of the Morals and +Constitution of the Romans</i>. Leips. 1782.</p> + +<p>† <span class="smcap">Meierotto</span>, <i>Morals and Manners of the Romans at different +periods of the Republic</i>. Berlin, 1776. Which considers +the subject in several points of view.</p> + +<p>† <span class="smcap">C. A. Bottiger</span>, <i>Sabina, or, morning scenes at the toilette +of a rich Roman lady</i>. Leips. 1806, 2 vols. A true and lively +description of the luxury of the Roman ladies, but principally at +its most brilliant period. It has been translated into French.</p></div> + +<div class="sidenote">The African +war against +Jugurtha. +118—106.</div> + + +<p>8. This corruption was manifested in a striking +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_369" id="Page_369">[Pg 369]</a></span>manner in the next great war that Rome entered +into, which was in Africa, against Jugurtha of +Numidia, the adopted grandson of Masinissa; +and soon after against his ally Bocchus of Mauritania. +This war, kindled and maintained by the +avarice of the Roman nobles, which Jugurtha had +already had an opportunity of knowing at the +siege of Numantia, paved the way to the aggrandizement of +<span class="sidenote">C. Marius</span> +C. Marius, a new demagogue, who, +being also a formidable general, did much more +harm to the state than even the Gracchi.</p> + +<div class="sblockquot"><p>Commencement of the quarrel of Jugurtha with the two sons +of Micipsa, and assassination of Hiempsal, one of them, 118.—When +the other, Adherbal, arrived at Rome, 117, the party of +Jugurtha had already succeeded, and obtained a partition of the +kingdom. New attack upon Adherbal, who is besieged in Cirta, +and, notwithstanding the repeated embassies of Rome to Jugurtha, +is compelled to surrender, and is put to death, 112. The +tribune C. Memmius constrains the senate to declare war against +Jugurtha; but Jugurtha purchases a peace of the consul Calpurnius +Piso, 111.—Nevertheless Memmius hinders the ratification +of the peace, and Jugurtha is required to justify himself at +Rome. He would probably, however, have bought his acquittal, +if the murder of his kinsman Massiva, 110, by the help of Bomilcar, +had not rendered it impossible. The war is renewed +under the consul Sp. Albinus and his brother Aulus, 110, but with +very little success, until the incorruptible Q. Metellus took the +command, 109, who would have put an end to it, notwithstanding +the great talents now displayed as a general by Jugurtha, +and his alliance with Bocchus, 108, had he not been supplanted +by Marius, who obtains the consulship by his popularity, 107. +Marius is obliged to have recourse to perfidy to get Jugurtha +into his hands, who is betrayed by Bocchus, 106. Numidia is +divided between Bocchus and two grandsons of Masinissa, +Hiempsal and Hiarbas.</p></div> + +<div class="sidenote">obtains the +consulate;</div> + + +<p>9. The elevation of Marius to the consulate not +only humbled the power of the aristocracy, but +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_370" id="Page_370">[Pg 370]</a></span>also showed, for the first time, that the way was +open to a man of low birth (<i>homo novus</i>) to the +highest offices; the method, however, which he +had taken to form his army, entirely against the +Roman custom, that is, of composing it of the +lower orders (<i>capite censis</i>) must have rendered +him doubly formidable. Nevertheless, he would +scarcely have effected so great a change in the +constitution, if a new and terrible war had not +rendered his services indispensable:—this was +<span class="sidenote">defeats the Cimbri and Teutones;</span> +the threatened invasion of the Cimbri and Teutones +the most powerful nations of the north, +during which a new and violent rebellion of the +slaves was raging in Sicily:—for after the defeat +of so many Roman armies, the people believed +that no one but the conqueror of Jugurtha could +save Italy; and Marius knew so well how to turn +this to account, that he remained consul during +four successive years.</p> + +<div class="sblockquot"><p>The Cimbri, or Cimmerians, probably a nation of German +origin, from beyond the Black sea, originated a popular migration +which extended from thence as far as Spain. Their march was +perhaps occasioned, or accelerated, by the Scythian war of +Mithridates; and their course, like that of most nomad races, +was from east to west along the Danube. They had already, in +113, defeated the consul Papirius Carbo, near Noreia in Styria. +In their progress towards the west they were joined by German, +Celtic, and Helvetic tribes (the <i>Teutones</i>, <i>Ambrones</i>, and <i>Tigurians</i>).—Attack +Roman Gaul, 109, where they demand settlements +and defeat Junius Silanus the consul.—Defeat of L. +Cassius Longinus and M. Aurelius Scaurus, 107.—Great defeat +of the Romans in Gaul, 105, occasioned by the disagreement of +their generals, the consuls, Cn. Manlius and Q. Servius Cæpio. +Marius obtains the command, and remains consul from 104—101. +The migrations of the Cimbri—a part of whom reach the Pyrenees, +but are driven back by the Celtiberians, 103—give Marius<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_371" id="Page_371">[Pg 371]</a></span> +time to complete his army. In 102, after dividing themselves, +they first attempted to penetrate into Italy: the Teutones +through Provence, and the Cimbri by Tyrol.—Great defeat and +slaughter of the Teutones by Marius, near Aix, 102.—The Cimbri, +on the contrary, effect an invasion and make progress till +Marius comes to the help of Catulus. Great battle and defeat of +the Cimbri near the Po, July 30, 101.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">J. Muller</span>, <i>Bellum Cimbricum</i>. Tigur, 1772. A youthful +essay of that celebrated historian. Compare</p> + +<p>† <span class="smcap">Mannert</span>, <i>Geography,</i> etc. part iii.</p></div> + +<div class="sidenote">buys his +sixth consulate.</div> + +<p>10. Although during this war the power of the +popular party had sensibly increased, yet the +storm did not break out until Marius <i>bought</i> +his sixth consulate. Now, even in Rome itself, +he wished to avenge himself upon his +enemies; and what could the senate do, when it +had at its head a demagogue in the consul himself?—His +league with the tribune Saturnius, and +the prætor Glaucias, forming already a true triumvirate, +would have overthrown the republic +after the expulsion of Metellus, if the unbridled +licentiousness of the rabble connected with his +allies had not obliged him to break with them, +lest he should sacrifice the whole of his popularity.</p> + +<div class="sblockquot"><p>The measures of this cabal, who wished to appear as if treading +in the steps of the Gracchi, were principally directed against +Q. Metellus, the chief of the party of the senate, and who, since +the African war, had been the mortal foe of Marius. After the +exile of Metellus, occasioned by his opposition to a new agrarian +law, this faction usurped the rights of the people, and lorded it +in the committees; until, at a new election of consuls, a general +revolt, favoured by Marius himself, took place of all the well-disposed +citizens against them; Saturnius and Glaucias were +besieged in the capitol, forced to surrender, and executed. The<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_372" id="Page_372">[Pg 372]</a></span> +return of Metellus from his voluntary exile soon followed, 92, +much against the will of Marius, who was obliged to retire into +Asia.</p></div> + +<div class="sidenote">98—91.</div> + +<p>11. The few years of tranquillity which Rome +now enjoyed, brought to maturity many benefits +and many evils, the seeds of which had been +already sown. On one hand the rising eloquence +of Antonius, Crassus, and others, was employed +with effect against the oppressors of the provinces +in the state trials (<i>questiones</i>); and some +generous spirits used all their endeavours to heal +the wounds of Sicily, Asia, and other provinces, by +a better administration; while, on the other hand, +the power of the <i>ordo equestris</i> became a source of +much abuse: for besides their right to sit in the +tribunals (<i>judiciis</i>), which C. Gracchus had conferred +upon them, they had also obtained the +farming of the leases, and thereby the collection +of the revenue in the provinces; by which means +they were enabled not only to oppose every reform +that was attempted in the latter, but even +at Rome to hold the senate in a state of dependence. +The struggle which now arose between +them and the senate respecting the <i>judicia</i> +(or right to preside in the tribunal), was one of +the most fatal to the republic, as this right was +abused by them for the purpose of satisfying their +personal rancour, and oppressing the greatest +men. The tribune M. Livius Drusus the younger, +it is true, wrested from them half their power; +but, alas! the manner in which he did it kindled +into a flame the fire which had been smouldering +from the time of the Gracchi.</p> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_373" id="Page_373">[Pg 373]</a></span></p><div class="sblockquot"><p>Acquisition of Cyrene by the testament of king Apion, 97; +notwithstanding which it maintained its independence, although +probably by paying a tribute. Adjustment of the differences +between the kings of Asia Minor by the prætor Sylla, 92 (see +above, p. 294).</p></div> + +<div class="sidenote">War of the +allies, +91—88.</div> + +<p>12. Revolt of the Italian tribes, who desire to +obtain the right of Roman citizens; whereupon +the bloody <i>war of the allies</i> ensues. Although +the oppression of Rome had been preparing this +war for a long time, yet it was an immediate +consequence of the intrigues of the Roman demagogues, +who since the law of the younger +Gracchus, had, with the view of making themselves +popular, continually flattered the allies +with the hope of sharing the privileges of Roman +citizenship. It was however soon seen, that the +allies were not at a loss among themselves for +leaders, capable of forming great plans and executing +them with vigour. Italy was about to +become a republic, with Corfinium for its capital +instead of Rome. Neither could Rome have +saved herself from such an event, but by gradually +permitting the allies to enjoy the complete +freedom of the city.</p> + +<div class="sblockquot"><p>After the civil wars of the Gracchi, large bands of the allies +were continually flocking to Rome. These were in the pay of the +demagogues, whom the <i>lex Licinia</i>, 95, had banished from Rome, +and thereby laid the foundation of the revolt. From that time +the conspiracy among these tribes began, and attained without +interruption such a degree of maturity, that the carelessness of +Rome can only be accounted for from the party fury which then +existed, and which the <i>lex Varia</i>, 91, enacted against the promoters +of rebellion, served only to inflame the more. The murder +of the tribune Livius Drusus, 91, a very ambiguous character, +brought the affair to an open rupture. In this alliance were +the Marsi, Picentes, Peligni, Marrucini, Frentani, the Samnites, +who played a principal part, the Hirpini, Apuli, and the Lu<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_374" id="Page_374">[Pg 374]</a></span>cani. +In this war, which was so much the more bloody, as it was +mostly composed of separate contests and sieges, especially of the +Roman colonies, Cn. Pompeius the elder, L. Cato, Marius, and, +above all, Sylla, particularly distinguished themselves on the side +of the Romans; and among the generals of the allies Pompadias, +C. Papius, etc.—Concession of the freedom of the city, first to +such allies as remained faithful, the Latins, Umbrians, etc. by +the <i>lex Julia</i>, 91; afterwards, by degrees, to the remainder by +the <i>lex Plotia</i>. Some, nevertheless, still continued in arms.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Heyne</span>, <i>de Belli Socialis causis et eventu, in Opusc.</i> t. iii.</p></div> + +<p>13. The war now just ended, essentially changed +the constitution of Rome, as she no longer remained, +as hitherto, the exclusive head of the +whole state; and although the new citizens were +only formed into eight tribes, yet their influence +must soon have been felt in the committees, on +account of the readiness with which they promoted +factions. Besides this, the long-cherished +private hatred between Marius and Sylla was +greatly strengthened by this war, as Sylla's fame +was considerably raised thereby, while that of +Marius was proportionably diminished. An opportunity +was only wanted, like that which the +first Pontine war soon furnished, to stir up a new +civil war, which threatened to destroy the liberty +of Rome.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">Alliance of +Marius with +Sulpicius +against +Sylla, +88.</div> + +<p>14. Alliance of Marius with the tribune Sulpicius, +with the view of wresting from Sylla the +command of the forces against Mithridates, already +conferred upon him by the senate. The +ease with which Sylla, at the head of an army on +which he could depend, expelled the chiefs of +this party, seems to have left him ignorant of the +fact, that the party itself was not thereby destroyed. +However judicious may have been his<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_375" id="Page_375">[Pg 375]</a></span> +other measures, the elevation of Cinna to the consulship +was an error in policy of which Italy had +still more reason to repent than himself. How +much blood might have been spared if Sylla had +not unseasonably wished to become popular!</p> + +<div class="sblockquot"><p>Proposition of Sulpicius for an indiscriminate distribution of +the new citizens and freemen among all the tribes of Italy, +that he might thereby gain a strong party in his favour, which, +by a violent assembly of the people, transfers the command from +Sylla to Marius. March of Sylla upon Rome, and expulsion of +Marius, who, by a series of adventures almost surpassing belief, +escapes to Africa and is proscribed with his son and ten of his +partisans. Reestablishment of the power of the senate, whose +number is made up by three hundred knights. Sylla, after +having caused his friend C. Octavius and his enemy L. Cinna to +be elected consuls, hastens back to Greece.</p></div> + +<div class="sidenote">First war against Mithridates. 89—85.<br /> + +His great power:<br /> + +that of Rome divided.</div> + +<p>15. First war against Mithridates the Great. +Sylla gains several victories over that king's +generals in Greece; wrests from him all his +conquests, and restricts him to his hereditary dominions. +Rome since the time of Hannibal had +met with no such powerful opponent as the king +of Pontus, who in a few months had become +master of all Asia Minor, Macedonia, and Greece, +and threatened even Italy itself; we must besides +consider, that the war on the side of Rome was +carried on in a manner altogether different from +that of any previous one; as Sylla, after the victory +of the opposite party, being himself proscribed +in Rome, was obliged to continue it with +his own army, and his own private resources. +The unfortunate countries which were the theatre +of this war, felt as many calamities during the +struggle, as Italy was doomed to suffer after its +close.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_376" id="Page_376">[Pg 376]</a></span></p> + +<div class="sblockquot"><p>Commencement of the war by Mithridates before the termination +of that of the allies, 89, by taking possession of Cappadocia +and Paphlagonia. He was not less formidable by his alliance +with the tribes along the Danube, and his navy, than by his land +forces; and the irritation of the people of Asia against Rome +rendered his enterprise still more easy. Double victory over +Nicomedes king of Bithynia and the Roman general M. Aquilius, +followed by the conquest of all Asia Minor except the isle of +Rhodes. Massacre of all the Roman citizens in the states of +Asia Minor. Expedition of the king's army into Greece, under +the command of his general Archelaus, who makes Athens the +theatre of the war, 88. Siege and capture of that unfortunate +town by Sylla, 1st March, 87. Repeated great defeats of +Mithridates's army under the command of Archelaus, near Chalcis, +and afterwards near Orchomenus, by Sylla, 86, whose general +plan was formed upon the entire destruction of his enemies. +Negotiations for peace commenced by Archelaus, and finally +settled at a personal conference between Sylla and Mithridates. +The adverse party in Rome, however, had in the mean time sent +a new army into Asia Minor, to act as well against Sylla as +against Mithridates, under the command of L. Valerius Flaccus, +who, however, is assassinated by his lieutenant Fimbria. The +latter gains some advantages over the king, but, being shut up +by Sylla, kills himself. Owing to the licentiousness of his army, +which Sylla dared not restrain; and the heavy contributions exacted +by him in Asia Minor after the peace, in order to carry +on the war in Italy, 84; together with the bodies of pirates +formed out of the fleet disbanded by Mithridates, these unfortunate +countries were almost ruined; the opulent cities more +especially.</p></div> + +<div class="sidenote">New revolution in Rome<br /> +under Cinna and Marius.</div> + +<p>16. But during this war a new revolution took +place in Rome, which not only overthrew the +order reestablished by Sylla, but also, by the +victory of the democratic faction under Cinna and +Marius, gave rise to a wild anarchy of the people, +and which the death of Marius, alas, too late for +Rome! only rendered more destructive; as the +leaders themselves could no longer restrain the +savage hordes of their own party. However<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_377" id="Page_377">[Pg 377]</a></span> +dreadful the prospect of the return of Sylla might +seem, it was nevertheless the only hope that +remained for all those who had not joined the +popular faction, or had not some connection with +its leaders.</p> + +<div class="sblockquot"><p>Revolt of Cinna, brought on by the proscriptions, soon after +the departure of Sylla; Cinna, by distributing the new citizens +into all the tribes, hoped to raise himself a party; but C. Octavius, +at the head of the senate and ancient citizens, drove him +from Rome, and forced him to give up the consulship, 87. He +however soon raised a powerful army in Campania, and recalled Marius +from exile. Capture and pillage of Rome, already weakened +by famine, and horrible massacre of the inhabitants; after which +Marius and Cinna name themselves consuls and banish Sylla. +Death of Marius, 13th Jan. 86. C. Papirius Carbo succeeds him +in the consulship. The mediation of the senate is useless, as the +chiefs of both parties can only hope for security by the annihilation +of their adversaries. The murder of Cinna by his own soldiers, +84, entirely deprives the dominant faction of a competent leader. +Neither the cowardly Carbo, although he remained consul alone, +nor the stupid Norbanus, nor the youth C. Marius (the son), had +sufficient personal authority for that purpose; and Sertorius +leaves Italy in good time to kindle a new flame in Spain.</p></div> + +<div class="sidenote">Sylla's return, +and +bloody civil +war, +83.</div> + +<p>17. Return of Sylla to Italy, and a terrible +civil war, which ends only with the extermination +of the democratic faction, and his own elevation +to the perpetual dictatorship. Although his enemies +had so much advantage over him in point of +numbers, yet their party was so little consolidated, +that he with his veterans could not fail to +obtain an easy victory. The slaughter during this +war fell for the most part upon the Italian tribes, +who had joined the party of Marius, and this +afforded Sylla the means of giving settlements to +his own soldiers; but most of the horrors of this +revolution which fell to the share of Rome, were +reserved till the day of victory was past. +<span class="sidenote">Sylla's proscription.</span> +Sylla's<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_378" id="Page_378">[Pg 378]</a></span> +proscription, which should only have punished his +personal enemies, was the signal for a general +massacre, as every one took that opportunity to +rid himself of his private foes; and avarice did as +much as vengeance. Who in these days, so terrible +to Italy, was sure of his life or property? +And yet, when we consider the dreadful circumstances +which attended the foregoing dominion of +the people, deduct all that was done without +Sylla's knowledge, and consider how much he was +obliged to do in order to satisfy his army, we +shall find it difficult to say how far he deserves +the reproach of wanton cruelty.</p> + +<div class="sblockquot"><p>Sylla's arrival; victory over Norbanus immediately after, and +seduction of the army of the consul Scipio, 82. After this +almost every person of distinction declared in his favour, and the +young Pompey having brought to him an army which he had +himself raised, his party acquired more consideration, and himself +more power. Victory over the younger Marius, near Sacriportum, +who throws himself into Præneste, where he is besieged. +But the great and decisive battle gained before the gates of +Rome, over the Samnites under the command of Telisinus, is +followed by the fall of Præneste and the capture of Rome. +After the proscription which immediately ensued, Sylla is created +perpetual dictator, and secures his power in Rome by the emancipation +of ten thousand slaves, whose masters he had proscribed; +and in Italy by colonies of his veterans, whom he establishes at +the expense of his enemies.</p></div> + +<div class="sidenote">Reform in +the constitution: +81—79.<br /> + +power of the senate restored.<br /> + +Sylla's abdication, 79.</div> + +<p>18. Great reform in the constitution during the +two years' dictatorship of Sylla. The aristocracy +of the senate, which he filled up with knights, +was not only reestablished, but he also stopped +the sources from which the great disorders of the +democracy had hitherto proceeded. It seems +probable that his natural indolence, which led<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_379" id="Page_379">[Pg 379]</a></span> +him to prefer a life of luxurious ease to one of +laborious activity, when he was no longer spurred +to the latter by his passions, was the chief cause +of his voluntary abdication. He had, however, +the great advantage over Marius, of not being the +sport of his own feelings. The conduct of Sylla, +indeed, was so consistent throughout, that it satisfactorily +shows he knew very well what was his +ultimate aim—which Marius never did.</p> + +<div class="sblockquot"><p>Internal regulations of Sylla by the <i>leges Corneliæ</i>. 1. Law +to restrain the influence of the tribunes, by taking from them +their legislative power. 2. Law respecting the succession to the +magistracy; the number of prætors fixed to eight, and the quæstors +to twenty. 3. <i>Lex de majestate</i>, especially to limit the +power of the governors of provinces, and to abolish their exactions. +4. <i>Lex de judiciis</i>, whereby the <i>judicia</i> were again restored to the +senate. 5. Several police regulations, <i>de sicariis</i>, <i>de veneficiis</i>, +etc. for the preservation and tranquillity of Rome, upon which +everything depended. 6. The <i>lex de civitate</i>, taking from the +Latins and several Italian cities and tribes the privileges of +Roman citizens, upon which they set so much store, although +we scarcely know in what they consisted. <i>Foreign wars</i>: War +in Africa against the leaders of the democratic faction, Cn. Domitius +and king Hiarbas, which is ended by a triumph to Pompey, +80. Second war against Mithridates begun by Murena, +in hopes of obtaining a triumph, to whom Archelaus came over; +but which, under the command of Sylla, terminates in an accommodation.</p></div> + +<div class="sidenote">A state like +Rome exposed +to +convulsions.</div> + +<p>19. Nevertheless it was impossible that the +enactments of Sylla should be long observed; as +the evil lay too deep to be eradicated by laws. +A free state like that of Rome, with no middle +class, must, from its nature, be exposed to continual +convulsions, and these will be more or less +violent in proportion to its greatness. Besides, +as in the last revolution almost all property had<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_380" id="Page_380">[Pg 380]</a></span> +changed hands, there was spread over all Italy a +powerful party, who desired nothing so much as +<span class="sidenote">Counter-revolution desired by many.</span> +a counter-revolution. And to this we may add, +that there were many young men, such as Lucullus, +Crassus, and above all Pompey, who had +opened to themselves a career during the late +troubles, which they would scarcely yet wish to +bring to a close. It will not then appear strange, +that immediately after the death of Sylla († 88), a +<span class="sidenote">Æmilius Lepidus.</span> +consul, M. Æmilius Lepidus, should form the design +of becoming a second Marius; a design which +could only be frustrated by the courage and activity +of such a patriotic citizen as Q. Lutatius +Catulus, his colleague.</p> + +<div class="sblockquot"><p>Attempt of Lepidus to rescind the acts of Sylla, 78. Defeated, +first before Rome and again in Etruria, by Catulus and Pompey, +77, after which he dies in Sardinia.</p></div> + +<div class="sidenote">Civil war of Sertorius in Spain.<br /> + +77—72.</div> + +<p>20. But much more dangerous for Rome might +have been the civil war kindled by Sertorius in +Spain, if the plan of that exalted republican to +invade Italy had succeeded. Even Pompey himself, +after a six years' struggle, would hardly have +prevented it, had it not been for the worthlessness +of the Roman vagabonds who surrounded +him, and his assassination by Perpenna. The +rapid termination of the war after the fall of its +conductor, is a circumstance much more creditable +to Sertorius than to the conqueror Pompey.</p> + +<div class="sblockquot"><p>The forces of Sertorius in Spain, consisted not only of the +party of Marius which he had collected, but more essentially of +the Spaniards, particularly the Lusitanians, whom he had inspired +with an unbounded confidence in himself. Very variable +success of the war against Metellus and Pompey, who receive +but very little support from Rome, 77—75. Negotiation of Ser<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_381" id="Page_381">[Pg 381]</a></span>torius +with Mithridates the Great, and interchange of embassies +without any important result, 75. Sertorius assassinated by +Perpenna, 72.</p></div> + +<div class="sidenote">The third +Mithridatic +war; combined +with +the servile +war, and +that of the +pirates,</div> + + +<p>21. Before, however, the flame of war was +totally extinguished in the west, Mithridates +kindled a new and much fiercer one in the east; +at the same time a war of slaves and gladiators +was raging with terrible fury in Italy itself; and +whole fleets of pirates not only ravaged the Italian +coasts, but threatened Rome herself with a famine, +and obliged her to have recourse to a mode +of naval warfare altogether peculiar. All these +enemies were not without intelligence with one +another; and colossal as was the power of the republic +at that time, and rich as Rome was in distinguished +men, it seems probable that the storm +<span class="sidenote">threatens the downfal of Rome.</span> +which beat on every side between 75—71, would +have razed her to the ground, if a stricter alliance +could have been formed between Sertorius, Spartacus, +and Mithridates. But the great difficulty +of communication which at that time existed, and +without which probably a republic such as the +Roman never could have been formed, proved of +more assistance at this crisis than at any other.</p> + +<div class="sblockquot"><p>The third Mithridatic war, occasioned by the will of Nicomedes +king of Bithynia, who had bequeathed his kingdom to +Rome (see above, p. 294), was carried on in Asia Minor, first by +Lucullus, 74—67, and afterwards by Pompey, 66—64. Mithridates, +being better prepared, had already concluded an alliance +with Sertorius in Spain, 75. But the deliverance of Cyzicus by +Lucullus, 73, and the defeat of the king's fleet, intended to act +against Italy, not only frustrated all his original plans, but were +followed by the occupation of his own dominions, 72 and 71, by +the enemy, notwithstanding a new army which Mithridates collected, +mostly from the nomad hordes of Northern Asia. Flight<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_382" id="Page_382">[Pg 382]</a></span> +of Mithridates to Tigranes, 71, who positively refused to deliver +him up, and formed an alliance with him, 70; while the Parthian, +Arsaces XII. held both parties in suspense by negotiations. +Victory of Lucullus over the allied sovereigns, near Tigranocerta, +69, and Artaxata, 68; but the mutinies which now +broke out among his troops not only hindered him from following +up these advantages, but turned the scale so much in Mithridates's +favour, that in 68 and 67 he quickly regained almost all his +dominions, even while the Roman commissioners were on their +route to take possession of them. Lucullus, by his reform in the +finances of Asia Minor, raises a powerful party against himself in +Rome, and thereby loses his command.</p></div> + +<div class="sidenote">The servile +war, +73—71.</div> + + +<p>22. The war of the slaves and gladiators, which +happened nearly at the same time, was, from the +theatre of action being in its neighbourhood, +equally dangerous to Rome; it became still more +terrible from the violence with which these outraged +beings sought to revenge their wrongs, and +more formidable from the talents of their leader, +Spartacus; and the conclusion of this struggle +seemed, therefore, of so much importance to +Rome, that it gave +<span class="sidenote">terminated by Crassus.</span> +M. Crassus a much higher influence +in the state than he could ever have obtained +by his riches alone.</p> + +<div class="sblockquot"><p>Commencement of this war by a number of runaway gladiators, +who, being strengthened by an almost general revolt of the +slaves in Campania, 73, soon became very formidable. The defeat +of four generals, one after the other, throws open to Spartacus +the road to the Alps, and enables him to leave Italy; but +the greediness of booty manifested by his hordes, who wished to +plunder Rome, obliged him to return. Crassus takes the command +and rescues Rome, 72; upon which Spartacus retires into +Lower Italy, hoping to form a junction with the pirates, and to +carry the war into Sicily, but is deceived by them, 71. His +complete overthrow near the Silarus, 71. Pompey, then returning +from Spain, finds means to seize a sprig of the laurel chaplet +which by right should have adorned only the brow of Crassus;<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_383" id="Page_383">[Pg 383]</a></span> +hence arises a misunderstanding between these two commanders, +during their consulate, 70, which threatened to be dangerous +to the state.</p></div> + +<div class="sidenote">The war +against the +pirates;</div> + + +<p>23. The war against the pirates of Sicily and +Isauria was not only very important in itself, but +still more so in its consequences. It procured +for Pompey a legal power such as no Roman general +had ever before enjoyed; and the quick and +glorious manner in which he brought it to a close, +opened for him the way to the great object of his +<span class="sidenote">terminated by Pompey.</span> +ambition—the conduct of the war in Asia against +Mithridates.</p> + +<div class="sblockquot"><p>The extraordinary power acquired by these pirates was owing +partly to the great negligence of the Romans in sea affairs, (see +page 340), partly to the war against Mithridates, who had taken +the pirates into his pay, and partly also to the Roman oppressions +in Asia Minor. War had been undertaken against them as early +as 75, by P. Servilius; but his victories, though they procured +him the title of <i>Isauricus</i>, did them but little harm. They were +to be dreaded, not only for their piracies, but because they also +offered an easy means of communication between the other enemies +of Rome from Spain to Asia. The new attack of the prætor +M. Antonius upon Crete, proved a complete failure; but it was +the cause of that hitherto independent island being again attacked, +68, by Metellus, and reduced to a Roman province, 67. +Pompey takes the command against the pirates with extraordinary +privileges, obtained for him by Gabinius, and finishes the +war in forty days, 67.</p></div> + +<div class="sidenote">Fall of Mithridates.</div> + +<p>24. After these triumphs over so many enemies, +Mithridates was the only one which now remained; +and Pompey had here again the good +fortune to conclude a struggle already near its +end; for notwithstanding his late success, Mithridates +had never been able completely to recover +himself. His fall undoubtedly raised the power<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_384" id="Page_384">[Pg 384]</a></span> +of Rome in Asia Minor to its highest pitch; but +it brought her, at the same time, into contact +with the Parthians.</p> + +<div class="sblockquot"><p>Pompey obtains the conduct of the war against Mithridates +with very extensive privileges, procured for him by the tribune +Manilius (<i>lex Manilia</i>), notwithstanding the opposition of Catulus, +67. His victory by night, near the Euphrates, 66. Subjection +of Tigranes, while Mithridates flies into the Crimea, 65, +whence he endeavours to renew the war. Campaign of Pompey +in the countries about the Caucasus, 65; he marches thence into +Syria, 64. Mithridates kills himself in consequence of the defection +of his son Phraates, 63. Settlement of Asiatic affairs +by Pompey: besides the ancient province of Asia, the maritime +countries of Bithynia, nearly all Paphlagonia and Pontus, are +formed into a Roman province, under the name of Bithynia; +while on the southern coast Cilicia and Pamphylia form another +under the name of Cilicia; Phœnicia and Syria compose a third, +under the name of Syria. On the other hand, Great Armenia +is left to Tigranes; Cappadocia to Ariobarzanes; the Bosphorus +to Pharnaces; Judæa to Hyrcanus (see page 310); and some +other small states are also given to petty princes, all of whom +remain dependent on Rome. The tribes inhabiting Thrace during +the Mithridatic war, were first defeated by Sylla, 85, and their +power was afterwards nearly destroyed by the proconsuls of Macedonia: +as by Appius, in 77; by Curio, who drove them to +the Danube, 75—73; and especially by M. Lucullus, while his +brother was engaged in Asia. Not only the security of Macedonia, +but the daring plans of Mithridates rendered this necessary.</p></div> + +<div class="sidenote">State of Rome;<br /> +changes in her constitution;<br /> +the restoration of the power of the tribunes.</div> + +<p>25. The fall of Mithridates raised the republic +to the highest pitch of her power: there was no +longer any foreign foe of whom she could be +afraid. But her internal administration had undergone +great changes during these wars. Sylla's +aristocratic constitution was shaken by Pompey, +in a most essential point, by the reestablishment +of the power of the tribunes, which was done because +neither he nor any leading men could ob<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_385" id="Page_385">[Pg 385]</a></span>tain +their ends without their assistance. It was +by their means that Pompey had procured such +unlimited power in his two late expeditions, that +the existence of the republic was thereby endangered. +It was, however, a fortunate circumstance +for Rome, that Pompey's vanity was sufficiently +gratified by his being at the head of affairs, where +he avoided the appearance of an oppressor.</p> + +<div class="sblockquot"><p>Reiterated attempts of the tribune Sicinius to annul the constitution +of Sylla defeated by the senate, 76. But as early as +75 Opimius obtained that the tribunes should not be excluded +from honourable offices, and that the judgments (<i>judicia</i>) should +be restored to the knights (<i>equites</i>). The attempts of Licinius +Macer, 72, to restore the tribunes to all their former powers, +encountered but a short opposition; and their complete reestablishment +was effected by Pompey and Crassus during their consulate, +in 70.</p></div> + +<div class="sidenote">This victory +of the democrats +leads to an +oligarchy. +70.<br /> + +Catiline's conspiracy.</div> + + +<p>26. This victory of the democratic faction, however, +in consequence of the use made of it by +some leading men, necessarily led the way to an +oligarchy, which after the consulate of Pompey +and Crassus became very oppressive. Catiline's +conspiracy, which was not matured till after several +attempts, would have broken up this confined +aristocracy, and placed the helm of state +in the hands of another and still more dangerous +faction: a faction composed in part of needy profligates +and criminals dreading the punishment +of their crimes, and partly of ambitious nobles. +It occasioned a short civil war; but procured +<span class="sidenote">Cicero.</span> +Cicero a place in the administration. With what +pleasure do we forgive the little weaknesses and +failings of one so gifted with talents and great +virtues! of one who first taught Rome, in so<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_386" id="Page_386">[Pg 386]</a></span> +many ways, what it was to be great in the robe +of peace!</p> + +<div class="sblockquot"><p>Catiline's first conspiracy, in which Cæsar and Crassus seem +to have been implicated, 66, as well as in the second, 65: failure +of the former by chance—of the latter through Piso's death. +The third broke out in 64, as well in Rome, where the conspirators, +having no armed force, were soon suppressed by the vigilance +and activity of Cicero, 63, as in Etruria, where a victory +of the proconsul Antonius over Catiline, who was left dead on +the field, concluded it, 62.</p></div> + +<div class="sidenote">Effects of +the Asiatic +war on the +Roman +manners.</div> + + + + + + +<p>27. The suppression of this conspiracy, however, +did not stay the effect which the recently +concluded Asiatic war had upon Roman manners. +The luxury of the east, though united with +Grecian taste, which had been introduced among +the great by Lucullus; the immense riches poured +into the treasury by Pompey; the tempting examples +of unlimited power, which single citizens +had already exercised; the purchase of the +magistracy by individuals, in order, like Verres, +after the squandering of millions, to enrich themselves +again in the provinces; the demands of +the soldiers upon their generals; and the ease +with which an army might be raised by him who +had only money enough to pay it; all these circumstances +must have foreboded new and approaching +convulsions, even if the preceding +storms in this colossal republic, in which we +must now judge of virtues and vices, as well as +of riches and power, by a very magnified standard, +had not formed +<span class="sidenote">Great men of this period: Cato.</span> +men of that gigantic character +they did:—men like Cato, who struggled +alone to stem the impetuous torrent of the revolution, +and was sufficiently powerful to retard its +progress for a time; or, like +<span class="sidenote">Pompey.</span> +Pompey, who by +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_387" id="Page_387">[Pg 387]</a></span>good fortune and the art of acquiring influence, +arose to a degree of authority and power never +before attained by any citizen of a free state; or, +like +<span class="sidenote">Crassus.</span> +Crassus, "who only considered him as rich +that could maintain an army by his own private +means," founding their pretensions on wealth; or, +finally, like the aspiring and now powerful +<span class="sidenote">Cæsar.</span> +Cæsar, +whose boundless ambition could only be surpassed +by his talents, and courage, "who would +rather be the first in a village than the second +in Rome." The return of Pompey from Asia, +threatening the senate with a new dictator, appeared +an eventful moment.</p> + +<div class="sblockquot"><p>Attempt of Pompey, through the tribune Metellus Nepos, to +be allowed to return to Rome at the head of his army, frustrated +by the firmness of Cato, 62.</p></div> + +<div class="sidenote">Pompey's +return revives +the +struggle between +him +and the senate, +61.</div> + + +<p>28. The arrival of Pompey in Rome renewed +the struggle between the senate and that powerful +general, although he had disbanded his army on +landing in Italy. The ratification of his management +of affairs in Asia, which was the chief point +of contention, was opposed by the leading men of +the senate, Cato, the two Metelli, and Lucullus, +which induced Pompey to attach himself entirely +to the popular party, by whose means he hoped +to obtain his end; +<span class="sidenote">Cæsar's return from Lusitania, 61.</span> +Cæsar's return, however, from +his province of Lusitania, entirely changed the +face of affairs.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">Triumvirate +of Cæsar, +Pompey, +and Crassus, +60.<br /> + +Cæsar's +consulate, +59,<br /> + +obtains him +the government +of the +two Gauls +and Illyria +for five +years.</div> + +<p>29. Close union between Cæsar, Pompey, and +Crassus; that is, a secret alliance, formed by the +interposition of Cæsar. That which formed the +height of the ambition of Pompey and Crassus +was only regarded by Cæsar as the means by +which he might be able to effect his. His con<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_388" id="Page_388">[Pg 388]</a></span>sulate—a +kind of dictatorship under the mask of +great popularity—necessarily paved the way to +his future career, as by giving him the government +of the two Gauls and Illyria for five years, +it opened a wide field for conquest, and gave him +an opportunity of forming an army devoted to his +will.</p> + +<div class="sblockquot"><p>Cæsar's abode and campaign in Gaul from the spring of 58 till +the end of the year 50. By arresting the emigration of the Helvetians, +and by the expulsion of the Germans, under Ariovistus, +from Gaul, 58, Cæsar gained an opportunity of intermeddling in +the internal affairs of that country, and afterwards of subduing +it, which was completed by his victory over the Belgæ, 57, and +the Aquitani, 56; so that Cæsar was at liberty to undertake his +several expeditions, as well in Britain, 55 and 54, as in Germany, +54 and 53. But the repeated revolts of the Gauls, 53—51, +especially under Vercingetorix, 52, occasioned a war no less obstinate +than their first conquest. Roman policy continued the +same throughout. The Gauls were subdued, by the Romans appearing +as <i>their deliverers</i>; and in the country they found allies +in the Ædui, Allobroges, etc.</p></div> + +<p>30. The triumvirate, in order to establish their +power upon a solid foundation, took care, by the +management of the tribune Clodius, to get rid of +the leaders of the senate, Cato and Cicero, before +the departure of Cæsar; and this they did by +giving the former a kingdom to govern, and by +procuring the banishment of the latter. They +must however soon have discovered, that so bold +a demagogue as Clodius could not be used as a +mere machine. And, indeed, after Cæsar's departure +he raised himself so much above the triumvirs, +that Pompey was soon obliged, for his +own preservation, to permit Cicero to return from +exile, which could only be effected by the most +violent efforts of the tribune Milo. The power of<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_389" id="Page_389">[Pg 389]</a></span> +Clodius, however, was but little injured thereby, +although Pompey, to put a stop to the source of +these disorders, and revive his own popularity, +procured the nomination of himself as <i>præfectus +annonæ</i>, or superintendent of provisions.</p> + +<div class="sblockquot"><p>Exile of Cicero, the greater part of which he spent in Macedonia, +from April, 58, till 4th Sept. 57. Ptolemy king of Cyprus +deposed, and that island reduced to a Roman province by +Cato, on the proposition of Clodius, 57 (see page 264). The +personal dislike of Clodius and the riches of the king were the +causes that brought upon him this misfortune.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Middleton's</span> <i>Life of Cicero</i>, 2 vols. 8vo. This work is almost +a complete history of Rome during the age of Cicero; for +whom the writer discovers an undue partiality.</p> + +<p>† <span class="smcap">M. Tullius Cicero</span>, <i>all his Letters translated, in chronological +order, and illustrated with notes</i>, by <span class="smcap">C. M. Wieland</span>. +Zurich, 1808. With a preliminary view of the life of Cicero. +Of all Germans the writings of Wieland, whether original or +translations (and to which can we give the preference?) afford +the most lively insight into Greek and Roman antiquity at various +periods. What writer has so truly seized its spirit, and +placed it so faithfully and elegantly before his readers? His +labours on the Letters of Cicero (whose foibles he exposes with +a rigorous and unflinching hand) serve to make us much better +acquainted with Rome, as it then was, than any Roman history.</p></div> + +<div class="sidenote">Jealousy of +the triumvirate.</div> + +<p>31. A jealousy arises between the triumvirate, +as Cæsar, though absent, still found means to +keep up his party at Rome in such watchful activity, +that Pompey and Crassus considered it +impossible to maintain their own influence, except +by procuring such concessions as had been +made to him. Harmony once more restored by +an accommodation at Lucca, as the parties found +it necessary to preserve a good understanding +with each other.</p> + +<div class="sblockquot"><p>The terms of this accommodation were; that Cæsar should +have his government prolonged for another five years; and that +Pompey and Crassus should enjoy the consulship for the ensuing<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_390" id="Page_390">[Pg 390]</a></span> +year, the former receiving the provinces of Spain and Africa; +and the latter that of Syria, for the purpose of carrying on a war +against the Parthians. In proportion as these conditions were +kept secret, there remained less secrecy respecting the alliance +itself.</p></div> + +<div class="sidenote">Second +consulate of +Pompey +and Crassus, +55.</div> + +<p>32. Second consulate of Pompey and Crassus. +It was only amidst violent storms that they could +effect their purposes; as it depended upon which +faction should first gain or keep possession of the +forum. The resistance they met with from the +inflexible disposition of Cato, who in his austere +virtue alone found means to secure himself a +powerful party, shows how unfairly those judge +who consider the power of the triumvirate as unlimited, +and the nation as entirely corrupted.</p> + +<div class="sblockquot"><p>Campaign of Crassus against the Parthians, undertaken at his +own expense, 54. Instead, however, of gathering laurels like +Cæsar, he and his whole army were completely overthrown in +Mesopotamia, 53; and the Parthians from this time maintain a +powerful preponderance in Asia (see above, p. 302).</p></div> + +<div class="sidenote">Pompey +aspires to +become +head of the +republic;</div> + +<p>33. As the triumvirate by this failure of Crassus +was reduced to a duumvirate, Pompey (who remained +in Rome, and governed his provinces by +lieutenants), in the midst of continual domestic +broils, which he cunningly took care to foment, +was evidently aiming to become the acknowledged +head of the senate and republic. The +idea that a dictator was necessary prevailed more and more +<span class="sidenote">53.</span> +during an anarchy of eight months, in +which no appointment of a consul could take +place; and notwithstanding the opposition of +Cato, Pompey succeeded, after a violent commotion, +in which Clodius was murdered by Milo, in +getting himself nominated +<span class="sidenote">is appointed sole consul, 52.</span> +sole consul; a power +equal to that of dictator.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_391" id="Page_391">[Pg 391]</a></span></p> + +<div class="sblockquot"><p>Consulate of Pompey, 52, in which, at the end of seven months, +he took as colleague his father-in-law Metellus Scipio. The government +of his provinces, which afterwards became the chief +seat of the republicans, is prolonged for five years.</p></div> + +<div class="sidenote">Civil war +inevitable.</div> + +<p>34. From this time civil war became inevitable; +for not only the chiefs of the parties, but +also their adherents desired it. The approach of +the time when Cæsar's command would expire, +necessarily hastened the crisis. Could it be supposed +that the conqueror of Gaul would return +to a private life, and leave his rival at the head of +the republic? The steps taken on both sides +towards an accommodation were only made to +escape the odium which would attach to him who +struck the first blow. But Pompey unfortunately +could never understand his opponent, who did all +himself, all completely, and all alone. The brilliant +light in which Pompey now appeared, as +<i>defender of the republic</i>, delighted him so much, +that it made him forget what belonged to its defence; +while Cæsar avoided, with the greatest +care, every appearance of usurpation. The friend, +the protector of the people against the usurpations +of their enemies, was the character which +he now chose to assume.</p> + +<div class="sblockquot"><p>Commencement of the contest upon Cæsar's demand to be +allowed to hold the consulship while absent, 52. Cæsar, by the +most lavish corruption, had increased his adherents in Rome, +gained the tribunes, and among them especially the powerful +speaker C. Curio (whom he did not think too dearly purchased +at the price of about half a million sterling); by this man it was +suggested to Cæsar that he should give up his command, and +leave a successor to be appointed in his place, 51, if Pompey +would do the same: a proposition which created a prejudice +much in his favour. Repeated, but insincere offers of both parties +for an accommodation, 50, till at last a decree of the senate<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_392" id="Page_392">[Pg 392]</a></span> +was passed, Jan. 7, 49, by which Cæsar was commanded "to +disband his army under the penalty of being declared an enemy +to the republic," without regard to the intercessions of the tribunes, +whose flight to him gave an appearance of popularity to his +party. Cæsar crosses the Rubicon, the boundary of his province.</p></div> + +<div class="sidenote">Civil war +between +Cæsar and +Pompey.</div> + +<p>35. The civil war now about to break out, +seemed likely to spread over nearly all the countries +of the Roman empire; as Pompey, finding +it impossible to maintain himself in Italy, had +chosen Greece for the principal theatre of the +war; while his lieutenants, with the armies under +their command, occupied Spain and Africa. +Cæsar, by the able disposition of his legions, was +everywhere present, without exciting beforehand +any suspicion of his movements. A combination +of circumstances, however, carried the war into +Alexandria, and even as far as Pontus; indeed it +might be called rather a series of six successive +wars than merely one, all of which Cæsar, by +flying with his legions from one quarter of the +world to the other, ended, within five years, victoriously +and in person.</p> + +<div class="sblockquot"><p>Rapid occupation of Italy in sixty days (when the troops +under Domitius surrendered at Corfinus), which, as well as +Sicily and Sardinia, were subdued by Cæsar almost without opposition; +Pompey, with his troops and adherents, having crossed +over to Greece. Cæsar's first campaign in Spain against Pompey's +generals, Afranius and Petreius, whom he forces to surrender; +this, however, is counterbalanced by the loss of the legions under +Curio in Africa. In December, 49, however, Cæsar is again in +Italy, and named dictator, which he exchanges for the consulate. +Spirited expedition into Greece with the ships he had been previously +collecting together, Jan. 4, 49. Unfortunate engagement +at Dyrrachium. Removal of the war into Thessaly, and decisive +battle of Pharsalia, July 20, 48, after which Pompey flies to +Alexandria, where he is killed on his landing. Cæsar arrives +three days after him at Alexandria.</p></div><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_393" id="Page_393">[Pg 393]</a></span></p> + +<div class="sidenote">Cæsar again +dictator.</div> + +<p>36. Cæsar, after the victory of Pharsalia, again +nominated dictator, with great privileges. The +death of Pompey, however, does not destroy his +party; and the six months' war of Alexandria, +as well as the expedition into Pontus against +Pharnaces, gave them time to rally their forces +both in Africa under Cato, and in Spain under +the sons of Pompey.</p> + +<div class="sblockquot"><p>During the Alexandrine war (see above, p. 266) and the expedition +against Pharnaces, the son of Mithridates,—who had +obtained the kingdom of his father, but was slain by Cæsar immediately +after his arrival, 47,—great disorders had broken out +in Rome, caused by the tribune Dolabella's flattering the people +with the abolition of debts (<i>novæ tabulæ</i>), notwithstanding the +military power of M. Antony, whom Cæsar had sent to Rome as +master of the horse (<i>magister equitum</i>), as this abandoned sensualist +at first actually favoured the projects of the tribune. +Cæsar's return to Rome, December, 47, put an end, it is true, to +these disorders; but the increase of the opposite party in Africa, +and an insurrection among his soldiers, obliged him to set out +for Africa immediately, January, 46. Victory near Thapsus +over Scipio and Juba; after which Cato kills himself at Utica. +Numidia, the kingdom of Juba, becomes a Roman province. +Cæsar after his return to Rome in June, is only able to stay +there four months, as, before the end of the year, he is obliged to +set out for Spain to crush the dangerous efforts of Pompey's two +sons. Bloody battle at Munda, March, 45, after which Cneius is +killed, but Sextus escapes to the Celtiberians.</p></div> + +<div class="sidenote">Enquiry into +the views +of Cæsar.</div> + +<p>37. Nothing seems more evident than that +Cæsar did not, like Sylla, overthrow the republic +for the purpose of reestablishing it; and it is +perhaps impossible to say what could be the final +views of a childless usurper, who throughout his +whole career, seemed only to be guided by an inordinate +ambition, springing from a consciousness +of superior powers, and to satisfy which, no means +seemed to him difficult or unlawful. The period<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_394" id="Page_394">[Pg 394]</a></span> +of his dictatorship was so short, and so much interrupted +by war, that his ultimate plans had not +time for their development. He endeavoured to +establish his dominion by popular measures; and +although his army must still have been his main +support, yet no proscription was granted to satisfy +it. The reestablishment of order in the distracted +country of Italy, and particularly in the +capital, was his first care; and he proposed to +follow that by an expedition against the powerful +Parthian empire. His attempts, however, to obtain +the diadem, seemed to place it beyond a +doubt that he wished to introduce a formal monarchy. +But the destruction of the form of the +republic was shown to be more dangerous than +the overthrow of the republic itself.</p> + +<div class="sblockquot"><p>The following were the honours and privileges granted to +Cæsar by the senate. After the battle of Pharsalia, 48, he was +nominated dictator for one year and consul for five years; and +obtained the <i>potestas tribunicia</i>, as well as the right of making +war and peace, the exclusive right of the committees, with the +exception of the tribunes, and the possession of the provinces. +The dictatorship was renewed to him, 47, for ten years, as well +as the <i>præfectura morum</i>, and was at last, 145, conferred upon +him for ever, with the title of <i>imperator</i>. Although Cæsar thus +became absolute master of the republic, it appears to have been +done without laying aside the republican forms.</p></div> + +<div class="sidenote">Conspiracy +formed against +him, +44. +by Brutus, +Cassius, etc.<br /> + +His Death, March 15.</div> + +<p>38. Conspiracy against Cæsar, formed by Brutus +and Cassius, and terminating in the death of +Cæsar. Men so exalted as were the chiefs of +this plot, easily understand one another; and it +was quite in accordance with their character not +to meditate upon the consequences of their deed. +Cæsar's death was a great misfortune for Rome. +Experience soon showed that the republic could<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_395" id="Page_395">[Pg 395]</a></span> +not be reestablished thereby; and his life might +probably have spared the state some of those calamities +which now, by its change to a monarchy, +became unavoidable.</p> + +<div class="sblockquot"><p>We still want a discriminating life of Cæsar, who in modern +times has been as extravagantly praised as Alexander has been +unjustly censured. As generals and conquerors, both were +equally great—and little; as a man, however, the Macedonian, +in the brilliant period of his life, to which Cæsar never attained, +was superior; to the great political ideas which developed themselves +in Alexander, we know of none corresponding in Cæsar; +who knew better than any how to attain dominion, but little of +preserving it.</p> + +<p><i>Histoire de la Vie de Jules Cæsar</i>, <i>par</i> <span class="smcap">M. de Bury</span>, Paris, +1758, 2 vols. 8vo.</p> + +<p>† <i>Life of C. Julius Cæsar</i>, <i>by</i> <span class="smcap">A. G. Meissner</span>, <i>continued by</i> +J. Ch. L. Haken, 1811, 4 parts. At present the best.</p> + +<p><i>Caius Julius Cæsar, from original sources</i>, <i>by</i> <span class="smcap">Professor +Söltl</span>. A short biography, judiciously executed.</p></div> + +<div class="sidenote">Amnesty +declared; +but not approved +by +Antony and +Lepidus.</div> + +<p>39. Notwithstanding the amnesty at first declared, +the funeral obsequies of Cæsar soon +showed, that peace was of all things the least +desired by his generals, M. Antony and M. Lepidus, +now become the head of his party; and the +arrival of Cæsar's nephew, C. Octavius (afterwards +Cæsar Octavianus), whom he had adopted +in his will, rendered affairs still more complicated, +as every one strove for himself; Antony's particular +object being to raise himself into Cæsar's +place. However earnestly they sought to gain +the people, it was in fact the legions who decided, +and the command of them depended, for +the most part, upon the possession of the provinces. +We cannot therefore wonder, that while +they sought to revenge the murder of Cæsar, this<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_396" id="Page_396">[Pg 396]</a></span> +became the chief cause of the struggle, and in a +few months led to a civil war.</p> + +<div class="sblockquot"><p>At the time of Cæsar's death, M. Antonius was actual consul, +and Dolabella consul-elect; M. Lepidus <i>magister equitum</i> (master +of the horse); M. Brutus and Cassius, prætors (the first, +<i>prætor urbanus</i>). Cæsar had given to the former the province +of Macedonia, and to the latter that of Syria, which had been +confirmed to them by the senate. M. Lepidus had been nominated +to Transalpine, and D. Brutus to Cisalpine Gaul. But +soon after the murder of Cæsar, Antony obtained, by a decree +of the people, Macedonia for himself, and Syria for his colleague +Dolabella, with whom he had formed a close connection; instead +of which the senate decreed to Cassius Cyrene, and to Brutus, +who now had the important charge of supplying Rome with +provisions, Crete. But soon after (June 1, 44), Antony desired, +by a new change, to obtain Cisalpine Gaul for himself, and +Macedonia for his brother C. Antony, both of which he procured +from the people.</p></div> + +<div class="sidenote">Antony endeavours +to +establish +himself in +Cisalpine +Gaul.</div> + +<p>40. As M. Antony sought by force to establish +himself in Cisalpine Gaul, and D. Brutus refused +to give it up to him, and retired into Mutina, a +short, indeed, but very bloody civil war arose, +(<i>bellum mutinense</i>.) The eloquence of Cicero had +caused Antony to be declared an enemy of the +republic; and the two new consuls, Hirtius and +Pansa, together with Cæsar Octavianus, were +sent against him. The defeat of Antony compelled +him to seek refuge beyond the Alps with +Lepidus; but the two consuls being slain, Octavianus +at the head of his legions was too importunate +to be refused the consulship, and soon +convinced the defenceless senate, how impossible +it was to reestablish the commonwealth by their +powerless decrees. The employment, moreover, +of the <i>magistratus suffecti</i>, which soon after arose, +was in itself a sufficient proof that it was now no<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_397" id="Page_397">[Pg 397]</a></span> +more than the shadow of what it had formerly +been.</p> + +<div class="sblockquot"><p>The Mutine war begins in December, 44, and closes with the +defeat of Antony at Mutina, April 14, 43. Octavius obtains the +consulate, Sept. 22.</p></div> + +<div class="sidenote">Formation +of a triumvirate +by C. +Octavianus, +M. Antony, +and Lepidus.</div> + +<p>41. Octavianus, deserting the party of the +senate, enters into a secret negotiation with Antony +and Lepidus; the consequence of which is +a meeting of the parties at Bononia, and the formation +of a new triumvirate. They declare +themselves the chiefs of the republic for five +years, under the title of <i>triumviri reipublicæ constituendæ</i>; +and dividing the provinces among themselves +according to their own pleasure, they make +the destruction of the republican party their principal +object. A new proscription in Rome itself, +and a declaration of war against the murderers of +Cæsar, were the means by which they proposed +to effect it.</p> + +<div class="sblockquot"><p>The agreement of the triumvirate was concluded Nov. 27, 43, +after which the march of the triumvirs upon Rome gives the +signal for the massacre of the proscribed, which soon extends all +over Italy, and in which Cicero perishes, Dec. 7. The cause of +this new proscription was not party hatred alone, but was as +much, perhaps more, owing on the one hand to the want of +money for carrying on the war they had undertaken, and on the +other to a desire of satisfying the turbulent demands of the legions. +Where is to be found a time so full of terror as this, when +even tears were forbidden?</p></div> + +<div class="sidenote">Civil war +between the +oligarchy +and republicans.</div> + +<p>42. The civil war, now on the eve of breaking +out, may be considered therefore as a war between +the oligarchy and the defenders of the +republic. The Roman world was, as it were, +divided between the two; and although the former +had possession of Italy, and the western pro<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_398" id="Page_398">[Pg 398]</a></span>vinces, +that advantage seemed counterbalanced to +the chiefs of the opposite party by the possession +of the eastern countries, and the naval power of +Sextus Pompey, which seemed to assure them +the dominion of the sea.</p> + +<div class="sblockquot"><p>M. Brutus had taken possession of his province of Macedonia +as early as the autumn of 44; while Cassius, on the contrary, +had to contend for that of Syria with Dolabella, who by the +murder of the proconsul Trebonius had possessed himself of Asia. +Being, however, for this offence, declared an enemy by the +senate, and shut up in Laodicea by Cassius, he killed himself, +June 5, 43. From this time Brutus and Cassius were masters +of all the eastern provinces, at whose expense they maintained +their troops, though not without much oppression. S. Pompey, +after the victory of Munda, 45, having secreted himself in Spain, +and afterwards become a chief of freebooters, had grown very +powerful; when the senate, after Cæsar's assassination, having +made him commander of the sea-forces, he with them took possession +of Spain, and, after the conclusion of the triumvirate, of +Sicily, and then, very soon after, of Sardinia and Corsica. It was +a great thing for the triumvirate, that C. Pompey did not know +how to reap half the profit he might have done from his power +and good fortune.</p></div> + +<div class="sidenote">Its seat in +Macedonia.</div> + +<p>43. Macedonia became the theatre of the new +civil war, and together with the goodness of their +cause, superior talents, and greater power both +by land and sea, seemed combined to ensure the +victory to Brutus and Cassius. But in the decisive +battle at Philippi, fortune played one of her +most capricious tricks, and with the two chiefs +fell the last supporters of the republic.</p> + +<div class="sblockquot"><p>Double battle at Philippi towards the close of the year 42; +voluntary death of Cassius after the first, and of Brutus after the +second engagement.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Plutarchi</span> <i>Vita Bruti</i>; from the narratives of eyewitnesses.</p></div> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_399" id="Page_399">[Pg 399]</a></span></p> +<div class="sidenote">Quarrels of +the oligarchy +among +themselves.</div> + + +<p>44. The history of the eleven years intervening +between the battle of Philippi and that of Actium, +is little more than an account of the quarrels +of the oligarchy among themselves. The most +subtle was, in the end, victorious; for M. Antony +possessed all the sensuality of Cæsar, without +his genius: and the insignificant Lepidus +soon fell a sacrifice to his own vanity and weakness. +While Antony went into Asia to arrange +the affairs of the eastern provinces, and from +thence with Cleopatra to Alexandria, Octavianus +returned to Rome. But the famine which then +reigned in that city through Pompey's blockade +of the seacoast; the misery spread throughout +Italy by the wresting of patrimonial lands from +the proprietors to distribute among the veterans; +and the insatiable covetousness of the latter rendered +his situation as dangerous now as it had +<span class="sidenote">Fulvia causes a civil war;</span> +been before the war. Besides all this, the hatred +of the enraged consort of Antony, who had entered +into an alliance with her brother-in-law, the +consul L. Antony, brought on, towards the end +of the year, a civil war, which ended with the +surrender and burning of Perusium, in which L. +Antony had shut himself up, and which was +already much weakened by famine.</p> + +<div class="sblockquot"><p>The <i>bellum Perusinum</i> lasted from the end of the year 41 till +April, 40.</p></div> + +<div class="sidenote">40.</div> + +<p>45. This war, however, had nearly led to one +still greater; for M. Antony, as the enemy of +Octavianus, had come to Italy in order to assist +his brother, and with the intention of forming an +alliance with S. Pompey against the former. But +fortunately for the world, not only was harmony<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_400" id="Page_400">[Pg 400]</a></span> +restored between the triumvirs, but on account of +the great famine which prevailed at Rome, a +peace was also concluded with Pompey, although +it lasted but a very short time.</p> + +<div class="sblockquot"><p>The principal object of the peace between the triumvirs was a +new division of the provinces, by which the city of Scodra in +Illyria was fixed upon as the boundary. Antony obtained all the +eastern provinces; Octavianus all the western; and Lepidus +Africa. Italy remained in common to them all. The marriage +of Antony with Octavia, Fulvia being dead, was intended to cement +this agreement. In the peace concluded with S. Pompey +at Misenum, he obtained the islands of Sicily, Sardinia, and Corsica, +and the promise of Achaia.</p></div> + +<div class="sidenote">Pompey recommences +the war;<br /> + +which +causes his +destruction, +38; and +Lepidus's +expulsion, +39.</div> + +<p>46. Pompey, however, was not long in finding +that an alliance between him and the triumvirs +would only end in his own destruction; and the +war which he soon commenced, and which Octavianus +could not bring to a close but with the +assistance of Agrippa, was of so much the more +importance, as it not only decided the fate of +Pompey, but by leading to dissensions, and the +expulsion of Lepidus, reduced the triumvirate to +a duumvirate.</p> + +<div class="sblockquot"><p>After a doubtful engagement at sea, 38, and the formation of +a new fleet, Pompey was attacked on all sides at the same time; +Lepidus coming from Africa, and Antony sending also some +ships. Final overthrow of Pompey, who flies to Asia and there +perishes.—Lepidus wishing to take possession of Sicily, Octavianus +gains over his troops, and obliges him to retire from the +triumvirate.</p></div> + +<div class="sidenote">Foreign +wars prevent +Augustus +and Antony +from +coming to +an open +rupture.<br /> + +35—33.<br /> + +Antony offends +Rome +and +divorces +Octavia, 32.</div> + +<p>47. The foreign wars in which Octavianus as +well as Antony were engaged in the following +years, prevented for some time their mutual +jealousy from coming to an open rupture. Octavianus, +to tame his unruly legions, employed them +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_401" id="Page_401">[Pg 401]</a></span>with some success against the nations of Dalmatia +and Pannonia; whilst Antony undertook an expedition +against the powerful Parthians and their +neighbours. But in offending Rome by his conduct +in these wars, he only armed his opponent +against himself; and his formal separation from +Octavia, loosened the only tie which had hitherto +held together the two masters of the world.</p> + +<div class="sblockquot"><p>After his first stay in Alexandria, 41, Antony returned to Italy, +40, and then, having made peace with Octavianus, he carried his +new wife Octavia with him into Greece, where he remained till +the year 37. Although his lieutenant Ventidius had fought with +success against the Parthians, who had invaded Syria (see +above, p. 302.), Antony determined to undertake an expedition +against them himself, 36. But although in alliance with +Artavasdes king of Armenia (whom he soon after accused of +treachery), in seeking to effect an entrance into Parthia, by +passing through Armenia and Media, a different route from that +taken by Crassus, he was very nearly meeting with the same +fate, and the expedition completely failed. He then revenged +himself upon Artavasdes, who fell into his hands in a fresh expedition +which he made, 34, and deprived him of his kingdom. +After his triumphal entrance into Alexandria, he made a grant +of this as well as other countries to Cleopatra and her children. +(See above, p. 267.) In 33, he intended to renew his expedition +against the Parthians, in alliance with the king of Media; but +having, at the instigation of Cleopatra, ordered Octavia to return +home, when she had already come as far as Athens on her way to +meet him, Octavianus and Antony reciprocally accused each other +before the senate, and war was declared at Rome, though only +against Cleopatra.</p></div> + +<div class="sidenote">Greece the +seat of war +between +Antony and +Octavianus.<br /> + +Antony defeated at Actium, 2d. Sept. 31;<br /> + +his death, 30, +leaves Octavianus +without a +rival.</div> + +<p>48. Greece became again the theatre of war; +and although the forces of Antony were most +considerable, yet Octavianus had the advantage +of having, at least in appearance, the better +cause. The naval victory of Actium decided for +Octavianus, who could scarcely believe it, till he +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_402" id="Page_402">[Pg 402]</a></span>found that Antony had forsaken his fleet and +army, the latter of which surrendered without +striking a blow. The capture of Egypt followed, +(see above, p. 267.) and that country was reduced +to a Roman province; the death of Antony and +Cleopatra ended the war, and left Octavianus +absolute master of the republic.</p> + +<div class="sblockquot"><p>The history of the last days of Antony, principally after his +decline, having been written under the rule of his enemies, must +be received with that mistrust which all such histories require. +It has furnished abundant matter for the retailers of anecdote. +The history of Cleopatra rests partly on the accounts of her physician +Olympus, of which Plutarch made use.</p></div> + + + +<hr style="width: 25%;" /> +<h2>FOURTH PERIOD.</h2> + +<p class="iblockquot2">HISTORY OF THE ROMAN STATE AS A MONARCHY TO THE +OVERTHROW OF THE WESTERN EMPIRE. B. C. 30.—A. C. +476.</p> + + +<p class="iblockquot2"><i>Geographical outline. View of the Roman empire and +provinces, and other countries connected with it by war +or commerce.</i></p> + +<div class="sidenote">Boundaries +of the Roman +empire.</div> + +<p>The ordinary boundaries of the Roman empire, +which, however, it sometimes exceeded, were in +Europe the two great rivers of the Rhine and +Danube; in Asia, the Euphrates and the sandy +desert of Syria; in Africa likewise, the sandy +regions. It thus included the fairest portions of +the earth, surrounding the Mediterranean sea.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_403" id="Page_403">[Pg 403]</a></span></p> + +<div class="sidenote">European countries: Spain.</div> + +<p><span class="smcap">European countries</span>: I. Spain (Hispania). +Boundaries: on the east the Pyrenees, on the +south, north, and west, the sea. Principal rivers: +the Minius (Minho), Durius (Douro), Tagus +(Tejo), Anas (Guadiana), Bætis (Guadalquiver), +which flow into the Atlantic; and the Iberus +(Ebro), which falls into the Mediterranean. +Mountains: besides the Pyrenees, the Idubeda +along the Iberus, Orospeda (Sierra Morena). +<span class="sidenote">Lusitania.</span> +Divided into three provinces. +1. Lusitania: +northern boundary the Durius, southern, the +Anas. Principal tribes: Lusitani, Turdetani. +Principal town: Augusta Emerita. +<span class="sidenote">Bætica.</span> +2. Bætica: +boundaries on the north and west the Anas, on +the east the mountains of Orospeda. Principal +tribes: Turduli, Bastuli. Principal towns: Corduba +(Cordova), Hispalis (Seville), Gades (Cadiz), +Munda. +<span class="sidenote">Tarraconensis.</span> +3. Tarraconensis, all the remainder of +Spain. Principal tribes: Callæci, Astures, Cantabri, +Vascones, in the north; Celtiberi, Carpetani, +Ilergetes, in the interior; Indigetes, Cosetani, +etc. on the Mediterranean. Chief towns: +Tarraco (Tarragona), Cartago Nova (Carthagena), +Toletum (Toledo), Ilerda (Lerida); Saguntum +and Numantia (Soria) were already destroyed. +<span class="sidenote">Balearic isles.</span> +The Balearic isles, Major (Majorca), and Minor +(Minorca), were considered as belonging to +Spain.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">Transalpine Gaul:</div> + +<p>II. Transalpine Gaul. Boundaries: on the +west the Pyrenees; on the east the Rhine, and a +line drawn from its source to the little river +Varus, together with that river itself; on the +north and south the sea. Principal rivers: the +Garumna (Garonne), Liger (Loire), Sequana +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_404" id="Page_404">[Pg 404]</a></span>(Seine), and Scaldis (Scheldt), which empty +themselves into the ocean; the Rhodanus (Rhone), +which is increased by the Arar (Saone), and falls +into the Mediterranean; and the Mosella (Moselle) +and Mosa (Meuse), which flow into the +Rhine. Mountains: besides the Alps, the Jura, +Vogesus (Vosge), and Cebenna (Cevennes). +Divided into four provinces. +<span class="sidenote">Gallia Narbonensis.</span> +1. Gallia Narbonensis, +or Braccata. Boundaries: on the west +the Pyrenees, on the east the Varus, on the north +the Cevennian mountains. Principal tribes: +Allobroges, Volcæ, Calyes. Principal towns: +Narbo (Narbonne), Tolosa (Toulouse), Nemausus +(Nîmes), Massilia (Marseilles), Vienna. +<span class="sidenote">Gallia Celtica.</span> +2. Gallia Lugdunensis, or Celtica. Boundaries: to the +south and west the Liger (Loire), to the north the +Sequana, to the east the Arar. Principal tribes: +Ædui, Lingones, Parisii, Cenomani, etc. all of +Celtic origin. Principal towns: Lugdunum +(Lyons), Lutetia Parisiorum (Paris), Alesia +(Alise). +<span class="sidenote">Gallia Aquitanica.</span> +3. Gallia Aquitanica. Boundaries: the +Pyrenees on the south, the Liger on the north +and east. Principal tribes: Aquitani (of Iberian +origin), Pictones, Averni, etc. of Celtic descent. +Principal towns: Climberis, Burdegala (Bourdeaux). +<span class="sidenote">Gallia Belgica.</span> +4. Gallia Belgica. Boundaries: on the +north and east the Rhine, on the west the Arar, +on the south the Rhodanus as far as Lugdunum, +so that it comprised at first the countries bordering +on the Rhine and Helvetia. The latter, +however, were afterwards separated from it under +the names of Germania Inferior and Superior. +Principal tribes: Nervii, Bellovaci, etc. in the +north, of Belgic origin; Treviri, Ubii, of Ger<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_405" id="Page_405">[Pg 405]</a></span>man +origin; Sequani, Helvetii, in the interior, +of Celtic origin. Principal towns: Vesentio +(Besançon), Verodunum (Verdun), etc. Along +the Rhine in Germania Inferior: Colonia Agrippina +(Cologne). In Germania Superior: Mogontiacum +(Mayence, or Mentz), and Argentoratum +(Strasburg).</p> + +<div class="sidenote">Cisalpine +Gaul.</div> + +<p>III. Gallia Cisalpina, or Togata (Lombardy, +see above, p. 315). But as from the time of +Cæsar the inhabitants enjoyed all the privileges +of Roman citizens, it may be reckoned as forming +part of Italy.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">Sicily.</div> + +<p>IV. Sicilia; divided into Syracuse and Lilybæum.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">Sardinia, +Corsica.</div> + +<p>V. Sardinia and Corsica, see above, p. 320.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">British +islands.</div> + +<p>VI. The Insulæ Britannicæ (British islands); +but of these, only England and the southern part +of Scotland were reduced into a Roman province +in the time of Nero, under the name of Britannia +Romana. Principal rivers: Tamesis (Thames) +and Sabrina (Severn). Cities: Eboracum (York) +in the north, Londinum (London) in the south. +Into Scotland, Britannia Barbaria, or Caledonia, +the Romans often penetrated, but without being +ably completely to conquer it; and as for Hibernia, +Ierne (Ireland), it was visited by Roman +merchants, but never by Roman legions.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">Countries +south of the +Danube: +Vindelicia.</div> + +<p>VII. The countries south of the Danube, +which were subdued under Augustus and formed +into the following provinces: 1. Vindelicia. +Boundaries: on the north the Danube, on the +east the Ænus (Inn), on the west Helvetia, on +the south Rhætia. Principal tribes: Vindelici, +Brigantii, etc. Principal towns: Augusta Vin<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_406" id="Page_406">[Pg 406]</a></span>delicorum +(Augsburg), Brigantia (Bregenz). +<span class="sidenote">Rhætia.</span> +2. Rhætia. Boundaries: on the north Vindelicia, +on the east the Inn and the Salza, on the south +the chain of the Alps from Lacus Verbanus (Lago +Maggiore) to Belinzona, on the west Helvetia. +Principal tribe: Rhæti. Principal towns: Curia +(Chur), Veldidena (Wilden), Tridentum (Trent). +<span class="sidenote">Noricum.</span> +3. Noricum. Boundaries: on the north the +Danube, on the west the Ænus, on the east the +mountain Cetius (Kahlenberg), and on the south +the Julian Alps and the Savus (Save). Principal +tribes: Boii. Cities: Jovavum (Salzburg), +Boiodurum (Passau). +<span class="sidenote">Pannonia Superior.</span> +4. Pannonia Superior. +Boundaries: on the north and east the Danube, +on the south the Arrabo (Raab), on the west the +mountain Cetius. Cities: Vindobona (Vienna), +Caruntum. +<span class="sidenote">Pannonia Inferior.</span> +5. Pannonia Inferior. Boundaries: +on the north the Arrabo, on the east the Danube, +on the south the Savus. Cities: Taurunum (Belgrade), +Mursa (Esseg), and Sirmium. +<span class="sidenote">Mœsia Superior.</span> +6. Mœsia +Superior. Boundaries: on the north the Danube, +on the south Mount Scardus, or Scodrus, on the +west Pannonia, on the east the river Cebrus +(Ischia). Cities: Singidunum (Semlin), and +Naissus (Nissa). +<span class="sidenote">Mœsia Inferior.</span> +7. Mœsia Inferior. Boundaries: +on the north the Danube, on the west the +Cebrus, on the south mount Hæmus (the Balkan), +and on the east the Pontus Euxinus. Cities: +Odessus (Varna), Tomi (Tomisvar).</p> + +<div class="sidenote">Illyricum.</div> + +<p>VIII. Illyricum, in its most extensive signification, +comprised all the provinces south of the +Danube, together with Rhætia and Dalmatia: +but Illyricum Proper comprehends only the lands +along the coast of the Adriatic, from Rhætia in<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_407" id="Page_407">[Pg 407]</a></span> +Italy to the river Drinus, and easterly to the +Savus. Principal towns: Salona, Epidaurus +(near the present Ragusa), Scodra (Scutari).</p> + +<div class="sidenote">Macedonia.</div> + +<p>IX. Macedonia. Boundaries: on the north +mount Scodrus, on the south the Cambunian +mountains, on the west the Adriatic, and on the +east the Ægean sea. Rivers: the Nestus, Strymon, +and Halyacmon, which fall into the Ægean +sea, and the Apsus and Aöus, which fall into the +Adriatic. Principal tribes: Pæones in the north, +Pieres and Mygdones in the south. Principal +towns: Pydna, Pella, Thessalonica, Philippi, +with other Greek colonies (see above, p. 164). +Dyrrachium and Apollonia on the western coast.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">Thrace.</div> + +<p>X. Thrace had for some time kings of her own, +though dependent on Rome, and was first reduced +to a Roman province under Claudius. +Boundaries: on the north Mount Hæmus, on +the west the Nestus, on the south and east the +sea. River: Hebrus. Principal tribes: Triballi, +Bessi, and Odrysæ. Cities: Byzantium, Apollonia, +Berœa.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">Achaia.</div> + +<p>XI. Achaia (Greece), see above, p. 131.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">Dacia.</div> + +<p>XII. To the north of the Danube the province +of Dacia was brought under the Roman empire +by Trajan. Boundaries: on the south the Danube, +on the west the Tibiscus (Theiss), in the +east the Hierasus (Pruth), in the north the +Carpathian mountains. Principal tribe: Daci. +Chief cities; Ulpia Trajana and Tibiscum.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">Asiatic +provinces. +Asia Minor.</div> + +<p><span class="smcap">Asiatic provinces</span>: I. Asia Minor contained +the provinces: 1. Asia (see above, p. 293). +2. Bithynia, together with Paphlagonia and part +of Pontus. 3. Cilicia, with Pisidia (see above, +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_408" id="Page_408">[Pg 408]</a></span>p. 18.) +<span class="sidenote">Syria. Isle of Cyprus.</span> +II. Syria and Phœnicia. III. The isle +of Cyprus. Several other states, likewise dependent, +still preserved their kings: as, Judæa +(became a Roman province, A. D. 44.), Commagene +(province A. D. 70, and, together with +Judæa, added to Syria), Cappadocia (province +A. D. 17), Pontus (completely a province under Nero). +<span class="sidenote">Free states.</span> +Free states at this time: Rhodes, Samos +(provinces A. D. 70), and Lycia (province A. D. +43). Beyond the Euphrates, Armenia and Mesopotamia +were reduced to provinces by Trajan, +but, as early as the time of Adrian, were abandoned.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">African +provinces. +Egypt. +Cyrenaica. +Africa. +Mauritania.</div> + +<p><span class="smcap">African provinces.</span> I. Egypt. II. Cyrenaica, +with the isle of Crete. III. Africa, Numidia +(see above, p. 47). Mauritania still had +its separate king, but he was set aside, A. D. 41, +and the country divided into two provinces: +1. Mauritania Cæsariensis. Boundaries: on the +east the river Ampsaga, on the west the Mulucha. +Principal places: Igilgilis and Cæsaria. +2. Mauritania Tingitana, from the river Mulucha +to the Atlantic ocean. Capital: Tingis.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">States on +the borders. +Germany.</div> + +<p>Principal states on the borders of the empire: +I. Germania. Boundaries: on the south the Danube, +on the north the sea, on the west the Rhine, +on the east undetermined, though the Vistula is +generally regarded as such. Principal rivers: +the Danubius, Rhenus (Rhine), Albis (Elbe), +Visurgis (Weser), Viadrus (Oder), and the Vistula; +the Lupias (Lippe) and Amisia (Ems) are +likewise frequently mentioned. Mountains and +forests: the Hercynian forest, a general name for +the forest mountains, particularly of eastern Ger<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_409" id="Page_409">[Pg 409]</a></span>many. +Melibocus (the Hartz), Sudetus (the +Thuringian forest); the forest of Teutoburg, to +the south of Westphalia, etc. It would be useless +to seek for a general political division, or for +the cities, of ancient Germany; we can only +point out the situation of the principal tribes. It +is necessary, however, to precede this by two +observations: 1. The same territory, in the tide of +forcible emigration and conquest, and particularly +after the second century, often changed its inhabitants. +2. The names of some of the principal +tribes often became that of a confederacy. The +principal tribes in the period of Augustus were, +in northern Germany; the Batavi in Holland; +the Frisii in Friesland; the Bructeri in Westphalia; +the lesser and larger Chauci in Oldenburg +and Bremen; the Cherusci, likewise the +name of a confederation, in Brunswick; the Catti +in Hesse. In southern (central) Germany: the +Hermunduri in Franconia; the Marcomanni in Bohemia. +<span class="sidenote">Alemanni.</span> +The Alemanni, not the name of a +single tribe, but of a confederation, are first mentioned +in the third century: in the period of +Augustus these tribes, and the principal of those +of eastern Germany, which gradually became +known, were included under the general name of +<span class="sidenote">Suevi.</span> +Suevi.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">Scandinavia.</div> + +<p>The northernmost countries of Europe were +considered as isles of the German ocean, and +therefore regarded as belonging to Germany. +They were Scandinavia, or Scandia (southern +Sweden), Nerigon (Norway), and Eningia, or +probably Finningia (Finland). The northernmost +island was called Thule.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_410" id="Page_410">[Pg 410]</a></span></p> + +<div class="sidenote">Sarmatia.</div> + +<p>The north of Europe, from the Vistula to the +Tanais (Don), was comprised under the general +name of Sarmatia; but beyond the territory +about the Danube, and especially Dacia (see +above, p. 407), they were only in a slight degree +acquainted with the coast of the Baltic, by the +amber trade.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">Parthia.</div> + +<p>In Asia the Roman empire was bounded by +Great Armenia (see above, p. 19, and 299), the +Parthian empire from the Euphrates to the Indus +(see above, p. 19—22), and the peninsula of +Arabia (see above, p. 19).</p> + +<div class="sidenote">India.</div> + +<p>Eastern Asia, or India, became known to the +Romans by a commercial intercourse carried +on between them, and which began soon after +the conquest of Egypt. It was divided into +India on this side the Ganges, that is: 1. The +territory between the Indus and Ganges; 2. The +peninsula on this side, the western coast of which +in particular (Malabar), was very well known; +and, 3. The island of Taprobana (Ceylon), +and India beyond the Ganges, to which also the +distant Serica belonged: but of all these countries +they had but a very imperfect knowledge.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">Africa.</div> + +<p>The boundaries of Africa were Æthiopia above +Egypt, and Gætulia and the great sandy desert +of Libya, above the other provinces.</p> + + +<hr style='width: 25%;' /> +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_411" id="Page_411">[Pg 411]</a></span></p> + +<h2>FIRST SECTION.</h2> + +<p class="cblockquot"><i>From Augustus Cæsar to the death of Commodus, +B. C. 30. A. C. 193.</i></p> + +<div class="sblockquot"><p><span class="smcap">Sources.</span> For the whole of this period <span class="smcap">Dion Cassius</span>, +lib. li—lxxx, is our historian; though of his last twenty books +we have only the abridgment of Xiphilinus. For the history +of the emperors from Tiberius to the beginning of Vespasian's +reign, the principal writer is <span class="smcap">Tacitus</span>, in his <i>Annals</i>, A. C. +14—63; (of which, however, part of the history of Tiberius, +32—34, all of Caligula and the first six years of Claudius, 37—47, +as well as the last year and a half of Nero, are unfortunately +lost); and in his <i>History</i>, of which scarcely the first three years, +69—71, are come down to us. <span class="smcap">Suetonius's</span> <i>Lives of the Cæsars</i>, +down to Domitian, are so much the more valuable, because +in a state like the Roman it becomes of importance to know the +character and domestic life of the ruling men. For the reigns of +Augustus and Tiberius the <i>History</i> of <span class="smcap">Velleius Paterculus</span> +is not of less consequence, although written in a court-like tone. +The sources for the history of the separate Cæsars will be given +as we come to them.</p> + +<p>The following are the labours of modern writers:</p> + +<p><i>Histoire des Empereurs et des autres Princes qui ont régné +dans les six premiers siècles de l'Eglise</i>, <i>par</i> <span class="smcap">M. Lenain de +Tillemont</span>. à Bruxelle, 1707, 5 vols. 8vo. (An earlier edition +in 4to. 1700, 4 vols.) The work of Tillemont has some worth +as a laborious compilation, but is superseded in its execution by +the following:</p> + +<p><i>Histoire des Empereurs Romains, depuis Auguste jusqu' à +Constantin</i>, <i>par</i> <span class="smcap">M. Crevier</span>. Paris, 1749, 12 vols. 8vo. +[Translated into English.] A continuation of Rollin's Roman +History (see above, p. 318), quite in the spirit of that writer, +and by one of his school.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Dr. Goldsmith's</span> <i>Roman History, from the foundation of the +city of Rome to the destruction of the western empire</i>. London, +1774, 2 vols. 8vo. Rather a sketch than a detailed history (see +above, p. 321, sqq.).</p> +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_412" id="Page_412">[Pg 412]</a></span></p> +<p>† <i>History of Rome under the Emperors, and of the contemporary +nations</i>, <i>by</i> <span class="smcap">M. D. G. H. Hubler</span>. Fryburg, 1803, +3 parts. Continuation of the work cited p. 2: it reaches down +to Constantine.</p></div> + +<div class="sidenote">Augustus +Cæsar +B. C. 30—A. +C. 14.</div> + +<p>1. Octavianus Cæsar, on whom the senate +conferred the honourable title of Augustus, which +they periodically renewed, and which descended +to his successors, possessed the sole dominion +of the empire during forty-four years. The +government, notwithstanding the great revolutions +by which the republic had been converted +into a monarchy, was not yet, either in fact or +in form, altogether a despotic one. The private +interest of the ruler required that the republican +form should be preserved to the utmost, as without +that he could not make an entire change; +and the rest of his history sufficiently shows, +that the cruelty with which he may be reproached +in the early part of his career, was +rather owing to circumstances than to his natural +disposition. But during a reign so long, so +tranquil, and so fortunate, could it be otherwise +than that the republican spirit which at the beginning +existed only in a few individuals, should +evaporate of itself!</p> + +<div class="sblockquot"><p>The forms under which Augustus held the different branches +of supreme power (dictatorship excepted) were;—the consulate, +which, till B. C. 21, was annually renewed; and the <i>potestas +consularis</i>, which, in B. C. 19, was settled on him for ever;—the +<i>tribunicia potestas</i>, which was, 30, granted him for ever, +rendered his person sacred (<i>sacrosancta</i>), and prepared the way +to the <i>judicia majestatis</i> (accusations of high treason). As <i>imperator</i>, +31, he continued commander of all the forces, and obtained +the <i>imperium proconsulare</i> (proconsular power) in all the +provinces. He assumed the <i>magistratura morum</i> (censorship), +19; and became <i>pontifex maximus</i> (high priest), 13. To avoid<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_413" id="Page_413">[Pg 413]</a></span> +all appearances of usurpation, Augustus at first accepted the +sovereign power only for ten years, and afterwards had it renewed +from time to time, for ten or five years, which, at a later +period, gave rise to the <i>sacra decennalia</i>.</p></div> + +<div class="sidenote">The senate.</div> + +<p>2. The senate, indeed, remained a permanent +council of state, and Augustus himself endeavoured +to increase its authority by more than one +purification (<i>lectio</i>); but the connection between +him and that assembly seemed of a very fragile +nature, as it was undetermined, and could not at +this time be settled, whether Augustus was over +the senate, or the senate over Augustus. All +matters of state could not be brought before the +senate, as even the most important often required +secrecy. It naturally followed, that a prince, +as yet without a court, and who had no proper +minister, but only his friends and freedmen, +should consult with those whom he thought most +worthy his confidence, a Mæcenas, or an Agrippa, +etc. Hence afterwards was formed the secret +council of state (<i>consilium secretum principis</i>). +Among the republican magistrates the highest +lost most; and as so much now depended upon +the preservation of peace in the capital, the offices +of præfect of the city (<i>præfectus urbis</i>) and præfect +of provisions (<i>præfectus annonæ</i>) were not only +made permanent, but became, especially the +former, the principal offices in the state.</p> + +<div class="sblockquot"><p>The spirit of monarchy shows itself in nothing more than in its +strict distinction of ranks; hence, therefore, the magistrates, +especially the consuls, lost nothing. Hence also the long-continued +custom of nominating under-consuls (<i>consules suffecti</i>,) +which in time became merely a formal assumption of the <i>ornamenta +consularia et triumphalia</i> (consular and triumphal ornaments). +Other offices were created for the purpose of rewarding +friends and dependents.</p></div><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_414" id="Page_414">[Pg 414]</a></span></p> + +<div class="sidenote">Introduction +of +standing +armies.</div> + +<p>3. The introduction of standing armies, already +long prepared, naturally followed a dominion acquired +by war; and became, indeed, necessary +to guard the frontiers and preserve the newly-made +conquests; the establishment of the guards +and militia of the city (<i>cohortes prætorianæ</i> and +<i>cohortes urbanæ</i>) were measures equally necessary +for the security of the capital and the throne. +The creation of <i>two</i> prætorian præfects, however, +instead of <i>one</i>, diminished for the present the +great importance of that office.</p> + +<div class="sblockquot"><p>Distribution of the legions over the provinces in <i>castra stativa</i> +(fixed camps), which soon grew into cities, especially along the +Rhine, the Danube, and the Euphrates (<i>legiones Germanicæ, +Illyricæ, et Syriacæ</i>). Fleets also were stationed at Misenum +and Ravenna.</p></div> + +<div class="sidenote">The provinces +divided +between +the +emperor +and the +senate.</div> + +<p>4. The government, as well as the administration +and revenue of the provinces, Augustus willingly +divided with the senate; keeping to himself +those on the frontiers (<i>provinciæ principis</i>,) in +which the legions were quartered, and leaving +to that assembly the others (<i>provinciæ senatûs</i>). +Hence his deputies (<i>legati</i>, lieutenants) exercised +both civil and military authority in his name; +while those of the senate, on the contrary (<i>proconsules</i>), +only administered in civil affairs. Both +were, in general, attended by commissioners (<i>procuratores +et quæstores</i>). The provinces were unquestionably +gainers by this new arrangement, +not only because their governors were more carefully +looked after, but because they were paid by +the state.</p> + +<div class="sblockquot"><p>The fate of the provinces naturally depended, in a great degree, +upon the disposition of the emperor and governor; but there was +also an essential difference between the provinces of the emperor<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_415" id="Page_415">[Pg 415]</a></span> +and those of the senate (<i>provinciæ principis et senatûs</i>): in the +latter there was no military oppression as there was in the former; +and to that may be ascribed the flourishing state of Gaul, +Spain, Africa, etc.</p></div> + +<div class="sidenote">Finances:<br /> + +the private and military chest of the emperor; the state chest<br /> + +swallowed up by the former.</div> + +<p>5. There is little doubt but that the finances +of the treasury remained, upon the whole, much +the same as before; but in its internal administration +Augustus made many alterations, of which +we have but a very imperfect knowledge. Of +course there would be at first an obvious difference +between the privy and military chest of the +emperor (<i>fiscus</i>), which was at his immediate disposal, +and the state chest (<i>ærarium</i>) which he +disposed of indirectly through the senate, though +it must afterwards follow as a natural consequence +of increasing despotism, that the latter +should progressively become merged in the former.</p> + +<div class="sblockquot"><p>The great disorder into which the treasury had been thrown +during the civil wars, and especially by giving away the state +lands in Italy to the soldiers, together with the heavy sums required +for the maintenance of the standing army now established, +must have rendered it much more difficult for Augustus to +accomplish the reform he so happily executed; and in which it +seems to have been his chief aim to place everything, as far as +possible, upon a solid and lasting foundation. The principal +changes which he made in the old system of taxation seem to +have been: 1. That the tithes hitherto collected in the provinces +should be changed into a fixed quota, to be paid by each individual. +2. The customs, partly by reestablishing former ones, and +partly by imposing new ones as well as an excise (<i>centesima +rerum venalium</i>), were rendered more productive. The possession +of Egypt, which was the depôt of nearly all the commerce of +the east, rendered the customs at this time of great importance +to Rome. 3. All the state lands in the provinces were, by degrees, +changed into crown lands. Of the new taxes the most +considerable were the <i>vigesima hereditatum</i> (the twentieth of inheritances), +though with important restrictions; and the fines<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_416" id="Page_416">[Pg 416]</a></span> +upon celibacy by the <i>lex Julia Poppæa</i>.—The greater part of +these state revenues most likely flowed, from the very first, into +the <i>fiscus</i>: that is, the whole revenues of the <i>provinciæ principis</i>, +as well as of those parts of the <i>provinciæ senatûs</i> which were appropriated +to the maintenance of the troops; the revenues arising +from the crown domains; the <i>vigesima</i>, etc. To the <i>ærarium</i> (now +under three <i>præfecti ærarii</i>) remained a part of the revenues of +the <i>provinciæ senatûs</i>, the customs and the fines. Thus it appears +that Augustus was master of the finances, of the legions, +and thereby of the empire.</p> + +<p>See above, p. 362, the writings of <span class="smcap">Hegewisch</span> and <span class="smcap">Bosse</span>.</p></div> + +<div class="sidenote">Extension +of the empire:<br /> + +Spain and Gaul, 25.<br /> + +20.<br /> + +Countries south of the Danube, 15—35.<br /> + +29.<br /> + +24.</div> + +<p>6. The extension of the Roman empire under +Augustus was very considerable; being generally +of such a nature as conduced to the security +of the interior, and to the safeguard of the +frontiers. The complete subjugation of northern +Spain, and western Gaul, secured the frontiers +on that side; as did the threatened but never-executed +expedition against the Parthians, and +the one actually undertaken against Armenia, +A. C. 2. But the most important conquest in +this quarter was that of the countries south of the +Danube, viz. Rhætia, Vindelicia, and Noricum, as +well as Pannonia, and afterwards Mœsia. To +counterbalance these, the expedition against Arabia +Felix completely failed; and that against +Æthiopia was of no further consequence than to +strengthen the frontiers.</p> + + +<p>7. All these conquests together, however, did +not cost the Romans so much as their fruitless +attempt to subjugate Germany, first, by the sons-in-law +of Augustus, Drusus and Tiberius Nero, +and afterwards by the son of the former, Drusus +<span class="sidenote">Unsuccessful attempt to subdue Germany.</span> +Germanicus. Whether or not this undertaking +was a political fault, must always remain a problem, +as it is now impossible to say how far<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_417" id="Page_417">[Pg 417]</a></span> +the security of the frontiers could be preserved +without it.</p> + +<div class="sblockquot"><p>Rome commenced her hostile attack upon Germany under +the command of Drusus, B. C. 12; Lower Germany (Westphalia, +Lower Saxony, and Hesse) being in general the theatre of the +war: while the Lower Rhine was attacked both by sea and land +at the mouths of the Ems, the Weser, and the Elbe, on account +of the great assistance afforded the Romans by their alliance with +the nations on the coasts, the Batavi, Frisii, and Chauci. The +intrepid Drusus, in his second expedition, 10, penetrated as far +as the Weser, and, 9, even as far as the Elbe, but died on his +return. His successors in the command (Tiberius, 9—7, Domitius, +Ænobarbus, 7—2, M. Vinicius, 2—A. C. 2, then again Tiberius, +A. C. 2—4, who was followed by Quintilius Varus, A. C. +5—9,) endeavoured to build on the foundation laid by Drusus, +and, by erecting forts and introducing the Roman language and +laws, gradually to reduce into a province the part of Germany +they had already subdued; but the craftily organized revolt of +the young Arminius (Hermann,) a prince of the Cherusci, son +of Siegmar, and son-in-law of Segestes, a friend of the Romans, +together with the defeat of Varus and his army in the Teutoburg +wald, or forest, near Paderborn, A. C. 9, rescued Germany +from slavery, and its language from annihilation. It moreover +taught the conquerors (what they never forgot) that the legions +were not invincible. Augustus immediately despatched Tiberius, +who had just quelled a furious insurrection in Pannonia, together +with Germanicus, to the Rhine; but these confined themselves +to simple incursions, till Germanicus, A. C. 14—16, again +carried his arms further into the country, and certainly penetrated +as far as the Weser. Yet, notwithstanding his victory +near Idistavisus (Minden), the loss of his fleet and part of his +army by a tempest on his return, and the jealousy of Tiberius at +his victory, obliged him to give up his command. From this +time the Germans were left at rest in this quarter.</p> + +<p>† <span class="smcap">Mannert</span>, <i>Geography of the Greeks and Romans</i>, part iii.</p></div> + +<div class="sidenote">Reign of +Augustus, a +brilliant +period for +Rome.</div> + +<p>8. The long, and for Italy itself, peaceable +reign of Augustus, has generally been considered +a fortunate and brilliant period of Roman history; +and, when compared with the times which pre<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_418" id="Page_418">[Pg 418]</a></span>ceded +and followed, it certainly was so. Security +of person and property were reestablished; +the arts of peace flourished under the benign patronage +of Augustus and his favourite Mæcenas; +and we may add, that, as the formal restoration of +the republic would only have been the signal for +new commotions, the government of Augustus, if +not the very best, was, at least, the best that +Rome could then bear. Should it be said his +private life was not blameless, it may be replied, +that he inflexibly maintained an outward decency, +to which, indeed, he sacrificed his only daughter; +and if laws could have bettered the public morals, +there was no lack of decrees for that purpose.</p> + +<div class="sblockquot"><p>Among his most important laws to this end are, the <i>lex Julia +de adulteriis</i> and the <i>lex Papia Poppæa</i> against celibacy. The +latter excited many murmurs.</p></div> + +<div class="sidenote">Augustus's family.<br /> + +Livia.<br /> + +B. C. 23.<br /> + +Julia married to Agrippa, 17.<br /> + +12.<br /> + +6—A. C. 9.<br /> + +A. C. 2.<br /> + +2—4.<br /> + +Tiberius adopted by Augustus 4.</div> + +<p>9. Nearly all that remains of the history of +Augustus, is an account of his domestic troubles; +the most unhappy family being that of the emperor. +The influence of Livia, his second wife, +was very great, but does not seem to have been +perverted to any worse purpose than raising her +sons, Tiberius and Drusus, to the throne. The +naturally unsettled state of the succession, in a +government such as that of Rome now was, became +much increased by circumstances. After +the untimely death of his nephew and son-in-law +Marcellus, whom he had adopted, his widow Julia, +the only child of Augustus by his wife Scribonia, +was married to Agrippa. The two eldest sons of +this marriage, C. and L. Cæsar, were adopted, +upon the death of their father, by the emperor, +who showed so much fondness towards them as +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_419" id="Page_419">[Pg 419]</a></span>they grew up, that Tiberius, who in the mean +time had married their mother, Julia,—afterwards +banished by Augustus for her licentious conduct—left +the court in disgust. The death of the two +young princes, however, again revived the hopes +of Tiberius, who was adopted by Augustus upon +the condition that he should also adopt Drusus +Germanicus, the son of his deceased brother +Drusus; after which Augustus, with the consent +of the senate, formally associated him with himself +in the government, making him an equal +partner in the imperial privileges: called by his +successors, <i>lex regia</i>.</p> + +<div class="sblockquot"><p><i>Marmor Ancyranum</i>; or, inscriptions in the temple of Augustus +at Ancyra. A copy of the account given of his government, +which Augustus latterly caused to be set up at Rome as a +public memorial: unfortunately much mutilated. It is to be +found in <span class="smcap">Chishull</span>, <i>Antiq. Asiatic</i>.</p> + +<p><i>Memoirs of the Court of Augustus, by</i> <span class="smcap">Thomas Blackwell</span>. +London, 1760, 3 vols. 4to. divided into fifteen books. The last +vol. was published after the death of the author, by <span class="smcap">Mr. Mills</span>. +The last two books of this prolix work contain a description of +the contemporary affairs of Augustus; the others go back to +earlier times. A just appreciation of Augustus requires a previous +critical examination of the sources from which Suetonius +has drawn the materials for his biography.</p> + +<p><i>Histoire des triumvirats augmentée de l'histoire d'Auguste, +par</i> <span class="smcap">Larry</span>. Trevoux, 1741, 4 parts, 8vo. The last part of +this simple narrative contains the history of Augustus from the +death of Catiline.</p></div> + +<div class="sidenote">August 14, 19—March 16, 37.<br /> + +Changes in the constitution:<br /> + +power of the <i>comitia</i> reduced;<br /> + +despotism introduced by the <i>judicia majestatis</i>;<br /> + +degraded character of the senate.</div> + +<p>10. The reign of Tiberius Claudius Nero, or, as +he was called after his adoption, Augustus Tiberius +Cæsar, from his fifty-sixth to his seventy-eighth +year, changed rather the spirit than the form of +the Roman constitution. He succeeded quietly to +the vacant throne at Rome, although the legions +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_420" id="Page_420">[Pg 420]</a></span>in Pannonia, and still more in Germany, felt that +they could make emperors. Under him the <i>comitia</i>, +or assemblies of the people, were reduced +to a mere shadow; as he transferred their duties +to the senate, which also became the highest +tribunal for the state crimes of its own members: +this assembly, however, had now been so much +accustomed to obey the will of the prince, that +everything depended on his personal character. +Tiberius founded his despotism upon the <i>judicia +majestatis</i>, or accusations of high treason, now +become an engine of terror, the senate also +sharing his guilt with a pusillanimity and servility +which knew no bounds. This degraded +assembly, indeed, from the moment that it ceased +to be the ruling authority of a free state, necessarily +became the passive instrument of the most +brutal tyranny. Notwithstanding the military +talents and many good qualities of Tiberius, his +despotic character had been formed long before +his fifty-sixth year, when he mounted the throne; +although exterior circumstances prevented him +from entirely throwing off the mask which he +had hitherto worn.</p> + +<div class="sblockquot"><p>The foundation of the <i>judicia majestatis</i>, which soon became +so terrible by the unfixed state of crime, had been laid during +the reign of Augustus by the <i>lex Julia de majestate</i>, and the +<i>cognitiones extraordinariæ</i>, or commissioners appointed to take +cognizance of certain crimes; it was, however, the abuse of them +by Tiberius and his successors, which rendered them so dreadful.</p></div> + +<div class="sidenote">Ruin of +Germanicus +and his +family.</div> + + +<p>12. The principal object of Tiberius's suspicion, +and therefore of his hate, was Germanicus, a +man almost adored by the army and the people. +This brave general he soon recalled from Ger<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_421" id="Page_421">[Pg 421]</a></span>many, +and sent into Syria to quell the disorders +of the east. After having successfully put an end +to the commotions which called him there, he +<span class="sidenote">A. C. 19.</span> +was poisoned by the contrivances of Cn. Piso +and his wife; and even that did not shelter the +numerous family which he left behind, with his +widow Agrippina, from persecution and ruin.</p> + +<div class="sblockquot"><p>The expeditions of Germanicus in the east not only gave a +king to Armenia, but also reduced Cappadocia and Commagene +to Roman provinces, A. C. 17.</p> + +<p><i>Histoire de Cæsar Germanicus, par</i> M. L. D. B. [<small>EAUFORT</small>]. +à Leyden, 1741. An unpretending chronological narrative.</p></div> + +<div class="sidenote">L. Ælius +Sejanus, the cruel minister of Tiberius;<br /> + +23—31.<br /> + +Tiberius retires to Capreæ, 26.<br /> + +Fall of Sejanus attended with great carnage, 31.<br /> + +Tiberius becomes a despotic monster.</div> + +<p>13. Rome, however, soon experienced to her +cost the powerful ascendancy which L. Ælius +Sejanus, the præfect of the prætorian guard, had +acquired over the mind of Tiberius, whose unlimited +confidence he possessed the more, as he +enjoyed it without a rival. The eight years of his +authority were rendered terrible not only by the +cantonment of his troops in barracks near the +city (<i>castra prætoriana</i>), but (having first persuaded +Tiberius to quit Rome for ever, that he +might more securely play the tyrant in the isle of +Capreæ) by his endeavouring to open a way for +himself to the throne by villanies and crimes without +number, and by his cruel persecution of the +family of Germanicus. The despotism he had +introduced became still more dreadful by his +own fall, in which not only his whole party, but +every one that could be considered as connected +with it, became involved. The picture of the +atrocious despotism of Tiberius is rendered doubly +disgusting by the horrid and unnatural lust which +he joined to it in his old age.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_422" id="Page_422">[Pg 422]</a></span></p> + +<div class="sblockquot"><p>Tiberius's misfortune was, that he came too late to the throne. +His early virtues made no compensation for his later cruelties. +It is properly the former which Vel. Paterculus praises, whose +flattery of Tiberius, in whose reign he flourished, is more easily +justified than his praise of Sejanus.</p></div> + +<div class="sidenote">Caligula, +March 16, +37—Jan. +24, 41.</div> + +<p>14. At the age of twenty-five Caius Cæsar +Caligula, the only remaining son of Germanicus, +ascended the throne; but the hopes which had +been formed of this young prince were soon +wofully disappointed. His previous sickness and +debaucheries had so distorted his understanding, +that his short reign was one tissue of disorder +and crime. Yet he did still more harm to the +state by his besotted profusion than by his tiger-like +cruelty. At length, after a career of nearly +four years, he was assassinated by Cassius +Chærea and Cornelius Sabinus, two officers of +his guard.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">Claudius, +Jan. 24, 21—Oct. +13, +54.<br /> + +the weak tool of his wives and freedmen.<br /> + +Messalina;<br /> + +Agrippina procures the throne for her son, with the +assistance of Burrhus, and<br /> + +50.<br /> + +poisons Claudius, 54.</div> + +<p>15. His uncle Tiberius Claudius Cæsar, who, +at the age of fifty, succeeded him, was the first +emperor raised to the throne by the guards; +a favour which he rewarded by granting them a +<i>donative</i>. Too weak to rule of himself, almost +imbecile from former neglect, profligate, and cruel +from fear, he became the tool of the licentiousness +of his wives and freedmen. Coupled with +the names of Messalina and Agrippina, we now +hear, for the first time in Roman history, of a +Pallas and a Narcissus. The dominion of Messalina +was still more hurtful to the state by her +rapacious cupidity, to which everything gave +way, than by her dissolute life; and the blow +which at last punished her unexampled wantonness, +left a still more dangerous woman to supply +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_423" id="Page_423">[Pg 423]</a></span>her place. This was Agrippina, her neice, widow +of L. Domitius, who joined to the vices of her +predecessor a boundless ambition, unknown to +the former. Her chief aim was to procure the +succession for Domitius Nero, her son by a former +marriage—who had been adopted by Claudius, +and married to his daughter Octavia—by setting +aside Britannicus, the son of Claudius; and this +she hoped to effect, by poisoning Claudius, having +already gained Burrhus, by making him <i>sole</i> præfect +of the prætorian guard. Notwithstanding +the contentions with the Germans and Parthians +(see above, p. 303) were only on the frontiers, +the boundaries of the Roman empire were in +many countries extended.</p> + +<div class="sblockquot"><p>Commencement of the Roman conquests in Britain (whither +Claudius himself went) under A. Plautius, from the year A. C. +43. Under the same general, Mauritania, A. C. 42, Lycia, 43, +Judæa, 44 (see above, p. 312), and Thrace, 47, were reduced to +Roman provinces. He also abolished the præfectures which had +hitherto existed in Italy.</p></div> + +<div class="sidenote">Nero, Oct. +13, 54—June +11, +68.<br /> + +His education +and +character.</div> + + +<p>16. Nero Claudius Cæsar, supported by Agrippina +and the prætorian guard, succeeded Claudius +at the age of seventeen. Brought up in the +midst of the blackest crimes, and, by a perverted +education, formed rather for a professor of music +and the fine arts than for an emperor, he ascended +the throne like a youth eager for enjoyment; and +throughout his whole reign his cruelty appears +subordinate to his fondness for debaucheries and +revelry. The unsettled state of the succession +first called into action his savage disposition; and +after the murder of Britannicus the sword fell +<span class="sidenote">Destroys Britannicus and all the Julian family: +his vanity also makes him cruel.</span> +in regular order upon all those who were even +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_424" id="Page_424">[Pg 424]</a></span>remotely connected with the Julian family. His +vanity as a performer and composer excited in an +equal degree his cruelty; and as, among all tyrants, +every execution gives occasion for others, +we need not wonder at his putting to death every +one that excelled him. His connection, however, +in the early part of his reign, with Agrippina, +Burrhus, and Seneca, during which he introduced +some useful regulations into the treasury, kept him +within the bounds of decency. But Poppæa Sabina +having driven him on to +<span class="sidenote">murders his wife and mother;</span> +the murder of his mother and his wife Octavia, and Tigellinus being +made his confident, he felt no longer restrained +by the fear of public opinion. The executions of +individuals, nearly all of which history has recorded, +was not, perhaps, upon the whole, the greatest evil; +<span class="sidenote">plunders the provinces to support his profligacy.</span> +the plunder of the provinces, not +only to support his own loose and effeminate +pleasures, but also to maintain the people in a +continual state of intoxication, had nearly caused +the dissolution of the empire. The last years of +Nero were marked by a striking and undoubted +insanity, which displayed itself in his theatrical +performances, and even in the history of his fall. +<span class="sidenote">A. C. 68.</span> +It appears that both around and upon a throne +like that of Rome, heroes were formed for vice +as well as virtue!</p> + +<div class="sblockquot"><p>Discovery of the conspiracy of Piso, 65, and the revolt of Julius +Vindex in Celtic Gaul, 68, followed by that of Galba in +Spain, who is there proclaimed emperor, and joined by Otho, in +Lusitania. Nevertheless, after the defeat of Julius Vindex in +Upper Germany, by the lieutenant Virginius Rufus, these insurrections +seemed quelled, when the prætorian guard, instigated +thereto by Nymphidius, broke out into rebellion in Rome itself. +Flight and death of Nero, June 11, 68. Foreign wars during<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_425" id="Page_425">[Pg 425]</a></span> +his reign: in Britain (occasioned by the revolt of Boadicea), +great part of which was subdued and reduced to a Roman province, +by Suetonius Paulinus; in Armenia, under the command +of the valiant Corbulo, against the Parthians (see above, p. 303); +and in Palestine against the Jews, 66. Great fire in Rome, +64, which gives rise to the first persecution against the Christians.</p> + +<p>The principal cause why the despotism of Nero and his predecessors +was so tamely submitted to by the nation, may undoubtedly +be found in the fact, that the greater part of it was +fed by the emperors. To the monthly distributions of corn were +now added the extraordinary <i>congiaria</i> and <i>viscerationes</i> (supplies +of wine and meat). The periods of tyranny were very +likely the golden days of the people.</p></div> + +<div class="sidenote">Extinction +of the Julian +family +causes +many troubles.</div> + + +<p>17. By the death of Nero the house of Cæsar +became extinct, and this gave rise to so many +commotions, that in somewhat less than two years, +four emperors by violence obtained possession of +the throne. The right of the senate to name, or +at least to confirm, the successors to the throne, +was still indeed acknowledged; but as the armies +had found out that they could create emperors, +the power of the senate dwindled into an +empty ceremony. +<span class="sidenote">Galba, June 11, 68—Jan. 15, 69.</span> +Servius Sulpicius Galba, now +seventy-two years of age, having been already +proclaimed emperor by the legions in Spain, and +acknowledged by the senate, gained possession +of Rome without striking a blow, the attempt of +Nymphidius having completely failed, and Virginius +Rufus voluntarily submitting to him. +Galba, however, having given offence both to the +<span class="sidenote">killed by the prætorian guard.</span> +prætorian guard and the German legions, was +dethroned by the guards, at the instigation of his +former friend Otho, at the very time when he +thought he had secured his throne by adopting<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_426" id="Page_426">[Pg 426]</a></span> +the young Licinius Piso, and had frustrated the +hopes of Otho.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">Otho, Jan. +69—April +16.</div> + +<p>18. M. Otho, aged thirty-seven, was indeed acknowledged +emperor by the senate, but wanted +the sanction of the German legions, who, proclaiming +their general, A. Vitellius, emperor, invaded +Italy. Otho marches against him, but +after the loss of the battle of Bedriacum kills +himself—whether from fear or patriotism, remains +uncertain.</p> + +<div class="sblockquot"><p>The special sources for the history of Galba and Otho, are +their <i>Lives</i> by <span class="smcap">Plutarch</span>.</p></div> + +<div class="sidenote">Vitellius, +April 16, +Dec. 20, +69.</div> + +<p>19. Vitellius, in his thirty-seventh year, was +acknowledged emperor not only by the senate, +but likewise in the provinces; his debaucheries +and cruelty, however, together with the licentiousness +of his troops, having rendered him +odious at Rome, the Syrian legions rebelled and +proclaimed their general, +<span class="sidenote">Vespasian proclaimed emperor.</span> +T. Flavius Vespasian, +emperor, who, at the solicitation of the powerful +Mutianus, governor of Syria, accepted the imperial +diadem. The troops on the Danube declaring +for him shortly after, and marching into Italy +under their general Antonius Primus defeated +the army of Vitellius at Cremona. Vitellius was +immediately hurled from the throne, though not +till after some blood had been spilt by the commotions +that took place at Rome, in which Flavius +Sabinus, the brother of Vespasian, was slain, and +the capitol burnt.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">Vespasian, +Dec. 20, 69—June +24, +79.</div> + + +<p>20. Flavius Vespasian ascended the throne in +his fifty-ninth year, and became thereby the +founder of a dynasty which gave three emperors +to Rome. The state, almost ruined by profusion, +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_427" id="Page_427">[Pg 427]</a></span>civil war, and successive revolutions, found in +Vespasian a monarch well suited to its unhappy +condition. He endeavoured, as far as he could, +to determine the relations between +<span class="sidenote">Fixes the power of the senate;</span> +himself and the senate; while, by a decree, he restored to it +all the rights and privileges which had been conferred +upon it by his predecessors of the family of +Cæsar, and settled and added some others (<i>lex +regia</i>). He made a thorough reform in the +<span class="sidenote">improves the treasury;</span> +completely-exhausted +treasury, which he recruited in +part by reducing the countries Nero had made +free, together with some others, into provinces; +partly by restoring the ancient customs, by increasing +others, and by imposing new ones: without +this it would have been impossible for him to +have reestablished the discipline of the army. +<span class="sidenote">founds public buildings, and promotes education; banishes the Stoics;</span> +His liberality in the foundation of public buildings, +as well in Rome as in other cities; and the +care with which he promoted education, by granting +salaries to public teachers, are sufficient to +free him from the reproach of avarice; and although, +on account of their dangerous opinions, +he banished the Stoics (who since the time of +Nero had become very numerous, and retained +nearly all the principles of republicanism), the annulling of the +<span class="sidenote">and annuls the <i>judicia majestatis</i>.</span> +<i>judicia majestatis</i> and the restoration +of the authority of the senate show how far +he was from being a despot.</p> + +<div class="sblockquot"><p>Rhodes, Samos, Lycia, Achaia, Thrace, Cilicia, and Commagene, +were brought by Vespasian into the condition of provinces. +Foreign wars: that against the Jews, which ended with the destruction +of Jerusalem, A. C. 70; and a much greater war +against the Batavians and their allies under Civilis, who during +the late civil wars, sought to shake off the Roman yoke, 69; but +were reduced to an accommodation by Cerealis, 70. Expeditions<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_428" id="Page_428">[Pg 428]</a></span> +of Agricola in Britain, 78—85, who not only subdued all England, +and introduced the Roman manners and customs, but also +attacked and sailed round Scotland.</p> + +<p><i>D. Vespasianus, sive de vita et legislatione T. Flavii Vespasiani +Imp. commentarius, auctore</i> <span class="smcap">A. G. Cramer</span>. Jenæ, 1785. +An excellent enquiry, with illustrations of the fragments of the +<i>lex regia</i>. The second part, <i>de legislatione</i>, contains a learned +commentary upon the <i>senatus consulta</i>, during his reign.</p></div> + +<div class="sidenote">Titus, +June 27, +79—Sept. +13, 81.</div> + +<p>21. His eldest son, Titus Flavius Vespasian, +who in the year 70 had been created Cæsar, and +reigned from his thirty-ninth to his forty-second +year, gives us the rare example of a prince becoming +better on the throne. His short and benevolent +reign was, indeed, only remarkable for +its public calamities: an eruption of mount Vesuvius, +overwhelming several cities, was followed +by a destructive fire, and +<span class="sidenote">Dreadful fire and plague, 79.</span> +a dreadful plague at +Rome. His early death secured him the reputation +of being, if not the happiest, at least the best +of princes.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">Domitian, +Sept. 13, 81—Sept. +18, +96.<br /> + +a complete and cruel despot;<br /> + +unsuccessful in war;<br /> + +raises the soldiers' pay;<br /> + +employs informers.</div> + +<p>22. His younger brother and successor, L. +Flavius Domitian, who reigned from his thirtieth +to his forty-fifth year, gives an example quite opposite +to that of Titus: beginning with justice +and severity, he soon degenerated into the completest +despot that ever swayed the Roman sceptre. +His cruelty, joined to an equal degree of pride, +and nourished by suspicion and jealousy, made +him the enemy of all who excelled him by their +exploits, their riches, or their talents. The mortifications +to which his pride must have been subjected +in consequence of his unsuccessful wars +against the Catti, and more particularly the Daci, +increased his bad disposition. His despotism +was founded upon his armies, whose pay he aug<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_429" id="Page_429">[Pg 429]</a></span>mented +one fourth; and that he might not thereby +diminish the treasury, as he had too much +done at first, he multiplied the <i>judicia majestatis</i>, +rendering it still more terrible by the employment +of secret informers (<i>delatores</i>), in order, by +confiscations, to augment the wealth of his private +treasury (<i>fiscus</i>). By confining his cruelty +chiefly to the capital, and by a strict superintendence +over the governors of provinces, Domitian +prevented any such general disorganization of the +empire as took place under Nero. His fall confirmed +the general truth, that tyrants have little +to fear from the people, but much from individuals +who may think their lives in danger.</p> + +<div class="sblockquot"><p>The foreign wars during this reign are rendered more worthy +of remark by being the first in which the barbarians attacked the +empire with success. Domitian's ridiculous expedition against +the Catti, 82, gave the first proof of his boundless vanity; as did +the recall of the victorious Agricola, 85, from Britain, of his jealousy. +His most important war was that against the Daci, or +Getæ, who, under their brave king Dercebal, had attacked the +Roman frontiers; this again occasioned another with their neighbours, +the Marcomanni, Quadi, and Jazygi, 86—90, which +turned out so unfortunate for Rome, that Domitian was obliged +to purchase a peace of the Daci by paying them an annual +tribute.</p></div> + +<div class="sidenote">Nerva, +Jan. 24, 96—Jan. +27, 98.<br /> +his reign +the dawn of +a happy +period.</div> + +<p>23. M. Cocceius Nerva, aged about seventy +years was raised to the throne by the murderers +of Domitian; and now, at last, seemed to break +forth the dawn of a more happy period for the +empire. The preceding reign of terror completely +ceased at once; and he endeavoured to +impart fresh vigour to industry, not only by diminishing +the taxes, but also by distributing lands +to the poor. The insurrection of the guards cer<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_430" id="Page_430">[Pg 430]</a></span>tainly +cost the murderers of Domitian their lives; +but it was at the same time the cause of Nerva's +securing the prosperity of the empire after his +death, by the adoption of Trajan.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">Trajan, +Jan. 24, 98—Aug. 11, 117.<br /> + +the best of +the Roman +monarchs.<br /> + +Restores the Roman constitution;<br /> + +his frugality and liberality;<br /> + +conquers Dacia,<br /> + +Armenia, Mesopotamia, and part of Arabia.</div> + +<p>24. M. Ulpius Trajan (after his adoption, Nerva +Trajan), a Spaniard by birth, governed the empire +from his forty-second to his sixty-second +year. He was the first foreigner who ascended +the Roman throne, and at the same time the first +of their monarchs who was equally great as a +ruler, a general, and a man. After completely +abolishing the <i>judicia majestatis</i>, he made the restoration +of the <i>free Roman constitution</i>, so far as +it was compatible with a monarchical form, his +peculiar care. He restored the elective power to +the <i>comitia</i>, complete liberty of speech to the senate, +and to the magistrates their former authority; +and yet he exercised the art of ruling to a +degree and in a detail which few princes have +equalled. Frugal in his expenses, he was nevertheless +splendidly liberal to every useful institution, +whether in Rome or the provinces, as well +as in the foundation of military roads, public monuments, +and schools for the instruction of poor +children. By his wars he extended the dominion +of Rome beyond its former boundaries; subduing, +in his contests with the Daci, their country, +and reducing it to a Roman province; as he likewise +did, in his wars against the Armenians and +Parthians, Armenia, Mesopotamia, and part of +Arabia. Why was so great a character disfigured +by an ambition of conquest?</p> + +<div class="sblockquot"><p>The first war against the Daci, in which the shameful tribute +was withdrawn and Dercebal reduced to subjection, lasted from<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_431" id="Page_431">[Pg 431]</a></span> +101—103. But as Dercebal again rebelled, the war was renewed +in 105, and brought to a close in 106, when Dacia was +reduced to a Roman province, and many Roman colonies established +therein. The war with the Parthians arose from a dispute +respecting the possession of the throne of Armenia (see +above, p. 304), 114—116: but although Rome was victorious +she gained no permanent advantage thereby.</p> + +<p>The especial source for the history of Trajan is the <i>Panegyricus</i> +of <span class="smcap">Pliny the Younger</span>; the correspondence, however, of +the same writer, while governor of Bithynia, with the emperor, +affords us a much deeper insight into the spirit of his government: +<span class="smcap">Plinii</span> <i>Epist.</i> lib. x. Who can read it without admiring +the royal statesman?</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Rittershusii</span> <i>Trajanus in lucem reproductus</i>. Ambegæ, +1608. A mere collection of passages occurring in ancient authors +respecting Trajan.</p> + +<p><i>Res Trajani Imperatoris ad Danubium Gestæ, auctore</i> <span class="smcap">Conrad +Mannert</span>. Norimb. 1793: and</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Joh. Christ. Engel</span>, <i>Commentatio de Expeditionibus Trajani +ad Danubium, et origine Valachorum</i>. Vindob. 1794.—Both +learned dissertations, written for the prize offered by the +Royal Society of Gottingen; the first of which obtained the +prize, and the other the <i>accessit</i>, i. e. was declared second best.</p></div> + +<div class="sidenote">Adrian.</div> + +<p>25. By the contrivances of Plotina, his wife, +Trajan was succeeded by his cousin and pupil, +whom he is said also to have adopted, P. Ælius +Adrian, who reigned from his forty-second to his +sixty-third year. He was acknowledged at once +by the army of Asia, with which he then was, +and the sanction of the senate followed immediately +after. He differed from his predecessor +in that his chief aim was the preservation of +peace; on which account he gave up (rare moderation!), +directly after his accession, the newly +conquered provinces of Asia, Armenia, Assyria, +and Mesopotamia, and so put an end to the Par<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_432" id="Page_432">[Pg 432]</a></span>thian +war (see above, p. 304.) He retained, +though with some unwillingness, that of Dacia, +because otherwise the Roman colonies would +have become exposed. He well made up for his +pacific disposition, however, in seeking, by a general +and vigorous reform in the internal administration, +and by restoring the discipline of the +army, to give greater solidity to the empire. For +that purpose he visited successively all the provinces +of the Roman empire; first the eastern, +and afterwards the western; making useful regulations +and establishing order wherever he came. +He improved the Roman jurisprudence by the +introduction of the <i>edictum perpetuum</i>. Passionately +fond of and well instructed in literature and +the fine arts, he gave them his liberal protection, +and thus called forth another Augustan age. +Upon the whole, his reign was certainly a salutary +one for the empire; and for any single acts +of injustice of which he may be accused, he fully +compensated by his choice of a successor. After +having first adopted L. Aurelius Verus (afterwards +Ælius Verus), who fell a sacrifice to his debaucheries, +he next adopted T. Aurelius Antoninus +(afterwards T. Ælius Adrianus Antoninus Pius), +upon condition that he should again adopt M. +Aurelius Verus (afterwards M. Aurelius Antoninus), +and L. Cesonius Commodus (afterwards L. +Verus), the son of Ælius Verus.</p> + +<div class="sblockquot"><p>During his reign a great revolt broke out in Judæa, under +Barcochab, 132—135, occasioned by the introduction of pagan +worship into the Roman colony of <i>Ælia Capitolina</i> (the ancient +Jerusalem).</p> + +<p>The especial source for the history of Adrian, is his <i>Life</i> and<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_433" id="Page_433">[Pg 433]</a></span> +that of <i>Ælius Verus</i> by <span class="smcap">Ælius Spartianus</span> <i>in Script. Hist. +Aug. Minores</i>, already quoted.</p></div> + +<div class="sidenote">Antoninus +Pius, July +10, 138.—March +7, +161.</div> + +<p>26. The reign of Antoninus Pius, from his +forty-seventh to his seventieth year, was without +doubt the happiest period of the Roman empire. +He found everything already in excellent order; +and those ministers which Adrian had appointed, +he continued in their places. His quiet activity +furnishes but little matter for history; and yet he +was, perhaps, the most noble character that ever +sat upon a throne. Although a prince, his life +was that of the most blameless individual; while +he administered the affairs of the empire as +though they were his own. He honoured the +senate; and the provinces flourished under him, +not only because he kept a watchful eye over the +conduct of the governors, but because he made it +a maxim of his government to continue in their +places all those whose probity he had sufficiently +proved. He observed rigid order in the finances, +and yet without sparing where it could be of +service in the foundation or improvement of useful +institutions; as his erection of many buildings, +establishment of public teachers with salaries in +all the provinces, and other examples fully show. +He carried on no war himself; on the contrary, +several foreign nations made choice of him to +arbitrate their differences. Some rebellions which +broke out in Britain and Egypt, and some frontier +wars excited by the Germans, the Daci, the +Moors, and the Alani, were quelled by his lieutenants.</p> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_434" id="Page_434">[Pg 434]</a></span></p><div class="sblockquot"><p>The principal and almost the only source for the history of +Antoninus Pius, Dion Cassius's history of this period being lost, +is his <i>Life</i> by <span class="smcap">Julius Capitolinus</span> in the <i>Script. Hist. August.</i> +And even this refers to his private character rather than his +public history. Compare the excellent <i>Reflections</i> of <span class="smcap">Marcus +Aurelius</span>, i, 16. upon this prince.</p> + +<p><i>Vie des Empereurs Tite Antonin et Marc Aurele</i>, <i>par</i> <span class="smcap">M. +Gautier de Sibert</span>. Paris, 1769, 8vo. A valuable essay on +the lives of the two Antonines.</p></div> + +<div class="sidenote">Marcus +Aurelius, +March 7, +161.—March +17, +180.</div> + + +<p>27. He was succeeded by Marcus Aurelius +Antoninus, the philosopher (aged 40—59 years), +who immediately associated with himself, under +the title of Augustus, L. Verus (aged 30—40 +years, † 169), to whom he gave his daughter in +marriage. Notwithstanding the differences of +their character, the most cordial union existed +between them during the whole of their common +reign; L. Verus, indeed, being almost always +absent in the wars, took but a very small share in +the government. The reign of M. Aurelius was +marked by several great calamities: a dreadful +pestilence, a famine, and almost continual wars. +Nothing short of a prince like Aurelius, who exhibited +to the world the image of wisdom seated +on a throne, could have made so much misery tolerable. Soon after +<span class="sidenote">161—166.</span> +his accession, the Catti +made an irruption upon the Rhine, and the Parthians +in Asia. L. Verus was sent against them. +But the wars on the Danube with the Marcomanni +and their allies in Pannonia, and other +<span class="sidenote">The northern nations begin to press forward.</span> +northern nations, who now began to press forward +with great force upon Dacia, were of much greater +consequence. They occupied M. Aurelius from +the year 167, with but little intermission, to the +end of his reign. He succeeded, indeed, in main<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_435" id="Page_435">[Pg 435]</a></span>taining +the boundaries of the empire; but then +he was the first who settled any of the barbarians +within it, or took them into the Roman +service. In the internal administration of affairs +he closely followed the steps of his predecessor, +<span class="sidenote">Avidius Cassius's rebellion,</span> +except that he was rather too much influenced +by his freedmen and family. The only rebellion +which broke out against him, was that of Avidius +Cassius, his lieutenant in Syria, occasioned by a +false report of his +<span class="sidenote">and death, 175.</span> +death; but it was quelled by +the destruction of that general, as soon as the +truth was made known.</p> + +<div class="sblockquot"><p>The war against the Parthians (see above, p. 304) was indeed +brought to a successful issue by Verus, the principal cities of the +Parthians falling into the hands of the Romans; Verus left +them, however, to be carried on by his lieutenants, while he rioted +in debaucheries at Antioch. The first war against the Marcomanni, +carried on in the beginning and until the death of Verus, +by the two emperors together, was highly dangerous for Rome, +as many other nations had joined the Marcomanni, particularly +the Quadi, Jazygi, and Vandals, and penetrated as far as Aquileia. +M. Aurelius ended this war by a glorious peace, 174, as +he found it necessary to stop the progress of Cassius's rebellion; +in 178, however, the Marcomanni again commenced hostilities, +and before their close M. Aurelius died at Sirmium. Contemporary +with these wars, yet, as it seems, without any connection +with them, were the attacks of other nations upon Dacia, the +Bastarnæ, Alani, etc. who poured in from the north, probably +pressed forward by the advance of the Goths. <i>This was the first +symptom of the great migration of nations now beginning.</i></p> + +<p>The especial sources for the history of M. Aurelius, are the +Biographies of him and L. Verus, written by <span class="smcap">Julius Capitolinus</span>, +as well as that of Avidius Cassius, by <span class="smcap">Vulcatius Gallicanus</span> +in <i>Script. Hist. August.</i> The letters discovered in Milan, +among and together with the writings of <span class="smcap">Fronto</span>, are of no historical +service.—His principles are best learnt from his <i>Meditations +on himself</i>.</p> +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_436" id="Page_436">[Pg 436]</a></span></p> +<p><span class="smcap">Ch. Meiners</span> <i>de M. Aurel. Antonini ingenio, moribus, et +scriptis, in Commentat. Soc. Gotting.</i> vol. vi.</p></div> + +<div class="sidenote">T. Commodus, +March +17, 180—Dec. +31, +192.</div> + +<p>28. By means of adoption the Roman empire +had been blessed, during the last eighty years, +with a succession of rulers such as have not often +fell to the lot of any kingdom. But in J. Commodus +the son of M. Aurelius (probably the offspring +of a gladiator), who reigned from his nineteenth +to his thirty-first year, there ascended the +throne a monster of cruelty, insolence, and lewdness. +At the commencement of his reign he +bought a peace of the Marcomanni that he might +return to Rome. Being himself unable to support +the burden of government, the helm of state +<span class="sidenote">Perennis, † 186.</span> +was placed in the hands of the stern and cruel +Perennis, præfect of the prætorian guard; but +who, being murdered by the discontented soldiers, +was succeeded by the freedman +<span class="sidenote">Cleander, † 189.</span> +Cleander, who put up all for sale, till he fell a sacrifice to +his own insatiable avarice, in a revolt of the +people, caused by their want of provisions. The +extravagant propensity of Commodus for the +diversions of the amphitheatres, and the combats +of wild beasts and gladiators, wherein he himself +usually took a part, in the character of Hercules, +became a chief cause of his dissipation, and +thereby of his cruelty; till at last he was killed +at the instigation of his concubine Marcia, Lætus +the præfect of the prætorian guard, and Electus. +<span class="sidenote">182—184.</span> +The wars on the frontiers during his reign, in +Dacia, and especially in Britain, were successfully +carried on by his lieutenants, generals who +belonged to the school of his father.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_437" id="Page_437">[Pg 437]</a></span></p> + +<div class="sblockquot"><p>The especial source for the history of Commodus is his private +life by <span class="smcap">Æl. Lampridius</span>, in the <i>Script. Hist. August.</i>—The +history of Herodian begins with his reign.</p></div> + +<div class="sidenote">State of the +empire at +this period.</div> + +<p>29. The disasters under M. Aurelius, and the +extravagances of Commodus, had injured the empire, +but not enfeebled it. Towards the close of +the period of the Antonines it still retained its +pristine vigour. If wise regulations, internal peace, +moderate taxes, a certain degree of political, and +unrestrained civil liberty, are sufficient to form +the happiness of a commonwealth, it must have +been found in the Roman. What a number of +advantages did it possess over every other, simply +from its situation! Proofs of it appear on every +side. A vigorous population, rich provinces, +flourishing and splendid cities, and a lively internal +and foreign trade. But the most solid +foundation of the happiness of a nation consists in +its moral greatness, and this we here seek for in +vain. Otherwise the nation would not so easily +have suffered itself to be brought under the yoke +of Commodus by prætorian cohorts and the legions. +But what best shows the strength which +the empire still retained, is the opposition it continued +to make, for two hundred years longer, to +the formidable attacks from without.</p> + +<div class="sblockquot"><p><span class="smcap">D. H. Hegewisch</span> <i>upon the Epochs in Roman History most +favourable to Humanity</i>. Hamburg, 1800—8.</p> + +<p>Foreign commerce, so flourishing in this period, could only be +carried on, to any extent, with the east—mostly with India—as +the Roman empire spread over all the west. This trade continued +to be carried on through Egypt, and also through Palmyra +and Syria. Information thereupon will be found in</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">W. Robertson's</span> <i>Disquisition concerning the Knowledge +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_438" id="Page_438">[Pg 438]</a></span> +which the Ancients had of India</i>. London, 1791, 4to. Often +reprinted. And particularly upon Egypt, in</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">W. Vincent</span>, <i>the Periplus of the Erythrean Sea</i>. London, +1802, 4to. 2 vols. A very instructive work.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Heeren</span>, <i>Commentationes de Græcorum et Romanorum de +India notitia, et cum Indis commerciis</i>: <i>in Commentat. Soc. +Gott.</i> vol. x. xi.</p></div> + + +<hr style='width: 25%;' /> +<h2>SECOND SECTION.</h2> + +<p class="cblockquot"><i>From the death of Commodus to Diocletian, +A. C. 193—284.</i></p> + +<div class="sblockquot"><p><span class="smcap">Sources.</span> The Extracts of Xiphilinus from <span class="smcap">Dion Cassius</span>, +lib. lxxiii—lxxx. though often imperfect, reach down as low as +the consulate of Dion himself under Alexander Severus, 229.—<span class="smcap">Herodiani</span> +<i>Hist.</i> libri viii. comprise the period from Commodus +to Gordian, 180—238.—The <i>Scriptores Historiæ Augustæ Minores</i> +contain the private lives of the emperors down to Diocletian, +by <span class="smcap">Julius Capitolinus, Flavius Vopiscus</span>, etc.—The +<i>Breviaria Historiæ Romanæ</i> of <span class="smcap">Eutropius, Aurelius Victor</span>, +and <span class="smcap">S. Rufus</span> are particularly important for this period.—Finally, +the important information that may be derived from the +study of medals and coins, not only for this section, but for the +whole history of the emperors, may be best learnt by consulting +the writers upon those subjects: <span class="smcap">J. Vaillant</span>, <i>Numismata Augustorum +et Cæsarum</i>, <i>cura</i> <span class="smcap">J. F. Baldino</span>. Rome, 1743, 3 vols. +<i>The Medallic History of Imperial Rome</i>, by <span class="smcap">W. Cooke</span>. London, +1781, 2 vols.—But above all, the volumes belonging to this +period in <span class="smcap">Eckhel</span>, <i>Doctrina Nummorum Veterum</i>.</p> + +<p>With the period of the Antonines begins the great work of +the British historian:</p> + +<p><i>The History of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire</i>, +by <span class="smcap">Edward Gibbon</span>. Oxford, 1828, 8 vols. 8vo. In worth and +extent this work is superior to all others. It embraces the whole +period of the middle ages; but only the first part belongs to this +period.</p></div><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_439" id="Page_439">[Pg 439]</a></span></p> + +<div class="sidenote">Pertinax, +Jan. 1—March 28, 193.</div> + +<p>1. The extinction of the race of the Antonines +by the death of Commodus was attended with +convulsions similar to those which took place +when the house of Cæsar became extinct at the +death of Nero. It is true that P. Helvius Pertinax, +aged sixty-seven, præfect of the city, was +raised to the throne by the murderers of Commodus; +and that he was acknowledged, first by the +guards, and afterwards by the senate. But the +reform which he was obliged to make at the beginning +of his reign in the finances, rendered him +so odious to the soldiers and courtiers, that a revolt +of the first, excited by Lætus, cost him his +life before he had reigned quite three months. +This was the first commencement of that dreadful +military despotism which forms the ruling character +of this period; and to none did it become +so terrible as to those who wished to make it the +main support of their absolute power.</p> + +<div class="sblockquot"><p>The insolence of the prætorian guard had risen very high during +the reign of Commodus; but it had never, even in the time +of the Antonines, been entirely suppressed. It was only by +large donatives that their consent could be purchased, their caprice +satisfied, and their good humour maintained; especially at +every new adoption. One of the greatest reproaches to the age +of the Antonines is, that those great princes, who seem to have +had the means so much in their power, did not free themselves +from so annoying a dependence.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Jul. Capitolini</span> <i>Pertinax Imp. in Script. Hist. Aug.</i></p></div> + +<div class="sidenote">Didias Julianus.</div> + +<p>2. When, upon the death of Pertinax, the rich +and profligate M. Didius Julianus, aged fifty-seven, +had outbid, to the great scandal of the +people, all his competitors for the empire, and +purchased it of the prætorian guard, an insurrection +of the legions, who were better able to create +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_440" id="Page_440">[Pg 440]</a></span>emperors, very naturally followed. But as the +army of Illyria proclaimed their general +<span class="sidenote">Septimius Severus, Pescennius Niger, Albinus.</span> +Septimius Severus, the army of Syria, Pescennius Niger, +and the army of Britain, Albinus, nothing less +than a series of civil wars could decide who should +maintain himself on the throne.</p> + +<div class="sblockquot"><p><span class="smcap">Æl. Spartiani</span> <i>Didius Julianus, in Script. Hist. Aug.</i></p></div> + +<p>3. Septimius Severus, however, aged 49—66, +was the first who got possession of Rome, and, +after the execution of Didius Julianus, he was +acknowledged by the senate. He dismissed, it +is true, the old prætorian guard, but immediately +chose, from his own army, one four times more +numerous in its stead. And after he had provisionally +declared Albinus emperor, he marched +his army against Pescennius Niger, already master +of the east, whom, after several contests near +the Issus, he defeated and slew. Nevertheless, +having first taken and destroyed the strong city +of Byzantium, a war with Albinus soon followed, +whom the perfidious Severus had already attempted +to remove by assassination. After a +bloody defeat near Lyons, +<span class="sidenote">Albinus kills himself, Feb. 19, 197.</span> +Albinus kills himself. +These civil wars were followed by hostilities +against the Parthians, who had taken the part of +Pescennius, and which ended with the plundering +of their principal cities (see above, p. 304). Severus +possessed most of the virtues of a soldier; +but the insatiable avarice of his minister Plautianus, +the formidable captain of the prætorian +guard, robbed the empire even of those advantages +which may be enjoyed under a military government, +<span class="sidenote">204.</span> +until he was put to death at the instigation +of Caracalla. To keep his legions em<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_441" id="Page_441">[Pg 441]</a></span>ployed, +Severus undertook an expedition into +Britain, where, after extending the boundaries of +the empire, he died at York (<i>Eboracum</i>), leaving +his son the maxim, "to enrich the soldiers, and +hold the rest for nothing."</p> + +<div class="sblockquot"><p>Agricola had already erected a line of fortresses, probably +between the Firth of Clyde and the Firth of Forth. These were +changed by Adrian into a wall along the present boundaries of +Scotland. Severus again extended the frontiers, reestablished +the fortresses of Agricola, and afterwards built a wall from sea +to sea; his son, however, gave up the conquered country, and the +wall of Adrian again became the boundary of the empire.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Æl. Spartiani</span> <i>Septimius Severus et Pescennius Niger</i>.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Jul. Capitolini</span> <i>Claudius Albinus, in Script. Hist. Aug.</i></p></div> + +<div class="sidenote"> +Caracalla, +Feb. 4, 211—April +4, +217.</div> + +<p>4. The deadly hatred which reigned between +the two sons of Severus, M. Aurelius Antoninus +Bassianus Caracalla, aged 23—29, and his young +step-brother Geta, aged twenty-one, led to a +dreadful catastrophe; for at their return to Rome, +and after a fruitless proposition had been made +for a division of the empire, +<span class="sidenote">Geta murdered, April 4, 212.</span> +Geta was assassinated +in the arms of his mother Julia Domna, together +with all those who were considered as his +friends. The restless spirit of Caracalla, however, +soon drew him from Rome, and in traversing +first the provinces along the Danube, and +then those of the east, he ruined them all by his +exactions and cruelty, to which he was driven for +money to pay his soldiers, and to purchase peace +of his enemies on the frontiers. The same necessity +led him to grant the right of citizenship to all +the provinces, that he might thereby gain the +duty of the <i>vicesima hereditatum et manumissionum</i> +(twentieth upon inheritances and enfranchisements), +which he very soon afterwards changed +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_442" id="Page_442">[Pg 442]</a></span>into a tenth (<i>decima</i>).—With respect to his foreign +wars, his first was against the Catti and Alemanni, +<span class="sidenote">215.</span> +among whom he remained a long time, +sometimes as a friend and sometimes as an enemy. +But his principal efforts, after having previously +ordered a dreadful massacre of the inhabitants +of Alexandria, to satisfy his cruel rapacity, +were directed against +<span class="sidenote">216.</span> +the Parthians (see +above, p. 304); and in his wars against them he +was assassinated by Macrinus, the præfect of the +prætorian guard.</p> + +<div class="sblockquot"><p>The præfect, or captain, of the prætorian guard became, from +the time of Severus, the most important officer in the state. +Besides the command of the guards, the finances were also under +his control, together with an extensive criminal jurisdiction. A +natural consequence of the continually increasing despotism.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Æl. Spartiani</span> <i>Antoninus Caracalla et Ant. Geta, in Script. +Hist. Aug.</i></p></div> + +<div class="sidenote">Macrinus, +April 11, +217—June +8, 218.</div> + +<p>5. His murderer, M. Opelius Macrinus, aged +fifty-three, was recognized as emperor by the soldiers, +and forthwith acknowledged by the senate. +He immediately created his son, M. Opelius Diadumenus, +aged nine years, Cæsar, and gave him +the name of Antoninus. He disgracefully terminated +the war against the Parthians by purchasing +a peace, and changed the <i>decima</i> (tenth) of +Caracalla again into the <i>vicesima</i> (twentieth). +However, while he still remained in Asia, Bassianus +Heliogabalus, grand-nephew of Julia Domna, +and high priest in the temple of the Sun at +Emesa, whom his mother gave out for a son of +Caracalla, was proclaimed emperor by the legions, +and, after a combat with the guards, subsequently +to which Macrinus and his son lost their +lives, they raised him to the throne.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_443" id="Page_443">[Pg 443]</a></span></p> + +<div class="sblockquot"><p>Mæsa, the sister of Julia Domna, had two daughters, both +widows; Soæmis, the eldest, was the mother of Heliogabalus, +Mammæa, the youngest, the mother of Alexander Severus.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Jul. Capitolini</span> <i>Opelius Macrinus, in Script. Hist. Aug.</i></p></div> + +<div class="sidenote">Heliogabalus, +June 8, +218—March +11, 222.</div> + +<p>6. Heliogabalus, aged 14—18, who assumed +the additional name of M. Aurelius Antoninus, +brought with him from Syria the superstitions +and voluptuousness of that country. He introduced +the worship of his god Heliogabal in Rome, +and wallowed openly in such brutal and infamous +debaucheries, that history can scarcely find a +parallel to his dissolute, shameless, and scandalous +conduct. How low must the morality of that +age have been sunk, in which a boy could so early +have ripened into a monster!—The debasement +of the senate, and of all important offices, which +he filled with the degraded companions of his +own lusts and vices, was systematically planned +by him; and he deserves no credit even for the +adoption of his cousin, the virtuous Alexander +Severus, as he shortly after endeavoured to take +away his life, but was himself for that reason assassinated +by the prætorian guards.</p> + +<div class="sblockquot"><p>† <span class="smcap">Æl. Lampridii</span> <i>Ant. Heliogabalus, in Script. Hist. Aug.</i></p></div> + +<div class="sidenote">Alexander +Severus, +March 11, +222—Aug. +235.</div> + + +<p>7. His young cousin and successor, M. Aurelius +Alexander Severus, aged 14—27, who had been +carefully educated under the direction of his mother +Mammæa, proved one of the best princes in +an age and upon a throne where virtues were +more dangerous than vices. Under favour of his +youth he endeavoured to effect a reform, in which +he was supported by the cooperation of the guards, +who had elevated him to the throne. He restored +the authority of the senate, from among +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_444" id="Page_444">[Pg 444]</a></span>whom he chose, with rigid justice, his privy council +of state, banishing the creatures of Heliogabalus +<span class="sidenote">War against Persia, 226.</span> +from their places. The revolution in the +Parthian empire, out of which was now formed +the new Persian, was of so much importance to +Rome, that it obliged Alexander to undertake a +war against Artaxerxes, in which he was probably +victorious. But while +<span class="sidenote">231—233.</span> +marching in haste to protect the frontiers against the advance of the +Germans upon the Rhine, his soldiers, exasperated +at the severity of his discipline, and incited +by the Thracian Maximin, +<span class="sidenote">235.</span> +murdered him +in his own tent. His præfect of the prætorian +guard, Ulpian, had already, for the same cause, +fallen a victim to this spirit of insubordination, which was not checked +<span class="sidenote">222.</span> +even by the immediate +presence of the emperor himself.</p> + +<div class="sblockquot"><p>The revolution in Parthia, whereby a new Persian empire was +formed (see above, p. 304.), became a source of almost perpetual +war to Rome; Artaxerxes I. and his successors, the Sassanides, +claiming to be descendants of the ancient kings of Persia, formed +pretensions to the possession of all the Asiatic provinces of the +Roman empire.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Ælii Lampridii</span> <i>Alexander Severus</i>, <i>in Script. Hist. Aug.</i></p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Heyne</span> <i>de Alexandro Severo Judicium</i>, Comment. i. ii. in +<i>Opuscula Academica</i>, vol. vi.</p></div> + +<div class="sidenote">Maximinus +Aug. +235—May, +238.<br /> + +236.<br /> + +237.</div> + +<p>8. The death of A. Severus raised military +despotism to the highest pitch, as it placed on the +throne the half savage C. Julius Maximinus, by +birth a Thracian peasant. At first he continued +the war against the Germans with great success, +repulsing them beyond the Rhine; and resolved, +by crossing Pannonia, to carry the war even +among the Sarmatians. But his insatiable rapacity, +which spared neither the capital nor the +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_445" id="Page_445">[Pg 445]</a></span>provinces, made him hateful to all; and Gordian, +proconsul of Africa, in his eightieth year, +was, together with his son of the same name, +proclaimed Augustus by the people, and immediately +acknowledged by the senate. Upon +<span class="sidenote">April, 238.</span> +this, Maximinus, eager to take vengeance on the +senate, marched directly from Sirmium towards +Italy. In the mean time, the legions of the +almost defenceless Gordians were defeated in +<span class="sidenote">The Gordians.</span> +Africa, and themselves slain by Capellianus the +governor of Numidia. Notwithstanding this, as +the senate could expect no mercy, they chose as +co-emperors the præfect of the city, Maximus +Pupienus, and Clodius +<span class="sidenote">Balbinus and Pupienus.</span> +Balbinus, who, in conformity +with the wishes of the people, created +the young Gordian III. Cæsar. In the meanwhile +Maximinus, having besieged Aquileia, and +the enterprise proving unsuccessful, was slain by +his own troops. Pupienus and Balbinus now +seemed in quiet possession of the throne; but +the guards, who had already been engaged in a +bloody feud with the people, and were not willing +to receive an emperor of the senate's choosing, +killed them both, and proclaimed as Augustus, +Gordian, already created Cæsar.</p> + +<div class="sblockquot"><p><span class="smcap">Jul. Capitolini</span> <i>Maximinus Gordiani tres, Pupienus et +Balbinus</i>, <i>in Script. Hist. August.</i></p></div> + +<div class="sidenote">Gordian +III. July, +238—Feb. +244.<br /> + +Syrian expedition, +241—243.</div> + +<p>9. The reign of the young M. Antoninus Gordianus +lasted from his twelfth to his eighteenth +year. He was grandson of the proconsul who had +lost his life in Africa, and in the early part of his +reign, acquired a degree of firmness from the +support of his father-in-law, Misitheus, præfect +of the prætorian guard, as well as from the suc<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_446" id="Page_446">[Pg 446]</a></span>cessful +expedition which he undertook into Syria +against the Persians, who had invaded that province. +But after the death of Misitheus, Philip +the Arabian, being made præfect of the guards in +his stead, found means to gain the troops over +to himself, and, after driving Gordian from the +throne, caused him to be assassinated.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">Philippus, +Feb. 244—Sept. +249.</div> + +<p>10. The reign of M. Julius Philippus was interrupted +by several insurrections, especially in +Pannonia; until at length Decius, whom he himself +had sent thither to quell the rebellion, was +compelled by the troops to assume the diadem. +Philip was soon after defeated by him near Verona, +where he perished, together with his son of +the same name. In this reign the secular games, +<i>ludi sæculares</i>, were celebrated, one thousand +years from the foundation of the city.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">247.<br /> + +Sept. 249—Oct. 251.<br /> + +250.<br /> + +Gallus.</div> + +<p>11. Under the reign of his successor, Trajanus +Decius, aged fifty, the Goths for the first time +forced their way into the Roman empire by crossing +the Danube; and although Decius in the beginning +opposed them with success, he was at +last slain by them in Thrace, together with his +son, Cl. Herennius Decius, already created Cæsar. +Upon this the army proclaimed C. Trebonianus +Gallus emperor, who created his son, Volusian, +Cæsar; and having invited Hostilian, the +yet remaining son of Decius, with the ostensible +purpose of securing his cooperation, he nevertheless +soon contrived to get rid of him. He purchased +a peace of the Goths; but, despised by his generals, +he became involved in a war with his victorious lieutenant, +<span class="sidenote">Æmilianus, May 253.</span> +Æmilius Æmilianus, in Mœsia, +and was slain, together with his son, by his own +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_447" id="Page_447">[Pg 447]</a></span>army. In three months, however, Æmilianus +shared the same fate; Publius Licinius Valerianus, +the friend and avenger of Gallus, advancing +against him with the legions stationed in Gaul. +Both the people and army hoped to see the empire +restored under +<span class="sidenote">Valerian.</span> +Valerian, already sixty years +of age; but, although his generals defended the +frontiers against the Germans and Goths, he +himself had the misfortune to be defeated and +taken prisoner by the superior forces of the Persians. +Upon this event his son and associate in +the empire, P. Licinius +<span class="sidenote">Gallienus, 259—968.</span> +Gallienus, who knew +everything except the art of governing, reigned +alone. Under his indolent rule the Roman empire +seemed on one hand ready to be split into +a number of small states, while on the other it +seemed about to fall a prey to the barbarians; +for the lieutenants in most of the provinces declared +themselves independent of a prince whom +they despised, and to which, indeed, they were +driven, like Posthumius in Gaul, for their own +security.—There were nineteen of these; but as +many of them named their sons Cæsars, this period +has been very improperly distinguished by +the name of <i>the thirty tyrants</i>, although their intolerable +oppressions might well justify the latter +expression. The Persians at the same time were +victorious in the east, and the Germans in the +west.</p> + +<div class="sblockquot"><p>The German nations which were now become so formidable to +the Roman empire, were: 1. The great confederation of tribes +under the name of <i>Franks</i>, who spread over Gaul along the whole +extent of the Lower Rhine. 2. The allied nations of the Alemanni +on the Upper Rhine. 3. The Goths, the most powerful +of all, who had formed a monarchy upon the banks of the Lower<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_448" id="Page_448">[Pg 448]</a></span> +Danube and the northern coasts of the Black sea, which soon +extended from the Boristhenes to the Don; and who became +formidable, not only by their land forces, but also by their naval +power, especially after they had captured the peninsula of Crim +Tartary (<i>Chersonesus Taurica</i>); and by means of their fleets +they not only kept the Grecian, but likewise the Asiatic provinces +in a continual state of alarm.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Trebelli Pollionis</span> <i>Valerianus, Gallieni duo, triginta tyranni</i>, +<i>in Script. Hist. Aug.</i></p> + +<p>† <i>Concerning the thirty tyrants under the Roman emperor +Gallienus</i>, by <span class="smcap">J. C. F. Manso</span>; at the end of his <i>Life of Constantine</i>.</p></div> + +<div class="sidenote">Claudius, +March, 268—Oct. +270.</div> + +<p>12. Gallienus losing his life before Milan, in +the war against Aureolus an usurper, had nevertheless +recommended M. Aurelius Claudius (aged +45—47) for his successor. The new Augustus +reestablished in some degree the tottering empire; +not only by taking Aureolus prisoner and +defeating the Alemanni, but also by a decisive +<span class="sidenote">269.</span> +victory gained at Nissa over the Goths, who had +invaded Mœsia. He died, however, soon after, +at Sirmium, of a pestilential disease, naming for +his successor Aurelian, a hero like himself, who +mounted the throne upon the death of Quintillus +the late emperor's brother, who had at first proclaimed +himself Augustus, but afterwards died by +his own hand.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Trebellii Pollionis</span> <i>divus Claudius</i>, <i>in Script. Hist. Aug.</i></p> + +<div class="sidenote">Aurelian, +Oct. 270—March, +275.</div> + +<p>13. During the reign of L. Domitius Aurelianus, +which lasted almost five years, those +countries which had been partly or entirely lost +to the empire were restored. Having first driven +back the Goths and the Alemanni, who had advanced +as far as Umbria, he undertook his expedition +<span class="sidenote">271.</span> +against the celebrated Zenobia, queen of +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_449" id="Page_449">[Pg 449]</a></span>Palmyra, who at that time possessed Syria, Egypt, +and part of Asia Minor. These countries he again +brought under the dominion of the empire, after having +<span class="sidenote">Zenobia defeated and made prisoner, 271—273.</span> +defeated Zenobia and made her prisoner. +The western provinces of Gaul, Britain, and Spain, +which since the time of Gallienus had +been governed by separate rulers, and were now +under the dominion of Tetricus, he reduced to +their former obedience. Dacia, on the contrary, +he willingly abandoned; and as he transported +<span class="sidenote">274.</span> +the Roman inhabitants across the Danube into +Mœsia, the latter henceforward bore the name of +<i>Dacia Aureliani</i>. Hated for his severity, which +in a warrior so easily degenerates into cruelty, +<span class="sidenote">275.</span> +he was assassinated in Illyria at the instigation of +his private secretary Mnestheus.</p> + +<div class="sblockquot"><p><span class="smcap">Flav. Vopisci</span> <i>divus Aurelianus</i>, <i>in Script. Hist. Aug.</i></p> + +<p>Palmyra in the Syrian desert, enriched by the Indian trade, +and one of the most ancient cities in the world, became a Roman +colony in the time of Trajan. Odenatus, the husband of Zenobia, +had acquired so much celebrity by his victories over the Persians, +that Gallienus had even named him Augustus with himself. +He was murdered, however, by his cousin Mæonius, 267. +Zenobia now took possession of the government for her sons +Vabalathus, Herennianus, and Timolaus, without, however, being +acknowledged at Rome. After this, in the time of Claudius, +she added Egypt to her dominions. Aurelian, having first +defeated her near Antioch and Emesa, soon afterwards took +Palmyra, which, in consequence of a revolt, he destroyed.—Even +in its ruins Palmyra is still magnificent.</p> + +<p><i>The Ruins of Palmyra</i>, by <span class="smcap">R. Wood</span>. London, 1753; and +the <i>Ruins of Balbec, otherwise Heliopolis</i>, by the same author, +London, 1757, give us clear and certain ideas of the splendour +and magnitude of these cities.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">A. H. L. Heeren</span>, <i>de Commercio urbis Palmyræ vicinarumque +urbium</i>, in <i>Comment. recent. Soc. Gotting.</i> vol. vii. and the +Appendix to Heeren's Researches.</p></div><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_450" id="Page_450">[Pg 450]</a></span></p> + +<div class="sidenote">Tacitus, +Sept. 25, +275—April, +276.</div> + +<p>14. An interregnum of six months followed +upon the death of Aurelian, till at length the +senate, at the repeated solicitations of the army, +ventured to fill up the vacant throne. The object +of their choice, however, M. Claudius Tacitus, +the worthiest of the senators, was unfortunately +seventy-five years old, and perished after a short +reign of six months, in an expedition against the +Goths. Upon this event the army of Syria raised +M. Aurelius Probus to the purple; while Florianus +the brother of Tacitus, who had already been +acknowledged at Rome, was put to death by his +own people.</p> + +<div class="sblockquot"><p><span class="smcap">Flav. Vopisci</span> <i>Tacitus; ejusd. Florianus</i>, <i>in Script. Hist. +Aug.</i></p></div> + +<div class="sidenote">Probus, +April, 276—August, +282.<br /> + +277.<br /> + +278.<br /> + +Carus, Aug. 282.<br /> + +Aug. 283.<br /> + +284.</div> + +<p>15. The six years' reign of Probus was a warlike +one. He defeated the Germans, and forced +them beyond the Rhine and Danube; strengthening +the frontiers by building a strong wall from +the Danube, near Regensburg, to the Rhine. He +also obliged the Persians to make peace. Nevertheless, +the number of towns which he reestablished +and peopled with prisoners of war, and the +vineyards which he caused his soldiers to plant +on the Rhine, are proofs that he had taste and +inclination for the arts of peace. This policy, +however, would not suit the legions! After he +had perished, therefore, by the hands of his +soldiers, they proclaimed the præfect of the prætorian +guard, M. Aurelius Carus, emperor, who +created his two sons Cæsars—men very unlike +each other in disposition, M. Aurelius Carinus +being one of the greatest reprobates, while M. +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_451" id="Page_451">[Pg 451]</a></span>Aurelius Numerianus was gentle by nature, and +had a mind well formed by study. The new emperor, +having defeated the Goths, marched against +the Persians, but was shortly afterwards killed, it +is said, by a flash of lightning. Nor did his son +Numerianus long survive him, being murdered +by his own father-in-law, Arrius Aper, the prætorian +præfect.</p> + +<div class="sblockquot"><p><span class="smcap">Flav. Vopisci</span> <i>Probus imper. ejusd. Carus, Numirianus et +Carinus</i>, <i>in Script. Hist. Aug.</i></p></div> + +<div class="sidenote">Review of +the government +during +this period.</div> + +<p>16. Although this period gives us a finished +picture of a complete military despotism, it is still +evident that this was owing to the entire separation +of the military order from the rest of the +people, by the introduction of standing armies, +and the extinction of all national spirit among +the citizens. The legions decided because the +people were unarmed. It was, indeed, only +among them, situated far from the soft luxuries +of the capital, and engaged in almost a continual +struggle with the barbarians, that a remnant of +the ancient Roman character was still preserved. +The nomination of their leaders to the purple became +a natural consequence, not only of the uncertainty +of the succession, which could not be +fixed by mere ordinances, but often of necessity, +from their being in the field under the pressure of +urgent circumstances. Thus a succession of distinguished +generals came to the throne: what +authority, indeed, would an emperor at that time +have had who was not a general? All durable +reform, however, was rendered quite impossible +by the quick succession of rulers. Even the best<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_452" id="Page_452">[Pg 452]</a></span> +among them could do but very little for the internal +administration; as all their energies were +required to protect the frontiers, and defend +themselves against usurpers, who, with the exception +of the formality of being acknowledged +by the senate, had claims as well founded as +their own.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">Luxury hastens +the decline +of the +empire.</div> + +<p>17. The decline of the empire also became so +much the more rapid, in proportion as in these +days of terror luxury had increased not only in +the splendour and profligate effeminacy of private +life, but more particularly in public, to a pitch +almost beyond belief. The latter was especially +shown in the exhibitions of the amphitheatre and +circus; by which not only every new ruler, but +even every new magistrate was obliged to purchase +the favour of the people. Thus these remnants +of a free constitution served only to accelerate +the general ruin! What enjoyments, indeed, +could be found under the rod of despotism, except +those of the grossest sensuality; and to +satisfy this, the intellectual amusements of the +theatre (mimes and pantomimes), and even those +of rhetoric and poetry, were made to contribute.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">Progress +and effects +of the +Christian +religion.</div> + +<p>18. Yet, during this general decay, the gradual +spread of the Christian religion was working a +reform altogether of a different nature. Before +the end of this period it had opened itself a way +into every province, and, notwithstanding the +frequent persecutions, had made converts in every +rank of society, and was now on the eve of becoming +the predominant form of worship. We +shall be better able to estimate its value, if we +consider it as the vehicle by which civilization<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_453" id="Page_453">[Pg 453]</a></span> +made its way among the rude nations that now +appeared on the scene, than if we merely consider +it as the means of improving the manners and +morals of the Roman world. In a political view +it became of the greatest importance on account +of the hierarchy, the frame-work of which was +now in a great measure constructed among its +professors. It was afterwards adopted as a state +religion; and although the ancient creed of Rome +had formerly been on the same footing, yet it was +only calculated for the republic, and not at all +for the now existing monarchy. The overthrow +of paganism was necessarily attended with some +violent convulsions, yet its loss was nothing to be +compared with the support which the throne +afterwards found in the hierarchy.</p> + +<div class="sblockquot"><p>The dispersion of the Jews, and especially the persecutions +which were renewed from time to time, after the reign of Nero, +(but which only served to kindle enthusiasm,) strongly cooperated +in spreading the Christian religion. These persecutions were +principally called forth against the Christians on account of their +forming themselves into a separate society, which caused them to +be regarded as a dangerous sect at Rome, notwithstanding the +general toleration granted to every other system of religious +belief. Although towards the end of this period, only a very +small proportion of the inhabitants of the Roman empire as yet +professed the Christian faith, it nevertheless had followers in +every province.</p> + +<p>† <i>History of the Social Constitution of the Christian Church</i>, +by <span class="smcap">D. G. J. Planck</span>, 4 parts, 1800. It is the first part of this +excellent work which relates to this period.</p></div> + + +<hr style="width: 25%;" /> +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_454" id="Page_454">[Pg 454]</a></span></p> + +<h2>THIRD SECTION.</h2> + +<p class="cblockquot"><i>From Diocletian to the overthrow of the Roman empire in +the west, A. C. 284—476.</i></p> + +<div class="sblockquot"><p><span class="smcap">Sources.</span> It now becomes of importance to enquire whether +the historians were Christians or pagans. <span class="smcap">Zosimus</span>, the imitator +of Polybius, belonged to the last. He describes the fall of the +Roman state, as his model does the previous part. Of his <i>Histories</i> +only five books and a half, to the time of Gratian, 410, +have descended to us. He was certainly a violent antagonist of +the Christians, yet, nevertheless, the best writer of this period. +<span class="smcap">Ammiani Marcellini</span> <i>Historiarum</i>, lib. xiv—xxxi. from the +year 353—378 (the first thirteen books are lost). Probably a +Christian, but yet no flatterer; and, notwithstanding his tiresome +prolixity, highly instructive. Together with the writers of +general history already noticed at p. 437, we must here especially +add to the abbreviators, <span class="smcap">Pauli Orosii</span> <i>Hist.</i> lib. vii. and <span class="smcap">Zonaræ</span> +<i>Annales</i>. The <i>Panegyrici Veteres</i>, from Diocletian to +Theodosius, can only be used with circumspection.—The writers +of church history, such as <span class="smcap">Eusebius</span>, in his <i>Hist. Eccles.</i> lib. x. +and in his <i>Vita Constantini Magni</i>, lib. v. as well as his continuators, +<span class="smcap">Socrates</span>, <span class="smcap">Theodoret</span>, <span class="smcap">Sozomenus</span>, and <span class="smcap">Evagrius</span>, are +also highly important for the political history of this period, +though, from their partiality towards the Christian emperors, +they should rather be classed with the panegyrists than the historians. +To these may be added another principal source, viz. +the <i>Constitutions</i> of the emperors, which have been preserved in +the <i>Codex Theodosianus</i> and <i>Justinianeus</i>, from the time of Constantine +the Great.</p> + +<p>Besides the works quoted at pages 411, 437, the Byzantine +historians here become of importance. We shall mention also:</p> + +<p><i>Histoire du Bas-Empire depuis Constantin</i>, <i>par</i> <span class="smcap">M. le Beau</span>, +<i>continuée par</i> <span class="smcap">M. Ameilhon</span>. Paris, 1824, 20 vols. 8vo. The +first seven parts only belong to this period.</p> +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_455" id="Page_455">[Pg 455]</a></span> +† The German translation of <span class="smcap">Guthrie</span> and <span class="smcap">Gray's</span> <i>Universal +History</i>, 5 sections, 1 vol. Leipsic, 1768. Rendered very useful +by the labours of Ritter.</p> + +<p><i>Histoire du Bas-Empire, depuis Constantin jusqu' à la prise +de Constantinople en 1453</i>, <i>par</i> <span class="smcap">Carentin Royou</span>. Paris, +1803, 4 vols. 8vo. A useful abridgement, without much +research.</p></div> + +<div class="sidenote">Diocletian, +Sept. 17, +284—May +1, 305.<br /> + +Carinus, +† 285.<br /> + +Maximian +associated +in the government, +286.<br /> + +Carausius, +288—293.<br /> + +Galerius +and Chlorus +created +Cæsars, +292.</div> + +<p>1. The reign of C. Valerius Diocletian, aged +39—60, proclaimed emperor after the murder of +Numerianus, by the troops in Chalcedon, begins +a new section in Roman history. To the period +of military despotism succeeded the period of +partitions. After Diocletian had defeated Carinus +the yet remaining Cæsar, in Upper Mœsia, +where he was assassinated, he made M. Valerius +Maximianus Herculius, a rough warrior who had +hitherto been his comrade in arms, the sharer of +his throne. Herculius now contended with the +Alemanni and Burgundians on the banks of the +Rhine, while Diocletian himself made head +against the Persians. Nevertheless, the two Augusti +soon found themselves unable to withstand +the barbarians, who were pressing forward on +every side, more especially as Carausius had +usurped and maintained the title of Cæsar in +Britain. Each of them, therefore, created a Cæsar: +Diocletian chose C. Galerius, and Maximianus +Flavius Constantius Chlorus, both of whom +had distinguished themselves as generals, at that +time the only road to advancement. The whole +empire was now divided between these four rulers; +so that each had certain provinces to govern and +defend; without detriment, however, to the unity +of the whole, or to the dependence in which a<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_456" id="Page_456">[Pg 456]</a></span> +Cæsar stood as the subordinate assistant and +future successor of his Augustus.</p> + +<div class="sblockquot"><p>In the partition, 292, Diocletian possessed the eastern provinces; +Galerius, Thrace, and the countries on the Danube +(Illyricum); Maximianus, Italy, Africa, and the islands; and +Constantius, the western provinces of Gaul, Spain, Britain, and +Mauritania.</p></div> + +<p>2. This new system could not but have a striking +effect upon the spirit of the government. It +was now not only in fact, but also in form, entirely +in the hands of the rulers. By their continual +absence from Rome they became freed +from that moral restraint in which the authority of +the senate, and the name of the republic, not yet +entirely laid aside, had held before them. Diocletian +formally assumed the diadem, and, with the +ornaments of the east, introduced its luxuries into +his court. Thus was laid the foundation of that +structure which Constantine the Great had to +complete.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">296.</div> + + +<p>3. The consequences of this new system became +also oppressive to the provinces, inasmuch +as they had now to maintain four rulers, with +their courts, and as many armies. But however +loud might be the complaints of the oppression +occasioned thereby, it was, perhaps, the only +means of deferring the final overthrow of the +whole edifice. In fact, they succeeded not only +in defeating the usurpers, Allectus in Britain +<span class="sidenote">293—296.</span> +(who had murdered Carausius in 293), Julian in +Africa, and Achilleus in Egypt; but also in defending +the frontiers, which, indeed, by the victories +of Galerius over the Persians, they extended +as far as the Tigris. Did not, however,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_457" id="Page_457">[Pg 457]</a></span> +the gloomy perspective present itself, that among +so many rulers, and the undefined relations which +existed between the Cæsars and the emperors, +the union could not be of long continuance?</p> + +<div class="sidenote">Constantius, 305—307.<br /> + +Galerius, 305—313.</div> + +<p>4. Diocletian voluntarily abdicated the throne +(although the growing power and encroaching +disposition of Galerius might perhaps have had +some influence), and obliged his colleague Maximianus +to do the same. The two Cæsars, Constantius +and Galerius, were proclaimed Augusti, +and altered the division of the empire, so that the +former possessed all the western countries, of +which, however, he freely ceded Italy and Africa +to Galerius, who had all the remaining provinces. +The latter, during the same year, created Flavius +Severus, Cæsar, and confided to him the government +of Italy and Africa; as he did also C. Galerius +Maximin, to whom he gave the Asiatic +provinces. The administration of the two emperors, +however, was very different; Constantius +was as much beloved for his mild and disinterested +government, as Galerius was hated for his +harshness and prodigality. Constantius died very +soon after at York, leaving his son Constantine +heir to his dominions, who was immediately proclaimed +Augustus by the legions, although Galerius +would only acknowledge him as Cæsar.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">Constantine +the Great, +July 25, +306—May +22, 337.</div> + +<p>5. Thus Constantine, who afterwards obtained +the surname of Great, began to rule, aged 33—64, +though at first only over Britain, Spain, and +Gaul; nevertheless, after seventeen years of violence +and warfare, he succeeded in opening himself +a way to the sole dominion of the empire. +The rulers disagreed among themselves; and for<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_458" id="Page_458">[Pg 458]</a></span>midable +usurpers started up and rendered war inevitable.</p> + +<div class="sblockquot"><p>The history of the first seven years of Constantine, 306—313, +is very complicated; after that, he had only one rival to struggle +with, 314—323. At his accession, Galerius, as Augustus, was +in possession of all the other provinces; of which, however, he +had given to Cæsar Maximin the government of those of Asia, +and to Cæsar Severus, now created Augustus, Italy and Africa. +The latter, however, rendering himself odious by his oppression, +Maxentius, the son of the former emperor, Maximianus, assumed +the title of Augustus at Rome (Oct. 28, 306), and associated +his father with himself in the government; so that at this time +there were six rulers: Galerius, Severus, Constantine, Maximin, +and the usurpers Maxentius and his father Maximianus. But +in the year 307, Severus, wishing to oppose Maxentius, was +abandoned by his own troops, upon which he surrendered himself +to Maximianus, who caused him to be executed. In his +place Galerius created his friend Licinius, Augustus; and Maximin +obtained the same dignity from his army in Asia. In the +mean time, Maximianus, after having endeavoured to supplant +his own son in Rome, fled to Constantine, who had crossed over +into Gaul and there defeated the Franks, 306; but having made +an attempt upon the life of Constantine, who had married his +daughter Fausta, that emperor caused him to be put to death, +310. As the excesses of Galerius soon brought him to the +grave, 311, there only remained Constantine, Licinius, and +Maximin, and the usurper Maxentius. The latter was soon defeated +and slain, 312, before the gates of Rome, by Constantine, +who thereby became master of Italy and the capital. A war +having broken out about the same time between Maximin and +Licinius, Maximin was defeated near Adrianople, and then +killed himself, 313. The year 314 brought on a war between +the two remaining emperors, Constantine and Licinius, which, +however, ended the same year in an accommodation, by which +Constantine obtained all the countries on the south bank of the +Danube, as well as Thrace and Mœsia Inferior; it broke out +again, however, in 322, and was finally terminated by a decisive +victory in Bithynia, and the total overthrow of Licinius, whom +Constantine put to death, 324.</p></div> + +<p>6. However opposite may be the opinions<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_459" id="Page_459">[Pg 459]</a></span> +formed respecting the reign of Constantine the +Great, its consequences are perfectly plain. Although +he annihilated military despotism, he established +in its stead, if not completely, yet in +great measure, the despotism of the court, and +likewise the power of the hierarchy. He had +already, during his expedition against Maxentius, +decided in favour of the Christian religion; and +since he thereby gained a vast number of partisans +in all the provinces, and weakened at the +same time the power of his co-emperors, or competitors, +it was the surest way he could have +taken to obtain sole dominion, the great object of +his ambition. This change must nevertheless +have had very considerable influence on every +part of the government, as he found in the previously +established hierarchy a powerful support of +the throne; and since he, in concert with it, settled +what was, and what was not the orthodox +doctrine, he introduced a spirit of persecution +heretofore unknown.</p> + +<div class="sblockquot"><p>At a period in which religious parties must almost necessarily +have become political parties, we can by no means venture to +judge of the importance of the sect by the importance of their +points of doctrine. The quarrels of the Arians, which arose at +this time, gave Constantine, by the council of Nice, 325, the opportunity +he wished for, of making good his authority in religious +legislation.</p></div> + +<p>7. The removal of the seat of empire from +Rome to Constantinople was connected with this +change in the form of worship—as a Christian +court would have been awkwardly situated in a +city still altogether pagan—although the need +there was of protecting the frontiers against the +Goths and Persians had a considerable share<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_460" id="Page_460">[Pg 460]</a></span> +therein. It did, indeed, become the principal +means of establishing the despotism of the court; +but those who regard it as one of the causes of +the decline of the empire, should remember, that +for an empire fallen so low as the Roman was at +this time, despotism was almost the only support +that remained.</p> + +<div class="sblockquot"><p>The various partitions of the empire from the time of Diocletian, +had led the way to this change of the capital; because a +natural result of that system was, that the emperors and Cæsars, +when not with the army as they usually were, would reside in +different cities. The seat of Diocletian's government was at +Nicomedia; of Maximian's, at Milan; even Constantine himself +remained but very little at Rome. In these new residences they +felt themselves unfettered; and therefore, although the Roman +senate existed till after the time of Constantine, its authority +must have fallen of itself from the time of Diocletian.</p></div> + +<p>8. We ought not, therefore, to wonder that the +consequence of this removal was so complete a +change in the whole form of government, that +after a short time it seemed to be altogether a +different state. A partition of the empire was +made, which, though it might in part have been +founded on those which had previously existed, +was yet so different, that it not only changed the +ancient divisions of the provinces, but completely +altered their mode of government.—The court, +with the exception of polygamy, assumed entirely +the form of an eastern court.—A revolution also +had taken place in the military system, by the +complete separation of the civil and military authorities, +which the prætorian præfects had hitherto +possessed, but who now became merely +civil governors.</p> + +<div class="sblockquot"><p>According to the new division the whole empire was divided +into four <i>præfectures</i>, each of which had its <i>dioceses</i>, and each<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_461" id="Page_461">[Pg 461]</a></span> +diocese its <i>provinces</i>. The præfectures were: I. The eastern +(<i>præfectura Orientis</i>); it contained five dioceses; 1. <i>Orientis</i>; +2. <i>Ægypti</i>; 3. <i>Asiæ</i>; 4. <i>Ponti</i>; 5. <i>Thraciæ</i>; forming altogether +forty-eight provinces, and comprising all the countries of +Asia and Egypt, together with the frontier countries of Libya +and Thrace. II. <i>Præfectura Illyrici</i>, containing two dioceses; +1. <i>Macedoniæ</i>; 2. <i>Daciæ</i>; forming eleven provinces, and comprising +Mœsia, Macedon, Greece, and Crete. III. <i>Præfectura +Italiæ</i>, containing three dioceses; 1. <i>Italiæ</i>; 2. <i>Illyric</i>i; 3. +<i>Africæ</i>; forming twenty-nine provinces, and comprising Italy, +the countries on the south of the Danube, as far as the boundaries +of Mœsia; the islands of Sicily, Sardinia, and Corsica, and +the African provinces of the Syrtis. IV. <i>Præfectura Galliarum</i>, +containing three dioceses; 1. <i>Galliæ</i>; 2. <i>Hispaniæ</i>; 3. +<i>Britanniæ</i>; forming altogether twenty-eight provinces, and comprising +Spain and the Balearian islands, Gaul, Helvetia, and +Britain.—Each of these præfectures was under a <i>præfectus prætorio</i> +(prætorian præfect), but who was merely a civil governor, +and had under him <i>vicarios</i>, in the dioceses, as well as the <i>rectores +provinciarum</i>, of various ranks and titles. They were +named <i>proconsules præsides</i>, etc. Besides these, Rome and Constantinople, +not being included in any of the four præfectures, +had each its præfect.</p> + +<p>As principal officers of state and the court (<i>s. cubiculi</i>), we +now for the first time meet with the <i>præpositus s. cubiculi</i> +(grand-chamberlain), under whom were all the <i>comites palatii</i> +and <i>cubicularii</i>, in four divisions; these, at a later period, were +frequently eunuchs of great influence; the <i>magister officiorum</i> +(chancellor, minister of the interior); the <i>comes sacrarum largitiorum</i> +(minister of the finances); the <i>quæstor</i> (the organ of the +emperors in legislation; minister of justice and secretary of +state); the <i>comes rei principis</i> (minister of the crown-treasury) +[privy-purse]; the two <i>comites domesticorum</i> (commander of the +household guards), each of whom had his corps (<i>scholas</i>) under +him. The number of the state officers and courtiers was continually +increasing. If the good of a commonwealth consisted in +forms, ranks, and titles, the Roman empire must at this time +have been truly happy!</p> + +<p>At the head of the troops were the <i>magistri peditum</i> (masters +of the infantry) and the <i>magistri equitum</i> (masters of the horse), +under the <i>magister utriusque militæ</i> (general in chief of the +whole army). Their subordinate commanders were called <i>comites</i> +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_462" id="Page_462">[Pg 462]</a></span>and <i>duces</i>. Constantine considerably reduced the army. In the +arrangement of the troops he also made great alterations; these, +however, were but of slight consequence compared with that +which was produced by admitting into the service a continually +increasing number of barbarians.</p> + +<p><i>Notitia dignitatem utriusque Imperii cum not.</i> <span class="smcap">Pancirolli +Græv.</span> <i>Thesaur. Antiquitat. Rom.</i> vol. vii.</p></div> + +<div class="sidenote">Taxes.</div> + +<p>9. It would naturally be expected that these +great changes should lead to others in the system +of taxation. New taxes, or old ones revived, +were added to those already existing, and became, +by the manner in which they were collected, +doubly oppressive. We shall particularly notice, +<i>a.</i> The annual land-tax (<i>indictio</i>). <i>b.</i> The tax +upon trade (<i>aurum lustrale</i>). <i>c.</i> The free gift (<i>don. +gratuit.</i>), now grown into an obligatory tax (<i>aurum +coronarium</i>). To these we must add the municipal +expenses, which fell entirely upon the citizens, +and especially upon the civic officers (<i>decuriones</i>), +places which must have been generally held by +the rich, as Constantine had in great measure appropriated +the wealth of the cities to the endowment +of churches, and the support of the clergy.</p> + +<div class="sblockquot"><p><i>a.</i> The land-tax, or <i>indiction</i>, which if not first introduced by +Constantine was entirely regulated under him, was collected after +an exact register, or public valuation, of all the landed estates. +Its amount was yearly fixed and prescribed by the emperor (<i>indicebatur</i>), +and levied by the rectors of provinces and the decurions; +an arbitrary standard (<i>caput</i>) being taken as the rate +of assessment.</p> + +<p>As this register was probably reviewed every fifteen years, it +gave rise to the <i>cycle of indictions</i> of fifteen years, which became +the common era, beginning from September 1, 312. In this +manner the tax included all those who were possessed of property. +<i>b.</i> The tax on commerce; which was levied on almost +every kind of trade. It was collected every four years, whence +the <i>aurum lustrale</i>. <i>c.</i> The <i>aurum coronarium</i> grew out of the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_463" id="Page_463">[Pg 463]</a></span> +custom which obtained of presenting the emperors with golden +crowns on particular occasions; the value of which was at last +exacted in money. Every considerable city was obliged to +pay it.</p></div> + +<div class="sidenote">Spread of +the Christian +religion.</div> + +<p>10. The rapid spread of the Christian religion, +the promulgation of which was enforced as a +duty upon all its professors, was now accelerated +by the endeavours of the court. Constantine forbade +sacrifices, and shut up the temples; and the +violent zeal of his successors unfortunately soon +turned them into ruins.</p> + +<div class="sblockquot"><p><i>Histoire de Constantin-le-Grand</i>, <i>par le</i> <span class="smcap">R. P. Bern. de Varenne</span>. +Paris, 1778, 4to.</p> + +<p><i>Vita di Constantino il Grande dell'</i> <span class="smcap">Abb. Fr. Gusta.</span> Fuligno, +1786. Both these works, especially the first, are written +in a tone of panegyric; the latest, and by far the best, is</p> + +<p>† <i>Life of Constantine the Great</i>, by <span class="smcap">J. C. F. Manso</span>. Bresl. +1817. With several very learned appendixes, which clear up +some particular points.</p></div> + +<div class="sidenote">Constantine, +Constantius +and Constans.</div> + +<p>11. The three Cæsars and sons of Constantine +the Great, Constantine, 337—340; Constantius, +337—361; and Constans, 337—350; had been +carefully educated, and yet resembled one another +as much in their vices as they did in their names. +They indeed divided the empire again upon the +death of their father; but were so eager after +territory, which neither of them was qualified to +govern, that a series of wars followed for the +next twelve years, till at last Constantius was left +master of the whole; and by the murder of most +of his relations secured the throne to himself.</p> + +<div class="sblockquot"><p>In the partition of the empire Constantine obtained the <i>præfectura +Galliarum</i>, Constans the <i>præfectura Italiæ et Illyrici</i>, +and Constantius the <i>præfectura Orientis</i>. But as Constantine +desired to add Italy and Africa to his portion, he attacked<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_464" id="Page_464">[Pg 464]</a></span> +Constans, and thereby lost his life, so that Constans came into +thee possession of the western countries. In consequence, however, +of his wretched misgovernment, Magnentius, a general, +proclaimed himself emperor in Gaul, and Constans was slain +in endeavouring to escape, 350. A war with Constantius, who +was then occupied in the east, became inevitable, and broke out +351. The usurper was defeated first at Mursa in Pannonia, +then retreating into Gaul he was again defeated, 353; upon +which he slew himself, together with his family.</p></div> + +<div class="sidenote">Constantius alone.<br /> + +351.<br /> + +354.</div> + +<p>12. As Constantius, however—sunk in effeminacy +and debauchery, and surrounded and governed +by eunuchs—was unable to sustain the +weight of government alone, he took his cousin +Constantius Gallus, hitherto a state prisoner, and +whose father he had formerly slain, to his assistance, +created him Cæsar, and sent him into the +east against the Parthians. But his excessive +arrogance, which was fomented by his wife Constantina, +rendered him so dangerous that Constantius +recalled him, and caused him, upon his +return, to be put to death in Istria. His younger +brother Fl. Julian, from whom the suspicious +Constantius believed he had nothing to fear, was +<span class="sidenote">Nov. 6, 355.</span> +promoted in his place, created Cæsar, and sent +to defend the frontiers on the Rhine. Although +Julian passed suddenly from study to warfare, he +not only fought against the Germans with success, +but also made a deep inroad into their country. +In the mean time Constantius, after his +generals had been beaten by the Persians, who +wished to reconquer the provinces they had +ceded, was preparing an expedition against them +in person, and with that view endeavoured gradually +to withdraw the troops of Julian, in consequence +of which the latter, suspecting his de<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_465" id="Page_465">[Pg 465]</a></span>sign, +was induced to accept the diadem presented +<span class="sidenote">361.</span> +by his soldiers. While marching, however, along +the Danube against Constantius, he received information +of that prince's death in Asia.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">Julian, +March, 360—June 25, +363.</div> + +<p>13. Fl. Julian, (the apostate,) who reigned from +his twenty-ninth to his thirty-second year, was +the last and most highly gifted prince of the house +of Constantine. Instructed by misfortunes and +study, he yet had some faults, though certainly +free from great vices. He began with reforming +the luxury of the court. His abjuration of the +religion now become dominant, and which he +wished to annihilate by degrees, was an error in +policy, which he must have discovered to his +cost had his reign been prolonged. Wishing, +however, to terminate the war against the Persians, +he penetrated as far as the Tigris, where +he lost his life in an engagement, after a reign of +three years.</p> + +<div class="sblockquot"><p>† <i>The Emperor Julian and his Times</i>, by <span class="smcap">August. Neander</span>. +Leipsic, 1812. An historical sketch.</p></div> + +<div class="sidenote">Jovian, +June 25, +363—Feb. +24, 364.</div> + + +<p>14. Fl. Jovianus, now thirty-three years of +age, was immediately raised to the purple by the +army. He concluded a peace with the Persians, +by which he restored them all the territory that +had been conquered from them since the year +297. After a short reign of eight months he was +carried off by a sudden disorder; and the army +proclaimed Fl. Valentinian at Nice in his stead, +Valentinian almost immediately associated his +<span class="sidenote">Valentinian and Valens.</span> +brother Valens with himself in the government, +and divided the empire by giving him the <i>præfectura +Orientis</i>, and retaining the rest for himself.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_466" id="Page_466">[Pg 466]</a></span></p> + +<div class="sidenote">Valentinian +Feb. 26, +364—Nov. +17, 375.</div> + +<p>15. The reign of Valentinian I. in the east, +who, in the year 367, created his son Gratian +Augustus with himself, is distinguished by the +system of toleration which he followed with regard +to the affairs of religion, though in other +respects a cruel prince. Nearly the whole of his +reign was taken up in almost continual struggles +with the German nations, who had recovered +from the losses they had suffered under Julian. +His first efforts were directed against the Franks, +the Saxons, and the Alemanni on the Rhine; +and afterwards against the Quadi and other nations +on the Danube; where he died of apoplexy +at Guntz in Hungary.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">Valens, +364—368.</div> + +<p>16. In the mean time his brother Valens (aged +38—52 years) had to contend with a powerful +insurrection which had broken out in the east. +A certain Procopius had instigated the people to +this, by taking advantage of the discontent occasioned +by the oppression of Valens, who, having +adopted the opinion of the Arians, was more disliked +in the east than his brother was in the +<span class="sidenote">373.</span> +west. His war against the Persians ended with +a truce. But the most important event that happened +during his reign, was the entrance of the +Huns into Europe, which took place towards its +close. This in its turn gave rise to the great +popular migration, by which the Roman empire +in the west may properly be said to have been +overthrown. The immediate consequence was +the admission of the greater part of the Visigoths +into the Roman empire, and this occasioned a +war which cost Valens his life.</p> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_467" id="Page_467">[Pg 467]</a></span></p><div class="sblockquot"><p>The Huns, a nomad people of Asia, belonged to the great +Mongolian race. Having penetrated to the Don, 373, they +subdued the Goths upon that river as far as the Theiss. The +Goths, divided into Ostrogoths and Visigoths, were separated +from one another by the Dnieper. The former, driven from +their country, fell upon the Visigoths, in consequence of which +the emperor Valens was requested by the latter to grant them +admission into the Roman empire, and with the exception of +the Vandals, who had been seated in Pannonia from the time +of Constantine, they were the first barbarian nation that had +been settled within the boundaries of the empire. The scandalous +oppression of the Roman governor, however, drove them into +rebellion; and as Valens marched against them, he was defeated +near Adrianople and lost his life, 378.</p></div> + +<div class="sidenote">Gratian, +375—383, +and<br /> + +Valentinian II. 375—392.</div> + +<p>17. During these events, Gratian (aged 16—24 +years) succeeded his father Valentinian I. in +the west, and immediately associated his brother, +Valentinian II. (aged 5—21 years) with himself +in the empire; giving him, though under his own +superintendence, the <i>præfectura Italiæ et Illyrici</i>. +Gratian set forward to the assistance of his uncle +Valens against the Goths, but receiving on his +march an account of his defeat and death, and +fearing the east might fall a prey to the Goths, +he raised Theodosius, a Spaniard, who had already +distinguished himself as a warrior, to the +purple, and gave him the <i>præfectura Orientis et +Illyrici</i>.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">Revolt of +Maximus, +383.</div> + +<p>18. The indolent reign of Gratian led to the +rebellion of Maximus, a commander in Britain, +who, crossing into Gaul, was so strongly supported +by the defection of the Gallic legions, that +Gratian was obliged to seek safety in flight. He +was, however, overtaken and put to death at +Lyons. By this event Maximus found himself +in possession of all the <i>præfectura Galliarum</i>; +and by promising Theodosius not to interfere +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_468" id="Page_468">[Pg 468]</a></span>with the young Valentinian II. in Italy, he prevailed +upon him to acknowledge him emperor. +But having broken his promise by the invasion of +Italy, he was defeated and made prisoner by +<span class="sidenote">388.</span> +Theodosius in Pannonia, and soon after executed. +Upon this Valentinian II. a youth of whom great +hopes were entertained, became again master +of all the west. But, unfortunately, he was murdered +by the offended Arbogast, his <i>magister militum</i>; +who, thereupon, raised to the throne his +own friend +<span class="sidenote">Eugenius.</span> +Eugenius, <i>magister officiorum</i>. Theodosius, +however, so far from acknowledging, declared +war against him and made him prisoner. +He himself thus became master of the whole empire, +but died in the following year.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">Theodosius +the Great, +Jan. 19, +379—Jan. +17, 395.</div> + +<p>19. The vigorous reign of Theodosius in the +east, from his thirty-fourth to his fiftieth year, +was not less devoted to politics than to religion. +The dexterity with which he at first broke the +power of the victorious Goths (though they still +preserved their quarters in the provinces on the +Danube), procured him considerable influence, +which the strength and activity of his character +enabled him easily to maintain. The blind zeal, +however, with which he persecuted Arianism, +now the prevailing creed in the east, and restored +the orthodox belief, as well as the persecutions +which he directed against the pagans and the +destruction of their temples, occasioned the most +dreadful convulsions. His efforts to preserve the +boundaries of the empire, not a province of which +was lost before his death, required an increase of +taxes; and however oppressive this might be, we +cannot impute it to the ruler as a crime. In an<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_469" id="Page_469">[Pg 469]</a></span> +empire so enfeebled in itself, and which, nevertheless, +had powerful foes on every side to contend +with, it followed that every active reign +would be oppressive. Yet never before had the +internal depopulation of the empire made it necessary +to take so many barbarians into Roman +pay, as under this reign; whence naturally followed +a change in the arms and tactics of the +Roman armies.</p> + +<div class="sblockquot"><p><span class="smcap">P. Erasm. Muller</span>, <i>de genio sæculi Theodosiani</i>. Havniæ, +1798, 2 vols. A very learned and in every respect excellent description +of the deeply-decayed Roman world as it now stood.</p></div> + +<div class="sidenote">Final division +of the +Roman empire.<br /> + +Arcadius, +395—408.<br /> + +Honorius, +385—423.</div> + +<p>20. Theodosius left two sons, between whom +the empire was divided. Both parts, however, +were certainly considered as forming but one empire—an +opinion which afterwards prevailed, and +even till late in the middle ages had important +consequences—yet never since this period have +they been reunited under one ruler. The eastern +empire, comprising the <i>præfectura Orientis et Illyrici</i>, +was allotted to the eldest son, Arcadius (aged +18—31) under the guardianship of Rufinus the +Gaul. The western, or the <i>præfectura Galliarum +et Italiæ</i>, to the younger, Honorius, aged 11—39, +under the guardianship of the Vandal Stilico.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">Alaric king +of the Visigoths.</div> + +<p>21. The western empire, to the history of which +we shall now confine ourselves, suffered such +violent shocks during the reign of Honorius, as +made its approaching fall plainly visible. The +intrigues of Stilico to procure himself the government +of the whole empire, opened a way for the +Goths into its interior, just at a time when they +were doubly formidable, fortune having given +them a leader greatly superior to any they had +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_470" id="Page_470">[Pg 470]</a></span>hitherto had. Alaric king of the Visigoths established +himself and his people in the Roman empire, +became master of Rome, and mounted the +throne: it was the mere effect of chance that he +did not overthrow it altogether.</p> + +<div class="sblockquot"><p>Both Honorius and Arcadius, especially the latter, belonged +to that class of men who never come to years of maturity; their +favourites and ministers therefore governed according to their +own inclination. Stilico, who made Honorius his son-in-law, +was not deficient, indeed, in abilities for governing; and his endeavour +to obtain the management of the whole empire, arose, +perhaps, from the conviction that it was necessary he should have +it. He could not, however, gain his object by intrigue; for after +the murder of Rufinus; 395, he found a still more powerful opponent +in the eunuch Eutropius, his successor in the east. Under +the regency of Stilico, Gaul, in consequence of its troops +being withdrawn to oppose Alaric, 400, was inundated by +German tribes—by Vandals, Alani, and Suevi—who from thence +penetrated even into Spain. Nevertheless, he preserved Italy +from their attacks by the victory which he gained, 403, over +Alaric at Verona; and again over Radagaisus, 405, who had advanced +with other German hordes as far as Florence. But +Stilico, having entered into a secret alliance with Alaric, for the +purpose of wresting eastern Illyrica from the empire of the east, +was overreached by the intrigues of the new favourite Olympius, +whose cabal knew how to take advantage of the weakness of +Honorius, and of the jealousy of the Roman and foreign soldiers. +Stilico was accused of aspiring to the throne, and was executed +August 23, 408. Rome lost in him the only general that was +left to defend her. Alaric invaded Italy the same year, 408, and +the besieged Rome was obliged to purchase peace; the conditions, +however, not being fulfilled, he was again, 409, before +Rome, became master of the city, and created Attalus, the præfect +of the city, emperor instead of Honorius, who had shut himself +up in Ravenna. In 410 he assumed the diadem; and, +making himself master of the city by force, gave it up to be +plundered by his troops. Soon afterwards, while projecting the +capture of Sicily and Africa, he died in lower Italy. His brother-in-law +and successor, Adolphus, together with his Goths, left +Italy, now completely exhausted, 412, went into Gaul, and from<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_471" id="Page_471">[Pg 471]</a></span> +thence proceeding into Spain, founded there the empire of the +Visigoths: he carried with him, however, Placidia the sister of +Honorius, either as prisoner or as hostage, and married her in +Gaul. During these events an usurper arose in Britain and +Gaul named Constantine, 407: he was vanquished, and put to +death, 411, by Constantius, one of Honorius's generals. This +latter prince not only gave Constantius his sister Placidia, who +had become a widow and was restored in 417, in marriage, but +also named him Augustus in 421. He died, however, a few +months after, so that Placidia henceforward had a considerable +share in the government. She went nevertheless, 423, to Constantinople, +where she remained until the death of Honorius.</p> + +<p>† <i>Fl. Stilico, or the Wallenstein of Antiquity</i>, by <span class="smcap">Chr. Fr. +Schulze</span>, 1805. Not written by way of comparison.</p></div> + +<div class="sidenote">423.<br /> + +425.<br /> + +Valentinian +III. 425—455.</div> + +<p>22. In this manner was a great part of Spain, +and part of Gaul, cut off from the Roman empire +during the reign of Honorius. After his death +the secretary John usurped the government, but +was defeated by the eastern emperor Theodosius +II. The nephew of Honorius, Valentinian III. a +minor (aged 6—36), was then raised to the throne, +under the guardian care of his mother Placidia +(† 450). Under his miserable reign the western +empire was stripped of almost all her provinces +with the exception of Italy. Yet the government +of his mother, and afterwards his own incapacity, +were as much the cause as the stormy +migration of barbarous tribes, which now convulsed +all Europe.</p> + +<div class="sblockquot"><p>Britain had been voluntarily left by the Romans since 427. +In Africa, the governor Boniface having been driven into rebellion +by the intrigues of the Roman general Ætius, who possessed +the ear of Placidia, invited the Vandals from Spain, under the +command of Genseric, to come to his assistance. The latter then +obtained possession of the country, 429—439; indeed, even as +early as 435, Valentinian was obliged to make a formal cession +of it to them. Valentinian's wife Eudoxia, a Grecian princess,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_472" id="Page_472">[Pg 472]</a></span> +was purchased by the cession of western Illyricum (Pannonia, +Dalmatia, and Noricum); so that of all the countries south of +the Danube there now only remained those which belonged to +the præfecture of Italy: Rhætia and Vindelicia. On the south-east +of Gaul was formed, 435, the kingdom of the Burgundians, +which, besides the south-east part of France, comprised also +Switzerland and Savoy. The south-west was under the dominion +of the Visigoths. There remained only the territory north +of the Loire which still submitted to the Roman governors; the +last of whom, Syagrius, survived the fall of the empire itself; +holding out till the year 486, when he was defeated near Soissons +by Clodovicus, or Clovis, king of the Franks.</p></div> + +<div class="sidenote">The Huns.<br /> + +Attila.<br /> + +450.<br /> + +451.<br /> + +453.<br /> + +454.<br /> + +455.</div> + +<p>23. But while the western empire seemed thus +of itself almost to fall to pieces, another impetuous +rush of nations took place, which threatened the +whole of western Europe. The victorious hordes +of Huns who now occupied the territory formerly +the seat of the Goths, between the Don and the +Theiss, and even as far as the Volga, had united +themselves, since the year 444, under one common +chief, Attila; who, by this union and his +own superior talents as a warrior and ruler, became +the most powerful prince of his time. The +eastern empire having bought a peace by paying +him a yearly tribute, he fell with a mighty army +upon the western provinces. The united forces, +however, of the Romans under Ætius and the Visigoths, +obliged him near Chalons (<i>in campis Catalaunicis</i>) +to retreat. Nevertheless, the following +year he again invaded Italy, where he had a +secret understanding with the licentious Honoria, +Valentinian's sister. The cause of his second retreat, +which was soon followed by his death, is +unknown. The miserable Valentinian soon after +deprived the Roman empire of its best general, +being led by his suspicions to put Ætius to death. +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_473" id="Page_473">[Pg 473]</a></span>He himself, however, was soon doomed to undergo +the punishment of his debaucheries, being +murdered in a conspiracy formed by Petronius +Maximus, whose wife he had dishonoured, and +some friends of Ætius, whom he had executed.</p> + +<p>24. The twenty years which intervened between +the assassination of Valentinian, and the +final destruction of the Roman empire in the +west, was nearly one continued series of intestine +revolutions. No less than nine sovereigns rapidly +succeeded one another. These changes, indeed, +were but of little importance in this troublesome +period, compared to the terror with which Genseric +king of the Vandals filled the Roman empire: +he by his naval power having become master +of the Mediterranean and Sicily, could ravage +the coasts of the defenceless Italy at his pleasure, +and even capture Rome itself. While in Italy, +the German Ricimer, general of the foreign troops +in Roman pay, permitted a series of emperors to +reign in his name. It would have been his lot to +put an end to this series of Augusti, but for mere +accident, which reserved that glory for his son +and successor, Odoacer, four years after his father's +death.</p> + +<div class="sblockquot"><p>After the death of Valentinian, Maximus was proclaimed emperor; +but as he wished to compel Eudoxia, Valentinian's +widow, to marry him, she called over Genseric from Africa, who +took and pillaged Rome, and Maximus perished after a reign of +three months, 455. He was succeeded by M. Avitus, who +ascended the throne at Arles; and he again was soon deposed +by Ricimer, 456, who, just before, had defeated the fleet of the +Vandals. Ricimer now placed upon the throne, first Julianus +Majorianus, April 1, 457; but he, having distinguished himself +in the wars against the Vandals, 461, was set aside, and Libius +Severus put in his place, who, however, died in 465, probably of<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_474" id="Page_474">[Pg 474]</a></span> +poison. His death was followed by an interregnum of two years, +during which Ricimer ruled, though without the title of emperor. +At length the patrician Anthemius, then at Constantinople +(where they never gave up their pretensions to the right +of naming or confirming the sovereigns of the west), was, though +not without the consent of the powerful Ricimer, named emperor +of the west, April 12, 467, by the emperor Leo. But differences +having arisen between him and Ricimer, the latter retired to +Milan, 469, and commenced a war, in which he took and pillaged +Rome, and Anthemius was slain. Ricimer himself followed +soon after, † Aug. 18, 472. Upon this, Anicius Olybrius, +son-in-law of Valentinian III. was proclaimed Augustus, but +dying in three months, Oct. 472, Glycerius assumed the purple +at Ravenna, without, however, being acknowledged at Constantinople, +where they in preference named Julius Nepos Augustus. +The latter, in 474, having expelled Glycerius, became also in his +turn expelled by his own general Orestes, 475, who gave the +diadem to his son Romulus Momyllus, who, as the last in the +succession of Augusti, acquired the surname of Augustulus. In +476, however, Odoacer, the leader of the Germans in the Roman +pay at Rome, sent him, after the execution of Orestes, into captivity, +and allowed him a pension. Odoacer now remained master +of Italy till the year 492, when the Ostrogoths, under their king +Theodoric, founded there a new empire.</p></div> + +<p>25. Thus fell the Roman empire of the west, +while that of the east, pressed on every side, and +in a situation almost similar, endured a thousand +years, notwithstanding its intestine broils, which +would alone have sufficed to destroy any other, +and the hosts of barbarians who attacked it +during the middle ages. The impregnable situation +of its capital, which usually decides the fate +of such kingdoms, joined to its despotism, which +is not unfrequently the main support of a kingdom +in its decline, can alone, in some measure, +explain a phenomenon which has no equal in the +history of the world.</p> + + + +<hr style="width: 100%;" /> +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_475" id="Page_475">[Pg 475]</a></span></p> +<h2>APPENDIX.</h2> + +<p class="iblockquot">CHRONOLOGY OF HERODOTUS TO THE TIME OF CYRUS, EXTRACTED +FROM THE RESEARCHES OF M. VOLNEY. See +Preface.</p> + + +<p>Although Herodotus did not write his work in +chronological order, yet we cannot doubt that he +had some general plan of computing time. By +carefully selecting and comparing the separate +data scattered through his work, this plan to a +certain extent may be traced out, and early history, +with regard to settled chronology, must necessarily +gain a good deal. The following essay +is founded upon a procedure of this kind; it is +drawn entirely from Herodotus, and only from +data which he has precisely determined, the passages +of his work being always referred to.</p> + +<p>The year B. C. 561, in which the fall of Astyages +and the Median empire took place, as may +be proved from Herodotus himself, is a fixed point +of time from which we may ascend into higher +antiquity. This point of time may be determined +by the chronological data respecting the battle of +Marathon, four years before the death of Darius +(Herodotus VII. 1. 4.) agreeing with the general +data of the Greeks, who fix it in the third year of +the 72nd Olymp. B. C. 490. By adding to this +the thirty-two years of Darius's reign that had +already elapsed (Herodotus, ibid.), the eight +months of Smerdis (Herodotus, III. 68.), the +seven years and five months of Cambyses (He<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_476" id="Page_476">[Pg 476]</a></span>rodotus +III. 66.), and the twenty-nine years of +Cyrus (Herodotus, I. 214.), we obtain the year +560 as the first year of Cyrus.</p> + + +<p class="cblockquot">I. CHRONOLOGY OF THE MEDIAN EMPIRE.</p> + + +<div class='center'> +<table border="0" cellpadding="2" cellspacing="0" summary=""> +<tr><td align='left'></td><td align='right'><small>B. C.</small></td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>End of the Median empire</td><td align='right'>561.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Duration of the Median empire one hundred and fifty-six years (Herodotus, I, 130.) </td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>The beginning of it, therefore, after their separation from the Assyrians, would be</td><td align='right'>717.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>In this period, at first, six years of anarchy<a name="FNanchor_A_5" id="FNanchor_A_5"></a><a href="#Footnote_A_5" class="fnanchor">[a]</a></td><td align='right'>716—710.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Reign of Deioces fifty-three years (Herodotus, I. 102.)</td><td align='right'>710—657.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Reign of Phraortes, twenty-two years (ibid.)</td><td align='right'>657—635.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Cyaxares, forty years (I. 106.)</td><td align='right'>635—595.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Irruption and dominion of the Scythians, twenty-eight years (I. 203. 106.)</td><td align='right'>625—598.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Conquest of Nineveh (I. 106.)</td><td align='right'>597.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Astyages reigned thirty-five years (I. 130.)</td><td align='right'>595—561.</td></tr> +</table></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_A_5" id="Footnote_A_5"></a><a href="#FNanchor_A_5"><span class="label">[a]</span></a> These are certainly not determined from Herodotus; but they remain after +subtracting the one hundred and fifty years' reign of the four Median kings.</p></div> + +<p>The succession of Median kings given by Ctesias, +which entirely differs from this, the author +thinks might be explained by a duplication; see +† <i>Gott. Gel. Anz.</i> 1810, p. 4.</p> + + +<p class="cblockquot">II. CHRONOLOGY OF THE ASSYRIAN EMPIRE.</p> + +<p>The dominion of the Assyrians over Asia, or +their empire, ended with the revolt of the Medes +(Herodotus, I. 95.); although the existence of +their state did not then end, but terminated with +the capture of Nineveh by Cyaxares, B. C. 597.</p> + + +<div class='center'> +<table border="0" cellpadding="2" cellspacing="0" summary=""> +<tr><td align='left'></td><td align='right'><small>B. C.</small></td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Revolt of the Medes, as above</td><td align='right'>717.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>The dominion of the Assyrians had endured five hundred and twenty years (Herodotus, I. 95.) </td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>The Assyrian empire lasted therefore from</td><td align='right'>1237—717.</td></tr> +</table></div> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_477" id="Page_477">[Pg 477]</a></span></p> +<p>As Herodotus intended to write the history of +this empire in a separate work (I. 184.), he only +casually mentions (I. 7.) its founder Ninus, who +began to reign 1237; and afterwards Sennacherib +and his expedition (II. 141.); and the last king, +Sardanapalus (II. 150.).</p> + +<p>The mention of Sennacherib and his expedition +furnishes a point of time for comparing the chronology +of Herodotus with that of the Bible, or the +Jews. According to the latter, Sennacherib's expedition +took place B. C. 714. (see above, p. 26.); +his death takes place immediately after, and he +has for his successor Esar-haddon, 2 Kings, xix. +37. Here then is certainly a contradiction, since, +according to Herodotus, the Assyrian dominion +had ceased three years before, namely, 717. M. +Volney endeavours to reconcile this difficulty by +the restoration of an ancient reading in the sacred +text; according to which Amon, king of Judæa, +reigned twelve years instead of two (2 Kings, +xxi. 10.); from which it would follow, that the +expedition of Sennacherib took place in 724. +As this would leave seven years after his death +for his successor Esar-haddon, who agrees both +in time and name with the Sardanapalus of the +Greeks (the Greek name being formed from +Esar-haddon-pal, i. e. Esar, the lord, son of Pal), +the two chronologies are thus made to agree +exactly. But even in following the ancient +usual reading, the greatest difference between +the two statements is only ten years; quite as +little as can be reasonably expected under such +circumstances.</p> + +<p>With regard to the Assyrian chronology of<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_478" id="Page_478">[Pg 478]</a></span> +Ctesias, M. Volney has satisfactorily shown that +it is full of contradictions, and unworthy of any +credit.</p> + + +<p class="cblockquot">III. CHRONOLOGY OF THE LYDIAN EMPIRE.</p> + +<p>The arrangement of the Lydian chronology +rests upon the settlement of two principal facts: +first, the great eclipse of the sun under Alyattes, +foretold by Thales (Herodotus, I. 74.); and +secondly, the conquest of Sardes, and overthrow +of the empire under Crœsus, by Cyrus; both of +which Herodotus certainly mentions, but without +assigning any precise date. But by a careful comparison +of all the data it has been proved, that +the great eclipse in Asia Minor (according to the +Tables of Pingré) happened in the year 625; and +the conquest of Sardes, and the end of the Lydian +empire, B. C. 557, or in the fourth year of Cyrus. +Therefore:</p> + + +<div class='center'> +<table border="0" cellpadding="2" cellspacing="0" summary="" width="70%"> +<tr><td align='left'></td><td align='right'><small>B. C.</small></td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>End of the Lydian empire</td><td align='right'>557.</td></tr> +</table></div> + +<p>It subsisted under three houses; under that of +the Atyadæ (fabulous and uncertain); under that +of the Heraclidæ, five hundred and five years +(Herodotus, I. 7.); and under the last, that of the +Mermnadæ, one hundred and seventy years.</p> + +<p>The Heraclidæ and Mermnadæ, then, reigned +altogether six hundred and seventy-five years. +Therefore:</p> + + +<div class='center'> +<table border="0" cellpadding="2" cellspacing="0" summary="" width="70%"> +<tr><td align='left'></td><td align='right'><small>B. C.</small></td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Commencement of the reign of the Heraclidæ, with Agron the son of Ninus (I. 7.)</td><td align='right'>1232.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>End of this house with the murder of Candaules, by Gyges</td><td align='right'>727.</td></tr> +</table></div> + +<p>By fixings the time of Agron, son of Ninus,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_479" id="Page_479">[Pg 479]</a></span> +Herodotus verifies himself (I. 7.); as, by the preceding +data, Ninus began his reign in Assyria, +1237; consequently, it must have been in the +fifth year of his reign that he conquered Lydia, +and placed his son Agron upon the throne.</p> + + +<div class='center'> +<table border="0" cellpadding="2" cellspacing="0" summary="" width="70%"> +<tr><td align='left'></td><td align='right'><small>B. C.</small></td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Dominion of the Mermnadæ, one hundred and seventy years, under kings of that house</td><td align='right'>727—557.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Gyges, thirty-eight years (Herodotus, I. 14.)</td><td align='right'>727—689.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Ardys, forty-nine years (Herodotus, I. 16.)</td><td align='right'>689—640.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>First irruption of the Cimmerians</td><td align='right'>670.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Sadyattes, twelve years (Herodotus, I. 16.)</td><td align='right'>640—628.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Alyattes, fifty-seven years (Herodotus, I. 25.)</td><td align='right'>628—571.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>War with Cyaxares, ending with the great eclipse, and second irruption of the Cimmerians </td><td align='right'>625.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Crœsus, fourteen years and fourteen days (Herodotus, I. 86.)</td><td align='right'>571—557.</td></tr> +</table></div> + +<p class="cblockquot">IV. CHRONOLOGY OF THE BABYLONIANS.</p> + +<p>For this as well as for the Egyptians there is +no evidence to guide us, the data being very +scanty, and taken from Herodotus alone. The +chronology of the Babylonians, according to the +canon of Ptolemy, begins with Nabonassar, 747, +who was succeeded by twelve kings (mentioned +in the same canon), down to Nabopolassar; (see +above, p. 28.)</p> + + +<div class='center'> +<table border="0" cellpadding="2" cellspacing="0" summary=""> +<tr><td align='left'></td><td align='right'><small>B. C.</small></td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Nabopolassar</td><td align='right'>627—604.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Nebuchadnezzar</td><td align='right'>604—561.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Evil-Merodach</td><td align='right'>561—559.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Neriglissar</td><td align='right'>559—555.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Labynetus</td><td align='right'>555—538.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Conquest of Babylon by Cyrus </td><td align='right'>538.</td></tr> +</table></div> +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_480" id="Page_480">[Pg 480]</a></span></p> + +<p class="cblockquot">V. CHRONOLOGY OF THE EGYPTIANS.</p> + +<p>M. Volney very properly commences this with +the dodecarchy—as of the earlier periods only +the time of Sesostris, 1365, is ascertained;—and +arranges it in the following manner.</p> + +<div class='center'> +<table border="0" cellpadding="2" cellspacing="0" summary=""> +<tr><td align='left'></td><td align='right'><small>B. C.</small></td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Dodecarchy</td><td align='right'>671—656.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Psammetichus's sole dominion thirty-nine years </td><td align='right'>656—617.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Reign of Neco, sixteen years</td><td align='right'>617—601.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>—— Psammis, six years</td><td align='right'>601—595.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>—— Apries, twenty-five years</td><td align='right'>595—570.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>—— Amasis, forty-four years</td><td align='right'>570—526.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Psammenitus, six months</td><td align='right'>525.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Conquest of Egypt by Cambyses</td></tr> +</table></div> + + +<hr style="width: 100%;" /> +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_481" id="Page_481">[Pg 481]</a></span></p> + +<h3>I. THE REIGNING HOUSES OF MACEDON.</h3> + +<p class="cblockquot">I. HOUSE OF ALEXANDER THE GREAT.</p> + + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 90%;"> +<img src="images/i503-i.png" width="100%" alt="" title="" /> +</div> + +<div class='center'> +<table border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" summary=""> +<tr> + <td colspan='5'><span class="smcap">Philip</span> † 336. married, 1. Olympias. 2. Cleopatra. (3. Concubines.)</td> +</tr> +<tr><td></td><td class="bl"></td></tr> +<tr><td class="bt bl"></td><td class="bt"></td><td class="bt"></td><td class="bt"></td><td class="bt br"></td></tr> +<tr> + <td colspan='2'>1.<br /><span class="smcap">Alexander the Great</span> † 323.<br />married, 1. Roxana. (2. Barsine.)</td> + <td>1.<br /> Cleopatra. <br /> </td> + <td>3.<br /><span class="smcap">Philip Arrhidæus</span> † 317.<br />married Eurydice.</td> + <td>3.<br />Thessalonice.<br />married Cassander.</td> +</tr> +<tr><td class="br"></td></tr> +<tr><td class="bt bl"></td><td class="bt br"></td></tr> +<tr> + <td align='center'>1.<br /><span class="smcap">Alexander</span> † 311.</td> + <td align='center'>2.<br /><span class="smcap">Hercules</span> † 309.</td> +</tr> +</table></div> + + +<p> </p> +<p class="cblockquot">II. HOUSE OF ANTIPATER.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 90%;"> +<img src="images/i503-ii.png" width="100%" alt="" title="" /> +</div> + +<div class='center'> +<table border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" summary="" width="70%"> +<tr> + <td colspan='4'><span class="smcap">Antipater</span> † 320.</td> +</tr> +<tr><td></td><td class="br"> </td></tr> +<tr> + <td colspan='4'><span class="smcap">Cassander</span> † 298, married Thessalonice.</td> +</tr> +<tr><td></td><td class="br"></td></tr> +<tr><td class="bt bl"></td><td class="bt"></td><td class="bt"></td><td class="bt br"></td></tr> +<tr> + <td><span class="smcap">Philip</span> † 297.</td> + <td colspan='2'><span class="smcap">Antipater</span> † 294.</td> + <td><span class="smcap">Alexander</span> † 294.</td> +</tr> +</table></div> + + +<p> </p> +<p class="cblockquot">III. HOUSE OF ANTIGONUS.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 90%;"> +<img src="images/i503-iii.png" width="100%" alt="" title="" /> +</div> + +<div class='center'> +<table border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" summary=""> +<tr> + <td colspan='7'><span class="smcap">Antigonus</span> † 301.</td> +</tr> +<tr><td></td><td class="br"> </td></tr> +<tr> + <td colspan='7'><span class="smcap">Demetrius I. Poliorcetes</span> † 284.</td> +</tr> +<tr><td></td><td class="br"></td></tr> +<tr><td colspan="6" class="bl bt br"></td><td></td></tr> +<tr> + <td>Stratonice.<br />married, 1. Seleucus I. 2. Antiochus I.</td> + <td colspan='6'><span class="smcap">Antigonus I. Gonatas</span> † 242.<br /> </td> +</tr> +<tr><td colspan='4' class='br'></td></tr> +<tr><td></td><td colspan="5" class="bl bt br"></td><td></td></tr> +<tr> + <td></td> + <td colspan='2'><span class="smcap">Demetrius II.</span> † 233.</td> + <td> </td> + <td colspan='2'>Alcyoneus.</td> +</tr> +<tr><td></td><td class="br"></td><td></td><td></td><td class="br"></td></tr> +<tr><td></td><td class="bt bl"></td><td class="bt br"></td><td></td><td class="bt bl"></td><td class="bt"></td><td class="bt br"></td></tr> +<tr> + <td></td> + <td colspan='2'><span class="smcap">Philip II.</span> † 179.</td> + <td> </td> + <td colspan='3'><span class="smcap">Antigonus II. Doson</span> † 221.</td> +</tr> +<tr><td></td><td class="br"></td></tr> +<tr><td></td><td class="bt bl"></td><td class="bt br"></td></tr> +<tr> + <td></td> + <td align='center'><span class="smcap">Perseus</span> † 166.</td> + <td align='center'>Demetrius † 180.</td> +</tr> +</table></div> + + + +<hr style="width: 100%;" /> +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_482" id="Page_482">[Pg 482]</a></span></p> + +<h3>II. GENEALOGICAL TABLE OF THE SELEUCIDÆ.</h3> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 90%;"> +<img src="images/i504.png" width="100%" alt="" title="" /> +</div> + +<p> </p> +<div class='center'> +<table border="0" cellpadding="6" cellspacing="0" summary=""> +<tr> + <td colspan='8'><span class="smcap">Seleucus I. Nicator</span> † 281.<br />married, 1. Apame. 2. Stratonice, daughter of Demetrius Poliorcetes.</td> +</tr> +<tr><td colspan='5' class="br"></td></tr> +<tr><td></td><td colspan='7' class="bt bl br"></td></tr> +<tr> + <td></td> + <td colspan='5'>1.<br /><span class="smcap">Antiochus I. Soter</span> † 262.<br />married, 1. Stratonice, his mother-in-law. 2. Anonymous.</td> + <td colspan='2'>2.<br />Phila<br />married Antigonus Gonatas king of Macedon.</td> +</tr> +<tr><td colspan='4' class="br"></td></tr> +<tr><td colspan='8' class="bt bl br"></td></tr> +<tr> + <td colspan='6'>1.<br /><span class="smcap">Antiochus II. Theos</span> † 247.<br />married, 1. Laodice, his sister-in-law. 2. Berenice, daughter of Ptol. Philad.</td> + <td>1.<br />Apame<br />married Magas of Cyrene.</td> + <td>2.<br />Laodice.<br /> </td> +</tr> +<tr><td></td><td></td><td class="br"></td></tr> +<tr><td colspan='8' class="bt bl br"></td></tr> +<tr> + <td colspan='5'>1.<br /><span class="smcap">Seleucus II. Callinicus</span> † 227.<br />married Laodice, daughter of Andromachus, father of Achæus.</td> + <td>1.<br />Antiochus Hierax.<br /> </td> + <td colspan='2'>1.<br />Stratonice<br />married Ariarathes IV. of Cappadocia.</td> +</tr> +<tr><td></td><td></td><td class="bl"></td></tr> +<tr><td></td><td colspan='7' class="bt bl br"></td></tr> +<tr> + <td></td> + <td></td> + <td colspan='2'><span class="smcap">Seleucus III. Ceraunus</span> † 224.<br /> </td> + <td colspan='2'>Stratonice<br />married Mithridates IV. of Pontus.</td> + <td colspan='2'><span class="smcap">Antiochus III. the Great</span> † 187.<br />married Laodice, daughter of Mithridates IV. of Pontus.</td> +</tr> +<tr><td colspan='7' class="br"></td></tr> +<tr><td colspan='8' class="bt bl br"></td></tr> +<tr> + <td align='center'>Antiochus<br />† 192.</td> + <td align='center'>Laodice.</td> + <td align='center' colspan='3'><span class="smcap">Seleucus IV. Philopator</span> † 176.<br />married his sister Laodice.</td> + <td align='center' colspan='1'><span class="smcap">Antiochus IV. Epiphanes</span><br />† 164.</td> + <td align='center'>Cleopatra<br />married Ptolemy V.</td> + <td align='center'>Antiochis<br />married Ariarathes V. of Cappad.</td> +</tr> +<tr><td></td><td></td><td class="br"></td></tr> +<tr><td colspan='4' class="bt bl br"></td><td></td><td class="bt bl br"></td></tr> +<tr> + <td align='center' colspan='2'><span class="smcap">Demetrius I.</span><br />† 150.</td> + <td align='center' colspan='2'>Laodice<br />married Perseus king of Maced.</td> + <td></td> + <td align='center' colspan='1'><span class="smcap">Antiochus V. Eupator</span> † 161.</td> +</tr> +<tr><td></td><td class="bl"></td></tr> +<tr><td colspan='8' class="bt bl br"></td></tr> +<tr> + <td align='center' colspan='5'><span class="smcap">Demetrius II. Nicator</span> † 126.<br />married, 1. Cleopatra, daughter of Ptol. Philom. 2. Rhodogyne.</td> + <td align='center'></td> + <td align='center' colspan='2'><span class="smcap">Antiochus Sidetes</span> † 131.<br />married his daughter-in-law, Cleopatra.</td> +</tr> +<tr><td></td><td></td><td class="bl"></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td class="br"></td></tr> +<tr><td></td><td colspan='4' class="bt bl br"></td><td></td><td colspan='2' class="bt bl br"></td></tr> +<tr> + <td align='center'></td> + <td align='center'><span class="smcap">Seleucus V.</span> † 125.</td> + <td align='center' colspan='3'><span class="smcap">Antiochus Gryphus</span> † 97.<br />married Cleopatra Selene, daughter of Ptol. Phys.</td> + <td align='center'></td> + <td align='center' colspan='2'><span class="smcap">Antiochus Cyzicenus</span> † 96.<br />married Cleopatra, daughter of Ptol. Phys.</td> +</tr> +<tr><td></td><td></td><td class="br"></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td class="br"></td></tr> +<tr><td colspan='5' class="bt bl br"></td><td></td><td colspan='2' class="bt bl br"></td></tr> +<tr> + <td align='center'>Seleucus Epiph.<br />† 94.</td> + <td align='center'>Antioch. Epiph.<br />† 93.</td> + <td align='center'>Philippus Epiph.<br />† 83.</td> + <td align='center'>Demetr. Eucar.<br />† c. 87.</td> + <td align='center'>Antioch. Dionys.<br />† 89.</td> + <td></td> + <td align='center' colspan='2'><span class="smcap">Antiochus Eusebes</span> † c. 90.<br />married Cleopatra Selene.</td> +</tr> +<tr><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td class="br"></td></tr> +<tr><td colspan='4'></td><td colspan='4' class="bt bl br"></td></tr> +<tr> + <td align='center' colspan='4'></td> + <td align='center' colspan='2'><span class="smcap">Antiochus Asiaticus</span><br />† 58.</td> + <td align='center' colspan='2'><span class="smcap">Seleucus Cybiosactes</span> † 57.<br />married Berenice, daughter of Ptol. Auletes.</td> +</tr> +</table></div> + + + +<hr style="width: 100%;" /> +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_483" id="Page_483">[Pg 483]</a></span></p> + +<h3>III. GENEALOGICAL TABLE OF THE PTOLEMIES.</h3> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 90%;"> +<img src="images/i505.png" width="100%" alt="" title="" /> +</div> + +<p> </p> +<div class='center'> +<table border="0" cellpadding="6" cellspacing="0" summary=""> +<tr> + <td colspan='10'><span class="smcap">Ptolemy</span> I. son of <span class="smcap">Lagus</span> † 284.<br />married, 1. Eurydice, daughter of Antipater. 2. Berenice. (3. Concubines.)</td> +</tr> +<tr><td colspan='5' class="br"></td></tr> +<tr><td></td><td colspan='9' class="bt bl br"></td></tr> +<tr> + <td></td> + <td colspan='2'>1.<br />Ptol. Ceraunus † 279.<br />king of Macedonia.<br /> </td> + <td colspan='4'>2.<br /><span class="smcap">Ptol. II. Philadelphus</span> † 246.<br />married, 1. Arsinoe, daughter of Lysimachus.<br />2. His sister Arsinoe.</td> + <td>2.<br />Arsinoe<br /> <br /> </td> + <td colspan='2' align='center'>3.<br />Magas of Cyrene.<br /> </td> +</tr> +<tr><td colspan='5' class="br"></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td class="bl"></td></tr> +<tr><td></td><td></td><td colspan='5' class="bt bl br"></td><td></td><td colspan='2' class="bt bl br"></td></tr> +<tr> + <td></td> + <td></td> + <td colspan='3'><span class="smcap">Ptol. III. Evergetes</span> † 221.<br />Married Berenice, daughter of Magas.</td> + <td colspan='2'>Berenice<br />married Antiochus Theos.</td> + <td></td> + <td colspan='2' align='center'>Berenice<br /> </td> +</tr> +<tr><td colspan='4' class="br"></td></tr> +<tr><td colspan='5' class="bt bl br"></td></tr> +<tr> + <td colspan='3'><span class="smcap">Ptol. IV. Philopator</span> † 204.<br />married, 1. His sister Arsinoe.<br />(2. Agathoclea.)</td> + <td>Magas.<br /> <br /> </td> + <td>Arsinoe.<br /> <br /> </td> +</tr> +<tr><td colspan='1' class="br"></td></tr> +<tr><td colspan='4' class="bt bl br"></td></tr> +<tr> + <td colspan='4'><span class="smcap">Ptol. V. Ephiphanes</span> † 181.<br />married Cleopatra, daughter of Antiochus the Great.</td> +</tr> +<tr><td colspan='2' class="br"></td></tr> +<tr><td colspan='10' class="bt bl br"></td></tr> +<tr> + <td colspan='2'><span class="smcap">Ptol. VI. Philometor</span> † 145.<br />married his sister Cleopatra.</td> + <td colspan='1'>Cleopatra.<br /> </td> + <td colspan='6'><span class="smcap">Ptol. VII. Physcon</span> † 117.<br />married, 1. His sister Cleopatra. 2. Cleopatra the younger. (3. Irene.)</td> +</tr> +<tr><td colspan='1' class="br"></td><td colspan='5' class="br"></td></tr> +<tr><td colspan='2' class="bt bl br"></td><td></td><td colspan='7' class="bt bl br"></td></tr> +<tr> + <td colspan='2'>Cleopatra the younger.<br /> <br /> </td> + <td></td> + <td colspan='2'>2.<br /><span class="smcap">Ptol. VIII. Lathyrus</span> † 81.<br />married, 1, 2. his two sisters.<br />(3. Concubines.)</td> + <td colspan='1'>2.<br />Cleop. Selene.<br /> <br /> </td> + <td colspan='2'>2.<br /><span class="smcap">Ptol. Alexander I.</span> † 88.<br />married Cleopatra, daughter of<br />Ptol. Lathyrus.</td> + <td colspan='1'>2.<br />Cleopatra.<br /> <br /> </td> + <td colspan='1'>3.<br />Ptol. Apion.<br />king of Cyrene,<br />† 97.</td> +</tr> +<tr><td colspan='2'></td><td colspan='5' class="br"></td></tr> +<tr><td colspan='10' class="bt bl br"></td></tr> +<tr> + <td colspan='1'>2.<br />Cleopatra † 88.<br />married Alex. I.</td> + <td colspan='1'>2.<br />Cl. Berenice.<br /> </td> + <td colspan='2'>3.<br /><span class="smcap">Ptol. Auletes</span> † 51.<br />married, 1. His sister Cleop.<br />2. Unknown.</td> + <td colspan='1'>3.<br />Ptol. of Cyprus.<br />† 57.</td> + <td colspan='1'>3.<br />Cleopatra.<br /> <br /> </td> + <td colspan='2'><span class="smcap">Ptol. Alexander II.</span> † 80.<br />married Cleop. Berenice.</td> + <td colspan='2'> † <br /> † †<br /><span class="smcap">Ptol. Alex. III.</span> † 66.</td> +</tr> +<tr><td colspan='3' class="br"></td></tr> +<tr><td colspan='9' class="bt bl br"></td></tr> +<tr> + <td colspan='2'>1.<br /><span class="smcap">Berenice</span> † 55.<br />married, 1. Seleucus Cybios.<br />2. Archelaus.</td> + <td colspan='2'>1.<br /><span class="smcap">Cleopatra</span> † 30.<br />married, 1. 2. her brothers.<br />(3. Jul. Cæsar.) 4. Antony</td> + <td colspan='2'>2.<br /><span class="smcap">Ptol. Dionysius</span> † 47.<br />married Cleopatra.</td> + <td colspan='2'>2.<br />Ptol. the younger † 44.<br />married Cleopatra.</td> + <td colspan='1'><br />Arsinoe<br /> † 43.</td> +</tr> + +</table></div> + + +<hr style="width: 100%;" /> +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_484" id="Page_484">[Pg 484]</a></span></p> + +<h3>IV. THE REIGNING HOUSES OF THE JEWS.</h3> + +<p class="cblockquot">HOUSE OF THE MACCABEES.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 90%;"> +<img src="images/i506-i.png" width="100%" alt="" title="" /> +</div> + + +<div class='center'> +<table border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" summary=""> +<tr> + <td colspan='6'>Mattathias † B. C. 166.</td> +</tr> +<tr><td></td><td class="br"></td></tr> +<tr><td colspan="6" class="bl bt br"></td></tr> +<tr> + <td>Judas Maccabæus,<br />general of the army † 161. </td> + <td>Jonathan,<br />high priest † 143.</td> + <td colspan='4'>Simon,<br />high priest and ethnarch, † 135.</td> +</tr> +<tr><td></td><td></td><td></td><td class="br"></td></tr> +<tr><td></td><td></td><td colspan="4" class="bl bt br"></td></tr> +<tr> + <td></td> + <td></td> + <td colspan='4'>John Hyrcanus † 107.</td> +</tr> +<tr><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td class="bl"></td></tr> +<tr><td></td><td></td><td colspan="5" class="bl bt br"></td></tr> +<tr> + <td></td> + <td></td> + <td>Aristobulus I. † 106,<br />king and high priest.</td> + <td colspan='5'>Alex. I. Jannæus † 79.<br />married Alexandra.</td> +</tr> +<tr><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td class="br"></td></tr> +<tr><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td colspan="4" class="bl bt br"></td></tr> +<tr> + <td></td> + <td></td> + <td></td> + <td colspan='4'>Hyrcanus II. † 30.<br />high priest and ethnarch.</td> + <td>Aristobulus.<br />† 49.</td> +</tr> +<tr><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td class="br"></td></tr> +<tr><td></td><td></td><td colspan="5" class="bl bt br"></td></tr> +<tr> + <td></td> + <td></td> + <td colspan='4'>Alexander II. † 49.</td> + <td>Antigonus † 37.</td> +</tr> +<tr><td></td><td></td><td></td><td class="br"></td></tr> +<tr><td></td><td></td><td colspan="4" class="bl bt br"></td></tr> +<tr> + <td></td> + <td></td> + <td colspan='2'>Aristobulus † 34.<br /> </td> + <td colspan='2'>Mariamne † 28.<br />married Herod the Great.</td> +</tr> +</table></div> + +<p> </p> +<p class="cblockquot">II. HOUSE OF HEROD.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 90%;"> +<img src="images/i506-ii.png" width="100%" alt="" title="" /> +</div> + +<div class='center'> +<table border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" summary=""> +<tr> + <td></td> + <td></td> + <td colspan='6'>Antipater † 43.</td> +</tr> +<tr><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td class="br"></td></tr> +<tr><td></td><td></td><td colspan="5" class="bl bt br"></td></tr> +<tr> + <td></td> + <td></td> + <td colspan='2'>Salome.<br /> </td> + <td colspan='3'>Herod the Great † A. C. 3.<br />married, 1. Doris. 2. Mariamne. 3. Many others.</td> +</tr> +<tr><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td class="br"></td></tr> +<tr><td colspan="8" class="bl bt br"></td></tr> +<tr> + <td> Antipater <br />† A. C. 3.<br /> </td> + <td> Alexander <br />† B. C. 5.<br /> </td> + <td colspan='2'>Aristobulus<br />† B. C. 5.</td> + <td colspan='2'>Archelaus,<br />ethnarch, deposed A. C. 6. <br /> </td> + <td>Antipas,<br />tetrarch, deposed A. C. 39. <br />married Herodias.</td> + <td>Philip,<br />tetrarch, † A. C. 34.<br /> </td> +</tr> +<tr><td></td><td></td><td class="br"></td></tr> +<tr><td></td><td></td><td class="bt bl"></td><td class="bt br"></td></tr> +<tr> + <td></td> + <td></td> + <td colspan='2'>Herod II. Agrippa<br />† A. C. 44.</td> +</tr> +<tr><td></td><td></td><td class="br"></td></tr> +<tr><td></td><td></td><td class="bt bl"></td><td class="bt br"></td></tr> +<tr> + <td></td> + <td></td> + <td colspan='2'>Herod Agrippa<br />† A. C. 100.</td> +</tr> +</table></div> + + +<hr style="width: 100%;" /> +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_485" id="Page_485">[Pg 485]</a></span></p> + +<h3>V. GENEALOGICAL TABLE OF THE CÆSARS.</h3> + +<p class="cblockquot">I.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 90%;"> +<img src="images/i507-i.png" width="100%" alt="" title="" /> +</div> + +<div class='center'> +<table border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" summary=""> +<tr><td align='center' colspan='6'>C. Julius Cæsar, prætor, † 84.</td></tr> +<tr><td></td><td></td><td class="br"></td></tr> +<tr><td class="bl bt"></td><td class="bt"></td><td class="bt"></td><td class="bt"></td><td class="bt"></td><td class="bt br"></td></tr> +<tr> + <td align='center' colspan='2'><span class="smcap">C. Julius Cæsar</span>, dictator,<br />† 44.</td> + <td align='center' colspan='2'></td> + <td align='center' colspan='2'>Julia † 52.<br />married Accius Balbus.</td> +</tr> +<tr><td></td><td class="bl"></td><td></td><td></td><td class="br"></td></tr> +<tr><td class="bl bt"></td><td class="bt br"></td><td></td><td></td><td class="bl bt"></td><td class="bt br"></td></tr> +<tr> + <td align='center' colspan='2'>Julia † 52. married Pompey.</td> + <td align='center' colspan='2'></td> + <td align='center' colspan='2'>Accia † 42, married C. Octavius.</td> +</tr> +<tr><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td class="br"></td></tr> +<tr><td class="bt bl"></td><td class="bt"></td><td class="bt"></td><td class="bt"></td><td class="bt"></td><td class="bt br"></td></tr> +<tr> + <td align='center' colspan='2'>Octavia the elder<br />married M. Marcellus.<br /> </td> + <td align='center' colspan='2'>Octavia the younger<br />married, 1. C. Marcellus.<br />2. Pompey. 3. M. Antony.</td> + <td align='center' colspan='2'><span class="smcap">C. Octavius</span> (<span class="smcap">Cæsar Augustus</span>)<br />† A. C. 14 (see No. II.)<br /> </td> +</tr> +</table></div> + + +<p> </p> +<p class="cblockquot">II.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 90%;"> +<img src="images/i507-ii.png" width="100%" alt="" title="" /> +</div> + +<div class='center'> +<table border="0" cellpadding="6" cellspacing="0" summary=""> +<tr> + <td colspan='2'></td> + <td colspan='6' align='center'><span class="smcap">Cæsar Octavianus Augustus</span> † A. C. 14.</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td colspan='2'></td> + <td align='right' colspan='2'>married, 1. Scribonia.</td> + <td align='left' colspan='4'>2. Livia, widow of Tiberius Claudius Nero.</td> +</tr> +<tr><td colspan='3' class='br'></td><td colspan='3' class="br"></td></tr> +<tr><td colspan='4' class="bt bl br"></td><td></td><td colspan='8' class="bt bl br"></td></tr> +<tr> + <td colspan='4'>1.<br />Julia † A. C. 17.<br />married, 1. M. Cl. Marcellus. 2. Agrippa. 3. Tiberius.</td> + <td></td> + <td colspan='3'><br /><span class="smcap">Tiberius Nero</span> † A. C. 37.<br />married, 1. Vipsania. 2. Julia.<br /><b>|</b></td> + <td> </td> + <td colspan='4'><br />Nero Claudius Drusus † 9.<br />married Antonia the younger.</td> +</tr> +<tr><td colspan='2' class='br'></td><td colspan='9' class="br"></td></tr> +<tr><td colspan='5' class="bt bl br"></td><td colspan='3'></td><td colspan='5' class="bt bl br"></td></tr> +<tr> + <td>2.<br />C. Cæsar<br />† A. C. 4.</td> + <td>2.<br />L. Cæsar<br />† A. C. 2.</td> + <td>2.<br />Agrippina † A. C. 35.<br />married Germanicus.</td> + <td>2.<br />Julia<br />† A. C. 30.</td> + <td>2.<br />Agrippa Posthumus<br />† A. C. 14.</td> + <td colspan='2'>Drusus Cæsar † A. C. 25.<br /> <br /> </td> + <td> </td> + <td colspan='3'>Germanicus <br /> † A. C. 19.<br />married Agrippina.</td> + <td colspan='2'><span class="smcap">Claudius</span> A. C. 54.<br />married, 1. Messalina.<br />2. Agrippina.</td> +</tr> +<tr><td colspan='9' class='br'></td><td colspan='3' class="br"></td></tr> +<tr><td colspan='3'></td><td colspan='7' class="bt bl br"></td><td></td><td colspan='2' class="bt bl br"></td></tr> +<tr> + <td></td> + <td></td> + <td></td> + <td>Nero <br /> † A. C. 29.</td> + <td>Drusus <br /> † A. C. 35.</td> + <td><span class="smcap">Caius Caligula</span><br /> † A. C. 41.</td> + <td colspan='3'>Agrippina<br />married, 1. Cn.<br />Domitius. 2. Claudius.</td> + <td> </td> + <td> </td> + <td>1.<br />Britannicus<br />† A. C. 34.</td> + <td>1.<br />Octavia<br />† A. C. 59.<br />married Nero.</td> +</tr> +<tr><td colspan='8' class="br"></td></tr> +<tr><td colspan='5'></td><td colspan='6' class="bt bl br"></td></tr> +<tr> + <td colspan='5'></td> + <td colspan='6'>1.<br /><span class="smcap">Domitius Nero</span> † A. C. 68.<br />married, 1. Octavia. 2. Poppæa Sabina</td> + <td></td> +</tr> +</table></div> + + +<hr style="width: 100%;" /> +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_486" id="Page_486">[Pg 486]</a></span></p> + +<h3>VI. GENEALOGICAL TABLE OF THE HOUSE OF CONSTANTINE.</h3> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 90%;"> +<img src="images/i508.png" width="100%" alt="" title="" /> +</div> + +<p> </p> +<div class='center'> +<table border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" summary=""> +<tr><td align='center' colspan='13'><span class="smcap">Constantius Chlorus</span> † 306.<br />married, 1. Helena. 2. Theodora.</td></tr> +<tr><td colspan='6'></td><td class='bl'></td></tr> +<tr><td></td><td class='bt br bl' colspan='12'></td></tr> +<tr> + <td align='center'></td> + <td align='center' colspan='2'><span class="smcap">Constantine</span> the Great † 337.<br />married, 1. Minervina. 2. Fausta.</td> + <td align='center'></td> + <td align='center' colspan='3'>Constantia<br />married C. Valer <span class="smcap">Licinius</span>, Cæsar,<br />† 324.</td> + <td align='center'></td> + <td align='center' colspan='2'>Jul. Constantius † 337.<br />married, 1. Galla. 2. Basilina.</td> + <td align='center'></td> + <td align='center' colspan='2'>Annibalianus.</td> +</tr> +<tr><td></td><td class="br"></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td class="br"></td><td></td><td></td><td class="br"></td><td></td><td></td><td class="br"></td></tr> +<tr><td class="bt bl"></td><td class="bt"></td><td class="bt"></td><td class="bt br"></td><td></td><td class="bt bl"></td><td class="bt br"></td><td></td><td class="bt bl"></td><td class="bt br"></td><td></td><td class="bt bl"></td><td class="bt br"></td></tr> +<tr> + <td align='center'>1.<br /><span class="smcap">Crispus</span><br />† 326.</td> + <td align='center'>2.<br /><span class="smcap">Constantine</span><br />† 340.</td> + <td align='center'>2.<br /><span class="smcap">Constantius</span><br />† 361.</td> + <td align='center'>2.<br /><span class="smcap">Constans</span><br />† 350.</td> + <td></td> + <td align='center' colspan='2'>Fl. Valer. Licinius<br />† 326.<br /> </td> + <td></td> + <td align='center'>1.<br />Gallus<br />† 354.</td> + <td align='center'>2.<br /><span class="smcap">Julian</span> (the apostate)<br />† 363.</td> + <td></td> + <td align='center'>Dalmatius<br />Cæsar † 339.<br /> </td> + <td align='center'>Annibalianus<br />† 338.<br /> </td> +</tr> +</table></div> + + + +<p> </p> + +<p> </p> +<hr style="width: 15%;" /> +<h5>PRINTED BY TALBOYS AND BROWNE, OXFORD.</h5> + +<p> </p> +<p> </p> +<hr class="full" /> + +<p>***END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK A MANUAL OF ANCIENT HISTORY***</p> +<p>******* This file should be named 39747-h.txt or 39747-h.zip *******</p> +<p>This and all associated files of various formats will be found in:<br /> +<a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/dirs/3/9/7/4/39747">http://www.gutenberg.org/3/9/7/4/39747</a></p> +<p> +Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions +will be renamed.</p> + +<p> +Creating the works from public domain print editions means that no +one owns a United States copyright in these works, so the Foundation +(and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United States without +permission and without paying copyright royalties. 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