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+The Project Gutenberg eBook, A Manual of Ancient History, by A. H. L.
+(Arnold Hermann Ludwig) Heeren
+
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+
+
+
+Title: A Manual of Ancient History
+       Particularly with Regard to the Constitutions, the Commerce, and the Colonies, of the States of Antiquity
+
+
+Author: A. H. L. (Arnold Hermann Ludwig) Heeren
+
+
+
+Release Date: May 21, 2012  [eBook #39747]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1
+
+
+***START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK A MANUAL OF ANCIENT HISTORY***
+
+
+E-text prepared by Adrian Mastronardi and the Online Distributed
+Proofreading Team (http://www.pgdp.net) from page images generously made
+available by Internet Archive/American Libraries
+(http://archive.org/details/americana)
+
+
+
+Note: Images of the original pages are available through
+      Internet Archive/American Libraries. See
+      http://archive.org/details/manualofancienth00heeriala
+
+
+
+
+
+A MANUAL OF ANCIENT HISTORY,
+
+Particularly with Regard to the Constitutions, the Commerce,
+and the Colonies, of the States of Antiquity.
+
+by
+
+A. H. L. HEEREN;
+
+Knight of the North Star and Guelphic Order;  Aulic Counsellor
+and Professor of History in the University of Goettingen; and
+Member of Several Other Learned Societies.
+
+Translated from the German.
+
+THE SECOND EDITION, CORRECTED AND IMPROVED.
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+Oxford:
+Published By D. A. Talboys.
+M DCCC XXXIII.
+
+Oxford: Printed by Talboys and Browne.
+
+
+
+
+TRANSLATOR'S PREFACE
+
+TO THIS EDITION.
+
+
+It is to the patient industry of the historians of Germany, that we are
+indebted for the first production of Manuals of history, and for those
+synchronistic tables which have so much facilitated the systematic study
+of ancient history; and among the various and profound treatises of this
+class which enrich and adorn their literature, the works of Heeren are
+distinguished by their extended range of enquiry, as well as by the
+minute accuracy of their details.
+
+The work before us embodies the result of his laborious researches
+during the long period in which he has been engaged as public lecturer
+and professor of history in the university of Goettingen; and if it be
+any recommendation of a work to know that its writer has had ample time,
+ability, and opportunity to collect and elaborate his materials, it may
+be asserted, without fear of contradiction, that the author of the
+present work possessed all these advantages in an eminent degree. He has
+spent the greater portion of his life in lecturing upon the subjects of
+which it treats, and has in every case gone for his information
+immediately to the fountain head. It forms, too, an important feature of
+his work, that a list of the original sources, whence his own knowledge
+has been drawn, is placed at the head of each section; another is added
+of the principal writers who have touched upon or illustrated the
+particular portion of history under notice; both being generally
+accompanied with a few words of judicious criticism, in which the value
+of the writer's authority is estimated, and his sources, circumstances,
+and prejudices, briefly, but fairly set forth. Besides this advantage,
+the work possesses the merit of combining the convenience of the Manuals
+with the synchronistic method of instruction; as the geography,
+chronology, and biography of the countries and states of the ancient
+world are brought at once under the eye of the reader; and so lucid is
+the arrangement, that the darkest and most entangled portions of history
+are seen in a clear and perspicuous light. Professor Heeren seems,
+moreover, to possess in a more eminent degree than any other writer, the
+power of forcing, by a very few words, the attention of the reader upon
+the most important facts of history; and of conjuring up in his thoughts
+a train of reflections calculated at once to instruct and enlarge the
+mind. His work is not only admirably adapted to become a text-book in
+the study of history, but will be found equally serviceable as a book of
+reference--it will guide the student in his untried and intricate
+course, and enable the more advanced scholar to methodize his collected
+stores. Perhaps in no work has so much important information been
+condensed into so small a compass.
+
+The estimation in which this Manual is held on the continent, may be
+gathered from the fact of its having passed through six large editions
+in German, and two in French, and from its having been translated into
+almost every language of Europe.
+
+The rapidity with which the first edition, as well as the other writings
+of professor Heeren, have sold in this country, is a proof that they
+only required to be known here in order to be appreciated. The favour
+with which these translations have been received, both by the venerable
+author himself and by the British public, has been a source of the
+highest gratification to the publisher. The encouragement, so kindly
+bestowed, has urged him to new exertions, the fruits of which, he
+trusts, will be observable in the present volume. The Manual has not
+only been revised and corrected throughout, but has also been diligently
+compared with the German, and has received such ameliorations as the
+original text or the English style seemed to demand. When it is added to
+this that a very numerous body of corrections and improvements have been
+sent to the publisher by professor Heeren himself, who has patiently
+examined the translation expressly for this edition, he trusts that the
+public will be satisfied that it is as faithful a copy of the original
+work as the nature of things will allow.
+
+In the preface to the last edition of this Manual the publisher
+announced his intention, should it be favourably received, of following
+it up by the publication of another elaborate work of the same author,
+viz. A Manual of the History of the States of Modern Europe and their
+Colonies, as forming one political System. This work will now very
+shortly appear. As an apology for the delay which has taken place, he
+begs to call to their notice another equally important work by the same
+author, which he has published in the mean time; the Historical
+Researches into the Politics, Intercourse, and Trade of the
+Carthaginians, Ethiopians, and Egyptians, with a general introduction;
+the remainder of this work, containing the Historical Researches into
+the Politics, Intercourse, and Trade of the Ancient Asiatic Nations--the
+Persians, Phoenicians, Babylonians, Scythians, and Hindoos, will
+appear in a few weeks.
+
+To add to the usefulness of the work, an analysis of the contents, with
+dates, has been given in the margin. The # prefixed to some of the books
+denote that they are written in German.
+
+    OXFORD,
+  _March, 1833_.
+
+
+
+
+PROFESSOR HEEREN'S WORKS.
+
+
+The following catalogue of the historical works of Professor Heeren, has
+been sent to the Publisher by the Professor himself. They are uniformly
+printed in German, in 15 vols. 8vo. and may always be had together or
+separate of the publisher of this volume.
+
+
+  VOL. I. II. III. Vermischte historische Schriften. (Miscellaneous
+    Historical Pieces).
+
+  VOL. I. Einleitung. Biographische Nachrichten über den Verfasser.
+    (Biographical Sketch of Heeren's Life, by himself.)
+
+    1. Entwickelung der politischen Folgen der Reformation für Europa.
+    (Development of the Consequences of the Reformation to the Politics
+    of Europe).
+
+    2. * Versuch einer Entwickelung des Ursprungs und Fortganges der
+    britischen Continental-interesse. (Essay on the Rise and Progress
+    of the British Continental interests). A translation of this Essay
+    will be appended to the Manual of the History of Modern Europe,
+    see vol. viii. ix. below.
+
+    3. Ueber den Einfluss der politischen Theorien auf Europa. (Of the
+    Influence of Political Theories on Europe).
+
+  VOL. II. 1. Ueber die Erhaltung der Nationalität besiegter Völker.
+    (On the Method of Preserving the Nationality of Conquered States.)
+    Written in 1810, and suppressed by the French.
+
+    2. Entwickelung der Folgen der Kreuzzüge für Europa. (Development of
+    the Effects of the Crusades upon Europe: An essay which obtained the
+    prize of the French Institute in 1808).
+
+    3. Ueber den Einfluss der Normannen auf die französische Sprache und
+    Poësie. (On the Influence of the Normans on the French Language and
+    Poetry).
+
+    4. Ueber die Colonisation von Ægypten, und ihre Folgen für Europa.
+    (On the Colonisation of Egypt, and its Probable Consequences to
+    Europe).
+
+    5. Der deutsche Bund in seinen Verhaltnisse zu Europa. (The
+    Influence of the German Federation upon Europe).
+
+  VOL. III. 1. Ueber den historischen Werth der Biographien Plutarch's.
+    (On the Historical Value of Plutarch's Lives).
+
+    2. Geschichte der bürgerlichen Unruhen der Gracchen. (History of the
+    Civil Commotions under the Gracchi).
+
+    3. Fünf archæologische und antiquarische Aufsätze. (Five
+    Archæological and Antiquarian Tracts).
+
+  VOL. IV. V. Geschichte der classischen Litteratur im Mittelalter.
+    (History of Classical Literature During the Middle Ages).
+
+  VOL. VI. Biographische und litterarische Denkschriften. (Biographical
+    and Literary Memoirs).
+
+    1. Christian Gottlob. Hëyne, biographisch dargestellt. (Biographical
+    Memoir of Heyne), the father-in-law of Heeren.
+
+    2. Andenken an deutsche Historiker. (Memoirs of German Historians.)
+
+  VOL. VII. * Handbuch der Geschichte der Staaten des Alterthums.
+    (Manual of Ancient History, of which this volume is the second
+    edition of the English translation).
+
+  VOL. VIII. IX. * Handbuch der Geschichte der europäische
+    Staaten-systems und seiner Colonien. (Manual of the
+    History of the European States-system and their Colonies).
+
+  VOL. X. * Ideen ueber die Politik, den Verkehr und den Handel
+    des vornehmsten Staaten der alten Welt. (Researches into the
+    Politics, Intercourse, and Trade of the Principal States of
+    Antiquity,--Asiatic Nations). 1. General Introduction;
+    2. Persians.
+
+  VOL. XI. * Ideen, etc. (Asiatic Nations). 1. Phoenicians;
+    2. Babylonians; 3. Scythians.
+
+  VOL. XII. * Ideen, etc. (Asiatic Nations). Indians.
+
+  VOL. XIII. * Ideen, etc. (African Nations). 1. Carthaginians;
+    2. Ethiopians.
+
+  VOL. XIV. * Ideen, etc. (African Nations). Egyptians.
+
+  VOL. XV. * Ideen, etc. (European Nations). Greeks.
+
+
+Those with a * prefixed are translated into English, and are either now
+published or will very shortly be so.
+
+
+
+
+PREFACE
+
+TO THE FIRST EDITION.
+
+
+In adding to the number of Manuals on Ancient History already published,
+I feel myself bound to give an account of the plan on which the present
+has been executed.
+
+It was at first designed to be used in my public lectures, and from them
+it has grown up to what it now is. In them I did not consider it
+necessary to state all we know or think we know of ancient history. Many
+facts highly interesting to the learned historian are not adapted for
+public lectures. It was therefore my great object to make choice of such
+incidents as ought to be known by my pupils in order to the effectual
+prosecution of their historical studies. Consequently I have not
+extended my labours so far as to give an historical account of every
+nation, but have limited myself to those most remarkable for their
+general civilization and political eminence.
+
+The subjects to which I have particularly directed my attention are, the
+formation of states, the changes in their constitution, the routes by
+which commerce was carried on, the share which the different nations
+respectively took in its pursuit, and, as immediately connected with
+that department, their extension severally by means of colonies.
+
+The favourable reception which my larger work, executed after a
+different plan, has met with, would lead me to hope for a like
+indulgence in this new attempt, even if the spirit of the age did not so
+loudly call upon every historian to direct his chief attention to these
+subjects. And for this reason I could not rest satisfied with a mere
+detail of isolated facts, but have made it my study to follow the course
+of events, linking them into one connected chain; so as to represent
+them in a condensed form by continually and carefully forcing together
+the main circumstances which contributed to the development of the
+whole.
+
+Without this, history in general would be but a lifeless study, more
+especially that of republics, which were so numerous in ancient times,
+and which, from their constitution being made up of political parties,
+everywhere present the most difficult problems for the historian's
+solution. Of all the larger divisions of my work, the arrangement of the
+Greek history I have found most troublesome, on account of the number of
+little states into which it is sub-divided. Historians, indeed, lighten
+this labour by confining themselves merely to Athens and Sparta; but by
+so doing they give us a very imperfect knowledge of the subject. I have
+endeavoured to surmount the difficulty by throwing the account of the
+smaller states and their colonies into the second period; by which means
+I have been able in the third and most important portion, the interest
+of which depends entirely upon the principal states, to carry on my
+history, as a whole without interruption. But in case others, who wish
+to make this Manual the groundwork of their lectures, should dislike
+this arrangement, they may very easily attach these notices to the
+introductory geographical survey; a plan I very often adopt in my own
+lectures. Upon the arrangement of the other parts, I am not aware of the
+necessity of making any observations. The sources from which I have
+drawn my materials are specified in every section. Particular references
+do not come within my plan; and if I have referred several times in the
+first two sections to my larger work, it is only on particular points,
+explanations of which may be sought for in vain elsewhere.
+
+Some knowledge of ancient geography and the use of maps[a], if it has
+not been previously acquired by the student, should, I am convinced,
+always be connected with lectures on ancient history. That this need not
+extend to detailed explanations of ancient geography, but that it should
+be restricted to what is merely useful in the study of history, I have
+observed in the body of my work. The geographical chapters which are
+interspersed having been written with this intent, will, I hope, be
+judged of accordingly. I have taken care to arrange them so as to
+include the whole of the ancient world; it depends, therefore, only upon
+the teacher to form a more or less extensive course upon them.
+
+  [a] I have made use of D'Anville.
+
+With regard to chronology, I have followed throughout the same uniform
+plan of computing time, viz. to and from the birth of Christ. By
+preferring this method, so convenient and certain, to the inconvenient
+and uncertain one of reckoning from the year of the world, I hope I have
+deserved the thanks of my readers. I relinquish, on the other hand, all
+claim to merit on the score of having more accurately defined the
+chronology of events which occur before the time of Cyrus. I have, on
+the contrary, in this part of my labour, often stated round numbers,
+where, in many modern publications, precise dates may be found. Exact
+determinations of time are only necessary, in my opinion, where a
+continuous development of circumstances takes place; not where
+unconnected facts are recorded.
+
+The transactions of our own times have thrown a light upon ancient
+history, and given it an interest which it could not formerly possess. A
+knowledge of history, if not the only, is at least the most certain
+means of obtaining a clear and unprejudiced view of the great drama now
+performing around us. All direct comparisons, notwithstanding the many
+opportunities which have tempted me, I considered as foreign to my plan;
+but if, notwithstanding in some chapters of my work, particularly in the
+history of the Roman republic, I may be thought to make a reference to
+the transactions of the ten years during which this work has been
+published, I do not consider it necessary to offer any excuse for so
+doing. Of what use is the study of history if it do not make us wiser
+and better? unless the knowledge of the past teach us to judge more
+correctly of the present? Should I have contributed in any measure to
+promote this object, and should I be so fortunate as to lead the minds
+of my young friends to a deeper study of a science which can only in
+this way reward its admirers, I shall esteem it the most delightful
+recompense my labour can receive.
+
+GOETTINGEN, Sept. 23, 1799.
+
+
+
+
+PREFACE
+
+TO THE SECOND AND FOLLOWING EDITIONS.
+
+
+The call for a second edition of my Manual imposes upon me an obligation
+to supply the deficiencies of my former work. Corrections have been
+carefully made, and many parts completely re-written. A select list of
+books which treat of the respective departments of my subject is now
+first added; the former edition containing only references to the
+sources from which my facts were derived. This, I trust, will be
+considered an essential service to the friends of historical science,
+more especially the young, for whom and not for the learned these
+additions have been made. Their use in this place is particularly
+obvious, where it is in every one's power to procure the books referred
+to[b]. The short criticisms subjoined, where it seemed necessary, will
+serve as guides for their use. In the author's department of the work
+but little has been changed, while its form and appearance have been
+improved by the use of different types, by more accurate running titles,
+and by ranging the dates in the margin. By the adoption of the latter
+method the increase in the number of pages is rendered inconsiderable,
+notwithstanding the numerous additions which have been made to the
+matter. In its arrangement, this work is the same as my Manual of the
+History of the European States and their Colonies. Beyond this, however,
+these works have no relation to each other, but have been executed upon
+quite different principles; the present as a history of the _separate_
+states of the ancient world, and the other as a general history of
+modern states and their colonies, as forming altogether one political
+system. Each, however, forms a complete work in itself, and it is by no
+means my intention to fill up the gulf which time has placed between
+them.
+
+  [b] [The author alludes to the public library at Goettingen. TR.]
+
+I regret that the acute researches of M. Volney[c], upon the chronology
+of Herodotus before the time of Cyrus, came too late into my hands to be
+made use of in its proper place in my second edition. In the third this
+has been done. I lay claim, at the same time, to the thanks of the
+reader for giving, in an Appendix, the results of these researches,
+together with references to the passages by which they are supported;
+leaving out, however, all extraneous matter, and everything that cannot
+be proved by the positive assertions of the father of history.
+
+  [c] Chronologie d'Herodote, conforme à son Texte par C. F. Volney.
+      Paris, 1809, 3 vols. See the _Gött. Gel. Anz._ for 1810 and 1816.
+
+I cannot close this preface without again recurring to the advantage of
+the mode now becoming more and more general, of computing time in
+ancient history according to the number of years before Christ. The fact
+of its being certain and convenient has often been remarked; but besides
+this it possesses the great advantage of giving us at once a clear and
+precise notion of the interval that separates us from the incidents
+recorded; which it is impossible to obtain by the use of any other era,
+whether the year of the world, the olympiads, or the year of Rome, etc.
+And yet this peculiar advantage, so great in the eyes of the teacher,
+has not, to the best of my knowledge, been hitherto made the subject of
+remark. Even for the science of history itself, this circumstance is of
+greater moment than might be at first supposed. Should an enquirer arise
+who would closely examine all ancient history according to this
+era--setting out from the generally received year of the birth of Christ
+as from a fixed point, to which the labours of M. Volney are a good
+beginning--the whole science would thereby acquire a firmer consistency.
+For by this method all dates would not appear equally certain and
+equally uncertain, as they do in the eras which are computed from the
+year of the world; but it would be shown what is chronologically
+certain, what only probable, and what completely uncertain, according as
+we should recede from the clearer into the more obscure regions of
+history. The old manner of reckoning from the year of the world, in
+which congruity was impossible, because there was no agreement upon the
+point to start from, would certainly be thrown aside; but where is the
+harm if something better and more certain be substituted in its place?
+
+In the third, fourth, fifth, and sixth editions, though the increase in
+the number of pages is small, yet all those additions and corrections
+which I deemed necessary, and which the progress of knowledge and
+discovery, as in the case of Egypt and other countries, enabled me to
+effect, have been most carefully and fully made. The importance of these
+will be best seen by comparison.
+
+_Goettingen_, 1828.
+
+
+
+
+CONTENTS.
+
+
+                                                                  Page
+  INTRODUCTION                                                       1
+
+
+  Book I. Asiatic and African states previous to Cyrus              15
+
+  General geographical outline of Asia                             ib.
+
+  Preliminary and General Observations upon the History and
+    Constitution of the great Asiatic Empires                       22
+
+  History of the ancient Asiatic kingdoms before the reign of
+    Cyrus                                                           25
+
+    I. Assyrian monarchy                                           ib.
+
+    II. Median monarchy                                             26
+
+    III. Babylonian monarchy                                        27
+
+    IV. States in Asia Minor                                        29
+      1. Trojan empire                                             ib.
+      2. Phrygian empire                                           ib.
+      3. Lydian empire                                             ib.
+
+    V. Phoenicia                                                    30
+
+    VI. Syrians                                                     33
+
+    VII. Jews                                                       34
+      1. Period of the Nomad state from Abraham till the conquest
+        of Palestine                                                35
+      2. Period of the federative republic                          36
+      3. Period of the monarchy from B. C. 1100-600                 38
+        The Jewish state as one single kingdom                     ib.
+        The Jewish state as a divided kingdom                       40
+
+  African Nations                                                   45
+
+  General geographical outline of Ancient Africa                   ib.
+
+    I. Egyptians                                                    47
+
+      1st Period. From the earliest times down to the Sesostridæ,
+        about B. C. 1500                                            51
+
+      2nd Period. From the Sesostridæ till the sole dominion
+        of Psammetichus, B. C. 1500-650                             62
+
+      3rd Period. From the reign of Psammetichus to the
+        Persian conquest of Egypt by Cambyses, B. C. 650-525        69
+
+    II. Carthaginians                                               73
+
+      1st Period. From the foundation of Carthage to the
+        wars with Syracuse, B. C. 880-480                           74
+
+      2nd Period. From the breaking out of the wars with
+        Syracuse to the commencement of those with Rome,
+        B. C. 480-264                                               80
+
+      3rd Period. From the beginning of the wars with
+        Rome to the downfal of Carthage, B. C. 264-146              82
+
+
+  Book II. History of the Persian empire from B. C. 560-330         90
+
+
+  Book III. History of the Grecian states                          112
+
+  Geographical outline of Greece                                   ib.
+
+    1st Period. Traditional history down to the Trojan war,
+      about B. C. 1200                                             118
+
+    2nd Period. From the Trojan war to the breaking out
+      of the Persian war, B. C. 1200-500                           127
+
+  History of the Hellenic states within Greece                     ib.
+    General history                                                ib.
+    Sparta                                                         131
+    Athens                                                         136
+
+  Principal data for the history of the smaller states:
+
+  I. Within the Peloponnesus:
+    _a._ Arcadia                                                   142
+    _b._ Argos                                                     ib.
+    _c._ Corinth                                                   143
+    _d._ Sicyon                                                    144
+    _e._ Achaia                                                    ib.
+    _f._ Elis                                                      145
+
+  II. Central Greece, or Hellas:
+    _a._ Megaris                                                   146
+    _b._ Boeotia                                                   147
+    _c._ Phocis                                                    148
+    _d._ Locris                                                    ib.
+    _e._ Ætolia                                                    ib.
+    _f._ Acarnania                                                 149
+
+  III. Northern Greece:
+    _a._ Thessaly                                                  149
+    _b._ Epirus                                                    150
+
+  IV. Grecian Islands:
+    _a._ Corcyra                                                   151
+    _b._ Ægina                                                     ib.
+    _c._ Euboea                                                    152
+    _d._ The Cyclades                                              ib.
+    _e._ Crete                                                     ib.
+    _f._ Cyprus                                                    154
+
+  History of the Grecian colonies                                  155
+
+  General observations                                             ib.
+
+  Colonies on the Western coast of Asia Minor:                     157
+    1. Æolian colonies                                             158
+    2. Ionian colonies                                             159
+    3. Dorian colonies                                             161
+
+  Colonies on the coast of the Propontis and the Black sea         162
+
+  Colonies on the coasts of Thrace and Macedonia                   163
+
+  Colonies on the western coast of Greece                          164
+
+  Grecian settlements in Lower Italy:
+    _a._ Tarentum                                                  165
+    _b._ Croton                                                    166
+    _c._ Sybaris                                                   ib.
+    _d._ Thurii                                                    167
+    _e._ Locri Epizephyrii                                         ib.
+    _f._ Rhegium                                                   168
+    _g._ Cumæ                                                      ib.
+
+  Grecian settlements in Sicily:
+    _a._ Syracuse                                                  169
+    _b._ Agrigentum                                                174
+    _c._ The smaller Sicilian cities                               175
+
+  Colonies in Sardinia and Corsica                                 ib.
+
+  Colonies in Gaul;--Massilia                                      176
+
+  Colonies in Spain;--Saguntum                                     ib.
+
+  Colonies in Africa;--Cyrene                                      ib.
+
+  Period III. From the breaking out of the Persian wars to
+    Alexander the Great, B. C. 500-336                             178
+
+
+  Book IV. History of the Macedonian Monarchy:
+
+  Period I. From its origin to the death of Alexander the
+    Great, B. C. 800-323                                           206
+
+  Period II. History of the Macedonian monarchy, from the death
+    of Alexander the Great to the battle of Ipsus, B. C. 323-301   222
+
+  Period III. History of the separate kingdoms and states
+    which arose out of the dismemberment of the Macedonian
+    monarchy, after the battle of Ipsus                            232
+
+    I. History of the Syrian empire under the Seleucidæ
+      B. C. 312-64                                                 232
+
+    II. History of the Egyptian kingdom under the Ptolemies,
+      B. C. 323-30                                                 247
+
+    III. History of Macedonia itself and of Greece, from the
+      death of Alexander to the Roman conquest, B. C. 323-146      268
+
+      Achæan league                                                280
+      Ætolian league                                               279
+
+    IV. History of some smaller or more distant kingdoms
+      and states formed out of the Macedonian monarchy             290
+
+      The kingdom of Pergamus                                      291
+      Bithynia                                                     293
+      Paphlagonia                                                  294
+      Pontus                                                       295
+      Cappadocia                                                   297
+      Armenia                                                      298
+      The kingdom of Parthia                                       299
+      The kingdom of Bactria                                       305
+      The restored kingdom of the Jews                             306
+        1. Under the Persians                                      307
+        2. Under the Ptolemies and Seleucidæ                       308
+        3. Under the Maccabees                                     309
+        4. Under the family of Herod                               311
+
+
+  Book V. History of the Roman state:
+
+  Introductory remarks on the Geography of Ancient Italy           314
+
+    Period I. From the foundation of Rome to the conquest of
+      Italy, and the commencement of the wars with Carthage,
+      B. C. 754-264, or A. U. C. 1-490                             321
+
+    Period II. From the commencement of the war with Carthage
+      to the rise of the civil broils under the Gracchi,
+      B. C. 264-134, or A. U. C. 490-620                           339
+
+    Period III. From the beginning of the civil broils under
+      the Gracchi to the fall of the republic, B. C. 134-30,
+      or A. U. C. 620-724                                          362
+
+    Period IV. History of the Roman state as a monarchy till the
+      overthrow of the western empire, B. C. 30-A. C. 476          402
+
+  Geographical outline. View of the Roman empire and provinces,
+    and other countries connected with it by war or commerce       ib.
+
+    1st Section. From Augustus Cæsar to the death of
+      Commodus, B. C. 30-A. C. 193                                 411
+
+    2nd Section. From the death of Commodus to Diocletian,
+      A. C. 193-284                                                437
+
+    3rd Section. From Diocletian to the overthrow of the
+      Roman empire in the west, A. C. 284-476                      454
+
+
+  Appendix. Chronology of Herodotus from the time of Cyrus,
+    according to Volney                                            475
+
+
+  Genealogical Table of the reigning houses of Macedon             481
+
+  -------------------------------------------- the Seleucidæ       482
+
+  -------------------------------------------- the Ptolemies       483
+
+  -------------------------------------------- the Jews            484
+
+  -------------------------------------------- the Cæsars          485
+
+  -------------------------------------------- Constantine         486
+
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+OXFORD: PRINTED BY TALBOYS AND BROWNE.
+
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+MANUAL
+
+OF
+
+ANCIENT HISTORY.
+
+
+
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+INTRODUCTION.
+
+
+  I. The sources of ancient history may be ranged under two heads;
+  the ancient writers, and the monuments still extant. The various
+  writers will be mentioned in their proper places, at the different
+  divisions of this work. A general view of the ancient monuments, so
+  far as they are sources of history, will be found in:
+
+  OBERLIN, _Orbis antiqui monumentis suis illustrati primæ lineæ_.
+  Argentorati, 1790. Extremely defective, as many discoveries have
+  been made since it was published.
+
+  II. GENERAL TREATISES ON ANCIENT HISTORY.
+
+  1. _The more voluminous works_ on the subject. These may be divided
+  in two classes: _a._ The part appropriated to ancient history, in
+  the general treatises on universal history; _b._ Works exclusively
+  devoted to ancient history.
+
+  _a._ To the first class belong:
+
+  _The Universal History, ancient and modern; with maps and
+  additions._ Lond. 1736, 26 vols. folio. Reprinted in 8vo. in 67
+  vols. and again in 60 vols. with omissions and additions.
+
+  This work, compiled by a society of British scholars, has been
+  translated into German, and illustrated with remarks, by SIEGM.
+  JAC. BAUMGARTEN. Halle, 1746, 4to. The Germans frequently designate
+  it by the name of the Halle Universal History of the World: the
+  first eighteen vols. comprise the ancient part.
+
+  WILL. GUTHRIE, JOHN GRAY, _etc._ _General History of the World,
+  from the creation to the present time._ London, 1764-1767, 12 vols.
+  8vo. This work, of no estimation in the original, is rendered
+  valuable and useful by the labours of the German translator, C. G.
+  HEYNE, (_Leip._ 1766, 8vo.) who has corrected the errors, inserted
+  the dates, and added his own observations.
+
+  _b._ To the second class belong:
+
+  ROLLIN, _Histoire ancienne des Egyptiens, des Carthaginois, des
+  Assyriens, des Mèdes el des Perses, des Macédoniens, des Grecs._
+  Paris, 1824, 12 vols. 8vo.; revue par LETRONNE: the last and best
+  edition. This work, which greatly promoted the study of ancient
+  history in France, still maintains its well-earned reputation. [It
+  was translated into English, 1768: best edition, 7 vols. 8vo.:
+  frequently reprinted.] The above is generally accompanied by the
+  _Histoire Romaine_ of the same author. See below, book v. first
+  period, _Sources_.
+
+  JAC. BEN. BOSSUET, _Discours sur l'Histoire Universelle_. Paris,
+  1680, 3 vols. Frequently reprinted, being considered by the French
+  one of their classics.
+
+  [English translation, by RICH. SPENCER. London, 1730, 8vo.]
+
+  MILLOT, _Elémens de l'Histoire Générale_. Paris, 1772, sq.
+  [Translated into English, 1778, 2 vols. 8vo.: and again, an
+  improved edition, with additions.] Edinb. 1823, 6 vols. 8vo. The
+  ancient history is contained in the first two volumes.
+
+  # JOH. MATTH. SCHROECKH, _General History of the World_, for the
+  use of children. Leipzic, 1779, sq. 6 vols.
+
+  # J. G. EICHHORN, _History of the Ancient World_, 1799, third
+  edition, 1817. (First part of the History of the World.)
+
+  # DAN. G. J. HUEBLER, _Sketch of the General History of the Nations
+  of Antiquity, from the birth of states to the end of the Roman
+  commonwealth_. Freyberg, 1798-1802. Five parts; and a continuation:
+  _History of the Romans under the Emperors, and of the contemporary
+  Nations, until the great migration_, 1803; three parts. A work
+  rendered extremely useful, by the judicious advantage taken by the
+  author of the labours of other writers.
+
+  # H. LUDEN, _General History of Nations_. 1814; three parts.
+
+  # L. VON DRESCH, _General Political History_. 1815; three parts. In
+  each of the above works the first part contains the ancient
+  history, and exhibits the more modern views of the subject.
+
+  [The following is added, as well deserving the attention of the
+  English student: RALEGH (Sir WALTER) _History of the World, Part I.
+  extending to the end of the Macedonian Empire; with his Life and
+  Trial, by Mr. Oldys_. Lond. 1736, 2 vols. folio. Formerly the best
+  edition; but a new and improved one has been printed at the
+  Clarendon press. Oxford, 1829, 8 vols. 8vo.]
+
+  # F. VON RAUMER, _Lectures on Ancient History_, parts 1, 2. Berlin,
+  1821.
+
+  Works furnishing illustrations of the progressive civilization,
+  government, and commerce of early nations, although, strictly
+  speaking, not treatises on ancient history, are nevertheless very
+  closely connected with the subject. Among these may be mentioned:
+
+  GOGUET, _De l'Origine des Lois, des Arts, et des Sciences, et de
+  leurs progrès chèz les anciens peuples; nouv. édit_. Paris, 1778.
+  [Translated by Dr. DUNN and Mr. SPEERMAN. Edinb. 1761-1775, 3 vols.
+  8vo.]
+
+  # A. H. L. HEEREN, _Reflections on the Politics, Intercourse, and
+  Trade of the most eminent Nations in the Ancient World_. Third
+  edition, with many additions. Gottingen, 1815, 8vo.; the third
+  part, 1821. Fourth edition. Gottingen, 1824. [This edition, the
+  last, contains many improvements and additions, suggested by the
+  great discoveries of modern travellers. Part I, Asiatic Nations, in
+  3 vols. Persians, Phoenicians, Babylonians, Scythians, Indians. An
+  English translation of which is at this moment in the press. Part
+  II, African Nations, 2 vols. Carthaginians, Ethiopians, Egyptians.
+  Part III, European Nations; of which only 1 volume, Greeks, has
+  been published.]
+
+  2. _Manuals_, or epitomes.
+
+  The Germans are entitled to the merit of having first produced
+  manuals of ancient history, all of them useful, some excellent, in
+  their kind: they are a result of the progress made in this science
+  at the universities.
+
+  # J. CHR. GATTERER, _Attempt at an Universal History of the World
+  to the discovery of America_. Gottingen, 1792. He who possesses
+  this, the last and ripest fruit of Gatterer's studies, may dispense
+  with the earlier manuals published by that author.
+
+  # CHR. DAN. BECK, _A Short Introduction to the Knowledge of the
+  Universal History of the World and of Nature_. Leipzic, 1798. The
+  first part connected with our subject extends to A. D. 843. This
+  volume is enriched with such a copious and critical account of
+  books relating to ancient history, that it may supply the place of
+  a particular work on the subject.
+
+  # J. A. REMER, _Manual of the more Ancient History, from the
+  creation of the world to the great migration_. Fourth edition.
+  Brunswick, 1832.
+
+  # J. M. SCHROECKH, _Manual of Universal History_. 1774: latest
+  edition, 1795.
+
+  # G. S. BREDOW, _Manual of Ancient History, with a sketch of the
+  chronology of the ancients_. Altona, 1799, 8vo. [Translated into
+  English. Lond. 1828, 12mo. In English we have:
+
+  _The Outlines of History_, in 1 vol. (forming part of Lardner's
+  Cabinet Cyclopædia) by Mr. KEIGHTLY, author of a learned and
+  highly useful work on Grecian Mythology, is a convenient
+  abridgement. TYTLER'S _Elements of General History_, improved and
+  continued by Dr. NARES. Lond. 1825, best edition; owes its
+  reputation and success to the want of a better work on the
+  subject.]
+
+  3. _Helps._
+
+  Among the works subservient to the study of ancient history, the
+  first rank is justly due to the synchronistic tables.
+
+  # D. G. J. HUEBLER, _Synchronistic Tables of the History of
+  Nations_; arranged principally according to GATTERER'S _History of
+  the World_. In two numbers. Second edit. 1799 and 1804.
+
+1. The object of POLITICAL HISTORY is to recount the destinies of
+nations, both in respect to their foreign relations and internal
+affairs. In regard to domestic concerns, one of its most important
+objects is the _history of governments_: in respect to external affairs,
+it comprises not only an account of the wars, but likewise of the
+friendly relations and intercourse with other states.
+
+  Observe here the difference between universal history, or general
+  history of the human race, and the history of nations; the latter
+  forms part of the former. Observe also the difference between
+  political history and that of civilization, or of man as a human
+  being: the latter is merely the history of man, as man, without
+  regard to political circumstances.
+
+2. Universal political history is usually divided into three parts:
+_ancient history_, that of the _middle ages_, and _modern history_. The
+first extends to the fall of the Roman empire in the west, which took
+place towards the close of the fifth century of the christian era; the
+second extends to the discovery of America, and of a passage by sea to
+the East Indies, about the end of the fifteenth century; the third
+extends from the commencement of the sixteenth century to the present
+time.
+
+  The propriety of the above division is evinced by the nature of the
+  events which form these epochs. The student will easily perceive that
+  the division of history, into that before and after the birth of
+  Christ, is not judicious.
+
+3. From the definition just given, it follows, that political history
+does not commence till after the first formation of states. Whatever is
+known, therefore, of the period previous to this, or may be gathered
+from traditions, respecting individuals or tribes, or their migrations,
+affinities, or discoveries, forms no part of political history, but must
+be referred to the general history of man.
+
+  It is well known that a great deal of information has been preserved
+  in the sacred writings concerning the early fortunes of the human
+  race. From these materials have been compiled what has been called
+  an _Historia Antediluviana_, sometimes considered as forming a
+  separate division of history. What has been said above will
+  satisfactorily account for the omission of this portion of history
+  in the present work; although none can deny the high importance of
+  such traditions in the investigation of the origin, dispersion, and
+  civilization of the human race.
+
+4. The sources of history may be ranged under sources of two general
+heads; _oral traditions_, and _written documents_ of various kinds. The
+history of every nation usually commences with oral tradition, which
+remains the only source, until the art of writing becomes known, and in
+some degree adopted by the people.
+
+5. Under the name of _traditional history_ or _mythology_, is
+comprehended all the general collection of oral traditions preserved by
+a nation; and some such traditional history or mythology is to be found
+among every people in the first stage of their existence as a community.
+This mythology, however, is by no means confined to events strictly
+historical, but embraces every branch of information which may appear to
+a nation in its infancy, of sufficient importance to be preserved and
+handed down to posterity.
+
+  Hence the mythology of a people is invariably composed of very
+  heterogeneous materials; it not only preserves the remembrance of
+  various kinds of historical facts, but likewise the pervading ideas
+  of the people with respect to the nature and worship of their
+  deities; as well as the notions they had formed from observations
+  and experience respecting astronomy, morals, the arts, etc. All
+  these are handed down in the form of historical narrative; because
+  man, as yet unpractised in abstract thinking, necessarily
+  represents every thing to his mind under the figure of some
+  physical object. It is just as useless, therefore, to attempt to
+  mould the mythology of any people into a consistent and connected
+  whole, or indeed into any scientific system whatsoever, as it is
+  difficult to draw a strict line between what belongs to mythology,
+  and what to pure history. It follows, therefore, that mythology
+  should be employed by the historian with great caution; and not
+  without judicious criticism, and an accurate knowledge of
+  antiquity.
+
+  These correct views of mythology,--the key to the whole of earlier
+  antiquity,--were first set forth and illustrated by Heyne, in his
+  commentaries upon Virgil and other poets, in his edition of
+  Apollodorus, and in various essays published in the Transactions of
+  the Gottingen Scientific Society. It is principally to the aid of
+  these that the Germans owe their superiority over other nations in
+  the science of antiquity.
+
+6. The place of writing among such nations, is generally supplied, in a
+great measure, by poetry; which being in its origin nothing more than
+imagery expressed in figurative language, must spontaneously arise among
+men, as yet wont to represent every thing to their minds under the form
+of images. Hence the subject matter of the poetry of every nation, while
+in a state of rudeness, is and can be nothing else but its mythology;
+and the great variety in the materials of which this is composed very
+naturally gave rise, at the same early period, to various kinds of
+poetry; as the lyric, the didactic, the epic. The last of these,
+inasmuch as it contains the historic songs and the epopee, claims in a
+more especial manner the attention of the historian.
+
+  The mythi (or fables of which this mythology was composed) were in
+  later times frequently collected from the works of the poets, and
+  committed to writing by grammarians; such as Apollodorus and
+  others. This, however, can have had no effect on their original
+  character.
+
+7. The second source of history, much more copious and important than
+the former, are the various kinds of written monuments. These may be
+arranged according to the order of time at which they were brought into
+use, into three classes; 1st. Inscriptions on public monuments, under
+which head are included the coins of later date; 2nd. Chronological
+records of events, under the form of annals and chronicles; 3rd. Real
+philosophical works on history.
+
+8. Inscriptions on public monuments erected to preserve the remembrance
+of certain events, though perhaps no more than a stone set upright, or
+even a bare rock, was used for that purpose, were undoubtedly the most
+ancient written memorials. These rude monuments became fashioned by art
+into columns, obelisks, and pyramids, as the taste of the nation became
+formed; and assumed that definite character which local circumstances
+and the natural features of the country led it to adopt, as architecture
+arose and attained to perfection among them. The very object, indeed,
+for which they were erected--the commemoration of remarkable
+events,--must have suggested the practice of inscribing upon them some
+particulars of the facts they were intended to perpetuate. Of this
+nature, no doubt, were the oldest monuments, and more particularly those
+of Egypt. Their use was much more general among nations of a later
+period, especially Greece and Rome, than among the moderns; yet of the
+great mass of inscriptions still extant, but few comparatively are of
+any importance as regards history.
+
+  The characters engraved on these monuments were either symbolical
+  (hieroglyphics; see below under Egypt,) or alphabetical. The
+  invention and transmission of alphabetical writing are commonly
+  ascribed to the Phoenicians; although, if we may judge by the shape
+  of the arrow-headed character, it was made, without communication
+  with them, in the interior of Asia.
+
+  The general collections of inscriptions are:
+
+  LUD. ANT. MURATORI, _Novus Thesaurus veterum Inscriptionum_.
+  Mediolani, 1739, sq. 4 vols. fol. Together with SEB. DONATI,
+  _Supplementa_. Luccæ, 1764. JAN. GRUTERI, _Inscriptiones antiquæ
+  totius orbis Romani, cura_ J. G. GRÆVII. Amstel. 1707, 2 vols. fol.
+
+  C. A. BOEKHIUS, _Corpus Inscriptionum Græcarum, auctoritate et
+  impensis Academiæ literarum Borussicæ_, vol. 1. 1827, folio.
+
+  Among the separate monuments, the most important for ancient
+  history is the Parian or Oxford Inscription, _Marmora Oxoniensia,
+  Arundeliana_, edited by SELDEN, 1629; by PRIDEAUX, 1677. The best
+  edition is by RICH. CHANDLER, Oxf. 1763, fol. A useful and portable
+  edition has been published by FR. CH. WAGNER, _containing the Greek
+  text, with a German translation and notes_. Gottingen, 1790, 8vo.
+
+9. Coins may likewise be regarded as a source of ancient history, as by
+the light they throw upon genealogy and chronology, the events known
+from other authorities may be better arranged and understood. The
+importance of coins, therefore, becomes most sensible in those portions
+of history where our information, in consequence of the loss of the
+works of the original historians, is reduced to a few insulated facts
+and fragments.
+
+  EZ. SPANHEMII, _Dissertatio de Usu et Præstantia Numismatum_.
+  Londini, 1707 et 1709, 2 vols. fol. The capital work, however, on
+  this subject, and which embraces the whole numismatic science of
+  antiquity is:
+
+  ECKHEL, _De Doctrina Nummorum Veterum_. Viennæ, 1792-1798, 8 vols.
+  4to. And the epitome:
+
+  # ECKHEL, _Brief Elements of Ancient Numismatics_. Vienna, 1707,
+  8vo. Another very useful work is:
+
+  J. C. RASCHE, _Lexicon Universæ Rei Nummariæ Veterum_. 1785, sq. 5
+  vols. 8vo.
+
+10. Chronicles or annals form the second great division of written
+historical monuments. These presuppose the invention of letters, and the
+use of materials for writing upon; consequently they are of a later date
+than mere inscriptions. They occur, nevertheless, in the earlier periods
+of nations; and from such annals, indited by public authority (state
+chronicles,) subsequent historians have generally drawn materials for
+their works. In many nations, and in nearly all the eastern ones,
+history has not even yet advanced beyond the composition of such
+chronicles.
+
+11. The third great division of historical writings is formed of works
+composed on philosophical principles, which differ from mere annals by
+their containing not only a chronological narration of events, but also
+a development of their connection with one another, their causes and
+effects.
+
+  But few nations among the moderns, and we know of none among the
+  ancients, except the Greeks and Romans, that had any acquaintance
+  with this sort of history. A fact which may be attributed,--1st. To
+  the government; for the more completely the affairs of a nation are
+  under the control of arbitrary power and caprice, whether of one or
+  more individuals, so much the less apparent is a rational internal
+  connection of events. Hence philosophical history flourishes most
+  under free governments; and has not even a shadow of existence
+  under pure despotic constitutions. 2nd. To the degree of
+  civilization to which the nation may have attained: for the
+  observing and unravelling of the political connection of events
+  presupposes a considerable progress in philosophical culture.
+
+12. Since all events are considered in reference to the time and place
+in which they occur, it follows that geography and chronology are
+indispensable as auxiliary sciences in the study of history, especially
+the ancient. These sciences, however, need not, for this purpose, be
+considered in their full extent and detail, but only so far as they are
+of use in determining and arranging events according to time and place.
+A fixed mode of computing time is therefore necessary in ancient
+history, as well as a continuous geographical description of the
+countries which were the theatres of the principal events.
+
+13. No method of computing time was adopted generally in antiquity. Each
+nation, each state, had its own era: yet, in the explication of ancient
+history, there is an evident necessity that some common era should be
+fixed upon, by which a synchronistic view of the various events may be
+obtained. For this purpose, the years may be computed either from the
+creation of the world, or before and after Christ. The latter method has
+the advantage not only of greater certainty, but also of greater
+convenience.
+
+  Of the various modes of computing time, the best known are those of
+  the Greeks and the Romans; the former by olympiads, the latter by
+  years from the foundation of Rome. The era of the olympiads
+  commences at B. C. 776; that of the foundation of Rome commences at
+  B. C. 753, according to Varro; at B. C. 752, according to
+  Cato.--The era of the Seleucidæ, in the Syrian empire, commences
+  with B. C. 312.--Various other eras, such as that of Nabonnassar,
+  commencing with B. C. 747, are founded on observations preserved by
+  Ptolemy, and made known by SCALIGER, in his _Doctrina Temporum_.
+
+  Chronology constitutes a distinct science: the best introduction to
+  which will be found in:
+
+  # J. C. GATTERER, _Epitome of Chronology_. Gottingen, 1777. A most
+  excellent criticism on the ancient eras has lately been
+  communicated to the public by:
+
+  # L. IDELER, _Historic Researches into the Astronomical
+  Observations of the Ancients_. Berlin, 1806.
+
+  # D. H. HEGEWISCH, _Introduction to Historical Chronology_; 1811. A
+  very useful and portable work.
+
+  [In English we have the laborious work of Dr. Hales:
+
+  HALES (WILLM.) _New Analysis of Chronology, explaining the History
+  and Antiquities of the primitive Nations of the World, etc._ Lond.
+  1809-12, 4 vols. 4to. New edition, corrected and improved, 1830, 4
+  vols. 8vo.
+
+  BLAIR'S _Chronology and History of the World, from the Creation to
+  the present Time_. Lond. 1803, folio.
+
+  And for the brilliant period of Greece and Rome the satisfactory
+  volumes:
+
+  H. F. CLYNTON'S _Fasti Hellenici. The civil and literary Chronology
+  of Greece, from the fifty-fifth to the hundred and twenty-fourth
+  Olympiad_. Second edition, with additions. Oxford, 1827, 4to. And
+  the continuation of the same work to the death of Augustus, Oxford,
+  1830, 4to. In this valuable work, much light is also thrown upon
+  the chronology of the times anterior to the period with which the
+  first volume is principally occupied.]
+
+14. In ancient geography there is much care required to distinguish the
+fabulous from the true. With regard to true geography, as an auxiliary
+science to history, all that can be expected is some general information
+respecting the nature and peculiarities of the countries, respecting
+their political divisions, and finally, respecting the principal
+cities:--Long lists of the names of places would be quite superfluous.
+
+  Fabulous geography constitutes a part of the mythology of every
+  nation, and differs in each, because the ideas formed by every
+  early nation respecting the form and nature of the earth are
+  peculiar to itself. True geography gradually comes to light as
+  civilization increases, and discovery widens its
+  horizon.--Necessity of treating it historically, on account of the
+  manifold changes to which the division and the face of the
+  countries of the ancient world have been at various periods
+  subjected.
+
+  CHRISTOPH. CELLARII _Notitia Orbis Antiqui_. Lips. 1701-1706, 2
+  vols. 4to. _cum observat._ J. C. SCHWARZII. Lips. 1771, et iterum
+  1773. This work was for a long time the only, and is still an
+  indispensable, treatise on ancient geography.
+
+  # H. MANNERT, _Geography of the Greeks and Romans_. Nuremberg,
+  1788-1802. This work, now completed in 15 volumes, may be justly
+  designated classical, from the historical and critical learning
+  which the author has everywhere displayed. Vol. I, contains Spain;
+  II, Gallia et Britain; III, Germania, Rhætia, Noricum; IV, The
+  Northern parts of the World, from the Wessel to China; V, India and
+  the Persian Empire to the Euphrates, 2 parts; VI, Asia Minor, 3
+  parts; VII, Thrace, Illyria, Macedonia, Thessaly, Epirus; VIII,
+  Northern Greece, Peloponnesus, and the Archipelago; IX, Italy and
+  Sicily, Sardinia, etc. 2 parts; X, Africa, 2 parts.
+
+  # F. A. UKERT, _Geography of the Greeks and Romans, from the
+  earliest periods to the time of Ptolemy_: first part, first
+  division, contains the historical, the second contains the
+  mathematical sections. Weimar, 1816; with maps.
+
+  GOSSELIN, _Géographie des Grecs analysée_. Paris, 1790, 4to. A
+  development of the system of mathematical geography among the
+  Greeks. Partly continued in
+
+  GOSSELIN, _Recherches sur la Géographie des Anciens_. Paris, an.
+  vi. vol. 1-4.
+
+  J. RENNEL, _Geographical System of Herodotus_. Lond. 1800, 4to.
+
+  [Reprinted in 2 vols. 8vo. Lond. 1830, revised. Here, too, for the
+  benefit of the English reader may be mentioned:
+
+  RENNEL'S _Treatise on the Comparative Geography of Western Asia,
+  with an atlas_. London, 1831, 2 vols. 8vo.; published since the
+  author's death. And the learned and valuable volumes of Dr. CRAMER,
+  principal of New Inn Hall, and public orator of the University of
+  Oxford; they are,
+
+  _Geographical and Historical Description of Ancient Greece, with a
+  map, and plan of Athens._ Oxford, 1826, 3 vols. 8vo.
+
+  _Geographical and Historical Description of Ancient Italy, with a
+  map._ Oxford, 1826, 2 vols. 8vo.
+
+  _Geographical and Historical Description of Asia Minor, with a
+  map._ Oxford, 1832, 2 vols. 8vo.
+
+  The maps which accompany these works approach very nearly to
+  perfection.
+
+  As useful compendiums, there are:
+
+  _An Introduction to Ancient Geography, with copious indexes of
+  Ancient and Modern Names_, by PETER ED. LAURENT, teacher in the
+  Royal Naval Academy at Portsmouth. Oxford, 1813, 8vo.
+
+  _A Compendium of Ancient and Modern Geography, for the use of Eton
+  School; illustrating the most interesting points in History,
+  Poetry, and Fable; preceded by an Introduction to the study of
+  Astronomy, and containing plans of Athens, Rome, Syracuse, and
+  numerous diagrams explanatory of the motions of the heavenly
+  bodies_, by AARON ARROWSMITH, Hydrographer to the King, 1 vol.
+  8vo., with or without a copious index. London, 1830.
+
+  BUTLER'S (Dr. SAM.) _Sketch of Ancient and Modern Geography_.
+  Seventh edition, 8vo. Also his _Atlas of Ancient Geography_,
+  consisting of twenty-one coloured maps, with a complete accentuated
+  index. 8vo.]
+
+  We are indebted to d'Anville for the best charts of ancient
+  geography: _Atlas Orbis antiqui_, twelve leaves, fol.
+
+  [The Eton Comparative Atlas of Ancient and Modern Geography, with
+  the index, published in several sizes; and the Maps published by
+  the Society for the Promotion of Useful Knowledge, are very useful
+  and correct.]
+
+15. Ancient history may be treated either ethnographically, that is,
+according to separate nations and states; or synchronistically, that is,
+according to certain general epochs. Each of these methods has its
+advantages and its disadvantages. The two, however, may be combined, and
+formed into one system; and as this seems the most convenient, it has
+been adopted in the present work, which is accordingly divided as
+follows:
+
+FIRST BOOK.--History of the ancient Asiatic and African states and
+kingdoms anterior to Cyrus, or to the rise of the Persian monarchy,
+about the year B. C. 560: comprising little more than insulated
+fragments.
+
+SECOND BOOK.--History of the Persian monarchy, from B. C. 560 to 330.
+
+THIRD BOOK.--History of the Grecian states, both in Greece and other
+parts, to the time of Alexander, B. C. 336.
+
+FOURTH BOOK.--History of the Macedonian monarchy, and of the kingdoms
+which arose out of its division, until they merged into the Roman
+empire.
+
+FIFTH BOOK.--History of the Roman state, both as a commonwealth and a
+monarchy, until the fall of the western empire, A. D. 476.
+
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+MANUAL OF ANCIENT HISTORY.
+
+
+
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+THE FIRST BOOK.
+
+
+   HISTORICAL FRAGMENTS OF THE EARLIER ASIATIC AND AFRICAN KINGDOMS AND
+   STATES, PREVIOUS TO CYRUS, OR THE RISE OF THE PERSIAN MONARCHY.
+
+
+
+
+I.--ASIATIC NATIONS.
+
+
+
+
+_General Preliminary Remarks on the Geography of Asia._
+
+
+  See the Introduction to Heeren's Researches into the Politics and
+  Commerce of the Nations of Antiquity, prefixed to vol. 1 of the
+  African Nations. Oxford, 1831.
+
+1. Asia is the largest and the most favourably situated of the great
+divisions of the globe. Its superficial contents are 11,200,000 square
+geogr. miles; while those of Africa do not exceed 4,780,000; and those
+of Europe are not more than 2,560,000. As to situation, it comprises the
+greatest portion of the northern temperate zone.
+
+  Compare it, in this point of view, with the other quarters of the
+  globe, especially Africa.--Advantages over the latter, in
+  consequence of the convenience of its indented shores--of its
+  surrounding fruitful islands--of its deep gulfs and large
+  streams--the few sandy deserts in its interior.
+
+2. Natural features, and consequent division of the land, according to
+the course of the larger mountain chains and of the principal rivers.
+
+  Two great mountain chains run from west to east; in the north, the
+  Altai, (nameless in antiquity): in the south, Taurus.--Branches of
+  both: the Caucasus, between the Black and Caspian seas: Imaus
+  extending along the golden desert (desert of Cobi): the Paropamisus,
+  on the north of India: the Ural (nameless in antiquity).--Of the
+  rivers remarkable in ancient history, there are four flowing from
+  north to south, namely, the Euphrates and Tigris, which fall into the
+  Persian gulf; the Indus and Ganges, which fall into the Indian sea:
+  two which run from east to west, and discharged their waters into the
+  Caspian sea, (but now into the sea of Aral,) namely, the Oxus (or
+  Jihon) and the Jaxartes (or Sirr).
+
+3. This quarter of the globe is accordingly divided into Northern Asia,
+comprising the regions north of Altai; Central Asia, or the countries
+between the Altai and Taurus; and Southern Asia, or the lands south of
+Taurus.
+
+4. Northern Asia, between the 76th and 50th parallels of north latitude,
+(Asiatic Russia and Siberia,) was almost, though not entirely, unknown
+in antiquity.--Some obscure hints, though partly true, respecting it,
+are found in Herodotus, the father of history.
+
+5. Central Asia, the regions extending between the 50th and 40th degrees
+of north latitude, Scythia and Sarmatia Asiatica, (Great Tartary and
+Mongol;) for the most part a boundless, barren table land, devoid of
+arable fields or forests; and consequently a mere country of
+pasture.--The inhabitants pastors, (nomads,) without cities or fixed
+abodes; recognizing no other political association than patriarchal
+government.
+
+  Peculiar mode of life and character of nomad nations; powerful
+  influence which they have exercised, as conquerors, on political
+  history.--Whether we have a right to expect that the civilization of
+  the human race will for ever continue to advance, when we consider
+  that perhaps one half of it has from time immemorial remained, and
+  from its physical situation must for ever remain, in a nomad state.
+
+6. Southern Asia, or the regions from the 40th degree of N. lat. to
+about the equator.--Its natural features altogether different from those
+of central Asia. The great advantages of these regions compared with all
+other parts of the earth, in possessing a soil and climate highly
+favourable for agriculture; and an abundance of various costly
+productions. To these circumstances may be attributed, 1st. The adoption
+of fixed habitations and political associations in these countries, from
+the earliest times. 2ndly. Their becoming the principal seat of trade,
+from the infancy of civilization to the discovery of America.
+
+  Reflections upon the rise of political associations.--Whether,
+  according to the general opinion, they were produced solely by
+  agriculture and the possession of land; or, whether religion, by
+  which I mean the common worship of one divinity as the national god,
+  (communia sacra,) was not the main bond which united the earliest
+  states of antiquity?--How shall we account for the very remarkable
+  fact, that in the earliest civil societies in the world, the
+  priesthood is generally found to be a ruling caste.--Reflections on
+  early trade, particularly that of the east, before it was changed, by
+  the discovery of America and the new passage to India, from a land
+  trade to a sea trade.--Observations upon ancient commercial routes
+  across Asia.--The banks of the large rivers destined by nature to
+  become the seats of commerce for the interior; on the Oxus, Bactra
+  and Maracanda, (Samarcand;) on the Euphrates and Tigris,
+  Babylon.--The sea shores on the western coast of Asia Minor and
+  Phoenicia, pointed out also by nature as places of commerce;--line
+  of Grecian and Phoenician factories.
+
+7. Division of southern Asia. 1st. South-western Asia, from the
+Mediterranean to the Indus; 2nd. South-eastern Asia, from the Indus to
+the eastern ocean.
+
+A. South-western Asia is again subdivided into the countries--1st. on
+this side the Euphrates--2ndly. between the Euphrates and Tigris--3rdly.
+between the Tigris and the Indus.
+
+1. _Countries on this side the Euphrates._
+
+(_a_) The peninsula of Asia Minor (Natolia). Principal rivers: the Halys
+and Sangarius. Countries: three towards the west, Mysia, Lydia, Caria.
+Along the shore, the Greek seaports of Phocæa, Ephesus, Miletus, Smyrna,
+Halicarnassus, etc. Inland, the cities of Sardes in Lydia, of Pergamus
+in Mysia.
+
+Three towards the south, Lycia, Pamphylia, and Cilicia, with its capital
+Tarsus.
+
+Three towards the north, Bithynia, Paphlagonia, Pontus; with the Greek
+ports of Heraclea, Amisus, and Sinope. Two inland, Phrygia, together
+with Galatia and the capital cities of Gordium and Celænæ; Cappadocia,
+with the city of Mazaca.
+
+(_b_) Islands along the coast of Asia Minor: Lesbos, with the city of
+Mitylene; Chios, Samos, Cos, Rhodes, with cities of the same name.
+
+(_c_) Syria, together with Phoenicia and Palestine. 1st. Syria,
+properly so called. Cities: Damascus, Emessa, Heliopolis, (Baalbec). In
+the desert, Palmyra. 2nd. Phoenicia, a mountainous tract, extending
+along the shore. Mountains: Libanus and Antilibanus. Cities: Tyre, on an
+island opposite the ancient Tyre, which was situate upon the mainland;
+Sidon, Byblus, Berytus, Tripolis, Aradus. 3rd. Palestine. Mountains:
+Carmel, Tabor. River: Jordan, which discharges its waters into the Dead
+sea. Division of Palestine; first, according to the twelve tribes;
+afterwards into the provinces, of Judæa, capital Jerusalem: of Samaria;
+cities, Samaria, Sichem: and of Galilee.
+
+(_d_) Peninsula of Arabia, abounding in vast sandy deserts, and almost
+entirely occupied by nomad tribes. Its southern and eastern coasts
+render it, nevertheless, a most important seat of trade. In the north,
+Arabia Petræa, so called from the town of Petra. Inland, Arabia Deserta.
+In the south, Arabia Felix; rich, both in natural productions, being the
+native land of almost every kind of perfume, particularly frankincense;
+and also as being the ancient staple for the merchandise of India.
+Cities: Mariaba, Aden, etc. In the east, the trading town of Gerra, and
+the islands near the shore, Tylos and Aradus, (Bahrein,) both likewise
+marts for Arabian and Indian wares, particularly cinnamon from Taprobane
+(Ceylon).
+
+2. _Countries between the Euphrates and Tigris._
+
+(_a_) Mesopotamia; in the interior a sterile table land, entirely
+occupied by nomad hordes. Cities on the Euphrates: Thapsacus, Circesium,
+Cunaxa; in the north, Zoba or Nisibis.
+
+(_b_) Armenia, north of the foregoing. Very mountainous; for a long time
+without cities, but at last it had Tigranocerta. Rivers: the Cyrus and
+Araxes, falling into the Caspian; and the Phasis, falling into the Black
+sea.
+
+(_c_) Babylonia, the southern part of Mesopotamia, from which it was
+separated by the Median wall. A level plain, remarkable for the richness
+of its soil; formerly, by its high cultivation, its canals and lakes,
+and the erection of dams, the most fruitful, and, from its situation,
+the most opulent staple of inner Asia. Cities: Babylon on the Euphrates,
+Borsippa.
+
+  Whether the account given by Herodotus, as an eyewitness, of the size
+  and splendour of Babylon is not exaggerated?--Manner in which the
+  great Asiatic cities arose out of the royal encampments of the nomad
+  conquerors.
+
+3. _Countries between the Tigris and the Indus._
+
+(_a_) Assyria, or the province of Adiabene; a table land. Cities:
+Nineveh, (Ninus,) Arbela.
+
+  The name of Assyria is also frequently taken by the Greeks in a wider
+  acceptation, as comprising both Mesopotamia and Babylonia; it is
+  sometimes even confounded with Syria.
+
+(_b_) Susiana, a fruitful district, with the city Susa on the river
+Choaspes, or Eulæus (Ulai), one of the residences of the Persian
+monarchs.
+
+(_c_) Persis, rugged and mountainous towards the north; level and
+fruitful in the centre; sandy towards the south. Rivers: the Cyrus and
+Araxes. Cities: Persepolis or Pasargada, the national palace and
+cemetery of the kings of Persia.
+
+  The name of Persis was, in ancient as well as in modern geography,
+  taken in a more extensive sense, as comprising all the countries
+  between the Tigris and Indus, with the exception of Assyria.
+  In this sense, it contains three countries towards the
+  south--Persis, properly so called; Carmania, Gedrosia: three
+  central countries--Media, Aria, Arachosia: and three countries
+  towards the north--Parthia and Hyrcania, Bactria, Sogdiana.
+
+(_d_) Carmania, an extensive country, for the most part desert, ranging
+along the Persian gulf and Indian sea. Cities: Carmana, Harmozia.
+
+(_e_) Gedrosia, tract of land running along the coast between Carmania
+and India, and washed by the Indian sea. A mere sandy desert; towards
+the north, mountainous. Town, Pura.
+
+(_f_) Media, above Persis; an extensive and very fruitful country;
+mountainous towards the north. Rivers: Araxes, Cyrus, and Mardus.
+Cities: Ecbatana, Rages. The northern district was likewise known by the
+name of Atropatene (Azerbeijan), or Lesser Media.
+
+(_g_) Aria, a smooth table land, with a lake and river, Arius: and one
+city, Aria or Artacoana.
+
+(_h_) Arachosia; a rich and fertile country on the frontiers of India;
+bounded towards the north by the Paropamisus chain. Cities: Arachotus
+and Prophthasia. The neighbouring highlands, occupied by a numerous
+population, (now Cabul and Kandahar,) are often regarded, in consequence
+of their being subject to the Persian dominion, as forming part of
+Persia. They are known by the name of Paropamisus.
+
+(_i_) Parthia and Hyrcania, rugged mountainous districts to the north of
+Media; but abounding in magnificent and fertile vales. Before and during
+the predominance of Persia, but little known and little valued; and
+without cities. It was at a considerably later period that the
+inhabitants of Parthia became a dominant nation.
+
+(_k_) Bactria, the country on the south bank of the Oxus; rich in
+natural productions, and one of the most ancient marts of Asia. River:
+Oxus. Cities: Bactra and Zariaspa.
+
+  Bactria lies on the frontier of India, Little Thibet, Bukharia, (the
+  north India of Herodotus and Ctesias,) and the desert of Cobi,
+  (Herodotus's golden desert): the road to China runs through this
+  country. Nature, by the geographical situation in which she has
+  placed Bactria, seems to have destined it to be the great emporium
+  for the wares of south-eastern Asia; and in proportion as we
+  penetrate into early history, we become convinced that Bactria, like
+  Babylon, must have been one of the earliest seats of international
+  commerce, and consequently, if not the birthplace, one of the cradles
+  of infant civilization.
+
+(_l_) Sogdiana, the territory between the upper Oxus and upper Jaxartes,
+the latter dividing it from central Asia. (A part of Great Bukharia.)
+Its peculiarities and advantages similar to those of the neighbouring
+Bactria. Capital: Maracanda (Samarcand).
+
+B. South-eastern Asia, or Asia beyond the Indus, offers nothing
+remarkable for history till a later period. See Book v, Period iv.
+
+
+
+
+_General Preliminary Observations upon the History and Constitution of
+the great Asiatic Empires._
+
+
+1. Asia contained in ancient times, as it does at present, empires of
+immense extent, differing materially both in this respect and in their
+constitution from the civilized nations of Europe. Changes were
+frequent; but the form of government continued nearly always the same.
+Some deeply rooted and active principles therefore must have been in
+constant operation, to have given so repeatedly, in these various
+revolutions, the same organization to the kingdoms of Asia.
+
+2. The great revolutions of Asia, with the exception of that caused by
+Alexander, were effected by the numerous and powerful nomad races which
+inhabited a large portion of that continent. Pressed by necessity or
+circumstances, they forsook their own seats, founded new kingdoms, and
+carried war and conquest into the fruitful and cultivated lands of
+southern Asia, until, enervated by luxury, the consequence of the change
+in their mode of life, they were in their turn, and in a similar manner,
+subjugated.
+
+3. This origin, common to all Asiatic kingdoms, accounts for their
+immense extent, their rapid establishment, and their generally brief
+duration.
+
+4. The internal organization must, for the same reasons, have been
+nearly alike in all; and the constant reappearance of despotism is
+accounted for, partly by the rights of conquest, partly by the vast
+extent of the subdued countries, which obliged the rulers to have
+recourse to satrap-government.
+
+5. To this, it must moreover be added, that among all the considerable
+nations of inner Asia, the paternal government of every household was
+corrupted by polygamy: where that custom exists, a good political
+constitution is impossible; fathers being converted into domestic
+despots, are ready to pay the same abject obedience to their sovereign
+that they exact from their family and dependants in their domestic
+economy.
+
+  To avoid confusion, it will be necessary to define the terms
+  despotism and despotic government. In theory, we must admit THREE
+  essentially different kinds of government. 1st. The _despotic_, in
+  which the members of the state are not secured in the possession of
+  their rights as men, (personal freedom and security of property,)
+  nor of their rights as citizens, (active participation in the
+  legislative power). Such a constitution exists only by force, and
+  can never be lawful. 2nd. The _autocratic_, in which the members of
+  the state are in full possession of their rights as men, but not of
+  their rights as citizens. This government, therefore, arises from
+  the union of the legislative and executive powers in the person of
+  the ruler. In form, it is either monarchical or aristocratical (a
+  pure monarchy, or a pure aristocracy). This kind of government is
+  most likely to be established by usurpation; it may, nevertheless,
+  be acquired by succession, or even adopted by common consent: it may
+  therefore be lawful. 3rd. The _republican_, in which the members of
+  the state are in possession of their rights, both as men and as
+  citizens. This government necessarily presupposes a separation of
+  the legislative and executive powers; and with regard to its form,
+  may be either monarchical or aristocratical, (a moderate monarchy,
+  or a moderate aristocracy).--How far can a pure democracy be called
+  a government, and comprised under any of the foregoing
+  heads?--Explanation of the despotism in the Asiatic kingdoms, and
+  the attempts made to limit it by religion and religious
+  institutions.
+
+6. General features in the gradual internal development of all empires
+formed by nomad conquerors. (_a_) At first the mere occupation of rich
+territories, and levying of tribute. (_b_) Hence the constitutions
+already established among the conquered or tributary nations generally
+suffered to remain. (_c_) Gradual progress towards the adoption of a
+fixed abode and the building of cities, together with the assumption of
+the customs and civilization of the conquered. (_d_) Division into
+provinces, and, as a necessary consequence, the establishment of
+satrap-government. (_e_) Insurrections of the satraps, and the internal
+ruin of the state prepared thereby. (_f_) The influence of the seraglio
+on the government has the same effect, for its unavoidable consequences
+are--effeminacy and indolence in the rulers. (_g_) Hence the dissolution
+of the empire, or its total annihilation by some violent attack from
+without.
+
+
+
+
+_Fragments of the History of the ancient Asiatic Kingdoms previous to
+Cyrus._
+
+
+  Sources, and their critical examination: 1. Jewish writings,
+  particularly the books of Kings, Chroniclers, and the Prophets;
+  together with the Mosaic records. 2. Greek writers, Herodotus,
+  Ctesias, and Diodorus: later chroniclers, Syncellus, Eusebius,
+  Ptolemy. 3. Native writer, Berosus. Futility of all endeavours to
+  arrange into one work the accounts of authors so entirely different
+  by birth and the times in which they flourished: a task attempted by
+  the French writers, SEVIN, FRERET, and DEBROSSE, in their papers
+  contained in the Mém. de l'Acad. des Inscript.
+
+  VOLNEY, _Recherches nouvelles sur l'Histoire ancienne_. 1808-1814:
+  very important and authentic, so far as regards the system of
+  Herodotus's chronology.
+
+
+
+I. _Assyrian monarchy._
+
+
+1. With the Greeks, Assyrian is generally a common name applied to the
+ruling nations about the Euphrates and Tigris before the time of Cyrus.
+With the Jews, on the contrary, it signifies a distinct nation of
+conquerors, and the founders of an empire. Hence a necessary discrepancy
+between the Grecian and Hebrew statements.
+
+2. Assyrian history, according to Grecian authorities, particularly
+Ctesias and Diodorus, is nothing more than mere traditions of
+ancient heroes and heroines, who at some early period founded a
+large kingdom in the countries about the Euphrates and Tigris;
+traditions without any chronological data, and in the style of the
+east. Ninus--Semiramis--Ninyas--Sardanapalus.
+
+  According to Herodotus, an Assyrian empire of 520 years' duration,
+  1237-717. Lists of Assyrian kings in the chronicles of Syncellus
+  and Eusebius.
+
+3. Assyrian history, according to Jewish authorities. Chronological
+history of an Assyrian empire between B. C. 800 and 700.--Seat of the
+nation in Assyria, properly so called.--Capital: Nineveh on the
+Tigris.--Extension of their dominion as far as Syria and Phoenicia.
+
+  Line of Assyrian kings: 1. Pul, about 773. Invasion of Syria.
+  2. Tiglath-Pileser, about 740. He overthrows the kingdom of Damascus.
+  3. Shalmaneser, about 720. He destroys the kingdom of Samaria.
+  Transplantation of the inhabitants into inner Asia. 4. Sennacherib,
+  about 714. Mighty expedition against Egypt, frustrated by a
+  pestilence. 5. Esarhaddon.
+
+  _Contemporary_: Jews, the divided kingdoms of Israel and
+  Judah.--Greeks, decennial archons at Athens.--Romans, rise
+  of the state and the two first kings.
+
+
+
+II. _Median monarchy._
+
+
+1. The name of Medes is undoubtedly often used by the Greeks to
+designate one nation; it is, however, frequently made use of as a common
+appellation of the ruling nations in eastern Asia, from the Tigris to
+the Indus, (or Persia, in the more extensive sense of that word,) before
+Cyrus.--With the Jews: nothing more than general hints of the Medes as a
+conquering nation.
+
+2. Although the statements of the Grecian writers, as well as of the
+Zendavesta, sufficiently prove that long before the rise of the Persian
+power mighty kingdoms existed in these regions; and particularly in the
+eastern part, or Bactria; yet we have no consistent or chronological
+history of these states: nothing but a few fragments, probably of
+dynasties which ruled in Media, properly so called, immediately previous
+to the Persians.
+
+  _a._ _Herodotus's History of the Medes._ Herodotus's Medes are
+  unquestionably the inhabitants of Media, properly so called.
+  Division into six tribes: among these, that of the Magi.--Ruling
+  nation after the overthrow of the Assyrians.--Capital of their
+  empire, Ecbatana.--Boundaries: west, the Tigris and Halys; east,
+  unknown.--Internal organization: graduated subjection of the
+  various nations to one another, according to their distance from
+  the seat of empire; rigid despotism; and imposition of tribute.
+  Line of kings between B. C. 717-560. Deioces, 53 _y._ the founder
+  of Ecbatana, _d._ 657.--Phraortes, 22 _y._ down to 635. He conquers
+  Persia. Cyaxares I. 40 _y._ down to 595. He establishes military
+  discipline among the Medes. Wages war with the Lydians, the
+  Assyrians.--Irruption of the Scythians and Cimmerians, 625.--He
+  takes Nineveh, 597. Astyages, 38 _y._ down to 560, when he was
+  dethroned by Cyrus. According to Xenophon, Astyages was followed by
+  another Median prince, Cyaxares II. _b. Ctesias's History of the
+  Medes_, deduced from Persian archives, and contained in Diodorus.
+  Probably a different dynasty in eastern Asia. Line of kings,
+  between B. C. 800 and 560. Arbaces, conqueror of the Assyrians, 18
+  _y._ Mandaucus, 50 _y._ Sosarmes, 30 _y._ Artias, 50 _y._ Arbanes,
+  22 _y._ Artæus, 40 _y._ and Artynes, 22 _y._ Sanguinary wars with
+  the nomad races of the east, the Sacæ, and Cadusii. Artibarnas, 14
+  _y._ Astyages, the last king.
+
+  _Contemporary_: Jews, kingdom of Judah alone.--Greeks, yearly
+  archons, Draco, Solon.--Romans, kings from Tullus Hostilius to
+  Servius Tullius.
+
+
+
+III. _Babylonian monarchy._
+
+
+Periods: 1st. Previous to the Chaldæan conquest, which occurred about
+630. 2nd. From the Chaldæan conquest to the Persian, 630-538.
+
+1. Babylon was not only spoken of in the most remote antiquity, but is
+mentioned in the Jewish traditions as the earliest scene of political
+treaties, and as the most ancient seat of intercourse for the nations of
+Asia. Traditions concerning Nimrod--and the erection of the tower of
+Babel.--Comparison of those traditions with the Babylonian mythology in
+Berosus.--Scanty historical notices of this period in the later Jewish
+writers; and probable subjection of Babylon to the Assyrian empire.
+
+2. In the second period, 630-538, the Babylonians were the ruling nation
+of western Asia.--The Chaldæans take possession of Babylon, there
+establish themselves, and ultimately extend their empire, by conquest,
+to the Mediterranean.
+
+  Origin of the Chaldæans: whether that name was applied to a
+  distinct nation, or to the northern nomads in general?--Line of
+  Chaldæan kings. In the enumeration of these rulers, as given by
+  Ptolemy, this line begins with Nabonassar, and the era bearing the
+  name of that sovereign, which commences in the year B. C. 747:
+  (probably because, under the reign of that prince, the adoption of
+  the Egyptian solar year first introduced among the Chaldæans an
+  exact method of reckoning time). Neither Nabonassar himself, nor
+  his twelve immediate successors, are remarkable in history: the
+  six last alone deserve notice. 1. Nabopolassar, 627-604.
+  Settlement in Babylon; and complete establishment of the
+  Chaldæo-Babylonian dominion, by his victory over Pharaoh-Nechoh,
+  near Circesium, in 604. 2. Nebuchadnezzar, 604-561. Brilliant
+  period of the Chaldæo-Babylonian empire. He conquers Phoenicia and
+  Old Tyre about 586: Jerusalem in 587; probable irruptions into
+  Egypt. Construction of immense buildings and canals in and about
+  Babylon. Rapid decline of the empire after his death, under--3.
+  Evil-Merodach, 561-559. 4. Neriglissar, (probably the contemporary
+  of Herodotus's Nitocris;)--555. Labosoarchad murdered, after a few
+  months' reign. Nabonadius, (Herodotus's Labynetus; and probably
+  the Chaldæan Belshazzar;) 555-538. attacked and conquered by
+  Cyrus. Sack of Babylon by the Persians, 538.
+
+  See the section concerning the Babylonians in A. H. L. HEEREN'S
+  _Historical Researches_, vol. i, part. 2.
+
+  _Contemporary_: Jews, last sovereigns of the kingdom of
+  Judah.--Greeks, Solon, Pisistratus.--Romans, Tarquinius Priscus
+  and Servius Tullius.
+
+
+
+IV. _States and kingdoms in Asia Minor._
+
+
+The number and variety of the inhabitants of this peninsula, was
+probably the reason why they never became united into one empire. The
+most important nations among them, were the Carians in the west; the
+Phrygians in the centre, reaching as far as the Halys; the
+Syro-Cappadocians beyond the Halys; and the Thracians in Bithynia.
+Nevertheless we find here but three kingdoms deserving notice--the
+Trojan, the Phrygian, and the Lydian.
+
+
+1. The Trojan empire comprised western Mysia: its history consists of
+mere traditions contained in poets, with very uncertain chronological
+data.
+
+  Kings: Teucer, about 1400.--Dardanus--Erichthonius--Tros
+  (Troja)--Ilus (Ilium)--Laomedon--Priam. The destruction of Troy,
+  after a ten years' war, occurred, it is probable, B. C. 1190.
+
+  _Contemporary_: Jews, time of the Judges: before the foundation of
+  Rome, 450 years.
+
+
+2. The Phrygian empire.--Almost all the kings were named Midas and
+Gordius; their succession cannot be accurately determined. After the
+death of the last, called Midas V., Phrygia became a province of the
+Lydian empire, about 560.
+
+
+3. The Lydian empire.--The Lydians (Mæonians) were a branch of the
+Carian tribe. According to Herodotus, three dynasties ruled in Lydia;
+the Atyadæ down to 1232; the Heraclidæ down to 727; and the Mermnadæ
+down to 557: the two first are almost wholly fabulous, and the proper
+history of Lydia may be said to commence with the last dynasty.
+
+  Kings: Gyges, down to 689. From this period followed almost
+  uninterrupted wars with the Greek settlements on the seacoast.
+  Gyges takes Colophon. Ardys down to 640. He takes Priene. Under
+  his reign, an irruption of the Cimmerians. Sadyattes down to 628.
+  Alyattes down to 571. Expulsion of the Cimmerians. Capture of
+  Smyrna. Croesus down to 557. He takes Ephesus, and subjugates Asia
+  Minor as far as the Halys. Under his reign, the first rise of a
+  Lydian empire, which however is overthrown by Cyrus. Asia Minor
+  becomes a province of the Persian empire.
+
+  _Contemporary_ with which, in Asia, were the Medic and Babylonian
+  empires.--Among the Jews, the last period of the kingdom of
+  Judah.--Among the Greeks, the yearly archons at Athens.--With the
+  Romans, the kings.
+
+
+
+V. _Phoenicia._
+
+
+The Phoenicians may be regarded as one of the most remarkable nations of
+Asia during this period; yet we have no complete, or even connected
+history of this people. But though a few scattered fragments are all we
+possess, we may from these trace out a general outline.
+
+  The peculiar sources of Phoenician history.--How far Sanchoniathon
+  deserves to be mentioned here?--Hebrew writers, particularly
+  Ezekiel; Greek writers; Josephus--Eusebius, etc. and the fragments
+  which he has preserved of Menander of Ephesus, and Dius,
+  historians of Tyre.
+
+  MIGNOT, _Mémoires sur les Phéniciens_; inserted in _Mém. de
+  l'Acad. des Inscript._ t. xxxiv-xlii. A series of twenty-four
+  papers.
+
+  The section concerning the Phoenicians in A. H. L. HEEREN'S
+  _Researches on the Politics, etc._
+
+1. Observations on the internal state of Phoenicia. It did not
+constitute one state, or, at least, one single empire; but consisted of
+several, and their territories. Alliances, however, were naturally
+formed between them, and hence a kind of supremacy of the more powerful,
+particularly of Tyre.
+
+2. But though Tyre stood at the head, and claimed a certain degree of
+superiority, each separate state still possessed its own particular
+government. In all of them we meet with kings, who appear to have
+possessed but a limited authority, as we always find magistrates
+associated with them in power. Among a mercantile and colonizing people,
+it was impossible that absolute despotism should endure for any length
+of time. Of the separate states, Tyre is the only one of which we
+possess a series of kings; and even that series is not complete.
+
+  This line of kings, which we derive from Menander through
+  Josephus, commences with Abical, the contemporary of David, about
+  B. C. 1050. The most remarkable among them are: Hiram, the
+  successor of Abical;--Ethbaal I. about 920;--Pygmalion, Dido's
+  brother, about 900;--Ethbaal II. in whose reign Tyre was sacked by
+  Nebuchadnezzar, 586.--Foundation of New Tyre--republican
+  constitution under suffetes: tributary kings under the Persian
+  rule;--conquest of New Tyre by Alexander, 332. The flourishing
+  period of Phoenicia in general, and of Tyre in particular, falls
+  therefore between 1000-332.
+
+  _Contemporary_ in inner Asia: monarchies of the Assyrians, Medes,
+  and the Babylonians. Jews: period of the kings after David.
+  Greeks: from Homer to Solon. Romans: period of their kings in the
+  last two centuries.
+
+3. During this period the Phoenicians spread themselves by the
+establishment of colonies; some of which, particularly Carthage, became
+as powerful as the mother states.
+
+  General ideas concerning colonization.--1. Colonies are absolutely
+  necessary to every seafaring and commercial people, whenever
+  their trade extends to distant countries. 2. They have likewise
+  been established for the purpose of providing for the excessive
+  increase of the poor. 3. And they have sometimes arisen from
+  political commotion, when the malcontents, either from free will,
+  or force, have forsaken their country, and sought new settlements
+  in distant regions.
+
+4. Geographical sketch of the Phoenician colonies. They possessed, at a
+very early period, most of the islands of the Archipelago; from which,
+however, they were subsequently expelled by the Greeks. The principal
+countries in which they had settlements were the south of Spain
+(Tartessus, Gades, Carteia); the north coast of Africa, west of the
+Lesser Syrtis (Utica, Carthage, Adrumetum); and the north-western coast
+of Sicily (Panormus, Lilybæum). It is likewise highly probable that they
+formed settlements towards the east in the Persian gulf, on the islands
+of Tylos and Aradus (Bahrein).
+
+5. This sketch of the Phoenician colonies will give us some idea of the
+extent of their sea trade and navigation; which, however, extended much
+farther than their colonies. Among them, as among other nations,
+commerce took its rise in piracy; even as late as the time of Homer, the
+Phoenicians appear to have been freebooters. The principal objects of
+their commerce were (_a_) the settlements in north Africa and Spain; the
+latter more particularly, on account of its rich silver mines. (_b_)
+Beyond the Pillars of Hercules, the west-coast of Africa; Britain and
+the Scilly islands, for the purpose of procuring tin, and, very
+probably, amber. (_c_) From Elath and Ezion-Gebar, ports situate at the
+northern extremity of the Arabian gulph, they undertook, in connection
+with the Jews, voyages to Ophir, that is to say, to the rich lands of
+the south, particularly Arabia Felix and Ethiopia. (_d_) From the
+Persian gulf, they extended their commerce to the western peninsula of
+India and the island of Ceylon. Finally, (_e_) they made several
+extensive voyages of discovery, among which, the most remarkable was the
+circumnavigation of Africa.
+
+6. Of no less importance was the land trade, mostly carried on by
+caravans. The principal branches of it were: (_a_) The Arabian caravan
+trade for spices and incense, imported from Arabia Felix, Gerra, and the
+Persian gulf. (_b_) The trade through Palmyra with Babylon, which opened
+them an indirect communication by way of Persia, with lesser Bukharia
+and little Thibet, probably even with China itself. (_c_) The trade with
+Armenia and the neighbouring countries in slaves, horses, copper
+utensils, etc.
+
+7. To all this must be added their own manufactures, particularly their
+stuffs and dyes; (the purple, made of the juice of a marine shellfish;)
+their manufactures of glass and toys, which, in their commerce with
+uncivilized nations, generally carried on by barter, were turned to good
+account. Many other important discoveries, among which the invention of
+letters holds the first rank, are attributed to the Phoenicians.
+
+
+
+VI. _Syrians._
+
+
+1. The inhabitants of Syria dwelt in cities as early as B. C. 2000, when
+Abraham wandered over their country. This country did not form one
+single state, but consisted of several cities, each of which had its
+separate territory, and its chief or king; of these cities, Damascus,
+Hamath, etc. are mentioned in the most remote antiquity.
+
+2. The Syrians were, however, often subjected by foreign conquerors; and
+their country was certainly, at least in the time of David, a Jewish
+province. It shook off the yoke, however, in the time of Solomon; when
+Rezon, who had formerly been a slave, obtained possession of Damascus.
+
+3. After this, there arose the kingdom of Damascus, which comprised the
+greatest portion of Syria, the kings in the other cities becoming
+tributary to Damascus. The boundaries of the empire, too, were extended,
+and particularly at the expense of the divided kingdoms of Judah and
+Israel.
+
+  The kings, whose names are taken from the books of Chronicles,
+  were: Rezon, about 980. Benhadad I. about 900. Hazael, about 850.
+  Benhadad II. about 830. Rezin. Under this last, the kingdom of
+  Damascus was overthrown by the Assyrian conqueror Tiglath-Pileser,
+  about 740.
+
+  _Contemporary_ in Inner Asia: Assyrian kingdom. Jews: kingdoms
+  of Israel and Judah. Greeks: settlement of the Asiatic
+  colonies.--Lycurgus.
+
+
+
+VII. _Jews._
+
+
+The history of the Jewish people, begins with Abraham the father of
+their race; that of the Jewish state does not commence till after the
+conquest of Palestine. It is divided into three periods. I. History of
+the Jews, as a nomad horde, from Abraham till their settlement in
+Palestine, B. C. 2000-1500. II. History of the Jewish state as a
+federative republic under the high priests and judges, from B. C.
+1500-1100. III. History of the Jewish state under a monarchical
+government, from B. C. 1100-600, first in one kingdom,--975; afterwards
+as two separate kingdoms, Israel and Judah, until the downfall of the
+latter, 588.
+
+  Sources of the Jewish history.--Their annals:--Books of Judges,
+  Samuel, Chronicles, Kings. How those books were composed, and
+  whether their authors may be considered as contemporary with the
+  events they relate? How far the Hebrew poets, the prophets in
+  particular, may be considered as historical authority?--JOSEPHUS,
+  as an antiquarian in his _Archæologia_, and as a contemporary
+  historian in his _Historia Belli Romani_.
+
+  Unfortunately there is not at present any satisfactory treatise on
+  the Jewish history previous to the Babylonian captivity; nor one
+  written in an impartial spirit, without credulity or scepticism.
+  The work of BERRUYER, _Histoire du Peuple de Dieu, depuis son
+  origine jusqu'à la Naissance de J. C._ Paris, 1742, 10 vols. 8vo.;
+  and the continuation, _depuis la Naissance de J. C._ 10 vols.; and
+  others of the same kind do not answer this description. RELANDI
+  _Antiquit. Sacr. Heb._ The writings of J. D. MICHAELIS, particularly
+  his # Remarks on the Translation of the Old Testament, and his
+  # _Mosaic Law_; together with # HERDER, _On the Spirit of Hebrew
+  Poesy_, furnish many excellent materials.
+
+
+I. _Period of the nomad state from Abraham to the conquest of
+Palestine._--Under Abraham, Isaac, and Jacob, nothing more at first than
+a single nomad family; which, however, during its sojourn in Lower
+Egypt, where, during four hundred and thirty, or, according to others,
+two hundred and fifty years, it roved about in subjection to the
+Egyptian Pharaohs,--increased to a nomad nation, divided into twelve
+tribes. The nation, however, becoming formidable from the great increase
+of its numbers, the Pharaohs, following the usual policy of the
+Egyptians, wished to compel the Jews to build and inhabit cities.
+Unaccustomed to restraint, they fled from Egypt under the conduct of
+Moses; and conquered, under him and his successor Joshua, Palestine,
+the land of promise.
+
+  Moses and his legislation.--What he borrowed and what he did not
+  borrow from the Egyptians?--The worship of Jehovah in the national
+  sanctuary, and by national festivals, celebrated with ceremonies
+  rigidly prescribed, the point of union for the whole nation, and
+  the political bond which held the tribes together.--The caste of
+  Levites, compared with the Egyptian caste of priests.
+
+  J. D. MICHAELIS, _Mosaic Law_. Gottingen, 1778, etc. 6 vols. 8vo.;
+  translated into English by Dr. ALEXANDER SMITH. Lond. 1814, 4
+  vols. 8vo. The commentator frequently sees more than the lawgiver.
+
+
+II. _Period of the federative republic._ From the occupation of
+Palestine to the establishment of monarchy, 1500-1100.
+
+1. General character of this period as the heroic age of the nation,
+which, after the gradual adoption of fixed dwellings and agriculture,
+was engaged in constant feuds with its neighbours, the vagrant Arabs,
+the Philistines, and the Edomites. Impossibility of exterminating
+entirely the ancient inhabitants according to the intention of
+Moses.--Hence the worship of Jehovah was never the _only_ religion in
+the land.
+
+2. Political organization. In consequence of the division of land,
+according to tribes, and their separation from one another, the
+government long remained patriarchal. Each tribe preserved its patriarch
+or elder, as in the nomad state. All, however, had, in the worship of
+Jehovah, one common bond, uniting them into one federate state.
+Magistrates were likewise appointed in the cities, to whom scribes are
+conjoined out of the Levite caste.
+
+3. The permanent union of the nation, and preservation of the Mosaic
+law, were likewise promoted by the distribution of the Levite caste into
+forty-eight separate towns, situated in various parts of the country,
+and by making the high priesthood hereditary in Aaron's family.
+
+4. But when at the death of Joshua the people were left without a common
+ruler, the tie of religion became insufficient to hold them together;
+especially as the weaker tribes became jealous of the more powerful. At
+this time the high priests appear to have had but little political
+influence; and the national bond was only prevented from being dissolved
+by the dread of a foreign yoke.
+
+5. The Jews were sometimes independent, at other times tributary. In
+seasons of oppression and distress heroes arose, jealous for the worship
+of Jehovah, to deliver them from bondage. They acted as chief
+magistrates and rulers of a part, or even the whole of the nation, and
+as champions of the worship of the true God. The judges, particularly
+Othniel, Deborah, and Sampson.--Concerning the marvellous in their
+history.
+
+6. Reestablishment of the worship of Jehovah by Samuel. He becomes
+judge, and rules as Jehovah's minister.--His scheme of making the office
+of judge hereditary in his own family is defeated by the conduct of his
+sons. The nation demands a king, whom Samuel, as minister of Jehovah, is
+called upon to appoint. His crafty policy in the election, which he
+cannot impede. He chooses Saul, politically speaking, the most
+insignificant man of the nation; but the tallest and most stately. A
+formal constitutional act, according to the Mosaic command, is drawn up
+and deposited in the national sanctuary.
+
+  Causes which led the nation to demand a king.--Earlier attempts
+  made, particularly by _Abimelech_, to obtain regal power.
+
+
+III. _Period of the monarchy from 1100-600._
+
+
+I. _The Jewish state as one single kingdom from 1100(1095)-975._
+
+1. _Saul_, the new king, strengthened himself on the throne by a victory
+over the Ammonites; and a general assembly of the nation, in which
+Samuel laid down his office as judge, unanimously acknowledged his
+sovereignty. But Saul, no sooner became a conqueror than he threw off
+the tutelage of Samuel, and ventured himself to consult Jehovah. This
+was the occasion of a feud between them. Samuel, offended, privately
+anointed another young man, David the son of Jesse, as king. David
+acquires fame and popularity by his heroic conduct; but has much
+difficulty in escaping the jealousy of Saul.--Saul sustains himself amid
+constant wars with the neighbouring nations; but at last defeated, he
+and all his sons, except one, lose their lives.
+
+2. State of the nation and constitution under Saul.--The king little
+more than a military leader under the direction of Jehovah; without
+either court or fixed residence.--The people still a mere agricultural
+and pastoral race, without wealth or luxury; but gradually assuming the
+character of a warlike nation.
+
+3. Saul was succeeded by David; but not without opposition. Eleven
+tribes declare for Ish-bosheth, the remaining son of Saul; and David is
+only acknowledged by his own tribe, Judah. It is not till seven years
+later, and the murder of Ish-bosheth by his own people, that David is
+recognized as king by the whole nation.
+
+4. Complete formation of the nation, and a change of constitution during
+the reign of David over the united kingdom, which lasted thirty-three
+years. Jerusalem is made the seat of government and of the national
+sanctuary. Rigid observance of the worship of Jehovah, the exclusive
+religion of the nation, considered in respect to its political
+consequence.
+
+5. Vast aggrandizement of the Jewish state by conquest. A war with
+Hadadezer opens the way to the conquest of Syria and Idumæa. Extent of
+the kingdom from the Euphrates to the Mediterranean; from Phoenicia to
+the Red sea. Gradual decline towards despotism and seraglio government;
+the political consequences of which become apparent about the end of
+David's reign, in the rebellion of his sons.
+
+6. Reign of Solomon. The brilliant government of a despot from the
+interior of his seraglio; unwarlike, but civilized, and fond of parade.
+New organization of the kingdom for the support of the court.
+Connections formed with the neighbouring states, particularly with Tyre;
+hence a participation in the southern trade carried on from the ports of
+the Red sea, conquered by David; but only as a monopoly of the court.
+
+7. The capital enriched by the splendour of the court; but the country
+oppressed and impoverished, particularly the distant tribes. Gradual
+internal decay hastened by the admixture of the worship of foreign gods
+with that of Jehovah; although Solomon, by the erection of the temple
+according to the plan of his father, seems to have wished to make the
+worship of the true God the only religion of the country. An
+unsuccessful attempt at rebellion made by Jeroboam; and by the Edomites,
+who remain tributary under their own kings: actual secession, even
+during the reign of Solomon, of the conquered province of Syria by the
+foundation of the kingdom of Damascus.
+
+8. Solomon is succeeded by his son Rehoboam, who has scarcely ascended
+the throne, before the malcontents, increased in number by his
+imprudence, break into open rebellion. Jeroboam is recalled from Egypt,
+and ten tribes acknowledge him as their king. Only two tribes, Judah and
+Benjamin, remain faithful to Rehoboam.
+
+
+II. _The Jewish state as a divided kingdom, 975-588._
+
+1. Reciprocal relations between the two kingdoms of Judah and Israel.
+Although Israel was more extensive and populous than Judah, yet was
+Judah, in consequence of possessing the capital, richest of the two;
+thus their power was nearly balanced; and hence the struggle between
+them was the more obstinate.
+
+2. The kings of Israel seek to confirm the political division of the
+nation, by establishing a new form of worship within their dominions, in
+order to restrain their subjects from visiting the ancient seat of the
+national worship at Jerusalem; hence they were considered as the enemies
+of Jehovah. Several kings, however, even of Judah were so impolitic as
+to mingle the worship of other gods with that of Jehovah. But oppression
+itself serves to sustain the worship of Jehovah; the number and
+political influence of the prophets increase in proportion as men feel,
+amid the turbulence of the times, need of the counsels of the true God;
+the idea of some future happier period under a mighty king--the idea of
+the Messiah and of his kingdom--is more fully developed by the lively
+recollection of the splendid reign of David.--Schools of the prophets.
+
+3. The rivalry and wars between those two states not only continue with
+slight interruption, but become more and more fraught with danger, in
+consequence of the alliances entered into with foreign princes,
+particularly with the kings of Damascus and Egypt. An end is at length
+put to these feeble kingdoms by the rise of vast empires in Inner Asia.
+
+  Most important events in the history of the two kingdoms.
+
+  1. KINGDOM OF ISRAEL, 975-722; under 19 kings, from different
+  families, who succeeded to the throne amid violent revolutions. 1.
+  Jeroboam, _d._ 954. Settlement of the royal residence at Shechem;
+  of the sanctuaries at Bethel and Dan, and appointment of priests,
+  not belonging to the tribe of Levi. Constant wars with the kings of
+  Judah. 2. Nadab, Jeroboam's son, murdered in 953 by 3. Baasha, _d._
+  930. This prince, by his alliance with the kings of Damascus,
+  brought the kingdom of Judah into great danger. 4. Elah murdered in
+  929 by one of his generals. 5. Zimri, in whose place the army
+  immediately elected 6. Omri: this prince, at the beginning of his
+  reign, had a rival to the throne in Tibni, _d._ 925. Omri founded
+  the new capital, Samaria, _d._ 918. He was succeeded by his son 7.
+  Ahab: strong connections by marriage with the kings of Sidon;
+  introduction of the Phoenician worship of Baal. Wars with
+  Damascus, in which Ahab at last perishes, 897. Under Ahab a league
+  formed with the king of Judah. He is succeeded by his sons, 8.
+  Ahaziah, _d._ 896, and 9. Jehoram. The league with Judah continues.
+  Jehoram is murdered by Jehu, 883. 10. Jehu: this king destroys the
+  house of Ahab, which had given 4 kings to Israel, and does away
+  with the worship of Baal. The kings of Damascus wrest from the
+  kingdom of Israel the lands beyond Jordan. Jehu, _d._ 856. He is
+  succeeded by his son 11. Jehoahaz, _d._ 840. The wars with Damascus
+  continue unsuccessful to Israel. 12. Jehoash, _d._ 825. He defeats
+  the kings of Damascus and Judah. 13. Jeroboam II. _d._ 784. He
+  restores the kingdom of Israel to its ancient extent. After a
+  turbulent interregnum of 12 years, he is succeeded by his son 14.
+  Zechariah, 773; who was assassinated the same year, being the last
+  remnant of the house of Jehu, which had given 5 kings to Israel.
+  His murderer, 15. Shallum, after a reign of one month, is, in his
+  turn, assassinated by 16. Menahem, _d._ 761: under his reign the
+  first expedition of the Assyrians, headed by Pul, whom he buys off
+  by tribute. 17. His son Pekahiah murdered in 759 by 18. Pekah,
+  under whose reign falls the expedition of Tiglath-Pileser the
+  Assyrian, and destruction of Damascus. Pekah is assassinated in 740
+  by 19. Hoshea, who, after an anarchy of eight years, obtains
+  possession of the throne. Hoshea endeavours, by an alliance with
+  Egypt, to shake off the Assyrian yoke; but Shalmaneser, king of
+  Assyria, wages war against him, conquers Samaria, and puts an end
+  to the kingdom of Israel, whose inhabitants he transplants to Media
+  in Inner Asia, 722.
+
+  2. KINGDOM OF JUDAH under 20 kings of the house of David, 975-598.
+  The regular line of hereditary succession is generally followed
+  without dispute, and is only twice interrupted by Athaliah's
+  usurpation, and the intervention of foreign conquerors. 1.
+  Rehoboam, _d._ 958. Jerusalem is still the seat of government; but
+  even during this reign the worship of Jehovah begins to fall into
+  neglect, in consequence of the introduction of foreign gods.
+  Besides the war with Israel, Jerusalem is attacked and plundered by
+  Shishak, king of Egypt. 2. Abijah, _d._ 955. 3. Asa. This prince
+  was attacked by the combined kings of Israel and Damascus, and, no
+  doubt, would have sunk in the conflict, had he not succeeded in
+  breaking their alliance; _d._ 914. 4. Jehoshaphat, the restorer of
+  the worship of Jehovah and framer of a league with the kingdom of
+  Israel. His attempt to reestablish the trade to Ophir, on the Red
+  sea, is unsuccessful, _d._ 891. 5. Jehoram. The union with Israel
+  is confirmed by the marriage of this prince with Ahab's daughter,
+  Athaliah; but Idumæa, under his reign, secedes wholly from the
+  kingdom of Judah, _d._ 884. 6. His son Ahaziah is, in the next
+  year, 883, assassinated by Jehu, the murderer and successor of
+  Jehoram king of Israel. 7. His mother, Athaliah, takes possession
+  of the throne; murders the whole royal family; only one son of
+  Ahaziah, 8, Joash, is, in consequence of his youth, rescued from
+  the carnage, secretly educated in the temple, and after seven years
+  forcibly placed upon the throne, by means of a revolution wrought
+  by the high priest, Jehoiada; and Athaliah is slaughtered, 877.
+  Joash rules under the tutelage of the priests, which leads to the
+  reestablishment of Jehovah's worship. This prince is menaced by
+  Hazael king of Damascus, and compelled to pay him tribute. Slain
+  838. 9. Amaziah: he defeats the Edomites, and is in his turn
+  defeated by Jehoash king of Israel, by whom Jerusalem itself is
+  sacked. He is slain in 811, and succeeded 10. by his son Azariah,
+  (or Uzziah.) This prince was leprous, and _d._ 759. His son 11.
+  Jotham, _d._ 743, became regent during the life of his father. The
+  wars with Israel and Damascus recommence. 12. Ahaz, _d._ 728. The
+  league between the kings of Damascus and Israel induces Ahaz to
+  call to his assistance Tiglath-Pileser king of Assyria, who
+  overthrows the kingdom of Damascus, and subjects Israel and Judah
+  to tribute. 13. Hezekiah, _d._ 699. He shakes off the Assyrian
+  yoke: under his reign Shalmaneser destroys Samaria, 722: and
+  Shalmaneser's successor, Sennacherib, undertakes his expedition
+  against Egypt, 714. Jerusalem is again besieged, but fortunately
+  relieved by the total failure of the expedition. Isaiah prophecies
+  during the reign of this prince. 14. Manasseh, _d._ 644. During his
+  55 years' reign, the worship of the Phoenician god, Baal, becomes
+  general; that of Jehovah falls into contempt, and the Mosaic law
+  into disuse. 15. Amon, murdered as early as 642. 16. Josiah
+  restorer of the temple, and of the worship of Jehovah. The book of
+  the Law, which had been cast aside and neglected, is once more
+  found, and a complete reform instituted according to its
+  principles. Palestine however is the first country attacked by
+  Necos, king of Egypt; and Josiah falls in battle, 611. His son, 17.
+  Jehoahaz, is, after a reign of three months, dethroned by
+  Pharaoh-Nechoh, and his brother 18. Jehoiakim placed as a tributary
+  prince on the throne. But in consequence of the rise of the
+  Chaldæo-Babylonian empire, Pharaoh-Nechoh is deprived of his
+  Asiatic conquests by the loss of the battle of Circesium, 606; and
+  Jehoiakim becomes tributary to Nebuchadnezzar, _d._ 599. The
+  prophet Jeremiah flourishes. 19. Jehoiachin, son of the former
+  king, after three months' reign, is, together with the greater part
+  of the nation, transplanted into Inner Asia by Nebuchadnezzar,
+  after a second expedition, (commencement of the Babylonian
+  captivity,) and, 20. Zedekiah, brother on the father's side to
+  Jehoiachin, is seated on the throne as a tributary prince. Forming,
+  however, a league with Egypt, in order to throw off the Babylonian
+  yoke, Nebuchadnezzar marches a third time against Jerusalem,
+  conquers it, 588, and delivers it up to pillage and destruction.
+  Zedekiah, after being deprived of his eye-sight, and losing all his
+  children by the hands of the executioner, is, together with the
+  remaining portion of the nation, led in captivity to Babylon.
+
+  S. BERNHARDI _Commentatio de causis quibus affectum sit ut regnum
+  Judæ diutius persisteret quam regnum Israel; cum tabula
+  geographica_, Lovanii, 1825, 4to. A prize essay, containing also
+  several valuable enquiries into the monarchical period of the
+  Jewish state.
+
+  # BAUER, _Manual of the History of the Hebrew Nation_, vol. i-iii,
+  1800. The best introduction hitherto published, not only to the
+  history, but also to the antiquities of the nation, from the rise
+  to the fall of the state.
+
+
+
+
+II. AFRICAN NATIONS.
+
+
+
+
+_General Geographical Outline of Ancient Africa._
+
+
+  See A. H. L. HEEREN'S _Historical Researches_, etc. African Nations.
+  2 vols. 8vo. Oxford, 1831.
+
+1. Although the Phoenicians had circumnavigated Africa, the northern
+part only of that quarter of the globe was known to antiquity.
+
+With that part, however, the ancients were better acquainted than we are
+at the present day, the coast being then occupied by civilized and
+commercial nations, who pushed their excursions far inland. This was the
+case in early times with the Carthaginians and the Egyptians; still more
+so with the Macedonian Greeks, under the Ptolemies, and under the
+Romans. War, hunting, and commerce, were, generally speaking, the
+objects which gave rise to those excursions.
+
+2. Considered as a whole, Africa is very different from Asia, both in
+situation and form. Asia lies almost entirely within the temperate,
+while Africa is almost wholly under the torrid zone. Asia abounds in
+deep gulfs and large rivers; Africa constitutes a regular triangle, and
+in its northern half possesses but two large rivers, the Nile and the
+Niger. No wonder, then, that this portion of our globe should form, as
+it were, a world in itself, distinguished by its productions and its
+inhabitants.
+
+3. Physically considered, Northern Africa may be divided into three
+regions, distinguished in early antiquity by separate names. The
+maritime country along the Mediterranean, with the exception of
+Tripolis, or the Regio-Syrtica, consists principally of very fertile
+districts, and was consequently, at all times, very thickly inhabited:
+hence in Herodotus it bears the name of the _inhabited Africa_; it is
+now called Barbary. Above this, and under the 30th parallel of N. lat.,
+succeeds a mountainous tract, across which stretches the Atlas chain of
+mountains; abounding in wild beasts and dates: hence Herodotus calls it
+the _wild beast Africa_: among the Arabs it is called the land of dates,
+(_Biledulgerid_.) Beyond this, and between the 30th and 20th degrees of
+N. lat. the sandy region extends right across Africa and Arabia: this
+part of Africa is therefore known, both among the ancients and moderns,
+under the name of Africa Deserta, or the Sandy Desert, (Sahara). The
+fruitful lands beyond the desert, stretching along the banks of the
+Niger, were almost wholly unknown to the Greeks: by them these parts
+were comprehended under the common name of Ethiopia, although that name
+applied more peculiarly to the districts above Egypt. The Greeks were,
+however, acquainted with some of the fruitful spots in the desert, the
+Oases; such as Augila, Ammonium, and the Oases, properly so called, in
+Egypt.
+
+4. There exists no political division which comprises the whole of
+Africa. The north coast alone was inhabited by civilized nations:
+Egyptians, Cyrenæans, and Carthaginians; of which the first only were
+aboriginals. The rest of the inhabitants either roved about as nomad
+hordes, or formed insignificant states, of whose existence we have
+heard some account, though we possess no history of them. Along the
+shore, reckoning from the Plinthinetic gulf, Egypt is succeeded by: 1st.
+Marmarica, a tract without cities, consisting principally of sandy
+deserts, occupied by nomad hordes: this country extends from the 40-47°
+E. long. from Ferro. 2nd. The fertile territory occupied by the Greek
+colonies, called Cyrenaïca, extended to the Greater Syrtis, 37-40° E.
+long. Cities: Cyrene, Barca. 3rd. The territory of Carthage, extending
+from the Greater Syrtis to the Fair Promontory, 25-40° E. long. This
+territory comprised (_a_) the country between the Greater and Lesser
+Syrtis, (Regio Syrtica,) which constitutes the modern kingdom of
+Tripoli; a sandy tract, almost wholly occupied by nomads. (_b_) the
+territory of Carthage, properly so called, (kingdom of Tunis). A very
+fruitful country; the southern part, called Byzacena, the northern part
+Zeugitana. Cities: Carthage, Utica, etc. 4th. Numidia and Mauritania;
+occupied during the Carthaginian age by nomad races. Along the shore
+some Carthaginian settlements.
+
+
+
+EGYPTIANS.
+
+
+Preliminary remarks. Egypt in its superficial contents is equal to about
+two-thirds of Germany, and may therefore justly be ranked among the more
+extensive countries of the globe; it greatly varies, however, in its
+physical properties. The soil is only sufficiently fertile for tillage
+on the banks of the Nile, and as far as the floods of that river extend;
+beyond that, on the west, is a sandy desert, on the east a chain of
+rocky mountains. From its entrance into Egypt at Syene, the Nile flows
+in one undivided stream to the city of Cercasorus, 60 geogr. miles above
+its mouth, directing its source from south to north through a valley
+from 8 to 16 geogr. miles broad, bounded on the west by deserts of sand,
+and on the east by mountains of granite. At Cercasorus the stream first
+divides itself into two main branches, which formerly discharged their
+waters into the Mediterranean, the eastern near the city of Pelusium,
+the western near the city of Canopus (_ostium Pelusiacum et Canopicum_;)
+from these two diverged several intermediate branches; so that in the
+time of Herodotus there existed seven mouths of the Nile, but the number
+has not always remained the same. The tract between the two extreme arms
+of the Nile bears, in consequence of its triangular form, the name of
+the Delta; it was covered with cities, and highly cultivated. The
+fertile part of Egypt, inhabited by civilized men, was therefore
+confined to the Delta and the valley of the Nile, on the two banks of
+the stream from Syene to Cercasorus; to which must be added some well
+watered spots in the centre of the western desert, known under the name
+of the Oases. In consequence of the perpetual absence of rain,
+particularly in Upper Egypt, the fertility of the Delta and the valley
+of the Nile depends on the overflowing of the river, which happens at
+stated periods. This commences at the beginning of August and continues
+to the end of October; so that during three whole months the
+above-mentioned parts of the country are under water.
+
+Egypt is divided into Upper, extending from Syene to the city of
+Chemmis, (capital, Thebes, or Diospolis); Central from Chemmis to
+Cercasorus, (capital, Memphis,) and Lower Egypt, which comprises the
+Delta, and the land on both sides: it was full of cities, among which
+the most remarkable was Sais.
+
+Next above Egypt lies Ethiopia, (_Æthiopia supra Ægyptum_); which, from
+the earliest times, principally through commerce, appears to have been
+closely connected with the former country. The regions immediately above
+Egypt, usually called Nubia, are little more than deserts of sand, still
+inhabited by roving hordes of nomad robbers. The rocky mountain chain,
+which forms the eastern boundary of Egypt, stretches along the Red sea,
+and was formerly of great importance to Nubia, from its containing, just
+above the Egyptian frontier, productive gold mines. The Nile, in this
+country, makes a wide curve to the west, and becomes so full of shallows
+as to render navigation difficult. The lands adjoining the river,
+however, are fertile and well inhabited; and contain numerous ancient
+monuments. Still higher up, reckoning from 16° N. lat. the appearance of
+the country changes; the region of fertility commences, and its costly
+productions, its gold and its perfumes, gave rise to a profitable
+commerce. Among these countries, Meroe, with its capital of the same
+name, was celebrated in the days of Herodotus. By Meroe is understood a
+tract of land bounded by two rivers, the Nile on the west, and the
+Astaboras, (Tacazze,) which falls into the Nile, on the east; for this
+reason it is frequently, although improperly, called an island. This
+country extended towards the sources of the Nile, or the modern province
+of Gojam, where, under the reign of Psammetichus, the Egyptian caste of
+warriors, having for the most part deserted, established themselves.
+Meroe itself, like the Egyptian states, was sacerdotal, with a king at
+its head.--The city of Axum, or Auxume, is not indeed mentioned at so
+early a period; but if we may judge by the ruins that still remain, it
+was of equally high antiquity with the old Egyptian towns and with
+Meroe. The same observations apply to Adule, the harbour on the Arabian
+gulf.
+
+The Egyptian history is divided into three periods of unequal duration;
+the _first_ of which extends from the earliest time down to the
+Sesostridæ, that is to say, to about B.C. 1500: the _second_ comprises
+the reigns of the Sesostridæ, or the brilliant period of Egypt, down to
+Psammetichus, 1500-650: the _third_ brings us from Psammetichus down to
+the Persian conquest, 650-525.
+
+
+FIRST PERIOD.
+
+_From the earliest times down to the Sesostridæ, about B. C. 1500._
+
+  Sources: 1. Jewish writers. _Moses._ His records contain, no doubt,
+  a faithful picture of the Egyptian state in his day; but no
+  continuous history can be deduced from them.--From Moses down to
+  Solomon (B.C. 1500-1000.) total silence, with respect to Egypt, of
+  the Hebrew writers. From Solomon down to Cyrus, (B.C. 1000-550.) a
+  few scanty fragments.--Importance and superiority of the Jewish
+  accounts, so far as they are _purely historical_. 2. Greek writers.
+  (_a_) _Herodotus._ The first who published a History of the
+  Egyptians. About seventy years after the destruction of the throne
+  of the Pharaohs by the Persian conquerors, this author collected,
+  in Egypt itself, the earliest accounts of the history of the
+  country; he received his information from the most capable persons,
+  the priests; and wrote down faithfully that information, such as he
+  heard it. If, therefore, we would estimate at their proper worth
+  the accounts given by Herodotus, it is necessary to enquire, what
+  did the priests themselves know of their earlier national history?
+  And this question cannot be answered until we have ascertained in
+  what manner the historical records of the earlier periods were
+  preserved among the Egyptians.
+
+  The earliest history of the Egyptians, like that of all other
+  nations, was traditional. They adopted, however, before any other
+  nations, a sort of writing, hieroglyphics, or allegorical picture
+  writing; in which the signs borrowed from natural objects served,
+  as modern discoveries have proved, partly to represent sounds,
+  (_hiéroglyphes phonétiques_,) and partly to express ideas; in the
+  latter case they were either representative or allegorical. This
+  mode of writing, by its nature, is not so complete as the purely
+  alphabetical; since, 1. It can express only a narrow circle of
+  ideas, and these separately, without connection or grammatical
+  inflection, at least with very few exceptions. 2. As it is not so
+  well adapted to writing as to painting or engraving, it is not so
+  useful for books as for public monuments. 3. Being emblematic, it
+  is not intelligible without the help of a key, which could only be
+  preserved in some tradition connected with the monument, and which
+  was exclusively possessed by the priests; this key, therefore,
+  could hardly be preserved many centuries without falsification. 4.
+  The same image seems frequently to have been used to express very
+  different objects.--It follows, that the Egyptian history, as
+  deduced from the lips of the priests, can hardly have been any
+  thing more than records connected with, and depending upon, public
+  monuments: consisting, therefore, of mere fragments, and reducible
+  to no consistent chronology, it ultimately admitted only of
+  allegorical translation, and consequently was very liable to be
+  misinterpreted. Besides their hieroglyphics, the Egyptians
+  certainly had two other species of writing: the _hieratic_,
+  confined to the priests, and the _demotic_, used in common life.
+  Both, however, seem to have been nothing more than running hands
+  derived from the hieroglyphic system; and we have no instance of
+  the employment of either the one or the other in public monuments
+  of the time of the Pharaohs. That the use of papyrus, a material on
+  which all the above kinds of writing were employed, had its origin
+  in the highest antiquity, or at least in the more brilliant period
+  of the Pharaohs, we now know for certain, written documents
+  belonging to those times having been obtained from the tombs.
+
+  CHAMPOLLION LE JEUNE, _Précis du Système Hiéroglyphique des anciens
+  Egyptiens_. Paris, 1824. The main work on this subject, of which
+  the _Lettre à M. Dacier_, 1822, is but the precursor, and the two
+  _Lettres à M. le duc de Blacas_ the continuation. The new method of
+  deciphering has received its principal confirmation from the work
+  of the British consul in Egypt, SALT, _Essay on the Phonetic System
+  of Hieroglyphics_, 1825, on the authority of a comparison with the
+  Egyptian monuments themselves. Hitherto, however, little more has
+  been made out than the names and titles of the kings, distinguished
+  by being always enclosed within a border.
+
+  These preliminary remarks on the earlier Egyptian history, will
+  derive abundant support from a perusal of the account given by
+  Herodotus (ii, 99-150), of the Egyptian kings previous to
+  Psammetichus. The study of that author proves beyond all doubt,
+  that: I. The whole history is throughout founded on public
+  monuments, and on monuments too, either in or near _Memphis_. We
+  may even restrict ourselves to one single monument at Memphis, to
+  the temple of Vulcan, or Phtha, the chief temple of that city. The
+  history commences with Menes, the founder of that edifice, (c.
+  99.), and we are informed, respecting each of his successors, what
+  was done towards the augmentation and embellishment of the
+  building: those who made no addition to that temple, but left other
+  monuments, (as the builders of the pyramids,) are denominated
+  oppressors of the people, and contemners of the gods: of those
+  princes who left no monuments at all, the priests could give no
+  other information than a catalogue of names. II. Hence this line of
+  kings, although the priests gave it to Herodotus as such, is not
+  without interruptions, but, as is clearly proved by a comparison
+  with Diodorus, contains many wide chasms: therefore no
+  chronological system can be erected upon such a basis. III. The
+  whole history is interwoven with narrations derived from
+  hieroglyphic representations, and for that very reason allegorical,
+  the meaning of which it is no longer possible to unravel, the
+  priests themselves being either unable or unwilling to explain it,
+  and even inclining, it appears, to introduce false interpretations.
+  To this class of narrations belongs, for instance, that of the
+  robbery of Rhampsinitus's treasury; that of his journey into hell,
+  where he played at dice with Ceres, (c. 121, 122); that concerning
+  the daughter of Cheops, (c. 127.); concerning the blindness of
+  Pheron, and the manner in which he was cured, etc. (c. 111.) To
+  prove that this charge is not without foundation, it will suffice
+  to adduce two examples; one from c. 131, where Herodotus himself
+  observes that such was the case; the other from c. 141, the true
+  meaning of which we gather from other sources. Even in the time of
+  Herodotus, it was customary with the priests to endeavour to
+  conciliate the Greek and Egyptian authorities; a fact in proof of
+  which there are many arguments which cannot escape the critic:
+  such, for instance, as the completely _Græcised_ history of king
+  Proteus, c. 112-115.--The general result of the above observations
+  on Herodotus's Egyptian history is, that it is nothing more than a
+  narration connected with public monuments. To this inference but
+  one objection can possibly be made, namely, that the Egyptian
+  priests possessed, besides their hieroglyphics, an alphabetical
+  mode of writing; consequently, that, over and above the public
+  monuments, they might likewise refer to written annals; but this
+  objection is overthrown by Herodotus himself. All the information
+  the priests could give him beyond what has been above alluded to,
+  consisted in the names of 330 kings subsequent to Menes; these
+  they read from a papyrus roll, but knew nothing more of the kings
+  who bore them, because _those sovereigns had left no monuments
+  behind them_, (c. 100.)
+
+  (_b_) Besides Herodotus, _Diodorus_ (lib. i.) likewise furnishes us
+  with the names of some Egyptian kings. This author, who wrote 400
+  years subsequently to Herodotus, visited Egypt, and collected his
+  history, partly from the oral and written documents of the priests
+  of _Thebes_, partly from the more ancient Greek writers, and
+  particularly Hecatæus. If we consider Herodotus's line of kings as
+  not continuous or uninterrupted, all appearance of contradiction
+  between the two historians vanishes. Diodorus, like Herodotus, did
+  not intend to give a complete enumeration of the Egyptian kings;
+  but only of the most remarkable; indicating the interruptions by
+  the number of generations which they contained.
+
+  (_c_) Finally, different from both the above is the Egyptian
+  _Manetho_, high priest at _Heliopolis_, who flourished under the
+  reign of Ptolemy Philadelphus, about B. C. 260. He wrote the
+  _Ægyptiaca_, of which, besides several fragments in Josephus, the
+  enumeration of the kings has been preserved in the chronicles of
+  Eusebius and Syncellus. This catalogue is divided into three
+  sections, (tomos,) each of which contains several dynasties, in all
+  31, enumerated according to the different cities of Egypt. In each
+  dynasty the number of kings belonging to it and the years of their
+  reigns are marked. The authenticity of Manetho is now completely
+  established; since the names of the Pharaohs mentioned by him have
+  been deciphered on the Egyptian monuments. To this period belong
+  the first seventeen dynasties; in the eighteenth begins the second
+  and brilliant period, to which the yet remaining monuments of Upper
+  Egypt, bearing the names of the founders, are to be ascribed. It is
+  worthy of observation, that in Herodotus we have the documents of
+  the priests of Memphis, in Diodorus those of the priests of Thebes,
+  in Manetho those of the priests of Heliopolis--the three principal
+  seats of sacerdotal learning:--perfect consistency cannot,
+  therefore, be expected in the accounts of those historians.
+
+  The modern writers on Egyptian antiquities, from KIRCHER, _Oedipus
+  Ægyptiacus_, 1670, to DE PAUW, _Recherches sur les Egyptiens et sur
+  les Chinois_, 1772, have too often substituted their own dreams and
+  hypotheses for truth. The principal attempts at a chronological
+  arrangement of the dynasties have been made by MARSHAM, in his
+  _Canon Chronicus_; and by GATTERER, in his # _Synchronistic History
+  of the World_.--Among the principal works on this subject may be
+  reckoned:
+
+  JABLONSKI _Pantheon Mythicum Ægyptiacum_, 1750, 8vo.
+
+  GATTERER, _Commentationes de Theogonia Ægypt_. in _Commentat.
+  Societ. Gotting._ t. vii.
+
+  _De Origine et Usu Obeliscorum, auctore_ G. ZOEGA; Romæ, 1797.
+
+  _L'Egypte sous les Pharaons, ou Recherches sur la Géographie, la
+  Religion, la Langue, les Ecritures, et l'Histoire de l'Egypte avant
+  l'invasion de Cambyse, par_ CHAMPOLLION LE JEUNE, t. i, ii. 1814.
+  These two volumes, dedicated to the geography, contain the
+  restoration of the ancient Egyptian names of provinces and cities
+  deduced from Coptic authorities.
+
+  _Commentationes Herodoteæ, scribebat_ FRID. CREUZER. _Ægyptica et
+  Hellenica, pars 1._ Lips. 1819. A series of most acute and learned
+  illustrations of different points in Egyptian antiquity, introduced
+  by different passages of Herodotus.
+
+  The volume in HEEREN'S _Historical Researches_, etc. 1831, vol. ii,
+  concerning the Egyptians; and particularly the introduction on
+  hieroglyphic writing. For the best representations of the Egyptian
+  monuments, we are indebted to the French expedition. Those of Denon
+  in his _Voyage en Egypte_, are far superior to those of Pococke and
+  Norden; but Denon's, in their turn, have been greatly surpassed in
+  the magnificent work:
+
+  _Description de l'Egypte, Antiquités_, P. i, ii, iii. P. i,
+  contains the monuments of Upper Egypt, from the frontiers of Nubia
+  to Thebes; P. ii, iii, contain the monuments of Thebes alone.
+
+  BELZONI, _Researches in Egypt_, London, 1824, with an atlas.
+
+  # MINUTOLI, _Journey to the Temple of Jupiter Ammon, and Egypt_, 1824.
+
+  L. BURCKHARDT, _Travels in Nubia_, London, 1819.
+
+  F. C. GAU, _Antiquités de la Nubie_, Paris, 1824. A worthy
+  continuation of the great French work on Egypt.
+
+  FR. CAILLAUD, _Voyage à Méroé et au Fleuve Blanc_, Paris, 1825,
+  contains the description of the monuments of Meroe.
+
+1. Political civilization commenced in Egypt at a much earlier period
+than that to which history reaches; for even in the days of Abraham,
+and still more so in those of Moses, the government seems to have been
+so well organized, that a long period must necessarily have elapsed in
+order to raise the nation to that degree of civilization which we see it
+had then attained. It may, therefore, be safely asserted, that Egypt
+ranks among the most ancient countries of our globe in which political
+associations existed; although we cannot determine with equal certainty
+whether they did not exist still earlier in India.
+
+2. The causes which contributed to render Egypt thus early a civilized
+state, may be found in the natural features of the country, and its
+favourable situation, when compared with the rest of Africa. It is the
+only tract in all northern Africa situated on a large uninterrupted
+navigable stream: had it not been for this, it would, like the other
+parts of Africa under the same parallel, have been a mere desert. To
+this must be added two extraordinary circumstances: on the one hand, the
+overflowing of the river so perfectly prepares the soil, that to scatter
+the seed is almost the only labour of the husbandman; and yet, on the
+other hand, so many obstacles impede the progress of agriculture, (by
+the necessity of canals, dams, etc.) that the invention of man must
+necessarily have been awakened. When agriculture, and the kind of
+knowledge requisite for its ulterior development had introduced a
+certain degree of civilization into Egypt, the situation of that
+country, between Asia and Africa, and in the neighbourhood of the rich
+land of gold and spices, must have been highly favourable to the
+purposes of international commerce; hence Egypt appears in all ages to
+have been one of the chief seats of the inland or caravan trade.
+
+3. It is obvious, therefore, that in the fertile valley of the Nile, the
+course of things must have been very different from what it was in the
+desert of Libya. Several small states appear to have been formed in this
+valley long before the existence of any great Egyptian kingdom. Their
+origin, as might naturally be supposed, is enveloped in an obscurity,
+which history can no longer entirely penetrate. It may still, however,
+be gathered from monuments and records, that Upper Egypt was first the
+seat of civilization; which, originating in the south, spread by the
+settlement of colonies towards the north. It is probable that this took
+place in consequence of the migration of some tribe, differing from the
+negroes, as is proved by the representations, both in sculpture and in
+painting, found on the yet remaining monuments of Egypt.
+
+4. The records of the high antiquity of political civilization, not only
+in India, but likewise in Arabia Felix and Ethiopia, particularly in
+Meroe, and the evident vestiges of ancient intercourse between the
+southern nations of our globe, prove with sufficient evidence the truth
+of such migrations, although they cannot be chronologically determined.
+It is certain, however, that religion had no small share in producing
+them. The national bond of union in Egypt not only continued in later
+times, entirely dependent upon religion, but was originally grounded
+upon it. Thus every step in political civilization must have depended,
+if not solely, at least principally, on the caste of priests and on
+their extension.
+
+  General development of the idea of division into castes. Originating
+  at first in the variety of tribes settled in one and the same
+  country, and their different modes of life.--Its further progress
+  in despotic and in theocratic kingdoms.--Application to Egypt and
+  to the Egyptian caste of priests, as an original, civilized tribe.
+
+5. The peculiarity of this caste was the worship of certain deities, the
+principal of which were Ammon, Osiris, and Phtha, confounded by the
+Greeks with their Jupiter, Bacchus, and Vulcan. The spread of this
+worship, which was always connected with temples, affords, therefore,
+the most evident vestiges of the spread of the caste itself; and those
+vestiges combined with the records of the Egyptians, lead us to conclude
+that this caste was a tribe which migrated from the south, from beyond
+Meroe in Ethiopia, and by the establishment of inland colonies around
+the temples founded by them, gradually extended and made the worship of
+their gods the dominant religion in Egypt.
+
+  Proof of the accuracy of the above theory deduced from monuments and
+  express testimonies concerning the origin of Thebes and Ammon from
+  Meroe; it might have been inferred from the preservation of the
+  worship of Ammon in the latter place. Memphis, again, and other
+  cities in the valley of the Nile, are commonly supposed to have been
+  founded by detachments from Thebes.
+
+6. This conjecture, which agrees with the usual progress of population,
+is corroborated by the very ancient division of the country into
+districts, or nomes. This division was intimately connected with the
+chief temples, each of which represented a separate colony of the caste
+of priests; so that the inhabitants of every home belonged to the chief
+temple, and joined in the religious worship there performed.
+
+7. To the gradual extension of this civilized tribe, which comprised,
+not only the caste of the priests, but certainly also that of the
+warriors, and perhaps some others, may be attributed the formation of
+several small states along the banks of the Nile; the central point of
+each being always such a colony as we have just now described; although
+each state consisted both of the aboriginal tribes of the neighbourhood,
+and of those that had migrated into the country. The bond which united
+every separate state was, therefore, as in most of those formed in the
+infancy of mankind, a common worship, in which all the members
+participated. But what, by reason of the peculiarities of soil and
+climate, could not take place in southern Africa, took place in Egypt:
+agriculture, and its progressive improvement, became the great support
+of civilization; and, as being the true foundation of states, formed the
+principal political object of the ruling caste.
+
+  Refutation of the idea, that the Egyptian priests were in possession
+  of great speculative knowledge; since their knowledge rather had
+  constant reference to practical life, and, therefore, was in their
+  hands the _instrumentum dominationis_ over the people, by which they
+  rendered themselves indispensable, and kept the former in a state of
+  dependence.--Explanation of the close reference which their gods,
+  their astronomical and mathematical sciences bore to agriculture.
+
+8. According to Manetho's catalogues, these separate Egyptian states
+existed first in Upper and Middle Egypt; in the former were Thebes,
+Elephantine, This, and Heraclea; in the latter, Memphis. It is only in
+the last division of his work that we meet with states in Lower Egypt,
+such as Tanis, Mendes, Bubastis, and Sebennytus.
+
+  To these states, therefore, no doubt, belong the 330 kings after
+  Menes, whose names the priests read to Herodotus; as also those whom
+  Diodorus mentions as reigning previous to Sesostris, among whom are
+  remarked Busiris II. founder of Thebes, and Uchoreus, the founder of
+  Memphis. Eusebius and Syncellus have preserved from Manetho the names
+  of several of those kings, which Marsham has endeavoured to compare
+  and arrange.
+
+9. In the absence of a certain and continuous chronology, it is
+impossible to determine accurately which of these states were
+contemporary, and which succeeded the others. There can be no question
+that Thebes was one of the earliest, if not indeed the most ancient of
+them all; certainly prior to Memphis, which was founded by it. According
+to the natural order of things, some of these states became wealthy and
+mighty, and swallowed up the others. Even at this early period, Thebes
+and Memphis had obtained a superiority over the rest.
+
+  This and Elephantine appear to have been united to Thebes; as were the
+  states of Lower Egypt to Memphis.
+
+10. The Mosaic records prove, that even in Joseph's time the state of
+Memphis (the real place, it appears, of his residence, not On, or
+Heliopolis,) comprised Middle and Lower Egypt. It possessed a numerous
+and brilliant court; castes of priests and warriors. Its agriculture
+flourished, and several of its institutions indicated a deeply-rooted
+civilization. But after the establishment of vassalage in this state by
+Joseph, when the class of free proprietors was destroyed, by making the
+king the only landholder except the priests, the troubles which already
+threatened the kingdom must have assumed a more dangerous and alarming
+aspect.
+
+11. These troubles came from abroad. Egypt, surrounded on all sides by
+nomad tribes, had often suffered from their irruptions, which sometimes
+poured in from the south, sometimes from the east. But never were these
+invasions so frequent and durable as in the period which immediately
+followed the administration of Joseph. Lower Egypt was overrun by the
+Bedouin Arabs, whose chieftains, called by the Egyptians _Hyksos_,
+settled in the country, fortified Avaris, or Pelusium, and extended
+their dominion to Memphis, which they made probably the seat of their
+government. They are depicted as the oppressors of religion, and of the
+caste of priests; but when we consider that Moses flourished in their
+time, we are led to infer that, like the Mongols in China, they must
+have gradually adopted Egyptian manners and civilization. They do not
+appear to have gained possession of Thebes in Upper Egypt; and it seems
+highly probable, that the long struggle against them was never, or at
+least but for a short time, suspended.
+
+  The dominion of the Arabian Hyksos falls between B. C. 1800-1600; and
+  consequently was contemporary with Moses and the exodus of the Jews.
+  Josephus gives 500 years to their dominion, in which he probably
+  comprises the long periods of earlier wars.
+
+12. Defeat, and final expulsion of the Hyksos from Upper Egypt by
+Thutmosis king of Thebes. The consequence of this event was not only
+the restoration of freedom and independence to Egypt, but also the
+union of the different states into one kingdom; as the rulers of Thebes
+now became monarchs over all Egypt. This expulsion of the Hyksos, which
+in itself cannot be considered otherwise than as a vast national effort,
+must have been the more deeply impressed on the memory of the people, as
+it laid the foundation of the splendid period which immediately
+followed.
+
+  The expulsion of the Hyksos appears to have been one of the chief
+  subjects on which the Egyptian artists exercised their talents: it
+  is supposed to have been represented upon one of the large temples
+  in Thebes. Denon, plate cxxxiii.
+
+
+SECOND PERIOD.
+
+_From the Sesostridæ until the sole dominion of Psammetichus.
+B. C. 1500-650._
+
+  The sources for this period are the same as for the foregoing; and
+  the history still preserves the character of records handed down by
+  hieroglyphics. To this period belongs the line of kings subsequent
+  to Sesostris, given both by Herodotus and Diodorus. Those two
+  historians nearly agree, if we regard Herodotus's line of kings,
+  not as uninterrupted, but as the fragments of a series deduced
+  solely from public monuments: this will be demonstrated by the
+  following table, in which the predecessors of Sesostris have
+  likewise been indicated.
+
+  HERODOTUS.                          DIODORUS.
+
+  _Menes._                            _Menes._
+
+  He was followed by three            Followed by fifty-two successors,
+    hundred and thirty kings            ranging over a period of more
+    belonging to the previous           than 1400 years.
+    period, concerning which our
+    information is very incomplete:   _Busiris I._ and eight successors;
+    among those sovereigns were         the last of whom was
+    eighteen Ethiopians, and one
+    queen named Nitocris.             _Busiris II._ the founder of
+                                        Thebes.
+
+                                      _Osymandyas_ and eight successors;
+                                        the last of whom was
+
+                                      _Uchoreus_, founder of Memphis.
+
+                                      _Ægyptus_, grandson of the
+                                        foregoing. After the lapse
+                                        of twelve generations,
+
+  _Moeris._                           _Moeris._
+
+                                      Seven generations.
+
+  _Sesostris._                        _Sesostris_ or _Sesoosis_.
+
+  _Pheron_, son of Sesostris.         _Sesostris II._ son of the
+                                        foregoing: he assumed his
+                                        father's name.
+
+                                      Interval comprising several
+                                        generations.
+
+                                      _Amasis_, and the Ethiopian,
+
+                                      _Actisanus._
+
+                                      _Mendes_ or _Manes_, builder
+                                        of the labyrinth.
+
+                                      Anarchy which lasted five
+                                        generations.
+
+  _Proteus_, in the time of the       _Proteus_ or _Cetes_, in the time
+    Trojan war.                         of the Trojan war.
+
+  _Rhampsinitus._                     _Remphis_, son of the foregoing.
+
+                                      Seven generations, in the course
+                                        of which flourished _Nileus_,
+                                        from whom the Nile derives
+                                        its name.
+
+  _Cheops_, builder of the great      _Chemmis_ or _Chembes_, from
+    pyramid.                            Memphis, builder of the great
+                                        pyramid.
+
+  _Chephres_, brother to the          _Cephren_, brother to the
+    foregoing, builder of a pyramid.    foregoing, builder of a pyramid.
+
+  _Mycerinus_, son of Cheops,         _Mycerinus_, son of Chemmis,
+    builder of a pyramid.               builder of a pyramid.
+
+  _Asychis_ the legislator.           _Bochoris_ the legislator.
+
+  _Anysis_, who was blind.            Interval of several generations.
+
+  _Sabaco_, the Ethiopian.            _Sabaco_, the Ethiopian
+
+  _Anysis_, king for the second
+    time.
+
+  _Sethos_, a priest of Vulcan.
+
+  Dodecarchy.                         Dodecarchy.
+
+  _Psammetichus_ of Sais, sole        _Psammetichus_ of Sais, sole
+    ruler.                              ruler.
+
+  This comparative table demonstrates evidently, not only that
+  Herodotus's line is often interrupted, but likewise that it is
+  impossible to establish any continuous chronology, since Diodorus,
+  more than once leaves the number of generations undetermined. Great
+  importance, nevertheless, attaches to the date fixed by Herodotus,
+  ii, 13, where he declares that king Moeris flourished 900 years
+  before his own visit to Egypt: consequently between B.C. 1500 and
+  1450. And if, as seems highly probable, the age of Sesostris was
+  the 15th century B.C. (see ZOEGA, _de Obeliscis_), it cannot be
+  denied but that we have some general epochs; and with these we must
+  remain content until more satisfactory information can be
+  discovered on the monuments. It should likewise be observed, that
+  the discrepancy between the names of the kings mentioned by
+  Herodotus and Diodorus, and those furnished by Manetho, may be
+  accounted for by the fact, that the sovereigns were distinguished
+  by different names on the monuments and in common life.
+
+  Of the dynasties of Manetho, the 18th, 19th, 20th, and 22nd, belong
+  to this period; more especially the two first, which contain the
+  most important of the Pharaohs.
+
+1. The following period, nearly to its termination, was the brilliant
+age of Egypt, during which it formed but one empire; the kings being
+represented as sovereign lords of the whole country. And, indeed, it was
+natural that the expulsion of the invaders should be followed by a
+period in which the military force and ardour of the nation would be
+developed, and directed to external conquest. The capital of the empire
+was, no doubt, Thebes, the great monuments of which were erected in this
+period; that honour, however, seems to have alternately belonged to
+Memphis, Herodotus's line of kings being deduced from the monuments of
+that city, and more especially from the temple of Phtha.
+
+  The more powerful of the Pharaohs of this period, and the founders
+  of the most important monuments of Upper Egypt, on which their
+  names are found, are the following: belonging to the 18th dynasty,
+  somewhere about 1600-1500.
+
+  _Amenophis I._ His name is likewise found beyond Egypt on the
+  temple of Amada, in Nubia.
+
+  _Thutmosis I._ Commencement of the expulsion of the Hyksos.
+
+  _Amenophis II._ The Memnon of the Greeks. Complete expulsion of the
+  Hyksos, and commencement of several of the great edifices. His name
+  is also found on the monuments of Thebes, Elephantine, and even in
+  Nubia, on the distant temple of Soleb. Builder of the palace of
+  Luxor.
+
+  _Thutmosis II._ His name found in Carnac, and on the obelisk at the
+  Lateran.
+
+  _Ramesses I._ Supposed to be the Danaus of the Greeks. Expelled by
+  his brother:
+
+  _Ramesses II._ Miamun. Builder of the palace of Medinet-Abu in
+  Thebes. One of the royal graves that have been opened belongs to
+  this king.
+
+  _Amenophis III._ Renewed invasion of the Hyksos; he flees before
+  them into Ethiopia; but returns victorious with his son Ramesses.
+
+  Belonging to the 19th dynasty, between 1500 and 1400.
+
+  _Ramesses III._, called the Great, and sometimes _Sesostris_;
+  founder of the dynasty, liberator of Egypt, and a great conqueror.
+  His name and titles, his wars and triumphs, are found on the
+  temples and palaces of Luxor and Carnac, in Thebes and Nubia. His
+  son and follower:
+
+  _Ramesses IV._ Pheron, rules long in peace. His name is found in
+  the great pillared hall of the palace of Carnac, and on many other
+  buildings.
+
+  Among his successors but few names have been preserved until we
+  come to Scheschonk or Sisac, of the 22nd dynasty, between 970 and
+  950; he took Jerusalem under the reign of Rehoboam, and therefore
+  furnishes a fixed date.
+
+  # R. V. L. (RUEHLE VON LILIENSTERN), _Graphic Illustrations of the
+  most ancient History and Geography of Egypt and Ethiopia, with an
+  atlas, 1827_. A work containing every thing necessary for
+  understanding the discoveries hitherto made in this department of
+  history.
+
+2. For this splendour, the empire was principally indebted to Sesostris,
+son of Amenophis. This prince is justly entitled to the surname of
+Great, which was given him by the Egyptians. No one will, to the letter,
+credit the narrative of his deeds, exaggerated as they were by the
+traditions of the priests, or represented, as they still appear, on the
+buildings of Thebes; but who can doubt the existence of a monarch of
+whom so many and such various monuments within and without Egypt bear
+witness?
+
+  Critical examination of the accounts of the nine years' campaign, and
+  conquests of Sesostris. His arms were principally directed against
+  wealthy commercial countries; probably by land against Ethiopia, Asia
+  Minor, and part of Thrace; by sea against Arabia Felix, perhaps even
+  the Indian peninsula. Can the performance of these exploits be deemed
+  improbable, in an age when western Asia did not contain a single
+  great empire? The vast undertakings attributed to Sesostris in the
+  interior of his dominions; extensive buildings, canals, division of
+  the land, and imposition of taxes, according to a regular survey,
+  prove that he must have been the sovereign of all Egypt.
+
+3. Notwithstanding the great changes that were made, the constitution
+still bore the same general character, that of a sacerdotal aristocracy
+combined with a monarchy. Although the Egyptian kings, like the Indian
+princes, were distinct from the priests, yet their power was limited in
+various ways by that caste. The high priest shared the royal authority;
+the king was shackled by religious ceremonies, both in public and
+private life; he was obliged to evince his veneration for the
+established worship by the erection of public monuments; and all the
+high offices of state were in the hands of the priests. It cannot be
+denied that on the personal character of the king depended much of his
+power; but how strong must have been this aristocracy, when even
+successful conquerors were obliged to conciliate its approbation!
+
+4. It was probably about this time that the domestic relations of the
+people, the division into castes, was completed. The sacerdotal caste
+being in exclusive possession of all scientific knowledge, remained for
+that reason in possession of the offices of state. The caste of warriors
+could hardly have assumed its complete form before the country was
+united into one empire: in like manner that of the navigators could not
+have been completely established before the canals were excavated;
+although the origin of all may have been of a much earlier date.
+
+  Comparison of the accounts given by Herodotus and Diodorus of the
+  division into castes. Not only precedence in time, but likewise the
+  discrepancies between the two, declare in favour of Herodotus.
+
+5. It appears, therefore, that the most prosperous period of the kingdom
+of the Pharaohs must be placed somewhere between B. C. 1500-900:
+although, according to Diodorus, even this period was interrupted by a
+long anarchy. The splendour of the empire was obscured towards the end.
+Sabaco, a foreign conqueror from Ethiopia, (probably from Meroe,)
+subjugated Egypt; after his departure from the country, Sethos, a
+priest of Phtha, contrary to all precedent, seated himself upon the
+throne. He was, consequently, considered an usurper; he offended the
+caste of warriors, and could not have escaped the dangers of an
+irruption threatened by the Assyrian, Sennacherib, had not a pestilence
+compelled the invader and his host to retreat.
+
+  The dynasty of Sabaco, Seuechus, and Tarhaco in Meroe, who as
+  conquerors subjected Upper Egypt, is comprised between B. C. 800-700.
+  Their names likewise have been already discovered on monuments; some
+  at Abydos in Egypt, others in Nubia.
+
+6. The Egyptian monarchy, however, at length fell, and was replaced by
+an oligarchy; (or perhaps a return was only made to the division of the
+earlier kingdoms;) twelve princes sharing among themselves the sovereign
+power. A certain degree of unity seems to have existed at first in this
+government; but quarrels soon sprung up among the princes, and they
+compelled one of their number, Psammetichus of Sais, to take flight. The
+exiled prince, supported by Greek and Carian mercenaries, contrived to
+avenge his wrongs; he drove away his rivals, and became the sole ruler.
+
+
+THIRD PERIOD.
+
+_From the reign of Psammetichus as sole monarch to the Persian conquest
+of Egypt by Cambyses. B. C. 650-525._
+
+  Herodotus, (l. ii, c. 125, etc.) is still the principal authority
+  for this portion of history. His statements, however, are no longer
+  derived from hieroglyphics: they are purely historical. During the
+  reign of Psammetichus, the Greeks who had migrated into Egypt gave
+  rise to the caste of interpreters, [Greek: hermêneis], who acted
+  both as ciceroni for strangers, and as brokers between the
+  Egyptians and Greeks: these people were enabled to give information
+  respecting the history of the country. It is not, therefore,
+  surprising that Herodotus should assure us, that from this time the
+  history was authentic.--The names of the succeeding Pharaohs are
+  likewise found on the monuments; in the erection of which they
+  rivaled their predecessors.
+
+  _Contemporary_: Asia: rise and fall of the Chaldæo-Babylonian
+  empire; rise of the Persian monarchy.--Rome: kings from Numa
+  Pompilius to Servius Tullius.--Athens: Draco; Solon;
+  Pisistratus.--Jews: the last period and fall of the kingdom of
+  Judah; Babylonish captivity.
+
+1. From this epoch Egypt remained uninterruptedly one kingdom, the
+capital of which was Memphis, although Sais, in Lower Egypt, was the
+general residence of the royal family. Strangers, and more particularly
+Greeks, admitted into Egypt; partly as mercenaries, partly as merchants.
+Influence of this innovation upon the national character, and upon the
+political system in particular. A spirit of conquest gradually inherited
+by the Egyptian kings, is directed principally against Asia: hence the
+formation of a navy, and wars with the great rising monarchies of Asia.
+Continued, but declining influence of the sacerdotal caste, and proofs
+of the veneration of the kings for the priesthood deduced from the
+erection and embellishment of temples, particularly of that consecrated
+to Phtha in Memphis.
+
+2. _Psammetichus._ He obtains sole power through the assistance of Greek
+and Carian mercenaries, who are continued as a standing army in the
+country. The caste of Egyptian warriors, taking umbrage in consequence,
+emigrate for the most part to Ethiopia, where they settle. The southern
+portico of the temple of Phtha is erected, and projects of conquest are
+formed against Asia.
+
+3. _Neco_, son and successor of Psammetichus. His extensive plans of
+conquest. First formation of a naval power; and unsuccessful attempt to
+unite by a canal the Mediterranean with the Red sea. Conquests in Asia
+as far as the Euphrates; but quick secession of the conquered, in
+consequence of the loss of the battle of Circesium. Circumnavigation of
+Africa undertaken at his command by the Phoenicians, and successfully
+performed.
+
+4. _Psammis his son and successor._ Expedition against Ethiopia, and
+conquests in the interior of Africa.
+
+5. Reign of _Apries_, (the Pharaoh-hophra of the Hebrews). Plans of
+conquest against Asia;--siege of Sidon, and naval battle with the
+Tyrians;--expedition against Cyrene in Africa; its fatal result. A
+revolution caused thereby in Egypt, the inhabitants of which were averse
+to foreign wars, carried on mostly by mercenary aliens: the revolution
+headed by Amasis. In the civil war which Apries now wages with his
+mercenaries against the Egyptians commanded by Amasis, he loses both his
+throne and life; and with him ends the family of Psammetichus, which had
+reigned to this time.
+
+6. The usurper _Amasis_ took possession of the sovereign power; and
+although he had to contend with a strong party, who despised him on
+account of his low origin, he contrived by popular measures, and by the
+respect he showed to the sacerdotal caste, to establish himself upon the
+throne.--His monuments, both at Sais and Memphis.--The Egyptians and
+Greeks become better acquainted and more closely connected with each
+other, partly in consequence of the marriage of the king with a Greek
+woman; but principally owing to the mouths of the Nile being opened to
+the Greek merchants, and the cession of Naucratis as a factory for their
+merchandise. Great and beneficial consequences to Egypt, which, under
+the long reign of Amasis, reaches its highest pitch of prosperity. This
+prince had already been engaged in disputes with the Persian conqueror,
+Cyrus, whose son and successor, Cambyses, led an expedition against
+Egypt, which Amasis, however, luckily for himself, escaped by a
+seasonable death.
+
+7. His son Psammenitus, the last of the Egyptian Pharaohs, is attacked
+by Cambyses in the very first year of his reign. After a single battle,
+fought at Pelusium, and a short siege of Memphis, the empire of the
+Pharaohs is overthrown, and Egypt merges into a Persian province. The
+powerful caste of the priests suffered most from the hatred of the
+conqueror; but the persecution to which they were subjected must be
+attributed rather to policy than fanaticism.
+
+8. Condition and fate of Egypt as a Persian province. After the death of
+Cambyses, the country received a Persian governor, and consequently
+became a satrapy. Immediately after the first tempest of war had blown
+over, Egypt was treated with mildness by the Persians. The country paid
+a moderate tribute, together with some royal gifts, among others the
+produce of the fisheries in lake Moeris; nevertheless, repeated revolts
+occurred, which may be principally attributed to the hatred and
+influence of the sacerdotal caste. The first took place under Darius
+Hystaspes, and was quelled by Xerxes. An increase of tribute was the
+consequence. The second, under king Inarus, fomented and supported by
+the Athenians, happened during the reign of Artaxerxes I.; it was
+quelled by Megabyzus. The third occurred under Darius II. and in
+consequence of the support which the Egyptians received from the Greeks,
+was of longer duration than either of the former, the throne of the
+Pharaoh's being in some measure restored.
+
+  This third secession of the Egyptians lasted till 354. During
+  this period various kings were appointed; Amyrtæus, _d._ 408;
+  Psammetichus, about 400; Nephreus, about 397; Pausiris, _d._ 375;
+  Nectanebus I. _d._ 365; Tachos, _d._ 363; Nectanebus II. conquered
+  by Artaxerxes III. 354.
+
+
+
+CARTHAGINIANS.
+
+
+  Sources. The first great republic which ancient records mention as
+  applying both to trade and war, is undoubtedly a phenomenon well
+  deserving the attention of the historical enquirer. Our knowledge,
+  however, of Carthaginian history is unfortunately very deficient,
+  as we possess no author who has made it the principal object of his
+  attention. The immediate subject of the Greek and Roman writers was
+  the history of their own country, and they only allude to that of
+  Carthage in so far as it is connected with their main topic. This
+  observation applies as well to Polybius and Diodorus, as to Livy
+  and Appian. Even the information given by Justin, the only author
+  who says any thing concerning the early state of Carthage, is
+  miserably defective, although taken from Theopompus. (Cf. _Comment.
+  de fontibus_ JUSTINI _in Commentat. Soc. Gotting._ vol. xv.)
+  Moreover, as Herodotus here fails us, we have not the writings of
+  any author whatever who witnessed Carthage in the days of her
+  prosperity: Polybius did not see that country till after the
+  decline of its power; the other historians, wrote long afterwards.
+  But although an uninterrupted history of Carthage does not exist,
+  we are yet able to trace the main outlines of the picture of that
+  state.--The modern writers on Carthage are:
+
+  HENDRICH, _de Republica Carthaginiensium_, 1664. A useful
+  compilation.
+
+  # _History of the Republic of Carthage_, 2 vols. Franckfort, 1781.
+  A mere history of the wars.
+
+  DAMPMARTIN, _Histoire de la Rivalité de Carthage et de Rome_, tom.
+  i, ii. Very superficial.
+
+  # W. BOETTICHER, _History of Carthage_, part i. Berlin, 1827.
+  The best work on the subject; in which use has been made of modern
+  researches.
+
+  Concerning the Carthaginians, see HEEREN'S _African Nations_,
+  2 vols. 8vo. Oxford, 1831.
+
+The history of Carthage is most conveniently divided into three periods:
+I. From the foundation of the city to the commencement of the wars with
+Syracuse, B. C. 880-480. II. From the commencement of the wars with
+Syracuse to those with Rome, 480-264. III. From the commencement of the
+wars with Rome to the destruction of Carthage, 264-146.
+
+
+FIRST PERIOD.
+
+_From the foundation of Carthage to the wars with Syracuse, B. C.
+880-480._
+
+  _Contemporary_: Inner Asia: kingdoms of the Assyrians, Babylonians,
+  and first half of the Persian monarchy. Greeks: period from
+  Lycurgus to Themistocles. Romans: period of the kings, and of the
+  commonwealth until the establishment of the tribunes of the people.
+
+1. The foundation and primitive history of Carthage, like all very early
+and important events in national history, have, by long tradition, been
+wrapt in the veil of romance. The account given of Dido, the supposed
+founder of the city, cannot be reduced to the standard of pure
+historical truth, though it appears to justify the inference that some
+political commotions in the mother city, Tyre, induced a party of
+emigrants to proceed to the northern shores of Africa; where other
+Phoenician establishments had already taken place: here, by engaging to
+pay a yearly tribute, they purchased from the natives permission to
+found a city, the site of which was so happily chosen, that it only
+depended upon the inhabitants to raise it to that greatness which it
+afterwards attained.
+
+2. It is probable that Carthage advanced at first by slow steps; yet
+even at the end of this first period she had reached to such a height of
+power, that she was mistress of a large territory in Africa, and of
+foreign possessions still more extensive. Establishment of the
+Carthaginian dominion in Africa by the subjection of the neighbouring
+aboriginal tribes, and the foundation of Carthaginian settlements within
+their territories; the natives, Liby-Phoenicians, gradually mingled with
+the inhabitants of those colonies, and imbibed from them a love of
+agriculture and fixed abodes. The inhabitants of the fertile territory
+extending southward as far as the lake Triton, were, without exception,
+Carthaginian subjects.
+
+3. Her connection, however, with the ancient Phoenician towns along the
+coast, particularly Utica, was of a different nature. For although
+possessed a certain authority over them, she did not claim absolute
+dominion, but rather stood at the head of a federation; thus affording a
+protection which must frequently have degenerated into oppression.
+
+4. In consequence of a treaty with the neighbouring republic of Cyrene,
+the whole territory extending between the two Syrtes was also ceded to
+the Carthaginians. The Lotophagi and Nasamones, inhabitants of this
+district, preserved their nomad mode of life; they must, however, from
+their trade with the interior parts of Africa, have been of the highest
+importance to Carthage.
+
+5. System of colonization, and, as a necessary result, that of conquest
+without Africa. It was evidently the aim of the Carthaginians to settle
+on islands, and to subject them to their dominion. Those lying in the
+western part of the Mediterranean occupied the first place in their plan
+of conquest, which was completely executed in Sardinia, the Baleares,
+and other small islands; perhaps in Corsica; in Sicily, however, they
+could never succeed to the full extent of their wishes. There is also
+every probability that the Canary islands and Madeira were entirely in
+their possession. On the other hand, the Carthaginians, previous to
+their wars with Rome, were in the practice of establishing separate
+settlements on the main land, partly in Spain, and partly on the western
+shore of Africa. In the latter, they adopted the policy of their
+ancestors, the Phoenicians, making the settlements so small, and
+confining them within such narrow bounds, that the mother country might
+always ensure their dependence.
+
+6. The glory of extending the territory of Carthage, by important
+conquests, belongs principally to the family of Mago, who, together with
+his two sons and six grandsons, established the dominion of the republic
+in Sicily, Sardinia, and Africa. This occurred about the same time that
+Cyrus, Cambyses, and Darius were laying the foundation of the Persian
+monarchy, with which Carthage even then entered into connection. The
+Carthaginians, therefore, made their first appearance, as extensive
+conquerors, in the fourth century from the foundation of their
+commonwealth; and it is at this period that mention is made of their
+first naval engagement, in which the Phocæans were their adversaries. In
+the same period may be dated the establishment of their colonies beyond
+the Pillars of Hercules by Hanno and Himilco--both probably sons of
+Mago;--by the former on the coast of Africa, by the latter on that of
+Spain. To the same period likewise is referred the first commercial
+treaty between the Carthaginians and Romans, in which the former appear
+as already masters of Sardinia, Africa, and a portion of Sicily.
+
+7. To complete these conquests, and to preserve them when completed, the
+formation and support of vast fleets and armies were indispensably
+necessary. According to the usual practice of those nations who apply
+both to trade and to war, the Carthaginian armies were composed for the
+most part of mercenaries. No nation, however, followed this plan so
+extensively as the Carthaginians, for to them half Africa and Europe
+furnished warriors.--Description of a Carthaginian army; development of
+the advantages and disadvantages of its organization.--Organization of
+their navy. The state supported very numerous fleets of war-ships, with
+a multitude of slaves who laboured at the oar, and were it seems public
+property.
+
+8. The political constitution of Carthage, like that of all wealthy
+trading states, was an aristocracy composed of the noble and the
+opulent, though at all times combined with a certain admixture of
+democracy. The affairs of the state were confided to the hands of the
+two suffetes or kings,--who, in all probability, held their office for
+life--and to those of the senate ([Greek: Boulê]) which contained within
+itself a more select council (the [Greek: gerousia]). The privilege of
+electing the magistrates resided with the people at large, who also
+shared the legislative power with the suffetes. Civil and military power
+was usually divided: the offices of general and magistrate not being
+always, as at Rome, united in the same individual,--although such an
+instance might not be of impossible occurrence:--to each military chief,
+on the contrary, was appointed a committee from the senate, on which he
+was more or less dependent.
+
+9. The high state tribunal of the HUNDRED was instituted as a barrier to
+the constitution against the attempts of the more powerful aristocrats,
+particularly the military leaders; indeed the brilliancy of Mago's
+conquests seemed to threaten the republic with a military government;
+and immediately previous to his time one of the generals, Malchus, had
+actually made an attempt to enslave Carthage. The object of the
+institution was no doubt attained; but in later times the council
+assumed to itself a power which increased to absolute despotism. It is
+not improbable that this court likewise constituted the select committee
+(the [Greek: gerousia]) of the senate.
+
+10. Our information respecting the financial system of the Carthaginians
+is extremely meagre. The following seem to have been the principal
+sources of the public revenue. 1. The tribute drawn from the federate
+cities, and their African subjects. The former paid in money, the latter
+for the most part in kind; this tribute was imposed at the will of the
+government, so that in pressing cases the taxed nations were obliged to
+give one half of their income. 2. The case was the same with their
+external provinces, particularly with Sardinia. 3. The tribute
+furnished by the nomad hordes, partly by those in the Regio-Syrtica, and
+occasionally also by those on the western side. 4. The customs, which
+were levied with extreme rigour, not only in Carthage, but likewise in
+all the colonies. 5. The products of their rich mines, particularly
+those of Spain. In considering the financial system of the
+Carthaginians, it should not be forgotten that many of the nations with
+whom they traded, or who served in their armies, were unacquainted with
+the use of money.
+
+11. System and extent of their commerce. Their object was to secure a
+monopoly of the western trade; hence the practice of restricting the
+growth of their colonies, and of removing as much as possible all
+strangers from their commercial marts. Their trade was carried on partly
+by sea, and partly by land. Their sea trade, arising from the colonies,
+extended beyond the Mediterranean, certainly as far as the coasts of
+Britain and Guinea. Their land trade was carried on by caravans,
+consisting principally of the nomad tribes resident between the Syrtes:
+the caravans travelled eastward to Ammonium and Upper Egypt, southward
+to the land of the Garamantes, (Fezzan,) and even still further into the
+interior of Africa.
+
+
+SECOND PERIOD.
+
+_From the breaking out of the wars with Syracuse, to the commencement of
+those with Rome, B. C. 480-264._
+
+1. The great object of Carthaginian policy during the whole of the above
+period, was to subdue Sicily; this object the nation pursued with
+extraordinary pertinacity, often approximating to, but never obtaining,
+complete success. The growing power of Syracuse, which likewise aimed at
+the sole possession of the island, laid the foundation of that national
+hatred which now arose between the Sicilian Greeks and the
+Carthaginians.
+
+2. First attempt, arising out of the league formed with Xerxes I. upon
+his irruption into Greece. Gelon of Syracuse, in a victory more decisive
+even than that gained by Themistocles over the Persians at Salamis,
+routs the Carthaginians near Himera, and compels them to accede to a
+disgraceful peace.
+
+3. This defeat was followed by a period of tranquillity lasting seventy
+years, during which we know little about Carthage. All that we can say
+with any probability is, that in the mean time the struggle for
+territory between Cyrene and Carthage commenced and terminated to the
+advantage of the latter state, whose dominion was generally extended and
+confirmed in Africa by wars with the aboriginal tribes.
+
+4. But the accession of Dionysius I. to the throne of Syracuse, and the
+ambitious project formed by him and his successors, of subjecting to
+their rule all Sicily and Magna-Grecia, rekindled once more the embers
+of war, which had only smouldered for a short time, to burst forth with
+additional violence.
+
+  Repeated and bloody wars with Dionysius I. between the years
+  410-368. Neither party able to expel the other: terms of the last
+  peace; that each party should remain in possession of what he then
+  occupied. Second commercial treaty with Rome.
+
+  Crafty advantage taken by the Carthaginians of the internal
+  commotions at Syracuse during and subsequent to the reign of
+  Dionysius II: they endeavour to obtain their end; but are thwarted
+  by the heroism of Timoleon, 345-340.
+
+  A new and frightful war with Agathocles, the seat of which is
+  transferred from Sicily into Africa itself; it at last terminates
+  in favour of Carthage, 311-307.
+
+  The war with Pyrrhus, 277-275, whose ambition gave rise to an
+  alliance between Carthage and Rome, contributed likewise to
+  increase the preponderance of the Carthaginians in Sicily; and
+  probably the perseverance of that people, and their skill in
+  profiting by circumstances, would at last have enabled them to
+  attain their object, had not the seeds of war been thereby
+  scattered between Carthage and Rome.
+
+5. What effect these Sicilian wars had upon the state we are not
+informed. They were probably regarded in Carthage as a beneficial
+channel for carrying off the popular fermentation;--nevertheless, two
+attempts, both unsuccessful, were made by some of the aristocratical
+party, to overthrow the constitution; first by Hanno, 340, and
+afterwards by Bomilcar, 308.--At the breaking out, however, of the war
+with Rome, the commonwealth was so formidable and mighty, that even the
+finances of the state do not appear to have been at all affected; a
+circumstance of the highest importance. What consequence was it to
+Carthage whether 100,000 barbarians more or less existed in the world,
+so long as there remained plenty of men willing to suffer themselves to
+be sold, and she possessed money to purchase them?
+
+
+THIRD PERIOD.
+
+_From the beginning of the wars with Rome, to the downfal of Carthage,
+B. C. 264-146._
+
+1. The wars between Carthage and Rome were the necessary consequences of
+a desire of aggrandizement in two conquering nations; any one might have
+foreseen the struggle between the two rivals as soon as their conquests
+should once begin to clash. It is, therefore, a question of little
+importance, to enquire which was the aggressor; and although Rome may
+not be entirely cleared of that charge, we cannot help observing that,
+according to the principles of sound policy, the security of Italy was
+hardly compatible with the sole dominion of the Carthaginians over the
+island of Sicily.
+
+  First war with Rome, 264-241, (twenty-three years,) waged for the
+  possession of Sicily, and decided almost at its commencement by
+  Hiero's passing over to the Roman side. (For the history of it,
+  see below, in the Roman history, Book V. Period ii, parag. 2 sq.)
+
+2. This war cost the republic, Sicily and the sovereignty of the
+Mediterranean, by which the fate of its other external possessions was
+already predetermined. But that which appeared at the first view to
+threaten the greatest danger, was the total exhaustion of its finances;
+a circumstance which will no longer surprise us, when we consider how
+many fleets had been destroyed and replaced, how many armies had been
+annihilated and renewed. Carthage had never before been engaged in such
+an obstinate struggle as this; and the immediate consequences were more
+terrific even than the war itself.
+
+3. The impossibility of paying the mercenaries produced a mutiny among
+the troops, which rapidly grew into a rebellion of the subject nations,
+who had been most cruelly oppressed during the war. The consequence was
+a civil war of three years and a half, which probably would have spared
+the Romans the trouble of destroying Carthage, had not the state been
+snatched from ruin by the heroism of Hamilcar.
+
+  This war, which lasted from 240 to 237, produced lasting consequences
+  to the state; it gave rise to the feud between Hamilcar and Hanno the
+  Great, which compelled Hamilcar to seek for support against the senate
+  by becoming the leader of a democratic faction.
+
+4. The revolt spread abroad; it reached Sardinia and caused the loss of
+that most important island, of which the Romans, flushed with power,
+took possession, in spite of the terms of the peace.
+
+5. The influence of the family of the Barcas, supported in their
+disputes with the senate by the popular party, now got the upper hand
+in Carthage; and the first fruit of their power was the new and gigantic
+project of repairing the loss of Sicily and Sardinia by the conquest of
+Spain; a country where the Carthaginians already had some possessions
+and commercial connections. The immediate object of the Barcas was the
+support of their family and party; but the Spanish silver mines soon
+furnished the republic with the means of renewing the contest with Rome
+also.
+
+6. During the nine years in which Hamilcar commanded, and in the
+following eight in which Hasdrubal, his son-in-law and successor, was at
+the head of the army, the whole of the south of Spain, as far as the
+Iberus, was brought under subjection to Carthage, either by negotiation
+or force of arms. The further progress of the Carthaginians was only
+arrested by a treaty with the Romans, in which the Iberus was fixed upon
+as a frontier line, and the freedom of Saguntum acknowledged by both
+powers. Hasdrubal crowned his victories as a general and as a statesman
+by the foundation of New Carthage, (Carthagena,) which was to be the
+future seat of Carthaginian power in the newly-conquered country.
+Hasdrubal having fallen by the hand of an assassin in the year 221, the
+party of the Barcas succeeded in appointing Hamilcar's son, Hannibal, a
+young man of one-and-twenty, for his successor. Hannibal found every
+thing already prepared in Spain for the furtherance of the hereditary
+project of his family, which was a renewal of the contest with Rome; and
+the vigour with which this project was pursued, clearly proves how great
+must have been the preponderance of the Barcine influence, at that
+time, in Carthage. Had the commonwealth attended to the marine with the
+same ardour as their great general did to the land service, the fate of
+Rome would perhaps have been very different.
+
+  Second war with Rome, 218-201, (seventeen years,) first in Italy
+  and Spain, afterwards, from 203, in Africa itself. (See the
+  history of this war below, in the Roman history, Book V, Period
+  ii, parag. 6 sqq.)
+
+7. Until Africa became the scene of action, the second war cost the
+republic much less than the first; the expenses being principally
+defrayed by Spain and Italy. Hanno, however, was at the head of a
+powerful party at home, who were clamorous for peace, and who can say
+they were wrong? As might be expected, the family of the Barcas were for
+war, and their influence carried the day. That general who, with hardly
+any support from Carthage, was yet able to maintain a footing in the
+country of his powerful foes for no less than fifteen years, and that,
+too, as much by policy as by force of arms, must extort our admiration.
+It cannot, however, be denied, that during the struggle one favourable
+opportunity, at least, was let slip of making peace; a fatal omission,
+for which the hero of Cannæ paid dearly enough, by the failure of his
+darling project.
+
+8. By the second peace with Rome, Carthage was deprived of all her
+possessions out of Africa, and her fleet was delivered into the hands of
+the Romans. She was now to be a mere trading city under the tutelage of
+Rome. But Carthage found by this peace her most formidable enemy on the
+soil of Africa itself. Massinissa had been elevated to the dignity of
+king of Numidia; and his endeavours to form his nomads into an
+agricultural people, and to collect them into cities, must have changed
+the military system that Carthage had hitherto followed. Roman policy,
+moreover, had taken care that the article inserted in his favour in the
+last treaty of peace, should be so ambiguously worded, as to leave
+abundant openings for dispute.
+
+9. Even after this disgraceful peace, the family of the Barcas still
+preserved their influence, and Hannibal was placed as supreme magistrate
+at the head of the republic. He attempts to reform the constitution and
+the finances, by destroying the oligarchy of the hundred, by whom the
+finances had been thrown into confusion. Complete as was the success of
+the first blow, it soon became apparent that aristocratic factions are
+not so readily annihilated as armies.
+
+  The democratic faction to which even the Barcas owed their first
+  elevation, was the cause of the degeneracy of the Carthaginian
+  constitution. By that faction the legislative authority of the
+  senate and magistrates was withdrawn and transferred to the _ordo
+  judicum_--probably the same as the high state tribunal of the
+  hundred--which now assumed the character of an omnipotent national
+  inquisition; and the members being chosen for life exercised
+  oppressive despotism. This tribunal was formed of those who had
+  served the office of ministers of finance, with whom it shared
+  unblushingly the revenues of the state. Hannibal destroyed this
+  oligarchy by a law, enacting that the members should hold their
+  office but for one year; whereas before they held it for life. In
+  the reform wrought by this law in the finances it was seen, that
+  after all wars and losses, the revenues of the republic were still
+  sufficient, not only for the usual expenditure and the payment of
+  tribute to Rome, but also for leaving a surplus in the public
+  treasury. Ten years had hardly elapsed before Carthage was enabled
+  to pay down at once the whole of the tribute which she had engaged
+  to furnish by instalments.
+
+10. The defeated party, whose interests were now the same with those of
+Rome, joined the Romans, to whom they discovered Hannibal's plan of
+renewing the war in conjunction with Antiochus the Great, king of Syria.
+A Roman embassy was sent over to Africa, under some other pretext, to
+demand that Hannibal should be given up. The Carthaginian general
+secretly fled to king Antiochus, at whose court he became the chief
+fomenter of the war against Rome; although unsuccessful in his endeavour
+to implicate the Carthaginian republic in the struggle.
+
+  See hereafter the history of Syria, Book IV, Period iii, separate
+  kingdoms. I. Seleucidæ, parag. 18; and Book V, Period ii, parag.
+  10 sq.
+
+11. In consequence of the absence of Hannibal, Carthage fell once more
+under the dominion of the Romans, who contrived, by taking a crafty
+advantage of the state of parties, to give a show of generosity to the
+exercise of their power. Even the patriotic faction, if we may judge by
+the violent steps which they took more than once against Massinissa and
+his partisans, seem to have been but a tool in the hands of Rome.
+
+12. Disputes with Massinissa, which led to the gradual partition of the
+Carthaginian territory in Africa. The manner in which this territory had
+been acquired, facilitated the discovery of claims upon each of the
+component parts; and the interference of Rome, sometimes disinterested,
+but oftener swayed by party feeling, ensured the possession of the
+territory to the Numidian.
+
+  Even in 199, a disadvantageous treaty framed with Massinissa for
+  fifty years: nevertheless the rich province of Emporia is lost in
+  193.--Loss of another province unnamed, to which Massinissa
+  inherited some claims from his father.--Seizure of the province of
+  Tysca, with fifty cities, about 174. Probable date of Cato's
+  embassy, who returned in disgust, because his decision had been
+  rejected, and became the fomenter of a project to destroy
+  Carthage.--New disputes about 152.--Massinissa's party is expelled
+  Carthage.--War breaks out in consequence, during which the king in
+  his ninetieth year personally defeats the Carthaginians; and what
+  with famine and the sword, Hasdrubal's army, which had been
+  surrounded by the enemy, was nearly exterminated; in the mean while
+  the Roman ambassadors, who had come to act as mediators, obeying
+  their private instructions, looked on with quiet indifference.
+
+13. Though it is evident that the party spirit raging between Cato and
+Scipio Nasica had a considerable influence in hastening the destruction
+of Carthage; and though it is equally clear that Massinissa's late
+victory paved the way for the immediate execution of that project; yet
+it is difficult to unravel the web, by which, long before the
+declaration of war now about to follow, treachery prepared the final
+scene of this great tragedy. Was the account that Cato at his return
+gave of the resuscitated power of Carthage consonant to truth? Was not
+the sudden secession of Ariobarzanes, the grandson of Syphax, who was to
+have led a Numidian army to defend Carthage against Massinissa,
+previously arranged with Rome? Was not the turbulent Gisgo, who first
+incited the populace to insult the Roman ambassadors, and then
+opportunely rescued them from the fury of the mob, in the pay of Rome?
+These questions give rise to suspicions, although they cannot
+satisfactorily be answered. At any rate, it may be said, that the
+conduct of Rome, after war had broken out, corroborates the suspicion.
+The whole history of the last period sufficiently proves, that it was
+not so much the debased character of the nation, as party spirit, and
+the avarice of the great, which produced the fall of Carthage. Advantage
+was taken of that party spirit and avarice by Roman policy, which,
+although acting according to the dictates of blind passion, knew how to
+profit by dark and base intrigue.
+
+  Third war with Rome and destruction of Carthage, 150-146. See
+  hereafter the Roman history, Book V, Period ii, parag. 19 sq.
+
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+SECOND BOOK.
+
+
+
+
+_History of the Persian Empire, from B. C. 560-330._
+
+
+  Sources. Preservation of historic records among the Persians
+  themselves under the form of royal annals; origin and nature of
+  those annals. As these have been destroyed, we are obliged to
+  deduce the history from foreign writers, some of whom, however,
+  availed themselves of the Persian annals. 1. _Greeks_: their
+  authority as writers, contemporary, but not always sufficiently
+  acquainted with the east. (_a_) CTESIAS. His court history compiled
+  from Persian annals, would be the principal work did we possess the
+  whole; we have, however, only an extract from it preserved by
+  Photius. (_b_) HERODOTUS: who probably availed himself of similar
+  sources in some portion of his work. (_c_) XENOPHON. To this period
+  of history belong, not only his Anabasis and Hellenica, but also
+  his Cyropædia, or portraiture of a happy empire and an accomplished
+  ruler, according to eastern ideas, exhibited in the example of
+  Cyrus: of use so far as pure historic records are interwoven with
+  the narrative. (_d_) DIODORUS, etc. 2. _Jewish writers._ The books
+  of ESDRAS and NEHEMIAH; and more particularly that of ESTHER, as
+  containing a faithful representation of the Persian court and its
+  manners. 3. The accounts of the later _Persian chroniclers_,
+  MIRKHOND in particular, who flourished in the thirteenth century of
+  the christian era, can have no weight in the scale of criticism;
+  they are nevertheless interesting, inasmuch as they make us
+  acquainted with the ideas that the inhabitants of the east form of
+  their early history.
+
+  The modern authors on Persian history are principally those who
+  have written on ancient history in general: see p. 2. A treatise on
+  Persian history, deduced from eastern sources, will be found in the
+  _Ancient Universal History_, vol. iv.
+
+  BRISSONIUS, _de Regno Persarum_, 1591, 8vo. A very laborious
+  compilation.
+
+  The section concerning the Persians in # HEEREN, _Ideas_, etc.
+  vol. i, part 1.
+
+  [MALCOLM, SIR JOHN, _History of Persia_, from the earliest ages to
+  the present times. Lond. 1816, 4to. 2 vols. "A valuable work."]
+
+1. State of the Persian nation previous to Cyrus; a highland people,
+subject to the Medes, dwelling in the mountainous parts of the province
+of Persis, and leading wholly, or for the most part, a nomad life.
+Division into ten clans, among which that of the _Pasargadæ_, the
+noblest and ruling horde, is particularly remarkable on account of the
+figure it makes in subsequent history.--The result of this division was
+a patriarchal government, the vestiges of which remain visible in the
+whole of the following history of the Persians. Permanent distinction
+between the tribes in reference to their mode of life, observable even
+during the most flourishing period of the Persian state: three of the
+nobles or warriors, three of the husbandmen, and four of the shepherds.
+Argument thence deduced, that the history of the Persians as a dominant
+nation, _is that of the nobler clans alone, and of the_ PASARGADÆ _more
+especially_.
+
+2. The personal history of Cyrus, the founder of the Persian monarchy,
+was, even in the time of Herodotus, so obscured under the veil of
+romance, that it was no longer possible to detect the real truth. It is,
+however, evident, that the course of the revolution wrought by him was,
+on the whole, the same as was followed in all similar empires founded in
+Asia. Gengis-khan, in a later age, was placed at the head of all the
+Mogol hordes; in the same manner was Cyrus elected chief of all the
+Persian tribes, by whose assistance he became a mighty conqueror, at the
+time that the Babylonian and Median kingdoms of Inner Asia were on the
+decline, and before the Lydian empire, under Croesus, had been firmly
+established.
+
+  Descent of Cyrus from the family of Achæmenes, (Jamshid?). That
+  family belonged to the Pasargadæ tribe, and therefore remained the
+  ruling house.
+
+3. Rise of the Persian dominion, in consequence of the overthrow of the
+Medo-Bactrian empire, after the defeat of Astyages at Pasargada. Rapid
+extension by further conquest. Subjection of Asia Minor after the
+victory won by Cyrus in person over Croesus, and capture of the Greek
+colonies by the generals of the Persian monarch. Conquest of Babylon and
+all the Babylonian provinces. The Phoenician cities submit themselves of
+their own accord. Even in Cyrus's time, therefore, the frontiers of the
+Persian empire had been extended in southern Asia to the Mediterranean,
+to the Oxus, and to the Indus; but the campaign against the nomad races,
+inhabiting the steppes of Central Asia, was unsuccessful; and Cyrus
+himself fell in the contest.
+
+  It cannot be denied but that in the narration of the separate wars
+  waged by Cyrus, discrepancies are found in Herodotus and Ctesias;
+  those two authors, however, agree in the main facts: and, indeed,
+  the differences which exist between them cannot be considered always
+  as direct contradictions.
+
+4. Immediate consequences of this great revolution in respect both of
+the conquerors and the conquered. Among the former, even in the time of
+Cyrus, the civilization and luxury of the Medes, their legislation and
+national religion, and the sacerdotal caste of the magi, who were
+guardians of that religion, had been introduced, and the whole system of
+the Persian court had been remodelled upon that of the Medes.
+
+  Description of Zoroaster's legislation, and of the magian national
+  religion, according to the Zend-avesta. How far the dogmas of
+  Zoroaster can be considered as dominant among the Persians?--Proof
+  that they were adopted only by the nobler tribes, more particularly
+  the Pasargadæ. Their great and beneficial influence on agriculture.
+
+  ANQUETIL DU PERRON, _Zend-avesta, ouvrage de_ ZOROASTRE, _traduit
+  en François sur l'original Zend_. Paris, 1771. 4to. This work has
+  been much improved by the critical discussions added to the German
+  translation by J. L. KLEUKER. Compare the dissertations on
+  Zoroaster by MEINERS and TYCHSEN, in _Comment. Soc. Gotting._ and
+  HEEREN, _Ideas_, etc. vol. i.
+
+  HYDE, _De Religione veterum Persarum_; Oxon. 1700, 4to. Replete
+  with learned research, and the first work that excited enquiry on
+  the subject.
+
+  # J. S. RHODE, _Sacred Traditions of the East_; Breslau, 1821. An
+  excellent work for the study of the Zend-avesta, the magian religion,
+  and the antiquities of the Medes and Persians.
+
+5. First political constitution of the Persian empire under Cyrus. No
+general new organization; but for the most part the original
+institutions are preserved among the conquered, who are compelled to pay
+tribute. Royal officers, appointed to collect the tribute, are
+associated with the generals, who with numerous armies keep in
+subjection the inhabitants of the conquered countries. For the support
+of the empire large standing armies are kept in pay, besides which,
+recourse is frequently had to the transplanting of whole nations; while,
+as was the case with the Jews, some who had been formerly transplanted
+are restored to their country. With the same view injunctions are
+issued, as in the case of the Lydians, to effect the enervation of
+warlike races by a luxurious and effeminate system of education.
+
+6. Cyrus leaves two sons, the elder of whom, Cambyses, succeeds as
+king; the younger, Smerdis, (the _Tanyoxarces_ of Ctesias,) becomes
+independent lord of Bactria and the eastern territories; but is soon
+after murdered by the command of his elder brother.
+
+7. Under Cambyses the conquering arms of the Persians are directed
+against Africa. Egypt becomes a Persian province, and the neighbouring
+Libya, together with Cyrene, assume the yoke of their own accord. But
+the twofold expedition against the opulent commercial establishments,
+Ammonium in the west, and Meroe in the south, is wholly unsuccessful;
+that against Carthage is arrested in its commencement by the refusal of
+the Tyrians to join the naval armament. A colony of six thousand
+Egyptians is transplanted into Susiana.
+
+8. The cruelty with which Cambyses is accused of treating the Egyptians
+was directed rather against the powerful caste of the priests, than
+against the whole nation; and originated more in political than in
+religious motives. It must be observed, however, that we ought to be
+particularly on our guard against all the evil that is related of
+Cambyses, inasmuch as our information respecting that prince is derived
+entirely from his enemies, the Egyptian priests.
+
+9. The usurpation of the Pseudo-Smerdis, (or _Tanyoxarces_,) was an
+attempt of the magi to replace a Median dynasty on the throne, by means
+of a plot hatched within the seraglio. It was the occasion of an
+accident which cost Cambyses his life, after a reign of seven years and
+a half: (or, according to Ctesias, of eighteen.)
+
+10. The Pseudo-Smerdis kept his seat on the throne eight months, during
+which he attempted to bring over the conquered nations to his interest
+by a remission of all tribute for three years; but the discovery of his
+cheat gave rise to a conspiracy of seven of the chief Persians, who
+could not brook the rule of a Mede, and the usurper lost his life.
+
+11. It could not be expected that the political organization of the
+kingdom should advance to completion during the reign of Cambyses, who
+was almost always absent in the prosecution of war; or during the brief
+rule of the Pseudo-Smerdis. It remained, therefore, in the same state as
+under Cyrus. But the introduction of the Median court-ceremonial among
+the ruling tribe of the Persians, and the adoption of fixed dwellings by
+that tribe, rendered it necessary that royal residences should be
+erected for the reception of the king's court; among these Persepolis,
+(see above, p. 20,) probably commenced by Cyrus, was completed under
+Darius and Xerxes.
+
+  The best drawings of the monuments of Persepolis, remarkable alike
+  for their architecture, their sculpture, and their inscriptions in
+  the arrow-headed character, are to be found in the Travels of
+  CHARDIN and NIEBUHR. Illustrations:
+
+  # HERDER'S _Persepolis_, in the collection of his works, vol. i.
+
+  # HEEREN, _Ideas_, etc. Part I. vol. i. Great assistance in
+  studying the inscriptions, is furnished by
+
+  DE SACY, _Mémoires sur diverses Antiquités de la Perse_; Paris,
+  1793, 4to. It must be observed, however, that this work is confined
+  to the illustration of the later monuments, belonging to the
+  _Sassanidæ_. The most successful attempt at deciphering the
+  arrow-headed inscriptions of the old Persic, since TYCHSEN,
+  MUENTER, and LICHTENSTEIN, will be found in
+
+  # GROTEFEND, _On the Interpretation of the Arrow-headed Characters,
+  particularly of the Inscriptions at Persepolis_, contained in the
+  appendix to HEEREN, _Ideas_, etc. vol. ii. with an accompanying Zend
+  alphabet.
+
+12. After a very remarkable debate held by the seven conspirators,
+concerning the form of of government which should be established,
+Darius, the son of Hystaspes, one of the family of the Achæmenides, was
+raised to the throne by an oracle; this king endeavoured to strengthen
+his right to the sceptre by marrying two of Cyrus's daughters.
+
+13. The reign of Darius I. which lasted thirty-six years, (according to
+Ctesias 31,) is remarkable for the improvements made both in the
+external and internal administration of the Persian empire. In the
+former, by the great expeditions and conquests, which extended the
+Persian realm to its utmost limits; in the latter, by several important
+institutions, established for the internal organization of the state.
+
+14. The expeditions of the Persians under Cyrus were directed against
+the countries of Asia; those of Cambyses against Africa. But those
+undertaken by Darius I. were directed against Europe, though the Persian
+territory was at the same time extended in the two other quarters of the
+world. In the reign of this king likewise commenced those wars with the
+Greeks, so fatal to the Persians; constantly fomented and supported by
+emigrant or exile Greeks, who found an asylum in the Persian court, and
+there contrived to raise a party.--First example of the kind exhibited
+shortly after the accession of Darius, in the case of Syloson, brother
+to Polycrates, who had been tyrant of Samos: at his request the island
+was taken possession of by the Persians, and delivered up to him after
+the almost total destruction of the male population.
+
+15. Great revolt in Babylon, which would not submit tamely to a foreign
+yoke. After a siege of twenty-one months, Darius by stratagem regains
+possession of the city. The power of Babylon and the importance of its
+situation increased the jealousy with which it was guarded by the
+Persian kings; so much so, that they were wont to reside there a certain
+portion of the year.
+
+16. First great expedition of Darius undertaken against the Scythians
+inhabiting the lands north of the Black sea: the former irruption of the
+Scythians into Asia afforded a pretext for the war, which, therefore,
+was considered as a general national undertaking. Unsuccessful as the
+Persian arms were in this vast expedition against the Scythians, and
+disgraceful as was the retreat from the barren steppes of the Ukrain,
+yet the power of Darius was established in Thrace and Macedonia, and the
+Persians obtained firm footing in Europe.
+
+  Concerning the peculiar character of the Persian national wars,
+  or great campaigns, in which all the conquered nations were
+  obliged to participate, contrasted with the other wars waged by
+  Persian troops alone.
+
+17. The next expedition made by Darius was more successful. It was
+carried on along the banks of the Indus, down which river Scylax, a
+Greek, had previously sailed on a voyage of discovery. The highlands
+north of the Indus were then subjected to the Persian dominion, and the
+Indus became the boundary of the kingdom. About the same time that
+Darius was engaged on the Danube and the Indus, Aryandes, his viceroy in
+Egypt, led an expedition against Barca, to avenge the murder of king
+Arcesilaus; a war which terminated in the destruction of the city, and
+the transplantation of its inhabitants into Asia.
+
+18. However trifling the first occurrence which gave rise to the revolt
+of the Asiatic Greeks, it was much more important in its consequences.
+It was set on foot by Aristagoras, lieutenant-governor of Miletus, who
+was secretly supported by his relation, the offended Histiæus, then
+resident at the Persian court. The share taken by the Athenians in this
+rebellion, which led to the burning of Sardes, was the origin of the
+national hatred between Persia and European Greece, and of the long
+series of wars that ensued. The confederates were this time defeated;
+but the naval battle off the island of Lada, could hardly have had such
+a fatal result, had not the league been previously corrupted by the
+craft and gold of Persia. Be that as it may, this war ended in the
+reduction of the Ionians, and the destruction of Miletus, their
+flourishing capital; a city which in those days, together with Tyre and
+Carthage, engrossed the trade of the world.
+
+19. First attack upon Greece, particularly Athens. Darius, already
+enraged against the Athenians by the firing of Sardes, is still further
+instigated by the suggestions of the banished tyrant of Athens, Hippias,
+the son of Pisistratus. This prince, who had fled to the Persian court,
+was evidently the animating spirit of the whole undertaking. Although
+the first attempt, made under the command of Mardonius, was thwarted by
+a tempest, yet the mighty expedition which afterwards followed, was
+undertaken with so much more prudence, and conducted with so much
+knowledge of the country, that no one can fail to recognize the guiding
+hand of Hippias. Even the battle of Marathon, which seems to have been
+but a diversion on the side of the Persians, would not have decided the
+war, had not the activity of Miltiades defeated the principal design of
+the enemy upon Athens.
+
+20. It may be said that Darius, by these foreign wars, debilitated the
+kingdom which he endeavoured to extend; this circumstance, however, it
+cannot be denied, increases the merit which he has of perfecting the
+internal organization of the empire. His reign constitutes precisely
+that period which must enter into the history of every nomad race that
+has attained to power, and is advancing towards political civilization;
+a period at which it becomes visible that the nation is endeavouring to
+obtain a constitution, however gradual the progress towards it.
+
+21. Division of the empire into twenty _satrapies_, and the imposition
+of a regular tribute on each. This division at first depended solely on
+that of the various tributary races, but from it gradually arose a
+geographic division, in which the ancient distinction of countries was
+for the most part preserved.
+
+  Proofs that the division into satrapies was originally a mere
+  arrangement for the civil government and collection of taxes,
+  distinct from military power. Duties of the satraps. The attention
+  they were to pay to the cultivation and improvement of the land; to
+  the collection of the imposts; to the execution of the royal
+  commands relating to provincial affairs. An abuse of this
+  institution, at a later period, placed in the hands of these
+  satraps the command also of the troops.--Various means of keeping
+  the satraps in a state of dependence: royal secretaries appointed
+  for each, who were to be the first to receive the king's
+  commands.--Periodical visits paid to the provinces by commissioners
+  under the direct appointment of the king, or by the king himself
+  accompanied with an army.--Establishment of couriers in every part
+  of the empire, for the purpose of securing a safe and rapid
+  communication with the provinces, as was the case also in the
+  Mongol countries; (not a regular post, however, the institution
+  here alluded to being intended only for the court.)
+
+22. The Persian finance continues to preserve those peculiarities which
+naturally result from the formation of an empire by a nomad race of
+conquerors, desirous of living at the expense of the conquered, and
+under a despotic form of government.
+
+  Collection of tribute, mostly in kind, for the support of the court
+  and the armies; and in precious metals, not coined, but in their
+  raw state. Application of the treasure thus collected towards
+  constituting a private chest for the king. Various other royal
+  imposts.--Mode of providing for the public expenditure by
+  assignments on the revenues of one or several places.
+
+23. Organization of the military system, conformably to the primitive
+state of the nation, and the necessity now felt of keeping the conquered
+countries in subjection by means of standing armies.
+
+  Military organization of the Persian nations, by means of a decimal
+  division pervading the whole.--Royal troops cantoned in the open
+  field, according to a certain division of the empire, or stationed
+  as garrisons in the cities, and distinct from the
+  encampments.--Manner in which the troops were supported at the cost
+  and by the taxes of the provinces.--Introduction of mercenaries
+  and Greeks, more particularly among the Persians, and fatal
+  consequences of that measure. Military household of the satraps and
+  grandees.--Institution of a general conscription in national wars.
+  Formation of the Persian navy, consisting of the Phoenician, and
+  not unfrequently of the Asiatic Greek fleets.
+
+24. From the time of Darius, the court of the kings of Persia attained
+its complete form, and the government soon after was wholly concentrated
+in the seraglio. Yet the mode of life which the kings led, surrounded by
+a court, taken principally if not wholly from the tribe of the
+Pasargadæ, and changing their residence according to the revolutions of
+the seasons, still preserved the traces of nomad origin.
+
+  Babylon, Susa, and Ecbatana, the usual residences; Persepolis now
+  used as a royal cemetery. The court supported by the most costly
+  productions of each province; hence arose the rigid ceremonial
+  observed at the royal table.--Internal organization of the
+  seraglio.--Influence of the eunuchs and queen-mothers on the
+  government.
+
+25. Already had Darius commenced preparations to wreak his vengeance on
+Athens, when a revolution broke out in Egypt, and hindered him from
+prosecuting his design. He died after nominating for his successor
+Xerxes I. grandson of Cyrus, and his eldest son by a second wife,
+Atossa, whose influence over her husband was boundless.
+
+26. Xerxes I. A prince educated in the seraglio, who knew nothing beyond
+the art of representing the pomp of royalty. Subjection of Egypt, and
+severe treatment of that country under the satrap Achæmenes, brother to
+Xerxes.
+
+27. Xerxes' famous expedition against Greece was again the result of
+the cabals and intrigues of the Greek exiles, the Pisistratidæ, the
+soothsayer Onomacritus, the Thessalian princes or Aleuadæ, who
+contrived to exert their influence on the king's mind, and to raise a
+party in their favour among the grandees. But the progress of the
+campaign showed that no Hippias was at the head of the invading army,
+although the Persian king did certainly succeed in his avowed object,
+the capture and destruction of Athens.
+
+  Critique on the detailed account given by Herodotus of this
+  expedition, as a national undertaking in which all the subjugated
+  nations were obliged to take a share.--Preparations which last for
+  three years in the Persian empire; league framed with Carthage for
+  the subjection of the Sicilian Greeks, 483-481. The expedition
+  itself in 480; over Asia Minor and the Hellespont, through Thrace
+  and Macedonia.--Muster of the army and division of the troops
+  according to nations at Doriscus; the detailed description of which
+  found in Herodotus, was most probably borrowed from some Persian
+  document.--The pass of Thermopylæ taken by treachery; on the same
+  day a naval engagement off Artemisium.--Athens captured and burnt.
+  Battle of Salamis, Sept. 23, 480. Retreat of Xerxes; an army of
+  picked men left behind, under the command of Mardonius.--Fruitless
+  negotiations with the Athenians.--Second campaign of Mardonius: he
+  is routed at Platææ, Sept. 25, 479; and that event puts an end for
+  ever to the Persian irruptions into Greece: on the same day the
+  Persian army is defeated, and their fleet burnt at Mycale in Asia
+  Minor.
+
+28. The consequences of these repeated and unsuccessful expeditions, in
+which almost the whole population was engaged, must be self-evident. The
+empire was weakened and depopulated. The defensive war which the
+Persians for thirty years were obliged to maintain against the Greeks,
+who aimed at establishing the independence of their Asiatic countrymen,
+completely destroyed the balance of their power, by compelling them to
+transfer their forces to Asia Minor, the most distant western province
+of the empire.
+
+29. Little as the Greeks had to fear from the Persian arms, the danger
+with which they were now threatened was much more formidable, when the
+enemy began to adopt the system of bribing the chieftains of Greece; a
+system which succeeded beyond expectation in the first trial made of it
+with Pausanias, and perhaps was not wholly unsuccessful with
+Themistocles himself.--But the Persians soon found in Cimon an adversary
+who deprived them of the sovereignty of the sea; who in one day
+destroyed both their fleet and their army on the Eurymedon; and by the
+conquest of the Thracian Chersonese, wrested from them the key of
+Europe.
+
+30. What little we know further concerning the reign of Xerxes, consists
+in the intrigues of the seraglio, which now, through the machinations of
+queen Amestris, became the theatre of all those horrors which are wont
+to be exhibited in such places, and to which Xerxes himself at last fell
+a victim, in consequence of the conspiracy of Artabanes and the eunuch
+Spamitres.
+
+  Was Xerxes the Ahasuerus of the Jews?--On the difference between the
+  names of the Persian kings in Persian and Chaldee; not to be
+  wondered at when we consider that they were mere titles or surnames,
+  assumed by the sovereigns after their accession.
+
+31. Artaxerxes I. surnamed Longimanus. In consequence of the murder of
+his father and his elder brother, in the conspiracy of Artabanes, this
+prince ascended the throne, but was unable to keep possession of the
+sceptre without assassinating, in his turn, Artabanes. His reign, which
+lasted forty years, exhibits the first symptoms of the decline of the
+empire, which this king, although possessed of many good qualities, had
+not the talent or spirit to arrest.
+
+32. At the very commencement of his reign rebellions are excited in the
+provinces; in the mean while the war with Athens continues. Two battles
+are required to repress the insurrection of his brother Hystaspes in
+Bactria.
+
+33. Second revolt of Egypt, excited by the Libyan king, Inarus of Marea,
+in conjunction with the Egyptian, Amyrtæus, and supported by an Athenian
+fleet. Although the confederates did not make themselves masters of
+Memphis, they defeated the Persian army, commanded by the king's
+brother, Achæmenes, who lost his life in the battle; they were at last
+overpowered by Megabyzus, satrap of Syria, and shut up together with
+Inarus in the town of Byblus. Inarus and his party were admitted to
+capitulation; but Amyrtæus, having taken refuge in the morasses,
+continued to make head against the Persians.
+
+34. The Grecian war takes, once more, an unfavourable turn for the
+Persians: Cimon defeats the enemy's fleet and army near Cyprus. The fear
+of losing the whole of the island accordingly compels Artaxerxes I. to
+sign a treaty of peace with Athens, in which he recognizes the
+independence of the Asiatic Greeks, and agrees that his fleet shall not
+navigate the Ægæan sea, nor his troops approach within three days' march
+of the coast.
+
+35. But the haughty and powerful Megabyzus, enraged at the execution of
+Inarus, in violation of the promise made by him to that prince, excites
+a rebellion in Syria; repeatedly defeats the royal armies, and
+prescribes himself the conditions upon which he will be reconciled to
+his sovereign. This was the first great example of a successful
+insurrection excited by one of the Persian satraps; and chequered as
+were the subsequent fortunes of Megabyzus, his party continued to
+subsist after his death in the persons of his sons. He possessed in the
+centre of the court a support in the dowager queen Amestris, and the
+reigning queen Amytis; (both notorious for their excesses;) who kept
+Artaxerxes I. in a constant state of tutelage to the hour of his death.
+
+36. Revolutions in the government now succeed each other with rapidity
+and violence. Xerxes II. the only legitimate son and successor of
+Artaxerxes, is slain, after forty-five days' reign, by his bastard
+brother Sogdianus; the latter, in his turn, after a reign of six months,
+is deposed by another bastard brother, Ochus, who ascends the throne,
+and assumes the name of Darius II.
+
+37. Darius II. surnamed the Bastard, or Nothus. He reigns nineteen years
+under the tutelage of his wife, Parysatis, and of three eunuchs, one of
+whom, Artoxares, even attempts to open a way to the throne, but is put
+to death. In this period the decline of the state advances with hurried
+steps; partly by reason of the extinction of the legitimate royal line,
+partly by the increased practice of placing more than one province,
+together with the military command, in the hands of the same satrap.
+Although the repeated insurrections of the satraps are repressed, the
+court, by the breach of faith to which it is obliged to have recourse,
+in order to succeed in its measures, exhibits to the world a convincing
+proof of its infirmity. The revolt of Arsites, one of the king's
+brothers, who was supported by a son of Megabyzus, and that of
+Pisuthnes, satrap of Lydia, are quelled only by obtaining treacherous
+possession of their persons.
+
+38. In consequence of the weak state of the empire, the fire, which had
+hitherto been smouldering under the ashes, burst forth in Egypt.
+Amyrtæus, who had remained till now in the morasses, issued forth,
+supported by the Egyptians; and the Persians were again expelled the
+land. Obscure as the subsequent history may be, we see that the Persians
+were obliged to acknowledge, not only Amyrtæus, but his successors. [See
+page 72].
+
+39. The Persians must have regarded it as a happy event, that the
+Peloponnesian war, kindled in Greece during the reign of Artaxerxes, and
+protracted through the whole of that of Darius II. had prevented the
+Greeks from unitedly falling upon Persia. It now became, and
+henceforward continued to be, the chief policy of the Persians to foment
+quarrels and wars between the Grecian republics, by siding at various
+times with various parties; and the mutual hatred of the Greeks rendered
+this game so easy, that Greece could hardly have escaped total
+destruction, had the Persian plans been always as wisely laid as they
+were by Tissaphernes; and had not the caprice and jealousy of the
+satraps in Asia Minor generally had more effect than the commands of
+the court.
+
+  Alliance of the Persians with Sparta, framed by Tissaphernes, 441;
+  but in consequence of the policy of Alcibiades, and the artful
+  principles of Tissaphernes, followed by no important results, until
+  the younger Cyrus, satrap of all Asia Minor, was by Lysander, 407,
+  brought over to the Spartan interest. (See below, the Grecian
+  history, III. Period, parag. 23.)
+
+40. Artaxerxes II. surnamed Mnemon. Although this prince was the eldest
+son of Darius, his right to the throne might, according to the Persian
+ideas of succession, have appeared dubious, since his younger brother,
+Cyrus, had the advantage over him of being the first born subsequent to
+the accession of his father. Relying on the support of his mother
+Parysatis, Cyrus, even without this claim to the throne, would, no
+doubt, have asserted his pretence to the sovereign power. It would have
+been, in all probability, a fortunate event for the Persian empire, had
+the fate of battle, in the ensuing war between the two brothers,
+assigned the throne to him whom nature seems to have pointed out as the
+fittest person.
+
+  History of this war according to Xenophon. Battle of Cunaxa,
+  in which Cyrus falls, 401. Retreat of the ten thousand Greek
+  mercenaries in the service of Cyrus, under the guidance of Xenophon.
+
+41. During the whole of this reign, Artaxerxes, now firmly seated on the
+throne, remained under the tutelage of his mother, Parysatis, whose
+inveterate hatred against his wife, Statira, and against all who had any
+share in the death of her darling son, Cyrus, converted the seraglio
+into a theatre of bloody deeds, such as can be conceived and committed
+only in similar places.
+
+42. The insurrection and rout of Cyrus produced a corresponding change
+in the political relations between the Persian court and Sparta: which,
+however, were now determined, not so much by the will of the monarch
+himself, as by the satraps of Asia Minor, Tissaphernes and Pharnabazus,
+of whose jealousy Sparta knew how to take advantage. The former, by his
+severity towards the Asiatic Greeks, who had supported the cause of
+Cyrus, excited a war with Sparta, in which he himself fell a victim. The
+death of the satrap is not, however, succeeded by tranquillity; for
+Agesilaus commands in Asia, and threatens to overthrow the Persian
+throne itself. The policy of the Persians is shown by the war which they
+foment in Greece against Sparta: Conon is placed at the head of their
+fleet, and extricates Persia from her difficulties better than could
+have been done by her own generals; in the peace of Antalcidas she
+herself dictates the terms, by which the Grecian colonies of Asia Minor,
+together with Cyprus and Clazomenæ, are again delivered into her
+possession. The rising power of Thebes under Epaminondas and Pelopidas,
+with whom Persia keeps up a friendly connection, ensures her from any
+future blow at the hands of the Spartans.--War for the possession of
+Cyprus with Evagoras, who, however, by the subsequent peace retains the
+sovereignty of Salamis.
+
+43. The war against the Cadusii in the mountains of Caucasus, proves
+that Artaxerxes II. was not fitted for military command; and his attempt
+to recover Egypt from king Nectanebus I. which was defeated by the feud
+between Iphicrates and Artabazus, evinces that the most numerous
+Persian host could achieve nothing without the assistance of Grecian
+troops and Grecian generals.--It could hardly be expected that an empire
+should endure much longer, when in the court all was ruled by the desire
+of revenge in the women; when the political organization was already so
+corrupt, that the satraps waged war against each other; and when those
+generals who gave any proof of talent received no better reward than
+that of Datames.
+
+44. In fact, it seemed not unlikely that the Persian empire would fall
+asunder a little before the death of Artaxerxes Mnemon. A quarrel about
+the succession arose in the court between the three legitimate sons of
+the king, the eldest of whom, Darius, was put to death: the standard of
+rebellion was erected in the western half of the empire, and joined by
+all the governors of Asia Minor and Syria, supported by Tachos, king of
+Egypt, to whose assistance the Spartans had sent Agesilaus. The
+insurrection, however, was quelled in consequence of the treachery of
+the chief leader, Orontes, who was bribed over to the court.
+
+45. In the midst of these commotions died Artaxerxes II.: his youngest
+son, Ochus, took possession of the throne, and assumed the name of
+Artaxerxes III. This king conceived that he could not establish his
+power but by the total destruction of the royal family, numerous as it
+was. He was contemporary with Philip of Macedon, in whom he soon found a
+more formidable rival than any he could have met with in his own family.
+
+46. The new insurrection fomented by Artabazus in Asia Minor, was
+accompanied with success so long as it was backed by the Thebans; but
+the reception which Artabazus met with at the hands of Philip soon
+betrayed the secret intentions of the Macedonian king.
+
+47. But the extensive rebellion of the Phoenicians and Cyprians, in
+conjunction with Egypt, compelled the king to undertake another
+expedition, which succeeded almost beyond expectation; although in this
+case the object was again attained principally by treachery and by
+Grecian auxiliaries.
+
+  Treachery of Mentor, the leader of the confederates: the consequent
+  capture and destruction of Sidon, followed by the subjection of
+  Phoenicia, 356. Capture of Cyprus by Grecian troops, under the
+  command of Phocion and the younger Evagoras, 354. Expedition of the
+  king in person against Egypt: victory of Pelusium, won over king
+  Nectanebus II. with the help of Grecian mercenaries. Egypt becomes,
+  once more, a Persian province.
+
+48. This restoration of the empire to its former limits was followed by
+a period of tranquillity, the result of force, as Mentor and the eunuch
+Bagoas, holding the king in complete dependence, divided the kingdom, as
+it were, between themselves; until Bagoas was pleased, by poison, to
+remove Artaxerxes out of his way.
+
+49. After the assassination of the royal family, Bagoas placed on the
+throne the king's youngest and only surviving son, Arces. Bagoas was
+desirous of reigning in the name of that prince; but after the lapse of
+two years, he found it necessary to depose him, and to substitute in his
+place a distant relation of the reigning family, Darius Codomannus, who
+commenced his reign by putting to death the wretch himself.
+
+50. Darius III. Codomannus, not having been educated, like his
+predecessors, in the seraglio, gave proof of virtues which entitled
+him to a better fate. Attacked in the second year of his reign by
+Macedon, against which Persia had hitherto made no preparation for
+resistance,--unless, perhaps, the dagger which pierced Philip was
+pointed by Persian hands,--Darius was unable at once to reestablish a
+kingdom which of itself was mouldering away. And yet, had not death
+defeated the invasion of Macedonia by his general, Memnon, it might have
+been matter of doubt, whether Alexander would ever have shone as the
+conqueror of Asia.--After the loss of two battles, in which he fought in
+person, Darius III. fell a victim to the treachery of Bessus, and the
+burning of Persepolis made known to Asia that the realm of Persia was
+destroyed, and that the east must acknowledge a new lord and master.
+
+  For the history of the war, see below: the history of Macedon.
+
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+THIRD BOOK.
+
+HISTORY OF THE GRECIAN STATES.
+
+
+
+
+_Geographical Outline._
+
+
+_Greece_ is bounded on the north by the Cambunian mountains, which
+separate it from Macedonia; on the south and east by the Ægæan, on the
+west by the Ionian sea. Greatest length from south to north = 220 geog.
+miles, greatest breadth from west to east, = 140 geog. miles.
+Superficial contents, = 29,600 square miles.--Principal rivers: the
+Peneus, which discharges its waters into the Ægæan, and the Achelous,
+which flows into the Ionian sea. Advantages in respect to fertility,
+resulting from the mildness of the climate, between 37-40° N. lat.; from
+the number of small streams; from the qualities and variety of the soil,
+in which this country has been so much more blessed by nature than any
+other of similar extent, that every branch of cultivation may be
+prosecuted equally and in conjunction.--Advantages in reference to
+navigation and commerce: situated in the vicinity of the three quarters
+of the world, on three sides washed by the sea, and by reason of its
+irregular, indented coast, abounding with commodious ports and havens.
+
+It may be divided into Northern Greece, from the north boundary to the
+chain of Oeta and Pindus, between the Ambracian gulf west, and the
+Maliac east. Central Greece, or Hellas, down to the isthmus of Corinth:
+and the southern peninsula, or Peloponnesus.
+
+Northern Greece comprises two countries; Thessaly east, Epirus west.
+
+1. Thessaly, the largest and one of the most fruitful of the Grecian
+countries. Length from north to south 60 geog. miles; breadth from west
+to east 64 geog. miles. Rivers: the Peneus, Apidanus, and several
+smaller streams. Mountains: Olympus, residence of the fabulous gods, and
+Ossa in the north; the chain of Oeta, Othrys, and Pindus in the south.
+Division into five provinces: 1. Estiæotis; cities: Gomphi, Azorus: 2.
+Pelasgiotis; cities: Larissa, Gonni, the vale of Tempe: 3. Thessaliotis;
+cities: Pharsalus, etc. 4. Phthiotis; cities: Pheræ, etc. 5. The
+foreland of Magnesia, with a city of the same name. Other territories,
+such as Perrhæbia, etc. for instance, derived their names from the
+non-Greek races who inhabited them.
+
+2. Epirus. Next to Thessaly, the largest, although one of the least
+cultivated countries of Greece: 48-60 geog. miles long, and the same in
+breadth. Divisions: Molossis; city, Ambracia: Thesprotia; city,
+Buthrotum; in the interior, Dodona.
+
+Central Greece, or Hellas, comprises nine countries.
+
+1. Attica, a foreland, extending towards the south-east, and gradually
+diminishing. Length, 60 geog. miles; greatest breadth, 24 geog. miles.
+Rivers: Ilissus, Cephissus. Mountains: Hymettus, Pentelicus, and the
+headland of Sunium. City: Athens, with the harbours Piræus, Phalereus,
+and Munychius; in the other parts no towns, but hamlets, [Greek: dêmoi],
+such as Marathon, Eleusis, Decelea, etc.
+
+2. Megaris, close to the isthmus of Corinth. The smallest of the Grecian
+countries; 16 geog. miles long, and from 4-8 broad. City, Megara.
+
+3. Boeotia, a mountainous and marshy country, 52 geog. miles long, and
+from 28-32 broad. Rivers: Asopus, Ismenus, and several smaller streams.
+Mountains: Helicon, Cythæron, etc. Lake: Copais.--Boeotia was, of all
+the Grecian countries, that which contained the greatest number of
+cities, each having its own separate territory. Among these, the first
+in importance, and frequently mistress of the rest, was Thebes on the
+Ismenus. The others, Platææ, Tanagra, Thespiæ, Chæronea, Lebadea,
+Leuctra, and Orchomenus, are all celebrated in Grecian history.
+
+4. Phocis, smaller than Attica; 48 geog. miles long, from 4-20 broad.
+River: Cephissus. Mountain: Parnassus. Cities: Delphi, on Parnassus,
+with the celebrated oracle of Apollo. Crissa, with the harbour of
+Cirrha, and up the country Elatea. The other cities are insignificant.
+
+5, 6. The two countries called Locris. The eastern on the Euripus,
+territory of the Locri Opuntii and Epicnemidii is the lesser of the two;
+being but little larger than Megaris. City: Opus; pass, Thermopylæ. The
+western Locris on the Corinthian gulf, station of the Locri Ozolæ, is
+from 20-24 geog. miles long, and from 16-20 broad. Cities: Naupactus on
+the sea, Amphissa up the country.
+
+7. The small country of Doris, or the Tetrapolis Dorica, on the south
+side of mount Oeta, from 8-12 geog. miles long, and the same in breadth.
+
+8. Ætolia, somewhat larger than Boeotia; from 40-52 geog. miles long,
+and from 28-32 broad; but the least cultivated country of all. Rivers:
+Achelous, which skirts Acarnania, and the Evenus. Cities: Calydon,
+Thermus.
+
+9. Acarnania, the most western country of Hellas, 32 geog. miles long,
+from 16-24 broad. River: Achelous. Cities: Argos Amphilochicum, and
+Stratus.
+
+The peninsula of Peloponnesus contains eight countries.
+
+1. Arcadia, a mountainous country, abounding in pastures, and situate in
+the centre of the peninsula; greatest length, 48 geog. miles; greatest
+breadth, 36 geog. miles. Mountains: Cyllene, Erymanthus, etc. Rivers:
+Alpheus, Erymanthus, and several smaller streams. Lake: Styx. Cities:
+Mantinea, Tegea, Orchomenus, Heræa, Psophis; subsequently Megalopolis,
+as a common capital.
+
+2. Laconia, likewise mountainous. Greatest length, 66 geog. miles;
+greatest breadth, 36 geog. miles. River: Eurotas. Mountains: Taygetus,
+and the headlands Malea and Tenarium. Cities: Sparta on the Eurotas;
+other places: Amyclæ, Sellasia, and others of little importance.
+
+3. Messenia, west of Laconia; a more level and extremely fertile
+country, subject to the Spartans from B. C. 668. Greatest length, 28
+geog. miles: greatest breadth, 36 geog. miles. City: Messene. Frontier
+places, Ithome and Ira: of the other places, Pylus (Navarino) and
+Methone are the most celebrated.
+
+4. Elis, with the small territory of Triphylia, on the west of the
+Peloponnesus. Length, 60 geog. miles: greatest breadth, 28 geog. miles.
+Rivers: Alpheus, Peneus, Sellis, and several smaller streams. Cities: in
+the north, Elis, Cyllene, and Pylus. On the Alpheus, Pisa and the
+neighbouring town of Olympia. In Triphylia, a third Pylus.
+
+5. Argolis, on the east side of the peninsula; a foreland opposite to
+Attica, with which it forms the Sinus Saronicus. Length, 64 geog. miles:
+breadth, from 8-28 geog. miles. Cities: Argos, Mycenæ, Epidaurus.
+Smaller but remarkable places; Nemea, Cynuria, Troezen.
+
+6. Achaia, originally Ionia, called likewise Ægialus, comprises the
+north coast. Length, 56 geog. miles: breadth, from 12-24. It contains
+twelve cities, of which Dyme, Patræ, and Pellene are the most important.
+
+7. The little country of Sicyonia, 16 geog. miles long, 8 broad, with
+the cities of Sicyon and Phlius.
+
+8. The small territory of Corinth, of the same extent as the foregoing,
+adjoining the isthmus which connects Peloponnesus with the main land.
+City: Corinth, originally Ephyra, with the ports of Lechæum and
+Cenchreæ; the former on the Corinthian, the latter on the Saronic gulf.
+
+The Greek islands may be divided into three classes; those which lie
+immediately off the coasts, those which are collected in groups, and
+those which lie separate in the open sea.
+
+1. Islands off the coasts. Off the west coast in the Ionian sea:
+Corcyra, opposite Epirus, 32 geog. miles long, from 8-16 broad. City:
+Corcyra. A Corinthian colony. Opposite Acarnania; Leucadia, with the
+city and headland of Leucas.--Cephalonia or Same, originally Scheria,
+with the cities of Same and Cephalonia. In the neighbourhood lies the
+small island of Ithaca.--Opposite Elis: Zacynthus. Off the south coast:
+Cythera, with a town of the same name. Off the east coast, in the
+Saronic gulf: Ægina and Salamis. Opposite Boeotia, from which it is
+separated by the strait named Euripus, Euboea, the most extensive of
+all; 76 geog. miles long, from 12-16 geog. miles broad. Cities: Oreus,
+with the headland of Artemisium on the north, in the centre Chalcis,
+Eretria. Off Thessaly, Scyathus and Halonesus. Farther north, Thasus,
+Imbrus, Samothrace, and Lemnos.
+
+2. Clusters of islands in the Ægæan sea: the Cyclades and Sporades; the
+former of which comprise the western, the latter the eastern islands of
+the Archipelago. The most important among them are, Andros, Delos,
+Paros, Naxos, Melos, all with cities of the same names.
+
+3. The more extensive separate islands: 1. Crete, 140 geog. miles long,
+from 24-40 broad. Mountain: Ida. Cities: Cydonia, Gortyna, Cnossus. 2.
+Cyprus, 120 geog. miles long, from 20-80 broad. Cities: Salamis, Paphos,
+Citium, and several smaller places.
+
+  Concerning the principal Greek islands off the coast of Asia
+  Minor, see above, p. 18.
+
+  # FR. CARL. HERM. KRUSE, _Geographico-Antiquarian delineation
+  of ancient Greece and its colonies, with reference to modern
+  discoveries_. Illustrated with maps and plates: first part, 1825.
+  General Geography: second part, first division, 1826. Second
+  division, 1827. Special Geography of Central Greece. A most minute
+  and careful description of Greece, founded on modern discoveries.
+
+
+
+
+FIRST PERIOD.
+
+_The most ancient traditional history, down to the Trojan war,
+about B. C. 1200._
+
+
+  Sources: On the formation and progress of history among the Greeks.
+  Preliminary enquiry into the peculiarities of Grecian mythology in
+  a historical point of view, as comprising the most ancient history
+  of the national tribes and heroes. A history rich in itself, on
+  account of the number of tribes and their leaders; but embellished
+  and altered in various ways by the poets, particularly the great
+  early epic writers, and afterwards by the tragedians.--First
+  advance of history from tradition, wrought by the logographi,
+  especially those of the Ionian cities, Hecatæus, Pherecydes, etc.
+  until HERODOTUS, so justly called the Father of History, raised it
+  at once to such a lofty pitch of eminence. (Compare # _The
+  historical Art of the Greeks considered in its Rise and Progress,
+  by_ G. F. CREUZER; 1803.) Nevertheless, in Herodotus, and even
+  later writers, history continued to savour of its origin; and so
+  far as the realm of tradition extended, even Theopompus and Ephorus
+  felt no disinclination to borrow their materials from mythologists
+  or poets. It need scarcely be observed, that in this first period
+  the history is merely traditional.
+
+  Among the moderns, the English have most successfully treated the
+  subject of Grecian history: the principal works are:
+
+  JOHN GILLIES, _The History of Ancient Greece, its colonies and
+  conquests, from the earliest accounts till the division of the
+  Macedonian empire in the east, including the history of literature,
+  philosophy, and the fine arts_. London, 1786, 2 vols. 4to. and
+
+  WILLIAM MITFORD, _The History of Greece_. London, 1784, 4 vols.
+  4to. Several new editions have since appeared. Translated into
+  German, Jena, 1800, sqq. by _H. L. Eichstädt_. Mitford is perhaps
+  superior in learning, copiousness, and solidity, but he certainly
+  is greatly surpassed by Gillies in genius and taste, and more
+  especially in a proper conception of the spirit of antiquity. [Few
+  English critics will here coincide with our author.]
+
+  DE PAUW, _Recherches sur les Grecs_, 1701, 2 vols. 8vo. Replete
+  with partial views and hypotheses.
+
+  # HEEREN, _Researches into the politics, intercourse, and trade of
+  the most celebrated nations of antiquity_: 3 vols. 1st part, 4th
+  edit. 1826. [Translated into English, Oxford, 1830, 8vo.]
+
+  Many important enquiries on various portions of Grecian history and
+  antiquities will be found in the great collection:
+
+  GRONOVII, _Thesaurus Antiquitatum Græcarum_, 12 vols. folio.
+
+  Others are contained in the transactions of different learned
+  societies; particularly in
+
+  _Mémoires de l'Académie des Inscriptions et des Belles Lettres_,
+  Paris, 1709, sqq. 49 vols. 4to.
+
+  _Commentarii_, (4 vols.) _Commentarii novi_, (8 vols.)
+  _Commentationes_, (16 vols.) and _Commentationes recentiores
+  Societatis Scientiarum Gotting._ (5 vols.)
+
+1. Although Greece was originally inhabited by several insignificant
+races, two principal tribes claim our attention, the _Pelasgi_ and the
+_Hellenes_. Both probably were of Asiatic origin; but the difference of
+their language characterized them as different tribes. The Pelasgi were
+the first that extended their dominion in Greece.
+
+  First seat of the Pelasgians in the Peloponnesus, under Inachus,
+  about B. C. 1800. According to their own traditions, they made
+  their first appearance in this quarter as uncultivated savages;
+  they must, however, at an early period, have made some progress
+  towards civilization, since the most ancient states, Argos and
+  Sicyon, owed their origin to them; and to them, perhaps, with
+  great probability, are attributed the remains of those most
+  ancient monuments generally termed _cyclopian_.--Extension of this
+  tribe towards the north, particularly over Attica; settlement in
+  Thessaly under their leaders Achæus, Phthius, and Pelasgus; here
+  they learned to apply themselves to agriculture, and remained for
+  a hundred and fifty successive years; about 1700-1500.
+
+2. The Hellenes,--subsequently so called from Hellen, one of their
+chieftains,--originally the weaker of the two tribes, make their first
+appearance in Phocis, near Parnassus, under king Deucalion; from whence
+they are driven by a flood. They migrate into Thessaly, and drive out
+the Pelasgi from that territory.--The Hellenes soon after this become
+the most powerful race; and spreading over Greece, expel the Pelasgi
+from almost every part. The latter tribe maintain their ground only in
+Arcadia, and the land of Dodona; some of them migrate to Italy, others
+to Crete, and various islands.
+
+3. The Hellenic tribe is subdivided into four principal branches, the
+_Æolians_, _Ionians_, _Dorians_, and _Achæans_, which continue
+afterwards to be distinguished and separated by many peculiarities of
+speech, customs, and political government. These four tribes, although
+they must not be considered as comprising all the slender ramifications
+of the nation, are derived by tradition from Deucalion's immediate
+posterity; with whose personal history, therefore, the history of the
+tribes themselves and their migrations is interwoven.
+
+  This derivation of the tribes will be better understood by an
+  inspection of the following genealogical table:
+
+                      DEUCALION.
+                          |
+                       HELLEN.
+     |--------------------|--------------------|
+   DORUS.              XUTHUS.               ÆOLUS.
+     |          |---------|-------------|      |
+  DORIANS.      |                       |   ÆOLIANS.
+              ACHÆUS.                  ION.
+                |                       |
+              ACHÆANS.               IONIANS.
+
+4. The gradual spread of the various branches of the Hellenic tribe over
+Greece was effected by several migrations, between B. C. 1500-1300;
+after which they preserved the settlements they had already obtained
+until the later migration of the Dorians and Heraclidæ, about 1100.
+
+  _Principal data for the history of the separate tribes in this
+  period._
+
+  1. ÆOLUS follows his father Hellen into Phthiotis, which
+  consequently remains the seat of the Æolians; they spread from
+  thence over western Greece, Acarnania, Ætolia, Phocis, Locris, Elis
+  in the Peloponnesus, and likewise over the western islands.
+
+  2. DORUS follows his father into Estiæotis, the most ancient seat
+  of the Dorians. They are driven from thence after the death of
+  Dorus by the Perrhæbi; spread over Macedonia and Crete; part of the
+  tribe return, cross mount Oeta, and settle in the Tetrapolis
+  Dorica, afterwards called Doris, where they remain until they
+  migrate into Peloponnesus, under the guidance of the Heraclidæ;
+  about 1100. (See below, p. 127).
+
+  3. XUTHUS, expelled by his brothers, migrates to Athens, where he
+  marries Creusa, daughter of Erectheus, by whom he has sons, Ion and
+  Achæus. Ion and his tribe, driven out of Athens, settle in that
+  part of Peloponnesus called Ægialus, a name which by them was
+  converted into Ionia, and in later times exchanged for Achaia. The
+  Achæans preserve their footing in Laconia and Argos, until the time
+  of the Dorian migration.
+
+  # L. D. HUELLMAN, _Early Grecian History_, 1814. Rich in original
+  views and conjectures, beyond which the early history of nations
+  seldom extends.
+
+  # D. C. OTFRIED MUELLER, _History of the Hellenic Tribes and
+  Cities_, 1820, vol. 1. containing, _Orchomenus and the Minyæ_;
+  vols. 2, 3, containing the _Dorians_, 1825.
+
+5. Besides these original inhabitants, colonies at the same early period
+came into Greece from civilized countries, from Egypt, Phoenicia, and
+Mysia. The settlements of these strangers occurred probably between B.
+C. 1600-1400.
+
+  Establishment in Attica of the colony of Cecrops, from Sais in Egypt,
+  about 1550; in Argos, of the colony of Danaus, likewise from Egypt,
+  about 1500.--The colony of Cadmus, from Phoenicia, settles in Boeotia
+  about 1550.--The colony of Pelops, from Mysia, settles in Argos about
+  1400.
+
+6. The mythology of the Hellenes proves beyond a doubt, that they were
+at first savages, like the Pelasgi since they had to learn even the use
+of fire from Prometheus; yet it is equally clear that they must, even in
+the earliest period, particularly from 1300-1200, when they had ceased
+to migrate, have made the first important steps towards the attainment
+of a certain degree of civilization. About the time of the Trojan war
+they appear to have been still barbarians, though no longer savages.
+
+7. The origin and progress of this national organization, and the
+influence wrought upon it by settlers from foreign countries, are
+difficult subjects to determine. If we allow that Cecrops was the first
+who introduced marriage in Attica, and that agriculture and the
+cultivation of the olive were discovered in that country, it
+unquestionably follows, that the Hellenes were indebted to strangers for
+the foundation of domestic civilization. And when we consider that the
+families which subsequently held sway were descended directly from the
+most powerful of these strangers, their lasting influence can hardly be
+a matter of doubt. It must, however, be observed, that what the Greeks
+borrowed from foreigners they previously stamped with their own peculiar
+character, so that it became, as it were, the original property of the
+nation. The question, therefore, is deprived of much of the importance
+which it assumes at the first glance.
+
+8. The case was the same with regard to all branches of intellectual
+civilization, particularly religion. That many deities and religious
+rites were introduced into Greece from Egypt, Asia, and Thrace, and
+generally through Crete, hardly admits of a doubt; but they did not
+therefore remain Egyptian, Asiatic, or Thracian; they became Grecian
+gods. Hence it appears that the investigation of those relations can
+hardly lead to any important conclusion. It is a fact, however, of the
+highest importance, that whatever gods the Greeks adopted, no separate
+order of priesthood was established among them, still less any caste
+laying claim to the exclusive possession of knowledge. Several traces,
+nevertheless, make it probable, that many of the most ancient
+sanctuaries were settlements of Egyptian, Phoenician, or Cretan priests,
+who imported with them their own peculiar forms of worship. And
+notwithstanding this worship consisted merely of outward ceremonies,
+many ideas and institutions which were attached to it, became, in this
+manner, the common property of the nation.
+
+9. It was principally, therefore, by religion, that the rude mind became
+in some degree polished. But it was the ancient minstrels, ([Greek:
+aoidoì],) Orpheus, Linus, etc., who, by disseminating religious
+principles, contributed so much towards abolishing revenge, and with it
+the perpetual state of warfare which had hitherto distracted the
+country. These it was who in their mysteries contrived in some measure
+to impress the narrow circle of the initiated with the advantages
+resulting from a civilized life.
+
+  SAINTE-CROIX, _Recherches sur les Mystères du Paganisme_, Paris, 1765.
+  Translated into German, with valuable observations, by C. G. LENZ;
+  Gotha, 1790.
+
+10. The influence of religion, through the medium of oracles, especially
+those of Dodona and Delphi, was not less powerful. The two latter, with
+that of Olympia, were perhaps, originally ancient settlements of
+priests, such as have been already alluded to. The necessity of
+consulting these sanctuaries naturally led men to regard the oracles as
+the common property of the nation, to which every one should have
+access; it followed therefore as an inevitable consequence, that the
+direction of affairs in which all were engaged, depended principally on
+those oracles.
+
+  A. VAN DALEN, _De Oraculis veterum Ethnicorum Dissertationes_ 6.
+  Amstel. 1700. A very valuable work. A comprehensive dissertation on
+  the subject, however, is still wanting: a portion of it is treated
+  of in
+
+  J. GRODDEK, _De Oraculorum veterum, quæ in Herodoti libris
+  continentur, natura, commentatio_; Gotting. 1786.
+
+11. It happened with Greece as with other countries; the tender plant
+of civilization grew up under the shelter of the sanctuary. There the
+festivals were celebrated, and there the people assembled; and there
+various tribes, who had hitherto been strangers to one another, met
+in peace, and conversed on their common interests. Hence arose
+spontaneously the first idea of a law of nations, and those connections
+which led to its development. Among these connections, that of the
+Amphictyons at Delphi was the most important, and continued the longest:
+it is probable that it did not assume its complete form till a later
+period; yet it appears in early times to have adopted the principle,
+that none of the cities belonging to the league should be destroyed by
+the others.
+
+  # FR. WILH. TITTMANN, _Upon the Amphictyonic League_; 1812. A
+  dissertation which gained the prize of the Academy of Sciences at
+  Berlin.
+
+12. To religion must likewise be added navigation, and the consequent
+intercourse which brought the nation into contact with strangers, and
+prepared it to receive civilization. It cannot be denied that the
+navigators continued long to be mere pirates; but as Minos of Crete
+cleared the sea of freebooters, the want of another state of things must
+have been felt long before.
+
+13. In the mean time the chivalrous spirit of the nation was gradually
+aroused; and developed the first bloom of its youthful vigour in the
+heroic ages. An affection for extraordinary undertakings was excited;
+and conducted the chieftains, not only individually, but also in
+confederate bodies, beyond the limits of their father-land. These
+undertakings were not only important in themselves, but their advantages
+were increased by their being preserved in the songs of their bards by
+means of a national poesy, such as no other people possessed, and such
+as contributed to the further development of the national genius.
+
+  Expedition of the Argonauts to Colchis, somewhere about B. C. 1250;
+  war of the seven confederate princes against Thebes about 1225; the
+  town, however, was not taken until the second attempt made by the sons
+  of the chiefs (Epigoni) in 1215.
+
+14. Thus every thing was now ripe for some great national undertaking of
+all the combined Hellenic nations; and that object was attained in the
+war against Troy. The most important result of that expedition was the
+kindling of one common national spirit,--a spirit which in spite of
+dissensions and feuds, was never wholly extinguished, and which must
+almost necessarily have arisen from an expedition carried on in so
+distant a field, which lasted ten years, in which all were joined, and
+which was crowned with such signal success. From the time of the Trojan
+war downwards the Hellenes always looked upon themselves as but one
+people.
+
+  General view of the political state of Greece about the time of the
+  Trojan war.--Division into several small states, the most powerful
+  of which were Argos and Mycenæ.--All those states were governed by
+  hereditary chieftains or princes from a certain _family_ (kings,
+  [Greek: basileis],) who combined the offices of leaders in war and
+  judges in peace. Their authority being more or less extended in
+  proportion to the qualities they possessed, and particularly to
+  their valour in battle.--Manner of life among the people: a nation
+  dwelling in cities, but at the same time cultivating the land and
+  tending cattle; applying also to war, and already somewhat advanced
+  in the art of navigation.
+
+  A. W. SCHLEGEL, _De Geographia Homeri Commentatio_. Hannov. 1788. A
+  review of the political geography of Greece at this period.--On the
+  topography of Troy:
+
+  LECHEVALIER, _Description de la Plaine de Troie_. Translated and
+  accompanied with notes by HEYNE, Leipzig, 1794. Compare CLARKE,
+  _Travels_, vol. i, c. 4-6, who has thrown doubts on the system of
+  Lechevalier, which has, however, been again confirmed by LEAKE,
+  _Travels in Asia Minor_.
+
+
+
+
+SECOND PERIOD.
+
+_From the Trojan war to the breaking out of the Persian war, B. C.
+1200-500._
+
+  Sources. On no portion of the Grecian history is our information
+  so scanty as upon this long period, in which we can be hardly said
+  to have more than a general knowledge of many of the most
+  important events. As in the foregoing period, its commencement is
+  but a traditional and poetical history. It was not till towards
+  the end of it that the use of writing became common among the
+  Greeks; add to which the period itself was not rife in great
+  national undertakings, such as might afford appropriate materials
+  for the poet or historian. Besides the scattered information which
+  may be gathered from Herodotus, Plutarch, Strabo, and above all
+  from the introduction to Thucydides's history, Pausanias must not
+  be forgotten; who, in his description of Greece, has preserved an
+  abundance of most valuable documents relating to the separate
+  histories of the minor states. The Books of Diodorus belonging to
+  this period are lost.
+
+  # FR. WILHELM TITTMANN, _Delineation of the Grecian Forms of
+  Government_, 1822. An industrious collection of all the
+  information we possess respecting this subject.
+
+  # W. WACHSMUTH, _Grecian Antiquities with regard to Politics_, 4
+  vols. An excellent work.
+
+
+1. _History of the Hellenic states within Greece._
+
+1. The Trojan war was followed by a very stormy period, in consequence
+of the many disorders prevalent in the ruling families, especially in
+that of Pelops. But more violent commotions soon arose, caused by the
+attempts of the rude tribes of the north, particularly of the Dorians
+combined with the Ætolians, who, under the guidance of the descendants
+of Hercules, exiled from Argos, strove to obtain possession of
+Peloponnesus. Those commotions shook Greece during a whole century, and
+as the seats of most of the Hellenic tribes were then changed, the
+consequences were lasting and important.
+
+  First unsuccessful attempt under Hyllus, son of Hercules, about
+  1180.--Repeated attempts, until at last the claims of the Heraclidæ
+  are made good by the grandsons of Hyllus, viz. Telephus and
+  Cresphontes, together with Eurysthenes and Procles, sons of their
+  brother Aristodemus, 1100.
+
+2. Consequences resulting to the Peloponnesus from this migration. The
+territories of Argos, Sparta, Messene, and Corinth, wrested from the
+Achæans who had hitherto inhabited them, become the property of the
+Dorians; Elis falls to the share of the Ætolians, who had accompanied
+the former. The Achæans expelled, in their turn expel the Ionians and
+settle in the country since called Achaia; the fugitive Ionians are
+received by their ancient kinsmen the Athenians.--But among the
+consequences of this migration of the Hellenic races must be reckoned
+likewise the establishment of Greek colonies in Asia Minor; an
+occurrence of the highest importance to the ulterior development of the
+nation. This colonization was commenced by the Æolian Hellenes, whose
+example was soon after followed by the Ionians, and even by the Dorians.
+
+  For the history of these colonies, see the following section.
+
+3. Although the effect of these migrations and wars, in which the ruder
+tribes oppressed the more civilized, must inevitably have been, not only
+to interrupt the progress of civilization, but even almost entirely to
+annihilate it, yet in this universal movement the foundation was laid
+of that constitution of things which afterwards existed in Greece. The
+tribes which had migrated, as well as those which had been expelled,
+remained at first under the dominion of their hereditary princes, some
+for a longer, others for a shorter time. In the two centuries, however,
+immediately subsequent to the migrations, B. C. 1100-900, republican
+constitutions took the place of hereditary clanship in all the Grecian
+countries, the distant Epirus excepted. These republics continued to
+exist amid the various revolutions which happened; and the love of
+political freedom, deeply impressed on the minds of the people,
+constituted from this time the principal feature in the national
+character.
+
+4. The sequel proves, that the principal cause of this change so
+important for Greece,--this change, by which her future internal policy
+was for ever determined, originated in the progress made by the newly
+come tribes towards civic life, and consequently at the same time
+towards national civilization. In this newly constituted order of
+things, each city, with the territory around it, formed a separate
+state, and framed its own constitution; hence there arose as many free
+states as cities.
+
+  The notion that Greece contained the same number of states as
+  countries is completely false, although it cannot be denied that
+  the mode of expression in most writings upon Greek history seems to
+  authorize the assertion. It is true that some of those countries,
+  such as Attica, Megaris, Laconia, may be each regarded as a
+  separate state, because each constituted the territory of one city.
+  The others, however, such as Arcadia, Boeotia, etc. did not each
+  form one state, but comprised as many separate states as there were
+  free and independent cities, each of which, with its territory,
+  formed one. Still, however, it must be observed, (_a_) that the
+  natural ties of kindred subsisted; Arcadians, Boeotians, etc. spoke
+  of one another as countrymen. (_b_) Voluntary connections were
+  entered into between different cities, and sometimes all the cities
+  of a country, as, for instance, in Achaia, so that the whole formed
+  one confederation; each individual city nevertheless still
+  preserved its own system of laws and government. Again, (_c_) in
+  consequence of a greater share of power, one city assumed a sort of
+  dominion over the other; as, for instance, that of Thebes over the
+  Boeotian cities. This dominion, however, was always precarious, and
+  depended upon the state of affairs. (_d_) It must likewise be
+  observed, that the constitution of each separate city underwent
+  many changes, wrought generally by influential citizens, (tyrants,)
+  who not only possessed themselves of the supreme power, but also
+  contrived frequently to make it for some time hereditary in their
+  families. Every one will easily discern that the above are the
+  fundamental principles of Greek history, which cannot be too
+  clearly conceived, or too correctly defined; since it is
+  self-evident what a wide field was by such a constitution of things
+  thrown open to practical politics. The more improbable the
+  attainment of fixed constitutions in the separate cities was, the
+  more frequent must have been the political attempts; (attempts
+  facilitated by the narrow extent of the state;) and the more
+  frequently those attempts failed, the more extensive in this
+  intellectual people became the mass of political ideas; the results
+  of which in later times were the legislative codes of Solon and
+  others.
+
+5. Although Greece was thus parcelled out into a number of small states,
+united by no common political bond, yet there existed a certain unity of
+the Hellenic race, a certain national spirit: this was produced in part
+by national festivals and games, occurring at stated periods, among
+which those in honour of Jupiter at Olympia were the chief. The nation
+at these appeared in all its splendour; and all Hellenes, but no others,
+were allowed to join in them. This union, too, was promoted by the
+extension of the Amphictyonic council: and the reason why this last
+institution was not followed by all the consequences which might have
+been expected from it, may perhaps be found in what naturally takes
+place in every great confederation whenever any of the component states
+become too powerful.
+
+  The Amphictyonic council was certainly not a states-general, in
+  which all national affairs were discussed. Its immediate office was
+  to attend to the temples and the oracles of Delphi. But then it
+  must be observed, 1st, that from this council originated the
+  Grecian ideas of the law of nations; over the preservation of which
+  the Amphictyons watched. 2. In consequence of its political
+  influence on the oracle, this council, in certain cases, was
+  enabled to take a share in the affairs of different states. 3. The
+  Amphictyons always formed a national institution, since none but
+  Hellenes were admitted.
+
+  ST. CROIX, _Des anciens gouvernemens fédératifs, et de la
+  législation de Crète_, Paris, 1796. One of the most invaluable
+  inquiries, not only into the institutions of the Amphictyons, but
+  also into other matters of Grecian history connected with them.
+
+6. Among the different states of Greece, Sparta and Athens, even at this
+period, became celebrated, not only for their greater power, but also
+for their superior constitutions and their laws: and though it may not
+perhaps be strictly true, that the history of the rest of Greece is
+connected with that of these two cities, yet they certainly possess the
+highest claim to our attention.
+
+7. History of Sparta. The Achæans at first were governed by princes of
+the house of Perseus, but after Menelaus's accession to the throne in
+virtue of his wife, by princes of the house of Pelops. When the latter
+had been expelled by the Dorians, Laconia fell by lot to the sons of
+Aristodemus, Procles and Eurysthenes, between whose families the royal
+power was divided, so that two kings constantly reigned in common, one
+from each family.
+
+  Families of the Proclidæ and Ægidæ; the latter so called from Agis,
+  the son and successor of Eurysthenes.
+
+  # J. C. F. MANSO, _An Essay on the History and Constitution of
+  Sparta_, Leipzig, 1800 sqq. 3 vols. The most important work upon
+  this subject, and which likewise contains much information upon
+  various points of Grecian history connected with it.
+
+  CRAGIUS, _De Republica Lacedæmoniorum_, 1642.
+
+  MEURSIUS, _De regno Laconico_; and _Miscellanea Laconica_. Both
+  laborious compilations.
+
+8. The Dorians now gradually conquered, and established themselves in
+many cities of the peninsula; forming, if not the whole population, at
+least the only part of it that enjoyed any power, as the Achæans that
+remained were reduced to slavery. No long time, however, elapsed ere the
+city of Sparta usurped an authority over the whole country, which it
+ever afterwards preserved; the other towns, formerly considerable,
+becoming unfortified, defenceless, and insignificant.
+
+  Relation between the Spartan citizens of the capital as a ruling
+  body, and the Lacedæmonians, or [Greek: perioikoi], inhabitants of
+  the country, as subjects who paid tribute and military service. Even
+  in the time of Agis, the successor of Eurysthenes, this subjection
+  was effected by force; the inhabitants of Helos were made slaves, as
+  a punishment for their opposition; while the others, by the
+  sacrifice of their political freedom, preserved their personal
+  liberty, however confined it might be.
+
+9. The history of the two following centuries, to the time of Lycurgus,
+exhibits nothing but the repeated wars of the Spartans with their
+neighbours the Argives; their domestic broils, occasioned by the too
+unequal division of property, by the feuds, and the diminished power of
+the kings, and which lasted until Lycurgus, the uncle and guardian of
+the minor king, Charilaus, about the year 880, gave to Sparta that
+constitution to which she was principally indebted for her subsequent
+splendour.
+
+  _Illustration of the principal features in the Spartan constitution._
+  Some preliminary observations are necessary. (_a_) As the legislation
+  of Lycurgus occurred at so early a period, and as his laws were not
+  written, but conveyed in apophthegms, ([Greek: rhêtrai],) which
+  were confirmed by the oracle of Delphi, many things of later origin
+  have been attributed to Lycurgus. (_b_) Much that is rightly
+  attributed to him was not original, but deduced from ancient Dorian
+  institutions, which being now upon the decline, were reestablished
+  by force of law. Hence it follows, that the legislation of Lycurgus
+  must naturally have had many points of resemblance with that of the
+  Cretans, likewise of Dorian origin, although much, as we are told,
+  was directly borrowed from them. (_c_) The principal object of the
+  laws of Lycurgus was to ensure the existence of Sparta by creating
+  and supporting a vigorous and uncorrupted race of men. Hence those
+  laws had a more peculiar reference to private life and physical
+  education, than to the constitution of the state, in which the
+  legislator appears to have introduced but few alterations.
+
+  In reference to the constitution: 1. The relation which had
+  hitherto existed between the Spartans as a dominant people, and the
+  Lacedæmonians as subjects, was preserved. 2. The two kings, from
+  the two ruling families, were likewise continued, as leaders in war
+  and first magistrates in peace. On the other hand, 3. to Lycurgus
+  is attributed the institution of a senate, ([Greek: gerousia],)
+  consisting of twenty-eight members, none of whom could be less than
+  sixty years old, who were to be chosen by the people for life, and
+  were to constitute the king's council in public affairs. 4. Whether
+  the college of the five Ephori annually chosen, was originally
+  instituted by Lycurgus, or at some later period, is a question
+  impossible to decide, but of little importance, since the great
+  power of this college, to which every thing was finally referred as
+  the highest tribunal of the state, was certainly assumed after the
+  time of Lycurgus. 5. Besides the above, there were likewise the
+  popular assemblies, convened according to the division into
+  [Greek: phylas] and [Greek: ôbas], at which none but Spartans could
+  assist: their privileges extended no further than to approve or
+  reject the measures proposed to them by the kings and the senate.
+
+  In the laws relating to private life, Lycurgus aimed at making the
+  Spartans a society of citizens, equal as far as possible with
+  respect to their property and mode of life, and each deeply
+  impressed with the conviction that he was the property of his
+  country, to which he was bound to yield an unconditional obedience.
+  Hence, 1. The new division of land, 9000 portions to the Spartans,
+  and 30,000 to the Lacedæmonians; permission being given to dispose
+  of those portions by entail or gift, but not by sale. 2. The
+  removal as far as possible of every species of luxury, particularly
+  by means of the daily public tables ([Greek: syssitia]) of all the
+  citizens, according to their divisions, in which the commons were
+  settled by law. 3. The complete organization of domestic society in
+  relation both to husband and wife, parents and children, which was
+  so framed as to further, even at the cost of morality, the grand
+  political object, the production of vigorous and healthy citizens.
+  4. Hence, finally, the condition of the slaves, comprehended under
+  the general name of helots, who, although they may be regarded
+  nearly as serfs, were likewise the property of the state, which had
+  the right of claiming their services in war.--Easy, however, as it
+  is to enumerate thus generally the principal heads of the Spartan
+  constitution, the want of sufficient documents renders it difficult
+  and oftentimes impossible to answer a crowd of questions, which
+  present themselves on our penetrating more deeply into the subject.
+  Still, however, its long duration, (nearly four hundred years,)
+  without any observable change, is more remarkable even than the
+  constitution itself. More remarkable, inasmuch as the Spartans soon
+  after this time appear as conquerors. Indeed, it could no longer be
+  expected that any durable peace should exist in Greece, while the
+  centre of the country was occupied by a military commonwealth,
+  whose citizens must have been, by the restlessness common to man,
+  impelled to war, since all the occupations of household life and of
+  agriculture were left to the care of slaves.
+
+  Besides the works mentioned above, p. 119.
+
+  HEYNE, _De Spartanorum republica Judicium_; inserted in _Commentat.
+  Soc. Gotting._ vol. ix. Intended to correct the partial opinions of
+  DE PAUW.
+
+10. Soon after the time of Lycurgus commenced the war of the Spartans
+with their neighbours, the Argives, the Arcadians, but more particularly
+the Messenians. The wars with these last appear to have originated in an
+old grudge on the part of the Dorian tribe, proceeding from the unequal
+division of lands at the occupation of Peloponnesus: it is nevertheless
+evident, that the quarrel between the two nations was mainly fostered by
+the ambition of the Spartan kings, who wrought upon a superstitious
+multitude by oracular responses and interpretations.
+
+  Unimportant wars with Tegea and Argos; and disputes with Messene,
+  783-745.
+
+  First Messenian war, 742-722, terminated by the capture of the
+  frontier fortress Ithome, after the voluntary death of the
+  Messenian king, Aristodemus.--The Messenians become tributary to
+  the Spartans, and are obliged to give up one half of the revenues
+  of their lands.--Occurrences during this war: 1. Institution,
+  according to some authorities, of the college of Ephori as
+  vicegerents of the kings in their absence, and arbitrators in the
+  quarrels which might arise between the kings and the senate. 2. The
+  power of the people so far limited as to restrain the popular
+  assemblies from making alterations in the resolutions proposed to
+  them by the senate or the kings, and confining them merely to a
+  vote of approval or rejection. 3. Insurrection of the Parthenii and
+  Helots becomes the motive for sending out colonies; a measure to
+  which Sparta had more than once resorted for the purpose of
+  maintaining domestic tranquillity.
+
+  Second Messenian war, 682-668, waged by the Messenians under the
+  command of their hero Aristomenes, by the Spartans under that of
+  Tyrtæus, who fanned the flame of war until the contest was
+  terminated by the capture of the strong town Ira. The Messenian
+  territory is divided among the conquerors, and the conquered
+  inhabitants become, like the helots, agricultural slaves.
+
+11. Although the territory of the Spartans was greatly increased by
+these Messenian wars, the nation seems to have been a long time before
+it recovered from the struggle, and to have raised itself by slow steps
+to the first rank among the Dorian states, extending its boundaries at
+the expense of the Argives and Arcadians.
+
+  Wars with Tegea for the most part unsuccessful; and with Argos, for
+  the possession of Thyrea and the island of Cythera; by the accession
+  of which the Spartan territory received an important augmentation,
+  about 550.
+
+12. These wars within Peloponnesus were not of such a nature as to give
+rise to any remarkable changes in the Spartan constitution, and for a
+long time the nation refused to take any share in foreign affairs. But
+no sooner did king Cleomenes, who in the end procured the deposition of
+his colleague, Demaratus, interfere in the affairs of the Athenians,
+than the seeds of strife were sown between these two republics. The
+Persian war next ensued, in which Sparta was obliged to bear a part,
+although Cleomenes had refused to participate in the insurrection of
+Aristagoras: that struggle, together with the idea of supremacy in
+Greece which now took its rise, introduced a series of political
+relations before unknown.
+
+13. The history of Athens during this period is rendered important
+rather by domestic revolutions, which gradually tended to convert the
+state into a republic, than by external aggrandizement. The situation
+and peculiarities of Attica, which rendered it less exposed than other
+parts of Greece to the attacks and forays of wandering hordes, favoured
+the gradual and tranquil growth of national prosperity; the traces of
+which are incontestable, though it would be difficult for the most
+profound research to point out the whole course of its progress so
+perspicuously as the historian might wish.
+
+  The history of Athens, of course, constitutes a main part of the
+  works mentioned above, p. 119. Besides which:
+
+  W. YOUNG, _The history of Athens politically and philosophically
+  considered_. London, 1796. 4to. Argumentation rather than history.
+
+  CORSINI, _Fasti Attici_. Florent. 1747. 4 vols. 4to. A most careful
+  chronological essay.
+
+  1. Period of kingly government down to 1068. The history of Athens
+  as a state begins properly with Theseus, who succeeded his father
+  Ægeus, about B. C. 1300. Although certain institutions, such as
+  that of the areopagus, the division of the people into nobles,
+  ([Greek: eupatridai],) husbandmen, ([Greek: geôrgoi],) and
+  mechanics: ([Greek: dêmiourgoi;]) a division which recals to our
+  memory the Egyptian institution of castes, are perhaps of an
+  earlier date, and may be ascribed to the colony of Cecrops. Theseus
+  was, however, in some measure the founder of the state, since,
+  instead of the four districts, ([Greek: dêmoi],) hitherto
+  independent of one another, he constituted the city of Athens as
+  the only seat of government. Among his successors the attention of
+  the student is directed to Mnestheus, who fell before Troy; and the
+  last king, Codrus, who by a voluntary sacrifice of his life rescued
+  Attica from the inroads of the Dorians, 1068.
+
+  2. Period of archons for life, taken from the family of Codrus,
+  thirteen of whom ruled; 1068-752. The first was Medon, the last,
+  Alcmæon. These archons succeeded, like the kings, by inheritance,
+  but were accountable for their administration, ([Greek:
+  hypeuthynoi].)--At the commencement of this period occur the
+  migrations of the Ionians from Attica to Asia Minor, 1044. See
+  below.
+
+  3. Period of the decennial archons, seven of whom succeeded between
+  752-682. These likewise were taken from the family of Codrus. This
+  period is devoid of any remarkable occurrences.
+
+  4. Period extending to Solon, 682-594. that of nine archons yearly
+  chosen, but so arranged that the prerogatives of the former kings,
+  and the preceding archons, were divided among the three first of
+  the nine. With respect to this, as well as to the other changes
+  above mentioned, we know little of the causes which produced them,
+  or of the manner in which they were brought about. Rise of an
+  oppressive aristocracy, (like that of the patricians at Rome,
+  immediately after the expulsion of the kings,) both the archons and
+  the members of the areopagus being elected only from noble
+  families. First attempt at legislation by Draco, 622, which appears
+  only to have consisted in a criminal code, rendered unavailing by
+  its severity.--The insurrection of Cylon, 598, in consequence of
+  the manner in which it was quelled, turned out most injurious to
+  the aristocratical party, inasmuch as the nobles drew upon
+  themselves the pollution of blood, which, even after the
+  purification of Epimenides, 593, was long used as a pretext for
+  commotion. The political factions of the Pediæi, of the Diacrii,
+  and of the Parhali, produced an anarchy at Athens, during which the
+  neighbouring Megarians took possession of the island of Salamis; a
+  conquest which, however, was subsequently wrested from them by
+  Solon.
+
+14. From this state of anarchy Athens was rescued by Solon; a man to
+whom not only Athens, but the whole human race, are deeply indebted. He
+was chosen archon, and at the same time commissioned to remodel the
+constitution of Athens: and the successful manner in which he executed
+this task, laid the foundation of the happiness of his native country.
+
+  _Review of the prominent features in Solon's legislation._ Its main
+  object was to abolish the oppressive aristocracy, without however
+  introducing a pure democracy. 1. Provisional laws: abolition of the
+  statutes of Draco, those against murder excepted: law enacted for
+  the relief of debtors, ([Greek: seisachtheia], novæ tabulæ,) not so
+  much by cancelling the debts as by diminishing their amount by a
+  rise in the value of money; and likewise by ensuring the personal
+  liberty of the debtor. 2. Fundamental laws, both in reference to
+  the constitution and in reference to private life and private
+  rights.--Constitution of the state. (_a_) Organization of the
+  people by means of divisions: according to property into four
+  classes; the Pentacosimedimni, or those who had a yearly income of
+  500 medimni; the Equites, ([Greek: hippeis],) who had 400; the
+  Zeugitæ, who had 300; and the Thetes, (capite censi,) whose yearly
+  revenue did not amount to so much.--The ancient divisions according
+  to heads, into wards, ([Greek: phylai],) of which there were four,
+  and according to residence into demi, (hundreds,) of which a
+  hundred and seventy are enumerated, were preserved. (_b_) None but
+  citizens of the three first classes could fill all the offices of
+  state; but all were admitted to the popular assemblies, and had a
+  right of voting in the courts of judicature. (_c_) The nine archons
+  annually chosen, who acted as supreme magistrates, although not
+  permitted to assume military office at the same time, remained at
+  the head of the state; the first bearing the name of [Greek:
+  epônumos], the second of [Greek: basileus], the third of [Greek:
+  polemarchos], the remaining six that of [Greek: thesmothetai].
+  Combined with the archons was (_d_) The council, ([Greek: boulê],)
+  which consisted of a body of four hundred persons annually taken
+  from the three first classes of citizens; (a hundred from each
+  ward;) these were chosen by lot, but were obliged to submit to a
+  rigid examination ([Greek: dokimasia]) before they entered upon
+  office. The archons were obliged to consult the four hundred on
+  every occurrence; and nothing could be carried down to the commons
+  until it had been previously debated in this council. (_e_) To the
+  people, consisting of the whole four classes, was reserved the
+  right in its assemblies ([Greek: ekklêsiai]) of confirming the
+  laws, of electing the magistrates, of debating all public affairs
+  referred to them by the council, and likewise the public
+  distribution of justice. (_f_) The areopagus was, according to
+  Solon's plan, to be the main buttress of the constitution; that
+  tribunal had hitherto been a mere tool in the hands of the
+  aristocracy. It was composed of retired archons, and remained not
+  only the supreme tribunal in capital cases, but likewise was
+  charged with the superintendence of morals, with the censorship
+  upon the conduct of the archons who went out of office, and had the
+  prerogative of amending or rescinding the measures that had been
+  approved of by the commons. The power of this court, which might
+  easily have become equal to the college of Ephori at Sparta, might
+  at first have been supposed too extensive, had not experience shown
+  the fatal consequences of the reduction of that power by Pericles.
+  This alloy of aristocracy and democracy certainly gives proof of a
+  deep insight into the nature of republican constitutions; but Solon
+  is not less entitled to praise for his endeavours to place the helm
+  of government in the hands only of the most enlightened and prudent
+  citizens. It must likewise be observed, that the code for private
+  life given by Solon exhibits the genius of a man who regarded
+  polity as subordinate to morals, and not, like Lycurgus, morals as
+  subordinate to polity.
+
+  SAM. PETITUS, _De Legibus Atticis_, 1635. fol. The best compilation
+  and illustration of the fragments remaining of the Attic law.
+
+  CHR. BUNSEN, _De jure Atheniensium hereditario, ex Isæo cæterisque
+  oratoribus Græcis ducto_, Goett. 1812. The law of inheritance was a
+  principal feature in Solon's legislation; the explanation of it
+  requires a profound acquaintance with the constitution, so far as
+  it was connected with government by clans or families.
+
+  An explanation of the Athenian constitution will be likewise found
+  in the above-mentioned works of Tittmann, Kruse, and Wachsmuth.
+
+15. The legislation of Solon, like all other state reforms, was not
+followed by the total extinction of party spirit. It was natural that
+the commons, now free, should wish to try their strength with the
+aristocratical party, and that, after the defeat of the latter,
+Pisistratus, who headed the commons, should grasp the rudder of the
+state without, therefore, necessarily abrogating the constitution of
+Solon. Modern history has proved with sufficient evidence, that the
+frame-work of a republic may easily subsist under the rule of an
+usurper. And would that no republics might fall into the hands of a
+worse tyrant than Pisistratus!
+
+  First exaltation of Pisistratus, 561, procured by his obtaining a
+  body guard; flight of the Alcmæonidæ under Megacles. Pisistratus
+  expelled, 560. Second exaltation of Pisistratus procured by his
+  matrimonial connection with the family of Megacles, 556-552.--His
+  second expulsion by Megacles, 552-538.--His third exaltation;
+  obtains the power by force of arms, and preserves it to the day of
+  his death, 538-528. Flight of the Alcmæonidæ into Macedonia, where
+  they attach the malcontents to their party. Pisistratus is
+  succeeded by his sons Hipparchus and Hippias, who rule conjointly
+  until 514, when the elder is murdered by Harmodius and Aristogiton.
+  The exiled Alcmæonidæ, having bribed the Delphian oracle, gain over
+  the Spartans to their interest: backed by a Spartan army, they
+  take possession of Athens in 510; Hippias is deposed, and flies
+  over to the Persians.
+
+16. This return of the Alcmæonidæ was followed by a change in the
+constitution of Solon. Clisthenes, the son of Megacles, with a view of
+quenching party spirit by a new combination of the citizens, increased
+the number of wards to ten, and that of the members of the council to
+five hundred.--But the Athenians had to purchase the continuance of
+their freedom by a struggle with Sparta, who, united with the Boeotians
+and Chalcidians, and aided by Ægina, sought to reestablish monarchy in
+Attica; first in the person of Isagoras, the rival of Clisthenes, and
+afterwards in that of the exiled Hippias. But the glorious success of
+the republic in this first struggle in the cause of liberty, gave an
+additional impulse to the national spirit. Impelled by that spirit,
+Athens suffered herself to be induced to share in the war of freedom
+carried on by the Asiatic Greeks under Aristagoras; and the audacity
+which led to the firing of Sardis, drew upon Attica the vengeance of the
+Persians, without which, doubtless, neither Athens or Greece would ever
+have risen to that degree of eminence which they ultimately attained.
+
+17. Of the history of the other states of Greece we have at best but few
+data, and even these in most instances are very scanty. Towards the end
+of this period Sparta and Athens had, undoubtedly, exalted themselves
+above the rest, and were recognized, one as the first among the Dorian,
+the latter as the first among the Ionian states; yet did Sparta more
+than once meet with rivals in Messene, Argos, and Tegea: while Athens
+had to contend with Megara and Ægina. Sparta and Athens had,
+nevertheless, not only the best constitutions, but possessed also a more
+extended territory than any other of the great cities.
+
+
+_Principal data for the history of the smaller states._
+
+I. _Within the Peloponnesus._
+
+  _a._ Arcadia. The Arcadian traditions enumerate a line of kings or
+  hereditary princes, said to have ruled over the whole of Arcadia;
+  the line commences with Arcas and his son Lycaon, whose successors
+  kept possession of the supreme power, and shared more or less in
+  the ancient feuds of the Hellenic princes. Upon the conquest of
+  Peloponnesus by the Dorians, Arcadia was the only land that did not
+  suffer by the irruption: an advantage for which it was probably
+  indebted more to its mountains, than to the skill of Cypselus its
+  king. The successors of that prince took a part in the wars between
+  the Messenians and Spartans, siding with the former: but in the
+  second Messenian war, the last Arcadian king, Aristocrates II.
+  having betrayed his allies, was in consequence stoned to death by
+  his subjects, and the regal dignity was abolished in 668. Arcadia
+  now became divided into as many small states as it contained cities
+  with their respective districts; among these Tegea and Mantinea
+  were the chief, and probably held the others in a certain state of
+  control, without, however, depriving them wholly of their
+  independence. As might have been expected in a pastoral nation, the
+  constitution was democratical. In Mantinea there were wardens of
+  the people, ([Greek: dêmiourgoi],) and a senate, ([Greek: boulê].)
+  The wars of separate cities are frequently mentioned, but no
+  general confederation united them.
+
+  # See A. VON BREITENBAUCH, _History of Arcadia_, 1791.
+
+  _b._ Argos. Even previously to the Dorian migration, the country of
+  Argolis was parcelled out into several small kingdoms, such as
+  those of Argos, Mycenæ, and Tiryns. In Argos, the oldest Grecian
+  state next to Sicyon, ruled the forefathers of Perseus, who
+  exchanged the kingdom of his ancestors for Tiryns: here his
+  successors continued to reign till the time of Hercules, whose
+  sons, expelled by Eurystheus, sought an asylum among the
+  Dorians.--In Mycenæ, said to have been built by Perseus, the throne
+  was occupied by the family of Pelops: and at the period of the
+  Trojan war, this little state, to which Corinth and Sicyon then
+  belonged, was the most powerful in Greece, and governed by
+  Agamemnon. The migration into this country by Pelops from Asia
+  Minor, must have been attended with important consequences, since
+  it has given a name to the whole peninsula: the object of Pelops,
+  as we may infer from the riches he brought with him, was probably
+  to establish a trading settlement.--At the Dorian conquest Argos
+  fell to the share of Temenus, the Achæans were expelled, and the
+  country was peopled by Dorians. As early as the reign of Cisus, son
+  of Temenus, the royal power was so limited, that the successors of
+  that prince hardly preserved any thing but the mere name: about 984
+  the regal dignity was wholly abrogated, and its place supplied by a
+  republican constitution, concerning the domestic organization of
+  which we know nothing more than that at Argos the government was in
+  the hands of a senate, ([Greek: boulê],) of a college of eighty
+  citizens, ([Greek: hoi ogdoêkonta],) and of magistrates, who bore
+  the name of [Greek: artynoi]: in Epidaurus, however, there was a
+  body of one hundred and eighty citizens who chose from among
+  themselves the senate, the members of which were called [Greek:
+  artynoi]. As in the other states of Greece so in Argolis, there
+  were as many independent states as there were cities; in the north
+  Argos, Mycenæ, and Tiryns; in the south Epidaurus and Troezen. The
+  two last preserved their independence; but Mycenæ was destroyed by
+  the Argives in 425, and the inhabitants of Tiryns were forcibly
+  transplanted to Argos. The district of Argos, therefore, comprised
+  the northern portion of the country called Argolis; but not the
+  southern portion, which belonged to the towns situated therein.
+
+  _c._ Corinth. In this place, previous to the time of the Dorian
+  migration, the house of Sisyphus held the royal power; and even at
+  that early period Corinth is extolled by Homer for its wealth. The
+  Dorians drove out the original inhabitants; and Aletes, belonging
+  to the race of Hercules, became king about 1089; the posterity of
+  that prince held the sceptre down to the fifth generation. After
+  the death of the last king, Telessus, 777, the family of the
+  Bacchiadæ, likewise a branch of the family of Hercules, took
+  possession of the government and introduced an oligarchy, electing
+  annually from among themselves a Prytane. At last, in 657, Cypselus
+  got the upper hand; he was succeeded, 627, by his son Periander;
+  both father and son were equally conspicuous for their avarice and
+  cruelty. Periander (_d._ 587) was succeeded by his nephew
+  Psammetichus, who reigned till 584, when the Corinthians asserted
+  their freedom. With regard to the internal organization of the
+  republic, little more is known than that there were at Corinth
+  assemblies of the commons and a senate, ([Greek: gerousia]): the
+  government appears to have been the aristocracy of a trading state;
+  for even the Bacchiadæ, at least some of them, were merchants.--The
+  Corinthian commerce consisted chiefly in the exchange of Asiatic
+  and Italian goods, and therefore was mostly carried on by sea: for
+  such a trade the city of Corinth offered many advantages,
+  particularly if we consider the state of navigation in those times;
+  but the sea trade of Corinth, however profitable to the citizens,
+  and even to the state, in consequence of the customs, cannot be
+  considered as very extensive.--The colonies of Corinth in the west
+  were principally Corcyra, Epidamnus, Leucas, Syracuse; in the east
+  Potidæa: these colonies would fain have asserted a sort of
+  independence, but never succeeded for any length of time in so
+  doing.
+
+  From the possession of these colonies, and from the necessity of
+  protecting the trader from pirates, Corinth grew to be a naval
+  power; she invented triremes, and at the early date of 664 gave
+  battle to the Corcyræans at sea. On the other hand, her wars by
+  land were generally waged with the assistance of foreign
+  subsidiaries; and from the facility with which she was enabled to
+  pay her mercenary troops, she was the more ready to interfere in
+  the domestic wars of Greece.
+
+  _d._ Sicyon. Tradition represents this state, together with Argos,
+  as the most ancient in Greece; the catalogues of early kings and
+  princes, who are said to have reigned at this place, make it
+  probable that in early antiquity some settlements of priests were
+  made in this quarter. In the times previous to the migration of the
+  Dorians, Sicyon was first inhabited by the Ionians; at the Trojan
+  war, however, it made part of Agamemnon's kingdom. At the Dorian
+  irruption, Phalces, son of Temenus, took possession of Sicyon,
+  which then became a Dorian city. After the abrogation of the
+  kingship, the date of which is not precisely known, the
+  constitution assumed the form of an uncurbed democracy, which, as
+  usual, paved the way for the usurpation of one individual.
+  Orthagoras and his posterity, the last and most celebrated of whom
+  was Clisthenes, ruled over Sicyon during a whole century; 700-600.
+  After the restoration of her freedom, Sicyon frequently suffered
+  from revolutions; and the period of her highest splendour was
+  during the latter days of Greece, when she became a member of the
+  Achæan league.
+
+  _e._ Achaia. During the spread of the Hellenes, this country, which
+  till then had borne the name of Ægialus, was taken possession of by
+  Ion, who had been expelled from Athens, and his tribe, who from
+  their leader took the name of Ionians: the country remained in the
+  hands of the Ionians until the Dorian migration, when the Achæans,
+  driven out of Argos and Laconia, pressed into the northern parts of
+  Peloponnesus under Tisamenus, son of Orestes: they settled in the
+  land of the Ionians, and the power of the chieftain descended to
+  his posterity, until the tyranny of the last sovereign of that
+  race, Gyges, (of date undetermined,) produced the abolition of
+  monarchy. Achaia thereupon was parcelled into twelve small
+  republics, or so many cities with their respective districts, each
+  of which comprised seven or eight cantons. All these republics had
+  democratic constitutions, and were mutually united by a league,
+  founded on the most perfect equality, and which nothing but the
+  policy of the Macedonian kings could dissolve; and even this
+  dissolution gave rise to the _Achæan_ league, of such high
+  importance in subsequent times. The Achæans lived in peace and
+  happiness, inasmuch as they had not the vanity, before the
+  Peloponnesian war, to interfere in the affairs of foreign states:
+  their constitutions were so renowned, that they were adopted by
+  several other Grecian cities.
+
+  _f._ Elis. The inhabitants in earlier times bore the name of
+  Epeans, which, like that of Eleans, was traced to one of their
+  ancient kings. The names of their most ancient hereditary princes,
+  Endymion, Epeus, Eleus, Augias, are celebrated by the poets. It
+  appears that this country was divided into several small kingdoms,
+  since, at the period of the Trojan war it contained four, to which
+  however must be added Pylus in Triphylia, a territory usually
+  reckoned as belonging to Elis. At the epoch of the Dorian migration
+  the Ætolians, who had accompanied the Dorians, headed by their
+  chieftain Oxylus, settled in Elis; but permitted the ancient
+  inhabitants to remain in the country. Among the successors of
+  Oxylus was Iphitus the contemporary of Lycurgus, and celebrated as
+  the restorer of the Olympian games, to the celebration of which
+  Elis was indebted for the tranquil splendour that distinguished her
+  from this time: her territory being regarded as sacred, although
+  she had occasional disputes with her neighbours, the Arcadians, for
+  precedence at the games. After the abolition of the royal power
+  supreme magistrates were chosen, to whose office was added the
+  charge of superintending the games: (Hellanodicæ). These
+  magistrates were at first two; they were afterwards increased to
+  ten, one from each tribe, although their number frequently changed
+  with that of the tribes themselves. There must likewise have been a
+  senate, consisting of ninety persons, who held their places for
+  life, since Aristotle makes mention of that branch of the Elean
+  constitution. The city of Elis was first built in 477, before which
+  time the Eleans resided in several small hamlets.
+
+II. _Central Greece, or Hellas._
+
+  _a._ Megaris. Until the epoch of the Dorian migration, this state
+  generally formed part of the domain of the Attic kings; or at
+  least was governed by princes of that house. Immediately previous
+  to that event, the Megarians, after the assassination of their
+  last sovereign, Hyperion, placed the government in the hands of
+  magistrates elected for stated periods. At the time of the Dorian
+  irruption, under the reign of Codrus, Megara was occupied by
+  Dorians, more especially those of Corinth, who consequently
+  reckoned the city among their colonies, and during the sway of the
+  Bacchiadæ endeavoured to keep it in a state of dependency; a
+  circumstance which gave rise to several wars. Nevertheless Megara
+  supported her rank as a separate state, both in those and many
+  subsequent wars among the Greeks, in which she took a share both
+  by sea and land. About the year 600, Theagenes, step-father of the
+  Athenian Cylon, had possessed himself of the supreme power: after
+  the expulsion of that tyrant, the republican constitution was once
+  more restored, but soon after merged into the lowest species of
+  democracy. Megara, however, even at the period of the Persian war,
+  in which it took a glorious share, appears to have recovered the
+  character of a well-ordered state, although we have no information
+  respecting its internal organization.
+
+  _b._ Boeotia. History mentions several very early races in
+  Boeotia, such as the Aones, Hyantes, etc.; with these were mingled
+  Phoenician emigrants, who had come into the country under the
+  guidance of Cadmus. The stock of Cadmus became the ruling family,
+  and remained so for a long time: the history of his descendants,
+  who were kings of Thebes, and comprised under their dominion the
+  greatest part of Boeotia, constitutes a main branch of Grecian
+  mythology: among them were Oedipus, Laïus, Eteocles, and
+  Polynices. After the capture of Thebes by the Epigoni, 1215, the
+  Boeotians were expelled by Thracian hordes, and settled at Arne in
+  Thessaly; at the time of the Dorian migration they returned to the
+  land of their forefathers, and mingled with the Æolians of those
+  quarters. Not long after, upon the death of Xuthus, royalty was
+  abolished, 1126. Boeotia was now divided into as many small states
+  as it contained cities; of these, next to Thebes, the most eminent
+  were the towns of Platææ, Thespiæ, Tanagra, and Chæronea, each of
+  which had its own separate district and peculiar form of
+  government; but all those constitutions appear to have been
+  commuted into oligarchies about the time of the Persian war. Such
+  had been the case even with Thebes, although she had received as a
+  legislator, Philolaus from Corinth; but the code given by this
+  individual cannot have been attended with the desired effect, as
+  the government was continually fluctuating between a licentious
+  democracy and an overbearing oligarchy. The Boeotian cities were,
+  however, mutually united by a league, at the head of which stood
+  Thebes, who gradually converted her right of precedence into a
+  right of power, although her ambitious attempts were resisted to
+  the last extremity by the separate cities, and by Platææ in
+  particular: hence sprung many wars. The general affairs were
+  decided upon in four assemblies, ([Greek: boulai],) held in the
+  four districts into which Boeotia was divided; these assemblies in
+  conjunction elected eleven Boeotarchs, who stood at the head of
+  the federation as supreme magistrates and field marshals. The
+  great extent and population of their territory might have enabled
+  the Boeotians to act the first part on the theatre of Greece, had
+  they not been impeded by their pernicious form of government, by
+  the envy felt against Thebes, and by the want of union which
+  naturally ensued. Yet in subsequent times the example of
+  Epaminondas and Pelopidas gave proof that the genius of two men
+  was sufficient to surmount all these obstacles.
+
+  _c._ Phocis was originally ruled by kings descended, it is said,
+  from Phocus, the leader of a colony from Corinth. The sovereign
+  power was abolished about the time of the Dorian migration; but
+  the form of the republican constitution which succeeded remains
+  undetermined; and of the undertakings of the Phocians previous to
+  the Persian invasion, we know nothing more than that they waged
+  war with the Thessalians, and were successful. As history never
+  mentions the Phocians but in the aggregate, the whole territory
+  must have formed but one independent state. To that state,
+  however, the city of Delphi, which had its own constitution, did
+  not belong: the city of Crissa with its fertile district, and the
+  harbour of Cirrha, constituted a separate state, which became
+  opulent by practising extortions upon the pilgrims to Delphi: this
+  state lasted till 600, when, in consequence of the insults of the
+  Crissæans to the Delphian oracle, a war was proclaimed against
+  them by the Amphictyons, which ended in 590 with the rasing of
+  Crissa; the land of which was thenceforward added to the sacred
+  glebe of Delphi.
+
+  _d._ Locris. Although we learn from early history that the
+  Locrians also had their kings,--among whom Ajax, the son of
+  Oileus, is renowned in the Trojan war,--and that they likewise in
+  subsequent times adopted a republican form of government; yet the
+  date of that revolution, and the manner in which it was brought
+  about, are not known. The three tribes of Locrians remained
+  politically distinct. The Locri Ozolæ, west of Phocis, possessed
+  the most extensive territory; each city of which stood
+  independent, though Amphissa is mentioned as the capital. The
+  country of the Locri Opuntii, eastward, consisted of the district
+  appertaining to the city of Opus; of their domestic organization,
+  as well as that of their neighbours, the Locri Epicnemidii, we
+  know nothing.
+
+  _e._ Ætolia. The Ætolians remained the most rude and uncivilized
+  of all the Hellenic races; they were little more than a band of
+  freebooters, and carried on their predatory excursions both by sea
+  and land. Renowned as are the names of their earliest heroes,
+  Ætolus, Peneus, Meleager, Diomede, the nation has no place in the
+  history of the flourishing times of Greece. Nor did they acquire
+  any celebrity until the Macedo-Roman period, when the various
+  insignificant tribes of which they were composed gathered
+  themselves together and chose one common leader, for the purpose
+  of carrying on a war with the Achæans. The earlier period of
+  their history seems, however, to afford no previous example of
+  such an union; their political constitution in those times is
+  wholly unknown.
+
+  _f._ Acarnania. This country derived its name from Acarnan, son of
+  Alcmæon, both of whom are adduced as its earliest kings. In the
+  Trojan age it appears beyond a doubt, that some part at least of
+  this country was subject to the governors of the island of Ithaca.
+  When and how a republican government was introduced among the
+  Acarnanians, and what were the peculiarities of that government we
+  know not. All that can be distinguished through the veil of time
+  is, that here likewise the different cities, the most important of
+  which was Stratus, had each its own form of government. Those
+  cities upon particular emergencies were wont to combine; and out
+  of that practice in later times, during the Macedonian period,
+  grew up a permanent confederation. The city and district of Argos
+  Amphilochicum constituted a separate state, which endured a long
+  time, and flourished greatly; it derived its name from
+  Amphilochus, the founder. The inhabitants, however, being driven
+  out by the Ambracians, whom they had themselves called in, sought
+  assistance at the hands of the Acarnanians, who with the help of
+  Athens, replaced the exiles in possession of their city, which
+  thenceforward was inhabited in common by Amphilochians and
+  Acarnanians, and was almost constantly engaged in war with
+  Ambracia.
+
+III. _Northern Greece._
+
+  _a._ The importance of Thessaly in the earliest history of Greece,
+  may be gathered from the principal data enumerated above for the
+  history of the Pelasgi and the Hellenes. From this country it was
+  that the Hellenes proceeded and spread over Greece; and here
+  likewise they maintained their original seat. In the Trojan age
+  Thessaly contained ten small kingdoms, governed by hereditary
+  princes, several of whom, such as Achilles and Philoctetes, were
+  among the most renowned heroes of the time. In the period
+  subsequent to the Trojan war and the Dorian migration, Thessaly
+  must have experienced political revolutions similar to those of
+  the other Grecian countries; but neither the time nor the manner
+  in which those revolutions occurred can be ascertained. All that
+  can be deduced from the subsequent history is, that if the
+  Thessalian cities ever did recover their political freedom, they
+  were unable to maintain it; for in the two most eminent cities,
+  Pheræ and Larissa, with whose history that of the whole country is
+  closely connected, the supreme power had fallen into the hands of
+  arbitrary individuals, who appear to have kept possession of it
+  almost without interruption. Even before the breaking out of the
+  Persian war, Larissa was under the rule of the Aleuadæ; a family
+  who claimed descent from Hercules, and are specially denominated
+  by Herodotus kings of the Thessalians. They preserved their power
+  until the Macedonian period.--In Pheræ there arose about the year
+  380, a tyrant, by the name of Jason, who extended his dominion not
+  only over Thessaly, but likewise over several of the neighbouring
+  barbarous tribes. The sceptre of Jason passed rapidly and
+  successively into the hands of his three brothers, Polydorus,
+  Polyphron, and Alexander. The last was first driven out of Larissa
+  by the Aleuadæ, assisted by the Macedonians; was afterwards
+  worsted in war by Pelopidas; and finally, at the instigation of
+  his wife Thebe, was murdered, 356, by her brothers, Lycophron and
+  Tisiphonus. The two murderers then assumed the supreme power, but
+  were, in compliance with the request of the Aleuadæ, deposed by
+  Philip of Macedon.--Some other such tyrants are met with at
+  intervals in the rest of the Thessalian cities, such as
+  _Pharsalus_, etc.
+
+  _b._ Epirus. This country was occupied by several tribes, partly
+  Greek and partly barbarian. The most powerful of these was that of
+  the Molossi, who were governed by kings of the house of the
+  Æacidæ, descendants of Pyrrhus, the son of Achilles. This Greek
+  family was the only one that held the kingly power for a
+  permanency; it must be observed, however, that previous to the
+  Macedonian period, those sovereigns were by no means lords of the
+  whole of Epirus; for the other non-Hellenic races, such as the
+  Thesprotii, Orestii, etc. had their own separate kings. Moreover
+  the Corinthian colony of Ambracia constituted a distinct state,
+  generally governed as a republic, although sometimes subject to
+  the rule of tyrants. But, in consequence of an alliance framed
+  with the Macedonian kings, the whole of Epirus, and even Ambracia
+  itself, was placed under the sceptre of the Molossian kings; and
+  some of those princes, Pyrrhus II. more especially, rose to be
+  mighty conquerors. See below.
+
+IV. _Grecian Islands._
+
+  Both the islands off the coast of Greece, and those of the
+  Archipelago, all underwent the same political revolutions as
+  occurred in the states on the main land. But those events did not
+  take place till after the more ancient non-Hellenic inhabitants,
+  such as the Phoenicians, Carians, etc. had been driven out, and
+  the land had been taken possession of by the Hellenes. In the more
+  extensive islands, which contained several cities, there generally
+  arose as many small republics as there were towns, and those
+  little states were wont to enter into mutual alliances. The
+  smaller islands, containing but one city, formed each one small
+  independent state, the territory of which comprised the whole
+  island. The respective independence of these islands ceased to
+  exist at the period of the Trojan war; for after the Athenians had
+  by their success placed themselves at the head of confederate
+  Greece, and possessed themselves of the sovereignty of the sea,
+  these smaller states, although called confederates, were treated
+  little better than subjects, except that their political
+  constitutions were not changed.--Among the islands of the Grecian
+  coast, the most remarkable in history are the following:
+
+  _a._ Corcyra, a colony of Corinth, important for its naval power
+  and trade, in which it rivalled the mother state itself: a rivalry
+  which occasioned many feuds and wars, and was even one of the
+  principal motives that led to the Peloponnesian war. About the
+  time this struggle began Corcyra had attained the height of her
+  power, being able, without foreign aid, to man a fleet of 120
+  galleys. The constitution appears, as at Corinth, to have been
+  aristocratic, or oligarchical: but after the Persian war a
+  democratic faction arose, which produced the most violent internal
+  commotions, and ended in the total ruin of Corcyra.
+
+  _b._ Ægina. This small island was, after the Dorian migration,
+  occupied by colonists from Epidaurus; it however soon shook off
+  the yoke of the mother city, and rapidly grew by commerce and
+  navigation, to be one of the first Grecian states. Ægina was for a
+  long time the rival of Athens; over whom her naval power enabled
+  her to maintain a superiority until the time of the Persian war.
+  Humbled, however, by Themistocles, 485, she could no longer
+  support herself against the preponderating influence of Athens;
+  and although subsequently she made another stand for independence,
+  458, the consequences were but an increase of oppression. Neither
+  must it be forgotten, that Ægina suffered much, even before the
+  Persian war, from internal broils, caused by the bitterness of
+  party spirit engendered between the aristocratic and democratic
+  factions.
+
+  C. O. MUELLER, _Ægineticorum liber_, 1817. This treatise contains
+  not only the political history, but likewise that of trade and
+  arts.
+
+  _c._ Euboea. The different cities of this island, Chalcis and
+  Eretria in particular, had each its separate domestic
+  constitution: in the two towns above mentioned the constitution
+  was aristocratic, since the government was in the hands of the
+  opulent, (Hippobatæ;) nevertheless we hear of tyrants in Chalcis.
+  After the Persian war Euboea became dependent upon Athens, which
+  drew from that island a portion of her supplies and provisions.
+  The oppression of the Athenians stirred up the minds of the
+  Euboeans to rebellion, and the islanders were in the sequel ever
+  ready to throw up their allegiance when a suitable opportunity
+  presented itself; such an opportunity was seized in 446, when the
+  island was recovered by Pericles; and the attempt was renewed in
+  the Peloponnesian war.
+
+  _d._ The Cyclades were first colonized by Crete, during the reign
+  of Minos. The Carian race had in earlier times spread over these
+  islands, but were gradually driven out by Hellenic invaders,
+  belonging principally to the Ionian and Dorian families. The most
+  important was Delos, chief seat of the Ionians. Sheltered under
+  the protection of Apollo, this place became the centre of an
+  extensive trade, and during the Persian war, 479, was selected for
+  the treasury of Greece. Next was Paros, famed for its marble, and
+  for the stand it made against Miltiades, 489, although it
+  afterwards shared the fate of the other islands, and passed under
+  the dominion of the Athenians. We know little of the constitution
+  of the other smaller islands; each of them contained one city of
+  the same name as the island which constituted its territory.
+
+  _e._ Crete. The inhabitants of Crete were not pure Hellenes, but
+  of alloyed origin, such as Curetes, Pelasgi, etc. mingled with
+  whom were Hellenes, of the Dorian and Æolían stock. In the earlier
+  periods, Crete had her kings, the most celebrated of whom were
+  Minos, about 1300, probably first sovereign of the whole island;
+  his brother Rhadamanthus, Idomeneus, Meriones, who followed
+  Idomeneus to the Trojan war, and succeeded him upon the throne:
+  the last king Etearchus, about 800, after whose death a republican
+  form of government was introduced. Under these kings Crete was
+  powerful on sea: to Minos is ascribed the honour of having by his
+  fleets purged the Ægæan of pirates, occupied the islands, and
+  ensured security to the mariner. To him likewise is attributed the
+  Cretan legislation, the model, it is said, of that given to Sparta
+  by Lycurgus. But the uncertainty as to what does and what does not
+  belong to Minos, is in this case even greater than in that of
+  Lycurgus; many of the laws referred to Minos are probably nothing
+  more than ancient Dorian institutions. The insular situation which
+  in some measure ensured Crete from foreign inroads, and the
+  proximity of Egypt and Phoenicia must indubitably have contributed
+  to expand the germ of political civilization. The abolition of the
+  kingly office seems to have been the effect of internal
+  commotions, to which Crete continued to be frequently exposed,
+  even under a republican form of government. Those commotions
+  originated in the jealousy between the two largest cities, Gortina
+  and Cnossus, which, when united, ruled the rest; but when at war,
+  shook the whole island, until the city of Cydonia, passing over to
+  one of the sides, gave a turn to the balance. The laws instituted
+  by Minos respecting private life were enforced in all the cities
+  of the island; but declined at an earlier period than in the
+  country. Each city had its own constitution; each possessed it
+  senate, ([Greek: gerousia],) at the head of which were ten
+  censors, ([Greek: kosmoi],) chosen from certain families: these
+  cosmi were not only prime magistrates, but likewise invested with
+  the command in war, not often, it is true, waged by the Cretans
+  against other nations, but, for that reason, more frequently with
+  one another; a circumstance which must have necessarily
+  contributed to corrupt, not only their constitution, but likewise
+  their national character.
+
+  MEURSII _Creta, Rhodus, Cyprus_, 1675, 4to. Very laborious
+  compilations. New light, however, has been thrown upon the subject
+  by the inscriptions published in
+
+  CHISHULL'S _Antiq. Asiaticæ_; 1728, folio. A work which has been
+  made use of by
+
+  ST. CROIX, _Des anciens gouvernemens_, etc. (See above, p. 131.)
+  The principal work upon Crete.
+
+  # C. HOECK, Crete. An attempt to explain the mythology, history,
+  etc. of this island, 1823.
+
+  _f._ Cyprus. This island, like Crete, was inhabited by a race of
+  mixed origin, who, even in the time of Herodotus, traced their
+  descent from Phoenicians, Africans, (Ethiopians,) from Greeks out
+  of Arcadia, Attica, and the island of Salamis; of which last the
+  city of Salamis, founded by Teucer about 1160, was a colony. There
+  can be no doubt, that in earlier times the Phoenicians were for a
+  long period the dominant race in the island; since in the
+  flourishing days of Tyre the Cyprians rebelled against their
+  oppressors, at the same time that Psalmanezer led an expedition
+  against the former city, about 720: moreover, even in the present
+  day, Phoenician monuments are still found in the island. From that
+  time to the Persian period, there appears to have been a close
+  connection between this island and the Phoenicians, although the
+  Cyprians preserved their independence. Several smaller kingdoms
+  afterwards arose in various cities of the island; the number of
+  which in subsequent times amounted to nine, and under Amasis,
+  about 550, were tributary to the Egyptians; and under Cambyses,
+  525, to the Persians: notwithstanding this species of subjection,
+  the various states preserved their own kings. During the Persian
+  dominion, the Cyprians more than once joined in the insurrections
+  against the Persians; more particularly the kings of Salamis, now
+  become the most powerful. So early as the year 500, Onesilus
+  joined the Ionian rebels, but was defeated. In the wars which
+  afterwards ensued between the Persians and Greeks, Cyprus was
+  frequently attacked by the combined Grecian fleets; as in 470 by
+  Pausanias, and during the reign of Evagoras I. 449, by Cimon, who
+  died at the siege of Citium; yet the Persians were not driven out,
+  but appear to have kept their footing even after the peace of 449.
+  Among the subsequent kings of Salamis was Evagoras II. (400-390,)
+  who was master of the greatest portion of the island; but as in
+  the peace of Antalcidas Cyprus was ceded to the Persians, he was
+  obliged to wage a hot war against them, in which he lost every
+  thing but Salamis. Finally, the Cyprians, in 356, took a part in
+  the insurrection of the Phoenicians and Egyptians: thereupon the
+  Persians sent an army against them, under the command of a younger
+  Evagoras, (who had been banished by his uncle Protagoras,) and
+  under that of the Athenian Phocion Salamis was besieged, but
+  matters were made up by a negotiation. The nine small kingdoms of
+  the island continued to exist till the time of Alexander, whom
+  they voluntarily joined during the siege of Tyre, 332, and
+  thenceforward Cyprus constituted a part of the Macedonian
+  monarchy.
+
+
+2. _History of the Grecian Colonies._
+
+  To assist the student in obtaining a general view of the events
+  connected with the Greek colonies, the history of them will be
+  here carried on through the subsequent period.
+
+  RAOUL ROCHETTE, _Histoire critique de l'établissement des Colonies
+  Grecques_, Paris, 1815, 4 vols. The most comprehensive treatise on
+  the subject: it comprises the earlier Pelasgian and the later
+  Macedonian colonies, as well as those of the Hellenes. There is
+  much erudition displayed in this work, but sufficient attention is
+  not paid to the value of the authorities made use of.
+
+  # D. H. HEGEWISCH, _Geographic and Historic Documents relative to
+  the Colonies of the Greeks_, Altona, 1808, 8vo. A brief review of
+  the subject.
+
+  ST. CROIX, _De l'état et du sort des Colonies des anciens
+  peuples_, Paris, 1786. A series of valuable and important
+  enquiries.
+
+1. No nation of antiquity ever founded so many colonies as the Greeks:
+these colonies became so important in various respects, that an
+acquaintance with them is indispensably requisite towards understanding
+the more early history of the world. Not only is the history of the
+civilization of the mother country and that of early trade intimately
+connected with these settlements, but some of them grew to such power as
+to have the greatest influence on political history.
+
+2. The Grecian colonies, to which the following observations apply, are
+those founded by the Hellenes in the time which elapsed between the
+Dorian migration and the Macedonian period. It appears certain that
+before the date of that migration some Pelasgian, and perhaps even some
+Hellenic settlers passed over into Italy. The history of these colonies
+however is not only involved in obscurity, but it is besides known that
+they ceased after a time to be Greek. The later settlements of the
+Macedonians were of a quite different nature from those of the Hellenes,
+to which we now allude.
+
+3. The Hellenic race spread alike to the east and to the west of Greece,
+their settlements, however, were confined to the shores of the
+Mediterranean and Black sea. The countries in which their principal
+colonies were established, were Asia Minor and Thrace in the east; the
+coasts of Lower Italy and Sicily in the west. Nevertheless particular
+settlements were to be found scattered here and there on the shores of
+most other countries.
+
+4. The Grecian colonies had their origin either in political motives,
+being generally made in accordance with the express command or advice of
+an oracle, (for the propagation of the religion of the parent state was
+always connected therewith,) or, in commercial speculations; the former
+was the case, almost without exception, with the settlements made by the
+mother country herself; the latter, with those which had branched out of
+such colonies as had already exalted themselves by their commerce. In
+fact, almost all the Grecian colonies applied more or less to trade,
+even when that was not the sole object of their foundation.
+
+5. The connection existing between the colonies and the mother cities
+was generally determined by the same causes that led to their
+foundation. In those cases where a city had been founded by malcontent
+or banished emigrants, all dependence on the mother country was
+naturally out of the question; and even in the colonies established for
+the purposes of trade, that dependence was but feeble and brief; the
+mother cities failing in power, if not in will, to enforce it. The very
+independence of so many colonies, made (almost without exception) in
+countries preeminently favoured by nature in productions and climate,
+and so situated as to oblige the inhabitants to navigation and commerce,
+must have given a great impulse to the civilization of the Hellenic
+race, and may be regarded as the main cause of its rapid progress and
+wide extension; wider indeed than that of any other nation of the
+ancient world. What a variety of political ideas must have been formed
+among a people whose settlements, more than a hundred in number, had
+each its own peculiar form of government.
+
+6. Of the Greek colonies, the most ancient, and in many respects the
+most important, were those along the western coast of Asia Minor,
+extending from the Hellespont to the boundary of Cilicia. Here, ever
+since the Trojan war, which first made these countries generally known,
+Hellenes of the three great families, Æolians, Ionians, and Dorians had
+planted settlements. These were the most important for trade; and here
+likewise in the native country of Homer, the father of Grecian
+civilization, of Alcæus, and of Sappho, poesy, both epic and lyric,
+expanded her first and fairest blossoms; and hence too, the mother
+country herself received the first impulse of moral and cultivated
+taste.
+
+  1. The Æolian colonies. Their original foundation dates about 1124:
+  they appear to have been a consequence of the Dorian migration,
+  having been established during that great movement in Greece. The
+  Pelopidæ, who had been driven out of Peloponnesus, Orestes, his son
+  Penthilus, his grandson Archelaus, and his great grandson Grais,
+  successively headed the emigrants, who proceeded slowly by land,
+  divided, it appears, into several companies, with which some
+  Boeotians and others gradually coalesced. In Asia they occupied the
+  coasts of Mysia and Caria; a strip of land which from thence
+  derived the appellation of Æolis. They moreover possessed the
+  islands of Lesbos, Tenedos, and the Hecatonnesi. On the main land,
+  in the quarter named from them Æolis, they erected twelve cities,
+  the most eminent of which were Cyme and Smyrna; the latter,
+  however, afterwards fell into the hands of the Ionians. But their
+  chief settlements were on the island of Lesbos; here they inhabited
+  five cities, at the head of which, and likewise of all their other
+  colonies, stood Mitylene. They had likewise spread inland as far as
+  mount Ida. All these towns were independent of one another, and
+  possessed their own peculiar forms of government: our information,
+  however, respecting these constitutions extends no further than to
+  enable us to ascertain that they were subject to many disorders,
+  which it was often attempted to quell by nominating rulers of
+  unlimited power, under the title of Æsymnetæ. These were elected
+  sometimes for a stipulated period, at others for life; the most
+  celebrated of the number was Pittacus of Mitylene, who flourished
+  about 600, and was the contemporary of Sappho and Alcæus. The
+  Æolians maintained their independence till the time of Cyrus, with
+  the exception of Smyrna, which as early as 600, was captured and
+  destroyed by the Lydians, and not rebuilt till four hundred years
+  afterwards, when it was restored by Antigonus, and entered upon its
+  flourishing period. The cities of the main land were compelled to
+  acknowledge the supremacy of the Persian conqueror; but not the
+  islands. The Æolian cities were not leagued together by any
+  permanent bond; it was only in peculiar cases that they debated in
+  common. Mitylene, which they all regarded as their capital, was
+  the only one of their colonies that became rich by trade, and
+  formidable by its naval power. Yet in 470 it was tributary to
+  Athens; having seceded in 428, at the time of the Peloponnesian
+  war, it was recaptured and almost levelled to the earth by the
+  Athenians.
+
+  2. The Ionian colonies. These were, no doubt, founded at a later
+  period than those of the Æolians; like them, however, they were a
+  consequence of the Dorian migration. The Ionians, driven out of
+  Peloponnesus by the Achæans, had withdrawn to Athens, from whence,
+  sixty years afterwards, that is to say about 1044, they proceeded
+  by sea to Asia, headed by Neleus and others of the sons of Codrus.
+  They were joined, however, by some Thebans, Phocians, Euboean
+  Abantes, and various other Greeks. In Asia they settled on the
+  southern coast of Lydia and the northern shore of Caria; which,
+  together with the islands of Samos and Chios, took from them the
+  name of Ionia. Here they built twelve cities on the main land;
+  namely, reckoning from north to south, Phocæa, Erythræ, Clazomene,
+  Teos, Lebedus, Colophon, Ephesus, Priene, Myus, Miletus, and in the
+  islands, Samos and Chios. They possessed in common one sanctuary,
+  the Panionium temple of Neptune, built on the headland of Mycale.
+  Here they celebrated their festivals, and assembled to deliberate
+  upon matters affecting the general interest, although it must still
+  be remembered that each city was in itself independent. This
+  independence was maintained until the time of the Lydian dynasty of
+  the Mermnadæ, and that of Cyrus, under whose reign they were
+  compelled to submit to the Persian yoke. Still, under the Persian
+  rule, they for the most part preserved their own form of
+  government, and were subject only so much as they had to pay
+  tribute. Nevertheless they seized every opportunity of delivering
+  themselves from this species of thraldom; and hence their history
+  in the following period is closely interwoven with that of Greece.
+  The political constitution was, no doubt, at an early period
+  republican in all; but these colonies likewise were oppressed by
+  continual factions, and frequently by tyrants. Among the towns
+  situate on the continent, the most remarkable were Miletus,
+  Ephesus, and Phocæa. Miletus was the principal seat of trade. It
+  had been founded by the Carians before the arrival of the Ionians;
+  but was by the latter raised to opulence and power. The most
+  flourishing period of its existence was between 700-500: in the
+  latter year it was implicated in the insurrection of Aristagoras
+  against the Persians, in consequence of which it was destroyed in
+  496. From that time Miletus never recovered its ancient splendour.
+  Nevertheless, in the days of her prosperity Miletus was, next to
+  Tyre and Carthage, the first emporium of the world. Her sea trade
+  was chiefly carried on in the Euxine, and the Palus Mæotis, whose
+  shores, on all sides, were occupied by her colonies, amounting,
+  according to some authorities, to more than a hundred. By means of
+  these settlements she monopolized the whole of the northern trade
+  in pulse, dry fish, slaves, and furs. Her land trade was carried on
+  by the great _military_ road, constructed by the Persians, far into
+  the interior of Asia. Four harbours admitted her vessels; and her
+  naval power was so great, that she had been known, more than once,
+  to fit out, unaided, fleets of from eighty to a hundred
+  sail.--Phocæa. The flourishing period of this establishment was
+  contemporary with that of Miletus; but ended at the rise of the
+  Persian dominion, 540, when the Phocæans, rather than submit to the
+  Persian yoke, chose to forsake the city of their fathers and
+  migrate to Corsica, although one half of the inhabitants repented
+  of their resolution and returned. Phocæa had the most extensive
+  trade by sea of all the Grecian cities; they were to the west what
+  the Milesians were to the north. Their navigation extended as far
+  as Gades; and they not only visited the coasts of Italy, Gaul, and
+  Corsica, but even founded colonies in these countries; as for
+  instance, Aleria in Corsica, Elea in Italy, and, above all,
+  Massilea, (Marseilles,) on the coast of Gaul.--Ephesus. This city
+  was likewise originally founded by the Carians, but subsequently
+  occupied by the Ionians. Its independence was maintained until the
+  time of Croesus, who annexed it to his other conquests about 560.
+  The constitution was aristocratic; the government being in the
+  hands of a senate, ([Greek: gerousia],) combined with the
+  magistrates, ([Greek: epiklêtoi]): and the family which had once
+  possessed the throne preserved certain prerogatives. Ephesus was
+  not so important in a commercial point of view as Phocæa and
+  Miletus; but was much celebrated for its temple of Diana, which in
+  355 was fired by Erostratus, and afterwards rebuilt with more
+  sumptuous splendour. The flourishing period of Ephesus appears to
+  have commenced at this time, long after that of Miletus and Phocæa
+  had terminated; for both in the Macedonian and Roman ages Ephesus
+  was regarded as the first city of Asia Minor.--Of the cities on
+  the islands, Samos was the most important, for its trade, and for
+  its naval power. The period of its splendour was under the reign of
+  the tyrant Polycrates, 540-523, whose sway extended over the sea
+  and islets of the neighbourhood. Syloson, brother to the tyrant,
+  having by the assistance of the Persians, 517, obtained possession
+  of Samos, the island was almost depopulated. Soon afterwards Samos
+  became dependent upon the Athenians, who in 440 introduced a
+  democratic form of government, and made it the rendezvous for her
+  troops and fleets during the war with Sparta.--Chios was scarcely
+  inferior to Samos, either in power or wealth. It submitted to the
+  Persian yoke with the rest of the Ionian colonies; but was so
+  powerful, that in 500, at the insurrection of Aristagoras,
+  ninety-eight sail of the combined fleet belonged to Chios. After
+  the defeat of Xerxes, 469, it entered into the Athenian league,
+  from which it endeavoured to secede in the Peloponnesian war, 412.
+  The naval power of the Chians was still considerable; and those
+  islanders had the high honour of not suffering prosperity to
+  inflate them with overweening ambition.
+
+  F. G. RAMBACH, _De Mileto ejusque coloniis_, 1790, 4to.
+
+  3. The Dorian colonies. These were situated in Asia Minor, upon the
+  southern coast of Caria, and in the islands of Cos and Rhodes, but
+  were all planted at a later period than the Ionian colonies, and,
+  no doubt, were the result of successive migrations. The Dorians
+  appear to have gradually spread beyond Peloponnesus, over the
+  islands of the Archipelago to the Asiatic coast: in Rhodes they
+  erected the cities of Ialyssus, Camirus, and Lindus; in Cos a city
+  of the same name; on the main land two cities, Halicarnassus and
+  Cnidus. These six ancient colonies had, like the Ionians, one
+  common sanctuary, the temple of Apollo Triopius, where they
+  celebrated their festivals and held their deliberative assemblies.
+  Halicarnassus, however, was afterwards excluded from the
+  confederation. They remained independent until the Persian period,
+  although the constitutions of the separate cities were subject to
+  violent revolutions; thus at Cnidus the oligarchy was converted
+  into a democracy; Halicarnassus was likewise generally subject to
+  the Carian sovereigns, among whom Mausolus and Artemisia are names
+  familiar to all.--The three cities in Rhodes appear never to have
+  grown to any importance; that of Rhodes, not built till after the
+  irruption of Xerxes into Greece, 480, soon eclipsed the others: its
+  flourishing period began after the death of Alexander. At no
+  period of early history could the Dorian colonies, or those of the
+  Æolians, compete in wealth and commerce with the Ionians.
+
+7. The shores of the Propontis, the Black sea, and the Palus Mæotis,
+were likewise covered with Grecian settlements. Nearly all these were
+colonies of the city of Miletus alone, and were, without exception, all
+of them the marts of a prosperous trade. Although the date of each
+cannot be precisely defined, they must have arisen between the eighth
+and sixth centuries before the Christian era. They were not only
+sovereigns of the Black sea, but likewise extended their trade over the
+whole of southern Russia, and eastward to the regions beyond the Caspian
+sea; that is, to great Bukharia.
+
+  On the Propontis stood Lampsacus (adjoining the Hellespont) and
+  Cyzicus, on an island connected with the continent by means of
+  bridges. The latter town certainly was one of the most beautiful
+  and flourishing cities of Asia; but this did not occur until the
+  Roman age, and was in consequence of the fostering protection of
+  the Romans.--Opposite to Cyzicus, on the Thracian coast, was
+  Perinthus, subsequently called Heraclea; at the mouth of the
+  Thracian Bosporus stood Byzantium, over against which was
+  Chalcedon. The prosperity of all these towns affords sufficient
+  proof of the skill with which sites were chosen for the
+  establishment of colonies.
+
+  HEYNE, _Antiquities Byzantina: Commentationes duæ_, 1809. The first
+  of which contains the fragments of the earlier history of
+  Byzantium.
+
+  The colonies of the Black sea were: on the southern coast of
+  Bithynia, Heraclea, in the territory of the Maryandini. This place
+  preserved its republican constitution amid frequent broils and
+  revolutions, brought about by the oligarchic and democratic
+  factions, until about B. C. 370, when the democrats having gained
+  the upper hand, a path was opened to Clearchus, who became tyrant,
+  and abrogated the senate, ([Greek: boulê?]) the family of the
+  tyrant continued for a long time in possession of power, after he
+  himself had been murdered by two disciples of Plato.--In
+  Paphlagonia was Sinope, the most powerful of all the Grecian
+  settlements on the Black sea, of which it long held the
+  sovereignty. The freedom and independence of this place lasted to
+  about 100, when it fell under the dominion of the kings of Pontus,
+  and afterwards under that of the Romans. The principal source from
+  which it derived its wealth were the shoals of migratory fish
+  ([Greek: pêlamydes],) which, issuing from the Palus Mæotis, spread
+  along the shore of the Black sea down to the Thracian Bosporus.--In
+  Pontus was Amisus, the mother city of Trapezus, and which shared
+  the fate of Sinope.--On the eastern coast stood the cities of
+  Phasis, Dioscurias, and Phanagoria: this last was the principal
+  mart of the slave trade, and, during the Macedonian period, the
+  staple for Indian commodities imported across the Oxus and the
+  Caspian sea.--In the Chersonesus Taurica stood Panticapæum, capital
+  city of the little Grecian kingdom of Bosporus, whose kings (among
+  whom Spartacus, about 439, and more especially Leucon, about 350,
+  are celebrated) remained in alliance with Athens till Mithridates
+  the Great laid there the foundation of his dominion.--On the
+  northern coast was the city of Tanais, on the mouth of a river of
+  the same name at the bottom of the Palus Mæotis. Olbia was situated
+  at the mouth of the Borysthenes. These two places, and Olbia in
+  particular, were of the highest importance for the inland trade,
+  which issuing from thence in a northern and easterly direction, was
+  extended to the very centre of Asia.--The colonies of the western
+  coast, such as Apollonia, Tomi, and Salmidessus, were of less
+  notoriety.
+
+8. The coast of Thrace and Macedonia, washed by the Ægæan sea, was
+likewise covered with Grecian colonies, from various cities, and
+especially from Corinth and Athens. The Athenians having obtained in the
+Persian war the sovereignty of the sea, endeavoured to establish their
+dominion in this part of the world; hence the cities in that quarter
+were closely implicated in the quarrels and wars excited, first by the
+jealousy between Sparta and Athens, and afterwards by that which sprang
+up between Athens and Macedonia, in the reign of Philip.
+
+  On the Thracian coast of the Chersonesus, regarded as the key of
+  Europe, and ranging along the Hellespont, were the towns of Sestos,
+  Cardia, and Ægospotamos; farther to the west stood Maronea and
+  Abdera, the latter a colony of Teos. Of far greater importance,
+  however, were the towns on the Macedonian coast, Amphipolis,
+  Chalcis, Olynthus, Potidæa. The first of these towns, founded about
+  B. C. 464, was a colony from Athens, which endeavoured to keep it
+  in a state of dependence. Chalcis was a colony from a city of the
+  same name in Euboea. In 470 it was dependent on Athens; but in 432,
+  the inhabitants having raised the standard of rebellion, forsook
+  their houses and voluntarily withdrew to Olynthus.--Olynthus
+  derived its name from the founder, one of the sons of Hercules: in
+  the course of time it ranked among the most powerful cities of
+  Thrace, although it was tributary to the Athenians. It took a share
+  in the war between Athens and Sparta, and continued to be a
+  flourishing city until 348, when it was taken by Philip of Macedon,
+  and destroyed.--Potidæa was a colony of Corinth, from which it
+  received annual magistrates, ([Greek: epidêmiourgoi],) having
+  become tributary to Athens after the Persian war, it revolted in
+  431: obliged to yield to the Athenian arms, its inhabitants were
+  expelled, and their place supplied by an Athenian colony. It now
+  became a possession of Athens, and remained so till it was taken by
+  Philip in 358.
+
+9. The Grecian settlements westward of the mother country were, almost
+without exception, made at a later period than those in the Ægean and
+Black seas: they reached nevertheless to an equal degree of splendour;
+and though their trade was not so extensive, it was equally profitable:
+these colonies not only rivalled those we have above described, in
+wealth, but surpassed them in power, being generally characterized by
+the wisdom and prudence displayed in their respective constitutions. The
+foundation of most of them may be dated between B. C. 750 and 650;
+consequently at a period when all the cities in the mother country had
+already been republicanized: and at a time when there could be no lack
+of domestic troubles, which would furnish sufficient motives for
+emigration.
+
+  1. Grecian settlements in Lower Italy. The most numerous and
+  important of these were scattered around the bay of Tarentum; they
+  extended likewise along the western coast of Italy up to Naples.
+  These colonies were variously traced to the Dorian, Achæan, and
+  Ionian families: they were likewise distinguished by political
+  characteristics, the government in the Dorian settlements being
+  generally more aristocratic, in the rest more democratic: it must
+  be observed, however, that, with respect to the various revolutions
+  which the respective constitutions underwent, it is hardly possible
+  to give any general information, excepting so far as regards the
+  earliest times. Of Dorian origin were Tarentum, and its colonies
+  Heraclea and Brundusium. Of Achæan origin were Sybaris and Croton,
+  together with the colonies of the latter, Laus, Metapontum,
+  Posidonia; which last founded in its turn, Terina, Caulonia, and
+  Pandosia. Of Ionian origin were Thurii, (built on the site where
+  Sybaris had formerly stood,) Rhegium, Elea, Cumæ, and its branch
+  settlement of Neapolis. Locri Epizephyrii, a colony of the Locri
+  Ozolæ, may be regarded as an Æolian city. The most remarkable of
+  these cities in respect of general history are:
+
+  _a._ Tarentum, founded by the Parthenii, from Sparta, about 707. It
+  waged several wars with the aboriginal tribes in the vicinity, the
+  Messapians, Lucanians, etc. and grew to be one of the richest and
+  most powerful of the maritime towns. The brilliant period of
+  Tarentum appears to have fallen between 500 and 400. Excess of
+  wealth subsequently introduced luxury, which extinguished the
+  national spirit. Nevertheless Tarentum preserved its independence
+  until 273, when, after the war with Pyrrhus, it fell under the
+  Roman dominion. The constitution was originally a moderate
+  aristocracy; but was commuted soon after the Persian war into a
+  democracy, which was, however, curbed by prudent restrictions.
+  Tarentum had its senate, ([Greek: boulê],) without whose consent
+  war could not be undertaken; its magistrates elected half by lot,
+  half by majority of votes given in the assemblies of the commons.
+  Among its most celebrated citizens is reckoned the Pythagoræan
+  Archytas, who, after the year B. C. 390, was frequently at the head
+  of the state, filling the offices of general and supreme
+  magistrate. The constitution appears to have preserved its form
+  until the Roman period, although the national spirit was greatly
+  corrupted by a luxury almost exceeding the limits of credibility.
+
+  _b._ Croton, founded 710 by the Achæans, under the guidance of
+  Myscellus from Rhype in Achaia. This city must have attained to
+  very great power during the very first century of its existence;
+  since in the battle of Sagra against the Locrians, which may with
+  probability be dated about 600, the Crotoniates were able to set on
+  foot an army of 120,000 men. Neither does the defeat which they
+  there suffered appear to have debilitated the settlement for any
+  length of time; for in 510, with nearly the same number of forces,
+  they attacked the Sybarites, and destroyed their city. The original
+  constitution was, no doubt, a moderate democracy; but we are
+  unacquainted with the details of its organization. Pythagoras was
+  the reformer of customs, moral and political, not only at Croton,
+  but in several other of the Italico-Greek cities. This philosopher
+  arrived at Croton about 540, and there laid the foundation of the
+  league or secret association named after him; the object of which
+  was, not to change the form of government in the Italian cities,
+  but to create men capable of managing the helm of state. This
+  reform and influence of the Pythagoræans lasted about thirty years,
+  when their order underwent the same fate as generally befalls a
+  secret association founded with a political view. Probably about
+  510 the Pythagoræean league was broken asunder by the democratic
+  faction under Cylon. The consequence was universal anarchy, not
+  only in Croton, where, about 494, a certain Clinias usurped the
+  supreme power, but likewise in the other cities: these disorders,
+  however, were quelled by the intervention of the Achæans; and the
+  Achæan colonies not only adopted the laws of their mother cities,
+  but likewise soon afterwards signed a league in the temple of
+  Jupiter Homorius, about 460: it appears that Croton, having already
+  recovered from the blow it had received, was at the head of this
+  league. In this happy posture affairs remained till about 400.
+  After the kings of Syracuse had commenced their attacks on Magna
+  Græcia, Croton was repeatedly captured; as in B. C. 389 by
+  Dionysius I. and about 321; and again, in 299, by Agathocles.
+  Finally, after the war with Pyrrhus, 277, it became dependent on
+  Rome.
+
+  _c._ Sybaris was founded about 720, like the foregoing, by the
+  Achæans, who were mingled with Troezenians: this settlement existed
+  till 510, when it was destroyed by Croton. Soon after its
+  foundation it became one of the most extensive, populous, and
+  luxurious cities, so much so, that the effeminacy of the Sybarites
+  became proverbial. Sybaris appears to have been at the height of
+  her prosperity from about 600-550; she then possessed a respectable
+  territory, comprising four of the neighbouring tribes, and
+  twenty-five cities or places. The extraordinary fertility of the
+  soil, and the admission of all strangers to the rights of
+  citizenship, tended to increase the population so much, that
+  Sybaris, in the war against Croton, is said to have brought into
+  the field 300,000 men. The vast wealth possessed, not only by
+  Sybaris, but by the other cities in this quarter, was probably
+  derived from the great trade in oil and wine carried on with Africa
+  and Gaul: that such was the case at Agrigentum we know with
+  certainty. The constitution of Sybaris was likewise, it appears, a
+  moderate democracy: towards the year 510 one Telys took possession
+  of the supreme power, and drove out five hundred of the optimates,
+  who fled to Croton. The Crotoniates received the exiles, and the
+  Sybarites having put to death their ambassadors, a war was kindled
+  between the two cities, and ended in 510 by the defeat of the
+  Sybarites and the destruction of their city.
+
+  _d._ Thurii, founded near the site of ancient Sybaris in 446 by
+  Athens, although the inhabitants were of mixed origin; a
+  circumstance which gave rise at first to many domestic broils, the
+  citizens disputing as to who was the real founder; at last, 433,
+  the Delphian oracle declared the city to be a colony of Apollo. The
+  constitution was at first a moderate democracy; but this was soon
+  converted into an oligarchy, all the power and the best lands
+  having been taken possession of by the Sybarite families who had
+  joined the settlement. The Sybarites were, however, again expelled,
+  and Thurii grew into importance by the confluence of several new
+  colonies out of Greece; its constitution was meliorated by the
+  adoption of the laws of Charondas of Catana. The principal enemies
+  of the Thurians were the Lucanians, by whom they were beaten, 390.
+  The desultory attacks of that tribe obliged them, 286, to crave the
+  assistance of the Romans, which soon after afforded the Tarentines
+  an excuse for attacking them. Thurii now formed a part of the Roman
+  dependencies, and after suffering much in the Carthaginian wars,
+  was at last, B. C. 190, occupied by a Roman colony.
+
+  _e._ Locri Epizephyrii. The question of their origin is subject to
+  dispute: the causes of this uncertainty are, that here, as in most
+  other of the cities, various bands of colonists arrived at various
+  times, and those bands themselves were composed of a mixture of
+  several Grecian stocks. The chief colony was sent out, B. C. 683,
+  by the Locri Ozolæ. After suffering much from violent internal
+  commotions, Locri found, about 660, a lawgiver in Zaleucus, whose
+  institutions remained more than two centuries inviolate. The
+  constitution was aristocratic, the administration being in the
+  hands of a hundred families. The supreme magistrate was called
+  cosmopolis. The senate consisted of a thousand members, probably
+  elected from the commons, with whom resided, either wholly or
+  partially, the legislative power. The maintenance of the laws was,
+  as in other Grecian cities, committed to the nomophylaces. Locri
+  was certainly neither so wealthy nor so luxurious as the cities
+  above mentioned; but she was honourably distinguished by the good
+  manners and quiet conduct of her citizens, who were contented with
+  their government. The flourishing period of this city lasted till
+  the time of Dionysius II. who having been driven out of Syracuse,
+  fled with his dependents to Locri, the native country of his
+  mother: by his insolence and licentiousness of manners the city was
+  brought to the verge of ruin; after his return to Syracuse, 347,
+  the Locrians avenged their wrongs upon his family. Locri afterward
+  maintained its recovered independence until the time of Pyrrhus,
+  who, 277, placed a garrison in the town; the Locrians, however, put
+  the troops to the sword, and passed over to the Roman side: the
+  city was in consequence sacked by Pyrrhus in 275. From that time
+  Locri remained a confederate town dependent on Rome, and suffered
+  much in the second Punic war.
+
+  _f._ Rhegium, a colony from Chalcis in Euboea, 668: here also the
+  government was aristocratic, the supreme power being in the hands
+  of a council of a thousand men, selected only from Messenian
+  families, which had joined the original settlers. Hence arose an
+  oligarchy, of which Anaxilaus took advantage to assume the sole
+  dominion, 494, in which he was succeeded by his sons. These having
+  been driven out, 464, commotions ensued, which, after a time, were
+  quelled by adopting the laws of Charondas. Rhegium now enjoyed a
+  period of happiness, which lasted till B. C. 392, when it was
+  captured and destroyed by Dionysius I. Dionysius II. restored it in
+  some measure; but in 281 the city was taken possession of by a
+  Roman legion, who being sent for the purpose of garrisoning the
+  place, murdered the inhabitants. The soldiers were punished with
+  death, 271; but Rhegium thenceforth remained in a state of
+  dependence upon Rome.
+
+  _g._ Cumæ, founded as early as 1030, from Chalcis in Euboea. This
+  city attained at an early period to a high degree of power and
+  prosperity; its territory being of considerable extent, its navy
+  respectable, and Neapolis and Zancle (or Messana) among its
+  colonies. The government was a moderate aristocracy: this
+  constitution was subverted about 544, by the tyrant Aristodemus;
+  but restored after his assassination. Cumæ was subject to repeated
+  annoyances from the petty Italian nations; and in 564 she was
+  invaded and defeated by the Etruscans and Daunians combined; in 474
+  she beat the Etruscans at sea: but in 420 was captured by the
+  Campanians; together with whom she became a dependent of Rome in
+  345. Cumæ, nevertheless, in consequence of its harbour of Puteoli,
+  preserved a share of importance, even under the Roman dominion.
+
+  HEYNE, _Prolusiones 16 de civitatum Græcarum per magnam Græciam et
+  Siciliam institutis et legibus_. Collected in his _Opuscula_, vol.
+  vii.
+
+  2. Grecian settlements in Sicily. These occupied the eastern and
+  southern shores of the island: they were founded in the same period
+  as those of Magna Græcia, and belonged partly to the Dorian, partly
+  to the Ionian stocks. Of Dorian origin were Messana and Tyndaris,
+  from Messene; Syracuse, who in her turn founded Acræ, Casmenæ, and
+  Camarina, from Corinth; Hybla and Thapsus from Megara; Segesta from
+  Thessaly; Heraclea Minoa from Crete; Gela, which founded
+  Agrigentum, from Rhodes; and Lipara, on the small island of that
+  name, from Cnidus. Of Ionian origin were Naxus, the founder of
+  Leontini; Catana and Tauromenium, from Chalcis; Zancle, (after its
+  occupation by Messenian colonists, called Messana,) founded by
+  Cumæ, and in its turn founder of Himera and Mylæ. The most
+  remarkable of these towns in ancient history are:
+
+  _a._ Syracuse, the most powerful of all the Greek colonies, and
+  consequently that concerning which our information is the most
+  copious. The history of Syracuse, on which, as that town was for a
+  long time mistress of the greatest part of the island, depends
+  nearly the whole history of Sicily, comprises four periods. 1. From
+  the foundation, B. C. 735, to Gelon, 484; a space of two hundred
+  and fifty-one years. During this period Syracuse was a republic,
+  but does not appear to have risen to any very great height of
+  power: yet she founded the colonies of Acræ, 665, Casmenæ, 645, and
+  Camarina, 600. The assistance of her parent city, Corinth, and
+  Corcyra, alone prevented her falling a prey to Hippocrates,
+  sovereign of Gela; and even then she was obliged to cede Camarina,
+  497. The constitution was aristocratic; but not free from domestic
+  troubles. The administration was in the hands of the opulent,
+  ([Greek: gamoroi?]) but these were, about 485, expelled by the
+  democratic faction and their own mutinous slaves. They fled to
+  Casmenæ, and by the help of Gelon, sovereign of Gela, were restored
+  to their homes; Gelon retaining the power in his own hands. 2. From
+  Gelon to the expulsion of Thrasybulus, 484-466. The three brothers,
+  Gelon, Hiero, and Thrasybulus, successively ruled over Syracuse.
+  Gelon, 484-477. He was at once the founder of the greatness of
+  Syracuse, and of his own power: this he effected partly by
+  increasing the population, bringing in new inhabitants from other
+  Greek cities, and partly by the great victory he won over the
+  Carthaginians, in alliance with the Persians, 480. At this early
+  period Syracuse was so powerful, both by sea and by land, as to
+  justify Gelon in claiming the office of generalissimo of Greece,
+  when Sparta and Athens came to solicit his aid. His beneficent
+  reign not only gained him the love of the Syracusans during his
+  life, but likewise procured him heroic honours after death at the
+  hands of a grateful people. He died in 477, and was succeeded by
+  his brother Hiero I. who had till then ruled over Gela. The reign
+  of this prince was splendid, his court was brilliant, and a
+  fostering protection was extended to arts and sciences. Hiero's
+  power strengthened by the establishment of new citizens, both in
+  Syracuse and its subordinate towns of Catana and Naxus, whose
+  original inhabitants are translated to Leontini.--Wars waged
+  against Thero, 476, and his son Thrasidæus, tyrants of Agrigentum:
+  after the expulsion of Thrasidæus, that town forms an alliance with
+  Syracuse; the Syracusan fleet sent to the assistance of Cumæ, wins
+  a victory over the Etruscans. Hiero, dying in 467, was succeeded by
+  his brother Thrasybulus, who, after a short reign of eight months,
+  was expelled for his cruelty by the Syracusans and the confederate
+  cities. 3. From the expulsion of Thrasybulus to the elevation of
+  Dionysius I.; Syracuse a free democratic state: from 466-405.
+  Reestablishment of republican forms of government in Syracuse and
+  the other Grecian cities; accompanied, however, with many
+  commotions and civil wars, proceeding from the expulsion of the new
+  citizens and the restoration of the ancient inhabitants to their
+  property.--Increasing power and prosperity of Syracuse, who is now
+  at the head of the confederate Grecian cities in the island, and
+  soon endeavours to convert her precedence into supremacy. The new
+  democratic constitution quickly suffers from the diseases incident
+  to that form of government; a vain attempt is made to apply a
+  remedy by the introduction of the petalismus, B. C. 454; in the
+  mean time the Siculi, aboriginal inhabitants of Sicily, unite in
+  closer league under their leader Ducetius; attempting to expel the
+  Greeks, 451, they engage the Syracusans in reiterated wars; the
+  arms of Syracuse are successful, her authority is confirmed by the
+  subjection of the ambitious Agrigentum, 446, and by her naval
+  victory over the Etruscans. First but unsuccessful attempt of the
+  Athenians to interpose in the domestic affairs of Sicily, by siding
+  with Leontini against Syracuse, 427; eleven years afterward occurs
+  the great expedition against Syracuse, 415-413, caused by the
+  disputes between Segesta and Selinus; the expedition ends in the
+  total rout of the Athenian fleet and army, (see below,) and the
+  power of Syracuse reaches its zenith. A constitutional reform takes
+  place, 412, brought about by Diocles, whose laws were subsequently
+  adopted by several other of the Sicilian cities. The magistrates
+  were chosen by lot. The rest of the laws, which appear to have had
+  reference to the criminal code, were the production of a committee
+  over which Diocles presided; these enactments were so beneficial to
+  Syracuse, that the author of them was honoured with a temple after
+  his death. Yet as early as 410, a renewal of the differences
+  between Segesta and Selinus afforded a pretext for war with
+  Carthage, from whom the Segestani had besought assistance; by this
+  war the whole state of affairs in Sicily was subverted. The rapid
+  strides made by the Carthaginians, who, under the command of
+  Hannibal the son of Gisgo, took, 409, Selinus and Himera, and even
+  Agrigentum, 406, engendered domestic factions and commotions within
+  Syracuse; and amid those disorders the crafty Dionysius succeeded
+  first in obtaining the office of general, and then, after
+  supplanting his colleagues, the sovereign power of Syracuse, 405.
+  4. From Dionysius I. to the Roman occupation, 405-212. Dionysius
+  I. 405-368. Ominous commencement of his reign, by a defeat at Gela
+  and the mutiny of his troops.--A plague wasting the Carthaginian
+  army, he is enabled to patch up a peace, B. C. 405, by which it is
+  agreed, that Carthage, besides her territory in the island, shall
+  retain all the conquests made during the war, together with Gela
+  and Camarina. But the project of expelling the Carthaginians out of
+  Sicily, in order to subject the whole island, and to fall upon
+  Magna Grecia, kindles a long series of wars both with Carthage and
+  the cities of Magna Grecia. Second war with Carthage against
+  Hannibal and Himilco, 398-392. Dionysius loses all that he before
+  had conquered, and is himself besieged in Syracuse; but a plague
+  once more attacking the Carthaginians, rescues him from his
+  predicament, 396; deeds of hostility continued notwithstanding till
+  392, when a peace was signed, by which Carthage ceded the town of
+  Tauromenium.--From 394, desultory attacks on the confederate
+  Grecian cities in Lower Italy, particularly on Rhegium, the chief
+  seat of the Syracusan emigrants, which, after repeated invasions,
+  is at last compelled to yield, 387. Third war with Carthage, 383,
+  against Mago; Dionysius wins a victory, which is however followed
+  by a greater defeat; and the war ends the same year by the adoption
+  of a peace, according to which each party is to retain what he then
+  had; the Halycus is fixed as the boundary line; so that Selinus and
+  a portion of the territory of Agrigentum remain in the hands of the
+  Carthaginians. Fourth war: inroad upon the Carthaginian states; it
+  ends, however, in the signing of a treaty. The decision of these
+  wars generally depended on the side taken by the Siculi, the most
+  powerful aboriginal race in Sicily. Dionysius I. having died by
+  poison, 368, was succeeded by Dionysius II. his eldest son by one
+  of his two wives, Doris of Locri, but under the guardianship of his
+  step-uncle Dio, the brother of Dionysius's other wife Aristomache.
+  Neither Dio or his friend Plato, who was three times invited to
+  Syracuse, were able to improve the character of a prince whose mind
+  had been corrupted by bad education.--Dio is banished, 360. He
+  returns, 357, and, in the absence of Dionysius, takes possession of
+  Syracuse, all but the citadel. Dionysius now has recourse to
+  stratagem; he excites in the city distrust of Dio, and foments
+  dissension between him and his general Heraclidas; meanwhile he
+  himself withdraws to Italy, taking with him his treasures. Dio is
+  compelled to retire from the city, which is sacked by the troops
+  garrisoned in the citadel; hereupon the Syracusans themselves fetch
+  back Dio; he possesses himself of the citadel and wishes to restore
+  the republican government, but soon falls a victim to party spirit,
+  being murdered by Callipus, B. C. 354, who usurped the government
+  till 353, when he is driven out by Hipparinus, a brother of
+  Dionysius, who keeps possession till 350. After ten years' absence,
+  Dionysius II. by a sudden attack, becomes once more master of the
+  city, 346. The tyranny of this prince, and the treachery of Icetas
+  of Gela, whom the Syracusans called in to their assistance, but who
+  leagues himself with the Carthaginians, and the formidable
+  attempts of the latter, compel the citizens to apply to the mother
+  city Corinth: Corinth sends to their assistance Timoleon with a
+  small force, 345. Rapid change of affairs wrought by Timoleon: he
+  beats Icetas and the Carthaginians: in 343 Dionysius is forced to
+  deliver up the citadel and evacuate the country; he retires to
+  Corinth, where he leads a private life. Restoration of the
+  republican government, not only in Syracuse, where the laws of
+  Diocles are reinstituted, but also in the rest of the Grecian
+  cities: the revolution confirmed by a great victory over the
+  Carthaginians, 340. In the midst of the execution of his plans
+  Timoleon dies, 337, the most splendid example of a republican that
+  history affords! From 337-317; almost a chasm in the history of
+  Syracuse. Wars with Agrigentum; the usurpation of Sosistratus,
+  disturbs the peace, both external and internal. The character of
+  the Syracusans was already too foully corrupted for one to expect
+  that liberty could again be established among them, without the
+  personal superintendence of a Timoleon. They deserved the fate that
+  befell them, when, in 317, that daring adventurer Agathocles
+  assumed the sovereign power, which he maintained till 289. Renewal
+  of the plan for expelling the Carthaginians from the island, and
+  subjecting Magna Græcia. Hence arises a new war with Carthage, in
+  which Agathocles is defeated, 311, and besieged in Syracuse: by a
+  bold stroke he passes over into Africa, accompanied by part of his
+  fleet and army, and there with general success prosecutes the war
+  until 307: the insurrection of most of the Grecian cities in Sicily
+  recalls him from the theatre of war; his views in Africa are
+  consequently defeated. In the peace of 306 both parties retain what
+  they had at the beginning of the war. The wars in Italy are
+  confined to the sacking of Croton, and a victory won over the
+  Bruttii; and are rather predatory expeditions than regular wars. In
+  the year 289, Agathocles died by poison, and his murderer, Mænon,
+  seized the power; he is expelled by the general Icetas, and flies
+  over to the Carthaginians. Icetas rules as pretor till 278, when,
+  in his absence, the government is usurped by Thynion, who meets
+  with a rival in the person of Sosistratus; in the mean while the
+  mercenaries of Agathocles (the Mamertini) possess themselves of
+  Messana, and the Carthaginians press forward to the very gates of
+  Syracuse. The Syracusans invite Pyrrhus of Epirus over from Italy;
+  that prince takes possession of the whole of Sicily as far as
+  Lilybæum; but having by his haughtiness incurred general hatred and
+  disgust, he is obliged to evacuate the island, B. C. 275. The
+  Syracusans now appoint Hiero, a descendant of the ancient royal
+  family, to the office of general: after defeating the Mamertini he
+  is called to the throne, 269. At the breaking out of the war
+  between Carthage and Rome, the new king forsakes his alliance with
+  Carthage, and, passing over to the Roman side, thereby purchases a
+  long and tranquil reign until 215, when he dies of old age. Under
+  this wise prince Syracuse enjoyed a degree of happiness and
+  prosperity which none of her demagogues had been able to effect.
+  After his death the Carthaginian party became predominant;
+  Hieronymus the grandson of Hiero is murdered, 214, and Hannibal's
+  intrigues enable the Carthaginian party to keep the upper hand, by
+  contriving to place at the head of affairs his friends Hippocrates
+  and Epicydes, who entangle Syracuse in a war with Rome; and the
+  city, after a long siege, celebrated by the inventions of
+  Archimedes, is brought to ruin, 212.--The history of Syracuse is a
+  practical compendium of politics: what other state ever underwent
+  so many and such various revolutions?
+
+  The history of Syracuse was at an early period disfigured by
+  partiality. For the topography, see # BARTEL'S _Letters from
+  Calabria and Sicily_, vol. iii. with a plan.
+
+  # A. ARNOLD, _History of Syracuse, from its foundation to the
+  overthrow of liberty by Dionysius_. Gotha, 1816.
+
+  MITFORD, _History of Greece_: the fourth volume contains the
+  history of Syracuse, and a defence of the elder Dionysius. It would
+  seem that even now it is difficult to write this history in an
+  impartial spirit.
+
+  _b._ Agrigentum, a colony of Gela, founded 582. The first city of
+  Sicily next to Syracuse, of which it was frequently the rival. Its
+  first constitution was that of the mother city; that is to say,
+  Dorian or aristocratic. It fell, however, soon after its
+  foundation, under the dominion of tyrants; the first of whom
+  noticed in history is Phalaris, who flourished probably 566-534.
+  He was succeeded by Alcmanes, 534-488, who was followed by
+  Alcander, an indulgent ruler, in whose reign the wealth of
+  Agrigentum seems to have already been considerable. More renowned
+  than the foregoing was Theron, the contemporary and stepfather of
+  Gelon; he ruled from B. C. 488-472: in conjunction with Gelon he
+  routed the Carthaginian army, 480, and subjected Himera. His son
+  and successor, Thrasydæus, was beaten by Hiero and expelled, 470;
+  whereupon the Agrigentines, as allies of Syracuse, introduced a
+  democracy. The period following, 470-405, is that in which
+  Agrigentum, blessed with political freedom, attained the highest
+  degree of public prosperity. She was one of the most opulent and
+  luxurious cities in the world, and in the display of public
+  monuments one of the most magnificent. For her wealth she was
+  indebted to the vast trade in oil and wine that she carried on with
+  Africa and Gaul, in neither of which were those productions
+  hitherto naturalized. In the year 446 the Agrigentines, excited by
+  envy, fell upon the Syracusans, but were defeated. In the war with
+  Athens they took no share; but in the Carthaginian invasion of
+  Sicily, 405, Agrigentum was taken and destroyed; from this blow she
+  recovered but slowly, and never effectually. By Timoleon she was,
+  in some measure, restored, 340; and under Agathocles, 307, was able
+  to head the cities combined against him, but was beaten. After the
+  death of Agathocles, a tyrant, by the name of Phintias, took
+  possession of the sovereign power; and was attacked, 278, by Icetas
+  of Syracuse. At the breaking out of the first Punic war, Agrigentum
+  was used by the Carthaginians as a military depôt; but was taken by
+  the Romans as early as 262.
+
+  _c._ The fate of the other Sicilian cities was more or less
+  dependent on that of Agrigentum and Syracuse: they all had
+  originally republican forms of government; but though the Ionian
+  colonies had a celebrated legislator in the person of Charondas,
+  (probably about 660,) they had the same fortune with the rest, of
+  being frequently oppressed by tyrants, either from among their own
+  citizens, or by those of Syracuse, who often used to drive out the
+  old inhabitants, and introduce a new population more devoted to
+  their interest: hence must have sprung manifold wars. The foregoing
+  history shows how grievously they likewise suffered in the wars
+  between Syracuse and Carthage. Following the dates of their
+  respective foundations, they may be thus arranged: Zancle, (after
+  664, known by the name of Messana,) the earliest, though of
+  uncertain date; Naxus, 736; Syracuse, Hybla, 735; Leontini, Catana,
+  730; Gela, 690; Acræ, B. C. 665; Casmenæ, 645; Himera, 639;
+  Selinus, 630; Agrigentum, 582. The dates of the rest cannot be
+  ascertained with any degree of accuracy.
+
+  3. On the other islands and coasts of the Mediterranean we meet
+  with various insulated Grecian settlements; in Sardinia, the cities
+  Garalis and Olbia: the date of their foundation unknown; in
+  Corsica, Alaria, (or Alalia,) a colony of Phocæans founded, 561;
+  hither the inhabitants of the mother city betook themselves in
+  541; and subsequently, after the naval engagement with the
+  Etruscans and Carthaginians, withdrew, some to Rhegium, others to
+  Massilia, 536.
+
+  4. On the coast of Gaul stood Massilia, founded by the Phocæans,
+  who had been driven out of Corsica after the above mentioned naval
+  engagement, 536; or rather, there was on the same site an old
+  settlement which was now increased. Massilia rapidly grew in wealth
+  and power. Our information respecting the wars she waged on the sea
+  against Carthage and the Etruscans is but of a general kind. Her
+  territory on the main land, although rich in wine and oil, was
+  limited in extent; she established, nevertheless, several colonies
+  along the shores of Spain and Gaul, among which Antipolis, Nicæa,
+  and Olbia are the best known. The trade of Massilia was carried on
+  partly by sea, and partly by land, through the interior of Gaul.
+  The constitution was a moderate aristocracy. The chief power was in
+  the hands of six hundred individuals; the members of this council
+  were called timuchi, they held their places for life, were obliged
+  to be married men with families, and descended at least to the
+  third generation from citizens. At the head of this council stood
+  fifteen men, three of whom were chief magistrates. As early as 218
+  Massilia was in alliance with Rome, under whose fostering
+  protection she grew in prosperity; her freedom was preserved to her
+  until the war between Pompey and Cæsar; having sided with the
+  former, she was stormed, 49, by Cæsar's army. She soon retrieved
+  herself, and, under the reign of Augustus, Massilia was the seat of
+  literature and philosophy, in which public lectures were there
+  given as at Athens.
+
+  AUG. BRUEKNER, _Historia Reipublicæ Massiliensium_. Gotting. 1826.
+  A prize essay.
+
+  5. On the Spanish coast stood Saguntum, ([Greek: Zakunthos],) a
+  colony from the island of Zacynthus; the date of its foundation is
+  undetermined. It became opulent by its commerce; but at the opening
+  of the second Punic war, B.C. 219, was destroyed by Hannibal, as
+  being an ally of Rome.
+
+  6. On the coast of Africa lay Cyrene, founded at the suggestion of
+  the Delphic oracle in 631, by the island of Thera. The constitution
+  was at first monarchical. Kings: Battus I. the founder, 631-591.
+  In whose family the sceptre remained. Arcesilaus I. _d._ 575. Under
+  the reign of his successor, Battus II. surnamed the happy, (_d._
+  554,) the colony was much strengthened by new comers from Greece.
+  The Libyans, bereaved of their lands, seek for help at the hands
+  of Apries, who is defeated by the Cyrenæans, 570, and in
+  consequence loses his crown.--Arcesilaus II. _d._ 550. Rebellion of
+  his brothers, and foundation of Barca, an independent town ruled by
+  its own separate kings. Secession of the Libyan subjects. He is put
+  to death by his brother or friend Learchus, who in his turn is
+  poisoned by Eryxo the widow of Arcesilaus. Her son, Battus III.
+  surnamed the lame, (_d._ about 529,) succeeds to the throne. The
+  royal power confined within narrow limits by the laws of Demonax of
+  Mantinea: the king retains nothing more than the revenue and
+  priestly office. His son Arcesilaus III. becomes of his own accord
+  tributary to the Persians; in conjunction with his mother,
+  Pheretime, he seeks to reestablish the regal supremacy, but is
+  expelled; nevertheless he regains possession of Cyrene. In
+  consequence of his cruelty he is assassinated in Barca, about 516.
+  Pheretime seeks for help from the Persian satrap of Egypt,
+  Aryandes, who by craft gets possession of Barca; the inhabitants
+  are carried away and translated into Bactria, 512. Soon after
+  Pheretime dies. It seems probable that another Battus IV. and
+  Arcesilaus IV. must have reigned at Cyrene, to whom Pindar's fourth
+  and fifth Pythian Odes are addressed: their history, however, is
+  veiled in obscurity. Cyrene then received a republican
+  constitution, probably somewhere about 450; but we are unacquainted
+  with the internal details of the government. Yet though Plato was
+  invited by the Cyrenæans to give them laws, and though they had for
+  their legislator Democles of Arcadia, they appear never to have
+  been blessed with a good and stable constitution. Not only is
+  mention often made of domestic troubles, as in 400, when amid the
+  uproar excited by Ariston most of the aristocratic party were cut
+  off; but we likewise frequently meet with tyrants. Concerning the
+  external affairs of this state we know nothing but a few general
+  facts relative to the border wars with Carthage. Subsequently to
+  Alexander, Cyrene became a part of the Egyptian kingdom; so early
+  as the reign of Ptolemy I. it was added to that realm by his
+  general Ophellas, about B.C. 331. It now continued to receive
+  various rulers from the family of the Ptolemies (see below) until
+  the reign of Ptolemy Physcon, when it became a separate state, the
+  bastard son of that prince, Apion by name, having made it over to
+  the Romans, 97. Cyrene possessed a considerable share of trade,
+  consisting partly in the exportation of country produce, more
+  especially the Silphium, (Laser,) partly in a varied intercourse
+  with Carthage, Ammonium, and thence with the interior of Africa.
+  The former splendour and importance of this city and the
+  neighbouring country are testified by an abundance of most noble
+  ruins; a more accurate research into which every friend of
+  antiquity must desire.
+
+  HARDION, _Histoire de Cyrène_, in _Mém. de l'Académie des
+  Inscriptions_, t. iii.
+
+  J. P. THRIGE, _Historia Cyrenes, inde a tempore quo condita urbs
+  est, usque ad ætatem, qua in provinciæ formam a Romanis redacta
+  est: particula prior, de initiis coloniæ Cyrenen deductæ, et
+  Cyrenes Battiadis regnantibus historia_. Havniæ, 1819. The best
+  work on Cyrene. It is hoped that the author will not disapppoint
+  our expectations of the second part, which is to contain the period
+  of republican government. [The whole was completed in 1828. The
+  learned and ingenious author has neglected no authority whether
+  ancient or modern, and is particularly cautious and judicious in
+  his researches.]
+
+  A ray of light has lately, for the first time, been thrown on the
+  remains still found in Cyrenaica by DELLA CELLA, _Viaggio di
+  Tripoli_; translated by Spieker, in the # _Journal of the latest
+  travels by sea and by land_, Sept. 1820.
+
+  W. BEECHEY, _Proceedings to explore the northern coast of Africa
+  from Tripoli eastward_, 1827.
+
+  F. R. PACHO, _Relation d'un voyage à Marmarique et Cyrenaique_,
+  1828. A most accurate description.
+
+  T. EHRENBERG, _Travels through North Africa_, in the years
+  1820-1825, by Dr. W. F. Hemprich and Dr. C. G. Ehrenberg. Berlin,
+  1828.
+
+
+
+
+THIRD PERIOD.
+
+_From the commencement of the Persian wars to the time of Alexander
+the Great, B. C. 500-336._
+
+
+  Sources. The chief writers in this period are: For the history of
+  the Persian wars to the battle of Platææ, 479, Herodotus. For the
+  period between 479 and the breaking out of the Peloponnesian war,
+  we must, in the absence of contemporary authors, consider Diodorus
+  Siculus as the principal authority.--The beginning of the 11th
+  book, which commences with the year 480, (the 6th, 7th, 8th, 9th,
+  and 10th books being lost,) to the middle of the 12th; the
+  chronology of this author, however, must in several cases be
+  rectified after Thucydides's summary in lib. i. For the period of
+  the Peloponnesian war, 431-410, the history of Thucydides is the
+  capital work; but it must be accompanied by Diodorus, from the
+  middle of the 12th book to the middle of the 13th.--From the year
+  410 to the battle of Mantinea, 362, the principal sources are the
+  Hellenics of Xenophon, and occasionally his Anabasis and Agesilaus;
+  together with Diodorus, from the middle of the 13th book to the end
+  of the 15th. For the years intervening from 362-336, no
+  contemporary historian has been preserved; Diodorus's 16th book
+  must therefore here be considered as the chief source: for the
+  times of Philip, however, recourse may likewise be had to the
+  speeches of Demosthenes and Æschines. The Lives of Plutarch and
+  Nepos often touch upon this period, but cannot be regarded as
+  authentic sources; of still less authority are the abridged
+  documents given by Justin and some others.
+
+  The modern authors on this, the brilliant period of Greece, are, of
+  course, the same as have been enumerated above: (see p. 118.) To
+  whom must here be added:
+
+  POTTER, _Archæologia Græca; or the Antiquities of Greece:_ 2 vols.
+  8vo. Lond. 1722. Translated into German by J. J. Rambach, 3 vols.
+  1775.
+
+  BARTHELEMY, _Voyage du Jeune Anacharsis en Grèce_. (Between the
+  years B. C. 362 and 338.) Paris, 1788, 5 vols. Accompanied with
+  charts and plans, illustrating the topography of Athens, etc. This
+  work is conspicuous for a rare union of good taste and erudition;
+  unattended, however, with an equal share of critical acumen and a
+  correct appreciation of antiquity.
+
+  # _History of the Origin, Progress, and Fall of Science in Greece
+  and Rome_, by C. MEINERS. Gottingen, 1781. It contains also a
+  delineation of the political state of affairs; but does not extend
+  beyond the age of Philip.
+
+  The principal works on the monuments of ancient Greece are:
+
+  LE ROY, _Les Ruines des plus beaux Monumens de la Grèce_. Paris,
+  1758, 2nd edit. 1770, fol. The first in point of time; but far
+  surpassed by:
+
+  J. STUART, _The Antiquities of Athens measured and delineated_; 3
+  vols. Lond. 1762: the 4th vol. published in 1816. In beauty and
+  accuracy of execution superior to all.
+
+  R. DALTON, _Antiquities and Views of Greece and Egypt_, 1691, fol.
+  The Egyptian monuments are confined to those of Lower Egypt.
+
+  R. CHANDLER, _Ionian Antiquities_. London, 1796, 1797, 2 vols. fol.
+  A worthy companion to Stuart.
+
+  CHOISEUL GOUFFIER, _Voyage pittoresque dans la Grèce_, vol. i,
+  1779: vol. ii, 1809. Confined principally to the islands and Asia
+  Minor.
+
+1. From a multitude of small states, never united but continually
+distracted by civil broils--and such at the beginning of this period
+were the states of Greece--any thing important could hardly be expected
+without the occurrence of some external event, which, by rallying the
+divided forces round one point, and directing them toward one object,
+should hinder them from mutually exhausting one another. It was the
+hostile attempt of Persia that first laid the foundation of the future
+splendour of Greece; certain states then grew so rapidly in power, that
+upon their particular history hinges the general history of all the
+rest.
+
+  Causes which led to the Persian war. Share taken by Athens in the
+  Ionian insurrection and firing of Sardes, B. C. 500. (see above,
+  p. 98.) Intrigues of Hippias, first with the satraps, and afterwards
+  at the Persian court itself.--First expedition, that of Mardonius,
+  thwarted by a storm, 493.
+
+2. Not even the summons to acknowledge the Persian authority was
+sufficient to rouse the national energy of the Greeks. All the islands,
+and most of the states on the main land, submitted to the yoke; Sparta
+and Athens alone boldly rejected it. The Athenians, unassisted, under
+their leader Miltiades, acquainted from his youth with the Persians and
+their mode of warfare, and with the superiority of the arms of his
+countrymen, became the saviours of Greece.
+
+  Quarrel of Athens and Sparta with Ægina, which sides with the
+  Persians, 491; and consequent deposition of Demaratus, king of
+  Sparta, by his colleague Cleomenes.
+
+  Persian expedition of Datis and Artaphernes under the guidance of
+  Hippias: frustrated by the battle of Marathon, B. C. Sept. 29,
+  490, and the failure of an attempt upon Athens.
+
+3. The immediate consequence of this victory was a naval expedition
+against the islands, more particularly Paros, to which Miltiades, out of
+a private grudge, persuaded the Athenians. It was undertaken for the
+purpose of levying contributions; and seems to have given the Athenians
+the first idea of their subsequent dominion of the sea. The Athenians
+punished Miltiades for the failure of this expedition, although the
+effect of their own folly; yet was this act of injustice a source of
+happiness to Athens; as the fall of Miltiades made room for the men who
+laid the solid foundation of her glory and greatness.
+
+4. As usual in every democratic state rising to power, the history of
+Athens now becomes that of eminent individuals, standing at the head of
+affairs, as generals or demagogues. Themistocles, who united to an
+astonishing degree in his own person the most splendid talents of
+statesman and general, with a spirit of intrigue, and even of egotism;
+and Aristides, whose disinterestedness, even in those days, was singular
+at Athens, were the real founders of the power of this commonwealth.
+Athens, however, was more indebted to the first than to the latter.
+
+  Rivalry of these two men, 490-486. While Themistocles at the head
+  of the Athenian fleet prosecutes the design of Miltiades against
+  the islands, the management of state affairs is confided to
+  Aristides. On the return, however, of Themistocles as conqueror,
+  Aristides is by ostracism banished Athens, 486. Themistocles
+  alone, at the head of affairs, pursues his plan for making Athens
+  a maritime power. In consequence of a war against the object of
+  popular hatred, Ægina, B. C. 484, he prevails on the Athenians to
+  devote the income from the mines to the formation of a navy. While
+  Athens is thus rising to power, Sparta suffers from the insanity
+  of one of her kings, Cleomenes, (succeeded in 482 by his half
+  brother Leonidas,) and the arrogance of the other, Leotychides.
+
+5. The glory of frustrating the second mighty Persian invasion of Greece
+under Xerxes I. belongs to Themistocles alone. Not only his great naval
+victory off Salamis, but still more the manner in which he contrived to
+work upon his countrymen, proves him to have been the greatest man of
+the age, and the deliverer of Greece, now united by one common bond of
+interest.--All national leagues are weak in themselves: yet how strong
+may even the weakest be made when held together by one great man, who
+knows how to animate it with his own spirit!
+
+  Themistocles' plan for the conduct of the war; first, a common
+  union of all the Hellenic states; a measure which succeeds to a
+  certain degree, the honour of the command being left to the
+  Spartans; secondly, the sea made the theatre of war.--Gallant
+  death of Leonidas with his three hundred Spartans and seven
+  hundred Thespians, July 6, 480. An example of heroism which
+  contributes as much to the greatness of Greece as the victory of
+  Salamis. About the same time naval engagements off Artemisium in
+  Euboea, with two hundred and seventy-one sail. The leaders of the
+  Greeks are kept to their posts merely by bribery; the means of
+  purchasing their services being for the most part furnished by
+  Themistocles himself.--Athens, deserted by its inhabitants, is
+  taken and burnt by Xerxes, July 20. Retreat of the Grecian fleet
+  into the bay of Salamis: revocation of all exiles, Aristides among
+  the rest.--Politic measures adopted by Themistocles to hinder the
+  dispirited Greeks from taking flight, and at the same time to
+  secure to himself, in case of need, an asylum with the Persian
+  monarch.--Naval engagement and victory off Salamis, Sept. 23, 480,
+  with three hundred and eighty sail, (one hundred and eighty of
+  which were Athenian,) against the Persian fleet, already much
+  weakened: retreat of Xerxes.--Poets and historians have disfigured
+  these events by fanciful exaggerations: still, however, they may
+  show us how commonly human weakness is attended with human
+  greatness!
+
+6. The victory of Salamis did not conclude the war; but the negotiations
+entered into during the winter months with the Persian general,
+Mardonius, left in Thessaly, and with the Asiatic Greeks, to excite them
+to throw off the yoke, show how far the confidence of the nation in its
+own strength had increased. But by the battle fought on land at Platææ,
+under the command of the Spartan, Pausanias, (guardian to Plistarchus,
+son of Leonidas,) and the Athenian, Aristides; together with the naval
+battle at Mycale on the same day, and the destruction of the Persian
+fleet, the Persians are for ever driven from the territory of Greece,
+though the war continues for some time longer.
+
+7. The expulsion of the Persians wrought an entire change in the
+internal and external relations of Greece. From being the aggressed the
+Greeks became the aggressors; to free their Asiatic countrymen is now
+the chief object or pretext for the continuation of a war so profitable;
+the chief command of which abides with Sparta until B. C. 470.
+
+  Athens rebuilt and fortified by Themistocles despite of Spartan
+  jealousy, 478: formation of the Piræus, an event of still greater
+  importance, 477.--Naval expedition under Pausanias, accompanied by
+  Aristides and Cimon, undertaken against Cyprus and Byzantium, for
+  the purpose of expelling the Persians, 470. Treachery and fall of
+  Pausanias, 469. In consequence of the Spartans' haughtiness, the
+  supreme command devolves upon the Athenians.
+
+8. This transfer of the command to Athens had a decided effect on all
+the subsequent relations of Greece, not only because it augmented the
+jealousy between Sparta and Athens, but because Athens exercised her
+predominance for a purpose entirely different from that of
+Sparta.--Establishment of a permanent confederacy, comprising most of
+the Grecian states without Peloponnesus, especially the islands, and an
+adjustment of the contributions to be annually furnished by each, with
+the view of prosecuting the Persian war, and liberating the Asiatic
+Greeks from the Persian yoke. Although the common treasury was first
+established at Delos, the superintendence of it was confided to Athens;
+and such a manager as Aristides was not always to be found.--Natural
+consequence of this new establishment: 1. What had hitherto been mere
+military precedence, becomes in the hands of Athens a right of
+political prescription, and that, as usual, is soon converted
+into a sovereignty. Hence her idea of the supremacy of Greece,
+([Greek: archê tês Hellados],) as connected with that of the sea,
+([Greek: thalassokratia].) 2. The oppression of the Athenians,
+sometimes real, at other times presumed, after a short time, rouses the
+spirit of discontent and contumacy among several of the confederates:
+hence, 3. The gradual formation of a counter league, headed by Sparta,
+who maintains her supremacy over the greatest part of the Peloponnesus.
+
+9. The changes introduced into the internal organization are not to be
+determined solely by the palpable alterations made in any of Lycurgus's
+or Solon's institutions. In Sparta, the general frame-work of Lycurgus's
+constitution subsisted; nevertheless the power was virtually in the
+hands of the ephori, whose dictatorial sway placed Sparta in the
+formidable posture she now assumed.--At Athens, in proportion as the
+importance of foreign relations increased, and amid the protracted
+struggles between the heads of the democratic and aristocratic parties,
+the real power, under the outward appearance of a democracy, gradually
+centered in the hands of the ten annually elected generals, ([Greek:
+stratêgoi],) who with more or less effect played the parts of
+demagogues.
+
+  Abrogation of the law that excluded the poorer citizens from
+  official situations, B. C. 478.
+
+  Expulsion of Themistocles, implicated in the fall of Pausanias,
+  principally through the intrigues of Sparta: he is first banished
+  by ostracism, 469, but in consequence of further persecution he
+  flies over to the Persians, 466.
+
+10. The following forty years, from 470-430, constitute the flourishing
+period of Athens. A concurrence of fortunate circumstances happening
+among a people of the highest abilities and promoted by great men,
+produced here phenomena, such as have never since been witnessed.
+Political greatness was the fundamental principle of the commonwealth;
+Athens had been the guardian, and the champion of Greece, and she wished
+to appear worthy of herself. Hence in Athens alone were men acquainted
+with public splendour, exhibited in buildings, in spectacles, and
+festivals, the acquisition of which was facilitated by private
+frugality. This public spirit animating every citizen, expanded the
+blossoms of genius; no broad line of distinction was anxiously drawn
+between private and public life; whatever great, whatever noble was
+produced by Athens, sprung up verdant and robust out of this harmony,
+this buxom vigour of the state. Far different was the case with Sparta;
+there rude customs and laws arrested the development of genius: there
+men were taught to die for the land of their forefathers: while at
+Athens they learnt to live for it.
+
+11. Agriculture continued the principal occupation of the citizens of
+Attica; other employments were left to the care of slaves. Commerce and
+navigation were mainly directed towards the Thracian coast and the Black
+sea; the spirit of trade, however, was never the prevailing one. As
+affairs of state became more attractive, and men desired to participate
+in them, the want of intellectual education began to be felt, and
+sophists and rhetoricians soon offered their instruction. Mental
+expertness was more coveted than mental knowledge; men wished to learn
+how to think and to speak. A poetical education had long preceded the
+rise of this national desire; poesy now lost nothing of its value: as
+heretofore Homer remained the cornerstone of intellectual improvement.
+Could it be that such blossoms would produce other fruits than those
+which ripened in the school of Socrates, in the masterpieces of the
+tragedians and orators, and in the immortal works of Plato?
+
+12. These flowers of national genius burst forth in spite of many evils,
+inseparable from such a constitution established among such a people.
+Great men were pushed aside; others took their places. The loss of
+Themistocles was supplied by Miltiades's son Cimon; who to purer
+politics united equal talents. He protracted the war against the
+Persians in order to maintain the union of the Greeks; and favoured the
+aristocratic party at the same time that he affected popularity. Even
+his enemies learnt by experience, that the state could not dispense with
+a leader who seemed to have entered into a compact for life with
+victory.
+
+  Another expedition under Cimon; and victory by sea and land near
+  the Eurymedon, B. C. 469. He takes possession of the Hellespontine
+  Chersonesus, 468. Some of the Athenian confederates already
+  endeavour to secede. Hence, 467, the conquest of Caristus in
+  Euboea; subjection of Naxos, 466, and from 465-463, siege and
+  capture of Thasos, under Cimon. The Athenians endeavour to obtain
+  a firmer footing on the shore of Macedonia; and for that purpose
+  send out a colony to Amphipolis, 465.
+
+  Great earthquake at Sparta; gives rise to a ten years' war, viz.
+  the third Messenian war or revolt of the Helots, who fortify
+  themselves in Ithome, 465-455: in this war the Athenians, at the
+  instigation of Cimon, send assistance to the Spartans, 461, who
+  refuse the proffered aid. The democratic party seize the
+  opportunity of casting on Cimon the suspicion of being in the
+  interest of Sparta; he is banished by ostracism, 461.
+
+13. The death of Aristides, and the banishment of Cimon, concur in
+elevating Pericles to the head of affairs; a statesman whose influence
+had begun to operate as early as 469. Less a general than a demagogue,
+he supported himself in authority during forty years, until the day of
+his death, and swayed Athens without being either archon or member of
+the areopagus. That under him the constitution must have assumed a more
+democratic character, is demonstrated by the fact of his exaltation as
+leader of the democratic party. The aristocrats, however, contrive until
+444 to set up rivals against him in the persons of the military leaders,
+Myronides, Tolmidas, and more particularly the elder Thucydides.
+
+  Change in the spirit of administration under Pericles, both in
+  reference to internal and external relations. A brilliant
+  management succeeds to the parsimonious economy of Aristides; and
+  yet, after the lapse of thirty years, the state treasury was
+  full.--Limitation of the power of the areopagus by Ephialtes, B.
+  C. 461. The withdrawal of various causes which formerly came under
+  the jurisdiction of that tribunal must have diminished its right
+  of moral censorship.--Introduction of the practice of paying
+  persons who attended the courts of justice.
+
+  With regard to external relations, the precedence of the Athenians
+  gradually advanced toward supremacy; although their relations with
+  all the confederates were not precisely the same. Some were mere
+  confederates; others were subjects.--Augmentation in the imposts
+  on the confederates, and transfer of the treasury from Delos to
+  Athens, 461. The jealousy of Sparta and the discontent of the
+  confederates keep pace with the greatness of Athens.
+
+  Unsuccessful attempt to support by the help of an Athenian fleet
+  and troops, Inarus of Egypt in his insurrection against the
+  Persians, 462-458.
+
+  Wars in Greece: the Spartans instigate Corinth and Epidaurus
+  against Athens. The Athenians, at first defeated near Haliæ, in
+  their turn rout the enemy, 458, and then carry the war against
+  Ægina, which is subdued, 457. In the new quarrel between Corinth
+  and Megara respecting their boundaries, the Athenians side with
+  Megara; Myronides conquers at Cimolia, 457. Expedition of the
+  Spartans to the support of the Dorians against Phocis; and hence
+  arises the first rupture between Athens, Sparta, and Boeotia.
+  First battle of Tanagra, in which the Spartans are victorious in
+  the same year, 457. The Boeotians, incited by the Spartans, are
+  in the second battle of Tanagra worsted by Myronides, 456. The
+  recall of Cimon, at the suggestion of Pericles himself, in
+  consequence of the first defeat.
+
+14. Cimon recalled from exile, endeavours to reestablish the domestic
+tranquillity of Greece, and at the same time to renew the war against
+the Persians. He succeeds in his attempt after the lapse of five years;
+and the consequence is a victorious expedition against the Persians. He
+defeats their fleet off Cyprus, and routs their army on the Asiatic
+coast. The fruit of this victory is the celebrated peace with Artaxerxes
+I. (see above, p. 104.) Ere that peace is concluded Cimon dies, too soon
+for his country, while occupied with the siege of Citium.
+
+  Termination of the third Messenian war in favour of Sparta, by the
+  cession of Ithome, B. C. 455. Meantime Athens continues the war
+  with Peloponnesus; Tolmidas and Pericles making an incursion by
+  sea on the enemy's territory, 455-454. At the same time Pericles,
+  by sending out colonies to the Hellespont, endeavours to secure
+  more firmly the Athenian power in that quarter: a colony is
+  likewise sent out to Naxos, 453.--Cimon negotiates a truce, which
+  is adopted first (451) tacitly, afterwards formally, (450,) for
+  five years. The result of this truce is his victorious expedition
+  against the Persians, and the consequent peace with that nation.
+  Although the conditions of the peace prescribed by Cimon were
+  sometimes infringed, they appear to have been ratified by all
+  parties.
+
+15. The conclusion of peace with Persia, glorious as it was, and the
+death of the man whose grand political object was to preserve union
+among the Greeks, again aroused the spirit of internal strife. For
+notwithstanding nearly twenty years intervened before the tempest burst
+with all its fury, this period was so turbulent during its course, that
+Greece seldom enjoyed universal peace. While Athens by her naval
+strength was maintaining her ascendancy over the confederates, and while
+some of those confederates were raising the standard of rebellion and
+passing over to Sparta, every thing was gradually combining towards the
+formation of a counter league, the necessary consequence of which must
+have been a war, such as the Peloponnesian. Up to this time Athens was
+at the height of her power; she was governed by Pericles, who, in every
+thing but the name, was sole ruler during this period, and for that
+reason she experienced few of the evils resulting from a democratic
+constitution. Who, indeed, could overthrow a demagogue whose presence of
+mind, even in the greatest good fortune, never once deserted him; who
+knew how to keep alive among his fellow-citizens the conviction that,
+however exalted they might be, it was to him alone they were indebted
+for it?
+
+  During the five years' truce the sacred war for the possession of
+  the Delphian oracle took place, and it is given by the Spartans to
+  the city of Delphi; but after their return is given back again by
+  the Athenians to the Phocians, B. C. 448. The Athenians commanded
+  by Tolmidas, are defeated by the Boeotians, 447. This expedition,
+  undertaken in opposition to the advice of Pericles, contributes to
+  increase his influence; particularly as he reduces to obedience
+  the revolted Euboea and Megara, 446. End of the five years' truce
+  with Sparta; and renewal of hostilities, 445; further warlike
+  proceedings are repressed by a new thirty years' peace, which
+  lasts, however, only fourteen years.--Complete suppression of the
+  aristocratic party, by the banishment of the elder Thucydides,
+  444; the whole administration of the state consequently centres in
+  the hands of Pericles.--Democracy in the confederate states
+  favoured; forcibly introduced in Samos, which, after a nine
+  months' siege, is obliged to submit to Pericles, 440.--Commencement
+  of the war between Corinth and Corcyra, on the subject of Epidamnus,
+  436, which the Corcyræans take possession of after winning a naval
+  victory, 435. The Athenians take part in the quarrel, and side with
+  the Corcyræans, 432. The rupture with Corinth, and the policy of
+  Perdiccas II. king of Macedonia, lead to the secession of the
+  Corinthian colony of Potidæa, which previously belonged to the
+  Athenian confederacy: the war thereby is extended to the Macedonian
+  coast. Engagement near Potidæa, and siege of that town, 432. The
+  Corinthians direct their steps to Sparta, and excite the Spartans
+  to war; which is further accelerated by the attack of the Thebans
+  upon Platææ, the confederate of Athens, 431.
+
+16. The history of the twenty-seven years' war, known by the name of the
+Peloponnesian, or great Grecian war, which swept away the fairest
+flowers of Greece, is the more deserving attention from its being not
+merely a struggle between nations, but likewise against certain forms of
+government. The policy of Athens, which to establish or preserve her
+influence in foreign states, excited the multitude against the higher
+orders, had on all sides given rise to two factions, the democrat or
+Athenian, and the aristocrat or Spartan; and the mutual bitterness of
+party spirit produced the most violent disorders.
+
+17. The respective relations of the two head states of Greece to their
+confederates, were at this time of a very opposite nature. Athens, as a
+naval power, was mistress of most of the islands and maritime cities,
+which, as tributary confederates, rendered for the most part a forced
+obedience. Sparta, as a land power, was allied with most of the states
+on the continent, which had joined her side of their own accord, and
+were not subject to tribute. Sparta therefore presented herself as the
+deliverer of Greece from the Athenian yoke.
+
+  Confederates of the Athenians: the islands Chios, Samos, Lesbos, all
+  those of the Archipelago, (Thera and Melos excepted, which stood
+  neutral,) Corcyra, Zacynthus; the Grecian colonies in Asia Minor, and
+  on the coast of Thrace and Macedonia; in Greece itself, the cities
+  of Naupactus, Platææ, and those of Acarnania.--Confederates of the
+  Spartans: all the Peloponnesians, (Argos and Achaia excepted, which
+  stood neutral,) Megara, Locris, Phocis, Boeotia, the cities of
+  Ambracia and Anactorium, and the island of Leucas.
+
+18. Sketch of the internal state of Athens and Sparta at this period.
+The power of Athens depended mainly on the state of her finances;
+without which she could not support a fleet, and without a fleet her
+ascendancy over the confederates would of course fall to ground. And
+although Pericles, notwithstanding his lavish public expenditure, was
+able to enter upon the war with 6,000 talents in the treasury,
+experience could not fail to show that, in such a democratic state as
+Athens was now become under Pericles, the squandering of the public
+money was an unavoidable evil. This evil was produced, however, at
+Athens much less by the peculations of individual state officers than by
+the demands of the multitude, who for the most part lived at the expense
+of the state treasury. On the other hand, Sparta as yet had no finance;
+and only began to feel the want of it as she began to acquire a naval
+power, and entered upon undertakings more vast than mere incursions.
+
+  Financial system of the Athenians. Revenue: 1. The tribute paid by
+  the confederates ([Greek: phoroi]) increased by Pericles from four
+  hundred and sixty to six hundred talents. 2. Income from the
+  customs, (which were farmed,) and from the mines at Laurium. 3.
+  The caution money of the non-citizens: ([Greek: metoikoi].) 4. The
+  taxes on the citizens, ([Greek: eisphorai],) which fell almost
+  entirely on the rich, more particularly on the first class, the
+  members of which were not only to bear the burthen of fitting out
+  the fleet, ([Greek: trierarchiai],) but were likewise to furnish
+  means for the public festivals and spectacles, ([Greek:
+  chorêgiai].) The whole income of the republic at this time was
+  estimated at 2,000 talents. But the disbursements made to the
+  numerous assistants at the courts of justice (the principal means
+  of existence with the poorer citizens, and which, more than any
+  thing else, contributed to the licentiousness of the democracy and
+  the oppression of the confederates, whose causes were all brought
+  to Athens for adjudication,) together with the expenditure for
+  festivals and spectacles, even at this time, absorbed the greatest
+  part of the revenue.
+
+  # F. BOEKH, _Public Economy of the Athenians_, 2 parts, Berlin,
+  1816. The chief work on the subject. [Ably translated by J. C.
+  LEWIS, esq. of Christ Church in this university.]
+
+  _Athenian Letters, or the Epistolary Correspondence of an Agent of
+  the King of Persia, residing at Athens during the Peloponnesian
+  war._ London, 1798, 2 vols. 4to. The production of several young
+  authors; first printed, but not published, in 1741. This sketch
+  comprises, not only Greece, but likewise Persia and Egypt.
+
+19. First period of the war until the fifty years' peace. Beginning of
+the war unsuccessful to Athens during the first three years, under the
+conduct of Pericles, in whose defensive plan we may perhaps discern the
+infirmities of age. The Athenians, however, suffered less from the
+annual inroads of the Spartans than from the plague, to which Pericles
+himself at last fell a victim. The alliance of the Athenians with the
+kings of Thrace and Macedonia extended the theatre of war; on the other
+hand, Sparta had already conceived the idea of an alliance with Persia.
+
+20. The death of Pericles was, for the next seven years, during which
+the place of that great man was supplied by Cleon a currier, followed by
+all the evils of an uncurbed democracy. The atrocious decrees with
+respect to Mitylene, which after seceding, had been recaptured, and the
+insurrection of the Corcyræan populace against the rich, characterized
+the party spirit then dominant in Greece better than the few
+insignificant events of a war conducted without any plan. Sparta,
+however, found in young Brasidas a general, such as are wont to arise in
+revolutionary times. His prosecution of the war on the Macedonian coast
+might have brought great danger to Athens, had he so early not fallen a
+victim to his own gallantry.
+
+  Capture of Amphipolis by Brasidas, and exile of Thucydides, 424.
+  Engagement near Amphipolis between Brasidas and Cleon; and death
+  of those two generals, 422.
+
+21. The peace now concluded for fifty years could not be of long
+duration, as many of the confederates on either side were discontented
+with its terms. All hope of tranquillity must have been at an end when
+the management of Athenian affairs fell into the hands of a youth like
+Alcibiades, in whom vanity and artifice held the place of patriotism and
+talent, and who thought war the only field in which he could gain
+credit. Against him what availed the prudence of Nicias?--Happy was it
+for Athens that during the whole of this period Sparta never produced
+one man who could match even with Alcibiades!
+
+  Attempt of some states, Corinth especially, to set Argos at the
+  head of a new confederacy; this measure Athens likewise favours,
+  421.--Violation of the peace, 419; the war indirect until 415, and
+  limited to assisting the confederates on either side.--Alcibiades's
+  plan of giving Athens the preponderance in Peloponnesus, by an
+  alliance with Argos, is defeated by the battle of Mantinea,
+  417.--Exterminating war of the Athenians waged against the Melians,
+  who wish to preserve their neutrality, whereas neutrality in the
+  weaker party now becomes a crime, 416.
+
+22. Alcibiades's party brings forward at Athens the project of
+conquering Sicily, under the pretence of succouring the Segestani
+against the Syracusans. This rash expedition, in which the hopes both of
+the Athenians and of its instigator Alcibiades were blighted, gave to
+Athens the first great blow, from which she never after, even with the
+utmost exertion of her strength, recovered; especially as Sparta also
+was now become a naval power.
+
+  Early interference of the Athenians with the concerns of the
+  Sicilian Greeks.--A fleet and army under the command of Nicias,
+  Lamachus, and Alcibiades, sent against Sicily, 415.--Accusation,
+  recall, and flight of Alcibiades to Sparta: formal rupture of the
+  peace by an inroad of the Spartans into Attica, where they fortify
+  Decelea, 414. Unsuccessful siege of Syracuse, 414; and total
+  annihilation of the Athenian fleet and army by the assistance of
+  the Spartans under Gylippus, 413.
+
+23. Fatal as in the present circumstances the blow struck in Sicily must
+appear to have been to Athens, yet the calamity was surmounted by
+Athenian enthusiasm, never greater than in times of misfortune. They
+maintained their supremacy over the confederates; but the part which
+Alcibiades, in consequence of the new posture his own personal interest
+had assumed at Sparta, took in their affairs, brought about a twofold
+domestic revolution, which checked the licentious democracy.
+
+  Alliance of the Spartans with the Persians, and indecisive
+  engagement off Miletus--Flight of Alcibiades from Sparta to
+  Tissaphernes; his negotiations to gain the satrap over to the
+  interests of Athens, 411.--Equivocal policy of
+  Tissaphernes.--Negotiations of Alcibiades with the chiefs of the
+  Athenian army at Samos, and the consequent revolution at Athens,
+  and overthrow of the democracy by the appointment of the supreme
+  council of four hundred in place of the [Greek: boulê], and of a
+  committee of five thousand citizens in place of the popular
+  assembly, 411.--The army assumes the right of debate; names
+  Alcibiades to be its leader; but declares again for
+  democracy.--Great commotions at Athens in consequence of the
+  discomfiture of the fleet at Eretria, and the secession of Euboea.
+  Deposition of the college of four hundred, after a despotic rule
+  of four months;--Reformation of the government;--Transfer of the
+  highest power to the hands of the five thousand;--Recall of
+  Alcibiades, and reconciliation with the army.
+
+24. Brilliant period of Alcibiades's command. The reiterated naval
+victories won by the Athenians over the Spartans under Mindarus, who,
+mistrusting Tissaphernes, now forms an alliance with Pharnabazus, satrap
+of the north of Asia Minor, oblige the Spartans to propose peace, which
+haughty Athens, unluckily for herself, rejects.
+
+  Two naval engagements on the Hellespont, 411.--Great victory by
+  sea and land won near Cyzicus, 410.--Confirmation of the Athenian
+  dominion over Ionia and Thrace by the capture of Byzantium, 480.
+  Alcibiades returns covered with glory; but in the same year is
+  deposed, and submits to a voluntary exile, 407.
+
+25. Arrival of the younger Cyrus in Asia Minor; the shrewdness of
+Lysander wins him over to the Spartan interest. The republican
+haughtiness of Lysander's successor, Callicratidas, shown to Cyrus, was
+a serious error in policy; for, unassisted by Persian money, Sparta was
+not in a condition to pay her mariners, nor consequently to support her
+naval establishment. After the defeat and death of Callicratidas, the
+command is restored to Lysander, who terminates the twenty seven years'
+war triumphantly for Sparta.
+
+  Naval victory of Lysander over the Athenians at Notium, 407; in
+  consequence of which Alcibiades is deprived of the
+  command.--Appointment of ten new leaders at Athens; Conon among
+  the number.--Naval victory of Callicratidas at Mitylene; Conon is
+  shut up in the harbour of that place, 406.--Great naval victory of
+  the Athenians; defeat and death of Callicratidas at the Æginussæ
+  islands, near Lesbos, 406.--Unjust condemnation of the Athenian
+  generals.--Second command of Lysander, and last _decisive_ victory
+  by sea over the Athenians at Ægospotamos on the Hellespont, Dec.
+  406.--The loss of the sovereignty of the sea is accompanied by the
+  defection of the confederates, who are successively subjected by
+  Lysander, 406.--Athens is besieged by Lysander in the same year,
+  405; the city surrenders in May, 404.--Athens is deprived of her
+  walls; her navy is reduced to twelve sail; and, in obedience to
+  Lysander's commands, the constitution is commuted into an
+  oligarchy, under thirty rulers, (tyrants.)
+
+26. Thus ended a war destructive in its moral, still more than in its
+political, consequences. Party spirit had usurped the place of patriotic
+feeling; as national prejudice had that of national energy. Athens being
+subdued, Sparta stood at the head of confederate Greece; but Greece very
+soon experienced the yoke of her deliverers to be infinitely more
+galling than that of the people hitherto called her oppressors. What
+evils must not have ensued from the revolutions Lysander now found it
+necessary to effect in most of the Grecian states, in order to place the
+helm of government in the hands of his own party under the
+superintendence of a Spartan harmost?--How oppressive must not have been
+the military rule of the numerous Spartan garrisons?--Nor could any
+alleviation of tribute be hoped for, now that in Sparta it was
+acknowledged that the "state must possess an exchequer."--The arrogance
+and rapacity of the new masters were rendered more grievous by their
+being more uncivilized and destitute.
+
+  History of the reign of terror at Athens under the thirty tyrants,
+  403.--What happened here must likewise have happened more or less
+  in the other Grecian cities, which Lysander found it necessary to
+  revolutionize. In all quarters his party consisted of men similar
+  to Critias and his colleagues, who appear to have been long before
+  united in clubs ([Greek: hetaireiai]) intimately connected with
+  each other; from which were now taken the most daring
+  revolutionists, in order to place them everywhere at the head of
+  affairs.
+
+27. Happy revolution in Athens, and expulsion of the thirty tyrants
+by Thrasybulus, favoured by the party at Sparta opposed to Lysander,
+and headed by king Pausanias. Restoration and reform of Solon's
+constitution; general amnesty. It was easy to reestablish forms;--to
+recall the departed spirit of the nation was impossible!
+
+  ED. PH. HINRICHS, _De Theramenis, Critiæ et Thrasybuli, virorum
+  tempore belli Peloponnesiaci inter Græcos illustrium, rebus et
+  ingenio, Commentatio_, Hamburgi, 1820. An inquiry which exhibits
+  much research and impartiality.
+
+28. The defeat of the younger Cyrus entangles the Spartans in a war with
+the Persians, the same year that, after the death of king Agis,
+Agesilaus takes possession of the regal dignity. We willingly forget his
+usurpation as we follow him in his heroic career. None but a man of
+genius could have instructed Sparta how to support for so long a time
+the extravagant character which she had now undertaken to play.
+
+  Opening of the war with Persia by Tissaphernes's attack on the
+  Æolian cities of Asia Minor, 400.--Command of Thimbron, who, 398,
+  is succeeded by the more successful and fortunate
+  Dercyllidas.--Availing himself of the jealousy between
+  Tissaphernes and Artabazus, he persuades the latter to a separate
+  truce, 397.--Command of Agesilaus; his expedition into Asia, from
+  the spring of 396 until 394. The conviction which he obtained of
+  the domestic weakness of the Persian empire in the successful
+  invasion of Phrygia, 395, seems to have matured in the mind of
+  Agesilaus the idea of overturning the Persian throne: this design
+  he would have accomplished had not the Persians been politic
+  enough to kindle a war against Sparta in Greece itself.
+
+29. The Corinthian war, waged against Sparta by Corinth, Thebes, and
+Argos, to which Athens and the Thessalians unite, terminated by the
+peace of Antalcidas. The tyranny of Sparta, and more particularly the
+recent devastation of Elis, a sacred territory, were the alleged
+pretexts; but the bribes of Timocrates, the Persian envoy, were the real
+causes of this war.
+
+  Irruption of the Spartans into Boeotia; they engage and are routed
+  at Haliartus, 394. Lysander falls on the field of battle; and
+  Agesilaus is recalled out of Asia.--His victory at Coronea ensures
+  to the Spartans the preponderance by land; but the discomfiture of
+  their navy near Cnidus at the same time, gives to their enemies
+  the sovereignty of the sea: Conon, who commanded the combined
+  Persian and Athenian fleets, avails himself, with consummate
+  skill, of this success to reestablish the independence of Athens,
+  393.--Sparta endeavours by apparently great sacrifices to bring
+  over the Persians to her interests: the peace at last concluded by
+  the efforts of the skilful Antalcidas, (see above, book ii, parag.
+  42), was readily agreed to by the Spartans, as they gave up only
+  what otherwise they could not have retained. The preponderance of
+  Sparta on the continent of Greece was established by the article
+  which invested them with the power of seeing the conditions of the
+  treaty fulfilled: the stipulated freedom of the Grecian cities was
+  but an apparent disadvantage; and now that the Asiatic colonies
+  were given up, the contest for power in Greece itself must be
+  decided by land, and not by sea.
+
+30. The quarrels which, after the peace of Antalcidas, Sparta began to
+have with Mantinea and Phlius, and still more so her participation in
+those between the Macedo-Greek cities and the over-powerful Olynthus,
+prove too plainly the arrogance with which Sparta behaved to the weaker
+states. But the arbitrary appropriation of the citadel of Thebes by
+Phoebidas,--an act not indeed commanded, yet approved by Sparta,--was
+attended with more serious consequences than were at first expected.
+Would that all authors of similar breaches of good faith and the law of
+nations were visited with the same vengeance!
+
+31. Period of the rivalry of Sparta and Thebes, Thebes, from the year
+378. The greatness of Thebes was the work of two men, who knew how to
+inspire their fellow-citizens and confederates with their own heroic
+spirit: with them Thebes rose, with them she fell. Rarely does history
+exhibit such a _duumvirate_ as that of Epaminondas and Pelopidas. How
+high must our estimation of Pythagoras be, even had his philosophy
+formed but one such man as Epaminondas!
+
+  Liberation of Thebes from Spartan rule by the successful attempt
+  of Pelopidas and his fellow-conspirators, 378. Vain attempts
+  against Thebes, by the Spartans under Cleombrotus, 378, and
+  Agesilaus, 377 and 376. The defensive war conducted by Pelopidas,
+  during which he established the Theban supremacy in Boeotia, and
+  brought over the Athenians, (whose fleet, 376, beat that of the
+  Spartans,) deserves our admiration more than the winning of a
+  battle.--The vast plans of Thebes were not unfolded, however, till
+  Epaminondas was at the head of affairs.
+
+  SERAN DE LA TOUR, _Histoire d'Epaminondas_. Paris, 1752.
+
+  # MEISSNER, _Life of Epaminondas_. Prague, 1801, 2 parts. In which
+  the authorities are duly considered.
+
+  # J. G. SCHEIBEL, _Essays towards a better understanding of the
+  Ancient World_, 1809. The second part contains an essay upon the
+  history of Thebes, as the first does on that of Corinth.
+
+32. A general peace is concluded in Greece through the mediation of the
+Persians, (who wish to obtain auxiliaries against the Egyptians,) under
+the condition that all the Grecian cities shall be free: it is acceded
+to by Sparta and Athens, but rejected by Thebes, because she cannot
+admit the condition without again falling under the Spartan yoke. In
+fact, the lofty language used by Epaminondas, as envoy to Sparta, shows
+that it was problematic whether Sparta or Thebes should now be at the
+head of Greece. Could the idea, therefore, of a perfect equality between
+the states of Greece be other than chimerical?
+
+33. The long struggle maintained so gloriously by Epaminondas against
+Sparta is remarkable both in a political and military point of view. The
+power of Sparta was abased; Epaminondas invented a new system of
+tactics, (out of which soon after sprang the Macedonian art of war;) and
+as soon as he found confederates in Peloponnesus itself, he made his way
+to the very gates of Sparta.
+
+  Victory won by the Thebans at Leuctra, July 8, 371, and
+  annihilation of what hitherto had been called the supremacy of
+  Sparta.--First irruption into Peloponnesus preceded by alliances
+  with Arcadia, Elis, and Argos.--The attack upon Sparta itself is
+  unsuccessful; but the freedom of Messene is restored, 369.
+
+34. Sparta in distress forms an alliance with Athens, under the
+stipulation that the command shall alternately be in the hands of the
+two confederates; conditions, no doubt, humiliating to Spartan pride! It
+however affords them the means of frustrating Epaminondas's new attempt
+on Corinth and the Peloponnesus. Even Dionysius I. of Syracuse, thinks
+himself bound to assist the Spartans as being Dorians.
+
+35. Thebes played a no less brilliant part in the north than she did in
+the south. And had the attempts to liberate Thessaly from the rule of
+the tyrant, Alexander of Pheræ, been attended with success, Thebes would
+have received a vast increase of power. Even in Macedonia she acted as
+arbitress.
+
+  First and successful expedition of Pelopidas into Thessaly,
+  368.--After the decision of the disputed succession to the
+  Macedonian throne, young Philip is brought as hostage to Thebes,
+  and educated in the house of Epaminondas.--Pelopidas is sent as
+  ambassador, and taken prisoner by Alexander; hence the second
+  expedition of the Thebans, in which Epaminondas rescues the army
+  and delivers his friend, 367.
+
+36. Alliance of Thebes with Persia successfully brought about by
+Pelopidas. In the intrigues of the opponents at the Persian court, the
+object of each was to bring that court over to his own interest. Yet the
+domineering tone in which the Persians wished to dictate peace, had not
+the consequences that might have been expected; and although Sparta
+consented to her confederates remaining neutral, she would not forego
+her claims on Messene. The establishment of a navy would have been of
+more important consequences to Thebes than this alliance, had not all
+these plans, together with the greatness of Thebes, been swept away by
+the premature death of her two leading men.
+
+  Last expedition of Pelopidas against Alexander of Pheræ, in which
+  he himself falls, 364.--New irruption into Peloponnesus caused by
+  the commotions in Arcadia.--Battle of Mantinea, and death of
+  Epaminondas, June 27, 362.--General peace in Greece mediated by
+  the Persians; Sparta does not assent to it on account of Messene,
+  but sends Agesilaus to Egypt, there to support the insurrection of
+  Tachos.
+
+37. The result of this bloody struggle for the supremacy of Greece was,
+that neither Sparta nor Thebes obtained it; the former of these states
+being weakened by the loss of Messene, the latter by the loss of its
+leaders, and both strained by their violent exertions. The situation of
+Greece after this war seems to have been thus far changed, that no state
+had the predominance; an independence proceeding from enervation. Even
+Athens, who by means of her naval power still preserved her influence
+over the cities on the coast and in the islands, lost the greater part
+in the war of the allies, together with three of her most celebrated
+leaders, Chabrias, Timotheus, and Iphicrates, whose places were ill
+supplied by Chares.
+
+  Confederacy of the islands Cos, Rhodes, and Chios, and the city of
+  Byzantium; their secession from Athens, 358.--Unsuccessful siege
+  of Chios, before which Chabrias falls, 358; of Byzantium, 357.
+  Athens suffers a still greater injury from the cabals of Chares
+  against his colleagues Timotheus and Iphicrates, and from her
+  imprudent participation in the insurrection of Artabazus, 356. The
+  threats of Artaxerxes III. force Athens to make a peace, in which
+  she is obliged to acknowledge the freedom of her confederates.
+
+38. At the very time when the growing power of Macedonia under Philip
+ought to have united all the Grecian states, had such an union been
+within the range of possibility, Greece plunged into another civil war
+of ten years' duration, which is known by the name of the sacred or
+Phocian war. The Amphictyonic assembly, whose duty it was to maintain
+peace, and whose influence had been in the present circumstances
+reinstated, abused its authority by kindling discord. The hatred of the
+Thebans, who sought for new opportunities of quarrel with Sparta, and
+the ambition of the Phocian Philomelus, were the real causes which led
+to the war, which the policy of Philip knew how to prolong till the
+precise moment favourable to his own particular views arrived. The
+treasures of Delphi circulating in Greece, were as injurious to the
+country as the ravages which it underwent. A war springing out of
+private passions, fostered by bribes and subsidiary troops, and
+terminated by the interference of foreign powers, was exactly what was
+requisite for annihilating the scanty remains of morality and patriotism
+still existing in Greece.
+
+  Sentence of the Amphictyons against Sparta on account of the
+  former surprise of the citadel of Thebes by Phoebidas; and against
+  Phocis on account of the tillage of the sacred lands of Delphi,
+  357.--Philomelus is elected general of the Phocians; the rifling
+  of the treasury of Delphi enables him to take into his pay
+  Athenian and other auxiliaries, and to carry war against the
+  Thebans and their confederates, the Locrians, etc. under pretence
+  of their being the executors of the Amphictyonic decrees.
+  Philomelus having fallen, 353, is succeeded by his brother
+  Onomarchus, more skilful than himself in intrigue and war: but
+  Onomarchus having fallen, 352, in the battle with Philip in
+  Thessaly, is followed by Phayllus. Philip even thus early
+  endeavours to push through Thermopylæ into Greece, but is repelled
+  by the Athenians. He executes this plan after his peace with
+  Athens, 347, and having procured the expulsion of the Phocians
+  from the Amphictyonic council, gets their place and right of vote
+  to be transferred to himself.
+
+39. From the very first advance of Philip, the fate of Greece could
+scarcely afford matter for doubt; although the eloquence of Demosthenes
+warded it off until the second invasion, caused by the Amphictyonic
+sentence passed on the Locrians. (See below, book iv. parag. 15.) The
+battle of Chæronea laid the foundation of Macedonia's complete
+ascendancy over the Grecian republics: by the appointment of Philip to
+be generalissimo of Greece in the Persian war, that ascendancy was, as
+it were, formally acknowledged; nor did it end with the assassination of
+that prince.
+
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+FOURTH BOOK.
+
+HISTORY OF THE MACEDONIAN MONARCHY.
+
+
+
+
+FIRST PERIOD.
+
+_From its origin to the death of Alexander the Great. B. C. 800-323._
+
+
+  Sources. We have no historian who wrote, particularly, on
+  Macedonia, before the time of Alexander. The facts relative to the
+  earlier history previous to Philip are collected from Diodorus,
+  Justin, Thucydides, and Arrian; from Diodorus more especially. In
+  consequence of the loss of the other historians, Diodorus is the
+  chief authority for the history of Philip; the speeches of
+  Demosthenes and Æschines must likewise be consulted, but not made
+  use of without caution and judicious historical criticism. With
+  respect to Alexander the Great, as so many writers on his reign
+  have been destroyed by time, Arrian must now be considered as the
+  chief authority, on account of the care he has shown in the
+  selection of his authorities, conjointly with the seventeenth book
+  of Diodorus. Plutarch's biography contains several valuable
+  additional facts; and even the superficial Curtius might furnish us
+  with abundance of information, did his accounts offer higher claims
+  to our credit.
+
+1. An Hellenic colony from Argos, headed by the Temenidæ, a branch of
+the Heraclidæ, settled in Emathia, and laid the feeble foundation of the
+Macedonian empire, which was in time to rise to such power. Not only did
+the settlers keep their footing in the country, in spite of the
+aboriginal inhabitants; but their princes gradually extended their
+territory, by subjecting or expelling several of the neighbouring
+tribes. Their earlier history, not excepting even the names of their
+kings, is buried in obscurity till the time of the Persian invasions.
+
+  The three first Macedonian kings, Caranus said to have ruled
+  twenty-eight years, Coenus twenty-three, Tyrmas forty-five, were
+  unknown to Herodotus, who names as founder of the Macedonian
+  monarchy, Perdiccas, 729-678. Of this prince and his successors
+  Argæus, _d._ 640, Philip I. _d._ 602, Æropus, _d._ 576, and
+  Alcetas, _d._ 547, nothing more is known than that they waged war,
+  with various success against the neighbouring Pierians and
+  Illyrians, who had their own kings.
+
+2. When the Persians commenced their incursions into Europe, Macedonia,
+by its situation, must have been one of the first countries they
+ravaged. Accordingly, as early as the reign of Darius Hystaspis, the
+Macedonian kings were tributary to the Persians; and were indebted for
+their deliverance from that yoke, not to their own valour, but to the
+victories of the Greeks. The battle of Platææ restored independence to
+the Macedonian kingdom, although that independence was not formally
+acknowledged by the Persians.
+
+  Immediately after the Scythian campaign, 513, Amyntas (_d._ 498,)
+  became tributary to the Persians; his son and successor, Alexander,
+  (_d._ 454,) was in the same state of subjection, and was even
+  compelled to join the expedition of Xerxes.
+
+3. But the expulsion of the Persians still left Macedonia exposed to the
+attacks of other formidable neighbours; on one side there was the
+Thracians, among whom, under Sitalces, and his successor, Seuthes, arose
+the powerful kingdom of the Odrysæ; on the other, the Athenians, who,
+availing themselves of their extensive navy, reduced to subjection the
+Grecian settlements on the Macedonian shores. Harassing as these
+neighbours were to the Macedonian kings, they proved to be the very
+instruments by which Macedonia became so early and so deeply involved in
+the affairs of Greece.
+
+  Commencement of the differences with Athens, under the reign of
+  Perdiccas II, 454-413; Athens having supported his brother Philip
+  against him.--Defection of Potidæa, and fortification of Olynthus,
+  into which the Greeks from Chalcis and other cities are
+  transplanted, 432. Potidæa being forced to surrender to Athens,
+  431, Perdiccas contrives to play so skilful a part in the
+  Peloponnesian war just now commencing, that he outwits the
+  Athenians, parrying the attack of Sitalces by a marriage of his
+  sister with Seuthes, the heir to that prince, 429. His alliance
+  with Sparta, 424, is very detrimental to the Athenians, Brasidas
+  wresting Amphipolis from their hands; nevertheless Perdiccas
+  chooses rather to conclude a peace with Athens, 423, than to throw
+  himself entirely into the arms of his new allies.
+
+4. Archelaus, the successor of Perdiccas, introduced agriculture and
+civilization among the Macedonians, who were never, however, recognized
+by the Hellenes as their legitimate brethren: highways and military
+roads were constructed; forts were erected; and the court became the
+seat of literature. In these days the Macedonian kingdom seems to have
+comprised Emathia, Mygdonia, and Pelagonia, to which may be added some
+of the neighbouring tribes, who, although governed by their own kings,
+were tributary. The power of the kings was insignificant when unaided by
+the nobles, among whom, as was the case with all the hereditary princes
+of Greece, they merely held the right of precedence. How difficult was
+it, even in Alexander's time, to erase from the minds of the Macedonian
+nobility the recollection of their former importance!
+
+5. The murder of Archelaus was followed by a stormy period, wrapped in
+obscurity: the unsettled state of the succession raised up many
+pretenders to the throne, each of whom easily found the means of
+supporting his claims, either in some of the neighbouring tribes, or in
+one of the Grecian republics.
+
+  Æropus, as guardian to the young king Orestes, usurps the supreme
+  power, B. C. 400-394. After his death, and the murder of his son
+  Pausanias, 393, the throne was seized by Amyntas II. son of
+  Philip, and brother to Perdiccas II. who was nevertheless unable
+  to maintain his power until he had gained a victory over Argæus,
+  the brother of Pausanias, who was backed by the Illyrians,
+  390-369. The war with Olynthus, 383-380, could not be brought to a
+  successful conclusion until he had formed an alliance with Sparta.
+
+6. The three sons of Amyntas II, Alexander, Perdiccas, and Philip,
+successively ascended the throne after the death of their father; but so
+violent were the commotions during the reigns of the two former, that
+the future existence of Macedonia as a kingdom might have been regarded
+as problematical: it is certain that they were obliged to submit to the
+payment of tribute to the Illyrians.
+
+  Alexander, in opposition to his rival, Ptolemy of Alorus, placed
+  on the throne by Pelopidas, sends his youngest brother Philip as
+  hostage to Thebes: in the same year he is deposed by Ptolemy, 368.
+  Reign of Ptolemy, 388-365, with the stipulation imposed, 367, by
+  Pelopidas, that he shall only hold the sceptre in reserve for the
+  two younger brothers. Murder of Ptolemy, 365, by Perdiccas III.
+  who is nearly overwhelmed by Pausanias, another and earlier
+  pretender to the crown; he is at last firmly seated on the throne
+  by the Athenians, under Iphicrates, 364. But as early as 360 he
+  falls in the war against the Illyrians, leaving behind him a son,
+  Amyntas, still a minor, and a younger brother Philip, who escapes
+  from Thebes in order to gain possession of the throne.
+
+7. The reign of Philip, which lasted twenty-four years, is one of the
+most instructive and interesting in the whole range of history, as well
+on account of the prudence he displayed, as for the manner in which his
+plans were arranged and executed. Though it may be difficult to trace in
+his morals the pupil of Epaminondas, yet it is impossible to view
+without feelings of astonishment the brilliant career of a man, who,
+under the almost hopeless circumstances in which he commenced his
+course, never lost his firmness of mind, and who in the highest
+prosperity preserved his coolness of reflection.
+
+  The history of Philip, even in his own days, was distorted to his
+  disadvantage by orators and historians. Demosthenes could not,
+  Theopompus would not, be impartial; and the information contained
+  in Diodorus and Justin is mostly derived from the work of the
+  latter.
+
+  OLIVIER, _Histoire de Philippe, roi de Macédoine_. Paris, 1740, 2
+  vols. 8vo. A defence of Philip.
+
+  DE BURY, _Histoire de Philippe, et d'Alexandre le grand_. Paris,
+  1760, 4to. A very mean performance.
+
+  TH. LELAND, _The History of the Life and Reign of Philip king of
+  Macedon_. London, 1761, 4to. Dry, but exhibiting much reading and
+  strict impartiality.
+
+  In MITFORD, _History of Greece_, vol. iv, Philip has found his
+  most zealous panegyrist and defender. It would seem that, even in
+  the present day, it is impossible to write an impartial history of
+  this monarch.
+
+8. Melancholy posture of the Macedonian affairs at the beginning of
+Philip's reign. Besides victorious foes abroad, there were at home two
+pretenders to the throne, Argæus, backed by Athens, Pausanias, supported
+by Thrace; and Philip himself, at first, was merely regent, and not
+king. In the two first years, however, every thing was changed, and
+Macedonia recovered her independence. The newly-created phalanx ensured
+victory over the barbarians; recourse was had to other means than force
+for success against the suspiciousness of Athens and the neighbouring
+Greek settlements, particularly against the powerful Olynthus. It is in
+the conduct of these affairs that the peculiar sagacity of Philip is
+displayed.
+
+  After the defeat of Argæus, peace is purchased from Athens by a
+  momentary recognition of the freedom of Amphipolis, 360.--Removal
+  of Pausanias by means of an accommodation with Thrace.--By the
+  conquest of the Pæonians and Illyrians, 359, the boundaries of
+  Macedonia are extended to Thrace, and westward to the lake
+  Lychnitis.--As early as 360 Philip was proclaimed king.
+
+9. Development of Philip's further plans of aggrandizement.--By the
+gradual subjection of the Macedo-Greek cities, he proposed, not only to
+make himself sole master in Macedonia, but also to remove the Athenians
+from his domain.--The first object of his policy against Greece was to
+get himself acknowledged as a Hellen, and Macedonia as a member of the
+Hellenic league. Hence the subsequent tutelage in which Macedonia held
+Greece was not converted into a formal subjection, a proceeding which
+would have savoured too much of barbarian origin.--The execution of all
+these plans was facilitated by the possession of the Thracian gold
+mines, which enabled Philip to create finances as well as the phalanx.
+
+  Capture of Amphipolis, 358; in the mean while Athens is amused
+  with promises, and Olynthus with the momentary cession of Potidæa,
+  which had likewise been captured: this event is followed by the
+  conquest of the mountainous districts, abounding in gold, which
+  extend from the Nestus to the Strymon, and furnished an annual
+  income of nearly 1,000 talents.
+
+10. The interference of Philip in the affairs of Thessaly dates from the
+year 357; the possession of that country was an object equally important
+for the furtherance of his views upon Greece, as for the improvement of
+his finances. He first stepped forth as the deliverer of Thessaly, and
+ended in making it a province of Macedonia.
+
+  Expulsion of the tyrants from Pheræ, at the request of the
+  Aleuadæ, 356; the tyrants, however, receive support in the sacred
+  war from the Phocians under Onomarchus. The final defeat of
+  Onomarchus, 352, makes Philip master of Thessaly; he places
+  Macedonian garrisons in the three chief places, and thus supports
+  his authority in the country until he is pleased to make it
+  entirely a Macedonian province, 344.
+
+11. The protraction of the sacred war in Greece furnished Philip with an
+excellent opportunity of promoting his views upon that country; although
+his first attempt at an irruption, too precipitately undertaken, was
+frustrated by the Athenians. The capture of Olynthus, notwithstanding
+the assistance afforded it by the Athenians, after a season of apparent
+inaction, insured the safety of the frontiers in his rear; and by a
+master stroke of policy, almost at the very moment in which he was
+driving the Athenians out of Euboea, he found means to enter with them
+into negotiations, which, after repeated embassies, were closed by a
+peace, opening to him the way through Thermopylæ, and enabling him to
+raise a party favourable to himself within the very walls of Athens.
+
+12. First descent of Philip into Greece, and termination of the sacred
+war by reducing the Phocians. The place which he now obtained in the
+Amphictyonic council, had been the height of his wishes; and the
+humility of Sparta proved how firmly his ascendancy over Greece was
+already established.
+
+13. Brief view of the state of Greece, and more particularly of Athens,
+after the sacred war; description of the means by which Philip succeeded
+in creating and supporting parties favourable to his own interests in
+the Grecian states. Bribery was not his only instrument; what he gave he
+borrowed from others; the main feature of his policy was, that he seldom
+or ever recurred to the same means. Scheming and consistent even in his
+drunken revels, he hardly ever appears under the same form.
+
+  Dreadful consequences to the morals of the Greeks, resulting from
+  the spirit of party, the decline of religion, and the vast
+  increase in the circulating medium, produced by the treasures of
+  Delphi and Macedonia.--Estimate of the power of Athens during the
+  period of Demosthenes and Phocion. It seems that, unfortunately,
+  the eloquence and political acuteness of the former was not
+  accompanied with sufficient talents for negotiation; the latter,
+  perhaps, did not place confidence enough in his country, while
+  Demosthenes placed too much. In spite of public indolence and
+  effeminacy, Athens was still enabled to support her rank as a
+  maritime power, the navy of Philip not being equal to hers.
+
+  # A. G. BECKER, _Demosthenes as a Statesman and an Orator_. An
+  historico-critical introduction to his works: 1815. A very useful
+  work, both as a history and as an introduction to the political
+  orations of Demosthenes.
+
+14. New conquests of Philip in Illyria and Thrace. The Adriatic sea and
+the Danube appear to have been the boundaries of his empire on this
+side. But the views of the Macedonian king were directed less against
+the Thracians, than against the Grecian settlements on the Hellespont;
+and the attack of the Athenian Diopithes furnished him a pretext for
+making war against them. The siege, however, of Perinthus and Byzantium,
+was frustrated by Phocion, to the great vexation of Philip; an event
+which aroused the Athenians, and even the Persians, from their lethargy.
+
+15. Policy of Philip after this check.--At the very time that, engaged
+in a war against the barbarians on the Danube, he appears to have wholly
+lost sight of the affairs of Greece, his agents redouble their activity.
+Æschines, richly paid for his services, proposes in the Amphictyonic
+council, that, to punish the sacrilegious insults of the Locrians to the
+Delphian oracle, he should be elected leader of the Greeks in this new
+sacred war. Following his usual maxim, Philip suffers himself to be
+entreated.
+
+16. Second expedition of Philip into Greece. His appropriation of the
+important frontier town of Elatea soon showed that, for this time at
+least, he was not contending merely for the honour of Apollo.--Alliance
+between Athens and Thebes brought about by Demosthenes.--But the defeat
+of Chæronea in the same year decided the dependence of Greece. Philip
+now found it easy to play the magnanimous character towards Athens.
+
+17. Preparations for the execution of his plan against Persia, not as
+his own undertaking, but as a national war of the Hellenes against the
+barbarians. Thus, while Philip, by obtaining from the Amphictyons the
+appointment of generalissimo of Greece against the Persians, secured in
+an _honourable_ manner the dependence of the country, the splendour of
+the expedition flattered the nation at whose expense it was to be
+conducted. It is a question, indeed, whether Philip's own private views
+extended much further!
+
+18. The internal government of Macedonia, under so skilful and
+successful a conqueror, must necessarily have been absolute. No
+pretender would dare to rise up against such a ruler, and the body guard
+([Greek: doryphoroi]) established by him at the beginning of his reign,
+and taken from the Macedonian nobility, contributed much to keep up a
+proper understanding between the prince and the nobles. The court became
+a military staff, while the people, from a nation of herdsmen, was
+converted into a nation of warriors.--Philip was unfortunate only in his
+own family; but the blame is not to be attributed to him if he could not
+agree with Olympias.
+
+19. Philip murdered by Pausanias at Ægæ, probably at the instigation of
+the Persians, while celebrating the marriage of his daughter.
+
+20. The reign of ALEXANDER the GREAT, in the eyes of the historical
+inquirer, derives its great interest, not only from the extent, but from
+the permanence, of the revolution which he effected in the world. To
+appreciate properly the character of this prince, who died just as he
+was about to carry his mighty projects into execution, is no easy task;
+but it is totally repugnant to common sense to suppose that the pupil of
+Aristotle was nothing more than a wild and reckless conqueror, unguided
+by any plan.
+
+  ST. CROIX, _Examen critique des anciens historiens
+  d'Alexandre-le-grand_, 2nd. edition, _considérablement augmentée_.
+  Paris, 1804, 4to. The new edition of this, which is the principal
+  work on the history of Alexander, and important in more respects
+  than one, contains more than the title implies, though by no means
+  a strictly impartial estimate of that prince's character.
+
+21. Violent commotions at court, in the conquered countries, and in
+Greece, after the death of Philip. Great as his power appeared to be,
+the preservation of it depended entirely on the first display of
+character in his successor. Alexander showed himself worthy to inherit
+the sceptre by his victorious expedition against the Thracians; (to
+whom, and more especially to his alliance with the Agrians, he was
+afterwards indebted for his light horse;) and by the example which he
+exhibited to Greece in his treatment of Thebes.
+
+22. Appointment of Alexander in the assembly at Corinth to be
+generalissimo of the Greeks. Yet what his father would probably have
+turned to a very different account, he allowed to remain a mere nominal
+office.--Development of his plan of attack upon Persia.--The want of a
+navy, soon experienced by Alexander, would probably have frustrated his
+whole project, had not Memnon's counterplan of an inroad into Macedonia
+been thwarted by the celerity of the Macedonian king.
+
+23. Passage over the Hellespont, and commencement of the war. The
+tranquillity of his kingdom and of Greece appeared to be secured,
+Antipater being left at the head of affairs.--The victory on the
+Granicus opens to Alexander a path into Asia Minor; but the death of
+Memnon, which soon after followed, was perhaps a greater advantage than
+a victory.
+
+24. The victory of Issus, gained over Darius in person, appears to have
+given Alexander the first idea of completely overturning the Persian
+throne, as was proved by the rejection of Darius's offers of peace. When
+indeed have not the plans of conquerors been dependent on the course of
+events? Yet Alexander must have been pretty certain of his future
+victory, since he permitted Darius to escape, while he sat down seven
+months before Tyre, in order to make himself master of the sea; and,
+after the conquest of Egypt without a battle, to which the possession of
+Tyre opened the way, to build Alexandria, and erect to himself a
+monument more lasting than all his victories.
+
+  Although Alexandria perhaps in the end may have surpassed the
+  expectations of the founder, yet the selection of the site,
+  favourable only for navigation and commerce, shows that an eye was
+  originally had to those objects.
+
+25. Invasion of Inner Asia, facilitated by the tacit submission of the
+ruling tribes, and by the state of cultivation in which the country was
+found. On the plains of Arbela the Macedonian tactics were completely
+triumphant. It might now be said that the throne of Persia was
+overturned; and the unexpectedly easy capture of Babylon, Susa, and
+Persepolis, was surely of more importance for the moment than the
+pursuit of a flying king.
+
+  Insurrection of the Greeks quelled by Antipater; Alexander himself
+  falls in with the malcontent envoys to Darius in the interior of
+  Asia.
+
+26. The subjection of the north-eastern provinces of the Persian empire
+would perhaps have been attended with the greatest difficulties, had
+not the astonishing activity of the conqueror crushed in their birth
+the schemes of the treacherous Bessus, who, after the assassination of
+Darius, wished to erect a separate kingdom in Bactria. The Jaxartes was
+now the northern boundary of the Macedonian monarchy, as it had hitherto
+been that of the Persian. Besides, the possession of the rich trading
+countries, Bactria and Sogdiana, was in itself an object of vast
+importance.
+
+  During this expedition, the execution of Philotas and his father
+  Parmenio took place, though both were, probably, guiltless of the
+  conspiracy laid to their charge, 330. After the death of Darius,
+  Alexander met with almost constant opposition in his own army: the
+  majority of the troops fancying that that event precluded the
+  necessity of any further exertions. Cautious as Alexander was in
+  his treatment of the Macedonian nobles, we may discern, not
+  however by the mere example of Clitus, how difficult they found it
+  to banish from their memory the relations in which they had
+  formerly stood to their kings.
+
+27. Alexander's expedition against India had, no doubt, its origin in
+that propensity to romantic enterprise which constituted a main feature
+in his character. Yet what could be more natural than that a close view
+of Persian splendour, the conquest of such wealthy countries, and the
+desire of prosecuting his vast commercial designs, should gradually
+mature in the mind of the Macedonian king the plan of subjecting a
+country which was represented as the golden land of Asia. To this
+likewise the scantiness of geographic information must have greatly
+contributed; if he pressed forward to the eastern seas, the circle of
+his dominion would, it was supposed, be complete.--It appears very
+certain that Alexander was destitute of a sufficient knowledge of the
+country when he entered upon this expedition.
+
+  Alexander's invasion was directed against Northern India, or the
+  Panjab; in those days a populous and highly cultivated country;
+  now the seat of the Seiks and Mahrattas; and then, as now,
+  inhabited by warlike races. He crossed the Indus at Taxila
+  (Attock,) passed the Hydaspes (Behut or Chelum,) and, availing
+  himself of the quarrels between the Indian princes, defeated the
+  king, Porus. He then proceeded across the Acesines (Jenaub) and
+  Hydraotes (Rauvee). The eastern verge reached in this expedition
+  was the river Hyphasis (Beyah;) here, having already proceeded
+  half way to the Ganges, the conqueror was, by a mutiny in his
+  army, compelled to retreat. His return was through the country of
+  the Malli (Multan) as far as the Hydaspes, when the majority of
+  his troops took ship, and were floated along that stream into the
+  Acesines, and from thence into the Indus, which they followed down
+  to its mouth.
+
+  RENNEL, _Memoir of a Map of Hindostan_. London, 1793, (3d. edit.)
+  and
+
+  ST. CROIX, _Examen_, etc. (see p. 216.) furnish all the necessary
+  historical and geographical explanations relative to the Persian
+  and Indian campaigns of Alexander.
+
+28. Although Alexander was obliged to give up the project of conquering
+India, yet the connection between Europe and the east, which has
+continued from that time, was the work of his hands. While the
+communication on land was secured by the establishment of various
+settlements, the communication by sea was opened by the voyage of his
+admiral, Nearchus, from the Indus to the Euphrates. In the mean time
+Alexander himself proceeded to Persis and Babylon, across the desert,
+and the unexplored provinces of Gedrosia and Carmania.
+
+  Nearchus's voyage (our knowledge of which is derived from his own
+  journal, preserved in Arrian's _Indica_) lasted from the
+  beginning of October, 326, to the end of February, 325: nearly
+  the same time was occupied in the almost incredible land march of
+  the king.
+
+  VINCENT, _The Voyage of Nearchus from the Indus to the Euphrates_.
+  London, 1797, 4to. Exhibiting the most learned researches, and
+  illustrated with excellent charts.
+
+29. After the abandonment of India, the whole circuit of Alexander's
+conquests was precisely that of the former Persian empire; his later
+projects were probably directed against Arabia alone. However easy it
+had been to make these conquests, it was a more difficult task to retain
+them; for Macedonia, exhausted by continual levies of men, could not
+furnish efficient garrisons. Alexander removed this difficulty, by
+protecting the conquered from oppression; by showing proper respect to
+their religion; by leaving the civil government in the hands of the
+native rulers who had hitherto possessed it; and by confiding to
+Macedonians the command only of the garrisons left in the chief places,
+and in the newly established colonies. To alter as little as possible in
+the internal organization of countries was his fundamental principle.
+
+30. Simple as Alexander's plans were in the outset, their simplicity was
+more than compensated by the magnitude and importance of their results.
+Babylon was to be the capital of his empire, and consequently of the
+world. The union of the east and the west was to be brought about by the
+amalgamation of the dominant races by intermarriage, by education, and,
+more than all, by the ties of commerce, the importance of which much
+ruder conquerors, in Asia itself, soon learnt to appreciate. In nothing
+probably is the superiority of his genius more brilliantly displayed,
+than in his exemption from all national prejudice, particularly when we
+consider that none of his countrymen were in this respect to be compared
+with him. To refuse him this merit is impossible, whatever judgment we
+may form of his general character.
+
+31. Sudden death of Alexander at Babylon by fever; under the peculiar
+circumstances of the time, the greatest loss mankind could experience.
+From the Indus to the Nile the world lay in ruins; and where was now the
+architect to be found, that could gather up the scattered fragments and
+restore the edifice?
+
+  Alexander's disorder may be easily accounted for by the hardships
+  he had undergone, and the impure air to which he exposed himself
+  in cleaning out the canals about Babylon. He certainly was not
+  poisoned; and in the charge of immoderate drunkenness brought
+  against him, we must take into account the manners of the
+  Macedonian and Persian courts. Was it not the same with Peter the
+  Great? In estimating his moral character we must bear in mind the
+  natural vehemence of his passions, ever inclined to the most rapid
+  transitions; nor should we forget the unavoidable influence of
+  constant success upon mankind.
+
+
+
+
+SECOND PERIOD.
+
+_History of the Macedonian monarchy, from the death of Alexander
+the Great to the battle of Ipsus, B. C. 323-301._
+
+
+  To enable the reader to take a general view, the history of the
+  European events is resumed below, under the head of the history
+  of Macedonia Proper.
+
+  SOURCES. Diodorus, lib. xviii-xx. is the great authority for this
+  portion of history. He compiled mostly, for this period, from a
+  contemporary historian, Hieronymus of Cardia. He is followed by
+  Plutarch in the Lives of Eumenes, Demetrius, and Phocion; and by
+  Justin, lib. xiii, etc. Of Arrian's history of Alexander's
+  successors, nothing unfortunately remains but a few fragments in
+  Photius.
+
+  # MANNERT, _History of Alexander's successors_. Nuremberg, 1787.
+  Composed with the usual judgment and learning of that author.
+
+1. The very first measure adopted after the death of Alexander contained
+within itself the seeds of all the dire revolutions that afterwards
+ensued. Not only were the jealousy and ambition of the nobles aroused,
+but even the interference of the army was exhibited in the most terrific
+manner. Although the idea of the supremacy of the royal family was cast
+off only by degrees, yet the dreadfully disturbed state in which that
+family stood, rendered its fall unavoidable.
+
+  State of the royal family at the death of Alexander. He left his
+  wife Roxana pregnant, who at the end of three months brought into
+  the world the rightful heir to the sceptre, Alexander; he left
+  likewise an illegitimate son, Hercules; a bastard half-brother,
+  Arrhidæus; his mother, the haughty and cruel Olympias, and a
+  sister, Cleopatra, both widows; the artful Eurydice, (daughter to
+  Cyane, one of Philip's sisters,) subsequently married to the king,
+  Arrhidæus; and Thessalonica, Philip's daughter, afterwards united
+  to Cassander of Macedonia.
+
+2. The weak Arrhidæus, under the name of Philip, and the infant
+Alexander were at last proclaimed kings, the _regency_ being placed in
+the hands of Perdiccas, Leonnatus, and Meleager; the last of whom was
+quickly cut off at the instigation of Perdiccas. Meanwhile Antipater,
+with whom Craterus had been joined as civil ruler, had the management of
+affairs in Europe.
+
+3. The sequel of the history becomes naturally that of satraps, who fell
+out among themselves, all being ambitious to rule, and none willing to
+obey. Twenty-two years elapsed ere any massy edifice arose out of the
+ruins of the Macedonian monarchy. In few periods of history are the
+revolutions of affairs so violent, in few periods, therefore, is it so
+difficult to unravel the maze of events. For this purpose the most
+convenient division of the history is into _three_ periods: the first
+extending to the death of Perdiccas, 321: the second to the death of
+Eumenes, 315: the third to the defeat and death of Antigonus at the
+battle of Ipsus, 301.
+
+4. First grant of the provinces made by Perdiccas. The vanity of this
+man seems to have induced him to select the office of regent, in order
+that no separate province might fall to his share; he placed his whole
+reliance on having the command of the royal army, although it had
+already given so many proofs of its determination to command rather than
+to obey.
+
+  In this division Ptolemy son of Lagus received Egypt; Leonnatus,
+  Mysia; Antigonus, Phrygia, Lycia, and Pamphylia; Lysymachus,
+  Macedonian Thrace; Antipater and Craterus remained in possession
+  of Macedonia.--The foreigner, Eumenes, would hardly have received
+  Cappadocia, although yet to be conquered, had Perdiccas been able
+  to dispense with his services. The remaining provinces either did
+  not come under the new division, or else their governors are
+  unworthy of notice.
+
+5. The first acts of Perdiccas's government showed how little dependence
+he could place on the obedience of men who hitherto had been his
+colleagues. The general insurrection among the mercenaries who had been
+settled by Alexander in Upper Asia, and now wished to return to their
+homes, was, no doubt, quelled by Python's destruction of the rebels; but
+it was not Python's fault that he did not make himself independent
+master of the scene of mutiny.
+
+6. Still more refractory was the behaviour of Leonnatus and Antigonus,
+when they received orders to put Eumenes in possession of his province.
+Antigonus was too haughty to obey; and Leonnatus preferred going over
+into Europe to marry Cleopatra; there, however, he almost immediately
+met with his death in the Lamian war. (See below, book iv. period iii.
+parag. 2.) Perdiccas, therefore, was himself obliged to undertake the
+expedition with the royal army; he succeeded by the defeat of
+Ariarathes.
+
+7. Ambitious views of Perdiccas, who, in order to ascend the throne by a
+marriage with Cleopatra, repudiates Nicæa, the daughter of Antipater.
+Cleopatra actually came over to Asia; but Perdiccas, being obliged, at
+the request of the army, to marry Eurydice, Philip's niece, after the
+murder of her mother Cyane, to the king Arrhidæus, found her a
+troublesome rival and opponent in the government.
+
+8. Attempts of Perdiccas to overthrow Antigonus and Ptolemy, by accusing
+them before the army. Antigonus passes over to Antipater in Macedonia;
+and gives rise to the league between Antipater, Craterus, and Ptolemy,
+against Perdiccas and Eumenes.
+
+9. Commencement and termination of the first war. Perdiccas himself
+marches against Egypt, leaving his friend Eumenes to command in Asia
+Minor: meanwhile Antipater and Craterus fall upon Asia; the former
+advances towards Syria against Perdiccas; the latter is defeated and
+slain by Eumenes. Before the arrival, however, of Antipater, Perdiccas,
+after repeated and vain attempts to cross the Nile, falls a victim to
+the insurrection of his own troops.--Thus three of the principal
+personages, Perdiccas, Craterus, Leonnatus, were already removed from
+the theatre of action; and the victorious Eumenes, now master of Asia
+Minor, had to maintain, unaided, the struggle against the confederates.
+
+10. Second period, from the death of Perdiccas to that of
+Eumenes.--Python and Arrhidæus quickly resigning the regency, it is
+assumed by Antipater.--New division of the provinces at Trisparadisus in
+Syria. Seleucus receives Babylon; Antigonus is promised, besides his
+former possessions, all those of the outlawed Eumenes.
+
+11. War of Antigonus with Eumenes. The latter, defeated by treachery,
+shuts himself up in the mountain fastness of Nora, there to await more
+favourable times; and Antigonus remains master of all Asia Minor: in the
+mean time Ptolemy ventures to take possession of Syria and Phoenicia.
+
+12. Death of the regent Antipater, in the same year, (320;) he bequeaths
+the regency to his friend, the aged Polysperchon, to the exclusion of
+his own son Cassander. Antigonus now begins to unfold his ambitious
+plans; he endeavours vainly to win over Eumenes, who deceives him in the
+negotiations, and seizes the opportunity of leaving his mountain
+fastness.
+
+13. Eumenes's plan to strengthen himself in Upper Asia; as he is on the
+way he receives tidings of his being appointed generalissimo of the
+royal troops. What better man could Polysperchon have selected for the
+office than he who in his conduct towards Antigonus exhibited so
+striking an example of attachment to the royal house?
+
+14. Exertions of Eumenes to maintain himself in Lower Asia, ineffectual,
+the naval victory won by Antigonus over the royal fleet, commanded by
+Clitus, depriving him of the empire of the sea. He bursts into Upper
+Asia; where, in the spring, he unites with the satraps, who had taken
+arms against the powerful Seleucus of Babylon.
+
+15. Antigonus following up the royal general, Upper Asia becomes the
+theatre of war. Victorious as was at first the stand made by Eumenes,
+neither valour nor talent were of any avail against the insubordination
+of the royal troops, and the jealousy of the other commanders. Attacked
+in winter quarters by Antigonus, he was, after the battle, delivered
+into the hands of his enemy by the mutinous Argyraspidæ, who had lost
+their baggage: he was put to death, and in him the king's family lost
+its only loyal supporter.
+
+16. Great changes had also taken place in the royal family. Her enemy
+Antipater having deceased, Olympias, invited by Polysperchon, who wished
+to strengthen himself against Cassander, had returned from Epirus, and
+put to death Arrhidæus together with his wife, Eurydice: in the year
+following she was besieged in Pydna by Cassander, and being obliged to
+surrender, was in her turn executed; meanwhile Cassander held Roxana and
+the young king in his own power.
+
+17. Third period, from the death of Eumenes to that of Antigonus.--The
+rout of Eumenes seemed to have established for ever the power of
+Antigonus in Asia; still animated with the fire of youth, though full of
+years, he saw himself revived in his son Demetrius, fond of boisterous
+revelry, but gallant and talented.--Even Seleucus thought it time to
+consult his safety by flying from Babylon into Egypt.
+
+18. Changes introduced by Antigonus into the upper provinces; return to
+Asia Minor, where his presence seemed indispensable, by reason of the
+aggrandizement of Ptolemy in Syria and Phoenicia, of the Macedonian
+Cassander in Europe, of Lysimachus in Mysia, and the Carian Cassander in
+Asia Minor.--He repossesses himself of Phoenicia, a country of the first
+importance for the construction of a fleet.
+
+  Siege of Tyre, 314-313: it lasts fourteen months; a proof that the
+  city was certainly not razed by Alexander.
+
+19. The fugitive Seleucus forms a league against Antigonus and
+Demetrius, between Ptolemy, the two Cassanders, and Lysimachus. But
+Antigonus frustrates their combination, himself driving out the Carian
+Cassander, and his son marching against Ptolemy.
+
+  Victory won by Ptolemy over Demetrius at Gaza, 312; after which
+  Seleucus marches back to Babylon, and, although subsequently
+  followed up by Demetrius, permanently maintains his footing in
+  Upper Asia.--On the other hand, Ptolemy, at the first approach of
+  Antigonus with the main body, surrenders back Syria and Phoenicia,
+  312.
+
+20. A general peace concluded between Antigonus and his enemies,
+Seleucus only excepted, from whom Upper Asia is to be again wrested. The
+first article, that each should retain what he had, demonstrates pretty
+evidently that the treaty was dictated solely by Antigonus; the second,
+that the Greek cities should be free, was pregnant with the seeds of a
+new war, ready to burst forth at every favourable opportunity; the
+third, that the young Alexander should be raised to the throne upon
+attaining his majority, was probably the death warrant of the hapless
+prince, who, that same year, together with his mother, was murdered by
+Cassander.--Shortly after, at the instigation of Antigonus, Cleopatra
+was put to death, in order that Ptolemy might be thwarted in his object,
+which depended on a matrimonial connection with that princess.
+
+21. Even the execution of the articles must have given rise to
+hostilities; Ptolemy wishing to force Antigonus, and he, on his side, to
+compel Cassander, to withdraw the garrisons from the Grecian towns; a
+condition which neither party felt inclined to fulfil. Grecian freedom
+was now but a name; this, however, is not the only example history
+furnishes of political ideas making the greatest stir long after they
+have survived their own existence; for then they become excellent tools
+in the hands of artful designers.
+
+  Expedition of Demetrius to liberate Athens, 308. The day when he
+  announced freedom to the Athenians, must have been the happiest of
+  his life! Few portions of history present such a scope for the
+  contemplation of human nature as the twofold sojourn of Demetrius
+  at Athens.
+
+22. The growing power of Ptolemy on the sea, and the capture of Cyprus,
+determines Antigonus to an open rupture: he commands his son to drive
+Ptolemy out of the island.
+
+  Naval victory of Demetrius off Cyprus, 307, perhaps the greatest
+  and most bloody in history; nevertheless, as little decisive to
+  the general question as are most naval battles. The assumption of
+  the royal title, first by the conqueror, afterwards by the
+  conquered, and ultimately by all the rest, was but a mere form now
+  that the royal family was extirpated.
+
+23. The conquerors having failed in their project of subduing Egypt,
+made the wealthy republic of the Rhodians, as an ally of that country,
+the victim of their fury. But though in the renowned siege of their
+capital, Demetrius earned his title of Poliorcetes, the noble defence of
+the Rhodians afforded an illustrious example of the power of discipline
+in conjunction with well-guided patriotism. The invitation of the
+Athenians came seasonably to Demetrius; he raised the blockade and
+proceeded to complete the liberation of Greece, the necessity of which
+became every day more pressing.
+
+24. Second sojourn of Demetrius in Greece. The expulsion of Cassander's
+garrisons from the Grecian cities, and more particularly from those in
+Peloponnesus; the appointment of Demetrius as generalissimo of Greece,
+for the conquest of Macedonia and Thrace; proved not only to Cassander,
+but also to the other princes, that their common interest loudly called
+upon them to resist the over-powerful Antigonus.
+
+25. Third grand league of Cassander, Ptolemy, and Seleucus, against
+Antigonus and his son; brought about by Cassander. How easily, even
+after the violent irruption of Lysimachus into Asia Minor, might
+Antigonus have dispersed the gathering storms, had not his presumption
+led him to place an overweening reliance on his own good fortune!
+
+26. Junction of Seleucus of Babylon and Lysimachus, in Phrygia.
+Antigonus, to concentrate his forces, recalls his son, who had pushed on
+to the borders of Macedonia. The cautious Ptolemy, on the other hand, is
+afraid to invade Syria; and, in consequence of a false report, that
+Lysimachus had been defeated, retires full of alarm, into Egypt.
+
+27. Great and decisive battle fought at Ipsus in Phrygia, in the spring
+of 301, which costs Antigonus his life, and annihilates his empire, as
+the two conquerors divide it between themselves, without taking any
+account of the absent confederates. Asia Minor, as far as mount Taurus,
+falls to the share of Lysimachus; and all the rest, with the exception
+of Cilicia, which is given to Plisthenes, Cassander's brother, is left
+to Seleucus.--Demetrius, by the help of his navy, escapes into Greece.
+
+28. The almost unbroken series of wars which had raged from the time of
+Alexander, must have precluded the possibility of much being effected
+with respect to domestic organization. It appears to have been nearly,
+if not wholly, military. Yet were the numerous devastations in some
+measure compensated by the erection of new cities, in which these
+princes vied with one another, impelled partly by vanity to immortalize
+their names, partly by policy to support their dominion, most of the new
+settlements being military colonies. Nevertheless this was but a sorry
+reparation for the manifold oppressions to which the natives were
+exposed by the practice of quartering the army upon them. The spread of
+the language and civilization of the Greeks deprived them of all
+national distinction; their own languages sinking into mere provincial
+dialects. Alexander's monarchy affords a striking example of the little
+that can be expected from a forced amalgamation of races, when the price
+of that amalgamation is the obliteration of national character in the
+individuals.
+
+  HEYNE, _Opum regni Macedonici auctarum, attritarum et eversarum,
+  causæ probabiles; in Opusc._ t. iv. This collection contains
+  several other treatises on Grecian and Macedonian history, which
+  cannot be all separately enumerated.
+
+
+
+
+THIRD PERIOD.
+
+_History of the kingdoms and states which arose upon the dismemberment
+of the Macedonian Monarchy after the battle of Ipsus._
+
+
+I. HISTORY OF THE SYRIAN EMPIRE UNDER THE SELEUCIDÆ, B. C. 312-64.
+
+  SOURCES. Neither for the history of the Syrian, nor for that of
+  the Egyptian and Macedonian kingdoms, has any eminent writer been
+  preserved. The fragments of the lost books of Diodorus, and, from
+  the time that these kingdoms became allies of Rome, those of
+  Polybius, several narratives of Livy, the Syriaca of Appian, and a
+  few of Plutarch's Lives, are the principal authorities; too
+  frequently we are obliged to rely upon the extracts of Justin. For
+  the history of the Seleucidæ, in consequence of the political
+  connection between these princes and the Jews, the Antiquities of
+  Josephus and the book of Maccabees become of importance. Besides
+  these authorities, the many coins that have been preserved of
+  these kings, afford much information respecting their genealogy
+  and chronology.
+
+  Of modern publications on the subject, the principal work is
+
+  VAILLANT, _Imperium Seleucidarum sive historia regum Syriæ_, 1681,
+  4to. The enquiry is principally grounded on coins, as is the case
+  with
+
+  FROELICH, _Annales rerum et regum Syriæ_. Viennæ, 1754.
+
+1. The kingdom of the Seleucidæ was founded in Upper Asia by Seleucus
+Nicator. It was an extensive empire; but, being composed of various
+countries united only by conquest, it could possess but little internal
+stability except what it derived from the power of its rulers. That
+power fell with the founder; and the transfer of the seat of empire
+from the banks of the Tigris to Syria, entangled the Seleucidæ in all
+the political disputes of the western world, and facilitated the
+insurrection of the upper provinces. The history of this kingdom divides
+itself into the periods before and after the war with Rome; although at
+the breaking out of this war the seeds of its decline and fall had
+already been sown.
+
+  Seleucus received, 321, Babylon as his province; but after the
+  defeat of Eumenes was obliged to take to flight, 315, in order to
+  avoid subjection to the conqueror Antigonus. But his moderate
+  government had rendered him so popular, that after the victory won
+  by Ptolemy over Demetrius at Gaza, 312, he could safely venture to
+  return with only a few adherents to Babylon. In this year
+  commences the kingdom of the Seleucidæ.
+
+2. In the ten following years, and while Antigonus was busied in Asia
+Minor, Seleucus laid the foundation of his power over all Upper Asia,
+with a facility to which the detestation excited by the rigid government
+of Antigonus mainly contributed. After his victory over Nicanor of
+Media, all in that quarter declared spontaneously for him; and the
+unsuccessful expedition of Demetrius taught Antigonus himself, that it
+would no longer be prudent to assert his claims. As early as 307,
+Seleucus was in possession of all the countries between the Euphrates,
+Indus, and Oxus.
+
+3. Great campaign in India undertaken by Seleucus against king
+Sandracottus. He penetrated as far as the Ganges, and the close alliance
+he formed with the Indian sovereign lasted a long time after, and was
+kept up by embassies. The great number of elephants which he brought
+back with him was not the only advantage accruing from this expedition;
+the intercourse with the east seems to have been permanently
+reestablished.
+
+4. By the battle of Ipsus Seleucus added to his dominions the greater
+part of the territories of Antigonus;--Syria, Cappadocia, Mesopotamia,
+and Armenia. Unfortunately Syria now became the head province,
+notwithstanding Coele-Syria and Phoenicia were left in the hands of
+Ptolemy. How widely different would have been the course of historic
+events, had the seat of empire remained at Seleucia on the Tigris, and
+the Euphrates continued to be the western boundary of the Seleucidæ!
+
+5. Reciprocal relations between the several kings, who now combine in
+forming a kind of political system, in which continued exertions to
+maintain a balance of power by alliance and marriage are plainly
+discernible.
+
+  Connection between Seleucus and Demetrius Poliorcetes, by the
+  marriage of the former with the beautiful Stratonice, daughter of
+  the latter; made with the view of counterbalancing a similar
+  connection between Ptolemy and Lysimachus; Lysimachus and his son
+  Agathocles having united themselves with two daughters of Ptolemy.
+
+6. The eighteen years of tranquillity enjoyed by Asia after the battle
+of Ipsus, prove that Seleucus was one of the few followers of Alexander
+who had any genius for the arts of peace. He either founded or
+embellished a vast number of cities, the most important of which were
+the capital, Antiochia in Syria, and the two Seleucias, one on the
+Tigris, the other on the Orontes: the flourishing prosperity of several
+of these places was the result of the restoration of eastern trade; new
+channels for which appear to have been opened at this period on the main
+streams of Asia, and more particularly on the Oxus.
+
+7. The home department of his empire was organized into satrapies, of
+which there were seventy-two. But Alexander's maxim, "to give the
+satrapies to natives," was wholly forgotten by his followers; and the
+Seleucidæ were not long before they experienced the evil consequences of
+swerving from that practice. Under such a prince as Seleucus scarce any
+kingdom could of itself fall to pieces; but the king himself paved the
+way for the dismemberment of his empire, by ceding Upper Asia, together
+with his consort Stratonice, to his son Antiochus; not, however, without
+the previous approbation of the army.
+
+8. War with Lysimachus, kindled by ancient jealousy, and now fomented by
+family feuds. The battle of Curopedion cost Lysimachus his throne and
+his life; and Asia Minor became a part of the Syrian realm. But as
+Seleucus was crossing over to Europe, to add Macedonia to his dominions,
+he fell by the hand of an assassin, Ptolemy Ceraunus, and with him the
+splendour of his kingdom was extinguished.
+
+9. The reign of his son, Antiochus I. surnamed Soter, seemed not
+unprosperous, inasmuch as the empire preserved its former extension; but
+in any state founded upon conquest, the failure of new attempts at an
+increase of territory is a sure token of approaching ruin; and this was
+the case here.--In such a state, the more immediately all depends on
+the person of the ruler, the more rapid and sensible are the effects of
+degeneration in a family like that of the Seleucidæ.
+
+  The late conquests of his father in Asia Minor entangled Antiochus
+  in new wars; although, by the marriage of his stepdaughter Phila
+  with Antigonus Gonatas, he ceded his claims on Macedonia,
+  277.--Fruitless attempt at subjecting Bithynia, 279; the king of
+  that country, Nicomedes, calls in the Gauls, who had invaded
+  Macedonia, and gives them a settlement in Galatia, 277, where they
+  keep their footing, even after the victory won over them by
+  Antiochus, 275, and by their participation in the wars, as
+  mercenaries, become of importance.--The newly risen state of
+  Pergamus likewise thrives, at the expense of the Syrian empire, in
+  spite of Antiochus's attack, 263; and the inroad into Egypt, for
+  the purpose of supporting the rebel Magas, is anticipated by
+  Ptolemy II. 264.
+
+10. Antiochus II. surnamed [Greek: Theos]. During his reign the sway was
+in the hands of women; and the diseased state of the interior of the
+empire became palpable by the secession of various eastern provinces,
+out of which arose the Parthian and Bactrian kingdoms. The boundless
+luxury of the court hurried on the decline of the ruling family; having
+once begun to sink, it could not without difficulty have retrieved its
+virtue independently of the matrimonial connections now constantly
+formed from within itself.
+
+  Ascendancy of his stepsister and wife Laodice, and of his sister
+  Apame, relict of Magas; the latter involves him in war with
+  Ptolemy II. to vindicate her claims upon Cyrene; it ends by
+  Antiochus's marriage with Berenice, daughter of Ptolemy, and his
+  repudiation of Laodice, 260-252. Having, after the death of
+  Ptolemy, 247, put away Berenice and taken back Laodice; the
+  latter, distrusting his motives, cuts him off by poison.--The
+  secession of Parthia happened in consequence of the expulsion of
+  the Macedonian governor by Arsaces, founder of the house of the
+  Arsacidæ: that of Bactria, on the other hand, was brought about by
+  the Macedonian governor himself, Theodotus, who asserted his
+  independence. (Concerning these two kingdoms, see below, book iv.
+  period iii. Dist. Kingdoms iv. parag. 4, 5.) At first, the former
+  of these kingdoms comprised but a part of Parthia; the latter only
+  Bactria, and, perhaps, Sogdiana; both, however, were soon enlarged
+  at the expense of the Seleucidæ.
+
+11. Seleucus II. surnamed Callinicus. His reign, twenty years in
+duration, is one unbroken series of wars; in which the kingdom, already
+enfeebled, was subverted, partly by the struggle with Egypt, caused by
+the hatred between Laodice and Berenice; partly by the jealousy of his
+brother Antiochus Hierax; and partly by vain attempts at recovering the
+upper provinces.
+
+  Assassination of Berenice, and most unfortunate war thereby
+  kindled with Ptolemy Evergetes of Egypt, 247-244. The assistance
+  which Seleucus obtains from his junior brother, Antiochus,
+  governor of Asia Minor, induces Ptolemy to a truce, 243; but
+  another war ensues between the two brothers, in which Antiochus,
+  at first conqueror, is himself soon afterwards conquered in his
+  turn, 243-240; and during this contest, Eumenes of Pergamus
+  greatly increases his territory at the expense of Syria, 242.--His
+  first campaign against Arsaces, who had formed an alliance with
+  the Bactrian king, ended in a defeat, 238, regarded by the
+  Parthians as the real epoch of the foundation of their kingdom. In
+  the second campaign, 236, he himself fell into the hands of the
+  Parthians, and remained a prisoner till the day of his death, 227.
+
+12. His elder son Seleucus III. surnamed Ceraunus, on the point of
+taking the field against Attalus king of Pergamus, was removed by
+poison. But the dominion of the Seleucidæ was reestablished in Asia
+Minor by his mother's fraternal nephew, Achæus; and the crown ensured to
+the younger brother Antiochus, governor of Babylon.
+
+13. The long reign of Antiochus III. surnamed the Great, is not only the
+most eventful in Syrian history, but likewise marks an epoch, by the
+relations now commencing between Syria and Rome.--To earn the title of
+_great_ was a task of no extreme difficulty in such a line of princes.
+
+14. Great power of Hermias the Carian, who soon became so formidable to
+the young monarch, that he was obliged to rid himself of him by murder.
+The great stand made by the brothers, Molo and Alexander, satraps of
+Media and Persia, who probably had an understanding with Hermias,
+threatened the king with the loss of all the upper provinces: it ended
+in the defeat of Molo, Hermias being at last no longer able to hinder
+the king from marching against him in person.
+
+15. The intrigues of Hermias excited Achæus to rebellion in Asia Minor:
+but Antiochus held more important, first to execute the plan he had
+previously traced, of ejecting the Ptolemies from their possessions in
+Syria; great as the success which at first attended this expedition, it
+was completely traversed by the battle of Raphia.--Combining with
+Attalus of Pergamus, Antiochus then defeated Achæus, who, being shut up
+in the citadel of Sardes, was treacherously delivered into his hands.
+
+16. Great campaign of Antiochus in the upper provinces, in consequence
+of the seizure of Media by Arsaces III.--Hostilities ended in a compact,
+by which Antiochus agreed formerly to cede Parthia and Hyrcania;
+Arsaces, on his side, pledging himself to furnish assistance against
+Bactria.--But the war with Bactria was also followed by a peace,
+leaving the king, Euthydemus, in possession of his crown and
+dominions.--The expedition now undertaken by Antiochus, in company with
+Demetrius of Bactriana, against India, extended, probably far up the
+country, and was attended with important consequences to Bactriana. (See
+below, history of Bactria, book iv. per. iii. Dist. Kingdoms iv. parag.
+5.)
+
+The result of these great expeditions was the establishment of the
+supremacy of the Seleucidæ in Upper Asia; those countries excepted which
+had been formally resigned.
+
+  On his return through Arachotus and Carmania, where he wintered,
+  he likewise undertook a naval expedition on the Persian gulf: here
+  Gerrha, in possession of its freedom, appears a flourishing place
+  of trade.
+
+17. Resumption of the plan against Egypt, after the death of Ptolemy
+Philopator; and alliance with Philip of Macedonia, then carrying on war
+in Asia. Antiochus, it is true, attained his end in the expulsion of the
+Ptolemies from their possessions in Syria, Coele-Syria, and Phoenicia;
+but then, his success brought him in contact with Rome, an event of
+decisive importance to himself and his successors.
+
+18. Growth of the disputes between the king and Rome, proceeding from
+the conquest of the major part of Asia Minor and the Thracian
+Chersonesus; meanwhile Hannibal had taken refuge at the Syrian court,
+and the probability daily increased of a great league being formed
+against Rome, although that power, after conquering Carthage, 201, and
+Macedonia, 197, had succeeded in winning over Greece even, by the magic
+spell of _freedom_. But Antiochus ruined all: instead of following
+Hannibal's advice, and attacking the Romans on their own ground, he
+stood on the defensive, and suffered himself to be invaded by them in
+Asia. His defeat at Magnesia near Mount Sipylus compelled him to accede
+to such conditions as Rome chose to dictate, and the power of the Syrian
+empire was for ever broken.
+
+  For the history of this war, see below in the Roman history. Book
+  v. per. ii. parag. 10, 11.
+
+19. The conditions of the peace were: 1st. That Antiochus should
+evacuate Asia Minor; (Asia cis Taurum.) 2nd. That he should pay down
+15,000 talents; and to Eumenes of Pergamus four hundred. 3rd. That
+Hannibal and some others should be delivered up, and the king's younger
+son Antiochus, be given as an hostage.--The loss of the surrendered
+countries was a consequence of this peace, less disadvantageous to the
+Syrian kings, than the use made of it by the conquerors. By adding the
+greatest part of the ceded territories to those of the kings of
+Pergamus, the Romans raised up alongside of their enemy a rival, whom
+they might at their own will use as a political engine against
+him.--Rome took care likewise that the stipulated sum should be paid by
+instalments in twelve years, to the end that Syria might be kept in a
+permanent state of dependence.
+
+20. Murder of the king, 187. The reign of his elder son, Seleucus IV.
+surnamed Philopator, was a period of tranquillity; peace arising from
+weakness.--Though once he unsheathed his sword in defence of Pharnaces
+king of Pontus, against Eumenes, his fear of Rome soon compelled him to
+restore it to the scabbard. He exchanged his son for his brother at
+Rome; but fell a victim to the ambition of his minister Heliodorus.
+
+21. Antiochus IV. surnamed Epiphanes. Educated at Rome, he sought to
+combine the popular manners of a Roman with the ostentatious luxury of a
+Syrian; and thereby became an object of universal hatred and contempt.
+Our information respecting his history is too meagre to allow of our
+deciding whether most of the evil reported of him, in the Jewish
+accounts especially, may not be exaggerated. At any rate, among all his
+faults, we may still discern in him the germs of good qualities.
+
+22. War with Egypt, springing out of Ptolemy Philometor's claims upon
+Coele-Syria and Palestine. Obscure as many parts are in the history of
+this war yet it is evident that success attended the arms of Antiochus,
+and that he would have become master of Egypt had not Rome interfered.
+
+  The pretext for war, on the Egyptian side, was, that those
+  provinces had by Antiochus III. been promised as a dowry to
+  Cleopatra, sister of Antiochus and the mother of Philometor:
+  Antiochus Epiphanes, on his side, laid claim to the regency of
+  Egypt, as uncle to the young king, who, however, was soon declared
+  of age.--Opening of the war, and victory won by Antiochus at
+  Pelusium, 171; in consequence of which Cyprus is betrayed into his
+  hands.--Pelusium is fortified with a view of insuring the
+  possession of Coele-Syria, and of facilitating an irruption into
+  Egypt.--Another victory, 170, and Egypt subdued as far as
+  Alexandria. Philometor driven by a sedition out of Alexandria,
+  where his brother Physcon is seated on the throne, falls into the
+  hands of Antiochus, who concludes with him a most advantageous
+  peace, and takes his part against Physcon. Hence siege is laid to
+  Alexandria, 169; attended with no success. Upon the retreat of
+  Antiochus, Philometor, concluding a separate peace with his
+  brother, according to which both are to rule in conjunction, is
+  admitted into Alexandria. Antiochus, bitterly enraged, now
+  declares war against both brothers, who crave assistance from
+  Rome: he once more penetrates into Egypt, 168; where the Roman
+  ambassador, Popillius, assumes so lofty a tone, that the Syrian
+  king is glad to purchase peace by the surrender of Cyprus and
+  Pelusium.
+
+23. The religious intolerance of Epiphanes, exhibited in his wish to
+introduce the Grecian worship everywhere among the subjects of his
+empire, is the more remarkable, as such instances were less frequent in
+those times. This intolerance seems to have taken its rise, not only in
+the love of pomp, but in the cupidity of the king, who by that means was
+enabled to appropriate to himself the treasures of the temples, no
+longer inviolate, since the defeat of his father by Rome. The consequent
+sedition of the Jews, under the Maccabees, laid the foundation of the
+future independence of that people, and contributed not a little to
+weaken the Syrian kingdom.
+
+  See below; History of the Jews, book iv. per. iv; Small states
+  Jews, parag. 6. The deep decay of the finances of the Seleucidæ,
+  palpable from the latter days of Antiochus the Great, may be
+  accounted for well enough, by the falling off of the revenue,
+  accompanied with increased luxury in the kings, (an instance of
+  which is furnished in the festivals celebrated by Antiochus
+  Epiphanes at Daphne, 166,) and in the vast presents constantly
+  sent to Rome, in addition to the tribute, for the purpose of
+  keeping up a party there.
+
+24. His expedition also into Upper Asia, Persis especially, where great
+disorders were likewise excited by the introduction of the Grecian
+religion, had for its object not only the recovery of Armenia, but the
+rifling of the temples. He died, however, on his way to Babylon.
+
+25. The real heir to the throne, Demetrius, being detained at Rome as an
+hostage, Epiphanes was first succeeded by his son Antiochus V. surnamed
+Eupator, a child nine years old. During his short reign, the quarrels of
+his guardians, the despotism of the Romans, the protracted war with the
+Jews, and the commencing conquests of the Parthians, reduced the kingdom
+of the Seleucidæ to a powerless state.
+
+  Contest between Lysias, regent in the absence of Epiphanes, and
+  Philip, appointed by the king, previously to his death, as
+  guardian of the young prince, terminated by the defeat of Philip,
+  162.--Eupator's right acknowledged at Rome, in order that the
+  guardianship might fall into the hands of the senate, who
+  administer the government by means of a commission sent over into
+  Syria, and completely deprive the king of all power of resistance.
+  Octavius, head of the commission, put to death, probably at the
+  instigation of Lysias.--While the Parthian king, Mithridates I. is
+  prosecuting his conquests at the expense of the Syrian kingdom in
+  Upper Asia, Demetrius secretly escapes out of Rome, takes
+  possession of the throne, and causes Eupator and Lysias to be put
+  to death, 161.
+
+26. Demetrius I. surnamed Soter. He succeeded in getting himself
+acknowledged at Rome, on which all now depended. The attempts to extend
+his power, by supporting Orofernes, the pretender to the crown of
+Cappadocia, against the king Ariarathes, had their origin partly in
+family relations, but still more, as was the case with almost all
+political transactions of those times, in bribery. By this act he only
+drew upon himself the enmity of the kings of Egypt and Pergamus; as,
+moreover, he was hated by his subjects on account of his intemperance,
+the chances of success were greatly in favour of the shameful usurpation
+of Alexander Balas, brought about by Heraclidas the expelled governor of
+Babylon, and backed by the yet more shameful conduct of the Roman
+senate, who acknowledged his title to the throne. The Syrian kingdom was
+now fallen so low, that both king and usurper were obliged to court the
+favour of the Jews under Jonathan, hitherto regarded as rebels. In the
+second battle Demetrius lost his life.
+
+27. The usurper Alexander Balas endeavoured to confirm his power by a
+marriage with Cleopatra, daughter of Ptolemy Philometor: but he soon
+evinced himself more unworthy even than his predecessor of wielding the
+sceptre. While he abandoned the government to his favourite, the
+detested Ammonius, the eldest remaining son of Demetrius succeeds not
+only in raising a party against the usurper, but even in prevailing on
+Philometor to side with himself, and give him in marriage Cleopatra,
+whom he takes away from Balas. The consequence of this alliance with
+Egypt was the defeat and downfal of Balas, although it cost Philometor
+his life.
+
+  The account, that Philometor wished to conquer Syria for himself,
+  must probably be understood as meaning that he had formed the
+  design of recovering the ancient Egyptian possessions, Coele-Syria
+  and Phoenicia. Otherwise, why should he have given his daughter to
+  a second pretender to the throne?
+
+28. Demetrius II. surnamed Nicator, 145-141, and for the second time,
+130-126. The disbanding of his father's mercenaries having roused the
+indignation of the army, the cruelty of his favourite Lasthenes kindled
+a sedition in the capital, which could not be quenched without the
+assistance of the Jews, under their high priest and military chieftain,
+Jonathan.--While affairs were in this posture, Diodotus, subsequently
+called Tryphon, a dependent of Balas, excited an insurrection, by
+bringing forward Antiochus, the latter's son, and even, with the help of
+Jonathan, seating him on the throne of Antioch: soon after, Tryphon,
+having by treachery got Jonathan into his power, removed Antiochus by
+murder, and assumed the diadem himself.--Notwithstanding Demetrius
+kept his footing only in a part of Syria, he was enabled to obey
+the call of the Grecian colonists in Upper Asia, and support them
+against the Parthians, who had overrun the country as far as the
+Euphrates.--Although victorious in the commencement of the contest, he
+was soon after taken by the Parthians, and remained ten years a
+prisoner, though treated meanwhile as a king.
+
+29. In order to maintain herself against Tryphon, Cleopatra marries the
+younger, and better brother, Antiochus of Sida, (Sidetes); he being at
+first in alliance with the Jews,--who, however, were soon after
+subdued--defeats and overthrows Tryphon. Being now lord and master of
+Syria, he undertakes a campaign against the Parthians; at the
+commencement, befriended by the subjects of the Parthians, he is
+successful, but soon afterwards is attacked in winter quarters by those
+very friends, and cut to pieces, together with all his army.
+
+  If the accounts of the wanton licentiousness of his army are not
+  exaggerations, they furnish the clearest proof of the military
+  despotism of those times. By continued pillage and extortion, the
+  wealth of the country had been collected in the hands of the
+  soldiers; and the condition of Syria must have been pretty nearly
+  the same as that of Egypt under the Mamluk sultans.
+
+30. Meanwhile Demetrius II. having escaped from prison, again seated
+himself on the throne. But being now still more overbearing than before,
+and meddling in the Egyptian affairs, Ptolemy Physcon set up against him
+a rival in the person of Alexander Zebinas a pretended son of Alexander
+Balas; by him he was defeated and slain.
+
+  The Parthian king Phraates II. had, at first, liberated Demetrius,
+  to whom his sister Rhodogune was united by marriage, in order
+  that, by appearing in Syria, he might oblige Antiochus to retreat.
+  Antiochus having fallen, Phraates would fain have recaptured
+  Demetrius, but he escaped.
+
+31. The ensuing history of the Seleucidæ is a picture of civil wars,
+family feuds, and deeds of horror, such as are scarcely to be
+paralleled. The utmost verge of the empire was now the Euphrates; all
+Upper Asia acknowledging the dominion of the Parthians. The Jews,
+moreover, having completely vindicated their independence, the kingdom
+was consequently confined to Syria and Phoenicia. So thoroughly decayed
+was the state, that even the Romans--whether because there was no longer
+anything to plunder, or because they conceived it more prudent to suffer
+the Seleucidæ to wear themselves out in mutual quarrels--do not seem to
+have taken any account of it, until, at the conclusion of the last war
+with Mithridates, they thought proper formally to annex it to their
+empire as a province.
+
+  War between Alexander Zebinas and the ambitious relict of
+  Demetrius, Cleopatra, who with her own hand murders her eldest son
+  Seleucus, B.C. 125, for pretending to the crown, which she now
+  gives to her younger son, Antiochus Gryphus; the new king,
+  however, soon saw himself compelled to secure his own life by the
+  murder of his mother, 122; Alexander Zebinas having been the year
+  before, 123, defeated and put to death. After a peaceful rule of
+  eight years, 122-114, Antiochus Gryphus is involved in war with
+  his half-brother Antiochus Cyzicenus, son of Cleopatra by
+  Antiochus Sidetes: it ends, 111, in a partition of territory. But
+  the war between the brothers soon burst out anew, and just as this
+  hapless kingdom seemed about to crumble into pieces, Gryphus was
+  murdered, 97.--Seleucus, the eldest of his five sons, having
+  beaten and slain Cyzicenus, 96; the eldest son of the latter,
+  Antiochus Eusebes, prosecuted the war against the sons of Gryphus;
+  Eusebes being at last defeated, 90, the surviving sons of Gryphus
+  fell to war among themselves, and the struggle continued until the
+  Syrians, weary of bloodshed, did what they ought to have done long
+  before, viz. made over the sovereign power to Tigranes the king of
+  Armenia, 85. Yet Eusebes's widow, Selene, retained Ptolemais till
+  70; and her elder son Antiochus Asiaticus, at the time that
+  Tigranes was beaten by Lucullus, in the Mithridatic war, took
+  possession of some provinces in Syria, 68; these were wrested from
+  him after the total defeat of Mithridates by Pompey, when Tigranes
+  was obliged to give up his claim, and Syria became a province of
+  the Roman empire, 64. Antiochus Asiaticus died 58; his brother
+  Seleucus Cybiosactes, having married Berenice, was raised to the
+  Egyptian throne, but murdered at her command, 57; and thus the
+  family of the Seleucidæ was completely swept away.
+
+
+II. _History of the Egyptian kingdom under the Ptolemies, 323-30._
+
+  The sources of this history are for the most part the same as in
+  the foregoing section; see above, p. 232; but unfortunately still
+  more scanty; for in the first place, less information can here be
+  derived from the Jewish writers; secondly, as on the coins struck
+  under the Ptolemies no continuous series of time is marked, but
+  only the year of the king's reign, they are by no means such
+  safeguards to the chronology as those of the Seleucidæ. With
+  respect to some few events, important illustrations are supplied by
+  inscriptions.
+
+  By modern writers, the history of the Ptolemies has been composed
+  under a form almost entirely chronological, and by no means treated
+  of in the spirit which it deserves.
+
+  VAILLANT, _Historia Ptolemæorum_, fol. Amstelodam. 1701.
+  Illustration by the aid of coins.
+
+  CHAMPOLION FIGEAC, _Annales des Lagides, ou Chronologie des Rois
+  d'Egypte, successeurs d'Alexandre le Grand_. Paris, 1819, 2 vols.
+  This treatise, which was honoured with a prize by the Académie des
+  Inscriptions, has by no means exhausted the whole of the subject.
+  See
+
+  J. SAINT-MARTIN, _Examen Critique de l'ouvrage de_ M. CH. F.
+  _intitulé Annales des Lagides_. Paris, 1820.
+
+  LETRONNE, _Recherches pour servir à l'histoire de l'Egypte pendant
+  la domination des Grecs et des Romains, tirées des inscriptions
+  Grecques et Latines, relatives à la chronologie, à l'etat des arts
+  aux usages civils et religieux de ce pays_. Paris, 1828. It cannot
+  be denied that the author has thrown a much clearer light on the
+  subjects mentioned in his title.
+
+1. Egypt, under the Ptolemies, fulfilled, and perhaps more than
+fulfilled, the designs projected by Alexander; it became not only a
+mighty kingdom, but likewise the centre of trade, and of science. The
+history of Egypt, however, confines itself, almost solely, to that of
+the new capital, Alexandria; the foundation of that city produced,
+imperceptibly, a change in the national character, which never could
+have been wrought by main force. In the enjoyment of civil welfare and
+religious freedom, the nation sunk into a state of political drowsiness,
+such as could scarce have been expected in a people who so often rose up
+against the Persians.
+
+  Alexandria, originally, was no doubt a military colony; it was not
+  long, however, before it became a general place of resort for all
+  nations, such as was scarcely to be met with in any other town of
+  that day. The inhabitants were divided into three classes;
+  _Alexandrines_, (that is to say, foreigners of all nations, who had
+  settled in the place; next to the Greeks, the Jews were, it
+  appears, the most numerous,) _Egyptians_, and _Mercenaries_ in the
+  king's service. The Greeks and Macedonians divided into wards
+  ([Greek: phylas]), constituted the citizens; they were under
+  municipal government; the others, such as the Jews, formed bodies
+  corporate according to their respective nations. The more
+  important, in so many respects, that Alexandria is for history, the
+  more it is to be regretted that the accounts respecting it, which
+  have reached us, are so far from satisfactory!--Concerning the
+  topography of ancient Alexandria:
+
+  BONAMY, _Description de la ville d'Alexandrie_ in the _Mém. de
+  l'Académie des Inscript._ vol. ix. Compare:
+
+  # J. L. F. MANSO, _Letters upon ancient Alexandria_, in his
+  _Vermischte Schriften_, vol. i.
+
+2. Ptolemy I. surnamed Soter, the son of Lagus, received Egypt for his
+share, at the first division after the death of Alexander. Aware of the
+value of his lot, he was the only one of Alexander's successors that had
+the moderation not to aim at grasping all. No doubt he was, by the
+ambition of the other princes, entangled in their quarrels, but his
+conduct was so cautious, that Egypt itself was never endangered. Twice
+attacked in that country, first by Perdiccas, afterwards by Antigonus
+and Demetrius, he availed himself successfully of his advantageous
+position, and moreover, in this period, added to his dominion several
+countries without Africa, such as Phoenicia, Judæa, Coele-Syria, and
+Cyprus.
+
+  The possession of Phoenicia and Coele-Syria, by reason of their
+  forests, was of indispensable necessity to Egypt as a naval power.
+  They frequently changed masters. The first occupation of those
+  provinces by the Egyptian government, occurred in 320, soon after
+  the rout of Perdiccas by Ptolemy's general Nicanor, who took the
+  Syrian satrap Laomedon prisoner, established his footing in the
+  whole of Syria, and placed garrisons in the Phoenician cities. In
+  314 it was again lost to Antigonus, after his return out of Upper
+  Asia, and the siege of Tyre. Ptolemy having defeated Demetrius at
+  Gaza, 312, repossessed himself of those countries, but soon after
+  evacuated them on the appearance of Antigonus, to whom they were
+  ceded by the peace of 311. At the conclusion of the last grand
+  league against Antigonus, 303, Ptolemy once more occupied them: but
+  alarmed at a false report, that Antigonus had gained a victory, he
+  retreated into Egypt, leaving nevertheless troops in the cities.
+  After the battle of Ipsus, 301, those countries were made over to
+  him, and continued in the hands of the Ptolemies until they were
+  lost at the second invasion of Antiochus the Great, 203.
+
+  Cyprus, (see p. 154) like most other islands, acknowledged
+  submission to those who possessed the sovereignty of the sea, and
+  therefore could not escape the dominion of the Ptolemies. It was
+  taken possession of by Ptolemy as early as 313. Still the separate
+  cities of the islands preserved their kings, among whom Nicocles of
+  Paphos, having entered into a secret league with Antigonus, was put
+  to death, 310. After the great seafight, 307, Cyprus fell into the
+  hands of Antigonus and Demetrius. Subsequently to the battle of
+  Ipsus, 301, it remained indeed at first in the power of Demetrius;
+  but that prince being gone over to Macedonia, Ptolemy, 294, seized
+  an opportunity of recovering it, and the island from that time
+  remained under the dominion of Egypt. Availing themselves of their
+  naval strength, the Egyptian kings frequently exerted sovereign
+  power over the coasts of Asia Minor, especially Cilicia, Caria, and
+  Pamphylia, which appear to have absolutely formed a part of their
+  territory under the second Ptolemy. It is, however, hardly possible
+  to define with accuracy what were their real possessions in those
+  quarters.
+
+3. Ptolemy likewise extends his territory within Africa, by the capture
+of Cyrene; in consequence of which Libya, or the neighbouring countries
+betwixt Cyrene and Egypt, fell under his dominion. It is probable, also,
+that even in his reign the frontier of the Egyptian empire was advanced
+into Æthiopia; but for this assertion we have no positive authority.
+
+  The fall of Cyrene was brought about by domestic broils: at the
+  time the place was besieged by Thimbron, a portion of the exiled
+  nobles fled to Ptolemy; the Egyptian prince commanded that they
+  should be reinstated by his general Ophellas, who took possession
+  of the town itself, 321. An insurrection in 312 was quelled by
+  Agis, Ptolemy's general: nevertheless it would appear that
+  Ophellas had almost established his independence, when, by the
+  treachery of Agathocles, with whom he had entered into a league
+  against Carthage, he perished, about 308. Cyrene was now seized by
+  Ptolemy, and given to his son Magas, who ruled over it fifty
+  years.
+
+4. With respect to the internal government of Egypt, our information is
+far from complete. The division into districts or nomes was continued;
+subject perhaps, in some cases, to alterations. The power of the king
+appears to have been unlimited; the extreme provinces were administered
+by governors, appointed by the sovereign; similar officers were probably
+placed at the head of the various districts of Egypt itself; but hardly
+any document relative to the home department of that country has reached
+our time. High public situations, at least in the capital, appear
+exclusively reserved to Macedonians or Greeks; no Egyptian is ever
+mentioned as holding office.
+
+  There were four magistrates at Alexandria: the Exegetes, whose
+  office was to provide for the wants of the city; the Chief Judge;
+  the Hypomnematographus--(Registrar of the archives?)--and the
+  [Greek: Stratêgos nykterinos], no doubt, the supervisor of the
+  police, whose duty it was to watch over the peace of the city at
+  night. We have the express testimony of Strabo, that these
+  offices, which continued under the Romans, had already existed
+  under the kings; whether their establishment can be dated as far
+  back as the time of Ptolemy I. is a question that does not admit
+  of a solution.--The number of the districts or nomes appears to
+  have been augmented; probably with a political view, in order that
+  no governor or monarch should be invested with too great a share
+  of power.
+
+5. Be that as it may, it is an undoubted fact, that the ancient national
+constitution and administration were not entirely obliterated. The caste
+of priests, together with the national religion, continued to exist; and
+though the influence of the former was considerably diminished, it did
+not entirely cease. A certain sort of worship was, by appointed priests,
+paid to the kings, both in their lifetime and after their death.
+Memphis, though not the usual residence of the court, remained the
+capital of the kingdom; there the ceremony of coronation was performed;
+and its temple of Phtha was still the head sanctuary. What influence had
+not the religion of the Egyptians upon that of the Greeks! It were
+difficult to say which nation borrowed most from the other.
+
+6. The regeneration of Egypt from the state of general ruin into which
+she had been plunged, and the permanent tranquillity she enjoyed during
+nearly thirty years, the duration of the reign of Ptolemy I.--at a time
+when the rest of the world was harassed by continual wars,--must have
+heightened her prosperity under so mild and beneficent a ruler. But
+Ptolemy was certainly the only prince who could have taken advantage of
+these favourable circumstances. Though a soldier by profession he was
+highly accomplished, was himself a writer, and had a genius for all the
+arts of peace, which he fostered with the open-handed liberality of a
+king: while amidst all the brilliant splendour of his court, he led
+himself the life of a private individual.
+
+  Increase of Alexandria by the importation of vast numbers of
+  colonists; especially Jews.--Erection of several superb buildings,
+  more particularly the Serapeum.--Measures taken for the extension
+  of trade and navigation.--The twofold harbour on the sea, and on
+  the lake Mareotis.--The Pharus built.
+
+7. But what more than any thing else distinguished Ptolemy from his
+contemporaries was his regard for the interests of science. The idea of
+founding the Museum sprung out of the necessities of the age, and was
+suited to the monarchical form of government now prevalent. Where in
+those days of destruction and revolution could the sciences have found a
+shelter, if not under the protection of a prince? But under Ptolemy they
+found more than a shelter, they found a rallying point. Here accordingly
+the exact sciences were perfected: and although the critic's art which
+now grew up could not form a Homer or a Sophocles, should _we_, had it
+not been for the Alexandrines, be at present able to read either Homer
+or Sophocles?
+
+  Foundation of the Museum, (Society of the learned,) and of the
+  first library in Bruchium, (afterwards removed to the Serapeum;)
+  probably under the direction of Demetrius Phalereus. A proper
+  estimation of the services rendered by the Museum is yet wanting:
+  what academy in modern Europe, however, has done so much?
+
+  HEYNE, _De genio Sæculi Ptolemæorum_. _In Opuscul._ t. i.
+
+  MATTER, _Essai historique sur l'école d'Alexandrie_, 1820.
+
+8. Ptolemy II. surnamed Philadelphus, son of Berenice, the second wife
+of his father, had ascended the throne in 286 as joint king. His reign,
+which lasted thirty-eight years, was more peaceful even than that of his
+predecessor, whose spirit seemed to inspire him in every thing, save
+that he was not a warrior: but, by that very reason, the arts of peace,
+trade, and science were promoted with the greater energy. In his reign
+Egypt was the first power by sea, and one of the first by land, in the
+world; and even though the account given by Theocritus of its
+thirty-three thousand cities may be regarded as the exaggeration of a
+poet, it is very certain that Egypt was in those days the most
+flourishing country in existence.
+
+  The commerce of Alexandria was divided into three main branches:
+  1. The land-trade over Asia and Africa. 2. The sea-trade on the
+  Mediterranean. 3. The sea-trade on the Arabian gulf, and Indian
+  ocean.--With regard to the land-trade of Asia, especially that of
+  India carried on by caravans, Alexandria was obliged to share it
+  with various cities and countries: since one of its chief routes
+  traversed the Oxus, and Caspian, to the Black sea; while the
+  caravans, travelling through Syria and Mesopotamia, spread for the
+  most part among the seaports of Phoenicia and Asia Minor.--The
+  trade over Africa extended far west, and still farther south.
+  Westward it was secured by the close connection between Cyrene and
+  Alexandria; and no doubt followed the same roads as in earlier
+  times: of far greater importance was that carried on with the
+  southern countries, or Æthiopia, into the interior of which they
+  now penetrated, principally for the purpose of procuring
+  elephants. The navigation on the Arabian and Indian seas had
+  likewise for its immediate object the Æthiopian trade, rather than
+  the Indian.--The measures taken by Ptolemy with this view,
+  consisted partly in the building of harbours (Berenice, Myos
+  Hormos) on the Arabian gulf; partly in establishing a caravan from
+  Berenice to Coptos on the Nile, down which latter the goods were
+  further transmitted to their destination; for the canal connecting
+  the Red sea with the Nile, although, perhaps, completed at this
+  time, was nevertheless but little used. The grand deposit for
+  these wares was the lesser harbour of Alexandria, united by a
+  canal with the lake Mareotis, which in its turn communicated by
+  another canal with the Nile; so that the account we receive of the
+  lesser harbour being more thronged and full of bustle than the
+  larger one, need not excite our surprise. With regard to the trade
+  on the Mediterranean, it was shared between Alexandria, Rhodes,
+  Corinth, and Carthage. The chief manufactories appear to have been
+  those of cotton stuffs, established in or near the temples.
+
+  The best inquiry into the trade of Alexandria will be found in J.
+  C. D. DE SCHMIDT, _Opuscula, res maxime Aegyptiorum illustrantia_,
+  1765, 8vo.
+
+9. It would be important to know what, in a state like Egypt, was the
+system of imposts, which under Philadelphus produced 14,800 silver
+talents, (four millions sterling,) without taking into account the toll
+paid in grain. In the extreme provinces, such as Palestine, the taxes
+were annually farmed to the highest bidder, a mode of levy attended with
+great oppression to the people. The case appears to have been very
+different with regard to Egypt itself; the customs, however, constituted
+the main branch of the revenue.
+
+10. The wars waged by Ptolemy II. were limited to those against
+Antiochus II. of Syria, and Magas of Cyrene, half-brother to the
+Egyptian king; the former sprung out of the latter. Luckily for Egypt,
+Ptolemy II. was of a weak constitution, and by his state of health was
+incapacitated from commanding his armies in person.--Under his reign the
+first foundation was laid, by means of reciprocal embassies, of that
+connection with Rome which afterwards decided the fate of Egypt.
+
+  Magas had, after the defeat of Ophellas, received Cyrene, 308. He
+  had married Apame, daughter of Antiochus I., and in 266 had raised
+  the standard of rebellion with the intention of invading Egypt
+  itself, when an insurrection in Marmarica compelled him to
+  retreat; he contrived, notwithstanding, to prevail upon his
+  father-in-law to undertake an expedition against Egypt, which,
+  however, was frustrated by Philadelphus, 264. To terminate this
+  contest, Magas was about to unite his daughter Berenice with the
+  eldest son of Philadelphus; Apame, wishing to thwart the
+  negotiation, fled over to her brother, Antiochus II. whom, after
+  her husband's death, 258, she excited to a war against Egypt,
+  which closed in 252.--The embassy to Rome originated in the
+  victory won by the Romans over Pyrrhus, 273; it was answered by
+  another from the Romans, 272.
+
+11. The son inherited from his father all but the simplicity of domestic
+life: under the reign of Philadelphus, the court was first thrown open
+to that effeminate luxury, which soon wrought the destruction of the
+Ptolemies as it had previously done that of the Seleucidæ; at the same
+time was introduced the pernicious practice of intermarriages in the
+same family, by which the royal blood was more foully contaminated here
+even than in Syria. Philadelphus set the first example, by repudiating
+Arsinoe the daughter of Lysimachus, and then marrying his own sister,
+likewise named Arsinoe; this princess preserved her influence over the
+king as long as she lived, although she did not bring him an heir, but
+adopted the children of her predecessor.
+
+12. Ptolemy III. surnamed Evergetes. Under him, Egypt, from being merely
+mercantile, assumed the character of a conquering state; notwithstanding
+his warlike spirit, he was not uninspired with that genius for the arts
+of peace peculiar to his family. His conquests were directed partly
+against Asia in the war with Seleucus II. and extended as far as the
+borders of Bactria; and partly, it is probable, against the interior of
+Ethiopia, and the western coast of Arabia. Countries so wealthy, and
+with which commerce had made men so well acquainted, could hardly escape
+the arms of such a formidable power as Egypt; yet she seems to have made
+scarcely any other use of this extension of territory, than to insure
+the safety of her commercial routes.
+
+  The main source of the history of Ptolemy Evergetes, is the
+  inscription on the monument erected by that prince at Adule in
+  Ethiopia: it contains a chronological list of his conquests, a
+  copy of which has been preserved to us by Cosmas Indicopleustes;
+  modern researches, however, have shown the probability of its
+  having consisted of two inscriptions, one referring to Evergetes,
+  the other to a later king of Abyssinia.--According to this
+  monument, Ptolemy inherited from his father, besides Egypt itself,
+  Libya, that is to say, western Africa as far as Cyrene,
+  Coele-Syria, Phoenicia, Lycia, Caria, Cyprus, and the
+  Cyclades.--War with Seleucus Callinicus caused by the murder of
+  Berenice (see above, p. 237.); lasted until the ten years' truce,
+  246-240. During this war, he conquered the whole of Syria as far
+  as the Euphrates, and most of the maritime countries in Asia
+  Minor, from Cilicia to the Hellespont: an easy prey to a naval
+  power. Whether the conquest of the countries beyond the Euphrates,
+  Mesopotamia, Babylonia, Persis, Susiana, and Media as far as
+  Bactria, was effected in these four years, or not till between 240
+  and 230, is a question which cannot be determined with certainty.
+  If we may judge by the booty brought back, this campaign was
+  rather a foray than a regular expedition for conquest, though
+  Ptolemy, indeed, appointed governors in Cilicia and Babylonia; yet
+  the peculiar situation of affairs in Asia at the time, Seleucus
+  being at war with his brother Antiochus Hierax, and the Parthian
+  and Bactrian kingdoms being also in a state of infant feebleness,
+  afforded unusual opportunities for an expedition of this sort.
+
+  The southern conquests, so far as they may be referred to
+  Evergetes, were effected during the last period of his reign, in a
+  separate war. They comprised: 1st. The greatest part of modern
+  Abyssinia,--for as the catalogue of nations commences with that of
+  Abyssinia, it necessarily follows that Nubia had already been
+  subjected to Egypt.--The mountain range along the Arabian gulf,
+  the plain of Sennaar as far as modern Darfur, the lofty chain of
+  mountains to the south, beyond the fountains of the Nile. All
+  these conquests were made by the king in person; and from those
+  distant lands to Egypt, commercial roads were opened. 2nd. The
+  western coast of Arabia, from Leuke Kome to the southern point of
+  Arabia Felix, was conquered by his generals and admirals: here,
+  likewise, the security of the commercial roads was established.
+
+  _Monumentum Adulitanum_, published in FABRICIUS, _B. Græc._ t. ii.
+
+  MONTFAUCON, _Coll. Patr._ t. i. and in CHISHULL, _Antiquit.
+  Asiaticæ_.
+
+  The assertion that the monument bears two different inscriptions
+  is made by SALT, in the narrative of his travels contained in the
+  _Travels of Lord Valentia_.
+
+13. Egypt was singularly blessed in having three great kings, whose
+reigns filled one whole century. A change now ensued; but that change
+was brought about by the natural course of events; in fact, it could
+scarcely be expected that the court should remain untainted by such
+luxury as must have prevailed in a city, which was the main seat of
+trade, and the deposit of the treasures of the richest countries.
+
+14. Ptolemy IV. surnamed Philopator. A debauchee and a tyrant, who,
+during the greater portion of his reign, remained under the tutelage of
+the crafty Sosibius, and, after the decease of that individual, fell
+into the yet more infamous hands of Agathocles and his sister
+Agathoclea. Philopator being contemporary with Antiochus the Great, the
+dangers that threatened Egypt under such a reign seemed to be doubled;
+they were, however, averted by the ill-deserved victory of Raphia (see
+above, p. 238).
+
+15. Agathocles and his sister would fain have taken into their own hands
+the guardianship of his son Ptolemy V. surnamed Epiphanes, a child only
+five years old; but the people having risen up and made a terrible
+example of them, the office of guardian was confided to the younger
+Sosibius and to Tlepolemus. The reckless prodigality of the former soon
+gave rise to a feud between him and his colleague, who was at least
+cunning enough to keep up appearances. Meanwhile the critical posture in
+which the kingdom was placed, by the attack of the enleagued kings of
+Syria and Macedonia, compelled the nation to defer the regency to Rome
+and the senate, who had hitherto carefully cherished an amicable
+connection with Egypt.
+
+  The regency confided to M. Lepidus, 201, who hands over the
+  administration to Aristomenes of Acarnania. The sequel will show
+  how decidedly important this step was for the ulterior destinies
+  of Egypt. By the war of the Romans against Philip, and their
+  differences with Antiochus, Egypt was, no doubt, for the present
+  extricated from her embarrassment; but nevertheless in 198 she
+  lost her Syrian possessions, notwithstanding Antiochus III. had
+  promised to give them as a dowry to Cleopatra, the affianced
+  bride, and subsequently the consort of the young king of Egypt.
+
+  To this time, or about 197, belongs the celebrated inscription on
+  the Rosetta stone, erected by the caste of priests as a tribute of
+  gratitude for past benefits, after the consecration of the king at
+  Memphis upon his coming of age: a monument important alike for
+  palæography, and for the knowledge of Egyptian administration.
+
+  AMEILHON, _Eclaircissemens sur l'inscription Grecque du monument
+  trouvé à Rosette_. Paris, 1803.
+
+  HEYNE, _Commentatio de inscriptione Græca ex Aegypto Londinum
+  apportata_, in the _Commentat. Societ. Gotting._ vol. xv.
+
+16. The hopes conceived of Epiphanes, were grievously disappointed as he
+grew up to manhood. His guardian Aristomenes fell a victim to his
+tyranny; nay, his cruelty drove even the patient Egyptians to rebel,
+although the insurrections were stilled by his counsellor and general
+Polycrates. His reign happened during the period in which Rome crushed
+the power of Macedonia and Syria; and notwithstanding the close alliance
+between Epiphanes and Antiochus III. the Romans succeeded in holding the
+Egyptian king in dependence; he was, however, in the twenty-eighth year
+of his age, brought to an early grave by intemperance and debauchery.
+
+17. Of his two sons, the elder, a child five years old, was his
+immediate successor; this prince, by the title of Ptolemy VI. surnamed
+Philometor, ascended the throne under the guardianship of his mother
+Cleopatra, who fulfilled the duties of her office to the satisfaction of
+all, until 173. But, after her death, the regency having fallen into the
+hands of Eulæus an eunuch, and Lenæus, these individuals, asserting
+their claims to Coele-Syria and Phoenicia, engaged with Antiochus
+Epiphanes in a war exceedingly detrimental to Egypt, until Rome
+commanded peace to be made.
+
+  Antiochus, after the victory of Pelusium, B. C. 171, and the
+  treacherous surrender of Cyprus, having possessed himself of Egypt
+  as far as Alexandria, a faction arose in the city; Philometor was
+  expelled, and his younger brother Physcon seated on the throne,
+  170.--The exile Philometor fell into the power of Antiochus, who
+  compelled the fugitive to sign a separate peace, highly injurious
+  to the interests of Egypt. The articles were not, however,
+  ratified; Philometor secretly entering into an agreement with his
+  brother that they should both rule in common, 169. Antiochus
+  having in consequence again made an inroad into Egypt, the two
+  kings addressed themselves for assistance to the Achæans and to
+  the Romans: the latter forthwith despatched an embassy to
+  Antiochus, commanding him to evacuate the territory of their
+  allies, which happened accordingly, 168.
+
+18. In the contest, which soon afterwards ensued between the two
+brothers, the younger was driven out and sought a refuge at Rome; when a
+partition of the kingdom between the princes was determined upon: the
+senate, however, after due consideration, refused to confirm the
+decision, so that the disputes between the two kings were rekindled and
+protracted, until the younger fell into the power of the elder.
+
+  In the first division, 164, Philometor received Egypt and Cyprus;
+  and the infamous Physcon had for his share Cyrene and Libya. But,
+  during his stay at Rome, Physcon, contrary to all justice,
+  obtained the promise of Cyprus; Philometor refusing to give up
+  that portion of his share, and Cyrene having risen up against its
+  king, Physcon ran the risk of losing the whole of his dominions.
+  In the war which, supported by Rome, he waged against his brother,
+  Physcon fell, 159, into the hands of Philometor, who not only
+  forgave him, but, leaving him in possession of Cyrene and Libya,
+  added some cities in the place of Cyprus, and promised him his
+  daughter in marriage.
+
+19. During the last period of his reign, Philometor was almost
+exclusively busied with Syrian affairs. He supported Alexander Balas
+against Demetrius, and even gave him his daughter Cleopatra.
+Nevertheless, he afterwards passed over to the side of Demetrius, seated
+him on the throne, gave him in marriage this same Cleopatra, who had
+been taken away from Balas. But in the battle in which Balas was
+overthrown, the Egyptian king also received his death wound. He may be
+regarded as one of the good princes of the Ptolemaic dynasty, especially
+if compared with his brother.
+
+20. His younger brother Ptolemy VIII. surnamed Physcon, and likewise
+Evergetes II. a monster both in a moral and a physical sense, who had
+hitherto been king of Cyrene, now possessed himself of the throne of
+Egypt by marrying his predecessor's widow and sister, Cleopatra, whom,
+however, after having murdered her son, he repudiated for her daughter
+of the same name. This prince accordingly, once more united the divided
+kingdom; but at the same time that he was purchasing the sanction of
+Rome by vile adulation, he maintained himself at Alexandria by means of
+military law, which soon converted the city into a desert, and obliged
+him to attract foreign colonists by large promises. Another bloody
+massacre, however, produced an insurrection in the town, which compelled
+the king to flee to Cyprus, the Alexandrines, meanwhile, raising to the
+throne his repudiated wife Cleopatra. Physcon, nevertheless, with the
+assistance of his mercenaries, recovered the sceptre, and wielded it to
+the day of his death.
+
+  That a prince of such a character should nevertheless be a friend
+  to science, and himself an author, must ever be regarded as a
+  singular phenomenon; yet his exaction of manuscripts, and his
+  treatment of the learned, whole crowds of whom he expelled, betray
+  the despot.
+
+21. His widow, the younger Cleopatra, to gratify the Alexandrines, was
+obliged to place on the throne the elder of her two sons, Ptolemy IX.
+surnamed Lathyrus, who was living in a sort of banishment at Cyprus: to
+the younger, Ptolemy Alexander I. who was her favourite, she accordingly
+gave the island of Cyprus. But Lathyrus not choosing to obey her in
+everything, she compelled him to exchange Egypt for Cyprus, and gave the
+former to her younger son. But neither was the new king able to brook
+the tyranny of his mother: as she threatened even his life, he saw no
+other means of escape than to anticipate her design; but failing in his
+project, he was obliged to take to flight, and, after a vain attempt to
+recover the throne, perished. The Alexandrines then reinstated in the
+government his elder brother Lathyrus, who ruled till the year 81,
+possessing both Egypt and Cyprus.
+
+  Revolt and three years' siege of Thebes in Upper Egypt, still one
+  of the most wealthy cities even in those days, but after its
+  capture almost levelled to the earth; about 86.--Complete
+  separation of Cyrenaica from Egypt: this province had been
+  bequeathed by Physcon as a separate branch-state to his
+  illegitimate son, Apion, 117; that prince, after a tranquil reign,
+  bequeathed it, in his turn, to the Romans, 96, who at first
+  allowed it to retain its independence.
+
+22. Lathyrus left one daughter born in wedlock, Berenice, and two
+illegitimate sons, Ptolemy of Cyprus and Ptolemy Auletes. Besides the
+above, there was a lawful son of Alexander I. of the same name as his
+father, and at that time residing at Rome with the dictator Sylla. The
+following history is obscured by clouds, which, amid the contradiction
+of accounts, cannot be entirely dispelled. Generally speaking, Egypt was
+now a tool in the hands of powerful individuals at Rome, who regarded it
+but as a financial speculation whether they actually supported a
+pretender to the Egyptian crown, or fed him with vain hopes. All now saw
+that Egypt presented a ripe harvest; but they could not yet agree by
+whom that harvest should be reaped.
+
+  The first successor of Lathyrus in Egypt was his legitimate
+  daughter Cleopatra Berenice, 81: at the end of six months,
+  however, Sylla, then dictator at Rome, sent his client Alexander
+  II. to Egypt, 80; that prince married Berenice, and with her
+  ascended the throne. Nineteen days after Alexander murdered his
+  consort, and, according to Appian, was himself about the same time
+  cut off by the Alexandrines, on account of his tyranny. We
+  afterwards hear, notwithstanding, of a king Alexander, who reigned
+  until 73, or, according to others, until 66; when, being driven
+  out of Egypt, he fled to Tyre, and called upon the Romans for that
+  aid, which probably through Cæsar's intercession, would have been
+  granted, had not the supplicant soon after died at the place of
+  his refuge. He is said to have bequeathed by will his kingdom to
+  Rome; and although the senate did not accept the legacy, it does
+  not appear to have formally rejected the offer; in consequence of
+  which, frequent attempts were made at Rome for effecting the
+  occupation.--Either, therefore, Appian's account must be false,
+  and this person was the same Alexander II. or he was some other
+  person bearing that name, and belonging to the royal house.--Be
+  this as it may, after the death of Lathyrus the kingdom was
+  dismembered: and one of his illegitimate sons, Ptolemy, had
+  received Cyprus, but that island was taken from him, 57, and
+  converted into a Roman province: the other, Ptolemy Auletes, seems
+  to have kept his footing either in a part of Egypt, or in Cyrene,
+  and was probably the cause of Alexander's expulsion, at whose
+  decease he ascended the throne; although the Syrian queen Selene,
+  sister to Lathyrus, asserted her son's claims at Rome, as
+  legitimate heir to the throne of Egypt. With Cæsar's assistance,
+  Auletes, however, succeeded in obtaining the formal acknowledgment
+  of his right at Rome, 59. But the measures taken by the Romans
+  with regard to Cyprus, gave rise to a sedition at Alexandria, 57,
+  in consequence of which Auletes, being compelled to flee, passed
+  over into Italy: or, perhaps, he was ordered to take this step by
+  the intrigues of some Roman grandees, anxious of an opportunity to
+  reinstate him. Pompey's attempts, with this view, are thwarted by
+  Cato, 56. Meanwhile the Alexandrines placed Berenice, the eldest
+  daughter of Auletes, on the throne; she married first Seleucus
+  Cybiosactes, as being the lawful heir; and after putting that
+  prince to death, united herself to Archelaus, 57.--Actual
+  restoration of Auletes by the purchased assistance of Gabinius,
+  the Roman governor of Syria; and execution of Berenice, whose
+  husband had fallen in the war, 54. Not long after, this miserable
+  prince, no less effeminate than tyrannical, died, 51.
+
+  J. R. FORSTER, _Commentatio de successoribus Ptolemæi VII._
+  Inserted in _Comment. Soc. Gotting._ vol. iii.
+
+23. Auletes endeavoured by his last testament to insure the kingdom to
+his posterity, nominating as his successor, under the superintendence of
+the Roman nation, his two elder children. Ptolemy Dionysos, then
+thirteen years old, and Cleopatra, seventeen, who were to be united in
+wedlock: his two younger children, Ptolemy Neoteros and Arsinoe, he
+recommended to the Roman senate. Notwithstanding these measures, Egypt
+would not have escaped her fate upwards of twenty years longer, had not
+the impending calamities been diverted by the internal posture of
+affairs at Rome, and still more by the charms and policy of Cleopatra,
+who through her alliance with Cæsar and Antony not only preserved but
+even aggrandized her kingdom. From this time, however, the history of
+Egypt is most closely implicated with that of Rome.
+
+  Feuds between Cleopatra and her brother, excited and fomented by
+  the eunuch Pothinus, in whose hands the administration was: they
+  lead to open war: Cleopatra, driven out, flees to Syria, where she
+  levies troops: Cæsar in pursuit of the conquered Pompey arrives at
+  Alexandria, and in the name of Rome, assumes the part of
+  arbitrator between the king and queen, but suffers himself to be
+  guided by the artifices of Cleopatra, 48. Violent sedition in
+  Alexandria, and Cæsar besieged in Bruchium, the malcontent
+  Pothinus having brought Achillas, the commander of the royal
+  troops into the city. The hard struggle in which Cæsar was now
+  engaged, demonstrates not only the bitterness of the long
+  rankling grudge of the Alexandrines against Rome, but shows also
+  how decisive, to the whole of Egypt, were the revolutions of the
+  capital. Ptolemy Dionysos having fallen in the war, and Cæsar
+  being victorious, the crown fell to Cleopatra, 47, upon condition
+  of marrying her brother, when he should be of age: but as soon as
+  the prince grew to manhood, and had been crowned at Memphis, she
+  removed him by poison, 44.
+
+24. During the life of Cæsar, Cleopatra remained under his protection,
+and consequently in a state of dependence. Not only was a Roman garrison
+stationed in the capital city, but the queen herself, together with her
+brother, were obliged to visit him at Rome. After the assassination of
+Cæsar, she took the side of the triumviri, not without endangering
+Egypt, threatened by Cassius who commanded in Syria; and after the death
+of her brother, succeeded in getting them to acknowledge as king,
+Ptolemy Cæsarion, a son whom she pretended to have had by Cæsar.--But
+the ardent passion conceived by Antony for her person, soon after the
+discomfiture of the republican party, now attached her inseparably to
+his fortunes; which, after vainly attempting to win over the victorious
+Octavius, she at last shared.
+
+  The chronology of the ten years in which Cleopatra lived, for the
+  most part, with Antony, is not without difficulty, but, according
+  to the most probable authorities, may be arranged in the following
+  manner. Summoned before his tribunal, on account of the pretended
+  support afforded by some of her generals to Cassius, she appears
+  in his presence at Tarsus, in the attire, and with the parade, of
+  Venus, 41; he follows her into Egypt. In the year 40, Antony,
+  called back to Italy by the breaking out of the Perusine war, is
+  there induced, by political motives, to espouse Octavia; meanwhile
+  Cleopatra abides in Egypt. In the autumn of 37, she goes to meet
+  him in Syria, where he was making ready for the war against the
+  Parthians, until then prosecuted by his lieutenants; here she
+  obtained at his hands Phoenicia--Tyre and Sidon
+  excepted,--together with Cyrene and Cyprus; and in 36 went back to
+  Alexandria, where she remained during the campaign. The expedition
+  ended, Antony returned into Egypt and resided at Alexandria. From
+  thence it was his intention to attack Armenia in 35; this design,
+  however, he did not effect until 34, when, after taking the king
+  prisoner, he returned in triumph to Alexandria, and presented to
+  Cleopatra, or to his three children by her, all the countries of
+  Asia from the Mediterranean to the Indus, already conquered or to
+  be conquered. Preparing then to renew, in conjunction with the
+  king of Media, his attack on the Parthians, he is prevailed upon
+  by Cleopatra to break with Octavia, who was to bring over troops
+  to him, 38. A war between him and Octavius being now unavoidable,
+  the Parthian campaign already opened is suspended, and Cleopatra
+  accompanies Antony to Samos, 32, where he formally repudiated
+  Octavia. From hence she followed him in his expedition against
+  Octavius, which was decided by the battle of Actium, fought
+  September 2, 31.--Octavius having pursued his enemy into Egypt,
+  Alexandria was besieged, 30, and after Antony had laid violent
+  hands on himself, the place surrendered; and Cleopatra, not
+  brooking to be dragged a prisoner to Rome, followed the example of
+  her lover, and procured her own death.
+
+25. Even in this last period, Egypt appears to have been the seat of
+unbounded wealth and effeminacy. The line of infamous princes who had
+succeeded to the third Ptolemy were unable to destroy her prosperity.
+Strange, however, as this seems, it may be easily accounted for when we
+consider that the political revolutions scarcely ever overstepped the
+walls of the capital, and that an almost perpetual peace ruled in the
+country: that Egypt was the only great theatre of trade; and that that
+trade must have increased in the same proportion as the spirit of luxury
+increased in Rome, and in the Roman empire. The powerful effects
+wrought on Egypt by the growth of Roman luxury, are most convincingly
+demonstrated by the state of that country when it had become a Roman
+province; so far from the trade of Alexandria decreasing in that
+period,--though the city suffered in the first days after the
+conquest--it subsequently attained an extraordinary and gigantic bulk.
+
+
+III. _History of Macedonia and of Greece in general, from the death of
+Alexander to the Roman conquest, B. C. 323-146._
+
+  The sources for this history are the same as have been quoted
+  above: see p. 232. Until the battle of Ipsus, 301, Diodorus is
+  still our grand authority. But in the period extending from 301 to
+  224, we meet with some chasms: here almost our only sources are
+  the fragments of Diodorus, a few of Plutarch's lives, and the
+  inaccurate accounts of Justin. From the year 224, our main
+  historian is Polybius; and even in those parts where we do not
+  possess his work in its complete form, the fragments that have
+  been preserved must always be the first authorities consulted.
+  Livy, and other writers on Roman history, should accompany
+  Polybius.
+
+  Among modern books, besides the general works mentioned above
+  p. 1. we may here in particular quote:
+
+  JOHN GAST, D. D. _The History of Greece, from the accession of
+  Alexander of Macedon, till the final subjection to the Roman
+  power, in eight books._ London, 1782, 4to. Although not a
+  master-piece of composition, yet too important to be passed over
+  in silence.
+
+1. Of the three main kingdoms that arose out of Alexander's monarchy,
+Macedonia was the most insignificant, not only in extent,--particularly
+as till B. C. 286 Thrace remained a separate and independent
+province,--but likewise in population and wealth. Yet, being, as it
+were, the head country of the monarchy, it was considered to hold the
+first rank; and here at first resided the power which, nominally at
+least, extended over the whole. As early, however, as the year 311, upon
+the total extermination of Alexander's family, it became a completely
+separate kingdom. From that time its sphere of external operation was
+for the most part confined to Greece, the history of which,
+consequently, is closely interwoven with that of Macedonia.
+
+  Posture of affairs in Greece at Alexander's decease: Thebes in
+  ruins: Corinth occupied by a Macedonian garrison: Sparta
+  humiliated by the defeat she had suffered at the hands of
+  Antipater in her attempt at a revolt against Macedonia, under Agis
+  II. 333-331: Athens on the other hand flourishing, and although
+  confined to her own boundaries, still by her fame, and her naval
+  power, the first state in Greece.
+
+2. Although at the first division of the provinces, Craterus, as civil
+governor, was united with Antipater, the latter had the management of
+affairs. And the termination, as arduous as it was successful, of the
+Lamian war,--kindled immediately after the death of Alexander, by the
+Greeks, enthusiastic in the cause of freedom,--enabled him to rivet the
+chains of Greece more firmly than they had ever been before.
+
+  The Lamian war--the sparks of which had been kindled by
+  Alexander's edict, granting leave to all the Grecian emigrants,
+  twenty thousand in number, nearly the whole of whom were in the
+  Macedonian interest, to return to their native countries,--was
+  fanned to a flame by the democratic party at Athens. Urged by
+  Demosthenes and Hyperides, almost all the states of central and
+  northern Greece, Boeotia excepted, took up arms in the cause; and
+  their example was quickly followed by most of those in
+  Peloponnesus, with the exception of Sparta, Argos, Corinth, and
+  the Achæans. Not even the Persian war produced such general
+  unanimity! The gallant Leosthenes headed the league.--Defeat of
+  Antipater, who is shut up in Lamia; Leosthenes, however, falls in
+  the siege of that place, B. C. 323, and although Leonatus--who
+  with the view of ascending the throne by his marriage with
+  Cleopatra, had come to the assistance of the Macedonians--was
+  beaten and slain, 322, the Greeks were finally overwhelmed by the
+  reinforcements, brought to Antipater out of Asia, by Craterus. And
+  Antipater having fully succeeded in breaking the league, and
+  negotiating with each separate nation, was enabled to dictate the
+  terms. Most of the cities opened their gates to Macedonian troops;
+  besides this, Athens was obliged to purchase peace through the
+  mediation of Phocion and Demades, by an alteration in her
+  constitution,--the poorer citizens being excluded from all share
+  in the government, and for the most part translated into
+  Thrace--and by a pledge to deliver up Demosthenes and Hyperides;
+  whose place Phocion occupied at the head of the state.--The
+  Ætolians, the last against whom the Macedonian wars were directed,
+  obtained better terms than they had ventured to expect, Antipater
+  and Craterus being obliged to hurry over to Asia in order to
+  oppose Perdiccas.
+
+3. That hatred which, even in the lifetime of Alexander, had sprung up
+between Antipater and Olympias, in consequence of his not permitting the
+dowager queen to rule, induced her to withdraw to Epirus; her rankling
+envy being still more embittered by the influence of the young queen
+Eurydice. See above, p. 224. Antipater, dying shortly after his
+expedition against Perdiccas, in which his colleague Craterus had
+fallen, and he himself had been appointed regent, nominates his friend,
+the aged Polysperchon, to succeed him as regent and head guardian, to
+the exclusion of his own son Cassander. Hence arose a series of quarrels
+between the two, in which, unfortunately for themselves, the royal
+family were implicated and finally exterminated, Cassander obtaining the
+sovereignty of Macedonia.
+
+  Cassander having secured the interest of Antigonus and Ptolemy,
+  makes his escape to the former, 319: he had previously
+  endeavoured also to raise a party in Macedonia and Greece,
+  particularly by getting his friend Nicanor to be commander at
+  Athens.--Measures taken by Polysperchon to oppose him; in the
+  first place, he recalls Olympias out of Epirus, but the princess
+  dares not come without an army; in the next place, he nominates
+  Eumenes commander of the royal troops in Asia (see above, p. 225);
+  he likewise endeavours to gain the Grecian cities, by recalling
+  the Macedonian garrisons, and changing the governors set over them
+  by Antipater. These latter, however, were in most of the cities
+  too firmly established to suffer themselves thus to be deposed;
+  and even the expedition into Peloponnesus, undertaken by
+  Polysperchon to enforce his injunctions was attended but with
+  partial success.--In the same year occurs a twofold revolution in
+  Athens, whither Polysperchon had sent his son Alexander, nominally
+  for the purpose of driving out Nicanor, but virtually to get
+  possession of that important city. In the first place, Alexander
+  and Nicanor appearing to unite both for the attainment of one and
+  the same object, the democratic party rise up, and overthrow the
+  rulers, hitherto taken from Antipater's party, and headed by
+  Phocion, who is compelled to swallow poison: soon after, however,
+  Cassander occupies the city, excludes from the administration all
+  that possess less than ten mines, and places at the head of
+  affairs Demetrius Phalereus, who, from 318 to 307, ruled with
+  great prudence.--Not long after, Olympias returns with an army
+  from Epirus; the Macedonian troops of Philip and Eurydice having
+  passed over to her side, she wreaks her revenge on the royal
+  couple, and on the brother of Cassander, all of whom she puts to
+  death, 317. Cassander, nevertheless, having obtained
+  reinforcements in Peloponnesus, takes the field against her; she
+  is besieged in Pydna, where, disappointed in the hope of being
+  relieved either by Polysperchon or by Æacidas of Epirus, both of
+  whom were forsaken by their men, she is obliged to surrender, 316.
+  Cassander, having caused her to be condemned by the Macedonian
+  people, has her put to death.
+
+4. Cassander being now master, and, from 302, king of Macedonia,
+confirmed his dominion by a marriage with Thessalonice, half-sister to
+Alexander, and at the same time endeavoured to corroborate as far as
+possible his authority in Greece. Polysperchon and his son Alexander,
+it is true, still made head in Peloponnesus; but the states without the
+peninsula, Ætolia excepted, were all either allies of Cassander, or
+occupied by Macedonian troops. After the defeat of the league against
+Antigonus, in which Cassander had borne a part, general peace was
+concluded, with the proviso, that the Grecian cities should be free, and
+that the young Alexander, when of age, should be raised to the throne of
+Macedonia: this induced Cassander to rid himself both of the young
+prince and his mother Roxana by murder: but he thereby exposed himself
+to an attack from Polysperchon, who, availing himself of the discontent
+of the Macedonians, brought back Hercules, the only remaining
+illegitimate son of Alexander. Cassander diverted the storm by a new
+crime, instigating Polysperchon to murder the young Hercules, under
+promise of sharing the government: Polysperchon, however, unable to
+possess himself of the Peloponnesus which had been promised him, appears
+to have preserved but little influence. Cassander met likewise with
+formidable opponents in the persons of Antigonus and his son; and
+although delivered by the breaking out of the war with Ptolemy from the
+danger of the first invasion of Greece by Demetrius, his situation was
+more embarrassing at the second irruption; from which, however, he was
+extricated by the circumstance of Antigonus being obliged to recall his
+son, on account of the newly formed league (see above, p. 230).
+
+  Antigonus, on his return from Upper Asia, declares loudly against
+  Cassander, B. C. 314; despatches his general Aristodemus to
+  Peloponnesus, and frames a league with Polysperchon and his son
+  Alexander; the latter, however, Cassander succeeds in winning over
+  by a promise of the command in Peloponnesus. Alexander was soon
+  after murdered, but his wife Cratesipolis succeeded him, and
+  commanded with the spirit of a man. Meanwhile, Cassander carried
+  war against the Ætolians, who sided with Antigonus, 313; but
+  Antigonus, 312, having sent his general Ptolemy into Greece with a
+  fleet and army, Cassander lost his supremacy. In the peace of 311,
+  the freedom of all the Grecian cities was stipulated; but this
+  very condition became the pretext of various and permanent feuds;
+  and Cassander having murdered the young king, together with his
+  mother, drew upon himself the arms of Polysperchon, who wished to
+  place Hercules on the throne, 310; but the pretender was removed
+  in the manner above described, 309.--Cassander now endeavouring to
+  reestablish his power over Greece, Demetrius Poliorcetes was by
+  his father sent into that country in order to anticipate Ptolemy
+  of Egypt, in the enforcement of the decree for the freedom of the
+  Greeks, 308; the result at Athens was the restoration of
+  democracy, and the expulsion of Demetrius Phalereus.--From any
+  further attack of Demetrius, Cassander was delivered by the war
+  which broke out between Antigonus and Ptolemy, (see above, p.
+  229.) and had the leisure, once more, to strengthen his power in
+  Greece, until 302, when Demetrius arrived a second time, and, as
+  generalissimo of liberated Greece, pressed forward to the borders
+  of Macedonia; Demetrius was, however, recalled by his father into
+  Asia, and at the battle of Ipsus, 301, lost all his dominions in
+  that quarter of the world. Yet although Athens closed her harbours
+  against him, he still maintained his possessions in Peloponnesus,
+  and even endeavoured to extend them; from thence, in 297, he
+  sallied forth, and once more took possession of his beloved
+  Athens, and after driving out the usurper Lachares, forgave her
+  ingratitude.
+
+5. Cassander survived the establishment of his throne by the battle of
+Ipsus only three years: and bequeathed Macedonia as an inheritance to
+his three sons, the eldest of whom, Philip, shortly after followed his
+father to the grave.
+
+6. The two remaining sons, Antipater and Alexander, soon worked their
+own destruction. Antipater having murdered his own mother Thessalonice,
+on account of the favour she showed his brother, was obliged to flee; he
+applied for help to his father-in-law Lysimachus of Thrace, where he
+soon after died. Meanwhile Alexander, fancying that he likewise stood in
+need of foreign assistance, addressed himself to Pyrrhus, king of
+Macedonia, and to Demetrius Poliorcetes, both of whom obeyed the call
+only with the expectation of being paid. After various snares
+reciprocally laid for each other, the king of Macedonia was murdered by
+Demetrius, and with him the race of Antipater became extinct.
+
+7. The army proclaimed Demetrius king; and in his person the house of
+Antigonus ascended the throne of Macedonia, and, after many
+vicissitudes, established their power. His seven years' reign, in which
+one project succeeded the other, was a constant series of wars; and as
+he never could learn how to bear with good fortune, his ambition was at
+last his ruin.
+
+  The kingdom of Demetrius comprised Macedonia, Thessaly, and the
+  greatest part of the Peloponnesus; he was also master of Megara
+  and Athens.--Twofold capture of Thebes, which had been rebuilt by
+  Cassander, 293, and 291; unsuccessful attempt upon Thrace, 292.
+  His war with Pyrrhus, 290, in whom men fancied they beheld another
+  Alexander, had already alienated the affections of the
+  Macedonians; but his grand project for the recovery of Asia
+  induced his enemies to get the start of him; and the hatred of his
+  subjects compelled him secretly to escape to Peloponnesus, to his
+  son Antigonus, 287. Athens, taking advantage of his misfortunes,
+  drove out the Macedonian garrison, and, by the election of
+  archons, reestablished her ancient constitution; although
+  Demetrius laid siege to the town, he allowed himself to be
+  pacified by Crates. Having once more attempted to prosecute his
+  plans against Asia, he was obliged, 286, to surrender to Seleucus
+  his father-in-law, who, out of charity, kept him till the day of
+  his death, 284.
+
+8. Two claimants to the vacant throne now arose, viz. Pyrrhus of Epirus
+and Lysimachus of Thrace; but although Pyrrhus was first proclaimed
+king, with the cession of half the dominions, he could not, being a
+foreigner, support his power any longer than the year 286, when he was
+deposed by Lysimachus.
+
+  The sovereigns of Epirus, belonging to the family of the Æacidæ,
+  were properly kings of the Molossi. See above, p. 150. They did
+  not become lords of all Epirus, nor consequently of any historical
+  importance, until the time of the Peloponnesian war. After that
+  period Epirus was governed by Alcetas I. about 384, who pretended
+  to be the sixteenth descendant from Pyrrhus, the son of Achilles;
+  Neoptolemus, father to Olympias, by whose marriage with Philip,
+  358, the kings of Epirus became intimately connected with
+  Macedonia, _d._ 352; Arymbas, his brother, _d._ 342; Alexander I.
+  son of Neoptolemus, and brother-in-law to Alexander the Great; he
+  was ambitious to be as great a conqueror in the west as his
+  kinsman was in the east, but he fell in Lucania, 332. Æacides, son
+  of Arymbas, _d._ 312. Pyrrhus II. his son, the Ajax of his time,
+  and, we might almost say, rather an adventurer than a king. After
+  uninterrupted wars waged in Macedonia, Greece, Italy, and Sicily,
+  he fell at last at the storming of Argos, 272. He was followed by
+  his son Alexander II. in the person of whose successor, Pyrrhus
+  III. 219, the male line became extinct. Although the daughter of
+  this last prince, Deidamia, succeeded to the throne, the Epirots
+  were not long before they established a democratic government,
+  which endured till such time as they were, together with Macedonia
+  and the rest of Greece, brought under the Roman yoke, 146.
+
+9. In consequence of the accession of Lysimachus, Thrace, and for a
+short time even Asia Minor, were annexed to the Macedonian kingdom. But
+rankling hatred and family relations soon afterwards involved Lysimachus
+in a war with Seleucus Nicator, in which, at battle of Curopedion, he
+lost both his throne and his life.
+
+  Execution of the gallant Agathocles, eldest son of Lysimachus, at
+  the instigation of his step-mother Arsinoe: his widow Lysandra and
+  her brother Ptolemy Ceraunus, who had already been driven out of
+  Egypt by his step-mother Berenice, go over, followed by a large
+  party, to Seleucus, whom they excite to war.
+
+10. The victorious Seleucus, already lord of Asia, now causing himself
+to be proclaimed likewise king of Macedonia, it seemed as if that
+country was again about to become the head seat of the whole monarchy.
+But shortly after he had crossed over into Europe, Seleucus fell by the
+murderous hand of Ptolemy Ceraunus, who, availing himself of the
+treasures of his victim, and of the yet remaining troops of Lysimachus,
+took possession of the throne; by another act of treachery he avenged
+himself of Arsinoe, his half-sister; but just as he conceived himself
+securely established, he lost both his crown and his life by the
+irruption of the Gauls into Macedonia.
+
+  The irruption of the Gauls, threatening desolation not only to
+  Macedonia but to the whole of Greece, took place in three
+  successive expeditions. The first under Cambaules, (probably 280,)
+  advanced no further than Thrace, the invaders not being
+  sufficiently numerous. The second in three bodies; against Thrace
+  under Ceretrius; against Pæonia under Brennus and Acichorius;
+  against Macedonia and Illyria under Belgius, 279. By the
+  last-mentioned chieftain Ptolemy was defeated; he fell in the
+  contest. In consequence, Meleager first, and Antipater
+  subsequently, were appointed kings of Macedonia; but both, on
+  account of incapacity, being soon afterwards deposed, a Macedonian
+  noble, Sosthenes, assumed the command, and this time liberated his
+  country. But the year 278 brought with it the main storm, which
+  spent its fury principally on Greece: Sosthenes was defeated and
+  slain: and although the Greeks brought all their united forces
+  into the field, Brennus and Acichorius burst into Greece on two
+  different sides, and pushed on to Delphi, the object of their
+  expedition; from hence, however, they were compelled to retreat;
+  and most of them were cut off by hunger, cold, or the sword.
+  Nevertheless a portion of those barbarians stood their ground in
+  the interior of Thrace, which, consequently, was for the most part
+  lost to Macedonia: another portion, consisting of various hordes,
+  the Tectosagæ, Tolistobii, and Trocmi, crossed over to Asia Minor,
+  where they established themselves in the country called after them
+  Galatia (see above, p. 236). Although there can be no doubt that
+  the Tectosagæ must have come from the innermost parts of Gaul, the
+  mode of attack demonstrates that the main tide of invaders
+  consisted of the neighbouring races; and, in fact, in those days
+  the countries from the Danube to the Mediterranean and Adriatic
+  were mostly occupied by Gauls.--Greece, though she strained every
+  nerve, and with the exception of Peloponnesus, was united in one
+  league, could scarcely bring forward more than 20,000 men to stem
+  the torrent.
+
+11. Antigonus of Gonni, son to Demetrius, now seated himself on the
+vacant throne of desolated Macedon; he bought off his competitor,
+Antiochus I. named Soter, by treaty and marriage. Successfully as he
+opposed the new irruption of the Gauls, he was dethroned by Pyrrhus,
+who, on his return from Italy, was a second time proclaimed king of
+Macedonia. That prince, however, having formed the design of conquering
+the Peloponnesus, and, after an ineffectual attack on Sparta, which was
+repelled with heroic gallantry, wishing to take possession of Argos,
+fell at the storming of the latter place.
+
+  Extraordinary as these frequent revolutions appear, they may be
+  easily accounted for by the mode of warfare in those days. Every
+  thing depended on the armies; and these were composed of
+  mercenaries, ever willing to fight against him they had defended
+  the day before, if they fancied his rival to be a more valiant or
+  fortunate leader. Since the death of Alexander, the Macedonian
+  phalanx was no longer dependent on its captains, but they on their
+  men. The impoverishment of the countries, in consequence of war,
+  was such, that the soldier's was almost the only profitable trade;
+  and none prosecuted that trade more ardently than the Gauls, whose
+  services were ever ready for any one who chose to pay for them.
+
+12. After the death of Pyrrhus, Antigonus Gonnatas recovered the
+Macedonian throne, of which he and his descendants kept uninterrupted
+possession, yet not till after a violent contest with Alexander, the son
+and successor of Pyrrhus. But no sooner were they secure from foreign
+rivals, than the Macedonian policy was again directed against Greece,
+and the capture of Corinth seemed to insure the dependence of the whole
+country, when the formation of the Ætolian, and the yet more important
+Achæan, league, gave rise to relations entirely new, and of the highest
+interest, even for the universal history of the world. After so many
+storms, the sun of Greece was about to set in all his splendour!
+
+  The ancient confederacy of the twelve Achæan cities (see above, p.
+  145.) had subsisted until the death of Alexander, but was
+  dissolved in the subsequent commotions; particularly when, after
+  the battle of Ipsus, 301, Demetrius and his son made Peloponnesus
+  the principal seat of their power. Some of these cities were now
+  garrisoned by those princes, while in others arose tyrants,
+  generally favourable to their interests. In 281, four asserted
+  their freedom and renewed the ancient federation; which, five
+  years afterwards, was gradually joined by the rest, Antigonus
+  being busied elsewhere, in consequence of his occupation of the
+  Macedonian throne. But the league did not become formidable till
+  the accession of foreign states. This took place, in the first
+  instance, with Sicyon, through the exertions of the liberator of
+  that town, Aratus, who now became the animating spirit of the
+  federation; and in 243 brought over Corinth, after the expulsion
+  of the Macedonian garrison, and Megara. Afterwards the league
+  gradually acquired strength, by the junction of several Grecian
+  cities, Athens among others, 229; and thereby excited the jealousy
+  of the rest. And as Aratus, who was more of a statesman than a
+  general, and possessed but little independence, had in the very
+  outset joined the party of Ptolemy II. the league soon became
+  involved in the disputes of the great powers, and was too often
+  but a mere tool in their hands. The main principles on which it
+  was founded were the following: 1. Complete political equality of
+  all the federate cities; in this respect it essentially differed
+  from all the earlier federations in Greece. 2. Unconditional
+  preservation of the domestic government in every one of the
+  cities. 3. The meeting twice a year of deputies from all the
+  cities, at Ægium, and afterwards at Corinth; for transacting all
+  business of common interest, particularly foreign affairs, and
+  also for the purpose of electing the strategus, or military leader
+  and head of the union, and the ten demiurgi, or supreme
+  magistrates.--But what more than all contributed to exalt this
+  league, founded on pure liberty, was the virtue of Aratus, 213,
+  Philopoemen, 183, and Lycortas, 170; men who breathed into it the
+  spirit of union, until, enfeebled by Roman policy, it was
+  overthrown.
+
+  # BREITENBAUCH, _History of the Achæans and their league_, 1782.
+
+  The Ætolian league was formed about 284, in consequence of the
+  oppressions of the Macedonian kings. The Ætolians had likewise a
+  yearly congress, panætolium, at Thermus; where they chose a
+  strategus and the apocleti, who constituted the state council.
+  They had, besides, their secretary, [Greek: grammateus]; and
+  supervisors, [Greek: ephoroi], whose particular functions are,
+  however, matter of doubt. This federation did not increase like
+  the Achæan, none but Ætolians being admitted. The more unpolished
+  this piratical nation remained, the more frequently it was used as
+  the tool of foreign, and particularly of Roman, policy.
+
+13. Antigonus, in the latter part of his reign, had recourse to various
+means, and more especially to an alliance with the Ætolians, for the
+purpose of counterpoising the Achæans. He died in his eightieth year,
+and was succeeded by his son, Demetrius II. who waged war upon the
+Ætolians, now, however, supported by the Achæans; and endeavoured to
+repress the growth of the latter, by favouring the tyrants of particular
+cities. The remainder of the reign of this prince is little more than a
+chasm in history.
+
+  The vulgar assertion that this prince conquered Cyrene and Libya,
+  originates in a confusion of names; his uncle Demetrius, son of
+  Poliorcetes of Ptolemais, being mentioned by Plutarch as king of
+  Cyrene. The history of that town, from 258 to 142, is enveloped in
+  almost total darkness: cf. Prolog. Trogi, l. xxvi. ad calcem
+  Justini.
+
+14. Demetrius's son Philip was passed over; his brother's son, Antigonus
+II. surnamed Doson, being raised to the throne. This king was occupied
+the most of his time by the events in Greece, where a very remarkable
+revolution at Sparta, as we learn from Plutarch, had raised up a
+formidable enemy against the Achæans; and so completely altered the
+relative position of affairs, that the Macedonians, from having been
+opponents, became allies of the Achæans.
+
+  Sketch of the situation of Spartan affairs at this period: the
+  ancient constitution still continued to exist in form; but the
+  plunder of foreign countries, and particularly the permission to
+  transfer landed estates, obtained by Epitadeus, had produced great
+  inequality of property. The restoration of Lycurgus's constitution
+  had, therefore, a twofold object; to favour the poor by a new
+  agrarian law and release from debts, and to increase the power of
+  the kings by repressing that of the ephori.--First attempt at
+  reform 244, by king Agis III; attended in the beginning with
+  partial success, but eventually frustrated by the other king,
+  Leonidas, and terminating in the extinction of Agis and his
+  family, 241. Leonidas, however, was succeeded, 236, by his son
+  Cleomenes, who victoriously defeated the plans of Aratus to force
+  Sparta to accede to the Achæan league, 227; this king, by a
+  forcible revolution, overthrew the ephori, and accomplished the
+  project of Agis, at the same time increasing the Spartans by the
+  admission of a number of periæci; and enforcing the laws of
+  Lycurgus referring to private life; but as in a small republic a
+  revolution cannot be confirmed without some external war, he
+  attacked the Achæans as early as 224; these being defeated,
+  implored, through Aratus, the help of Antigonus; Cleomenes in
+  consequence was, at the battle of Sellasia, 222, obliged to yield
+  to superior force, and with difficulty escaped over to Egypt;
+  while Sparta was compelled to acknowledge her independence as a
+  gift at the hands of Antigonus. Such was the miserable success of
+  this attempt made by a few great men on a nation already
+  degenerate. The quarrels between the ephori and king Lycurgus and
+  his successor Machanidas, placed Sparta in a state of anarchy,
+  which ended, 207, in the usurpation of the sovereign power by one
+  Nabis, who destroyed the ancient form of government. Let him who
+  would study great revolutions commence with that just described;
+  insignificant as it is, none perhaps furnishes more instructive
+  lessons.
+
+  PLUTARCHI _Agis et Cleomenes_. The information in which is
+  principally drawn from the Commentaries of Aratus.
+
+15. Philip II. son of Demetrius. He ascended the throne at the early age
+of sixteen, endowed with many qualities, such as might, under favourable
+circumstances, have formed a great prince. Macedonia had recruited her
+strength during a long peace; and her grand political aim, the supremacy
+of Greece, secured by the connection of Antigonus with the Achæans, and
+by the victory of Sellasia, seemed to be already within her grasp. But
+Philip lived in a time when Rome was pursuing her formidable plans of
+aggrandizement: the more vigorous and prompt his efforts were to
+withstand that power, the more deeply was he entangled in the new maze
+of events, which embittered the rest of his life, and at last brought
+him to the grave with a broken heart, converted by misfortune into a
+despot.
+
+16. The first five years of Philip were occupied by his participation
+in the war between the Achæans and Ætolians, called the war of the two
+leagues; notwithstanding the treachery of his minister Apellas and his
+dependents, the prince was enabled to dictate the conditions of peace,
+according to which both parties were to remain in possession of what
+they then had. The conclusion of this peace was hastened by the news of
+Hannibal's victory at Thrasymenus, Philip being then instigated to form
+more extensive projects by Demetrius of Pharus, who had fled before the
+Romans, and soon acquired unlimited influence with the Macedonian king.
+
+  The war of the two leagues arose out of the piracies of the
+  Ætolians on the Messenians, the latter of whom the Achæans
+  undertook to protect, 221. The errors committed by Aratus
+  compelled the Achæans to have recourse to Philip, 220; whose
+  progress, however, was for a long time impeded by the artifices of
+  Apellas's faction, who wished to overthrow Aratus. The
+  Acarnanians, Epirots, Messenians, and Scerdilaidas of Illyria,
+  (who, however, soon after declared against Macedonia,) combined
+  with Philip and the Achæans; the Ætolians, on the other hand,
+  commanded by their own general, Scopas, had for their allies the
+  Spartans and Eleans.--The most important consequence of this war
+  for Macedonia was, that she began again to be a naval
+  power.--About the same time a war broke out between the two
+  trading republics of Byzantium and Rhodes (the latter supported by
+  Prusias I. of Bithynia) insignificant in itself, but which, as a
+  commercial war, originating in the duties imposed by the
+  Byzantines, was the only one of its kind in this age, 222. The
+  Rhodians, so powerful in those days by sea, compelled their
+  adversaries to submit.
+
+17. The negotiations between Philip and Hannibal concluded with an
+alliance, in which reciprocal help was promised towards annihilating
+Rome. But Rome contrived to excite so many foes against Philip on the
+borders of his own kingdom, and availed herself so skilfully of her
+naval power, that the execution of this plan was prevented until it
+became possible to attack the Macedonian king in Greece; where he had
+made himself many enemies, by the domineering tone he had assumed
+towards his allies at the time that, sensible of his power, he was about
+to enter upon a wider sphere of action.
+
+  Commencement of hostilities by Rome, against Philip: immediately
+  that the alliance of Philip and Hannibal was known, a squadron
+  with troops on board was stationed off the coast of Macedonia, by
+  which the king himself was defeated at Apollonia, 214.--Alliance
+  of Rome with the Ætolians, joined likewise by Sparta and Elis,
+  Attalus king of Pergamus, and Scerdilaidas and Pleuratus, kings of
+  Illyria, 211. On Philip's side were the Achæans, with whom
+  Philopoemen more than supplied the loss of Aratus, occasioned,
+  213, by the Macedonian king; to them were joined the Acarnanians
+  and Bæotians.--Attacked on every side, Philip successfully
+  extricated himself from his difficulties; in the first place, he
+  compelled the Ætolians, who had been abandoned by Attalus and
+  Rome, to accept separate terms, which, shortly after, Rome,
+  consulting her own convenience, converted into a general peace,
+  inclusive of the allies on either side, 204.
+
+18. New war of Philip against Attalus and the Rhodians, carried on for
+the most part in Asia Minor; and his impolitic alliance with Antiochus
+III. to attack Egypt. But can Philip be blamed for his endeavours to
+disarm the military servants of the Romans? Rome, however, did not grant
+him time to effect his designs; the Macedonian king was taught at Chios,
+by woeful experience, that his navy had not increased proportionably
+with that of the Rhodians.
+
+19. The war with Rome suddenly hurled the Macedonian power from its
+lofty pitch; and by laying the foundation of Roman dominion in the
+east, wrought a change in almost all the political relations of that
+quarter. The first two years of the war showed pretty evidently, that
+mere force could scarcely overturn the Macedonian throne. But T.
+Quintius Flaminius stepped forward; with the magic spell of freedom he
+intoxicated the Greeks; Philip was stripped of his allies; and the
+battle of Cynoscephalæ decided everything. The articles of the peace
+were: 1. That all Grecian cities in Europe and Asia should be
+independent, and Philip should withdraw his garrisons. 2. That he should
+surrender the whole of his navy, and never afterwards keep more than 500
+armed men on foot. 3. That he should not, without previously informing
+Rome, undertake any war out of Macedonia. 4. That he should pay 1,000
+talents by instalments, and deliver up his younger son Demetrius as an
+hostage.
+
+  The Roman allies in this war were: the Ætolians, Athenians,
+  Rhodians, the kings of the Athamanes, Dardanians, and
+  Pergamus.--The Achæans at the beginning sided with Philip, but
+  were subsequently gained over by Flaminius. See below, in the
+  Roman History.
+
+20. Soon after, the freedom of Greece was solemnly proclaimed at the
+Isthmian games by Flaminius: but loud as the Greeks were in their
+exultations, this measure served merely to transfer the supremacy of
+their country from Macedonia to Rome: and Grecian history, as well as
+the Macedonian, is now interwoven with that of the Romans. To foster
+quarrels between the Greek states, with the especial view of hindering
+the Achæans from growing too formidable, now became a fundamental
+principle at Rome; and Roman and anti-Roman parties having quickly
+arisen in every city, this political game was easily played.
+
+  Flaminius even took care that the Achæans should have an opponent
+  in the person of Nabis, although under the necessity of waging war
+  against him previous to his return into Italy, 194.--In 192, war
+  between Nabis and the Achæans; followed after the murder of Nabis,
+  at the hands of the Ætolians, by the accession of Sparta to the
+  Achæan league.--But about the same time Greece once more became
+  the theatre of foreign war; Antiochus having firmly seated himself
+  in the country, and enleagued himself with several tribes, but
+  more particularly the Ætolians, inspired with bitter and
+  long-standing hatred against the Romans. These last, however,
+  after the expulsion of Antiochus from Greece, 191, paid dearly for
+  their secession; nor was peace granted them by Rome till after
+  long and unsuccessful supplications, 189.
+
+21. While war was pending between the Romans and Antiochus, Philip, in
+the character of one of the numerous allies of Rome, ventured to
+increase his territory at the expense of the Athamanes, Thracians, and
+Thessalians. To keep him in good humour he was permitted to effect those
+conquests; but after the termination of the war the oppression of Rome
+became so galling, that it could not be otherwise than that all his
+thoughts should centre in revenge, and all his exertions be directed
+towards the recovery of power. Meanwhile the violent measures adopted
+for repeopling his exhausted kingdom--such is the punishment of ambition
+which usually awaits even the victorious!--the transplantation of the
+inhabitants of whole cities and countries, and the consequent and
+unavoidable oppression of several of his neighbours, excited universal
+complaints; and where was the accuser of Philip to whom Rome would not
+now lend a ready ear?--His younger son, Demetrius, the pupil of Rome,
+and by her intended, it is probable, to succeed to the crown, alone
+diverted the impending fate of Macedonia. But after the return of that
+prince from his embassy, the envy of his elder and bastard brother,
+Perseus, grew into an inveterate rancour, such as could not be quenched
+but by the death of the younger. The lot of Philip was indeed hard,
+compelled as a father to judge between his two sons; but the measure of
+human woe was filled, when after the death of his favourite child he
+discovered that he was innocent; are we to wonder that sorrow should
+soon have hurried him to a premature grave!
+
+22. The same policy which was observed by the Romans towards Philip,
+they pursued towards the Achæans, with whom, since the termination of
+the war with Antiochus, they had assumed a loftier tone; and this artful
+game was facilitated by the continual quarrels among the Greeks
+themselves. Yet the great Philopoemen, worthy of a better age,
+maintained the dignity of the league at the very time that the Romans
+presumed to speak as arbitrators. After his decease they found it easy
+to raise a party among the Achæans themselves, the venal Callicrates
+offering his services for that purpose.
+
+  The Achæans was continually embroiled either with Sparta or with
+  Messene: the grounds of difference were, that in both of those
+  states there were factions headed by persons who, out of personal
+  motives, and for the most part hatred to Philopoemen, wished to
+  secede from the league; on the other hand, the prevailing idea
+  among the Achæans was, that this league ought to comprise the
+  whole of the Peloponnesus. In the war against the Messenians,
+  183, Philopoemen, at the age of seventy, was taken prisoner by the
+  enemy and put to death.
+
+  PLUTARCHI, _Philopoemen_. Nearly the whole of which is compiled
+  from the lost biography of Polybius.
+
+23. The last Macedonian king, Perseus, had inherited his father's
+perfect hatred of the Romans, together with talents, if not equal, at
+least but little inferior. He entered into the speculations of his
+predecessor, and the first seven years of his reign was occupied in
+constant exertions to muster forces against Rome; with this view he
+called the Bastarnæ out of the north, in order to settle them in the
+territories of his enemies the Dardanians; he endeavoured to form
+alliances with the kings of Illyria, Thrace, Syria, and Bithynia; above
+all, he strove by negotiations and promises to reestablish the ancient
+influence of Macedonia in Greece.
+
+  The settlement of the Bastarnæ (probably a German race, resident
+  beyond the Danube) in Thrace and Dardania, in order with them to
+  carry war against the Romans, was one of the plans traced out by
+  Philip, and now partially executed by Perseus.--In Greece the
+  Macedonian party, which Perseus formed chiefly out of the great
+  number of impoverished citizens in the country, would probably
+  have gained the upper hand, had not the fear inspired by Rome, and
+  the active vigilance of that power, interposed an effectual bar.
+  Hence the Achæans, apparently at least, remained on the Roman
+  side; the Ætolians, by domestic factions, had worked their own
+  destruction; the case was the same with the Acarnanians; and the
+  federation of the Boeotians had been completely dissolved by the
+  Romans, 171. On the other hand, in Epirus the Macedonian party was
+  superior; Thessaly was occupied by Perseus; several of the
+  Thracian tribes were friendly to him; and in king Gentius he found
+  an ally who might have been highly useful, had not the Macedonian
+  prince, by an ill-timed avarice, deprived himself of his
+  assistance.
+
+24. The commencement of open hostilities was hastened by the bitter
+hatred existing between Perseus and Eumenes, and by the intrigues of the
+latter at Rome. Neglect of the favourable moment for taking the field,
+and the defensive system, skilfully in other respects as it was planned,
+caused the ruin of Perseus, as it had done that of Antiochus.
+Nevertheless he protracted the war to the fourth year, when the battle
+of Pidna decided the fate both of himself and his kingdom.
+
+  Miserable condition of Perseus until his capture at Samothrace;
+  and afterwards until his death at Rome, 166.
+
+25. According to the system at that period followed by Rome, the
+conquered kingdom of Macedonia was not immediately converted into a
+province; it was first deprived of all offensive power, by being
+republicanized and divided into four districts, wholly distinct from one
+another, and bound to pay Rome half the tribute they were before wont to
+furnish to their kings.
+
+26. It was in the natural order of things that the independence of
+Greece, and more especially that of the Achæan league, should fall with
+Perseus. The political _inquisition_ of the Roman commissaries not only
+visited with punishment the declared partizans of Macedonia; but even to
+have stood neutral was a crime that incurred suspicion. Rome, however,
+amid the rising hatred, did not deem herself secure until by one blow
+she had rid herself of all opponents of any importance. Above a thousand
+of the most eminent of the Achæans were summoned to Rome to justify
+themselves, and there detained seventeen years in prison without a
+hearing. While at the head of the league, stood the man who had
+delivered them up, Callicrates, (_d._ 150.) a wretch who could, unmoved,
+hear "the very boys in the streets taunt him with treachery."--A more
+tranquil period, it is true, now ensued for Greece, but it was the
+result of very obvious causes.
+
+27. The ultimate lot both of Macedon and was decided by the system now
+adopted at Rome, that of converting the previous dependence of nations
+into formal subjection. The insurrection of Andriscus in Macedonia, an
+individual who pretended to be the son of Perseus, was quelled by
+Metellus, the country being constituted a Roman province; two years
+afterwards, at the sack of Corinth, vanished the last glimmer of Grecian
+freedom.
+
+  The last war of the Achæans arose out of certain quarrels with
+  Sparta, 150, fomented by Diæus, Critolaus, and Damocritus, who had
+  returned bitterly enraged from the Roman prison; in these disputes
+  Rome interfered, with the design of wholly dissolving the Achæan
+  league. The first pretext that offered for executing this scheme
+  was the ill-treatment of the Roman ambassadors at Corinth, 148;
+  war, however, still raging with Carthage and Andriscus, the Romans
+  preserved for the present a peaceful tone. But the party of Diæus
+  and Critolaus would have war; the plenipotentiaries of Metellus
+  were again insulted, and the Achæans declared war against Sparta
+  and Rome. In the very same year they were routed by Metellus, and
+  their leader Critolaus fell in the engagement; Metellus was
+  replaced in the command by Mummius, who defeated Diæus the
+  successor of Critolaus, took Corinth and razed it to the ground,
+  146. The consequence was, that Greece, under the name of Achaia,
+  became a Roman province, although to a few cities, such as Athens,
+  for instance, some shadow of freedom was still left.
+
+
+IV. _History of some smaller or more distant Kingdoms and States erected
+out of the Macedonian monarchy._
+
+  SOURCES. Besides the writers enumerated above, (see p. 232.)
+  Memnon, an historian of Heraclea in Pontus, deserves particular
+  mention in this place, (see p. 162): some extracts from his work
+  have been preserved to us by Photius, Cod. 224. In some individual
+  portions, as, for instance, in the Parthian history, Justin[a] is
+  our main authority; as are likewise Ammianus Marcellinus, and the
+  extracts from Arrian's _Parthica_, found in Photius. The coins of
+  the kings are also of great importance; but unfortunately
+  Vaillant's Essay shows, that even with their assistance the
+  chronology still remains in a very unsettled state. For the Jewish
+  history, Josephus (see p. 35.) is the grand writer: of the Books
+  of the Old Testament, those of Ezra and Nehemiah, together with
+  the Maccabees, although the last are not always to be depended
+  upon.
+
+  The modern writers are enumerated below, under the heads of the
+  different kingdoms. Much information is likewise scattered about
+  in the works on ancient numismatics.
+
+  [a] As Justin did no more than extract from Trogus Pompeius, a
+      question presents itself of great consequence to various
+      portions of ancient history; what authorities did Trogus
+      Pompeius follow? The answer will be found in two treatises
+      by A. L. L. HEEREN: _De fontibus et auctoritate Trogi Pompeii,
+      ejusque epitomatoris Justini_, inserted in _Comment. Soc.
+      Gott._ vol. 15.
+
+1. Besides the three main empires into which the monarchy of Alexander
+was divided, there likewise arose in those extensive regions several
+branch kingdoms, one of which even grew in time to be among the most
+powerful in the world. To these belong the kingdoms of, 1. Pergamus. 2.
+Bithynia. 3. Paphlagonia. 4. Pontus. 5. Cappadocia. 6. Great Armenia. 7.
+Little Armenia. 8. Parthia. 9. Bactria. 10. Jewish state subsequent to
+the Maccabees.
+
+  We are acquainted with the history of these kingdoms, the Jewish
+  state alone excepted, only so far forth as they were implicated in
+  the concerns of the greater empires; of their internal history we
+  know little, often nothing. With respect to many of them,
+  therefore, little more can be produced than a series of
+  chronological data, indispensable, notwithstanding, to the general
+  historian.
+
+2. The kingdom of Pergamus, in Mysia, arose during the war between
+Seleucus and Lysimachus. It owed its origin on the one hand to the
+prudence of its rulers, the wisest of whom luckily reigned the longest;
+and, on the other, to the weakness of the Seleucidæ: for its progressive
+increase it was indebted to the Romans, who in aggrandizing the power of
+Pergamus acted with a view to their own interest. History exhibits
+scarcely one subordinate kingdom whose princes took such skilful
+advantage of the political circumstances of the times; and yet they
+earned still greater renown by the anxiety they showed, in rivalling the
+Ptolemies, to foster the arts of peace, industry, science, architecture,
+sculpture, and painting. How dazzling the splendour with which the small
+state of Pergamus outshines many a mighty empire!
+
+  Philetærus, lieutenant of Lysimachus, in Pergamus, asserts his
+  independence; and maintains possession of the citadel and town,
+  283-263. His nephew, Eumenes I. 263-241, defeats Antiochus I. at
+  Sardes, 263, and becomes master of Æolis and the circumjacent
+  country. His nephew, Attalus I. 241-197, after his victory over
+  the Galatians, 239, becomes king of Pergamus: a noble prince, and
+  one whose genius and activity embraced everything. His wars
+  against Achæus brought him in alliance with Antiochus III. 216.
+  Commencement of an alliance with Rome, arising out of his
+  participation in the Ætolian league against Macedon, 211, in order
+  to thwart Philip's project of conquest. Hence, after Philip's
+  irruption into Asia, 203, participation on the side of Rome, in
+  the Macedonian war. His son Eumenes II. the inheritor of all his
+  father's great qualities succeeds him, 197-158. As a reward for
+  his assistance against Antiochus the Great, the Romans presented
+  him with almost all the territories possessed by the vanquished
+  king in Asia Minor, (Phrygia, Mysia, Lycaonia, Lydia, Ionia, and a
+  part of Caria,) which thereafter constituted the kingdom of
+  Pergamus; this prince extended his frontiers, but lost his
+  independence. In the war with Perseus he was scarce able to
+  preserve the good will of the senate, and therewith his kingdom.
+  His brother, Attalus II. 158-138, a more faithful dependent of
+  Rome, took part in nearly all the concerns of Asia Minor, more
+  especially Bithynia. His nephew, Attalus III. 138-133, a prince of
+  unsound mind, bequeathed his kingdom to the Romans, who, after
+  vanquishing the lawful heir, Aristonicus, 130, took possession of
+  it, annexing it to their empire, under the shape of a province
+  called Asia.--Great discoveries and vast establishments made at
+  Pergamus. Rich library; subsequently transferred by Antony to
+  Alexandria, as a present for Cleopatra. Museum. Discovery of
+  parchment, an invaluable auxiliary to the preservation of works of
+  literature.
+
+  CHOISEUIL GOUFFIER, _Voyage pittoresque de la Grèce_, vol. ii.
+  1809. Containing excellent observations, both on the monuments and
+  history of Pergamus, as well as on those of all the neighbouring
+  coasts and islands.
+
+  SEVIN, _Recherches sur les rois de Pergame_, inserted in the _Mém.
+  de l'Acad. des Inscript._ vol. xii.
+
+  From the fall of Tyre and the unsuccessful attempt of Demetrius,
+  B. C. 307, to the establishment of Roman dominion in the east,
+  300-200, was the brilliant period of Rhodes; alike important for
+  political wisdom, naval power, and extensive trade. At the head of
+  the senate ([Greek: boulê]) were presidents, ([Greek: prytaneis,])
+  who went out of office every half year, and were honoured with
+  precedence in the meetings of the commons. Friendship with all,
+  alliance with none, was the fundamental maxim of Rhodian policy,
+  until subverted by Rome. Thus was preserved the dignity of the
+  state, together with its independence and political
+  activity--where do we not meet with Rhodian embassies?--and
+  permanent splendour, resulting from the cultivation of arts and
+  sciences. What proofs of general commiseration did not Rhodes
+  enjoy after that dreadful earthquake, which threw down even the
+  famous colossus, 227! Long did her squadrons command the Ægæan;
+  over that sea, the Euxine, and the western parts of the
+  Mediterranean as far as Sicily, her commerce extended, consisting
+  in the rich exchange of commodities between three quarters of the
+  globe. Her revenue proceeded from the customs, and was abundant;
+  until, blinded by avarice, she sought to obtain at Peræa a
+  territory on the mainland; an ambition of which the Romans availed
+  themselves to her detriment, by presenting her with Lycia and
+  Caria, 190. And yet did this republic outlive that of Rome! Great,
+  indeed, is the chasm left in general history by the loss of the
+  internal history of this island!
+
+  P. D. CH. PAULSEN, _Commentatio exhibens Rhodi descriptionem
+  Macedonica ætate, Gottingæ_, 1818. A prize essay.
+
+3. The other small kingdoms of Asia Minor are fragments rather of the
+Persian than of the Macedonian monarchy; for Alexander's march following
+another direction, they were not formally subjugated by that conqueror.
+The lines of their kings are generally traced back to an early period of
+the Persian age; but, properly speaking, their rulers in those days were
+nothing more than viceroys: selected indeed, for the most part, from the
+royal family, they bore the title of princes, and, in the gradual
+decline of the empire, not unfrequently threw up their allegiance.
+Nevertheless these kingdoms do not appear as really independent until
+after the time of Alexander. Connected with the Grecian republics
+Heraclea, Sinope, Byzantium, etc. they formed, both in the Macedonian
+and Roman ages, a system of small states, often distracted by internal
+wars, and still oftener mere tools in the hands of the more powerful.
+
+  1. _Bithynia._ As early as the Persian period, mention is made of
+  two kings in Bithynia, Dydalsus and Botyras. The son of the
+  latter, Bias, B. C. 378-328, made head against Caranus, one of
+  Alexander's generals; as did also his son Zipoetas, _d._ 281,
+  against Lysimachus.--Lycomedes I. _d._ 248. He called the Gauls
+  over from Thrace, 278, and with their assistance deposed his
+  brother Zipoetas; the Gauls in consequence kept their footing in
+  Galatia, and were for a long time an object of terror to Asia
+  Minor. Zelas, _d._ about 232; established his dominion after a war
+  with his half-brothers. Prusias I. son-in-law and ally of Philip
+  II. of Macedon, _d._ 192. He sided with the Rhodians in the
+  commercial war against Byzantium, 222, (see above, p. 282.) and
+  directed his arms, 196, against Heraclea, a Grecian city in
+  Bithynia, with a respectable territory along shore. Prusias II.
+  waged war against Eumenes II. at the instigation of Hannibal, who
+  had fled to his court, 184; he was subsequently about to deliver
+  up the fugitive to the Romans; had not Hannibal put a period to
+  his existence, 183: this king likewise waged war against Attalus
+  II. 153; in both these contests Rome acted as mediator. Prusias,
+  who had the meanness to style himself a freedman of the Romans,
+  was dethroned by his own son, Nicomedes II. _d._ 92; a confederate
+  of Mithridates the Great, with whom, nevertheless, he afterwards
+  fell out concerning the appropriation of Paphlagonia and
+  Cappadocia. Nicomedes was murdered by his son Socrates, who was,
+  however, compelled to flee; in consequence of which Nicomedes III.
+  succeeded to the crown. Deposed by Mithridates, who supported his
+  half-brother Socrates, he was reinstated by Rome, 90. Having,
+  however, at the instigation of the Romans, 89, attacked
+  Mithridates, he was defeated and expelled in the first Mithridatic
+  war, now kindled; but in the peace of 85, he was again reinstated
+  by Sulla. At his death, 75, he bequeathed Bithynia to the Romans;
+  and this legacy gave rise to the third Mithridatic war.
+
+  VAILLANT, _Imperium Arsacidarum_, vol. ii. See below.
+
+  SEVIN, _Recherches sur les rois de Bithynie_; inserted in the
+  _Mém. de l'Académie des Inscript._ vol. xii.
+
+  2. _Paphlagonia._ Even in the Persian age, the rulers of this
+  country were but nominally subject. After Alexander's death, B. C.
+  323, it fell into the hands of the kings of Pontus; it was,
+  however, subsequently, again ruled by its own monarchs; among whom
+  we hear of Morzes, about 179; Pylæmenes I. about 131: who assisted
+  the Romans in the war against Aristonicus of Pergamus.--Pylæmenes
+  II. _d._ before 121; who is said to have bequeathed his kingdom to
+  Mithridates V. of Pontus. Hence Paphlagonia came to be implicated
+  in the fortunes of Pontus, (see just below,) until after the fall
+  of Mithridates the Great, 63, that kingdom was converted into a
+  province, with the exception of one of the southern districts, to
+  which the Romans left some shadow of freedom.
+
+  3. _Pontus._ The later kings of this country derived their origin
+  from the family of the Achæmenidæ, or house of Persia. In the
+  Persian age they remained dependent or tributary princes: and as
+  such we must consider Artabazes, son of Hystaspes, _d._ 480,
+  Mithridates I. _d._ 368, and Ariobarzanes, _d._ 337, mentioned as
+  the earliest kings of Pontus. Mithridates II. surnamed Ctistes,
+  _d._ 302, was one of the first to acknowledge subjection to
+  Alexander; after the death of the conqueror he sided with
+  Antigonus, who treacherously caused him to be murdered. His son,
+  Mithridates III. _d._ 266, (the Ariobarzanes of Memnon,) not only
+  maintained himself after the battle of Ipsus against Lysimachus,
+  but likewise possessed himself of Cappadocia and Paphlagonia.
+  Mithridates IV. father-in-law to Antiochus the Great, waged an
+  unsuccessful war against Sinope. The year of his death is
+  undetermined, Pharnaces, _d._ about 156. He conquered Sinope 183;
+  and that town then became the royal residence. War with Eumenes
+  II. whom Rome had made so powerful, and with his allies;
+  terminated by a treaty, according to which Pharnaces ceded
+  Paphlagonia, B. C. 179. Mithridates V. _d._ about 121. He was an
+  ally of the Romans, from whom, after the defeat of Aristonicus of
+  Phrygia, he contrived to obtain Great Phrygia. Mithridates VI.
+  surnamed Eupator, about 121-64. He bore the title of Great, an
+  epithet to which he was as fully entitled as Peter I. in modern
+  history; indeed he resembled the Russian prince in almost
+  everything except in good fortune. His reign, although of the
+  highest importance to general history, is, particularly in the
+  portion previous to the wars with Rome, replete with chronological
+  difficulties.--At the age of twelve years he inherits from his
+  father not only Pontus, but likewise Phrygia, and a reversionary
+  title to the throne of Paphlagonia, vacated by the death of
+  Pylæmenes II.--During his nonage, 121-112, while by voluntarily
+  inuring himself to hardships, he contrived to elude the
+  treacherous hostility of his guardians, Rome deprived him of
+  Phrygia. His conquests in Colchis and on the eastern side of the
+  Black sea, 112-110.--Commencement of the Scythian wars. Called by
+  the Greeks of Crimea to their assistance, he expelled the
+  Scythians; subjected several insignificant Scythian princes on the
+  mainland; and entered into alliances with the Sarmatic and even
+  Germanic races as far as the Danube, 108-105, having already a
+  view to the invasion of Italy from the north.--This war ended, he
+  travels over Asia, (Asia Minor?) about 104-103.--At his return,
+  after punishing with death his faithless sister and wife, Laodice,
+  he makes good his pretensions to Paphlagonia, which he divides
+  with Nicomedes II. 102. The Roman senate demanding the restoration
+  of that province, Mithridates not only refuses to accede, but
+  likewise takes possession of Galatia; meanwhile Nicomedes places
+  on the throne of Paphlagonia one of his own sons, whom he gives
+  out to be a son of Pylæmenes II. and denominates Pylæmenes
+  III.--Rupture with Nicomedes II. 101; the subject of dispute,
+  Cappadocia, which, after removing the king, Ariarathes VII. his
+  brother-in-law, with the assistance of Gordius, Mithridates
+  himself now wished to possess; he is anticipated, however, by
+  Nicomedes II. who marries Laodice, Ariarathes's
+  widow.--Mithridates, notwithstanding, expels his rival, under
+  pretence of holding the kingdom for his sister's son, Ariarathes
+  VIII. whom at the end of a few months he puts to death at a
+  private conference, 94; he defeats the brother of the murdered
+  prince, Ariarathes IX. and then places on the throne, under the
+  name of Ariarathes X. his own son, who is given out to be a third
+  son of Ariarathes VII; in opposition to whom Nicomedes sets up
+  another pretended Ariarathes. The Roman senate, meanwhile, declare
+  both Paphlagonia and Cappadocia free, B. C. 92; attending,
+  however, to the desires of the Cappadocians, they sanction the
+  election of Ariobarzanes to the crown; and he is put in possession
+  of the kingdom by Sylla, as proprætor of Cilicia, likewise in
+  92.--Mithridates, on the other hand, forms an alliance with the
+  king of Armenia, Tigranes, to whom he gives his daughter in
+  marriage; and employs him in expelling Ariobarzanes.--He himself,
+  after the death of Nicomedes II. 92, supports the claims of the
+  deceased king's exiled son, Socrates Chrestus, against the bastard
+  Nicomedes III. and in the mean time takes possession of
+  Paphlagonia. Nicomedes and Ariobarzanes are reinstated by a Roman
+  embassy, 90, Mithridates, in order to gain time against Rome,
+  causing Socrates to be put to death. The hostilities of Nicomedes,
+  instituted by Rome, gave rise to the first Roman war, 89-85,
+  carried on in Asia and Greece, and brought to a conclusion by
+  Sylla. By the peace of 85, Mithridates restores Bithynia,
+  Cappadocia, and Paphlagonia.--War with the revolted Colchians and
+  Bosporans, 84.--Second war with Rome brought about by the Roman
+  governor, Murena, 83-81. Mithridates hereupon appoints his son,
+  Machares, king of Bosporus, (Crimea,) whom he afterwards himself
+  causes to be put to death, 66; he was likewise, in all
+  probability, the instigator of the migration of the Sarmatæ out of
+  Asia into Europe, in order to maintain his conquests in that
+  quarter, about 80. Fresh disputes with Rome about Cappadocia, of
+  which Tigranes takes possession, and third war with Rome, 75-64.
+  The contest ended in the downfal of Mithridates, caused by the
+  treachery of his son Pharnaces; Pontus became a Roman province;
+  although the Romans, in the sequel, appointed over a portion of
+  the country princes from the royal house, Darius, Polemo I. Polemo
+  II. until Nero reduced it again wholly to the state of a province.
+
+  VAILLANT, _Imperium Achæmenidarum_ in his _Imperium Arsacidarum_,
+  tom. ii. With the assistance of the coins.
+
+  For the history of Mithridates the Great, previously treated
+  without sufficient chronological accuracy, see DE BROSSES,
+  _Histoire de la Rép. Romaine_, and more especially
+
+  JOAN. ERNST. WOLTERSDORF, _Commentatio vitam Mithridatis Magni,
+  per annos digestam, sistens; præmio ornata ab A. Phil. Ord.
+  Gottingæ:, A_. 1812.
+
+  4. _Cappadocia._ Until the time of Alexander this country remained
+  a province of the Persian empire, although the governors
+  occasionally made attempts at insurrection. The ruling family was
+  here likewise a branch of the royal house; Ariarathes I. was
+  particularly distinguished about B. C. 354. The prince
+  contemporary with Alexander was Ariarathes II. who, being attacked
+  by Perdiccas and Eumenes, fell in the contest, 322. Nevertheless,
+  his son, Ariarathes III. supported by the Armenians, recovered the
+  sceptre about 312. The son of this king, Ariaramnes, formed a
+  matrimonial connection with the Seleucidæ, uniting his son
+  Ariarathes IV. with the daughter of Antiochus [Greek: Theos].
+  Ariarathes IV. during his lifetime, associated in the government
+  his son Ariarathes V. _d._ 162. who married Antiochis, daughter to
+  Antiochus the Great: this princess, finding herself at first
+  barren, procured two supposititious sons, one of whom, Orophernes,
+  subsequently wrested the sceptre from the legitimate and later
+  born son, Ariarathes VI. but was afterwards expelled by the
+  rightful heir, 157. In the war against Aristonicus of Pergamus,
+  131, he fell, as an ally of the Romans, leaving behind him six
+  sons; five of whom were cut off by his ambitious relict Laodice;
+  the sixth however, Ariarathes VII. ascended the throne, and was
+  married to Laodice, sister of Mithridates the Great, at whose
+  instigation he was murdered by Gordius, under pretence of placing
+  on the throne his sister's son, Ariarathes VIII; this last prince
+  was soon after treacherously put to death by Mithridates, 94, and
+  his brother Ariarathes IX. defeated 93, died of a broken heart;
+  Mithridates then placed on the throne his own son, Ariarathes X. a
+  lad eight years old. The independence of Cappadocia having
+  meanwhile been proclaimed at Rome, the inhabitants of the country,
+  in order to preclude domestic broils, themselves elect a king,
+  appointing to that dignity Ariobarzanes I. who was installed by
+  Sylla, 92, and, backed by the Romans, kept his footing in the
+  Mithridatic wars. In 63 he made the crown over to his son,
+  Ariobarzanes II. who was slain by the army of Brutus and Cassius,
+  43, as was his brother, Ariobarzanes III. 34, by Mark Antony;
+  Antony then appointed Archelaus to be king, who enticed to Rome by
+  Tiberius, A. D. 17, was there assassinated; and Cappadocia then
+  became a Roman province.
+
+  5. _Armenia_ was a province of the Syrian empire until the defeat
+  of Antiochus the Great by Rome, 190. That defeat was followed by
+  the accession of Antiochus's lieutenants, Artaxias and Zariadras;
+  and now arose the two kingdoms of Armenia Major and Armenia Minor
+  (the latter on the west bank of the Upper Euphrates). In Armenia
+  Major the family of Artaxias kept possession of the throne, under
+  eight (according to others _ten_) consecutive kings, until B. C.
+  5.--The only remarkable prince of this line was Tigranes I. 95-60,
+  son-in-law and ally of Mithridates the Great, and lord of Asia
+  Minor, Cappadocia, and Syria. He was, however, at the peace of 63,
+  obliged to give up all, so that Armenia was dependent on the
+  Romans, and remained so until B. C. 5, when it became the object
+  of contention between the Romans and Parthians, being ruled at
+  intervals by kings appointed by both parties, who endeavoured
+  thereby to protect their own provinces. Finally, in A. D. 412,
+  Armenia became a province of the new Persian empire.--In Asia
+  Minor the descendants of Zariadras ruled dependently on Rome;
+  after its defection under Mithridates the Great it usually formed
+  part of some one of the neighbouring kingdoms, until in the reign
+  of Vespasian it was converted into a province of the Roman empire.
+
+  VAILLANT, _Elenchus regum Armeniæ Majoris_, in his _Hist. Imp.
+  Arsacidarum_.
+
+4. Besides the above small kingdoms, two mighty empires arose in Inner
+Asia, both out of Alexander's monarchy, and at the same time: these were
+the Parthian and the Bactrian; each having previously constituted a part
+of the empire of the Seleucidæ, from which they seceded under Antiochus
+II. The Parthian kingdom, or that of the Arsacidæ, B. C. 256-A. D. 226,
+at the maximum of its extension, comprised the countries between the
+Euphrates and Indus. Its history, so far as we are acquainted with it,
+is divided into four periods (see below); but unfortunately our
+information is so imperfect respecting all that relates to the
+Parthians, except their wars, that even the most important particulars
+are beyond the reach of conjecture.
+
+  Main facts in the history and constitution of the Parthian
+  kingdom. _a._ Like the ancient Persian empire, the Parthian arose
+  out of the conquests made by a rude mountain race of Central Asia,
+  whose Scythian (probably Tatarian) origin, betrayed itself even in
+  later times by their speech and mode of life: their conquests,
+  however, were not effected with the same rapidity as those of the
+  Persians. _b._ This empire increased at the expense of the Syrian
+  in the west, and of the Bactrian in the east; but its dominion was
+  never permanently established beyond the Euphrates, Indus, and
+  Oxus. _c._ The wars with Rome, commencing in B. C. 53, and
+  springing out of disputes for the possession of the Armenian
+  throne, were for a long time unfortunate for the Romans. Success
+  did not accompany the arms of Rome until she had discovered the
+  art of raising her own parties within the kingdom itself, by
+  lending her support to pretenders, an art rendered comparatively
+  easy, by the unfavourable situation of the Parthian capital
+  Seleucia and the neighbouring town of Ctesiphon, the real head
+  quarters of the court. _d._ The empire was indeed divided into
+  satrapies, eighteen of which are enumerated; nevertheless it
+  comprised likewise several small kingdoms, which preserved their
+  own rulers, only that they were tributary, such, for instance, as
+  Persis, etc. The Græco-Macedonian settlements were also in
+  possession of great privileges, and of their own civic
+  governments; Seleucia more especially, where the coins of the
+  Parthian sovereigns were struck. _e._ The constitution was
+  monarchal-aristocratic, something like that of the Poles, in the
+  period of the Jagellons. At the king's side sat a supreme state
+  council, (_senatus_, in all probability what was called the
+  _megistanes_,) who had the power of deposing the king, and the
+  privilege, it is supposed, of confirming his accession previous to
+  the ceremony of coronation, performed by the field-marshals
+  (_surenas_). The right of succession was only so far determined as
+  belonging to the house of the Arsacidæ; the many pretenders to
+  which this uncertainty gave rise, produced factions and domestic
+  wars, doubly injurious to the empire when fomented and shared by
+  foreigners. _f._ With regard to Asiatic commerce, the Parthian
+  supremacy was of importance, inasmuch as it interrupted the direct
+  intercourse between the western and eastern countries: it being a
+  maxim of the Parthians not to grant a passage through their
+  country to any stranger. This destruction of the trade occurs in
+  the third period of the empire, being a natural result of the many
+  wars with Rome, and the distrust thence ensuing. The East India
+  trade, in consequence, took another road through Palmyra and
+  Alexandria, which were indebted to it for their splendour and
+  prosperity. _g._ It is probable that this was the reason why
+  excessive luxury took a less hold on the Parthians than on the
+  other ruling nations of Asia, notwithstanding their predilection
+  for Grecian manners and literature, at that time generally
+  prevalent throughout the east.
+
+  _Line of the kings._ I. Syrian period; that of reiterated wars
+  with the Seleucidæ, until 130. Arsaces I. 256-253, founder of the
+  Parthian independence, by procuring the death of the Syrian
+  viceroy, Agathocles, to which he was instigated by the insult
+  offered to his brother Tiridates. Arsaces II. (Tiridates I.)
+  brother of the foregoing, _d._ 216. He possessed himself of
+  Hyrcania, about 244, confirmed the Parthian power by a victory on
+  Seleucus Callinicus, 238, whom he took prisoner, 236. Arsaces III.
+  (Artabanus I.) _d._ 196. In his reign occurred the unsuccessful
+  attempt of Antiochus III. who, in the treaty of 210, was obliged
+  to renounce all claims on Parthia and Hyrcania, in return for
+  which Arsaces lent his assistance to Antiochus in the war against
+  Bactria. Arsaces IV. (Priapatius,) _d._ about 181. Arsaces V.
+  (Phraates I.) _d._ about 144; he conquered the Mardians on the
+  Caspian. His brother, Arsaces VI. (Mithridates I.) _d._ 136. He
+  raised the hitherto confined kingdom of Parthia to the rank of a
+  mighty empire, having, after the decease of Antiochus Epiphanes,
+  164, by the capture of Media, Persis, Babylonia, and other
+  countries, extended the frontiers westward to the Euphrates, and
+  eastward to the Hydaspes, beyond the Indus. The invasion of
+  Demetrius II. of Syria, supported by an insurrection of the
+  conquered races, ended, 140, in the capture of the aggressor.
+  Arsaces VII. (Phraates II.) _d._ about 127. Invasion of Antiochus
+  Sidetes, 132, who was at first successful, but being soon
+  afterwards cut off together with his whole army, 131, the Parthian
+  empire was for ever freed from the attacks of the Syrian kings.
+
+  II. Period of the eastern nomad wars; from 130-53. After the fall
+  of the Bactrian empire, which had hitherto formed the eastern
+  rampart of the Parthians, violent wars took place with the nomad
+  tribes of Central Asia (Scythæ, Dahæ, Tochari, etc.) in which
+  Arsaces VII. was slain. Arsaces VIII. (Artabanus II.) shared the
+  same fate about 124. Arsaces IX. (Mithridates II.) _d._ 87. This
+  prince appears to have restored tranquillity to the east after
+  bloody wars; he met, however, with a powerful rival in Tigranes I.
+  of Armenia. In his reign occurred the first transactions between
+  the Parthians and Romans, 92, Sylla being proprætor of Cilicia.
+  Arsaces X. (Mnasciras,) _d._ about 76, waged a long war for the
+  succession with his follower on the throne, the septuagenarian,
+  Arsaces XI. (Sinatroces,) _d._ about 68. Unsuccessful war with
+  Tigranes I. In consequence of civil wars, and of that with
+  Tigranes, together with the formidable power of Mithridates the
+  Great, the Parthian empire was now greatly weakened. Arsaces XII.
+  (Phraates III.) _d._ 60, contemporary with the third Mithridatic
+  war. Although both parties eagerly courted his alliance, and he
+  himself was engaged in the contest with Tigranes, he,
+  notwithstanding, observed an armed neutrality, and made the
+  Parthian empire continue to be respected as far as the Euphrates.
+  Neither Lucullus nor Pompey durst attack him. The fall of
+  Mithridates and of his empire, 64, constitutes, however, an epoch
+  in the Parthian history, the Romans and Parthians having now
+  become immediate neighbours.--Arsaces XIII. (Mithridates II.) _d._
+  54, deposed after several wars, by his younger brother Orodes,
+  and at last put to death, after the capture of Babylonia, where he
+  had taken refuge.
+
+  III. Roman period; from B. C. 53, to A. D. 226; comprising the
+  wars with Rome. Arsaces XIV. (Orodes I.) _d._ 36. In his reign the
+  first war with Rome, caused by the invasion of Crassus; it ends in
+  the annihilation of the invading army and general, 53. In
+  consequence of this victory the Parthians acquired such
+  preponderance, that during the civil wars they were frequently
+  masters on this side of the Euphrates, and in 52-51 proceeded to
+  attack Syria.--In the war between Pompey and Cæsar they sided with
+  the former, and thus furnished the latter with a pretext for his
+  Parthian expedition, which, however, was prevented by his murder
+  in 44; again in the war between the triumviri and Brutus and
+  Cassius, 42, they took the republican side. After the defeat of
+  Brutus and Cassius, the Parthians, at the instigation of the Roman
+  general and ambassador Labienus, and commanded by him and Pacorus,
+  (eldest son to Arsaces,) spread over the whole of Syria and Asia
+  Minor, 40; but, after violent exertions, were driven back by
+  Ventidius, Antony's general, 39, 38; Pacorus lost his life, and
+  his father died of grief. Arsaces XV. (Phraates IV.) _d._ A. D. 4,
+  contemporary of Augustus. He confirmed his power by murdering his
+  brothers and their dependents; his views were likewise furthered
+  by the failure of Antony's expedition, B. C. 36, which ended
+  pretty nearly in the same manner as that of Crassus. The remainder
+  of his reign was disturbed by a pretender to the throne,
+  Tiridates, who, after his defeat, 25, found an asylum at the court
+  of Augustus. The threatened attack of Augustus was diverted by
+  Phraates's restoration of the standards taken from Crassus, 20; a
+  dispute, however, subsequently arose respecting the possession of
+  the Armenian throne, A. D. 2, on which account Caius Cæsar was
+  despatched into Asia, and accommodated matters by a treaty. The
+  ultimate fate both of the king and the empire was principally
+  decided by a female slave, Thermusa, sent as a present from
+  Augustus; this woman, wishing to ensure the succession to her own
+  son, prevailed upon the king to send his four sons to Rome as
+  hostages, under the pretext of anticipating domestic troubles,
+  18.--A practice which from that time became frequent, the Parthian
+  kings thinking it a convenient mode of ridding themselves of
+  dangerous competitors, while the Romans knew how to make the
+  proper use of them.--Thermusa's son having grown up, she removed
+  the king, and seated Phraataces on the throne, under the name of
+  Arsaces XVI; he was, however, put to death by the Parthians, A. D.
+  4; and the crown given to one of the Arsacidæ, Orodes II, (Arsaces
+  XVII.) who was, however, immediately afterwards slain by reason of
+  his cruelty. In consequence, Vonones I. the eldest of the sons of
+  Phraates sent to Rome, was called back and placed on the throne
+  (Arsaces XVIII.); but that prince having brought with him Roman
+  customs and luxury, was expelled, A. D. 14, with the assistance of
+  the northern nomads, by Artabanes III. (Arsaces XIX.) _d._ 44, a
+  distant relation: the fugitive took possession of the vacant
+  throne of Armenia, but was soon after driven from thence likewise
+  by his rival. Tiberius took advantage of the consequent disorders
+  to send Germanicus into the east, A. D. 17, from whence he was
+  never to return. The remainder of the reign of Artabanus was very
+  stormy, Tiberius on the one hand taking advantage of the factions
+  between the nobles to support pretenders to the crown; the revolts
+  of the satraps, on the other hand, giving proof of the declension
+  of the Parthian power. After his death war raged between his sons;
+  the second, Vardanes, (Arsaces XX.) _d._ 47, made good his
+  pretensions to the crown, and took North Media, (Atropatene;) he
+  was succeeded by his elder brother Gotarzes, (Arsaces XXI.) _d._
+  50, to whom Claudius unsuccessfully opposed Meherdates, educated
+  as an hostage at Rome. Arsaces XXII. (Vonones II.) succeeded,
+  after a reign of a few months, by Arsaces XXIII. (Vologeses I.)
+  _d._ 90. The possession of the Armenian throne, given by this
+  prince to his brother Tiridates, by the Romans to Tigranes,
+  grandson of Herod the Great, excited a series of disputes, which
+  began so early as the reign of Claudius, A. D. 52, and under Nero
+  broke out into open war, waged with some success on the Roman side
+  by Corbulo, 56-64, and closed by Tiridates going, after the death
+  of Tigranes, to Rome, and there accepting the crown of Armenia as
+  a gift at the hands of Nero, 65. Arsaces XXIV. (Pacorus,) _d._
+  107, contemporary with Domitian. All that we know of him is, that
+  he embellished the city of Ctesiphon. Arsaces XXV. (Cosroes,) _d._
+  about 121. The claims to the throne of Armenia implicated him in a
+  war with Trajan, 114, during which Armenia, together with
+  Mesopotamia and Assyria, were converted into Roman provinces.
+  Trajan's consequent and successful inroad into the interior parts
+  of the Parthian dominions, 115-116, followed by the capture of
+  Ctesiphon, and the appointment of Parthamaspates as king, appears
+  to have been facilitated by the domestic commotions and civil wars
+  which had for a long time harassed the empire. Nevertheless, in
+  the following year, 117, Hadrian was compelled to give up all the
+  conquered country; the Euphrates was again acknowledged as the
+  boundary; Parthamaspates was appointed king of Armenia; and
+  Cosroes, who had taken refuge in the upper satrapies, was
+  reinstated on the throne, of which he seems ever after to have
+  kept quiet possession. Arsaces XXVI. (Vologeses II.) _d._ 149.
+  Parthia under his reign, and Rome under that of Antoninus Pius,
+  remained on good terms. Arsaces XXVII. (Vologeses III.) _d._ 191.
+  Under the reign of this king, the contemporary of Marcus Aurelius
+  and L. Verus, the war with Rome was again kindled, 161, by Verus,
+  and carried on in Armenia and Syria; Cassius, the legate of Verus,
+  at last got possession of Seleucia, and demolished that city,
+  165.--Arsaces XXVIII. (Ardawan or Vologeses IV.) _d._ 207. This
+  king having taken the part of Pescenninus Niger, in the war
+  between him and Septimius Severus, was, after the defeat of his
+  friend, 194, routed in a war with Septimius Severus, 197, and the
+  chief towns of Parthia were sacked by the invaders. He is, without
+  authority, represented as succeeded by a Pacorus, who took the
+  name of Arsaces XXIX.: his real successor, however, appears to
+  have been Arsaces XXIX. (Vologeses V.) _d._ 216. Domestic wars
+  among his sons, fomented by Caracalla. Arsaces XXX. (Artabanus
+  IV.) At the beginning of his reign, this prince likewise was
+  contemporary with Caracalla, who, in order to pick a quarrel,
+  demanded his daughter in marriage; according to some, Arsaces
+  refused her, in consequence of which the Roman emperor undertook a
+  campaign into Armenia; according to others, Arsaces having
+  assented, and escorted his daughter to Caracalla, was, by an
+  abominable stroke of treachery, cut off, together with all his
+  train, A. D. 216. Caracalla having been murdered, 217, his
+  successor, Macrinus, signed a peace with the Parthians. But
+  Arsaces subsequently raised his brother Tiridates to the throne of
+  Armenia; this act spurred the Persian Artaxerxes, son of Sassan,
+  to rebellion; the Parthian king, defeated in three battles, fell
+  in the last, thus putting a period to the family and dominion of
+  the Arsacidæ, 226, and Artaxerxes became the founder of the New
+  Persian kingdom, or that of the Sassanidæ. The revolution was
+  accompanied not only with a change of dynasty, but with a total
+  subversion of the constitution.
+
+  VAILLANT, _Imperium Arsacidarum et Achæmenidarum_, Paris, 1725, 2
+  vols. 4to. The first part comprises the Arsacidæ; the second the
+  kings of Bithynia, Pontus, and Bosporus. It is an attempt, not
+  altogether faultless, to arrange the series of kings, by the
+  assistance of coins.
+
+  # C. F. RICHTER, _Historico-critical essay upon the dynasties of
+  the Arsacidæ and Sassanidæ, according to the Persian, Grecian, and
+  Roman authorities_. A prize essay. Leipzic, 1804. A comparative
+  research into the eastern and western sources. The chronology in
+  the above sketch has been corrected by this work, in conjunction
+  with
+
+  TH. CHR. TYCHSEN, _Commentationes de Nummis Persarum et
+  Arsacidarum_; inserted in _Commentat. Nov. Soc. Sc. Gotting._ vol.
+  i. iii.
+
+5. The Bactrian kingdom arose nearly at the same time as the Parthian,
+254; its origin, however, was of a different nature,--the independence
+of this state being asserted by the Grecian governor, who was
+consequently succeeded by Greeks;--its duration likewise was much
+shorter, extending only from B. C. 254 to B. C. 126. Scarce any
+fragments have been preserved of the history of this empire, the borders
+of which appear at one time to have extended to the banks of the Ganges,
+and the frontiers of China.
+
+  Founder of the empire, Diodatus or Theodotus I. B. C. 254; he
+  threw off his allegiance to the Syrian king, under Antiochus II.
+  He appears to have been master not only of Bactria, but also of
+  Sogdiana. He likewise threatened the Parthians; after his decease,
+  243, his son and successor, Theodotus II. signed a treaty and
+  alliance with Arsaces II. but was nevertheless deprived of his
+  crown by Euthydemus of Magnesia, about 221. Antiochus the Great,
+  at the conclusion of the Parthian war, directed his arms against
+  Euthydemus, 209-206; the contest ended in a peace, by which
+  Euthydemus, after delivering up his elephants, was not only left
+  in possession of the crown, but was allied to the Syrian family by
+  the marriage of his son Demetrius with a daughter of Antiochus.
+  Demetrius, though a great conqueror, does not seem to have been
+  king of Bactria; his dominions comprised, it is probable, North
+  India and Malabar, whose history now becomes closely connected
+  with that of Bactria, although consisting only of mere fragments.
+  The throne of Bactria fell to Apollodotus, and after him to
+  Menander, who extended his conquests as far as Serica, while
+  Demetrius was establishing his dominion in India, [as sovereign of
+  which country he is represented in a medal lately discovered,] and
+  where, about this time, several Greek states appear to have
+  existed, perhaps ever since the expedition of Antiochus III. 205.
+  Menander was succeeded, about 181, by Eucratidas, under whose
+  reign the Bactrian empire attained its greatest extension; after
+  defeating the Indian king, Demetrius, who had been the aggressor,
+  he, with the assistance of the Parthian conqueror, Mithridates,
+  (Arsaces VI.) annexed India to his own empire, 148. On his return,
+  he was murdered by his son; the same, probably, that is mentioned
+  afterwards by the name of Eucratidas II. He was the ally of
+  Demetrius II. of Syria, and the main instigator of his expedition
+  against the Parthians, 142; Demetrius being defeated by Arsaces
+  VI. Eucratidas was, in consequence, deprived of a portion of his
+  territory; overpowered soon after by the nomad races of Central
+  Asia, the Bactrian empire fell to the ground, and Bactria itself,
+  together with the other countries on this side of the Oxus, became
+  a prey to the Parthians.
+
+  TH. SIEG. BAYER, _Historia regni Græcorum Bactriani_. Petropol.
+  1738, 4to. The few remaining fragments are in this work collected
+  with industry and arranged with skill.
+
+  [TOD, _Account of Greek, Parthian, and Hindu Medals_, in
+  _Transactions of the R. Asiatic Society_, vol. i. part ii, p. 316.
+
+  TYCHSEN, _De Nummis Græcis et Barbaris in Bochara nuper retectis_,
+  in _Comment. Nov. Soc. Sc. Gotting._ vol. vi.]
+
+6. The restored kingdom of the Jews was likewise a fragment of the
+Macedonian monarchy; and although it ranked only with the smaller
+states, its history in various respects deserves our attention, few
+nations having had so powerful an influence on the progress of human
+civilization. The foundation of the independence of the Jews was not, it
+is true, laid before the year 167; yet their domestic constitution had
+previously assumed its main features, and their history, reckoning from
+the return of the Babylonian captivity, accordingly divides itself into
+four periods: 1. Under the Persian supremacy, 536-323. 2. Under the
+Ptolemies and Seleucidæ, 323-167. 3. Under the Maccabees, 167-39. 4.
+Under the Herodians and Romans, B. C. 39. to A. D. 70.
+
+  First period under the Persians. By permission from Cyrus, a
+  colony of Jews belonging to the tribes of Benjamin, Judah, and
+  Levi, returned to the land of their forefathers, 536: this colony,
+  headed by Zorobabel, of the ancient royal family, and the high
+  priest Joshua, consisted of about 42,000 souls; the far more
+  important and wealthy portion of the nation preferred to remain on
+  the other side of the Euphrates, where they had been settled for
+  seventy years, and continued to be a numerous people. The new
+  settlers found it difficult to keep their footing, principally in
+  consequence of differences, produced by the intolerance they
+  themselves evinced at the building of the temple, with their
+  neighbours and kinsmen the Samaritans, to whom the colony was only
+  a cause of expense. The Samaritans, subsequently, having erected a
+  separate temple at Garizim, near Sichem, about 336, not only
+  separated completely, but laid the foundation of an inveterate
+  hatred between the two nations. Hence the prohibition to rebuild
+  the city and temple, brought about by their means, under Cambyses,
+  529, and Smerdis, 522, and not taken off until 520, in the reign
+  of Darius Hystaspes. The new colony did not receive a permanent
+  internal constitution till the time of Ezra and Nehemiah; both
+  brought in fresh colonists, the former in 478, the latter in 445.
+  The country was under the dominion of the satraps of Syria; but in
+  the increasing domestic declension of the Persian empire, the high
+  priests gradually became the virtual rulers of the nation.
+  Nevertheless, even at the time of Alexander's conquest, 332, the
+  Jews seem to have manifested proofs of fidelity to the Persians.
+
+  Second period under the Ptolemies and Seleucidæ, 323-167. After
+  the death of Alexander, Palestine, in consequence of its
+  situation, generally shared the fate of Phoenicia and Coele-Syria,
+  (see above, p. 249.) being annexed to Syria.--Capture of
+  Jerusalem, and transplantation of a vast colony of Jews to
+  Alexandria by Ptolemy I. 312; from thence they spread to Cyrene,
+  and gradually over the whole of North Africa, and even into
+  Æthiopia. From 311-301 the Jews remained, however, subject to
+  Antigonus. After the overthrow of his empire, they remained,
+  301-203, under the dominion of the Ptolemies; the most conspicuous
+  of their high priests during this interval were Simon the Just,
+  _d._ 291, and afterwards his son, Onias I. _d._ 218, who, by
+  withholding the tribute due to Ptolemy III. exposed Judæa to
+  imminent danger.--In the second war of Antiochus the Great against
+  Egypt, 203, the Jews, of their own free will, acknowledged
+  themselves his subjects, and assisted in driving out the Egyptian
+  troops, who, under their general, Scopas, had again possessed
+  themselves of the country, and the citadel of Jerusalem, 198.
+  Antiochus confirmed the Jews in the possession of all their
+  privileges; and although he promised their country, together with
+  Coele-Syria and Phoenicia, to Ptolemy Epiphanes, as the future
+  dowry of his daughter, Judæa still remained under the Syrian
+  supremacy; except that the revenue was for a time divided between
+  the Syrian and Egyptian kings.--The high priests and self-chosen
+  ethnarchs or alabarchs were at the head of the people; and we now
+  find mention made for the first time of a senate, or the
+  sanhedrim. But the rout of Antiochus the Great by the Romans was
+  also the remote cause of the subsequent misfortunes of the Jews.
+  The consequent dearth of money in which the Syrian kings found
+  themselves, and the riches of the temple treasures, the
+  accumulation of the sacred income and gifts, made the office of
+  high priest an object of purchase under Antiochus Epiphanes: hence
+  arose quarrels between the pontifical families, and out of those
+  sprung factions, which Antiochus Epiphanes was desirous to turn to
+  his own account, by the introduction of Grecian institutions among
+  the Jews, in order thereby to promote the subjection of that
+  people, now raised by its privileges almost to the rank of a state
+  within that of Syria. Deposition of the high priest, Onias III.
+  175; his brother Jason having obtained the mitre by purchase, and
+  the introduction of Grecian customs: Jason, however, was in his
+  turn supplanted by his brother Menelaus, 172. During the civil
+  war arising out of these events, Antiochus Epiphanes, at that time
+  conqueror in Egypt, (see above, p. 241.) takes possession of
+  Jerusalem, 170, being provoked by the behaviour of the Jews to
+  Menelaus, the high priest of his own appointment: the consequent
+  oppression of the Jews, who now were to be Hellenized by main
+  force, soon occasioned the rise under the Maccabees.
+
+  Third period under the Maccabees, 167-39. Commencement of the
+  rebellion against Antiochus IV. brought about by the priest
+  Mattathias, 167, who was almost immediately succeeded, 166-161, by
+  his son Judas Maccabæus. Supported by the fanaticism of his party,
+  Judas defeats in several battles the generals of Antiochus, who
+  was absent in Upper Asia, where he died, 164; the Jewish leader is
+  even said to have been favoured by Rome. The primary object of the
+  insurrection was not, however, political independence; they fought
+  only for religious freedom. Under Antiochus V. the sedition
+  continued successful, both against the Syrian king and the high
+  priest Alcimus, his creature, 163; Judas having died soon after
+  his defeat by Demetrius I. was succeeded by his brother Jonathan,
+  161-143. The death of the high priest, Alcimus, 160, opened the
+  path of Jonathan to that office, which he received in the ensuing
+  war between Demetrius I. and Alexander Balas, 143, (see above, p.
+  244, 245.) both rivals courting his alliance: Jonathan sided with
+  Balas, and consequently, from being merely the leader of a party,
+  came to be head of the nation, which still, nevertheless,
+  continued to pay tribute to the kings. Notwithstanding the favour
+  he had shown to Balas, after the overthrow of that pretender, he
+  was confirmed in his dignity by Demetrius I. 145; to whose
+  assistance he marched at the subsequent great revolt in Antioch.
+  Jonathan however, in 144, passed over to the side of the usurper,
+  Antiochus, the son of Balas, (see above, p. 245.) and was by
+  embassy presented with the friendship of the Romans in the same
+  year, but by the treachery of Tryphon was taken and put to death,
+  143. His brother and successor, Simon, 143-135, having declared
+  against Tryphon, was by Demetrius II. not only confirmed in his
+  dignity, but excused from paying tribute; he likewise received the
+  title of prince, (ethnarch;) and appears to have struck coins.
+  After the capture of Demetrius, Antiochus Sidetes allowed Simon to
+  remain in possession of those privileges so long as he stood in
+  need of his assistance against Tryphon; but after the death of
+  that usurper, he caused him, 130, to be attacked by Cendebæus, who
+  was defeated by the sons of Simon. Simon having been murdered by
+  his son-in-law, Ptolemæus, who aspired to the government, 135, was
+  succeeded by his son, John Hyrcanus, 135-107, who was compelled
+  again to acknowledge submission to Antiochus Sidetes; but after
+  the defeat and death of that prince by the Parthians, 130, he
+  asserted his entire independence. The deep decline of the Syrian
+  kingdom, the constant civil wars by which it was distracted, and
+  the renewed league with the Romans, not only enabled Hyrcanus
+  easily to maintain his independence, but likewise to increase his
+  territory, by the conquest of the Samaritans and Idumæans. But
+  with him ended the heroic line. Scarcely was he delivered from
+  foreign oppression, when domestic broils arose; the Pharisees and
+  Sadducees had hitherto been mere religious sects, but were
+  converted into political factions by Hyrcanus, who, offended with
+  the Pharisees, probably in consequence of their wish to separate
+  the pontifical and princely offices, went over to the Sadducees;
+  the former sect, the orthodox, were as usual supported by the
+  many; the latter, the innovators, in consequence of the laxity of
+  their principles, were favoured by the wealthy. Hyrcanus's eldest
+  son, the cruel Aristobulus, 107, assumed the royal title, but soon
+  after dying, 106, was succeeded by his younger brother, Alexander
+  Jannæus, 106-79. His reign was an almost unbroken series of
+  insignificant wars with his neighbours, this prince wishing to
+  play the conqueror; and having likewise had the imprudence to
+  irritate the powerful party of the Pharisees, these made him the
+  object of public insult, and excited a tumult, 92, which was
+  followed by a bloody civil war which lasted six years. Jannæus, it
+  is true, maintained himself during the struggle; but the opposite
+  party was so far from being annihilated, that, at his death, when
+  passing over his sons, the feeble Hyrcanus (who possessed the
+  pontifical dignity) and the ambitious Aristobulus, he bequeathed
+  the crown to his widow Alexandra, it was with the understanding
+  that she should join the party of the Pharisees: during her reign,
+  therefore, 79-71, the Pharisees held the reins of government, and
+  left her only the name. Provoked at this, Aristobulus, shortly
+  before the death of the queen, endeavoured to obtain possession of
+  the throne, and ultimately obtained his ends, notwithstanding
+  Alexandra nominated Hyrcanus to be her successor. Hyrcanus, at the
+  instigation of his confidant, the Idumæan Antipater, who was the
+  progenitor of the Herodians, and assisted by the Arabian prince
+  Aretas, waged war against his brother, 65, and shut him up in
+  Jerusalem: but the Romans were arbitrators, and Pompey, then
+  all-powerful in Asia, decided for Hyrcanus, 64; the party of
+  Aristobulus, however, refusing to accede, the Roman general took
+  possession of Jerusalem; made Hyrcanus high priest and prince,
+  under condition that he should pay tribute; and took as prisoners
+  to Rome Aristobulus and his sons, who, however, subsequently
+  escaped and caused great disturbances. The Jewish state being now
+  dependent on Rome, remained so, and the yoke was confirmed by the
+  policy of Antipater and his sons, who followed the general maxim
+  of entire devotion to Rome, in order thereby to succeed in wholly
+  removing the reigning family. As early as 48, Antipater was
+  appointed procurator of Judea by Cæsar, whom he had supported at
+  Alexandria, and his second son Herod, governor in Galilee, soon
+  became sufficiently powerful to threaten Hyrcanus and the
+  sanhedrim, 45. He gained the favour of Antony, and thus maintained
+  himself amid the tempests which, after the assassination of Cæsar,
+  44, shook the Roman world, powerful as the party opposed to him
+  were: that party, however, at last, in lieu of the ill-fated
+  Hyrcanus, the only surviving son of Aristobulus, placed Antigonus
+  at their head, and, assisted by the Parthians, then flourishing in
+  power, seated him on the throne, 39. Herod having fled to Rome,
+  not only met with a gracious reception at the hands of the
+  triumviri, but was by them appointed king.
+
+  Fourth period under the Herodians, B. C. 39 to A. D. 70. Herod the
+  Great, B. C. 39 to A. D. 1. put himself in possession of Jerusalem
+  and all Judæa, B. C. 37, and confirmed his power by marrying
+  Mariamne of the house of the Maccabees. Notwithstanding his
+  severity shown to the party of Antigonus, and the house of the
+  Maccabees, the total extinction of which Herod deemed necessary
+  for his own safety; yet so greatly did the wasted country stand in
+  need of peace, that for that very reason his reign may be said to
+  have been a happy one. Availing himself of the liberality of
+  Augustus, whose favour he contrived to obtain after the defeat of
+  Anthony, B.C. 31, Herod gradually increased the extent of his
+  kingdom, which at last comprised Judæa, Samaria, Galilee, and
+  beyond the Jordan, Peræa, Ituræa, and Trachonitis, (that is to
+  say, the whole of Palestine,) together with Idumæa; from these
+  countries he derived his income without being obliged to pay any
+  tribute. The deference consequently shown by Herod to Rome, was
+  but the effect of a natural policy, and his conduct in that
+  respect could be objected to him only by bigoted Jews. To his
+  whole family, rather than to himself individually, are to be
+  attributed the executions which took place among its members;
+  happy had it been if the sword had smitten none but the guilty and
+  spared the innocent. In the last year but one of his reign is
+  placed the birth of Christ (according to the usually adopted
+  computation, made in the sixth century by Dionysius Exiguus. But
+  the more accurate calculations of modern chronologists show that
+  the real date of the Saviour's birth was probably four years
+  earlier).--According to his will, with some few alterations made
+  by Augustus, his kingdom was divided among his three surviving
+  sons; Archelaus, as ethnarch, receiving the greater moiety, Judæa,
+  Samaria, and Idumæa; the two others, as tetrarchs, Philip a part
+  of Galilee and Trachonitis, Antipas the other part of Galilee, and
+  Peræa, together with Ituræa; subsequently to which division, the
+  various parts did not, in consequence, all share the same
+  fate.--Archelaus, by misgovernment, soon lost his portion, A. D.
+  6; Judæa and Samaria were consequently annexed as a Roman province
+  to Syria, and placed under procurators subordinate to the Syrian
+  governors: among these procurators, the most famous is Pontius
+  Pilate, about A.D. 27-36, under whom the founder of our religion
+  appeared and suffered, not as a political--although accused of
+  being so--but as a moral reformer. On the other hand, Philip
+  retained his tetrarchy until the day of his death, A. D. 34, when
+  his country had the same lot with Judæa and Samaria. Soon after,
+  that is to say, in A. D. 37, it was, however, given by Caligula,
+  with the title of king, to Agrippa, (grandson of Herod by
+  Aristobulus,) as a recompense for his attachment to the family of
+  Germanicus; and when Antipas, who wished to procure a similar
+  favour for himself but instead of it, was deposed, 39, Agrippa
+  received his tetrarchy also, 40, and soon afterwards, by the
+  possession of the territory which had belonged to Archelaus,
+  became master of the whole of Palestine. Agrippa having died in A.
+  D. 44, the whole country being appended to Syria, became a Roman
+  province, and received procurators, although Chalcis, 49, and
+  subsequently also, 53, Philip's tetrarchy, were restored as a
+  kingdom to his son Agrippa II. _d._ 90. The oppression of the
+  procurators, and of Gessius Florus in particular, who obtained the
+  office, A. D. 64, excited the Jews to rebellion, which, 70, ended
+  in the capture and destruction of their city and temple by Titus.
+  The spread of the Jews over the whole civilized world of that
+  time, although previously commenced, was by this event still
+  further increased; and at the same time the extension of
+  Christianity was prepared and facilitated. Even after the
+  conquest, Jerusalem not only continued to exist as a city, but was
+  also still considered by the nation as a point of union; and the
+  attempt, under Adrian, to establish a Roman colony there, produced
+  a fearful sedition.
+
+  BASNAGE, _Histoire des Juifs depuis J. C. jusqu' à present_. La
+  Haye, 1716, 15 vols. 12mo. The first two parts only, properly
+  speaking, belong to this period; but the others likewise contain
+  several very valuable historical researches.
+
+  PRIDEAUX, _The Old and New Testament connected in the history of
+  the Jews and their neighbouring nations_. Lond. 1714, 2 vols. This
+  work, together with that above quoted, have always been esteemed
+  the grand books on the subject. The French translation of
+  Prideaux's Connection is, by its arrangement, more convenient for
+  use than the original: this translation was published at
+  Amsterdam, 1722, 5 vols. 8vo. under the title of PRIDEAUX,
+  _Histoire des Juifs et des peuples voisins depuis la décadence des
+  Royaumes d'Israel et de Juda, jusqu' à la mort de J. C._
+
+  # J. D. MICHAELIS, _Translation of the Books of Esdras, Nehemiah,
+  and Maccabees_, contains in the observations several historic
+  discussions of high importance.
+
+  # J. REMOND, _Essay towards a history of the spread of Judaism,
+  from Cyrus to the total decline of the Jewish state_. Leipzig,
+  1789. The industrious work of a young scholar.
+
+  To the works enumerated p. 34, 35, must be added, for the more
+  ancient history of the Jews:
+
+  J. L. BAUER, _Manual of the history of the Hebrew nation, from its
+  rise to the destruction of its state_. Nuremberg, 1800, 2 parts,
+  8vo. As yet the best critical introduction, not only to the
+  history, but also to the antiquities of the nation.
+
+  # In the works of J. J. HESS, belonging to this subject, namely,
+  _History of Moses_; _History of Joshua_; _History of the Rulers of
+  Judah_, 2 parts; _History of the Kings of Judah and Israel_: the
+  history is throughout considered in a theocratic point of view.
+
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+FIFTH BOOK.
+
+HISTORY OF THE ROMAN STATE.
+
+
+
+
+_Introductory remarks on the Geography of Ancient Italy._
+
+
+Italy constitutes a peninsula, bounded on the north by the Alps, on the
+west and south by the Mediterranean, and on the east by the Adriatic
+sea. Its greatest length from north to south is 600 geogr. miles; its
+greatest breadth, taken at the foot of the Alps, is 320 geogr. miles;
+but that of the peninsula, properly so called, is not more than 120
+geogr. miles. Superficial contents, 81,920 sq. geogr. miles. The
+principal mountain range is that of the Apennines, which, diverging
+occasionally to the west, or east, stretch from north to south through
+Central and Lower Italy. In the earlier times of Rome, these mountains
+were covered with thick forests. Main streams: the Padus (Po) and the
+Athesis, (Adige,) both of which discharge their waters in the Adriatic;
+and the Tiberis, (Tiber,) which falls into the Mediterranean. The soil,
+particularly in the plains, is one of the most fertile in Europe; on the
+other hand, many of the mountain tracts admit but of little cultivation.
+In that period when the Mediterranean was the grand theatre of trade,
+Italy, by her situation, seemed destined to become the principal mart of
+Europe; but she never in ancient times availed herself sufficiently of
+this advantage.
+
+It is divided into _Upper_ Italy, from the Alps to the small rivers of
+Rubicon and Macra; (this part, however, of Italy, until presented with
+the right of citizenship under Cæsar, was, according to the Roman
+political geography, considered as a province;) into _Central_ Italy,
+from the Rubicon and the Macra down to the Silarus and Frento; and into
+_Lower_ Italy from those rivers to the southern land's end.
+
+
+I. _Upper Italy comprises the two countries, Gallia Cisalpina and
+Liguria._
+
+1. Gallia Cisalpina, or Togata, in contradistinction to Gallia
+Transalpina. It bears the name of Gallia, in consequence of being for
+the most part occupied by Gallic races. This country is one continuous
+plain, divided by the Padus into two parts, the northernmost of which is
+therefore denominated Gallia Transpadana, (inhabited by the Taurini,
+Insubres, and Cenomani,) while the southern part (inhabited by the Boii,
+Senones, and Lingones) is known by the name of Gallia Cispadana. Various
+streams contribute to swell the Padus; from the north the Duria,
+(Durance,) the Ticinus, (Tessino,) the Addua, (Adda,) the Ollius,
+(Oglio,) the Mintius, (Minzio,) and several less important rivers; from
+the south, the Tanarus, (Tanaro,) the Trebia, etc. The Athesis, (Adige,)
+the Plavis, (Piave,) and a number of smaller mountain streams, roll
+their waters directly into the Adriatic.
+
+The cities in Gallia Cisalpina were, generally speaking, Roman colonies;
+and most of them have preserved to this day their ancient names. Among
+these are reckoned in Gallia Transpadana, principally, Tergeste,
+Aquileia, Patavium, (Padua,) Vincentia, Verona, all east of the Athesis;
+Mantua, Cremona, Brixia, (Brescia,) Mediolanum, (Milan,) Ticinum,
+(Pavia,) and Augusta Taurinorum, (Turin,) all west of the Athesis. In
+Gallia Cispadana we meet with Ravenna, Bononia, (Bologna,) Mutina,
+(Modena,) Parma, Placentia, (Piacenza). Several of the above places
+received municipal rights from the Romans.
+
+2. Liguria. This country deduced its name from the Ligures, one of the
+old Italic tribes: it extended from the river Varus, by which it was
+divided from Gallia Transalpina, down to the river Macra; northward it
+extended to the Padus, and comprised the modern territory of
+Genoa.--Cities: Genua, an extremely ancient place; Nicæa, (Nice,) a
+colony of Massilia; and Asta, (Asti.)
+
+
+II. _Central Italy comprises six countries; Etruria, Latium, and
+Campania on the west; Umbria, Picenum, and Samnium on the east._
+
+1. Etruria, Tuscia, or Tyrrhenia, was bounded north by the Macra, which
+divided it from Liguria; south and east by the Tiberis, which separated
+it from Latium and Umbria. Main river, the Arnus, (Arno). It is for the
+most part a mountainous country; the seashore only is level. This
+country derives its name from the Etrusci, a very ancient people,
+composed, it is probable, of an amalgamation of several races, and even
+some early Grecian colonies, to which latter they were indebted, not
+indeed for all their arts, but for that of writing; to commerce and
+navigation the Etrusci were indebted for their opulence and consequent
+splendour. Cities: between the Macra and Arnus, Pisæ, (Pisa,) Florentia,
+Fæsulæ; between the Arnus and Tiberis, Volaterræ, (Volterra,) Volsinii,
+(Bolsena,) on the Lacus Volsiniensis, (Lago di Bolsena,) Clusium,
+(Chiusi,) Arretium, (Arrezzo,) Cortona, Perusia, (Perugia,) in the
+neighbourhood of which is the Lacus Thrasimenus, (Lago di Perugia,)
+Falerii, (Falari,) and the wealthy city of Veii. Each of the above
+twelve cities had its own individual ruler, _lucumo_; although frequent
+associations were formed among them, yet no firm and lasting bond seems
+to have united the nation into one.
+
+2. Latium, properly the residence of the Latini, from the Tiberis north,
+to the promontory of Circeii, south; hence that country was likewise
+denominated Latium Vetus. Subsequently, under the name of Latium was
+likewise reckoned the country from Circeii, down to the river Liris,
+(Latium Novum;) so that the boundaries came to be, north, the Tiberis,
+south, the Liris: the seat of the Latins, properly speaking, was in the
+fruitful plain extending from the Tiber to Circeii; around them,
+however, dwelt various small tribes, some eastward, in the Apennines,
+such as the Hernici, Sabini, Æqui, and Marsi; others southward, such as
+the Volsci, Rutuli, and Aurunci.--Rivers: the Anio (Teverone) and Allia,
+which fall into the Tiber, and the Liris, (Garigliano,) which empties
+itself into the Mediterranean. Cities in Latium Vetus: Rome, Tibur,
+Tusculum, Alba Longa, Ostia, Lavinium, Antium, Gabii, Velitræ, the
+capital of the Volsci, and several smaller places. In Latium Novum:
+Fundi, Terracina, or Anxur, Arpinum, Minturnæ, Formiæ.
+
+3. Campania. The country lying between the Liris, north, and the
+Silarus, south. One of the most fruitful plains in the world, but at the
+same time greatly exposed to volcanic eruptions. Rivers: the Liris, the
+Vulturnus, (Voltorno,) the Silarus, (Selo). Mountain: Vesuvius. Campania
+derived its name from the race of the Campani. Cities: Capua the
+principal one; and also Linternum, Cumæ, Neapolis, Herculaneum, Pompeii,
+Stabiæ, Nola, Surrentum, Salernum, etc.
+
+_The three eastern countries of Central Italy are as follows_:
+
+1. Umbria. It is bounded, north, by the river Rubico, south, by the
+river Æsis, (Gesano,) dividing it from Picenum, and by the Nar, (Nera,)
+dividing it from the Sabine territory. It is for the most part plain.
+The Umbrian race had in early times spread over a much larger portion of
+Italy. Cities: Ariminium, (Rimini,) Spoletium, (Spoleto,) Narnia,
+(Narni,) and Ocriculum, (Otriculi.)
+
+2. Picenum. Bounded, north, by the Æsis, south, by the Atarnus,
+(Pescara.) The people are called Picentes. This country consists in a
+fertile plain. Cities: Ancona and Asculum Picenum, (Ascoli.)
+
+3. Samnium, the name of a mountain tract extending from the Atarnus,
+north, to the Frento, south; although that country reckoned among its
+inhabitants, not only the rude and powerful Samnites, but also several
+less numerous races; for instance, the Marrucini and Peligni in the
+north, the Frentani in the east, and the Hirpini in the south. Rivers:
+the Sagrus and the Tifernus. Cities: Allifæ, Beneventum, and Caudium.
+
+
+III. _Lower Italy, or Magna Grecia, comprised four countries; Lucania
+and Bruttium on the western side, Apulia and Calabria on the eastern._
+
+1. Lucania. Boundaries: north, the Silarus, south, the Laus. For the
+most part a mountain tract. It derived its name from the race of the
+Lucani, a branch of the Ausones, or chief nation of Lower Italy. Cities:
+Pæstum, or Posidonia, still renowned for its ruins, and Helia, or Velia.
+
+2. Bruttium, (the modern Calabria,) or the western tongue of land from
+the river Laus to the southern land's end at Rhegium. The river
+Brandanus constitutes the eastern frontier. A mountainous country,
+deriving its name from the Bruttii, (a half savage branch of the
+Ausones,) who dwelt in the mountains, while the seashores were occupied
+by Grecian settlements. Cities: Consentia, (Cosenza,) Pandosia,
+Mamertum, and Petilia. (Concerning the Greek colonies see above p. 155.)
+
+3. Apulia. The country ranging along the eastern coast, from the river
+Frento to the commencement of the eastern tongue of land; an extremely
+fertile plain, and particularly adapted to grazing cattle. Rivers: the
+Aufidus (Ofanto) and the Cerbalus. This country is divided into two
+parts by the Aufidus, the northern called Apulia Daunia, the southern
+called Apulia Peucetia. Cities: in Apulia Daunia; Sipontum and Luceria:
+in Apulia Peucetia; Barium, Cannæ, and Venusia.
+
+4. Calabria or Messapia, the smaller eastern tongue of land, which
+terminates in the promontory of Iapygium. Cities: Brundusium (Brindisi)
+and Callipolis (Gallipoli). Concerning Tarentum and other Grecian
+colonies, see above, p. 155.
+
+Three large islands are likewise reckoned as appertaining to Italy: they
+are Sicily, Sardinia, and Corsica. According to the political geography
+of the Romans they were, however, considered as provinces. Although the
+above islands were, along the coast, occupied by aliens, the
+aboriginals, under their own kings, maintained a footing in the inland
+parts; among these the Siculi, said to have migrated from Italy, were
+the most celebrated; they remained in Sicily, and gave their name to the
+whole island. Concerning the cities, the more important of which were,
+some of Phoenician, but the most part of Grecian, origin, see above, p.
+30, and p. 155, sqq.
+
+
+
+
+FIRST PERIOD.
+
+_From the foundation of Rome to the conquest of Italy and the
+commencement of the wars with Carthage, B. C. 754-264, or A. U. C.
+1-490._
+
+
+  SOURCES. The most copious author, and, if we except his system of
+  deducing everything connected with Rome from Greece, the most
+  critical of all those who have written on the earlier history of
+  Rome and Italy, is Dionysius Halicarnassensis, in his
+  _Archæologia_: of this work only the first eleven books, reaching
+  down to the year 443, have been preserved; to these, however, must
+  be added the fragments of the nine following books, xii-xx.
+  discovered in 1816, and published by the Abbate Mai of Milan. Next
+  to Dionysius is Livy, who as far as lib. iv, c. 18, is our main
+  authority, till B. C. 292. Of the Lives of Plutarch the following
+  belong to this period, Romulus, Numa, Coriolanus, Poplicola and
+  Camillus; which for the knowledge and criticism they display, are
+  perhaps more important even than Livy and Dionysius, see A. H. L.
+  HEEREN, _De fontibus et auctoritate vitarum Plutarchi_, inserted in
+  _Comment Recentiores Soc. Scient. Gott. Comment. I. II. Græci, III.
+  IV. Romani_; reprinted also as an appendix to the editions of
+  Plutarch by Reiske and Hutten, _Gottingen_, 1821, _ap. Dieterich_.
+  The sources of the most ancient Roman history were extremely
+  various in kind. The traditions of the Fathers were preserved in
+  historical ballads; (no mention is ever made of any grand epic
+  poem;) and in this sense there existed a bardic history; by no
+  means, however, wholly poetic, for even the traditions of Numa's
+  Institutes are without the characteristics of poetry. The art of
+  writing was in Italy of earlier origin than the city of Rome; how
+  far, consequently, the public annals, such as the _Libri
+  Pontificum_, extended back in early time remains undetermined.
+  Several of the memorials are, beyond a doubt, mere family records,
+  whether preserved by vocal tradition or in written documents. To
+  the above must be added monuments, not only buildings and works of
+  arts, but also treaties engraved on tables; of which, nevertheless,
+  too little use seems to have been made. The Romans having learnt
+  the art of writing from the Greeks, their history was as
+  frequently written in Greek as in Latin; and that not only by
+  Greeks, such as, in the first place, Diocles of Peparethus, but
+  likewise by Romans, such as Fabius Pictor, at an early period. From
+  these last sources Dionysius and Livy compiled. The more ancient
+  Roman history given by these authorities rests, therefore, in part,
+  but by no means entirely, on tradition and poetry; still further
+  amplified by the rhetoric style, that of the Greeks more
+  especially. At what epoch the Roman history lays aside the poetic
+  character can hardly be determined with certainty; it may be traced
+  even in some parts of the period extending from the expulsion of
+  the kings to the conquest by the Gauls.--For the purposes of
+  chronology, great importance attaches to the _fasti Romani_,
+  contained partly in inscriptions, (_fasti Capitolini_,) partly in
+  manuscripts. They have been collected and restored by Pighius,
+  Noris Sigonius, etc. in GRÆVII, _Thes. A. R._ vol. xi.; likewise in
+  ALMELOVEEN, _Fast. Rom._ I. II. Amstel. 1705, etc.
+
+  PIGHII _Annales Romanorum_. Antwerp, 1615, fol. 2 vols. An essay
+  towards a chronological arrangement; it reaches down to Vitellius.
+
+  The Roman history has been copiously treated of by the moderns in
+  many works besides those on universal ancient history before
+  enumerated, (p. 2.). We shall mention only the more important.
+
+  ROLLIN, _Histoire Romaine, Depuis la foundation de Rome jusqu' à la
+  bataille d'Actium_. 13 vols. 8vo. Paris, 1823, édit. revue par
+  Letronne. This history, which extends to B. C. 89, has been
+  continued and terminated by CREVIER. Although the critical
+  historian might suggest much that is wanting in this work, it
+  nevertheless contributed to advance the study.
+
+  ED. FERGUSON, _The History of the Progress and Termination of the
+  Roman Republic_. London, 1783, 4to. On the whole, the best work on
+  the history of the Roman republic; it has superceded the earlier
+  work of GOLDSMITH.
+
+  P. CH. LEVESQUE, _Histoire de la République Romaine_, 3 vols.
+  Paris, 1807. He who would still wish to admire with blind
+  enthusiasm the glory of ancient Rome, had better not read this
+  work.
+
+  B. G. NIEBUHR, _Roman History_.
+
+  Rather criticism than history; the author seems to be perpetually
+  endeavouring to overthrow all that has hitherto been admitted. The
+  spirit of acuteness is not always that of truth; and men do not so
+  lightly assent to the existence of a constitution which not only
+  is contrary to the broad view of antiquity--inferences drawn from
+  some insulated passages not being sufficient to overturn what is
+  corroborated by all the others--but likewise, according to the
+  author's own avowal, stands opposed to all analogy in history. But
+  truth gains even where criticism is wrong; and the value of some
+  deep researches will not for that reason be overlooked.--Consult
+  on this subject:
+
+  # W. WACHSMUTH, _Researches into the more Ancient History of
+  Rome_. Halle, 1819.
+
+  C. F. TH. LACHMANN, _Commentatio de fontibus T. Livii in prima
+  Historiarum Decade_. Gottingæ, 1821. A prize essay.
+
+  For the works upon the Roman constitution see below, at the end of
+  this and at the beginning of the third period.
+
+  Abundance of most important writings upon Roman antiquities will
+  be found in the great collections:
+
+  GRÆVII _Thesaurus Antiquitatum Romanarum_. Lugd. Batav. 1694, sq.
+  12 vols. fol. and likewise in
+
+  SALENGRE, _Thesaurus Antiquitatum Romanarum_. Venet. 1732, 3 vols.
+  fol.
+
+  Many excellent papers, particularly in
+
+  _Mémoires de l'Académie des Inscriptions_.
+
+  With the exception of NARDINI, _Roma Vetus_, inserted in GRÆVII THES.
+  A. R. t. iv. the best work on the topography of ancient Rome is
+
+  VENUTI, _Descrizione Topografica delle Antichità di Roma_. P. I.
+  II. Roma, 1763; and especially the new edition of that work by
+  VISCONTI, 1803. There is also:
+
+  # S. H. L. ADLER, _Description of the city of Rome_. Altona, 1781,
+  4to.
+
+  The best representation of the monuments of ancient Rome will be
+  found in
+
+  PIRANESI, _Antichità di Roma_, 3 vols. fol.
+
+1. In certain respects, the history of Rome is always that of one town,
+inasmuch as until the period of the Cæsars, the city continued mistress
+of her extensive territory. The main parts of the internal constitution
+of Rome were formed during this first period; which, considered in an
+historical point of view, can hardly be said to be void of interest.
+Whether every fundamental institution had its origin precisely at the
+epoch to which it is attributed, is a question of little importance; it
+is sufficient to observe, that they certainly arose in this period; and
+that the steps by which the constitution was developed are, upon the
+whole, determined beyond the possibility of a doubt.
+
+2. Exaggerated and embellished as the most ancient traditions of the
+Romans respecting their origin may be, they all agree in this, that the
+Romans belonged to the race of the Latini, and that their city was a
+colony of the neighbouring Alba Longa. Long before this the custom seems
+to have obtained with the Latini, of extending the cultivation of their
+country by colonies.
+
+  The primitive history of Rome is as difficult to reduce to pure
+  historic truth as that of Athens, or any other city of antiquity; this
+  proceeds from its being principally founded on traditions, handled by
+  poets and rhetoricians, and likewise differing from one another; as
+  may be seen in Plutarch's Romulus. As the knowledge of those
+  traditions, such as they are found in Dionysius and Livy, attaches to
+  so many other subjects, it would be improper to pass them over in
+  silence; and that they contained truths as well as poetic fictions is
+  proved most evidently by the political institutions of which they
+  narrate the origin, and which certainly reached back to those times.
+  To attempt to draw a line of demarcation between mythical and historic
+  times would be to mistake the real nature of mythology.
+
+  L. DE BEAUFORT, _Sur l'incertitude des cinq premiers siècles de
+  l'histoire Romaine_, nouv. éd. à la Haye, 1750, 2 vols. 8vo. Every
+  thing that can be said against the credibility of the primitive Roman
+  history has been developed by Beaufort with abundant, and often with
+  laboured, acuteness.
+
+3. During the first two hundred and forty-five years subsequent to its
+foundation this city was under the rule of governors, denominated kings;
+these, however, were not hereditary, still less were they invested with
+unlimited power, although they exerted themselves to become both
+perpetual and absolute. On the contrary, in this period was framed a
+municipal constitution, demonstrative of the existence, even at this
+early date, of a considerable degree of political civilization; in its
+principal parts this constitution was, no doubt,--as in every
+colony,--copied from that of the mother city. Its principal features
+were: _a._ Establishment and internal organization of the senate. _b._
+Establishment and progress of the patrician or hereditary nobility,
+which, supported by the privilege of administering the sacred affairs,
+and by the introduction of family names, quickly formed, in opposition
+to the plebeians, a political party ever growing in power, although not,
+therefore, a mere sacerdotal caste. _c._ Organization of the people
+(_populus_), and modes of popular assembly (_comitia_), founded
+thereupon; besides the original division according to heads into
+_tribus_ and _curiæ_, another was subsequently introduced according to
+property into _classes_ and _centuriæ_, out of which, besides the more
+ancient _comitia curiata_, arose the very artificially constructed
+_comitia centuriata_. _d._ Religious institutions, (_religiones_,) which
+being most closely connected with the political constitution, formed a
+state religion, by means of which everything in the state was attached
+to determined forms, and received a higher sanction. Nor must we omit
+_e._ the relations in private life established by law, the clientship,
+marriage, and especially paternal authority. In consequence of those
+domestic relations, a spirit of subordination and discipline, from the
+earliest times, pervaded the people; and to that spirit the Romans were
+indebted for the glory to which they attained.
+
+4. Notwithstanding many little wars with their immediate neighbours the
+Sabines, Æqui, and Volsci, together with various cities of the Etrusci,
+and even with the Latins themselves, Rome added but little to her
+territory: nevertheless she took the first step towards her
+aggrandizement; from the time of the destruction of Alba Longa, she
+aimed at being the head of the collected cities of the Latins, and
+finally attained the object of her ambition.
+
+  Line of kings. Romulus, 754-717. First establishment of the colony;
+  augmentation in the number of the citizens, produced by the
+  establishment of an asylum, and an union with part of the Sabines.
+  Numa Pompilius, _d._ 679. By representing this prince as the founder
+  of the religion of the Roman state, that religion received the high
+  sanction of antiquity. Tullus Hostilius, _d._ 640. The conquest and
+  destruction of Alba lays the foundation of Roman supremacy in Latium.
+  Ancus Martius, _d._ 618. He extends the territory of Rome to the sea;
+  the foundation of the port of Ostia proves that Rome already applied
+  to navigation, the object of which was perhaps as yet rather piracy
+  than trade. Tarquinius Priscus, _d._ 578. A Grecian by descent. Under
+  his conduct Rome was already able to enter the field against the
+  confederate Etrusci. Servius Tullius, _d._ 534. The most remarkable in
+  the line of Roman kings. He placed Rome at the head of the confederacy
+  of the Latins, which he confirmed by _communia sacra_. On his new
+  division of the people according to property were raised the highly
+  important institutions of the _census_ and _comitia centuriata_. The
+  necessity of this measure is demonstrative of the great and increasing
+  prosperity of the Roman citizens; there can be no doubt, however,
+  that by its adoption the frame of the republic was already completed.
+  Tarquinius Superbus, (the tyrant,)--509. This individual, having taken
+  forcible possession of the throne as nephew to Priscus, endeavoured to
+  confirm his power by a close connection with the Latins and Volsci; by
+  this, as well as by his tyranny, he offended both the patrician and
+  plebeian parties. His deposition, and the consequent reformation of
+  the government, were however, properly speaking, brought about by the
+  ambition of the patricians.
+
+  ALGAROTTI, _Saggio sopra la durata de' regni de' rè di Roma_. (Op. t.
+  iii.) Chronological doubts. Can the raising of difficulties deserve
+  the name of criticism?
+
+5. The only direct consequence to the internal constitution of Rome,
+proceeding from the abolition of royalty was, that that power,
+undetermined as it had been while in the hands of the kings, was
+transferred to two consuls, annually elected. Meanwhile the struggle for
+liberty, in which the new republic was engaged with the Etrusci and
+Latins, contributed much to arouse the republican spirit which
+henceforward was the main feature of the Roman character--the evils of
+popular rule being in times of need remedied by the establishment of the
+dictatorship. The party, however, which had deposed the ruling family,
+took wholly into their own hands the helm of state; and the oppression
+of these aristocrats, shown principally towards their debtors, who had
+become their slaves, (_nexi_,)--notwithstanding the _lex de
+provocatione_ established by Valerius Poplicola, ensuring to the people
+the highest judicial power--was so galling, that after the lapse of a
+few years it gave rise to a sedition of the commons, (_plebis_,) the
+consequence of which was the establishment of annually elected
+presidents of the people (_tribuni plebis_).
+
+  First commercial treaty with Carthage, 508, in which Rome appears
+  certainly as a free state, but not yet as sovereign of all Latium; the
+  most important monument of the authenticity of the earlier Roman
+  history.
+
+  HEYNE, _Foedera Carthaginiensium cum Romanis super navigatione et
+  mercatura facta_: contained in his Opusc. t. iii. Cf. # A. H. L.
+  HEEREN, _Ideas_, etc. Appendix to the second vol.
+
+6. The further development of the Roman constitution in this period,
+hinges almost wholly on the struggle between the new presidents of the
+commons and the hereditary nobility; the tribunes, instead of confining
+themselves to defend the people from the oppression of the nobles, soon
+began to act as aggressors, and in a short time so widely overstepped
+their power, that there remained no chance of putting an end to the
+struggle but by a complete equalization of rights. A long time elapsed
+ere this took place; the aristocracy finding a very powerful support
+both in the clientship and in the religion of the state, operating under
+the shape of auspices.
+
+  Main facts of the contest: 1. In the trial of Coriolanus the tribunes
+  usurp the right of summoning some patricians before the tribunal of
+  the people.--Hence arise the _comitia tributa_; that is to say, either
+  mere assemblies of the commons, or assemblies so organized that the
+  commons had the preponderance. This institution gave the tribunes a
+  share in the legislation, subsequently of such high importance, those
+  officers being allowed to lay proposals before the commons. 2. More
+  equitable distribution among the poorer classes of the lands conquered
+  from the neighbouring nations, (the most ancient _leges agrariæ_,)
+  suggested by the ambitious attempts of Cassius, 486. 3. Extension of
+  the prerogatives of the _comitia tributa_, more especially in the
+  election of the tribunes, brought about by Volero, 472. 4. Attempts at
+  a legal limitation of the consular power by Terentillus, (_lex
+  Terentilla_,) 460, which, after a long struggle, at last leads to the
+  idea of one common written code, 452, which is likewise realized in
+  spite of the opposition at first made by the patricians.
+
+  # CHR. F. SCHULZE, _Struggle between the Democracy and Aristocracy
+  of Rome, or History of the Romans from the Expulsion of Tarquin to
+  the Election of the first Plebeian Consul_. Altenburgh, 1802, 8vo.
+  A most satisfactory development of this portion of Roman history.
+
+7. The code of the twelve tables confirmed the ancient institutions, and
+was in part completed by the adoption of the laws of the Greek
+republics, among which Athens in particular is mentioned, whose counsels
+were requested by a special deputation. In this, however, two faults
+were committed; not only were the commissioners charged with drawing up
+the laws elected from the patricians _alone_, but they were likewise
+constituted sole magistrates, with _dictatorial_ power, (_sine
+provocatione_;) whereby a path was opened to them for an usurpation,
+which could be frustrated only by a sedition of the people.
+
+  Duration of the power of the Decemviri, 451-447. The doubts raised as
+  to the deputation sent to Athens are not sufficient to invalidate the
+  authenticity of an event so circumstantially detailed. Athens, under
+  Pericles, was then at the head of Greece; and, admitting the proposed
+  design of consulting the Greek laws, it was impossible that Athens
+  should have been passed over. And indeed, why should it be supposed,
+  that a state which fifty years before had signed a commercial treaty
+  with Carthage, and could not be unacquainted with the Grecian colonies
+  in Lower Italy, might not have sent an embassy into Greece?
+
+  The yet remaining fragments of the code of the twelve tables are
+  collected and illustrated in BACHII _Hist. Jurisprudentiæ Romanæ_; and
+  in several other works.
+
+8. By the laws of the twelve tables the legal relations of the citizens
+were the same for all; but as that code seems to have contained very
+little in reference to any peculiar constitution of the state, the
+government not only remained in the hands of the aristocrats, who were
+in possession of all offices, but the prohibition, according to the new
+laws of marriage between patricians and plebeians, appeared to have
+raised an insurmountable barrier between the two classes. No wonder,
+then, that the tribunes of the people should have immediately renewed
+their attacks on the patricians; particularly as the power of those
+popular leaders was not only renewed, but even augmented, as the only
+limit to their authority was the necessity of their being unanimous in
+their acts, while each had the right of a negative.
+
+  Besides the other laws made in favour of the people at the renewal of
+  the _tribunicia potestas_, 446, that which imported _ut quod tributim
+  plebes jussisset, populum teneret_, frequently renewed in subsequent
+  times, and meaning, in modern language, that the citizens constituted
+  themselves, must, it would appear, have thrown the supreme power into
+  the hands of the people; did not the Roman history, like that of other
+  free states, afford examples enough of the little authority there is
+  to infer from the enactment of a law that it will be practically
+  enforced.
+
+9. The main subjects of the new dissensions between patricians and
+plebeians, excited by the tribune Canuleius, were now the _connubia
+patrum cum plebe_, and the exclusive participation of the patricians in
+the consulship, of which the tribunes demanded the abolition. The repeal
+of the former law was obtained as early as 445, (_lex Canuleia_;) the
+right of admission to the consulship was not extended to the Plebeians,
+till after a struggle annually renewed for eighty years; during which,
+when, as usually was the case, the tribunes forbade the military
+enrolment, recourse was had to a transfer of the consular power
+to the yearly elected commanders of the legions; a place to which
+plebeians were entitled to aspire, (_tribuni militum consulari
+potestate._)--Establishment of the office of CENSORS, designed at first
+for nothing more than to regulate the taking of the census, and invested
+with no higher authority than what that required, but who soon after, by
+assuming to themselves the _censura morum_, took rank among the most
+important dignitaries of the state.
+
+10. Meanwhile Rome was engaged in wars, insignificant but almost
+uninterrupted, arising out of the oppression, either real or imaginary,
+which she exercised as head of the neighbouring federate cities,
+(_socii_,) comprising not only those of the Latins, but likewise, after
+the victory of lake Regillus, those of the other nations: the cities
+embraced every opportunity of asserting their independence, and the
+consequent struggles must have depopulated Rome, had not that evil been
+diverted by the maxim of increasing the complement of citizens by
+admitting the freedmen, and not unfrequently even the conquered, to the
+enjoyment of civic privileges. Little as these feuds, abstractedly
+considered, deserve our attention, they become of high interest,
+inasmuch as they were not only the means by which the nation was trained
+to war, but also led to the foundation of that senatorial power, whose
+important consequences will be exhibited hereafter.
+
+  Among these wars attention must be directed to the last, that against
+  Veii, the richest city in Etruria; the siege of that place, which
+  lasted very nearly ten years, 404-395, gave rise to the introduction
+  among the Roman military of winter campaigning, and of pay; thus, on
+  the one hand, the prosecution of wars more distant and protracted
+  became possible, while on the other the consequences must have been
+  the levy of higher taxes, (_tributa_).
+
+11. Not long after, however, a tempest from the north had nearly
+destroyed Rome. The Sennonian Gauls, pressed out of northern Italy
+through Etruria, possessed themselves of the city, the capitol excepted,
+and reduced it to ashes; an event which made so deep an impression on
+the minds of the Romans, that few other occurrences in their history
+have been more frequently the object of traditional detail. Camillus,
+then the deliverer of Rome, and in every respect one of the chief heroes
+of that period, laid a double claim to the gratitude of his native city,
+by overruling, after his victory, the proposal of a general migration to
+Veii.
+
+12. Scarcely was Rome rebuilt ere the ancient feuds revived, springing
+out of the poverty of the citizens, produced by an increase of taxation
+consequent on the establishment of military pay, and by the introduction
+of gross usury. The tribunes, Sextius and Licinius, by prolonging their
+term of office to five years, had established their power; while
+Licinius, by an agrarian law, decreeing that no individual should hold
+more than five hundred _jugera_ of the national lands, had ensured the
+popular favour; so that at last they succeeded in obtaining, that one of
+the consuls should be chosen from the commons; and although the
+nobility, by the nomination of a prætor from their own body, and of
+_ædiles curules_, endeavoured to compensate for the sacrifice they were
+obliged to make, yet the plebeians having once made good a claim to the
+consulship, their participation in the other magisterial offices, (the
+dictatorship, 353, the censorship, 348, the prætorship, 334,) and even
+the priesthood, (300,) quickly followed as a matter of course. Thus at
+Rome the object of political equality between commons and nobles was
+attained; and although the difference between the patrician and plebeian
+families still subsisted, they soon ceased to form political parties.
+
+  A second commercial treaty entered into with Carthage, 345,
+  demonstrates that even at this time the navy of the Romans was
+  anything but contemptible; although its principal object as yet was
+  mere piracy. Roman squadrons of war however appear more than once
+  within the next forty years.
+
+13. Far more important than any wars in which Rome had hitherto been
+engaged, were those soon about to commence with the Samnites. In former
+contests the object of Rome had been to establish her supremacy over her
+immediate neighbours; but in these, during a protracted contest of fifty
+years, she opened a way to the subjugation of Italy, and laid the
+foundation of her future greatness.
+
+  Commencement of the wars against the Samnites, the Campanians having
+  called the Romans to their assistance against that nation, 343. These
+  wars, carried on with vigorous exertion and various success, lasted,
+  with but short intermissions, till 290. This is the true heroic age of
+  Rome, ennobled by the patriotic valour of Decius Mus, (father and son,
+  both voluntary victims,) Papirius Cursor, Q. Fabius Maximus, etc. The
+  consequences of this struggle were: _a._ The Romans learnt the art of
+  mountain warfare, and thereby for the first time acquired a peculiar
+  system of military tactics; not, however, till they had been, 321,
+  obliged to pass under the _furcas Caudinas_. _b._ Their relations
+  were more firmly established with their neighbours the Latins and
+  Etrurians, by the complete conquest of the former, 340, and by
+  repeated victories over the latter, more especially in 308. _c._ Great
+  national federations having arisen in Italy, particularly during the
+  last period of the Samnite wars, the Romans entered into connection
+  with the more distant nations of the country; with the Lucanians and
+  Apulians, by the first league, 323, with the Umbri, from the year 308;
+  and although the nature of this connection frequently varied, the
+  different nations were perpetually struggling for independence, and
+  were consequently at enmity with Rome. In this period, moreover,
+  commenced the practical illustration of the leading ideas of Rome upon
+  the political relations in which she placed the conquered with regard
+  to herself.
+
+14. After the subjection of the Samnites, Rome, wishing to confirm her
+dominion in Lower Italy, was thereby, for the first time, entangled in
+war with a foreign prince; the Tarentines, too feeble to maintain alone
+their footing against the Romans, called Pyrrhus of Epirus to their
+assistance. He came, indeed, but not so much to further the views of the
+Tarentines as to advance his own; but even in victory, he learnt by
+experience that the Macedonian tactics gave him but a slight
+preponderance, which the Romans soon transferred to their own side,
+exhibiting the truth of the principle, that a good civic militia, sooner
+or later, will always get the upper hand of mercenary troops.
+
+  The idea of calling upon Pyrrhus for assistance was the more natural,
+  as the predecessor of that prince, Alexander I. (see above p. 275.)
+  had endeavoured, but without success, to effect conquests in Lower
+  Italy. In the first war with Pyrrhus, 280-278, two battles were
+  fought, the first at Pandosia, 280, the other at Asculum, 279; in both
+  of which Rome was unsuccessful. But Pyrrhus, after crossing over into
+  Sicily, 278, (see above, p. 173, 174.) once more returned into Italy,
+  275, when he was defeated by the Romans at Beneventum, and compelled
+  to evacuate Italy, leaving a garrison at Tarentum. That city, however,
+  soon afterwards, 272, fell into the hands of the Romans, whose
+  dominion was consequently extended to the extremity of Lower Italy.
+
+15. The chief means to which, even from the earliest times, the Romans
+had recourse for the foundation of their dominion over the conquered,
+and at the same time for the prevention of the too great increase of the
+needy classes at Rome, was the establishment of colonies of their own
+citizens, which, being settled in the captured cities, served likewise
+as garrisons. Each colony had its own distinct internal constitution,
+modelled, for the most part, upon that of the mother city itself; hence
+to keep the colonies in perfect dependence naturally became an object of
+Roman policy. This colonial system of the Romans, necessarily and
+spontaneously arising out of the rude custom of bereaving the conquered
+of their lands and liberty, assumed its main features in the Samnite
+war, and gradually embraced the whole of Italy. Closely connected with
+this system was the construction of military highways, (_viæ
+militares_,) one of which, the Appian Way, was constructed so early as
+312, and to this day remains a lasting monument of the greatness of Rome
+at that period.
+
+  Even at the time of Hannibal's invasion, the number of Roman colonies
+  amounted to 53: but several which had been settled returned to the
+  mother city.
+
+  HEYNE, _De Romanorum prudentia in coloniis regendis_: inserted in
+  _Opusc._ vol. iii. Cf. _Prolusiones de veterum coloniarum jure ejusque
+  causis_, in his _Opusc._ vol. i.
+
+16. But the relations existing between Rome and the Italian nations
+were extremely various in kind. 1. A few cities and nations enjoyed the
+full privileges of Roman citizenship; in some instances, however,
+without the right of voting in the _comitia_ (_municipia_). 2. The
+privileges of the colonies (_jus coloniarum_) were of a more restricted
+nature; the colonists were indeed in possession of their own civic
+government, but had no further share whatever either in the _comitia_ or
+magistracies of Rome. The other inhabitants of Italy were either
+federates (_socii, foedere juncti_) or subjects (_dedititii_). The first
+(_a_) preserved their internal form of government; but on the other hand
+(_b_) were obliged to furnish tribute and auxiliary troops (_tributis et
+armis juvare rempublicam_). Their further relation with Rome depended
+upon the terms of the league. The most advantageous of these terms were
+3. in favour of the Latins, although each of their cities had its own
+separate league (_jus Latii_;) as 4. the rest of the Italian nations had
+their _jus Italicum_. On the other hand, 5. the subjects, _dedititii_,
+were deprived of their internal constitutions, and were governed by
+Roman magistrates, (_præfecti_,) annually renewed.
+
+  C. SIGONIUS, _De antiquo jure civium Romanorum_; and his treatise _De
+  antiquo jure Italiæ_, inserted both in his _Opera_ and in GRÆVII
+  _Thes. Ant. Rom._ t. ii. contain the most learned researches on the
+  details of these relations.
+
+17. The internal constitution of Rome itself, now completed, bore the
+character of a democracy, inasmuch as equality of rights existed both
+for nobles and commons. Yet this democracy was modified by expedients so
+various and wonderful--the rights of the people, of the senate, of the
+magistrates, fitted so nicely into each other, and were so firmly
+supported by the national religion, connecting every thing with
+determinate forms--that there was no reason, at that time, to fear the
+evils either of anarchy, or, what is much more astonishing when we
+consider the warlike character of the people, those of military
+despotism.
+
+  The rights of the people consisted in the legislative power, so far as
+  fundamental national principles were concerned, and in the election of
+  the magistrates. The distinction between the _comitia tributa_ (as
+  independent of the senate) and the _comitia centuriata_ (as dependent
+  on the senate) still existed as to form, but had lost all its
+  importance, the difference between patricians and plebeians being now
+  merely nominal, and the establishment of the _tribus urbanæ_, 303,
+  excluding the too great influence of the people (_forensis factio_)
+  upon the _comitia tributa_. The rights of the senate consisted in
+  administering and debating all transitory national affairs, whether
+  foreign relations, (war and peace only excepted, in which the consent
+  of the people was requisite,) financial concerns, or matters regarding
+  domestic peace and security. But the manner in which the senate was
+  supplied must have made it the first political body at that time in
+  the world. The rights and rank of magistrates were founded on their
+  greater or lesser _auspicia_, no public affair being entered upon
+  except _auspicato_. Consequently he only who was in possession of the
+  former could hold the highest civic and military power; (_imperium
+  civile et militare; suis auspiciis rem gerere_;) as dictator, consul,
+  prætor; such was not the case with those who had only the lesser
+  _auspicia_. The union of civil and military power in the person of the
+  same individual was not without its inconveniences, but military
+  despotism was in some measure guarded against by the prohibition of
+  any magistrate possessing military command within Rome itself. We must
+  not dismiss this subject without observing, that as the Roman
+  constitution arose merely out of practice, there never having been any
+  completely written charter, we cannot expect that all the details
+  should be clearly ascertained; to attempt, therefore, in default of
+  such authority, to describe all the minutiæ would be the surest way to
+  fall into error.
+
+  Of the numerous works on the Roman constitution and on Roman
+  antiquities, we shall mention:
+
+  DE BEAUFORT, _La République Romaine, ou plan général de l'ancien
+  gouvernement de Rome_. La Haye, 1766, 2 vols. 4to. A most copious
+  work, and one of the most solid in regard to the matters discussed;
+  although it does not embrace the whole of the subject.
+
+  _Histoire critique du gouvernement Romain_; Paris, 1765. Containing
+  some acute observations.
+
+  _Du Gouvernement de la republique Romaine_, _par_ A. AD. DE TEXIER, 3
+  vols. 8vo. Hamburg, 1796. This contains many enquiries peculiar to the
+  writer.
+
+  Some learned researches respecting the principal points of the Roman
+  constitution, as SIGONIUS and GRUCHIUS _de comitiis Romanorum_,
+  ZAMOCIUS _de Senatu Romano_, etc. will be found collected in the first
+  two vols, of GRÆVIUS, _Antiq. Roman._
+
+  For the popular assemblies of the Romans, an antiquarian essay by Chr.
+  Ferd. Schulze, Gotha, 1815, chiefly according to Niebuhr, may be
+  consulted.
+
+  Among the numerous manuals of Roman antiquities, NIEUPORT, _explicatio
+  rituum Romanorum, ed. Gesner_. Berol. 1743, promises at least as much
+  as it performs. Of those which profess to treat of Roman antiquities
+  in general, none have yet risen above mediocrity. Jurisprudence,
+  however, has been much more successfully handled. We cite the two
+  following excellent compendiums:
+
+  BACHII, _Historia Jurisprudentiæ Romanæ_. Lips. 1754. 1796.
+
+  # C. HUGO, _Elements of the Roman Law_; 7th edit. Berlin, 1820.
+
+
+
+
+SECOND PERIOD.
+
+_From the commencement of the war with Carthage to the rise of the
+civil broils under the Gracchi, B. C. 264-134. Year of Rome, 490-620._
+
+
+  SOURCES. The principal writer for this highly interesting period,
+  in which was laid the foundation of the universal dominion of Rome,
+  is Polybius as far as the year 146, not only in the complete books
+  preserved to us, which come down to 216, but also in the fragments.
+  He is frequently followed by Livy, lib. xxi-xlv. 218-166. Appian,
+  who comes next, does not confine himself merely to the history of
+  the war; Florus gives us only an abridgement. The lives of Plutarch
+  which relate to this portion of history, are FABIUS MAXIMUS, P.
+  ÆMILIUS, MARCELLUS, M. CATO, and FLAMINIUS.
+
+  Of modern writers we dare only mention one:--and who is worthy to
+  be ranked beside him?
+
+  MONTESQUIEU, _Considerations sur les causes de la grandeur et de la
+  décadence des Romains_.
+
+1. The political division of Italy laid the foundation for the dominion
+of Rome in that country; the want of union and political relations in
+the world paved the way to her universal empire. The first step cost her
+much, the succeeding followed easily and rapidly; and the history of the
+struggle between Rome and Carthage only shows on a larger scale what the
+history of Greece exhibits on a smaller. The whole of the following
+history confirms the fact, that two republics cannot exist near each
+other, without one being destroyed or subjected: but the vast extent of
+this struggle, the important consequences which followed, together with
+the wonderful exertions made, and the great men engaged on both sides,
+gave it an interest which cannot be found in that of any other nations.
+Though the power and resources of both states were nearly equal in
+appearance, they were widely different in quality and circumstances.
+Carthage, besides her dominion over the seas, had also a better
+furnished treasury, by which she was enabled to enlist into her service
+as many _mercenaries_ as she pleased: Rome, on the contrary, _strong in
+herself_, had all the advantages possessed by a nation of warriors over
+one partly commercial, partly military.
+
+2. The first war of twenty-three years between the two republics, arose
+from very slight causes: it soon, however, became a struggle for the
+possession of Sicily, which in the end naturally extended itself to the
+dominion of the sea. Rome, by the aid of her newly-built fleet, having
+obtained for some time this power, was enabled to attack Africa, and
+succeeded in driving the Carthaginians from Sicily.
+
+  The occupation of Messina by the Romans, 264, gave rise to this
+  war. The defection of Hiero king of Syracuse from the side of
+  Carthage, and his joining the Romans, first gave the latter the
+  idea of expelling the Carthaginians from the island. The victory
+  near Agrigentum, and capture of that city in 262, seemed to
+  facilitate the execution of this project: it also convinced the
+  Romans of the necessity of their having a naval power. We shall the
+  less wonder at their forming a fleet in Italy, where wood was then
+  plentiful, if we remember their previous experience in naval
+  affairs; these were not the first vessels of war which they
+  constructed, but only the first large ones which they built upon a
+  Carthaginian model. The first naval victory of the Romans under
+  Duilius, by the aid of grappling machines, 260. The project then
+  conceived of carrying the war into Africa was one of the great
+  ideas of the Romans, and from that time it became a ruling maxim of
+  the state, to attack the enemy in his own territory. The second and
+  very remarkable naval victory of the Romans, 257, opened the way
+  for them to Africa, and shows their naval tactics in a very
+  brilliant light: but the unfortunate issue of their expedition to
+  Africa, restored the equilibrium; and the struggle for the dominion
+  of the sea became the more obstinate, as success did not altogether
+  favour one party. The result of the contest appears to have turned
+  upon the possession of the eastern promontories of Sicily,
+  Drepanum, and Lilybæum, which were in a manner the bulwarks of the
+  Carthaginians, and seemed impregnable since Hamilcar Barca had
+  taken the command of them, 247. The last naval victory of the
+  Romans, however, under the consul Lutatius, 241, having cut off the
+  communication between Sicily and Carthage, and the finances of both
+  parties being completely exhausted, a peace was concluded upon the
+  conditions: 1. That the Carthaginians should evacuate Sicily and
+  the small islands adjacent. 2. That they should pay to Rome, by
+  instalments in ten years, for the expenses she had been at in
+  carrying on the war, the sum of 2,200 talents. 3. That they should
+  not make war against Hiero king of Syracuse.
+
+3. The issue of this war placed the political connections of Rome in a
+new situation, and necessarily extended her influence abroad. The length
+of the war and the manner of its conclusion had, moreover, inspired a
+national hatred, such as is only found in republics; the conviction also
+that they could not remain independent of one another, must have become
+much more striking, as the points of contact had greatly increased since
+the beginning of the war. Who does not know the arrogance of a republic
+after the first essay of her power has been crowned with success! Rome
+gave a striking example of this by her invasion of Sardinia in the midst
+of peace. These successes had also a sensible effect on the Roman
+constitution. For although in appearance its form was not in the least
+changed, yet the power of the senate now acquired that preponderance
+which the ruling authority of a republic never fails to do after long
+and successful wars.
+
+  Origin and nature of the governments of the first Roman provinces,
+  in part of Sicily and in Sardinia.
+
+4. An opportunity was soon afforded the Romans, in the Adriatic sea, of
+making use of their superior naval power, in chastising the pirates of
+Illyria under their queen Teuta. By effecting this, they not only
+secured their authority over that sea, but at the same time formed their
+first political relations with the Grecian states; relations which soon
+afterwards became of great importance.
+
+  Commencement of the first Illyrian war, 230, which ended with the
+  subjugation of Teuta, 226. The war, however, again broke out, 222,
+  against Demetrius of Pharus, who conceived himself inadequately
+  rewarded by Rome for the services he had rendered her in the
+  preceding war. The Romans found him a much more dangerous
+  adversary than had been expected, even after his expulsion and
+  flight to Philip, 220, (see above, p. 282.) Throughout this war,
+  Rome appeared as the deliverer of the Grecian states, which had
+  suffered extremely from the plunder of these freebooters; Corcyra,
+  Apollonia, and other cities placed themselves formally under her
+  protection, while the Achæans, Ætolians, and Athenians vied with
+  each other in showing their gratitude.
+
+5. In the mean time, while Carthage endeavoured to make up for the loss
+of Sicily and Sardinia by extending her Spanish dominions, which the
+jealousy of Rome restrained her from carrying beyond the Ebro (p. 84.),
+Rome herself had a new war to maintain against her northern neighbours
+the Gauls, which ended after a violent contest with the establishment of
+her authority over the north of Italy.
+
+  From the first Gallic war to the burning of Rome, 390, the Gauls
+  had repeated their attacks in 360 and 348, even to the conclusion
+  of the peace in 336. But in the latter part of the Samnite war, a
+  formidable confederacy having taken place among the Italian
+  tribes, some of the Gauls enlisted as mercenaries in the service
+  of the Etruscans, while others allied themselves to the Samnites.
+  This led them to take part in these wars in 306, 302, and 292,
+  until they were obliged, together with the Etruscans, to sue for
+  peace in 284, before which time the Romans had sent a colony into
+  their country, near Sena. This peace lasted till 238, when it was
+  disturbed by the incursion of the transalpine Gauls; without,
+  however, their coming to any war with Rome. But in 232, the
+  proposition of Flaminius the tribune, (_lex Flaminia_), to divide
+  the lands conquered from the Senones, became the cause of new
+  disturbances. Upon this occasion, the Gauls entered into an
+  alliance with their transalpine countrymen, the Gæsates on the
+  Rhone, who had been accustomed to engage as mercenaries. These
+  having crossed the Alps, the dreadful war of six years (226-220)
+  began, in which, after defeating the Gauls near Clusium, 225, the
+  Romans pursued them into their own territory, and encamped upon
+  the Po, 223. The Gauls having been again completely overthrown by
+  Marcellus, were obliged to sue for peace; when the Roman colonies
+  of Placentia and Cremona were established. The number of men
+  capable of bearing arms in all Italy subject to the Romans during
+  this war amounted to 800,000.
+
+6. Before this storm was totally appeased, in which it is probable that
+Carthaginian policy was not altogether inactive, Hannibal had obtained
+the chief command in Spain. From the reproach of having first begun the
+war, he and his party cannot be cleared; Rome, in the situation she then
+was, could hardly desire it; he however who strikes the first blow is
+not always the real aggressor. The plan of Hannibal was the destruction
+of Rome; and by making Italy the principal seat of the war, he
+necessarily turned the scale in his favour; because Rome, obliged to
+defend herself, left to him all the advantages of attack. The
+preparations she made for defence, show that it was not believed
+possible he could execute his enterprise by the route which he took.
+
+  The history of this war, 218-201, of which no later transaction
+  has been able to destroy the interest, is divided into three
+  parts: the history of the war in Italy; the contemporary war in
+  Spain; and from 203, the war in Africa. Hannibal's invasion of
+  Italy in the autumn, 218--engagement near the river Ticinus and
+  the battle of Trebia, in the same year. Battle near the lake
+  Thrasymenus in the spring, 217. Seat of the war transferred to
+  Lower Italy, and the defensive system of the dictator Fabius until
+  the end of the year. Battle of Cannæ, 216, followed by the
+  conquest of Capua and the subjection of the greater part of Lower
+  Italy. The defensive mode of warfare afterwards adopted by the
+  Carthaginian, arose partly from his desire to form a junction with
+  his brother Asdrubal and the Spanish army, and partly from his
+  expectation of foreign support by means of alliances, with
+  Syracuse, after the death of Hiero, 215, and with Philip of
+  Macedon, 216. These hopes, however, were frustrated by the
+  Romans.--Syracuse was besieged and taken, 214-212, (see above, p.
+  174.) and Philip kept employed in Greece, (see above, p. 282.) In
+  addition to this, the Romans retook Capua, notwithstanding the
+  audacious march of Hannibal towards Rome, 211, and he had now no
+  succour left except the reinforcement which Asdrubal was bringing
+  from Spain. The latter, however, was attacked immediately upon his
+  arrival in Italy, near Sena, by the consuls Nero and Livius, and
+  left dead on the field, 207. From this time the war in Italy
+  became only of secondary importance, as Hannibal was obliged to
+  act on the defensive in Bruttium.
+
+  _The Course of Hannibal over the Alps ascertained_, by J.
+  WHITTAKER. London, 1794, 2 vols. 8vo. The author endeavours to
+  prove that the passage of Hannibal was over the great St. Bernard,
+  and criticises the opinions of other writers.
+
+  [We may likewise mention the learned treatise:--
+
+  _A Dissertation on the Passage of Hannibal over the Alps._ By H.
+  L. WICKHAM, M. A. and the Rev. J. A. CRAMER, M. A. second edition,
+  Oxon.]
+
+  The war in Spain began nearly about the same time between Asdrubal
+  and the two brothers, Cn. and P. Cornelius Scipio, and was
+  continued, with various success, till the year 216, the issue
+  depending much upon the disposition of the Spaniards themselves.
+  The plan of Carthage after the year 216, was to send Asdrubal with
+  the Spanish army into Italy, and to supply its place by an army
+  from Africa; two victories, however, gained by the Scipios near
+  the Ebro, 216, and the Illiberis, 215, prevented this from being
+  effected, till at last both fell under the superior power and
+  cunning of the Carthaginians, 212. But the arrival of the youthful
+  P. Cornelius Scipio, who did not appear merely to his own nation
+  as an extraordinary genius, entirely changed the face of affairs,
+  and the fortunes of Rome soon became attached to his name, which
+  alone seemed to promise victory. During his command in Spain,
+  210-206, he won over the inhabitants while he defeated the
+  Carthaginians, and for the furtherance of his great design,
+  contracted an alliance with Syphax in Africa, 206. He was unable,
+  however, to prevent the march of Asdrubal into Italy, 208, which
+  nevertheless rendered it an easy task for him to subdue all
+  Carthaginian Spain as far as Gades, 206, and thus procured him the
+  consular dignity at his return, 205.
+
+  The carrying of the war into Africa by Scipio, notwithstanding the
+  opposition of the old Roman generals, and the desertion of Syphax,
+  who at the persuasion of Sophonisba again went over to the
+  Carthaginians (whose loss however was well repaid by Masinissa,
+  whom Scipio had won over to his side in Spain), was followed by an
+  important consequence; for after he had gained two victories over
+  Asdrubal and Syphax, 203, and taken the latter prisoner, the
+  Carthaginians found it necessary to recall Hannibal from Italy,
+  202; and the battle of Zama terminated the war, 201. The following
+  were the conditions of peace: 1. That the Carthaginians should
+  only retain the territory in Africa annexed to their government.
+  2. That they should give up all their ships of war, except ten
+  triremes, and all their elephants. 3. That they should pay, at
+  times specified, 10,000 talents. 4. That they should commence no
+  war without the consent of Rome. 5. That they should restore to
+  Masinissa all the houses, cities, and lands that had ever been
+  possessed by himself or his ancestors.--The reproach usually cast
+  upon the Carthaginians, of having left Hannibal unsupported in
+  Italy, in a great measure vanishes, if we remember the plan formed
+  in 216, to send the Spanish army into Italy, and to replace it by
+  an African one: a plan formed with much ability, and followed with
+  as much constancy. We may add to this, that the Barcine faction
+  maintained its influence in the government even to the end of the
+  war. But why they, who by the treaty of peace gave up five hundred
+  vessels of war, suffered Scipio to cross over from Sicily, without
+  sending one to oppose him, is difficult to explain.
+
+7. Notwithstanding her great loss of men, and the devastation of Italy,
+Rome felt herself much more powerful at the end of this war than at the
+beginning. Her dominion was not only established over Italy, but
+extensive foreign countries had been brought under it; her authority
+over the seas was rendered secure by the destruction of the naval power
+of the Carthaginians. The Roman _form_ of government, it is true,
+underwent no change, but its _spirit_ much, as the power of the senate
+became almost unlimited; and although the dawn of civilization had
+broken over Rome, since her intercourse with more civilized foreigners,
+the state still remained altogether a nation of warriors. And now, for
+the first time, appears in the page of history the fearful phenomenon of
+a great military republic; and the history of the next ten years, in
+which Rome overthrew so many thrones and free states, gives a striking
+proof, that such a power is the natural enemy to the independence of all
+the states within the reach of her arms. The causes which led Rome from
+this time to aspire after the dominion of the world are to be found
+neither in her geographical situation, which for a conquering power by
+land seemed rather unfavourable; nor in the inclination of the people,
+who were opposed to the first war against Philip; but singly and
+entirely in the spirit of her government. The means, however, whereby
+she obtained her end, must not be sought for merely in the excellence of
+her armies and generals, but rather in that uniform, sharp-sighted, and
+dexterous policy, by which she was enabled to frustrate the powerful
+alliances formed against her, notwithstanding the many adversaries who
+at that time sought to form new ones. But where could be found such
+another council of state, embodying such a mass of practical political
+wisdom, as the Roman senate must have been from the very nature of its
+organization? All this, however, would not have been sufficient to have
+subjugated the world, if the want of good government, the degeneracy of
+the military art, and an extremely corrupt state of morals among both
+rulers and people, in foreign states, had not seconded the efforts of
+Rome.
+
+  View of the political state of the world at this period. In the
+  west, Sicily (the whole island after 212), Sardinia, and Corsica,
+  from the year 237, and Spain, divided into citerior and ulterior
+  (the latter rather in name than in fact), had become Roman
+  provinces 206; the independence of Carthage had been destroyed by
+  the last peace, and her subordination secured by the alliance of
+  Rome with Masinissa; Cisalpine Gaul, formed into a province,
+  served as a barrier against the inroads of the more northern
+  barbarians. On the other side, in the east, the kingdom of
+  Macedonia, and the free states of Greece, forming together a very
+  complicated system, had opened a connection with Rome since the
+  Illyrian war, 230, and Philip's alliance with Hannibal, 214. Of
+  the three powers of the first rank, Macedonia, Syria, and Egypt,
+  the two former were allied against the latter, who, on her part,
+  maintained a good understanding with Rome. The states of secondary
+  rank were, those of the Ætolian league, the kings of Pergamus, and
+  the republic of Rhodes, with some smaller, such as Athens: these
+  had allied themselves to Rome since the confederacy against
+  Philip, 211. The Achæan league, on the contrary, was in the
+  interests of Macedonia, which Rome always endeavoured to attach to
+  herself, in order to make head against those of the first rank.
+
+8. A declaration of war against Philip, notwithstanding the opposition
+of the tribunes of the people, and an attack upon Macedonia itself,
+according to the constant maxim of carrying the war into the enemy's
+country, immediately followed. They could not, however, drive Philip so
+soon from the fastnesses of Epirus and Thessaly, which were his
+bulwarks. But Rome possessed in T. Quintius Flaminius, who marched
+against Philip as the deliverer of Greece, a statesman and general
+exactly fitted for a period of great revolutions. By the permanency of
+his political influence he became indeed the true founder of the Roman
+power in the east. Who could better cajole men and nations, while they
+were erecting altars to him, than T. Quintius? So artfully indeed did he
+assume the character of a great genius, such as had been given by nature
+to Scipio, that he has almost deceived history itself. The struggle
+between him and Philip consisted rather in a display of talents in
+political stratagem and finesse than in feats of arms: even before the
+battle of Cynoscephalæ had given the finishing stroke, the Romans had
+already turned the balance in their favour, by gaining over the Achæan
+league.
+
+  The negotiations between Rome and Macedonia, from the year 214,
+  give the first striking examples of the ability and address of the
+  Romans in foreign policy; and they are the more remarkable, as the
+  treaty with the Ætolians and others, 211 (see above, p. 283), was
+  the remote cause of the transactions which afterwards took place
+  in the east. The peculiar system adopted by the Romans, of taking
+  the lesser states under their protection as allies, must always
+  have given them an opportunity of making war on the more powerful
+  whenever they chose. This in fact happened in the present case,
+  notwithstanding the peace concluded with Philip, 204. The chief
+  object of the Romans in this war, both by sea and land, was to
+  drive Philip completely out of Greece. The allies on both sides,
+  and the conditions of peace, were similar to those concluded with
+  Carthage (see above, p. 284). The destruction of the naval power
+  of her conquered enemies became now a maxim of Roman policy in
+  making peace; and she thus maintained the dominion of the seas
+  without any great fleet, and without losing the essential
+  character of a dominant power by land.
+
+9. The expulsion of Philip from Greece brought that country into a state
+of dependence upon Rome; an event which could not have been better
+secured than by the present of liberty which T. Quintius conferred upon
+its inhabitants at the Isthmian games. The system of surveillance, which
+the Romans had already established in the west over Carthage and
+Numidia, was now adopted in the east over Greece and Macedonia. Roman
+commissioners, under the name of ambassadors, were sent into the country
+of the nations in alliance, and were the principal means by which this
+system of espionage was carried on. These however did not fail to give
+umbrage to the Greeks, particularly to the turbulent Ætolians; more
+especially as the Romans seemed in no hurry to withdraw their troops
+from a country which they had declared to be free.
+
+  Liberty was expressly granted to the state which had taken the
+  part of Philip, namely, to the Achæans; to the others it was
+  naturally understood to belong. It was nevertheless three years,
+  194, before the Roman army evacuated Greece and withdrew from the
+  fortified places. The conduct of T. Quintius during this period
+  fully shows what he was. The Greeks indeed had much want of such a
+  guardian if they wished to remain quiet: his conduct, however, in
+  the war against Nabis, 195, shows that he had not really at heart
+  the tranquillity of Greece.
+
+10. The treaty of peace with Philip contained the seeds of a new and
+greater war with Syria; but though this seemed inevitable at that time,
+it did not break out till six years afterwards; and in but few periods
+of the history of the world is so great a political crisis to be found,
+as in this short interval. The fall of Carthage and Macedonia had shown
+the rest of the world what it had to expect from Rome; and there was no
+lack of great men sufficiently endowed with courage and talents to
+resist her. The danger of a formidable league between Carthage, Syria,
+and perhaps Macedonia, was never so much to be feared, as when Hannibal,
+now at the head of affairs, laboured to effect it with all the zeal
+which his hatred of Rome could inspire; and they might calculate with
+certainty beforehand on the accession of many smaller states. Rome,
+however, by her equally decided and artful policy procured Hannibal's
+banishment from Carthage, amused Philip by granting him some trifling
+advantages, and gained over the smaller states by her ambassadors. By
+these means, and by taking advantage of the intrigues in the court of
+Syria, she prevented this coalition from being formed. Antiochus was
+therefore left without assistance in Greece, except from the Ætolians,
+and a few other unimportant allies; while Rome drew from hers,
+especially the Rhodians and Eumenes, advantages of the greatest
+consequence.
+
+  The first cause of contention between Rome and Antiochus was the
+  liberty of Greece, which the former wished to extend to the
+  Grecian cities of Asia, and to those in particular which had
+  belonged to Philip, and afterwards to Antiochus; while the latter
+  contended, that Rome had no right to intermeddle with the affairs
+  of Asia. The second cause of dispute was the occupation of the
+  Thracian Chersonesus by Antiochus, 196, in right of some ancient
+  pretensions; and Rome, on her part, would not tolerate him in
+  Europe. This quarrel therefore commenced as early as 196, but did
+  not become serious till the year 105, when in consequence of
+  Hannibal's flight to Antiochus, together with the turbulence and
+  excitement of the Ætolians, whose object it was to embroil the
+  rival powers, the political horizon was completely overcast. What
+  a fortunate thing it was for Rome that such men as Hannibal and
+  Antiochus could not understand each other!
+
+  HEYNE, _de foederum ad Romanorum opes imminuendas initorum eventis
+  eorumque causis; in Opusc._ vol. iii.
+
+11. This war was much sooner brought to a termination than the
+Macedonian, owing to the half-measures adopted by Antiochus. After
+having been driven from Greece by Glabrio, and after two naval victories
+had opened to the Romans the way to Asia, he felt inclined to act on the
+defensive; but in the battle near Magnesia at the foot of Mount Sipylus,
+L. Scipio gathered the laurels which more properly belonged to Glabrio.
+The total expulsion of Antiochus from Asia Minor, even before this
+victory, had been the chief object of the war. The conditions of peace
+(see above, p. 284.) were such, as not only weakened Antiochus, but
+reduced him to a state of dependence.
+
+  During this contest in the east, a sanguinary war was going on in
+  the west; from the year 201 in Spain, where the elder Cato
+  commanded; and from 193 in Italy itself, against the Ligurians.
+  Whatever may be said upon the means made use of by Rome to
+  increase the number of her citizens, it will always be difficult
+  to comprehend, not only how she could support all these wars
+  without being thereby weakened, but how at the same time she could
+  found so many colonies!
+
+12. Even after the termination of this war, Rome refrained with
+astonishing moderation from appearing in the light of a conqueror: it
+was only for the liberty of Greece, and for her allies, that she had
+contended! Without keeping a foot of land for herself, she divided, with
+the exception of the free Grecian cities, the conquered Asia Minor
+between Eumenes and the Rhodians; the manner, however, in which she
+dealt with the Ætolians, who after a long supplication for peace were
+obliged to buy it dearly, shows that she also knew how to treat
+unfaithful allies. The war against the Gauls in Asia Minor was not less
+necessary for the preservation of tranquillity in that country, than it
+was injurious to the morals and military discipline of the Roman army.
+They here learned to levy contributions.
+
+13. Thus, within the short space of ten years, was laid the foundation
+of the Roman authority in the east, and the general state of affairs
+entirely changed. If Rome was not yet the ruler, she was at least the
+arbitress of the world from the Atlantic to the Euphrates. The power of
+the three principal states was so completely humbled, that they durst
+not, without the permission of Rome, begin any new war; the fourth,
+Egypt, had already, in the year 201, placed herself under the
+guardianship of Rome; and the lesser powers followed of themselves:
+esteeming it an honour to be called the _allies of Rome_. With this name
+the nations were lulled into security, and brought under the Roman yoke;
+the new political system of Rome was founded and strengthened, partly by
+exciting and supporting the weaker states against the stronger, however
+unjust the cause of the former might be, and partly by factions which
+she found means to raise in every state, even the smallest.
+
+  Although the policy of Rome extended itself everywhere by means of
+  her commissioners, or ambassadors, yet she kept a more particular
+  guard against Carthage by favouring Masinissa at her expense,
+  against the Achæan league by favouring the Spartans, and against
+  Philip of Macedon by favouring every one who brought any complaint
+  against him (see above, p. 285).
+
+14. Although these new connections and this intercourse with foreign
+nations greatly aided the diffusion of knowledge and science, and was
+followed by a gradual improvement in her civilization, yet was it
+nevertheless, in many respects, detrimental to the internal state of
+Rome. The introduction of the scandalous Bacchanalia, which were
+immediately discovered and forbidden, shows how easily great vices may
+creep in among a people who are only indebted for their morality to
+their ignorance. Among the higher classes also the spirit of intrigue
+manifested itself to an astonishing degree; particularly by the attacks
+directed against the Scipios by the elder Cato, whose restless activity
+became the instrument of his malignant passions. The severity of his
+censorship did not repair the evils caused by his immorality and
+pernicious politics.
+
+  Voluntary exile of Scipio Africanus to Linternum, 187. He dies
+  there, 183, the same year in which Hannibal falls under the
+  continued persecution of Rome. His brother Scipio Asiaticus is
+  also unable to escape a trial and condemnation, 185. One would
+  have expected a sensible effect from the exile of these two great
+  men; but, in a state where the ruling power is in the hands of a
+  body like what the Roman senate was, the change of individuals is
+  but of little consequence.
+
+15. Fresh disputes arose, as early as 185, with Philip of Macedon, who
+soon found that they had spared him no longer than it suited their own
+convenience. Although the intervention of Philip's youngest son, upon
+whom the Romans had formed some design, prevented the powers from coming
+to an immediate rupture, and war was still further delayed by Philip's
+death, yet the national hatred descended to his successor, and continued
+to increase, notwithstanding an alliance concluded with him, until the
+war openly broke out (see above, p. 287).
+
+  The first circumstance which gave umbrage to Philip was the small
+  portion they permitted him to conquer in Athamania and Thessaly
+  during the war against Antiochus. But what sharpened his
+  animosity, much more than the object in dispute, was the conduct
+  of the Roman commissioners, before whom he, the king, was called
+  upon to defend himself as an accused party, 184. The exclamation
+  of Philip, that "the sun of every day had not yet set," showed his
+  indignation, and at the same time betrayed his intention. The
+  interval previous to the breaking out of the war was anything
+  rather than a time of peace for Rome; for besides that the Spanish
+  and Ligurian wars continued almost without intermission, the
+  revolts which broke out in Istria, 178, and in Sardinia and
+  Corsica, 176, produced much bloodshed.
+
+16. In the second Macedonian war, which ended with the destruction of
+Perseus and his kingdom (see above, p. 288), it required the active
+efforts of Roman policy to prevent a powerful confederacy from being
+formed against her; as Perseus used all his endeavours to stimulate, not
+only the Grecian states, and Thrace and Illyria, but also Carthage and
+Asia, to enter into alliance with him. Where was it that Rome did not at
+this crisis send her ambassadors? She did not, indeed, succeed so far as
+to leave her enemy quite alone, but prepared new triumphs for herself
+over the few allies she left him. The devastated Epirus, and Gentius
+king of Illyria, suffered dearly for the assistance they had lent him;
+the states also which had remained neuter, the Rhodians and Eumenes,
+were made to feel severely that they were the mere creatures of Rome.
+
+  Beginning of the Macedonian war, 171, before Rome was prepared; a
+  deceitful truce, which raised the indignation even of the elder
+  senators, was the means resorted to for gaining time.
+  Notwithstanding this, the war at first, 170 and 169, was
+  favourable to Perseus; but he wanted resolution and judgment to
+  enable him to turn his advantages to account. In 168, Paulus
+  Æmilius, an old general, against the usual custom of the Romans,
+  took the command. Bloody and decisive battle near Pydna, June 22,
+  168. So completely may one day overturn a kingdom which has only
+  an army for its support! Contemporary with this war, and highly
+  fortunate for Rome, was the war of Antiochus Epiphanes with Egypt.
+  No wonder that Rome did not, till 168, through Popilius, command
+  peace between them! (See above, p. 261.)
+
+17. The destruction of the Macedonian monarchy was attended with
+consequences equally disastrous to the conquerors and the conquered. To
+the first it soon gave the notion of becoming the masters of the world,
+instead of its arbiters; and it exposed the latter, for the next twenty
+years, to all the evils inseparable from such a catastrophe. The system
+of politics hitherto pursued by Rome could not last much longer; for if
+nations suffered themselves to be brought under the yoke by force, it
+was not to be expected that they would long be held in dependence under
+the specious name of liberty. But the state of things after this war was
+such as contributed to hasten a change in the form of the relations
+which existed between Rome and her allies.
+
+  The republican constitution given to the already ruined and
+  devastated Macedonians (see above, p. 288.) and Illyrians, and
+  which, according to the decree of the senate, "showed to all
+  people that Rome was ready to bestow liberty upon them," was
+  granted upon such hard conditions, that the enfranchised nation
+  soon used every endeavour to procure themselves a king. Greece
+  however suffered still more than Macedonia. Here, during the war,
+  the spirit of faction had risen to the highest pitch; and the
+  arrogant insolence of the Roman party, composed for the most part
+  of venal wretches, was so great, that they persecuted not only
+  those who had espoused an opposite faction, but even those who had
+  joined no faction at all. Rome nevertheless could not believe
+  herself secure, until she had destroyed, by a cruel artifice, all
+  her adversaries (see above, p. 288).
+
+18. Entirely in the same spirit did Rome proceed against the other
+states from whom she had anything to fear. These must be rendered
+defenceless; and every means of effecting that purpose was considered
+justifiable by the senate. The quarrels between the successors to the
+throne of Egypt were taken advantage of to cause dissensions in that
+kingdom (see above, p. 260); while Syria was retained in a state of
+tutelage, by keeping the rightful heir to the throne at Rome; and its
+military power neutralized by means of their ambassadors (see above, p.
+243).
+
+19. From these facts we may also conclude, that the injuries now
+meditated against Carthage were not separate projects, but rather formed
+part of the general system of Roman policy at this period, although
+particular events at one time retarded their execution, and at another
+hastened it. History, in recounting the incredibly bad treatment which
+Carthage had to endure before her fall, seems to have given a warning to
+those nations who can take it, of what they may expect from the
+domination of a powerful republic.
+
+  Cato was chief of the party which sought the destruction of
+  Carthage, both from a spirit of envy against Scipio Nasica, whom
+  he hated for his great influence in the senate; and because, when
+  ambassador to Carthage, he thought they did not treat him with
+  sufficient respect. But Masinissa's victory, 152 (see above, p.
+  88), and the defection of Utica, brought this project into
+  immediate play. Beginning of the war, 150, the Carthaginians
+  having been previously inveigled out of their arms. The city,
+  however, was not captured and destroyed till 146, by P. Scipio
+  Æmilianus. The Carthaginian territory, under the name of Africa,
+  was then made a Roman province.
+
+20. During this third war with Carthage, hostilities again broke out in
+Macedonia, which brought on a new war with Greece, and entirely changed
+the state of both these countries. In Macedonia, an impostor named
+Andriscus, who pretended to be the son of Philip, placed himself at the
+head of that highly disaffected people, assumed the name of Philip, and
+became, particularly by an alliance with the Thracians, very formidable
+to the Romans, until overcome by Metellus. Rome wishing to take
+advantage of this crisis to dissolve the Achæan league, the Achæan war
+broke out (see above, p. 289). This war was begun by Metellus, and
+terminated by Mummius with the destruction of Corinth. By reducing both
+Macedonia and Greece to the form of provinces, Rome now gave evident
+proof that no existing relations, nor any form of government, can
+prevent nations from being subjugated by a warlike republic, whenever
+circumstances render it possible.
+
+  It might have been expected, that the destruction of the two first
+  commercial cities in the world, in the same year, would have been
+  followed by important consequences to the course of trade; but the
+  trade of Carthage and Corinth had already been drawn to Alexandria
+  and Rhodes, otherwise Utica might, in some respects, have supplied
+  the place of Carthage.
+
+21. While Rome was thus destroying thrones and republics, she met in
+Spain with an antagonist--a simple Spanish countryman named
+Viriathus--whom, after six years' war, she could only rid herself of by
+assassination. The war, nevertheless, continued after his death against
+the Numantines, who would not be subjected, but were at last destroyed
+by Scipio Æmilianus.
+
+  The war against the Spaniards, who of all the nations subdued by
+  the Romans defended their liberty with the greatest obstinacy,
+  began in the year 200, six years after the total expulsion of the
+  Carthaginians from their country, 206. It was exceedingly
+  obstinate, partly from the natural state of the country, which was
+  thickly populated, and where every place became a fortress; partly
+  from the courage of the inhabitants; but above all, owing to the
+  peculiar policy of the Romans, who were wont to employ their
+  allies to subdue other nations. This war continued, almost without
+  interruption, from the year 200 to 133, and was for the most part
+  carried on at the same time in Hispania Citerior, where the
+  Celtiberi were the most formidable adversaries, and in Hispania
+  Ulterior, where the Lusitani were equally powerful. Hostilities
+  were at the highest pitch in 195, under Cato, who reduced
+  Hispania Citerior to a state of tranquillity 185-179, when the
+  Celtiberi were attacked in their native territory; and 155-150,
+  when the Romans in both provinces were so often beaten, that
+  nothing was more dreaded by the soldiers at home than to be sent
+  there. The extortions and perfidy of Servius Galba placed
+  Viriathus, in the year 146, at the head of his nation, the
+  Lusitani: the war, however, soon extended itself to Hispania
+  Citerior, where many nations, particularly the Numantines, took up
+  arms against Rome, 143. Viriathus, sometimes victorious and
+  sometimes defeated, was never more formidable than in the moment
+  of defeat; because he knew how to take advantage of his knowledge
+  of the country, and of the dispositions of his countrymen. After
+  his murder, caused by the treachery of Cæpio, 140, Lusitania was
+  subdued; but the Numantine war became still more violent, and the
+  Numantines compelled the consul Mancinus to a disadvantageous
+  treaty, 137. When Scipio, in the year 133, put an end to this war,
+  Spain was certainly tranquil; the northern parts, however, were
+  still unsubdued, though the Romans penetrated as far as Galatia.
+
+22. Towards the end of this period, the Romans obtained at a much
+cheaper rate the possession of one of their most important provinces;
+for the profligate Attalus III. king of Pergamus, bequeathing them the
+whole of his kingdom (on what account is uncertain, see above, p. 292.),
+they immediately took possession of it, and kept in spite of the
+resistance of the legitimate heir Aristonicus, merely ceding, as a
+recompense, Phrygia to Mithridates V. king of Pontus. Thus, by a stroke
+of the pen, the largest and finest part of Asia Minor became the
+property of Rome. If this extraordinary legacy was the work of Roman
+policy, she paid dearly enough, in the long run, for this accession to
+her power and riches, by the destruction of her morals, and the dreadful
+wars to which this legacy gave rise under Mithridates.
+
+23. The foreign possessions of Rome, besides Italy, comprised at this
+time under the name of provinces, a name of much higher signification in
+the Latin language than in any other, Hispania Citerior and Ulterior,
+Africa (the territory of Carthage), Sicily, Sardinia and Corsica,
+Liguria, and Cisalpine Gaul, in the west; and in the east, Macedonia,
+Achaia, and Asia (territory of Pergamus). The inhabitants of these
+countries were entirely subject to Rome. The administration of them was
+carried on by those who had enjoyed the office of consul, and by
+prætors, subordinate to whom were the quæstors, or collectors of the
+revenue. The highest military and civil powers were united in these
+governors; a principal cause of that horrible oppression which was soon
+felt. Troops were always kept up in the provinces; and the Latin
+language everywhere introduced (except only where Greek was spoken),
+that the inhabitants might be made as much like Romans as possible.
+
+  Till nearly the end of this period, prætors were expressly
+  appointed to each province. It was not till after the origin of
+  the _quæstiones perpetuæ_, that it became the custom for the
+  prætors who had vacated office, to succeed to the provinces
+  (_proprætores_), a principal cause of the degeneracy of the Roman
+  constitution.
+
+  C. SIGONIUS, _de Antiquo jure provinciarum in Grævii Thes. Antiq.
+  Rom._ vol. ii.
+
+24. The acquisition of these rich countries naturally had great
+influence in augmenting the revenue of the Romans. Though Rome was not
+indeed a state, like Carthage, altogether dependent upon finances, yet
+she kept these adjusted in a wonderful manner; a spirit of nice order
+being observed in this as well as in every other department of her
+administration. If in extraordinary emergencies recourse were had to
+native loans, to a change in the value of money, or a monopoly of salt,
+order was soon restored; while the booty obtained from conquered
+countries was also a great source of the public income so long indeed as
+it was reserved for the state, and did not become the prey of the
+generals.
+
+  Sources of the Roman revenue (_vectigalia_) were: 1. Tribute _a._
+  from the Roman citizens; that is to say, a property-tax imposed by
+  the senate according to the urgency of the case (which, however,
+  was remitted, for a long time, after the war with Perseus, 168,
+  being no longer necessary). _b._ Tribute of the allies (_socii_)
+  in Italy: which seems also to have been a property-tax; differing
+  in different places. _c._ Tribute of the provinces: in some a
+  heavy poll-tax, in others taxes on property; in all, however, they
+  were paid in natural productions, mostly ordinary, though
+  sometimes extraordinary, as well for the salary of the governor as
+  for the supply of the capital. 2. The revenue from the national
+  domains (_ager publicus_), both in Italy (especially Campania) and
+  in the provinces; the tythes (_decumæ_) of which were paid by
+  means of leases for four years, granted by the censors. 3. The
+  revenue from the customs (_portoria_), collected in the seaports
+  and frontier towns. 4. The revenue arising from the mines
+  (_metalla_), particularly the Spanish silver mines; the
+  proprietors of which were obliged to pay a duty to the state. 5.
+  The duty upon enfranchised slaves (_aurum vicesimarium_). All
+  receipts flowed into the national treasury, the _ærarium_; all
+  outgoings were exclusively ordered by the senate; and the people
+  were consulted as little with regard to them as they were
+  respecting the imposts. The officers employed were the
+  _quæstores_, under whom were the _scribæ_, divided into
+  _decurias_, who, though certainly subordinate, had nevertheless
+  great influence. Their services, as they were not yearly changed,
+  must have been indispensable to the _quæstores_ for the time
+  being; and the whole management of affairs, at least in detail,
+  must have fallen into their hands.
+
+  Upon the finances of Rome, the best work at present is:--
+
+  P. BURMANNI, _Vectigalia Populi Romani_. Leyden, 1734, 4to.
+
+  Two excellent treatises have since appeared in German upon this
+  subject:--
+
+  # D. H. HEGEWISCH, _Essay upon Roman Finances_. Antona, 1804, and
+
+  # R. BOSSE, _Sketch of the System of Finance in the Roman State_.
+  Brunswick, 1803, 2 parts. Both include the periods of the republic
+  and the monarchy.
+
+
+
+
+THIRD PERIOD.
+
+_From the beginning of the civil broils under the Gracchi, to the fall
+of the republic. B. C. 134-30. Year of Rome, 620-724._
+
+
+  SOURCES. Concerning the first half of this important period of the
+  republic, down to the time of Cicero, we are sadly in want of precise
+  information. Not one of the contemporary writers has been preserved to
+  us, nor indeed any one of the later historians who have compiled a
+  history of the whole period. APPIAN, _de Bellis Civilibus_; PLUTARCH,
+  in his _Lives of the Gracchi_; and the spirited _Compendium_ of VEL.
+  PATERCULUS, are, for this portion, our principal authorities; and even
+  the imperfect summaries of the lost books of Livy, so masterly
+  supplied by Freinshemius here become of importance. For the times
+  which follow, the _Jugurtha_ and _Cataline_ of Sallust, are two
+  excellent historical cabinet pieces, and become the more valuable for
+  the insight they at the same time give us of the internal condition of
+  Rome. His great work, however, _The Histories_, is, with the exception
+  of a few precious fragments, unfortunately lost. For the times of
+  CÆSAR and CICERO, we have the _Commentaries_ of the first, and the
+  _Orations_ and _Letters_ of the latter; both fertile sources of
+  information. What is left us of DIO CASSIUS'S _History_, begins with
+  the year 69 before Christ. Of PLUTARCH'S _Lives_, besides those of
+  the Gracchi, the following are connected with this period: C. MARIUS,
+  SYLLA, LUCULLUS, CRASSUS, SERTORIUS, CATO OF UTICA, CICERO, BRUTUS,
+  and ANTONIUS. Upon the sources for these lives, see my treatises cited
+  above, p. 321.
+
+  Among the moderns, the greater part of this period is particularly
+  treated of by:--
+
+  DE BROSSES, _Histoire de la République Romaine dans le cours du VIIe
+  Siècle par Salluste_, à Dijou, 1777, 3 vols. 4to.
+
+  In German by J. C. SCHLEUTER, 1790, etc. with remarks, 4 vols. The
+  editor of this capital work had an idea of translating Sallust, and
+  supplying what is lost. It contains, besides a translation of Jugurtha
+  and Cataline, the period between both, of which Sallust treats in his
+  _Histories_: that is, from Sylla's abdication, B. C. 79-67; and is
+  equally important for its own merits and for the period to which it
+  belongs.
+
+  VERTOT, _Histoire des révolutions arrivées dans le gouvernement de la
+  République Romaine_. Paris, 1796, 6 vols. 12mo. Although this justly
+  esteemed work includes the foregoing period, it is particularly
+  valuable for the present.
+
+  MABLY, _Observations sur les Romains_. Genève, 1751, 2 vols. 8vo. A
+  survey of the internal history; ingenious, but as superficial as the
+  _Observations sur les Grecs_ by the same author.
+
+1. The foregoing period is composed of the history of foreign wars
+alone; in this, on the contrary, Rome appears in a continual state of
+internal commotion. And if foreign hostilities interrupt this state of
+things for a short time, it is only that it may be renewed with more
+violence, till at last it ends in a furious civil war. As the almost
+boundless power of the senate had laid the foundation of an exceedingly
+hateful family aristocracy, against which the tribunes of the people
+arrayed themselves, in the character of powerful demagogues, there arose
+a new struggle between the aristocratic and democratic parties, which
+almost immediately grew into two powerful factions. This contest, from
+its extent and its consequences, soon became much more important than
+the ancient one between the patricians and the plebeians.
+
+  This family aristocracy gradually arose from the power of the
+  magistrates, who now not only enjoyed a very high political
+  importance, but, by the government of the provinces, acquired immense
+  wealth. The present aristocracy, then, consisted of the ruling
+  families (_nobiles_) concentrated in the senate. The struggle with the
+  opposite party, the people (_plebs_), became so much the more violent
+  in consequence of the great abuses which had crept into the
+  administration, particularly in the division of the lands of the
+  republic; the ruling families securing to themselves the fruits of all
+  the victories and conquests, while the power of the democracy, by the
+  vast accumulation of people (without the means of livelihood, although
+  voting in the _comitia_), especially of enfranchised slaves, who,
+  though strangers, mostly without power or property, formed,
+  nevertheless, the greater part of what was then called the Roman
+  people.
+
+  G. AL. RUPERTI, _Stemmata gentium Romanarum_. Goett. 1795, 8vo. Almost
+  indispensable for obtaining a clear insight into the history of the
+  Roman families, and of course into that of the state.
+
+2. Commencement of the disturbances under the tribunate of Tib.
+Sempronius Gracchus, whom former connections had long made the man of
+the people. His desire was to relieve the distress of the lower orders;
+and the means whereby he hoped to do this was a better division of the
+lands of the republic, now almost exclusively in the hands of the
+aristocracy. His reform, therefore, naturally led at once to a struggle
+with that party. Tib. Gracchus however soon found, by experience, that a
+demagogue cannot stop where he would, however pure his intentions may be
+at first; and no sooner had he obtained a prolongation of his term of
+office, in opposition to the usual custom, than he fell a sacrifice to
+his undertaking.
+
+  The first agrarian law of Gracchus was confirmed by the people,
+  notwithstanding the fruitless opposition of his colleague Octavius,
+  who was deposed; it decreed, that no person should possess above five
+  hundred acres of land, nor any child above half that quantity. This
+  law was, in fact, only a renewal of the ancient _lex Licinia_; in the
+  condition, however, in which Rome now was, it bore much harder upon
+  the property usurped by the great families, than it did in former
+  times. Appointment of a committee for dividing the national lands, and
+  for enquiring also at the same time which were the property of the
+  state (_ager publicus_) and which were not. New popular propositions
+  of the elder Gracchus, especially that for the division of the
+  treasures left by king Attalus of Pergamus, with the view of securing
+  his continuance in office; great insurrection of the aristocratic
+  party under Scipio Nasica, and murder of Tiberius Gracchus, on the day
+  of electing the new tribunes of the people.
+
+3. The fall of the chief of the new party, however, occasioned any thing
+rather than its destruction. Not only was there no mention of an
+abrogation of the agrarian law, but the senate was obliged to allow the
+place in the commission, which had become vacant by the death of
+Gracchus, to be filled up; and Scipio Nasica himself was sent out of the
+way, under the pretext of an embassy to Asia. The party of the senate
+did, indeed, find a powerful support for a short time in the return of
+Scipio Æmilianus (_d._ 129) from Spain; but its greatest support was
+found in the difficulties of the law itself, which prevented its
+execution.
+
+  Great revolt of the slaves in Sicily under Eunus, 134-131. This
+  contributed not a little to keep alive the dissensions, as it showed
+  the necessity of a reform.
+
+4. Evident endeavours of the tribunes of the people to increase their
+power, Gracchus having now awakened them to a sense of it. Not satisfied
+with a seat and voice in the senate, Carbo wished that the renewing of
+their dignity should be passed into a law. By the removal, however, of
+the chiefs of the lower party, upon honourable pretexts, new troubles
+were put off for some years.
+
+  First establishment of the Roman power in Transalpine Gaul by M.
+  Fulvius Flaccus, on the occasion of his being sent to the assistance
+  of Massilia, 128. Southern Gaul became a Roman province as early as
+  122, in consequence of the defeat of the Allobrogi and Averni by Q.
+  Fabius, who had been sent against them to support the Ædui, the allies
+  of Rome. Capture of the Balearian isles by Metellus, 123. Quæstorship
+  of C. Gracchus in Sicily, 128-125.
+
+5. These palliative remedies, however, availed nothing after the return
+of C. Gracchus from Sicily with a full determination to tread in the
+footsteps of his brother. Like him, it is true, he fell a victim to his
+enterprise; but the storm that he raised during the two years of his
+tribunate fell so much the more heavily, as the popular excitement was
+more general, and from his possessing more of the shining talents
+necessary to form a powerful demagogue than his brother.
+
+  First tribunate of C. Gracchus, 123. Renewal of the agrarian law, and
+  rendering its provisions more strict. Nevertheless, as he increased
+  the fermentation by his popular measures and by acting the demagogue,
+  and obtained the renewal of the tribunate for the following year, 122,
+  he so far extended his plan, as to render it not only highly dangerous
+  to the aristocracy, but even to the state itself. Establishment of
+  distributions of corn to the poor people. Plan for the formation of
+  the knights (_ordo equestris_) into a political body, as a
+  counterbalance to the senate, by conferring on it the right of
+  administering justice, (_judicia_,) which was taken from the senate.
+  Still more important project of granting to the Italian allies the
+  privileges of Roman citizenship; and also the formation of colonies,
+  not only in Campania, but also out of Italy, in Carthage. The highly
+  refined policy of the senate, however, by lessening this man of the
+  people in the eyes of his admirers, through the assistance of the
+  tribune Livius Drusius, prevented his complete triumph; and, once
+  declining, Gracchus soon experienced the fate of every demagogue,
+  whose complete fall is then irretrievable. General insurrection, and
+  assassination of C. Gracchus, 121.
+
+6. The victory of the aristocratic faction was this time not only much
+more certain and bloody, they turned the advantages it gave them to such
+good account, that they eluded the agrarian law of Gracchus, and indeed,
+at last, completely abrogated it. But the seeds of discord already
+disseminated, especially among the Italian allies, could not be so soon
+checked, when once the subjects of these states had conceived the idea
+that they were entitled to a share in the government. How soon these
+party struggles might be renewed, or indeed a civil war break out,
+depended almost entirely upon foreign circumstances, and the chance of a
+bolder leader being found.
+
+  Agrarian law evaded: at first by repealing an act which prohibited the
+  transfer of the national lands already divided, whereby the patricians
+  were enabled to buy them again;--afterwards by the _lex Thoria:_
+  complete stop put to all further divisions, a land-tax, to be
+  distributed among the people, being instituted in its stead; but even
+  this latter was very soon annulled.
+
+  # D. H. HEGEWISCH, _History of the Civil Wars of the Gracchi_.
+  Altona, 1801.
+
+  # _History of the Revolution of the Gracchi in my Miscellaneous
+  Historical Works._ Vol. iii. 1821.
+
+7. Visible effects of this party spirit upon public morals, which now
+began to decline the more rapidly, in proportion to the increase of
+foreign connections. Neither the severity of the censorship, nor the
+laws against luxury (_leges sumtuariæ_), nor those which now became
+necessary against celibacy, could be of much service in this respect.
+This degeneracy was not only to be found in the cupidity of the higher
+ranks, but also in the licentiousness of the lower orders.
+
+  Luxury in Rome was first displayed in the public administration (owing
+  to the excessive accumulation of wealth in the treasury, especially
+  during the Macedonian wars) before it infected private life; and the
+  avarice of the great long preceded the latter. The sources from whence
+  they satisfied this passion were found in the extortions of the
+  governors of provinces, their great power, and the distance from Rome
+  rendering the _leges repetundarum_ of but little effect. Probably the
+  endeavours of the allied princes and kings to gain a party in the
+  senate was a still more fruitful source, as they could obtain their
+  end only by purchase, and so gave a new impulse to the cupidity and
+  intriguing disposition of the members of that council. But private
+  luxury requires everywhere some time to ripen. It attained its height
+  immediately after the Mithridatic wars.
+
+  # D. MEINER, _History of the Corruption of the Morals and Constitution
+  of the Romans_. Leips. 1782.
+
+  # MEIEROTTO, _Morals and Manners of the Romans at different periods of
+  the Republic_. Berlin, 1776. Which considers the subject in several
+  points of view.
+
+  # C. A. BOTTIGER, _Sabina, or, morning scenes at the toilette of a
+  rich Roman lady_. Leips. 1806, 2 vols. A true and lively description
+  of the luxury of the Roman ladies, but principally at its most
+  brilliant period. It has been translated into French.
+
+8. This corruption was manifested in a striking manner in the next
+great war that Rome entered into, which was in Africa, against Jugurtha
+of Numidia, the adopted grandson of Masinissa; and soon after against
+his ally Bocchus of Mauritania. This war, kindled and maintained by the
+avarice of the Roman nobles, which Jugurtha had already had an
+opportunity of knowing at the siege of Numantia, paved the way to the
+aggrandizement of C. Marius, a new demagogue, who, being also a
+formidable general, did much more harm to the state than even the
+Gracchi.
+
+  Commencement of the quarrel of Jugurtha with the two sons of Micipsa,
+  and assassination of Hiempsal, one of them, 118.--When the other,
+  Adherbal, arrived at Rome, 117, the party of Jugurtha had already
+  succeeded, and obtained a partition of the kingdom. New attack upon
+  Adherbal, who is besieged in Cirta, and, notwithstanding the repeated
+  embassies of Rome to Jugurtha, is compelled to surrender, and is put
+  to death, 112. The tribune C. Memmius constrains the senate to declare
+  war against Jugurtha; but Jugurtha purchases a peace of the consul
+  Calpurnius Piso, 111.--Nevertheless Memmius hinders the ratification
+  of the peace, and Jugurtha is required to justify himself at Rome. He
+  would probably, however, have bought his acquittal, if the murder of
+  his kinsman Massiva, 110, by the help of Bomilcar, had not rendered it
+  impossible. The war is renewed under the consul Sp. Albinus and his
+  brother Aulus, 110, but with very little success, until the
+  incorruptible Q. Metellus took the command, 109, who would have put an
+  end to it, notwithstanding the great talents now displayed as a
+  general by Jugurtha, and his alliance with Bocchus, 108, had he not
+  been supplanted by Marius, who obtains the consulship by his
+  popularity, 107. Marius is obliged to have recourse to perfidy to get
+  Jugurtha into his hands, who is betrayed by Bocchus, 106. Numidia is
+  divided between Bocchus and two grandsons of Masinissa, Hiempsal and
+  Hiarbas.
+
+9. The elevation of Marius to the consulate not only humbled the power
+of the aristocracy, but also showed, for the first time, that the way
+was open to a man of low birth (_homo novus_) to the highest offices;
+the method, however, which he had taken to form his army, entirely
+against the Roman custom, that is, of composing it of the lower orders
+(_capite censis_) must have rendered him doubly formidable.
+Nevertheless, he would scarcely have effected so great a change in the
+constitution, if a new and terrible war had not rendered his services
+indispensable:--this was the threatened invasion of the Cimbri and
+Teutones the most powerful nations of the north, during which a new and
+violent rebellion of the slaves was raging in Sicily:--for after the
+defeat of so many Roman armies, the people believed that no one but the
+conqueror of Jugurtha could save Italy; and Marius knew so well how to
+turn this to account, that he remained consul during four successive
+years.
+
+  The Cimbri, or Cimmerians, probably a nation of German origin, from
+  beyond the Black sea, originated a popular migration which extended
+  from thence as far as Spain. Their march was perhaps occasioned, or
+  accelerated, by the Scythian war of Mithridates; and their course,
+  like that of most nomad races, was from east to west along the Danube.
+  They had already, in 113, defeated the consul Papirius Carbo, near
+  Noreia in Styria. In their progress towards the west they were joined
+  by German, Celtic, and Helvetic tribes (the _Teutones_, _Ambrones_,
+  and _Tigurians_).--Attack Roman Gaul, 109, where they demand
+  settlements and defeat Junius Silanus the consul.--Defeat of L.
+  Cassius Longinus and M. Aurelius Scaurus, 107.--Great defeat of the
+  Romans in Gaul, 105, occasioned by the disagreement of their generals,
+  the consuls, Cn. Manlius and Q. Servius Cæpio. Marius obtains the
+  command, and remains consul from 104-101. The migrations of the
+  Cimbri--a part of whom reach the Pyrenees, but are driven back by the
+  Celtiberians, 103--give Marius time to complete his army. In 102,
+  after dividing themselves, they first attempted to penetrate into
+  Italy: the Teutones through Provence, and the Cimbri by Tyrol.--Great
+  defeat and slaughter of the Teutones by Marius, near Aix, 102.--The
+  Cimbri, on the contrary, effect an invasion and make progress till
+  Marius comes to the help of Catulus. Great battle and defeat of the
+  Cimbri near the Po, July 30, 101.
+
+  J. MULLER, _Bellum Cimbricum_. Tigur, 1772. A youthful essay of that
+  celebrated historian. Compare
+
+  # MANNERT, _Geography,_ etc. part iii.
+
+10. Although during this war the power of the popular party had sensibly
+increased, yet the storm did not break out until Marius _bought_ his
+sixth consulate. Now, even in Rome itself, he wished to avenge himself
+upon his enemies; and what could the senate do, when it had at its head
+a demagogue in the consul himself?--His league with the tribune
+Saturnius, and the prætor Glaucias, forming already a true triumvirate,
+would have overthrown the republic after the expulsion of Metellus, if
+the unbridled licentiousness of the rabble connected with his allies had
+not obliged him to break with them, lest he should sacrifice the whole
+of his popularity.
+
+  The measures of this cabal, who wished to appear as if treading in the
+  steps of the Gracchi, were principally directed against Q. Metellus,
+  the chief of the party of the senate, and who, since the African war,
+  had been the mortal foe of Marius. After the exile of Metellus,
+  occasioned by his opposition to a new agrarian law, this faction
+  usurped the rights of the people, and lorded it in the committees;
+  until, at a new election of consuls, a general revolt, favoured by
+  Marius himself, took place of all the well-disposed citizens against
+  them; Saturnius and Glaucias were besieged in the capitol, forced to
+  surrender, and executed. The return of Metellus from his voluntary
+  exile soon followed, 92, much against the will of Marius, who was
+  obliged to retire into Asia.
+
+11. The few years of tranquillity which Rome now enjoyed, brought to
+maturity many benefits and many evils, the seeds of which had been
+already sown. On one hand the rising eloquence of Antonius, Crassus, and
+others, was employed with effect against the oppressors of the provinces
+in the state trials (_questiones_); and some generous spirits used all
+their endeavours to heal the wounds of Sicily, Asia, and other
+provinces, by a better administration; while, on the other hand, the
+power of the _ordo equestris_ became a source of much abuse: for besides
+their right to sit in the tribunals (_judiciis_), which C. Gracchus had
+conferred upon them, they had also obtained the farming of the leases,
+and thereby the collection of the revenue in the provinces; by which
+means they were enabled not only to oppose every reform that was
+attempted in the latter, but even at Rome to hold the senate in a state
+of dependence. The struggle which now arose between them and the senate
+respecting the _judicia_ (or right to preside in the tribunal), was one
+of the most fatal to the republic, as this right was abused by them for
+the purpose of satisfying their personal rancour, and oppressing the
+greatest men. The tribune M. Livius Drusus the younger, it is true,
+wrested from them half their power; but, alas! the manner in which he
+did it kindled into a flame the fire which had been smouldering from the
+time of the Gracchi.
+
+  Acquisition of Cyrene by the testament of king Apion, 97;
+  notwithstanding which it maintained its independence, although
+  probably by paying a tribute. Adjustment of the differences between
+  the kings of Asia Minor by the prætor Sylla, 92 (see above, p. 294).
+
+12. Revolt of the Italian tribes, who desire to obtain the right of
+Roman citizens; whereupon the bloody _war of the allies_ ensues.
+Although the oppression of Rome had been preparing this war for a long
+time, yet it was an immediate consequence of the intrigues of the Roman
+demagogues, who since the law of the younger Gracchus, had, with the
+view of making themselves popular, continually flattered the allies with
+the hope of sharing the privileges of Roman citizenship. It was however
+soon seen, that the allies were not at a loss among themselves for
+leaders, capable of forming great plans and executing them with vigour.
+Italy was about to become a republic, with Corfinium for its capital
+instead of Rome. Neither could Rome have saved herself from such an
+event, but by gradually permitting the allies to enjoy the complete
+freedom of the city.
+
+  After the civil wars of the Gracchi, large bands of the allies were
+  continually flocking to Rome. These were in the pay of the demagogues,
+  whom the _lex Licinia_, 95, had banished from Rome, and thereby laid
+  the foundation of the revolt. From that time the conspiracy among
+  these tribes began, and attained without interruption such a degree of
+  maturity, that the carelessness of Rome can only be accounted for from
+  the party fury which then existed, and which the _lex Varia_, 91,
+  enacted against the promoters of rebellion, served only to inflame the
+  more. The murder of the tribune Livius Drusus, 91, a very ambiguous
+  character, brought the affair to an open rupture. In this alliance
+  were the Marsi, Picentes, Peligni, Marrucini, Frentani, the Samnites,
+  who played a principal part, the Hirpini, Apuli, and the Lucani. In
+  this war, which was so much the more bloody, as it was mostly composed
+  of separate contests and sieges, especially of the Roman colonies, Cn.
+  Pompeius the elder, L. Cato, Marius, and, above all, Sylla,
+  particularly distinguished themselves on the side of the Romans; and
+  among the generals of the allies Pompadias, C. Papius,
+  etc.--Concession of the freedom of the city, first to such allies as
+  remained faithful, the Latins, Umbrians, etc. by the _lex Julia_, 91;
+  afterwards, by degrees, to the remainder by the _lex Plotia_. Some,
+  nevertheless, still continued in arms.
+
+  HEYNE, _de Belli Socialis causis et eventu, in Opusc._ t. iii.
+
+13. The war now just ended, essentially changed the constitution of
+Rome, as she no longer remained, as hitherto, the exclusive head of the
+whole state; and although the new citizens were only formed into eight
+tribes, yet their influence must soon have been felt in the committees,
+on account of the readiness with which they promoted factions. Besides
+this, the long-cherished private hatred between Marius and Sylla was
+greatly strengthened by this war, as Sylla's fame was considerably
+raised thereby, while that of Marius was proportionably diminished. An
+opportunity was only wanted, like that which the first Pontine war soon
+furnished, to stir up a new civil war, which threatened to destroy the
+liberty of Rome.
+
+14. Alliance of Marius with the tribune Sulpicius, with the view of
+wresting from Sylla the command of the forces against Mithridates,
+already conferred upon him by the senate. The ease with which Sylla, at
+the head of an army on which he could depend, expelled the chiefs of
+this party, seems to have left him ignorant of the fact, that the party
+itself was not thereby destroyed. However judicious may have been his
+other measures, the elevation of Cinna to the consulship was an error in
+policy of which Italy had still more reason to repent than himself. How
+much blood might have been spared if Sylla had not unseasonably wished
+to become popular!
+
+  Proposition of Sulpicius for an indiscriminate distribution of the new
+  citizens and freemen among all the tribes of Italy, that he might
+  thereby gain a strong party in his favour, which, by a violent
+  assembly of the people, transfers the command from Sylla to Marius.
+  March of Sylla upon Rome, and expulsion of Marius, who, by a series of
+  adventures almost surpassing belief, escapes to Africa and is
+  proscribed with his son and ten of his partisans. Reestablishment of
+  the power of the senate, whose number is made up by three hundred
+  knights. Sylla, after having caused his friend C. Octavius and his
+  enemy L. Cinna to be elected consuls, hastens back to Greece.
+
+15. First war against Mithridates the Great. Sylla gains several
+victories over that king's generals in Greece; wrests from him all his
+conquests, and restricts him to his hereditary dominions. Rome since the
+time of Hannibal had met with no such powerful opponent as the king of
+Pontus, who in a few months had become master of all Asia Minor,
+Macedonia, and Greece, and threatened even Italy itself; we must besides
+consider, that the war on the side of Rome was carried on in a manner
+altogether different from that of any previous one; as Sylla, after the
+victory of the opposite party, being himself proscribed in Rome, was
+obliged to continue it with his own army, and his own private resources.
+The unfortunate countries which were the theatre of this war, felt as
+many calamities during the struggle, as Italy was doomed to suffer after
+its close.
+
+  Commencement of the war by Mithridates before the termination of that
+  of the allies, 89, by taking possession of Cappadocia and Paphlagonia.
+  He was not less formidable by his alliance with the tribes along the
+  Danube, and his navy, than by his land forces; and the irritation of
+  the people of Asia against Rome rendered his enterprise still more
+  easy. Double victory over Nicomedes king of Bithynia and the Roman
+  general M. Aquilius, followed by the conquest of all Asia Minor except
+  the isle of Rhodes. Massacre of all the Roman citizens in the states
+  of Asia Minor. Expedition of the king's army into Greece, under the
+  command of his general Archelaus, who makes Athens the theatre of the
+  war, 88. Siege and capture of that unfortunate town by Sylla, 1st
+  March, 87. Repeated great defeats of Mithridates's army under the
+  command of Archelaus, near Chalcis, and afterwards near Orchomenus, by
+  Sylla, 86, whose general plan was formed upon the entire destruction
+  of his enemies. Negotiations for peace commenced by Archelaus, and
+  finally settled at a personal conference between Sylla and
+  Mithridates. The adverse party in Rome, however, had in the mean time
+  sent a new army into Asia Minor, to act as well against Sylla as
+  against Mithridates, under the command of L. Valerius Flaccus, who,
+  however, is assassinated by his lieutenant Fimbria. The latter gains
+  some advantages over the king, but, being shut up by Sylla, kills
+  himself. Owing to the licentiousness of his army, which Sylla dared
+  not restrain; and the heavy contributions exacted by him in Asia Minor
+  after the peace, in order to carry on the war in Italy, 84; together
+  with the bodies of pirates formed out of the fleet disbanded by
+  Mithridates, these unfortunate countries were almost ruined; the
+  opulent cities more especially.
+
+16. But during this war a new revolution took place in Rome, which not
+only overthrew the order reestablished by Sylla, but also, by the
+victory of the democratic faction under Cinna and Marius, gave rise to a
+wild anarchy of the people, and which the death of Marius, alas, too
+late for Rome! only rendered more destructive; as the leaders themselves
+could no longer restrain the savage hordes of their own party. However
+dreadful the prospect of the return of Sylla might seem, it was
+nevertheless the only hope that remained for all those who had not
+joined the popular faction, or had not some connection with its leaders.
+
+  Revolt of Cinna, brought on by the proscriptions, soon after the
+  departure of Sylla; Cinna, by distributing the new citizens into all
+  the tribes, hoped to raise himself a party; but C. Octavius, at the
+  head of the senate and ancient citizens, drove him from Rome, and
+  forced him to give up the consulship, 87. He however soon raised a
+  powerful army in Campania, and recalled Marius from exile. Capture and
+  pillage of Rome, already weakened by famine, and horrible massacre of
+  the inhabitants; after which Marius and Cinna name themselves consuls
+  and banish Sylla. Death of Marius, 13th Jan. 86. C. Papirius Carbo
+  succeeds him in the consulship. The mediation of the senate is
+  useless, as the chiefs of both parties can only hope for security by
+  the annihilation of their adversaries. The murder of Cinna by his own
+  soldiers, 84, entirely deprives the dominant faction of a competent
+  leader. Neither the cowardly Carbo, although he remained consul alone,
+  nor the stupid Norbanus, nor the youth C. Marius (the son), had
+  sufficient personal authority for that purpose; and Sertorius leaves
+  Italy in good time to kindle a new flame in Spain.
+
+17. Return of Sylla to Italy, and a terrible civil war, which ends only
+with the extermination of the democratic faction, and his own elevation
+to the perpetual dictatorship. Although his enemies had so much
+advantage over him in point of numbers, yet their party was so little
+consolidated, that he with his veterans could not fail to obtain an easy
+victory. The slaughter during this war fell for the most part upon the
+Italian tribes, who had joined the party of Marius, and this afforded
+Sylla the means of giving settlements to his own soldiers; but most of
+the horrors of this revolution which fell to the share of Rome, were
+reserved till the day of victory was past. Sylla's proscription, which
+should only have punished his personal enemies, was the signal for a
+general massacre, as every one took that opportunity to rid himself of
+his private foes; and avarice did as much as vengeance. Who in these
+days, so terrible to Italy, was sure of his life or property? And yet,
+when we consider the dreadful circumstances which attended the foregoing
+dominion of the people, deduct all that was done without Sylla's
+knowledge, and consider how much he was obliged to do in order to
+satisfy his army, we shall find it difficult to say how far he deserves
+the reproach of wanton cruelty.
+
+  Sylla's arrival; victory over Norbanus immediately after, and
+  seduction of the army of the consul Scipio, 82. After this almost
+  every person of distinction declared in his favour, and the young
+  Pompey having brought to him an army which he had himself raised, his
+  party acquired more consideration, and himself more power. Victory
+  over the younger Marius, near Sacriportum, who throws himself into
+  Præneste, where he is besieged. But the great and decisive battle
+  gained before the gates of Rome, over the Samnites under the command
+  of Telisinus, is followed by the fall of Præneste and the capture of
+  Rome. After the proscription which immediately ensued, Sylla is
+  created perpetual dictator, and secures his power in Rome by the
+  emancipation of ten thousand slaves, whose masters he had proscribed;
+  and in Italy by colonies of his veterans, whom he establishes at the
+  expense of his enemies.
+
+18. Great reform in the constitution during the two years' dictatorship
+of Sylla. The aristocracy of the senate, which he filled up with
+knights, was not only reestablished, but he also stopped the sources
+from which the great disorders of the democracy had hitherto proceeded.
+It seems probable that his natural indolence, which led him to prefer a
+life of luxurious ease to one of laborious activity, when he was no
+longer spurred to the latter by his passions, was the chief cause of his
+voluntary abdication. He had, however, the great advantage over Marius,
+of not being the sport of his own feelings. The conduct of Sylla,
+indeed, was so consistent throughout, that it satisfactorily shows he
+knew very well what was his ultimate aim--which Marius never did.
+
+  Internal regulations of Sylla by the _leges Corneliæ_. 1. Law to
+  restrain the influence of the tribunes, by taking from them their
+  legislative power. 2. Law respecting the succession to the magistracy;
+  the number of prætors fixed to eight, and the quæstors to twenty. 3.
+  _Lex de majestate_, especially to limit the power of the governors of
+  provinces, and to abolish their exactions. 4. _Lex de judiciis_,
+  whereby the _judicia_ were again restored to the senate. 5. Several
+  police regulations, _de sicariis_, _de veneficiis_, etc. for the
+  preservation and tranquillity of Rome, upon which everything depended.
+  6. The _lex de civitate_, taking from the Latins and several Italian
+  cities and tribes the privileges of Roman citizens, upon which they
+  set so much store, although we scarcely know in what they consisted.
+  _Foreign wars_: War in Africa against the leaders of the democratic
+  faction, Cn. Domitius and king Hiarbas, which is ended by a triumph to
+  Pompey, 80. Second war against Mithridates begun by Murena, in hopes
+  of obtaining a triumph, to whom Archelaus came over; but which, under
+  the command of Sylla, terminates in an accommodation.
+
+19. Nevertheless it was impossible that the enactments of Sylla should
+be long observed; as the evil lay too deep to be eradicated by laws.
+A free state like that of Rome, with no middle class, must, from its
+nature, be exposed to continual convulsions, and these will be more or
+less violent in proportion to its greatness. Besides, as in the last
+revolution almost all property had changed hands, there was spread
+over all Italy a powerful party, who desired nothing so much as a
+counter-revolution. And to this we may add, that there were many young
+men, such as Lucullus, Crassus, and above all Pompey, who had opened to
+themselves a career during the late troubles, which they would scarcely
+yet wish to bring to a close. It will not then appear strange, that
+immediately after the death of Sylla (! 88), a consul, M. Æmilius
+Lepidus, should form the design of becoming a second Marius; a design
+which could only be frustrated by the courage and activity of such a
+patriotic citizen as Q. Lutatius Catulus, his colleague.
+
+  Attempt of Lepidus to rescind the acts of Sylla, 78. Defeated, first
+  before Rome and again in Etruria, by Catulus and Pompey, 77, after
+  which he dies in Sardinia.
+
+20. But much more dangerous for Rome might have been the civil war
+kindled by Sertorius in Spain, if the plan of that exalted republican to
+invade Italy had succeeded. Even Pompey himself, after a six years'
+struggle, would hardly have prevented it, had it not been for the
+worthlessness of the Roman vagabonds who surrounded him, and his
+assassination by Perpenna. The rapid termination of the war after the
+fall of its conductor, is a circumstance much more creditable to
+Sertorius than to the conqueror Pompey.
+
+  The forces of Sertorius in Spain, consisted not only of the party of
+  Marius which he had collected, but more essentially of the Spaniards,
+  particularly the Lusitanians, whom he had inspired with an unbounded
+  confidence in himself. Very variable success of the war against
+  Metellus and Pompey, who receive but very little support from Rome,
+  77-75. Negotiation of Sertorius with Mithridates the Great, and
+  interchange of embassies without any important result, 75. Sertorius
+  assassinated by Perpenna, 72.
+
+21. Before, however, the flame of war was totally extinguished in the
+west, Mithridates kindled a new and much fiercer one in the east; at the
+same time a war of slaves and gladiators was raging with terrible fury
+in Italy itself; and whole fleets of pirates not only ravaged the
+Italian coasts, but threatened Rome herself with a famine, and obliged
+her to have recourse to a mode of naval warfare altogether peculiar. All
+these enemies were not without intelligence with one another; and
+colossal as was the power of the republic at that time, and rich as Rome
+was in distinguished men, it seems probable that the storm which beat on
+every side between 75-71, would have razed her to the ground, if a
+stricter alliance could have been formed between Sertorius, Spartacus,
+and Mithridates. But the great difficulty of communication which at that
+time existed, and without which probably a republic such as the Roman
+never could have been formed, proved of more assistance at this crisis
+than at any other.
+
+  The third Mithridatic war, occasioned by the will of Nicomedes king of
+  Bithynia, who had bequeathed his kingdom to Rome (see above, p. 294),
+  was carried on in Asia Minor, first by Lucullus, 74-67, and afterwards
+  by Pompey, 66-64. Mithridates, being better prepared, had already
+  concluded an alliance with Sertorius in Spain, 75. But the deliverance
+  of Cyzicus by Lucullus, 73, and the defeat of the king's fleet,
+  intended to act against Italy, not only frustrated all his original
+  plans, but were followed by the occupation of his own dominions, 72
+  and 71, by the enemy, notwithstanding a new army which Mithridates
+  collected, mostly from the nomad hordes of Northern Asia. Flight of
+  Mithridates to Tigranes, 71, who positively refused to deliver him up,
+  and formed an alliance with him, 70; while the Parthian, Arsaces XII.
+  held both parties in suspense by negotiations. Victory of Lucullus
+  over the allied sovereigns, near Tigranocerta, 69, and Artaxata, 68;
+  but the mutinies which now broke out among his troops not only
+  hindered him from following up these advantages, but turned the scale
+  so much in Mithridates's favour, that in 68 and 67 he quickly regained
+  almost all his dominions, even while the Roman commissioners were on
+  their route to take possession of them. Lucullus, by his reform in the
+  finances of Asia Minor, raises a powerful party against himself in
+  Rome, and thereby loses his command.
+
+22. The war of the slaves and gladiators, which happened nearly at the
+same time, was, from the theatre of action being in its neighbourhood,
+equally dangerous to Rome; it became still more terrible from the
+violence with which these outraged beings sought to revenge their
+wrongs, and more formidable from the talents of their leader, Spartacus;
+and the conclusion of this struggle seemed, therefore, of so much
+importance to Rome, that it gave M. Crassus a much higher influence in
+the state than he could ever have obtained by his riches alone.
+
+  Commencement of this war by a number of runaway gladiators, who, being
+  strengthened by an almost general revolt of the slaves in Campania,
+  73, soon became very formidable. The defeat of four generals, one
+  after the other, throws open to Spartacus the road to the Alps, and
+  enables him to leave Italy; but the greediness of booty manifested by
+  his hordes, who wished to plunder Rome, obliged him to return. Crassus
+  takes the command and rescues Rome, 72; upon which Spartacus retires
+  into Lower Italy, hoping to form a junction with the pirates, and to
+  carry the war into Sicily, but is deceived by them, 71. His complete
+  overthrow near the Silarus, 71. Pompey, then returning from Spain,
+  finds means to seize a sprig of the laurel chaplet which by right
+  should have adorned only the brow of Crassus; hence arises a
+  misunderstanding between these two commanders, during their consulate,
+  70, which threatened to be dangerous to the state.
+
+23. The war against the pirates of Sicily and Isauria was not only very
+important in itself, but still more so in its consequences. It procured
+for Pompey a legal power such as no Roman general had ever before
+enjoyed; and the quick and glorious manner in which he brought it to a
+close, opened for him the way to the great object of his ambition--the
+conduct of the war in Asia against Mithridates.
+
+  The extraordinary power acquired by these pirates was owing partly to
+  the great negligence of the Romans in sea affairs, (see page 340),
+  partly to the war against Mithridates, who had taken the pirates into
+  his pay, and partly also to the Roman oppressions in Asia Minor. War
+  had been undertaken against them as early as 75, by P. Servilius; but
+  his victories, though they procured him the title of _Isauricus_, did
+  them but little harm. They were to be dreaded, not only for their
+  piracies, but because they also offered an easy means of communication
+  between the other enemies of Rome from Spain to Asia. The new attack
+  of the prætor M. Antonius upon Crete, proved a complete failure; but
+  it was the cause of that hitherto independent island being again
+  attacked, 68, by Metellus, and reduced to a Roman province, 67. Pompey
+  takes the command against the pirates with extraordinary privileges,
+  obtained for him by Gabinius, and finishes the war in forty days, 67.
+
+24. After these triumphs over so many enemies, Mithridates was the only
+one which now remained; and Pompey had here again the good fortune to
+conclude a struggle already near its end; for notwithstanding his late
+success, Mithridates had never been able completely to recover himself.
+His fall undoubtedly raised the power of Rome in Asia Minor to its
+highest pitch; but it brought her, at the same time, into contact with
+the Parthians.
+
+  Pompey obtains the conduct of the war against Mithridates with very
+  extensive privileges, procured for him by the tribune Manilius (_lex
+  Manilia_), notwithstanding the opposition of Catulus, 67. His victory
+  by night, near the Euphrates, 66. Subjection of Tigranes, while
+  Mithridates flies into the Crimea, 65, whence he endeavours to renew
+  the war. Campaign of Pompey in the countries about the Caucasus, 65;
+  he marches thence into Syria, 64. Mithridates kills himself in
+  consequence of the defection of his son Phraates, 63. Settlement of
+  Asiatic affairs by Pompey: besides the ancient province of Asia, the
+  maritime countries of Bithynia, nearly all Paphlagonia and Pontus, are
+  formed into a Roman province, under the name of Bithynia; while on the
+  southern coast Cilicia and Pamphylia form another under the name of
+  Cilicia; Phoenicia and Syria compose a third, under the name of Syria.
+  On the other hand, Great Armenia is left to Tigranes; Cappadocia to
+  Ariobarzanes; the Bosphorus to Pharnaces; Judæa to Hyrcanus (see page
+  310); and some other small states are also given to petty princes, all
+  of whom remain dependent on Rome. The tribes inhabiting Thrace during
+  the Mithridatic war, were first defeated by Sylla, 85, and their power
+  was afterwards nearly destroyed by the proconsuls of Macedonia: as by
+  Appius, in 77; by Curio, who drove them to the Danube, 75-73; and
+  especially by M. Lucullus, while his brother was engaged in Asia. Not
+  only the security of Macedonia, but the daring plans of Mithridates
+  rendered this necessary.
+
+25. The fall of Mithridates raised the republic to the highest pitch of
+her power: there was no longer any foreign foe of whom she could be
+afraid. But her internal administration had undergone great changes
+during these wars. Sylla's aristocratic constitution was shaken by
+Pompey, in a most essential point, by the reestablishment of the power
+of the tribunes, which was done because neither he nor any leading men
+could obtain their ends without their assistance. It was by their means
+that Pompey had procured such unlimited power in his two late
+expeditions, that the existence of the republic was thereby endangered.
+It was, however, a fortunate circumstance for Rome, that Pompey's vanity
+was sufficiently gratified by his being at the head of affairs, where he
+avoided the appearance of an oppressor.
+
+  Reiterated attempts of the tribune Sicinius to annul the constitution
+  of Sylla defeated by the senate, 76. But as early as 75 Opimius
+  obtained that the tribunes should not be excluded from honourable
+  offices, and that the judgments (_judicia_) should be restored to the
+  knights (_equites_). The attempts of Licinius Macer, 72, to restore
+  the tribunes to all their former powers, encountered but a short
+  opposition; and their complete reestablishment was effected by Pompey
+  and Crassus during their consulate, in 70.
+
+26. This victory of the democratic faction, however, in consequence of
+the use made of it by some leading men, necessarily led the way to an
+oligarchy, which after the consulate of Pompey and Crassus became very
+oppressive. Catiline's conspiracy, which was not matured till after
+several attempts, would have broken up this confined aristocracy, and
+placed the helm of state in the hands of another and still more
+dangerous faction: a faction composed in part of needy profligates and
+criminals dreading the punishment of their crimes, and partly of
+ambitious nobles. It occasioned a short civil war; but procured Cicero a
+place in the administration. With what pleasure do we forgive the little
+weaknesses and failings of one so gifted with talents and great virtues!
+of one who first taught Rome, in so many ways, what it was to be great
+in the robe of peace!
+
+  Catiline's first conspiracy, in which Cæsar and Crassus seem to have
+  been implicated, 66, as well as in the second, 65: failure of the
+  former by chance--of the latter through Piso's death. The third broke
+  out in 64, as well in Rome, where the conspirators, having no armed
+  force, were soon suppressed by the vigilance and activity of Cicero,
+  63, as in Etruria, where a victory of the proconsul Antonius over
+  Catiline, who was left dead on the field, concluded it, 62.
+
+27. The suppression of this conspiracy, however, did not stay the effect
+which the recently concluded Asiatic war had upon Roman manners. The
+luxury of the east, though united with Grecian taste, which had been
+introduced among the great by Lucullus; the immense riches poured into
+the treasury by Pompey; the tempting examples of unlimited power, which
+single citizens had already exercised; the purchase of the magistracy by
+individuals, in order, like Verres, after the squandering of millions,
+to enrich themselves again in the provinces; the demands of the soldiers
+upon their generals; and the ease with which an army might be raised by
+him who had only money enough to pay it; all these circumstances must
+have foreboded new and approaching convulsions, even if the preceding
+storms in this colossal republic, in which we must now judge of virtues
+and vices, as well as of riches and power, by a very magnified standard,
+had not formed men of that gigantic character they did:--men like Cato,
+who struggled alone to stem the impetuous torrent of the revolution, and
+was sufficiently powerful to retard its progress for a time; or, like
+Pompey, who by good fortune and the art of acquiring influence, arose
+to a degree of authority and power never before attained by any citizen
+of a free state; or, like Crassus, "who only considered him as rich that
+could maintain an army by his own private means," founding their
+pretensions on wealth; or, finally, like the aspiring and now powerful
+Cæsar, whose boundless ambition could only be surpassed by his talents,
+and courage, "who would rather be the first in a village than the second
+in Rome." The return of Pompey from Asia, threatening the senate with a
+new dictator, appeared an eventful moment.
+
+  Attempt of Pompey, through the tribune Metellus Nepos, to be allowed
+  to return to Rome at the head of his army, frustrated by the firmness
+  of Cato, 62.
+
+28. The arrival of Pompey in Rome renewed the struggle between the
+senate and that powerful general, although he had disbanded his army on
+landing in Italy. The ratification of his management of affairs in Asia,
+which was the chief point of contention, was opposed by the leading men
+of the senate, Cato, the two Metelli, and Lucullus, which induced Pompey
+to attach himself entirely to the popular party, by whose means he hoped
+to obtain his end; Cæsar's return, however, from his province of
+Lusitania, entirely changed the face of affairs.
+
+29. Close union between Cæsar, Pompey, and Crassus; that is, a secret
+alliance, formed by the interposition of Cæsar. That which formed the
+height of the ambition of Pompey and Crassus was only regarded by Cæsar
+as the means by which he might be able to effect his. His consulate--a
+kind of dictatorship under the mask of great popularity--necessarily
+paved the way to his future career, as by giving him the government of
+the two Gauls and Illyria for five years, it opened a wide field for
+conquest, and gave him an opportunity of forming an army devoted to his
+will.
+
+  Cæsar's abode and campaign in Gaul from the spring of 58 till the end
+  of the year 50. By arresting the emigration of the Helvetians, and by
+  the expulsion of the Germans, under Ariovistus, from Gaul, 58, Cæsar
+  gained an opportunity of intermeddling in the internal affairs of that
+  country, and afterwards of subduing it, which was completed by his
+  victory over the Belgæ, 57, and the Aquitani, 56; so that Cæsar was at
+  liberty to undertake his several expeditions, as well in Britain, 55
+  and 54, as in Germany, 54 and 53. But the repeated revolts of the
+  Gauls, 53-51, especially under Vercingetorix, 52, occasioned a war no
+  less obstinate than their first conquest. Roman policy continued the
+  same throughout. The Gauls were subdued, by the Romans appearing as
+  _their deliverers_; and in the country they found allies in the Ædui,
+  Allobroges, etc.
+
+30. The triumvirate, in order to establish their power upon a solid
+foundation, took care, by the management of the tribune Clodius, to get
+rid of the leaders of the senate, Cato and Cicero, before the departure
+of Cæsar; and this they did by giving the former a kingdom to govern,
+and by procuring the banishment of the latter. They must however soon
+have discovered, that so bold a demagogue as Clodius could not be used
+as a mere machine. And, indeed, after Cæsar's departure he raised
+himself so much above the triumvirs, that Pompey was soon obliged, for
+his own preservation, to permit Cicero to return from exile, which could
+only be effected by the most violent efforts of the tribune Milo. The
+power of Clodius, however, was but little injured thereby, although
+Pompey, to put a stop to the source of these disorders, and revive his
+own popularity, procured the nomination of himself as _præfectus
+annonæ_, or superintendent of provisions.
+
+  Exile of Cicero, the greater part of which he spent in Macedonia, from
+  April, 58, till 4th Sept. 57. Ptolemy king of Cyprus deposed, and that
+  island reduced to a Roman province by Cato, on the proposition of
+  Clodius, 57 (see page 264). The personal dislike of Clodius and the
+  riches of the king were the causes that brought upon him this
+  misfortune.
+
+  MIDDLETON'S _Life of Cicero_, 2 vols. 8vo. This work is almost a
+  complete history of Rome during the age of Cicero; for whom the writer
+  discovers an undue partiality.
+
+  # M. TULLIUS CICERO, _all his Letters translated, in chronological
+  order, and illustrated with notes_, by C. M. WIELAND. Zurich, 1808.
+  With a preliminary view of the life of Cicero. Of all Germans the
+  writings of Wieland, whether original or translations (and to which
+  can we give the preference?) afford the most lively insight into
+  Greek and Roman antiquity at various periods. What writer has so
+  truly seized its spirit, and placed it so faithfully and elegantly
+  before his readers? His labours on the Letters of Cicero (whose
+  foibles he exposes with a rigorous and unflinching hand) serve to
+  make us much better acquainted with Rome, as it then was, than any
+  Roman history.
+
+31. A jealousy arises between the triumvirate, as Cæsar, though absent,
+still found means to keep up his party at Rome in such watchful
+activity, that Pompey and Crassus considered it impossible to maintain
+their own influence, except by procuring such concessions as had been
+made to him. Harmony once more restored by an accommodation at Lucca, as
+the parties found it necessary to preserve a good understanding with
+each other.
+
+  The terms of this accommodation were; that Cæsar should have his
+  government prolonged for another five years; and that Pompey and
+  Crassus should enjoy the consulship for the ensuing year, the former
+  receiving the provinces of Spain and Africa; and the latter that of
+  Syria, for the purpose of carrying on a war against the Parthians. In
+  proportion as these conditions were kept secret, there remained less
+  secrecy respecting the alliance itself.
+
+32. Second consulate of Pompey and Crassus. It was only amidst violent
+storms that they could effect their purposes; as it depended upon which
+faction should first gain or keep possession of the forum. The
+resistance they met with from the inflexible disposition of Cato, who in
+his austere virtue alone found means to secure himself a powerful party,
+shows how unfairly those judge who consider the power of the triumvirate
+as unlimited, and the nation as entirely corrupted.
+
+  Campaign of Crassus against the Parthians, undertaken at his own
+  expense, 54. Instead, however, of gathering laurels like Cæsar, he and
+  his whole army were completely overthrown in Mesopotamia, 53; and the
+  Parthians from this time maintain a powerful preponderance in Asia
+  (see above, p. 302).
+
+33. As the triumvirate by this failure of Crassus was reduced to a
+duumvirate, Pompey (who remained in Rome, and governed his provinces by
+lieutenants), in the midst of continual domestic broils, which he
+cunningly took care to foment, was evidently aiming to become the
+acknowledged head of the senate and republic. The idea that a dictator
+was necessary prevailed more and more during an anarchy of eight months,
+in which no appointment of a consul could take place; and
+notwithstanding the opposition of Cato, Pompey succeeded, after a
+violent commotion, in which Clodius was murdered by Milo, in getting
+himself nominated sole consul; a power equal to that of dictator.
+
+  Consulate of Pompey, 52, in which, at the end of seven months, he took
+  as colleague his father-in-law Metellus Scipio. The government of his
+  provinces, which afterwards became the chief seat of the republicans,
+  is prolonged for five years.
+
+34. From this time civil war became inevitable; for not only the chiefs
+of the parties, but also their adherents desired it. The approach of the
+time when Cæsar's command would expire, necessarily hastened the crisis.
+Could it be supposed that the conqueror of Gaul would return to a
+private life, and leave his rival at the head of the republic? The steps
+taken on both sides towards an accommodation were only made to escape
+the odium which would attach to him who struck the first blow. But
+Pompey unfortunately could never understand his opponent, who did all
+himself, all completely, and all alone. The brilliant light in which
+Pompey now appeared, as _defender of the republic_, delighted him so
+much, that it made him forget what belonged to its defence; while Cæsar
+avoided, with the greatest care, every appearance of usurpation. The
+friend, the protector of the people against the usurpations of their
+enemies, was the character which he now chose to assume.
+
+  Commencement of the contest upon Cæsar's demand to be allowed to hold
+  the consulship while absent, 52. Cæsar, by the most lavish corruption,
+  had increased his adherents in Rome, gained the tribunes, and among
+  them especially the powerful speaker C. Curio (whom he did not think
+  too dearly purchased at the price of about half a million sterling);
+  by this man it was suggested to Cæsar that he should give up his
+  command, and leave a successor to be appointed in his place, 51, if
+  Pompey would do the same: a proposition which created a prejudice much
+  in his favour. Repeated, but insincere offers of both parties for an
+  accommodation, 50, till at last a decree of the senate was passed,
+  Jan. 7, 49, by which Cæsar was commanded "to disband his army under
+  the penalty of being declared an enemy to the republic," without
+  regard to the intercessions of the tribunes, whose flight to him gave
+  an appearance of popularity to his party. Cæsar crosses the Rubicon,
+  the boundary of his province.
+
+35. The civil war now about to break out, seemed likely to spread over
+nearly all the countries of the Roman empire; as Pompey, finding it
+impossible to maintain himself in Italy, had chosen Greece for the
+principal theatre of the war; while his lieutenants, with the armies
+under their command, occupied Spain and Africa. Cæsar, by the able
+disposition of his legions, was everywhere present, without exciting
+beforehand any suspicion of his movements. A combination of
+circumstances, however, carried the war into Alexandria, and even as far
+as Pontus; indeed it might be called rather a series of six successive
+wars than merely one, all of which Cæsar, by flying with his legions
+from one quarter of the world to the other, ended, within five years,
+victoriously and in person.
+
+  Rapid occupation of Italy in sixty days (when the troops under
+  Domitius surrendered at Corfinus), which, as well as Sicily and
+  Sardinia, were subdued by Cæsar almost without opposition; Pompey,
+  with his troops and adherents, having crossed over to Greece. Cæsar's
+  first campaign in Spain against Pompey's generals, Afranius and
+  Petreius, whom he forces to surrender; this, however, is
+  counterbalanced by the loss of the legions under Curio in Africa. In
+  December, 49, however, Cæsar is again in Italy, and named dictator,
+  which he exchanges for the consulate. Spirited expedition into Greece
+  with the ships he had been previously collecting together, Jan. 4, 49.
+  Unfortunate engagement at Dyrrachium. Removal of the war into
+  Thessaly, and decisive battle of Pharsalia, July 20, 48, after which
+  Pompey flies to Alexandria, where he is killed on his landing. Cæsar
+  arrives three days after him at Alexandria.
+
+36. Cæsar, after the victory of Pharsalia, again nominated dictator,
+with great privileges. The death of Pompey, however, does not destroy
+his party; and the six months' war of Alexandria, as well as the
+expedition into Pontus against Pharnaces, gave them time to rally their
+forces both in Africa under Cato, and in Spain under the sons of Pompey.
+
+  During the Alexandrine war (see above, p. 266) and the expedition
+  against Pharnaces, the son of Mithridates,--who had obtained the
+  kingdom of his father, but was slain by Cæsar immediately after his
+  arrival, 47,--great disorders had broken out in Rome, caused by the
+  tribune Dolabella's flattering the people with the abolition of debts
+  (_novæ tabulæ_), notwithstanding the military power of M. Antony, whom
+  Cæsar had sent to Rome as master of the horse (_magister equitum_), as
+  this abandoned sensualist at first actually favoured the projects of
+  the tribune. Cæsar's return to Rome, December, 47, put an end, it is
+  true, to these disorders; but the increase of the opposite party in
+  Africa, and an insurrection among his soldiers, obliged him to set out
+  for Africa immediately, January, 46. Victory near Thapsus over Scipio
+  and Juba; after which Cato kills himself at Utica. Numidia, the
+  kingdom of Juba, becomes a Roman province. Cæsar after his return to
+  Rome in June, is only able to stay there four months, as, before the
+  end of the year, he is obliged to set out for Spain to crush the
+  dangerous efforts of Pompey's two sons. Bloody battle at Munda, March,
+  45, after which Cneius is killed, but Sextus escapes to the
+  Celtiberians.
+
+37. Nothing seems more evident than that Cæsar did not, like Sylla,
+overthrow the republic for the purpose of reestablishing it; and it is
+perhaps impossible to say what could be the final views of a childless
+usurper, who throughout his whole career, seemed only to be guided by an
+inordinate ambition, springing from a consciousness of superior powers,
+and to satisfy which, no means seemed to him difficult or unlawful. The
+period of his dictatorship was so short, and so much interrupted by
+war, that his ultimate plans had not time for their development. He
+endeavoured to establish his dominion by popular measures; and although
+his army must still have been his main support, yet no proscription was
+granted to satisfy it. The reestablishment of order in the distracted
+country of Italy, and particularly in the capital, was his first care;
+and he proposed to follow that by an expedition against the powerful
+Parthian empire. His attempts, however, to obtain the diadem, seemed to
+place it beyond a doubt that he wished to introduce a formal monarchy.
+But the destruction of the form of the republic was shown to be more
+dangerous than the overthrow of the republic itself.
+
+  The following were the honours and privileges granted to Cæsar by the
+  senate. After the battle of Pharsalia, 48, he was nominated dictator
+  for one year and consul for five years; and obtained the _potestas
+  tribunicia_, as well as the right of making war and peace, the
+  exclusive right of the committees, with the exception of the tribunes,
+  and the possession of the provinces. The dictatorship was renewed to
+  him, 47, for ten years, as well as the _præfectura morum_, and was at
+  last, 145, conferred upon him for ever, with the title of _imperator_.
+  Although Cæsar thus became absolute master of the republic, it appears
+  to have been done without laying aside the republican forms.
+
+38. Conspiracy against Cæsar, formed by Brutus and Cassius, and
+terminating in the death of Cæsar. Men so exalted as were the chiefs of
+this plot, easily understand one another; and it was quite in accordance
+with their character not to meditate upon the consequences of their
+deed. Cæsar's death was a great misfortune for Rome. Experience soon
+showed that the republic could not be reestablished thereby; and his
+life might probably have spared the state some of those calamities which
+now, by its change to a monarchy, became unavoidable.
+
+  We still want a discriminating life of Cæsar, who in modern times has
+  been as extravagantly praised as Alexander has been unjustly censured.
+  As generals and conquerors, both were equally great--and little; as a
+  man, however, the Macedonian, in the brilliant period of his life, to
+  which Cæsar never attained, was superior; to the great political ideas
+  which developed themselves in Alexander, we know of none corresponding
+  in Cæsar; who knew better than any how to attain dominion, but little
+  of preserving it.
+
+  _Histoire de la Vie de Jules Cæsar_, _par_ M. DE BURY, Paris, 1758, 2
+  vols. 8vo.
+
+  # _Life of C. Julius Cæsar_, _by_ A. G. MEISSNER, _continued by_
+  J. Ch. L. Haken, 1811, 4 parts. At present the best.
+
+  _Caius Julius Cæsar, from original sources_, _by_ PROFESSOR SÖLTL. A
+  short biography, judiciously executed.
+
+39. Notwithstanding the amnesty at first declared, the funeral obsequies
+of Cæsar soon showed, that peace was of all things the least desired by
+his generals, M. Antony and M. Lepidus, now become the head of his
+party; and the arrival of Cæsar's nephew, C. Octavius (afterwards Cæsar
+Octavianus), whom he had adopted in his will, rendered affairs still
+more complicated, as every one strove for himself; Antony's particular
+object being to raise himself into Cæsar's place. However earnestly they
+sought to gain the people, it was in fact the legions who decided, and
+the command of them depended, for the most part, upon the possession of
+the provinces. We cannot therefore wonder, that while they sought to
+revenge the murder of Cæsar, this became the chief cause of the
+struggle, and in a few months led to a civil war.
+
+  At the time of Cæsar's death, M. Antonius was actual consul, and
+  Dolabella consul-elect; M. Lepidus _magister equitum_ (master of the
+  horse); M. Brutus and Cassius, prætors (the first, _prætor urbanus_).
+  Cæsar had given to the former the province of Macedonia, and to the
+  latter that of Syria, which had been confirmed to them by the senate.
+  M. Lepidus had been nominated to Transalpine, and D. Brutus to
+  Cisalpine Gaul. But soon after the murder of Cæsar, Antony obtained,
+  by a decree of the people, Macedonia for himself, and Syria for his
+  colleague Dolabella, with whom he had formed a close connection;
+  instead of which the senate decreed to Cassius Cyrene, and to Brutus,
+  who now had the important charge of supplying Rome with provisions,
+  Crete. But soon after (June 1, 44), Antony desired, by a new change,
+  to obtain Cisalpine Gaul for himself, and Macedonia for his brother C.
+  Antony, both of which he procured from the people.
+
+40. As M. Antony sought by force to establish himself in Cisalpine Gaul,
+and D. Brutus refused to give it up to him, and retired into Mutina, a
+short, indeed, but very bloody civil war arose, (_bellum mutinense_.)
+The eloquence of Cicero had caused Antony to be declared an enemy of the
+republic; and the two new consuls, Hirtius and Pansa, together with
+Cæsar Octavianus, were sent against him. The defeat of Antony compelled
+him to seek refuge beyond the Alps with Lepidus; but the two consuls
+being slain, Octavianus at the head of his legions was too importunate
+to be refused the consulship, and soon convinced the defenceless senate,
+how impossible it was to reestablish the commonwealth by their powerless
+decrees. The employment, moreover, of the _magistratus suffecti_, which
+soon after arose, was in itself a sufficient proof that it was now no
+more than the shadow of what it had formerly been.
+
+  The Mutine war begins in December, 44, and closes with the defeat of
+  Antony at Mutina, April 14, 43. Octavius obtains the consulate, Sept.
+  22.
+
+41. Octavianus, deserting the party of the senate, enters into a secret
+negotiation with Antony and Lepidus; the consequence of which is a
+meeting of the parties at Bononia, and the formation of a new
+triumvirate. They declare themselves the chiefs of the republic for five
+years, under the title of _triumviri reipublicæ constituendæ_; and
+dividing the provinces among themselves according to their own pleasure,
+they make the destruction of the republican party their principal
+object. A new proscription in Rome itself, and a declaration of war
+against the murderers of Cæsar, were the means by which they proposed to
+effect it.
+
+  The agreement of the triumvirate was concluded Nov. 27, 43, after
+  which the march of the triumvirs upon Rome gives the signal for the
+  massacre of the proscribed, which soon extends all over Italy, and in
+  which Cicero perishes, Dec. 7. The cause of this new proscription was
+  not party hatred alone, but was as much, perhaps more, owing on the
+  one hand to the want of money for carrying on the war they had
+  undertaken, and on the other to a desire of satisfying the turbulent
+  demands of the legions. Where is to be found a time so full of terror
+  as this, when even tears were forbidden?
+
+42. The civil war, now on the eve of breaking out, may be considered
+therefore as a war between the oligarchy and the defenders of the
+republic. The Roman world was, as it were, divided between the two; and
+although the former had possession of Italy, and the western provinces,
+that advantage seemed counterbalanced to the chiefs of the opposite
+party by the possession of the eastern countries, and the naval power of
+Sextus Pompey, which seemed to assure them the dominion of the sea.
+
+  M. Brutus had taken possession of his province of Macedonia as early
+  as the autumn of 44; while Cassius, on the contrary, had to contend
+  for that of Syria with Dolabella, who by the murder of the proconsul
+  Trebonius had possessed himself of Asia. Being, however, for this
+  offence, declared an enemy by the senate, and shut up in Laodicea by
+  Cassius, he killed himself, June 5, 43. From this time Brutus and
+  Cassius were masters of all the eastern provinces, at whose expense
+  they maintained their troops, though not without much oppression. S.
+  Pompey, after the victory of Munda, 45, having secreted himself in
+  Spain, and afterwards become a chief of freebooters, had grown very
+  powerful; when the senate, after Cæsar's assassination, having made
+  him commander of the sea-forces, he with them took possession of
+  Spain, and, after the conclusion of the triumvirate, of Sicily, and
+  then, very soon after, of Sardinia and Corsica. It was a great thing
+  for the triumvirate, that C. Pompey did not know how to reap half the
+  profit he might have done from his power and good fortune.
+
+43. Macedonia became the theatre of the new civil war, and together with
+the goodness of their cause, superior talents, and greater power both by
+land and sea, seemed combined to ensure the victory to Brutus and
+Cassius. But in the decisive battle at Philippi, fortune played one of
+her most capricious tricks, and with the two chiefs fell the last
+supporters of the republic.
+
+  Double battle at Philippi towards the close of the year 42; voluntary
+  death of Cassius after the first, and of Brutus after the second
+  engagement.
+
+  PLUTARCHI _Vita Bruti_; from the narratives of eyewitnesses.
+
+44. The history of the eleven years intervening between the battle of
+Philippi and that of Actium, is little more than an account of the
+quarrels of the oligarchy among themselves. The most subtle was, in the
+end, victorious; for M. Antony possessed all the sensuality of Cæsar,
+without his genius: and the insignificant Lepidus soon fell a sacrifice
+to his own vanity and weakness. While Antony went into Asia to arrange
+the affairs of the eastern provinces, and from thence with Cleopatra to
+Alexandria, Octavianus returned to Rome. But the famine which then
+reigned in that city through Pompey's blockade of the seacoast; the
+misery spread throughout Italy by the wresting of patrimonial lands from
+the proprietors to distribute among the veterans; and the insatiable
+covetousness of the latter rendered his situation as dangerous now as it
+had been before the war. Besides all this, the hatred of the enraged
+consort of Antony, who had entered into an alliance with her
+brother-in-law, the consul L. Antony, brought on, towards the end of the
+year, a civil war, which ended with the surrender and burning of
+Perusium, in which L. Antony had shut himself up, and which was already
+much weakened by famine.
+
+  The _bellum Perusinum_ lasted from the end of the year 41 till April,
+  40.
+
+45. This war, however, had nearly led to one still greater; for M.
+Antony, as the enemy of Octavianus, had come to Italy in order to assist
+his brother, and with the intention of forming an alliance with S.
+Pompey against the former. But fortunately for the world, not only was
+harmony restored between the triumvirs, but on account of the great
+famine which prevailed at Rome, a peace was also concluded with Pompey,
+although it lasted but a very short time.
+
+  The principal object of the peace between the triumvirs was a new
+  division of the provinces, by which the city of Scodra in Illyria was
+  fixed upon as the boundary. Antony obtained all the eastern provinces;
+  Octavianus all the western; and Lepidus Africa. Italy remained in
+  common to them all. The marriage of Antony with Octavia, Fulvia being
+  dead, was intended to cement this agreement. In the peace concluded
+  with S. Pompey at Misenum, he obtained the islands of Sicily,
+  Sardinia, and Corsica, and the promise of Achaia.
+
+46. Pompey, however, was not long in finding that an alliance between
+him and the triumvirs would only end in his own destruction; and the war
+which he soon commenced, and which Octavianus could not bring to a close
+but with the assistance of Agrippa, was of so much the more importance,
+as it not only decided the fate of Pompey, but by leading to
+dissensions, and the expulsion of Lepidus, reduced the triumvirate to a
+duumvirate.
+
+  After a doubtful engagement at sea, 38, and the formation of a new
+  fleet, Pompey was attacked on all sides at the same time; Lepidus
+  coming from Africa, and Antony sending also some ships. Final
+  overthrow of Pompey, who flies to Asia and there perishes.--Lepidus
+  wishing to take possession of Sicily, Octavianus gains over his
+  troops, and obliges him to retire from the triumvirate.
+
+47. The foreign wars in which Octavianus as well as Antony were engaged
+in the following years, prevented for some time their mutual jealousy
+from coming to an open rupture. Octavianus, to tame his unruly legions,
+employed them with some success against the nations of Dalmatia and
+Pannonia; whilst Antony undertook an expedition against the powerful
+Parthians and their neighbours. But in offending Rome by his conduct in
+these wars, he only armed his opponent against himself; and his formal
+separation from Octavia, loosened the only tie which had hitherto held
+together the two masters of the world.
+
+  After his first stay in Alexandria, 41, Antony returned to Italy, 40,
+  and then, having made peace with Octavianus, he carried his new wife
+  Octavia with him into Greece, where he remained till the year 37.
+  Although his lieutenant Ventidius had fought with success against the
+  Parthians, who had invaded Syria (see above, p. 302.), Antony
+  determined to undertake an expedition against them himself, 36. But
+  although in alliance with Artavasdes king of Armenia (whom he soon
+  after accused of treachery), in seeking to effect an entrance into
+  Parthia, by passing through Armenia and Media, a different route from
+  that taken by Crassus, he was very nearly meeting with the same fate,
+  and the expedition completely failed. He then revenged himself upon
+  Artavasdes, who fell into his hands in a fresh expedition which he
+  made, 34, and deprived him of his kingdom. After his triumphal
+  entrance into Alexandria, he made a grant of this as well as other
+  countries to Cleopatra and her children. (See above, p. 267.) In 33,
+  he intended to renew his expedition against the Parthians, in alliance
+  with the king of Media; but having, at the instigation of Cleopatra,
+  ordered Octavia to return home, when she had already come as far as
+  Athens on her way to meet him, Octavianus and Antony reciprocally
+  accused each other before the senate, and war was declared at Rome,
+  though only against Cleopatra.
+
+48. Greece became again the theatre of war; and although the forces of
+Antony were most considerable, yet Octavianus had the advantage of
+having, at least in appearance, the better cause. The naval victory of
+Actium decided for Octavianus, who could scarcely believe it, till he
+found that Antony had forsaken his fleet and army, the latter of which
+surrendered without striking a blow. The capture of Egypt followed, (see
+above, p. 267.) and that country was reduced to a Roman province; the
+death of Antony and Cleopatra ended the war, and left Octavianus
+absolute master of the republic.
+
+  The history of the last days of Antony, principally after his decline,
+  having been written under the rule of his enemies, must be received
+  with that mistrust which all such histories require. It has furnished
+  abundant matter for the retailers of anecdote. The history of
+  Cleopatra rests partly on the accounts of her physician Olympus, of
+  which Plutarch made use.
+
+
+
+
+FOURTH PERIOD.
+
+
+  HISTORY OF THE ROMAN STATE AS A MONARCHY TO THE OVERTHROW OF THE
+  WESTERN EMPIRE. B. C. 30.-A. C. 476.
+
+
+
+
+_Geographical outline. View of the Roman empire and provinces, and other
+countries connected with it by war or commerce._
+
+
+The ordinary boundaries of the Roman empire, which, however, it
+sometimes exceeded, were in Europe the two great rivers of the Rhine and
+Danube; in Asia, the Euphrates and the sandy desert of Syria; in Africa
+likewise, the sandy regions. It thus included the fairest portions of
+the earth, surrounding the Mediterranean sea.
+
+EUROPEAN COUNTRIES: I. Spain (Hispania). Boundaries: on the east the
+Pyrenees, on the south, north, and west, the sea. Principal rivers: the
+Minius (Minho), Durius (Douro), Tagus (Tejo), Anas (Guadiana), Bætis
+(Guadalquiver), which flow into the Atlantic; and the Iberus (Ebro),
+which falls into the Mediterranean. Mountains: besides the Pyrenees, the
+Idubeda along the Iberus, Orospeda (Sierra Morena). Divided into three
+provinces. 1. Lusitania: northern boundary the Durius, southern, the
+Anas. Principal tribes: Lusitani, Turdetani. Principal town: Augusta
+Emerita. 2. Bætica: boundaries on the north and west the Anas, on the
+east the mountains of Orospeda. Principal tribes: Turduli, Bastuli.
+Principal towns: Corduba (Cordova), Hispalis (Seville), Gades (Cadiz),
+Munda. 3. Tarraconensis, all the remainder of Spain. Principal tribes:
+Callæci, Astures, Cantabri, Vascones, in the north; Celtiberi,
+Carpetani, Ilergetes, in the interior; Indigetes, Cosetani, etc. on the
+Mediterranean. Chief towns: Tarraco (Tarragona), Cartago Nova
+(Carthagena), Toletum (Toledo), Ilerda (Lerida); Saguntum and Numantia
+(Soria) were already destroyed. The Balearic isles, Major (Majorca), and
+Minor (Minorca), were considered as belonging to Spain.
+
+II. Transalpine Gaul. Boundaries: on the west the Pyrenees; on the east
+the Rhine, and a line drawn from its source to the little river Varus,
+together with that river itself; on the north and south the sea.
+Principal rivers: the Garumna (Garonne), Liger (Loire), Sequana
+(Seine), and Scaldis (Scheldt), which empty themselves into the ocean;
+the Rhodanus (Rhone), which is increased by the Arar (Saone), and falls
+into the Mediterranean; and the Mosella (Moselle) and Mosa (Meuse),
+which flow into the Rhine. Mountains: besides the Alps, the Jura,
+Vogesus (Vosge), and Cebenna (Cevennes). Divided into four provinces. 1.
+Gallia Narbonensis, or Braccata. Boundaries: on the west the Pyrenees,
+on the east the Varus, on the north the Cevennian mountains. Principal
+tribes: Allobroges, Volcæ, Calyes. Principal towns: Narbo (Narbonne),
+Tolosa (Toulouse), Nemausus (Nîmes), Massilia (Marseilles), Vienna. 2.
+Gallia Lugdunensis, or Celtica. Boundaries: to the south and west the
+Liger (Loire), to the north the Sequana, to the east the Arar. Principal
+tribes: Ædui, Lingones, Parisii, Cenomani, etc. all of Celtic origin.
+Principal towns: Lugdunum (Lyons), Lutetia Parisiorum (Paris), Alesia
+(Alise). 3. Gallia Aquitanica. Boundaries: the Pyrenees on the south,
+the Liger on the north and east. Principal tribes: Aquitani (of Iberian
+origin), Pictones, Averni, etc. of Celtic descent. Principal towns:
+Climberis, Burdegala (Bourdeaux). 4. Gallia Belgica. Boundaries: on the
+north and east the Rhine, on the west the Arar, on the south the
+Rhodanus as far as Lugdunum, so that it comprised at first the countries
+bordering on the Rhine and Helvetia. The latter, however, were
+afterwards separated from it under the names of Germania Inferior and
+Superior. Principal tribes: Nervii, Bellovaci, etc. in the north, of
+Belgic origin; Treviri, Ubii, of German origin; Sequani, Helvetii, in
+the interior, of Celtic origin. Principal towns: Vesentio (Besançon),
+Verodunum (Verdun), etc. Along the Rhine in Germania Inferior: Colonia
+Agrippina (Cologne). In Germania Superior: Mogontiacum (Mayence, or
+Mentz), and Argentoratum (Strasburg).
+
+III. Gallia Cisalpina, or Togata (Lombardy, see above, p. 315). But as
+from the time of Cæsar the inhabitants enjoyed all the privileges of
+Roman citizens, it may be reckoned as forming part of Italy.
+
+IV. Sicilia; divided into Syracuse and Lilybæum.
+
+V. Sardinia and Corsica, see above, p. 320.
+
+VI. The Insulæ Britannicæ (British islands); but of these, only England
+and the southern part of Scotland were reduced into a Roman province in
+the time of Nero, under the name of Britannia Romana. Principal rivers:
+Tamesis (Thames) and Sabrina (Severn). Cities: Eboracum (York) in the
+north, Londinum (London) in the south. Into Scotland, Britannia
+Barbaria, or Caledonia, the Romans often penetrated, but without being
+ably completely to conquer it; and as for Hibernia, Ierne (Ireland), it
+was visited by Roman merchants, but never by Roman legions.
+
+VII. The countries south of the Danube, which were subdued under
+Augustus and formed into the following provinces: 1. Vindelicia.
+Boundaries: on the north the Danube, on the east the Ænus (Inn), on the
+west Helvetia, on the south Rhætia. Principal tribes: Vindelici,
+Brigantii, etc. Principal towns: Augusta Vindelicorum (Augsburg),
+Brigantia (Bregenz). 2. Rhætia. Boundaries: on the north Vindelicia, on
+the east the Inn and the Salza, on the south the chain of the Alps from
+Lacus Verbanus (Lago Maggiore) to Belinzona, on the west Helvetia.
+Principal tribe: Rhæti. Principal towns: Curia (Chur), Veldidena
+(Wilden), Tridentum (Trent). 3. Noricum. Boundaries: on the north the
+Danube, on the west the Ænus, on the east the mountain Cetius
+(Kahlenberg), and on the south the Julian Alps and the Savus (Save).
+Principal tribes: Boii. Cities: Jovavum (Salzburg), Boiodurum (Passau).
+4. Pannonia Superior. Boundaries: on the north and east the Danube, on
+the south the Arrabo (Raab), on the west the mountain Cetius. Cities:
+Vindobona (Vienna), Caruntum. 5. Pannonia Inferior. Boundaries: on the
+north the Arrabo, on the east the Danube, on the south the Savus.
+Cities: Taurunum (Belgrade), Mursa (Esseg), and Sirmium. 6. Moesia
+Superior. Boundaries: on the north the Danube, on the south Mount
+Scardus, or Scodrus, on the west Pannonia, on the east the river Cebrus
+(Ischia). Cities: Singidunum (Semlin), and Naissus (Nissa). 7. Moesia
+Inferior. Boundaries: on the north the Danube, on the west the Cebrus,
+on the south mount Hæmus (the Balkan), and on the east the Pontus
+Euxinus. Cities: Odessus (Varna), Tomi (Tomisvar).
+
+VIII. Illyricum, in its most extensive signification, comprised all the
+provinces south of the Danube, together with Rhætia and Dalmatia: but
+Illyricum Proper comprehends only the lands along the coast of the
+Adriatic, from Rhætia in Italy to the river Drinus, and easterly to the
+Savus. Principal towns: Salona, Epidaurus (near the present Ragusa),
+Scodra (Scutari).
+
+IX. Macedonia. Boundaries: on the north mount Scodrus, on the south the
+Cambunian mountains, on the west the Adriatic, and on the east the Ægean
+sea. Rivers: the Nestus, Strymon, and Halyacmon, which fall into the
+Ægean sea, and the Apsus and Aöus, which fall into the Adriatic.
+Principal tribes: Pæones in the north, Pieres and Mygdones in the south.
+Principal towns: Pydna, Pella, Thessalonica, Philippi, with other Greek
+colonies (see above, p. 164). Dyrrachium and Apollonia on the western
+coast.
+
+X. Thrace had for some time kings of her own, though dependent on Rome,
+and was first reduced to a Roman province under Claudius. Boundaries: on
+the north Mount Hæmus, on the west the Nestus, on the south and east the
+sea. River: Hebrus. Principal tribes: Triballi, Bessi, and Odrysæ.
+Cities: Byzantium, Apollonia, Beroea.
+
+XI. Achaia (Greece), see above, p. 131.
+
+XII. To the north of the Danube the province of Dacia was brought under
+the Roman empire by Trajan. Boundaries: on the south the Danube, on the
+west the Tibiscus (Theiss), in the east the Hierasus (Pruth), in the
+north the Carpathian mountains. Principal tribe: Daci. Chief cities;
+Ulpia Trajana and Tibiscum.
+
+ASIATIC PROVINCES: I. Asia Minor contained the provinces: 1. Asia (see
+above, p. 293). 2. Bithynia, together with Paphlagonia and part of
+Pontus. 3. Cilicia, with Pisidia (see above, p. 18.) II. Syria and
+Phoenicia. III. The isle of Cyprus. Several other states, likewise
+dependent, still preserved their kings: as, Judæa (became a Roman
+province, A. D. 44.), Commagene (province A. D. 70, and, together with
+Judæa, added to Syria), Cappadocia (province A. D. 17), Pontus
+(completely a province under Nero). Free states at this time: Rhodes,
+Samos (provinces A. D. 70), and Lycia (province A. D. 43). Beyond the
+Euphrates, Armenia and Mesopotamia were reduced to provinces by Trajan,
+but, as early as the time of Adrian, were abandoned.
+
+AFRICAN PROVINCES. I. Egypt. II. Cyrenaica, with the isle of Crete. III.
+Africa, Numidia (see above, p. 47). Mauritania still had its separate
+king, but he was set aside, A. D. 41, and the country divided into two
+provinces: 1. Mauritania Cæsariensis. Boundaries: on the east the river
+Ampsaga, on the west the Mulucha. Principal places: Igilgilis and
+Cæsaria. 2. Mauritania Tingitana, from the river Mulucha to the Atlantic
+ocean. Capital: Tingis.
+
+Principal states on the borders of the empire: I. Germania. Boundaries:
+on the south the Danube, on the north the sea, on the west the Rhine, on
+the east undetermined, though the Vistula is generally regarded as such.
+Principal rivers: the Danubius, Rhenus (Rhine), Albis (Elbe), Visurgis
+(Weser), Viadrus (Oder), and the Vistula; the Lupias (Lippe) and Amisia
+(Ems) are likewise frequently mentioned. Mountains and forests: the
+Hercynian forest, a general name for the forest mountains, particularly
+of eastern Germany. Melibocus (the Hartz), Sudetus (the Thuringian
+forest); the forest of Teutoburg, to the south of Westphalia, etc. It
+would be useless to seek for a general political division, or for the
+cities, of ancient Germany; we can only point out the situation of the
+principal tribes. It is necessary, however, to precede this by two
+observations: 1. The same territory, in the tide of forcible emigration
+and conquest, and particularly after the second century, often changed
+its inhabitants. 2. The names of some of the principal tribes often
+became that of a confederacy. The principal tribes in the period of
+Augustus were, in northern Germany; the Batavi in Holland; the Frisii in
+Friesland; the Bructeri in Westphalia; the lesser and larger Chauci in
+Oldenburg and Bremen; the Cherusci, likewise the name of a
+confederation, in Brunswick; the Catti in Hesse. In southern (central)
+Germany: the Hermunduri in Franconia; the Marcomanni in Bohemia. The
+Alemanni, not the name of a single tribe, but of a confederation, are
+first mentioned in the third century: in the period of Augustus these
+tribes, and the principal of those of eastern Germany, which gradually
+became known, were included under the general name of Suevi.
+
+The northernmost countries of Europe were considered as isles of the
+German ocean, and therefore regarded as belonging to Germany. They were
+Scandinavia, or Scandia (southern Sweden), Nerigon (Norway), and
+Eningia, or probably Finningia (Finland). The northernmost island was
+called Thule.
+
+The north of Europe, from the Vistula to the Tanais (Don), was comprised
+under the general name of Sarmatia; but beyond the territory about the
+Danube, and especially Dacia (see above, p. 407), they were only in a
+slight degree acquainted with the coast of the Baltic, by the amber
+trade.
+
+In Asia the Roman empire was bounded by Great Armenia (see above, p. 19,
+and 299), the Parthian empire from the Euphrates to the Indus (see
+above, p. 19-22), and the peninsula of Arabia (see above, p. 19).
+
+Eastern Asia, or India, became known to the Romans by a commercial
+intercourse carried on between them, and which began soon after the
+conquest of Egypt. It was divided into India on this side the Ganges,
+that is: 1. The territory between the Indus and Ganges; 2. The peninsula
+on this side, the western coast of which in particular (Malabar), was
+very well known; and, 3. The island of Taprobana (Ceylon), and India
+beyond the Ganges, to which also the distant Serica belonged: but of all
+these countries they had but a very imperfect knowledge.
+
+The boundaries of Africa were Æthiopia above Egypt, and Gætulia and the
+great sandy desert of Libya, above the other provinces.
+
+
+
+
+FIRST SECTION.
+
+_From Augustus Cæsar to the death of Commodus, B. C. 30. A. C. 193._
+
+
+  SOURCES. For the whole of this period DION CASSIUS, lib. li-lxxx, is
+  our historian; though of his last twenty books we have only the
+  abridgment of Xiphilinus. For the history of the emperors from
+  Tiberius to the beginning of Vespasian's reign, the principal writer
+  is TACITUS, in his _Annals_, A. C. 14-63; (of which, however, part of
+  the history of Tiberius, 32-34, all of Caligula and the first six
+  years of Claudius, 37-47, as well as the last year and a half of Nero,
+  are unfortunately lost); and in his _History_, of which scarcely the
+  first three years, 69-71, are come down to us. SUETONIUS'S _Lives of
+  the Cæsars_, down to Domitian, are so much the more valuable, because
+  in a state like the Roman it becomes of importance to know the
+  character and domestic life of the ruling men. For the reigns of
+  Augustus and Tiberius the _History_ of VELLEIUS PATERCULUS is not of
+  less consequence, although written in a court-like tone. The sources
+  for the history of the separate Cæsars will be given as we come to
+  them.
+
+  The following are the labours of modern writers:
+
+  _Histoire des Empereurs et des autres Princes qui ont régné dans les
+  six premiers siècles de l'Eglise_, _par_ M. LENAIN DE TILLEMONT. à
+  Bruxelle, 1707, 5 vols. 8vo. (An earlier edition in 4to. 1700, 4
+  vols.) The work of Tillemont has some worth as a laborious
+  compilation, but is superseded in its execution by the following:
+
+  _Histoire des Empereurs Romains, depuis Auguste jusqu' à Constantin_,
+  _par_ M. CREVIER. Paris, 1749, 12 vols. 8vo. [Translated into
+  English.] A continuation of Rollin's Roman History (see above, p.
+  318), quite in the spirit of that writer, and by one of his school.
+
+  DR. GOLDSMITH'S _Roman History, from the foundation of the city of
+  Rome to the destruction of the western empire_. London, 1774, 2 vols.
+  8vo. Rather a sketch than a detailed history (see above, p. 321,
+  sqq.).
+
+  # _History of Rome under the Emperors, and of the contemporary
+  nations_, _by_ M. D. G. H. HUBLER. Fryburg, 1803, 3 parts.
+  Continuation of the work cited p. 2: it reaches down to Constantine.
+
+1. Octavianus Cæsar, on whom the senate conferred the honourable title
+of Augustus, which they periodically renewed, and which descended to his
+successors, possessed the sole dominion of the empire during forty-four
+years. The government, notwithstanding the great revolutions by which
+the republic had been converted into a monarchy, was not yet, either in
+fact or in form, altogether a despotic one. The private interest of the
+ruler required that the republican form should be preserved to the
+utmost, as without that he could not make an entire change; and the rest
+of his history sufficiently shows, that the cruelty with which he may be
+reproached in the early part of his career, was rather owing to
+circumstances than to his natural disposition. But during a reign so
+long, so tranquil, and so fortunate, could it be otherwise than that the
+republican spirit which at the beginning existed only in a few
+individuals, should evaporate of itself!
+
+  The forms under which Augustus held the different branches of supreme
+  power (dictatorship excepted) were;--the consulate, which, till B. C.
+  21, was annually renewed; and the _potestas consularis_, which, in B.
+  C. 19, was settled on him for ever;--the _tribunicia potestas_, which
+  was, 30, granted him for ever, rendered his person sacred
+  (_sacrosancta_), and prepared the way to the _judicia majestatis_
+  (accusations of high treason). As _imperator_, 31, he continued
+  commander of all the forces, and obtained the _imperium proconsulare_
+  (proconsular power) in all the provinces. He assumed the _magistratura
+  morum_ (censorship), 19; and became _pontifex maximus_ (high priest),
+  13. To avoid all appearances of usurpation, Augustus at first
+  accepted the sovereign power only for ten years, and afterwards had it
+  renewed from time to time, for ten or five years, which, at a later
+  period, gave rise to the _sacra decennalia_.
+
+2. The senate, indeed, remained a permanent council of state, and
+Augustus himself endeavoured to increase its authority by more than one
+purification (_lectio_); but the connection between him and that
+assembly seemed of a very fragile nature, as it was undetermined, and
+could not at this time be settled, whether Augustus was over the senate,
+or the senate over Augustus. All matters of state could not be brought
+before the senate, as even the most important often required secrecy. It
+naturally followed, that a prince, as yet without a court, and who had
+no proper minister, but only his friends and freedmen, should consult
+with those whom he thought most worthy his confidence, a Mæcenas, or an
+Agrippa, etc. Hence afterwards was formed the secret council of state
+(_consilium secretum principis_). Among the republican magistrates the
+highest lost most; and as so much now depended upon the preservation of
+peace in the capital, the offices of præfect of the city (_præfectus
+urbis_) and præfect of provisions (_præfectus annonæ_) were not only
+made permanent, but became, especially the former, the principal offices
+in the state.
+
+  The spirit of monarchy shows itself in nothing more than in its strict
+  distinction of ranks; hence, therefore, the magistrates, especially
+  the consuls, lost nothing. Hence also the long-continued custom of
+  nominating under-consuls (_consules suffecti_,) which in time
+  became merely a formal assumption of the _ornamenta consularia et
+  triumphalia_ (consular and triumphal ornaments). Other offices were
+  created for the purpose of rewarding friends and dependents.
+
+3. The introduction of standing armies, already long prepared, naturally
+followed a dominion acquired by war; and became, indeed, necessary to
+guard the frontiers and preserve the newly-made conquests; the
+establishment of the guards and militia of the city (_cohortes
+prætorianæ_ and _cohortes urbanæ_) were measures equally necessary for
+the security of the capital and the throne. The creation of _two_
+prætorian præfects, however, instead of _one_, diminished for the
+present the great importance of that office.
+
+  Distribution of the legions over the provinces in _castra stativa_
+  (fixed camps), which soon grew into cities, especially along the
+  Rhine, the Danube, and the Euphrates (_legiones Germanicæ, Illyricæ,
+  et Syriacæ_). Fleets also were stationed at Misenum and Ravenna.
+
+4. The government, as well as the administration and revenue of the
+provinces, Augustus willingly divided with the senate; keeping to
+himself those on the frontiers (_provinciæ principis_,) in which the
+legions were quartered, and leaving to that assembly the others
+(_provinciæ senatûs_). Hence his deputies (_legati_, lieutenants)
+exercised both civil and military authority in his name; while those of
+the senate, on the contrary (_proconsules_), only administered in civil
+affairs. Both were, in general, attended by commissioners (_procuratores
+et quæstores_). The provinces were unquestionably gainers by this new
+arrangement, not only because their governors were more carefully looked
+after, but because they were paid by the state.
+
+  The fate of the provinces naturally depended, in a great degree, upon
+  the disposition of the emperor and governor; but there was also an
+  essential difference between the provinces of the emperor and those
+  of the senate (_provinciæ principis et senatûs_): in the latter there
+  was no military oppression as there was in the former; and to that may
+  be ascribed the flourishing state of Gaul, Spain, Africa, etc.
+
+5. There is little doubt but that the finances of the treasury remained,
+upon the whole, much the same as before; but in its internal
+administration Augustus made many alterations, of which we have but a
+very imperfect knowledge. Of course there would be at first an obvious
+difference between the privy and military chest of the emperor
+(_fiscus_), which was at his immediate disposal, and the state chest
+(_ærarium_) which he disposed of indirectly through the senate, though
+it must afterwards follow as a natural consequence of increasing
+despotism, that the latter should progressively become merged in the
+former.
+
+  The great disorder into which the treasury had been thrown during the
+  civil wars, and especially by giving away the state lands in Italy to
+  the soldiers, together with the heavy sums required for the
+  maintenance of the standing army now established, must have rendered
+  it much more difficult for Augustus to accomplish the reform he so
+  happily executed; and in which it seems to have been his chief aim to
+  place everything, as far as possible, upon a solid and lasting
+  foundation. The principal changes which he made in the old system of
+  taxation seem to have been: 1. That the tithes hitherto collected in
+  the provinces should be changed into a fixed quota, to be paid by each
+  individual. 2. The customs, partly by reestablishing former ones, and
+  partly by imposing new ones as well as an excise (_centesima rerum
+  venalium_), were rendered more productive. The possession of Egypt,
+  which was the depôt of nearly all the commerce of the east, rendered
+  the customs at this time of great importance to Rome. 3. All the state
+  lands in the provinces were, by degrees, changed into crown lands. Of
+  the new taxes the most considerable were the _vigesima hereditatum_
+  (the twentieth of inheritances), though with important restrictions;
+  and the fines upon celibacy by the _lex Julia Poppæa_.--The greater
+  part of these state revenues most likely flowed, from the very first,
+  into the _fiscus_: that is, the whole revenues of the _provinciæ
+  principis_, as well as of those parts of the _provinciæ senatûs_ which
+  were appropriated to the maintenance of the troops; the revenues
+  arising from the crown domains; the _vigesima_, etc. To the _ærarium_
+  (now under three _præfecti ærarii_) remained a part of the revenues of
+  the _provinciæ senatûs_, the customs and the fines. Thus it appears
+  that Augustus was master of the finances, of the legions, and thereby
+  of the empire.
+
+  See above, p. 362, the writings of HEGEWISCH and BOSSE.
+
+6. The extension of the Roman empire under Augustus was very
+considerable; being generally of such a nature as conduced to the
+security of the interior, and to the safeguard of the frontiers. The
+complete subjugation of northern Spain, and western Gaul, secured the
+frontiers on that side; as did the threatened but never-executed
+expedition against the Parthians, and the one actually undertaken
+against Armenia, A. C. 2. But the most important conquest in this
+quarter was that of the countries south of the Danube, viz. Rhætia,
+Vindelicia, and Noricum, as well as Pannonia, and afterwards Moesia. To
+counterbalance these, the expedition against Arabia Felix completely
+failed; and that against Æthiopia was of no further consequence than to
+strengthen the frontiers.
+
+7. All these conquests together, however, did not cost the Romans so
+much as their fruitless attempt to subjugate Germany, first, by the
+sons-in-law of Augustus, Drusus and Tiberius Nero, and afterwards by the
+son of the former, Drusus Germanicus. Whether or not this undertaking
+was a political fault, must always remain a problem, as it is now
+impossible to say how far the security of the frontiers could be
+preserved without it.
+
+  Rome commenced her hostile attack upon Germany under the command of
+  Drusus, B. C. 12; Lower Germany (Westphalia, Lower Saxony, and Hesse)
+  being in general the theatre of the war: while the Lower Rhine was
+  attacked both by sea and land at the mouths of the Ems, the Weser, and
+  the Elbe, on account of the great assistance afforded the Romans by
+  their alliance with the nations on the coasts, the Batavi, Frisii, and
+  Chauci. The intrepid Drusus, in his second expedition, 10, penetrated
+  as far as the Weser, and, 9, even as far as the Elbe, but died on his
+  return. His successors in the command (Tiberius, 9-7, Domitius,
+  Ænobarbus, 7-2, M. Vinicius, 2-A. C. 2, then again Tiberius, A. C.
+  2-4, who was followed by Quintilius Varus, A. C. 5-9,) endeavoured
+  to build on the foundation laid by Drusus, and, by erecting forts and
+  introducing the Roman language and laws, gradually to reduce into a
+  province the part of Germany they had already subdued; but the
+  craftily organized revolt of the young Arminius (Hermann,) a prince of
+  the Cherusci, son of Siegmar, and son-in-law of Segestes, a friend of
+  the Romans, together with the defeat of Varus and his army in the
+  Teutoburg wald, or forest, near Paderborn, A. C. 9, rescued Germany
+  from slavery, and its language from annihilation. It moreover taught
+  the conquerors (what they never forgot) that the legions were not
+  invincible. Augustus immediately despatched Tiberius, who had just
+  quelled a furious insurrection in Pannonia, together with Germanicus,
+  to the Rhine; but these confined themselves to simple incursions, till
+  Germanicus, A. C. 14-16, again carried his arms further into the
+  country, and certainly penetrated as far as the Weser. Yet,
+  notwithstanding his victory near Idistavisus (Minden), the loss of his
+  fleet and part of his army by a tempest on his return, and the
+  jealousy of Tiberius at his victory, obliged him to give up his
+  command. From this time the Germans were left at rest in this quarter.
+
+  # MANNERT, _Geography of the Greeks and Romans_, part iii.
+
+8. The long, and for Italy itself, peaceable reign of Augustus, has
+generally been considered a fortunate and brilliant period of Roman
+history; and, when compared with the times which preceded and followed,
+it certainly was so. Security of person and property were reestablished;
+the arts of peace flourished under the benign patronage of Augustus and
+his favourite Mæcenas; and we may add, that, as the formal restoration
+of the republic would only have been the signal for new commotions, the
+government of Augustus, if not the very best, was, at least, the best
+that Rome could then bear. Should it be said his private life was not
+blameless, it may be replied, that he inflexibly maintained an outward
+decency, to which, indeed, he sacrificed his only daughter; and if laws
+could have bettered the public morals, there was no lack of decrees for
+that purpose.
+
+  Among his most important laws to this end are, the _lex Julia de
+  adulteriis_ and the _lex Papia Poppæa_ against celibacy. The latter
+  excited many murmurs.
+
+9. Nearly all that remains of the history of Augustus, is an account of
+his domestic troubles; the most unhappy family being that of the
+emperor. The influence of Livia, his second wife, was very great, but
+does not seem to have been perverted to any worse purpose than raising
+her sons, Tiberius and Drusus, to the throne. The naturally unsettled
+state of the succession, in a government such as that of Rome now was,
+became much increased by circumstances. After the untimely death of his
+nephew and son-in-law Marcellus, whom he had adopted, his widow Julia,
+the only child of Augustus by his wife Scribonia, was married to
+Agrippa. The two eldest sons of this marriage, C. and L. Cæsar, were
+adopted, upon the death of their father, by the emperor, who showed so
+much fondness towards them as they grew up, that Tiberius, who in the
+mean time had married their mother, Julia,--afterwards banished by
+Augustus for her licentious conduct--left the court in disgust. The
+death of the two young princes, however, again revived the hopes of
+Tiberius, who was adopted by Augustus upon the condition that he should
+also adopt Drusus Germanicus, the son of his deceased brother Drusus;
+after which Augustus, with the consent of the senate, formally
+associated him with himself in the government, making him an equal
+partner in the imperial privileges: called by his successors, _lex
+regia_.
+
+  _Marmor Ancyranum_; or, inscriptions in the temple of Augustus at
+  Ancyra. A copy of the account given of his government, which Augustus
+  latterly caused to be set up at Rome as a public memorial:
+  unfortunately much mutilated. It is to be found in CHISHULL, _Antiq.
+  Asiatic_.
+
+  _Memoirs of the Court of Augustus, by_ THOMAS BLACKWELL. London, 1760,
+  3 vols. 4to. divided into fifteen books. The last vol. was published
+  after the death of the author, by MR. MILLS. The last two books of
+  this prolix work contain a description of the contemporary affairs of
+  Augustus; the others go back to earlier times. A just appreciation of
+  Augustus requires a previous critical examination of the sources from
+  which Suetonius has drawn the materials for his biography.
+
+  _Histoire des triumvirats augmentée de l'histoire d'Auguste, par_
+  LARRY. Trevoux, 1741, 4 parts, 8vo. The last part of this simple
+  narrative contains the history of Augustus from the death of Catiline.
+
+10. The reign of Tiberius Claudius Nero, or, as he was called after his
+adoption, Augustus Tiberius Cæsar, from his fifty-sixth to his
+seventy-eighth year, changed rather the spirit than the form of the
+Roman constitution. He succeeded quietly to the vacant throne at Rome,
+although the legions in Pannonia, and still more in Germany, felt that
+they could make emperors. Under him the _comitia_, or assemblies of the
+people, were reduced to a mere shadow; as he transferred their duties to
+the senate, which also became the highest tribunal for the state crimes
+of its own members: this assembly, however, had now been so much
+accustomed to obey the will of the prince, that everything depended on
+his personal character. Tiberius founded his despotism upon the _judicia
+majestatis_, or accusations of high treason, now become an engine of
+terror, the senate also sharing his guilt with a pusillanimity and
+servility which knew no bounds. This degraded assembly, indeed, from the
+moment that it ceased to be the ruling authority of a free state,
+necessarily became the passive instrument of the most brutal tyranny.
+Notwithstanding the military talents and many good qualities of
+Tiberius, his despotic character had been formed long before his
+fifty-sixth year, when he mounted the throne; although exterior
+circumstances prevented him from entirely throwing off the mask which he
+had hitherto worn.
+
+  The foundation of the _judicia majestatis_, which soon became so
+  terrible by the unfixed state of crime, had been laid during the reign
+  of Augustus by the _lex Julia de majestate_, and the _cognitiones
+  extraordinariæ_, or commissioners appointed to take cognizance of
+  certain crimes; it was, however, the abuse of them by Tiberius and his
+  successors, which rendered them so dreadful.
+
+12. The principal object of Tiberius's suspicion, and therefore of his
+hate, was Germanicus, a man almost adored by the army and the people.
+This brave general he soon recalled from Germany, and sent into Syria
+to quell the disorders of the east. After having successfully put an end
+to the commotions which called him there, he was poisoned by the
+contrivances of Cn. Piso and his wife; and even that did not shelter the
+numerous family which he left behind, with his widow Agrippina, from
+persecution and ruin.
+
+  The expeditions of Germanicus in the east not only gave a king to
+  Armenia, but also reduced Cappadocia and Commagene to Roman provinces,
+  A. C. 17.
+
+  _Histoire de Cæsar Germanicus, par_ M. L. D. B. [EAUFORT]. à Leyden,
+  1741. An unpretending chronological narrative.
+
+13. Rome, however, soon experienced to her cost the powerful ascendancy
+which L. Ælius Sejanus, the præfect of the prætorian guard, had acquired
+over the mind of Tiberius, whose unlimited confidence he possessed the
+more, as he enjoyed it without a rival. The eight years of his authority
+were rendered terrible not only by the cantonment of his troops in
+barracks near the city (_castra prætoriana_), but (having first
+persuaded Tiberius to quit Rome for ever, that he might more securely
+play the tyrant in the isle of Capreæ) by his endeavouring to open a way
+for himself to the throne by villanies and crimes without number, and by
+his cruel persecution of the family of Germanicus. The despotism he had
+introduced became still more dreadful by his own fall, in which not only
+his whole party, but every one that could be considered as connected
+with it, became involved. The picture of the atrocious despotism of
+Tiberius is rendered doubly disgusting by the horrid and unnatural lust
+which he joined to it in his old age.
+
+  Tiberius's misfortune was, that he came too late to the throne. His
+  early virtues made no compensation for his later cruelties. It is
+  properly the former which Vel. Paterculus praises, whose flattery of
+  Tiberius, in whose reign he flourished, is more easily justified than
+  his praise of Sejanus.
+
+14. At the age of twenty-five Caius Cæsar Caligula, the only remaining
+son of Germanicus, ascended the throne; but the hopes which had been
+formed of this young prince were soon wofully disappointed. His previous
+sickness and debaucheries had so distorted his understanding, that his
+short reign was one tissue of disorder and crime. Yet he did still more
+harm to the state by his besotted profusion than by his tiger-like
+cruelty. At length, after a career of nearly four years, he was
+assassinated by Cassius Chærea and Cornelius Sabinus, two officers of
+his guard.
+
+15. His uncle Tiberius Claudius Cæsar, who, at the age of fifty,
+succeeded him, was the first emperor raised to the throne by the guards;
+a favour which he rewarded by granting them a _donative_. Too weak to
+rule of himself, almost imbecile from former neglect, profligate, and
+cruel from fear, he became the tool of the licentiousness of his wives
+and freedmen. Coupled with the names of Messalina and Agrippina, we now
+hear, for the first time in Roman history, of a Pallas and a Narcissus.
+The dominion of Messalina was still more hurtful to the state by her
+rapacious cupidity, to which everything gave way, than by her dissolute
+life; and the blow which at last punished her unexampled wantonness,
+left a still more dangerous woman to supply her place. This was
+Agrippina, her neice, widow of L. Domitius, who joined to the vices of
+her predecessor a boundless ambition, unknown to the former. Her chief
+aim was to procure the succession for Domitius Nero, her son by a former
+marriage--who had been adopted by Claudius, and married to his daughter
+Octavia--by setting aside Britannicus, the son of Claudius; and this she
+hoped to effect, by poisoning Claudius, having already gained Burrhus,
+by making him _sole_ præfect of the prætorian guard. Notwithstanding the
+contentions with the Germans and Parthians (see above, p. 303) were only
+on the frontiers, the boundaries of the Roman empire were in many
+countries extended.
+
+  Commencement of the Roman conquests in Britain (whither Claudius
+  himself went) under A. Plautius, from the year A. C. 43. Under the
+  same general, Mauritania, A. C. 42, Lycia, 43, Judæa, 44 (see above,
+  p. 312), and Thrace, 47, were reduced to Roman provinces. He also
+  abolished the præfectures which had hitherto existed in Italy.
+
+16. Nero Claudius Cæsar, supported by Agrippina and the prætorian guard,
+succeeded Claudius at the age of seventeen. Brought up in the midst of
+the blackest crimes, and, by a perverted education, formed rather for a
+professor of music and the fine arts than for an emperor, he ascended
+the throne like a youth eager for enjoyment; and throughout his whole
+reign his cruelty appears subordinate to his fondness for debaucheries
+and revelry. The unsettled state of the succession first called into
+action his savage disposition; and after the murder of Britannicus the
+sword fell in regular order upon all those who were even remotely
+connected with the Julian family. His vanity as a performer and composer
+excited in an equal degree his cruelty; and as, among all tyrants, every
+execution gives occasion for others, we need not wonder at his putting
+to death every one that excelled him. His connection, however, in the
+early part of his reign, with Agrippina, Burrhus, and Seneca, during
+which he introduced some useful regulations into the treasury, kept him
+within the bounds of decency. But Poppæa Sabina having driven him on to
+the murder of his mother and his wife Octavia, and Tigellinus being made
+his confident, he felt no longer restrained by the fear of public
+opinion. The executions of individuals, nearly all of which history has
+recorded, was not, perhaps, upon the whole, the greatest evil; the
+plunder of the provinces, not only to support his own loose and
+effeminate pleasures, but also to maintain the people in a continual
+state of intoxication, had nearly caused the dissolution of the empire.
+The last years of Nero were marked by a striking and undoubted insanity,
+which displayed itself in his theatrical performances, and even in the
+history of his fall. It appears that both around and upon a throne like
+that of Rome, heroes were formed for vice as well as virtue!
+
+  Discovery of the conspiracy of Piso, 65, and the revolt of Julius
+  Vindex in Celtic Gaul, 68, followed by that of Galba in Spain, who is
+  there proclaimed emperor, and joined by Otho, in Lusitania.
+  Nevertheless, after the defeat of Julius Vindex in Upper Germany, by
+  the lieutenant Virginius Rufus, these insurrections seemed quelled,
+  when the prætorian guard, instigated thereto by Nymphidius, broke out
+  into rebellion in Rome itself. Flight and death of Nero, June 11, 68.
+  Foreign wars during his reign: in Britain (occasioned by the revolt
+  of Boadicea), great part of which was subdued and reduced to a Roman
+  province, by Suetonius Paulinus; in Armenia, under the command of the
+  valiant Corbulo, against the Parthians (see above, p. 303); and in
+  Palestine against the Jews, 66. Great fire in Rome, 64, which gives
+  rise to the first persecution against the Christians.
+
+  The principal cause why the despotism of Nero and his predecessors was
+  so tamely submitted to by the nation, may undoubtedly be found in the
+  fact, that the greater part of it was fed by the emperors. To the
+  monthly distributions of corn were now added the extraordinary
+  _congiaria_ and _viscerationes_ (supplies of wine and meat). The
+  periods of tyranny were very likely the golden days of the people.
+
+17. By the death of Nero the house of Cæsar became extinct, and this
+gave rise to so many commotions, that in somewhat less than two years,
+four emperors by violence obtained possession of the throne. The right
+of the senate to name, or at least to confirm, the successors to the
+throne, was still indeed acknowledged; but as the armies had found out
+that they could create emperors, the power of the senate dwindled into
+an empty ceremony. Servius Sulpicius Galba, now seventy-two years of
+age, having been already proclaimed emperor by the legions in Spain, and
+acknowledged by the senate, gained possession of Rome without striking a
+blow, the attempt of Nymphidius having completely failed, and Virginius
+Rufus voluntarily submitting to him. Galba, however, having given
+offence both to the prætorian guard and the German legions, was
+dethroned by the guards, at the instigation of his former friend Otho,
+at the very time when he thought he had secured his throne by adopting
+the young Licinius Piso, and had frustrated the hopes of Otho.
+
+18. M. Otho, aged thirty-seven, was indeed acknowledged emperor by the
+senate, but wanted the sanction of the German legions, who, proclaiming
+their general, A. Vitellius, emperor, invaded Italy. Otho marches
+against him, but after the loss of the battle of Bedriacum kills
+himself--whether from fear or patriotism, remains uncertain.
+
+  The special sources for the history of Galba and Otho, are their
+  _Lives_ by PLUTARCH.
+
+19. Vitellius, in his thirty-seventh year, was acknowledged emperor not
+only by the senate, but likewise in the provinces; his debaucheries and
+cruelty, however, together with the licentiousness of his troops, having
+rendered him odious at Rome, the Syrian legions rebelled and proclaimed
+their general, T. Flavius Vespasian, emperor, who, at the solicitation
+of the powerful Mutianus, governor of Syria, accepted the imperial
+diadem. The troops on the Danube declaring for him shortly after, and
+marching into Italy under their general Antonius Primus defeated the
+army of Vitellius at Cremona. Vitellius was immediately hurled from the
+throne, though not till after some blood had been spilt by the
+commotions that took place at Rome, in which Flavius Sabinus, the
+brother of Vespasian, was slain, and the capitol burnt.
+
+20. Flavius Vespasian ascended the throne in his fifty-ninth year, and
+became thereby the founder of a dynasty which gave three emperors to
+Rome. The state, almost ruined by profusion, civil war, and successive
+revolutions, found in Vespasian a monarch well suited to its unhappy
+condition. He endeavoured, as far as he could, to determine the
+relations between himself and the senate; while, by a decree, he
+restored to it all the rights and privileges which had been conferred
+upon it by his predecessors of the family of Cæsar, and settled and
+added some others (_lex regia_). He made a thorough reform in the
+completely-exhausted treasury, which he recruited in part by reducing
+the countries Nero had made free, together with some others, into
+provinces; partly by restoring the ancient customs, by increasing
+others, and by imposing new ones: without this it would have been
+impossible for him to have reestablished the discipline of the army. His
+liberality in the foundation of public buildings, as well in Rome as in
+other cities; and the care with which he promoted education, by granting
+salaries to public teachers, are sufficient to free him from the
+reproach of avarice; and although, on account of their dangerous
+opinions, he banished the Stoics (who since the time of Nero had become
+very numerous, and retained nearly all the principles of republicanism),
+the annulling of the _judicia majestatis_ and the restoration of the
+authority of the senate show how far he was from being a despot.
+
+  Rhodes, Samos, Lycia, Achaia, Thrace, Cilicia, and Commagene, were
+  brought by Vespasian into the condition of provinces. Foreign wars:
+  that against the Jews, which ended with the destruction of Jerusalem,
+  A. C. 70; and a much greater war against the Batavians and their
+  allies under Civilis, who during the late civil wars, sought to shake
+  off the Roman yoke, 69; but were reduced to an accommodation by
+  Cerealis, 70. Expeditions of Agricola in Britain, 78-85, who not only
+  subdued all England, and introduced the Roman manners and customs, but
+  also attacked and sailed round Scotland.
+
+  _D. Vespasianus, sive de vita et legislatione T. Flavii Vespasiani
+  Imp. commentarius, auctore_ A. G. CRAMER. Jenæ, 1785. An excellent
+  enquiry, with illustrations of the fragments of the _lex regia_. The
+  second part, _de legislatione_, contains a learned commentary upon the
+  _senatus consulta_, during his reign.
+
+21. His eldest son, Titus Flavius Vespasian, who in the year 70 had been
+created Cæsar, and reigned from his thirty-ninth to his forty-second
+year, gives us the rare example of a prince becoming better on the
+throne. His short and benevolent reign was, indeed, only remarkable for
+its public calamities: an eruption of mount Vesuvius, overwhelming
+several cities, was followed by a destructive fire, and a dreadful
+plague at Rome. His early death secured him the reputation of being, if
+not the happiest, at least the best of princes.
+
+22. His younger brother and successor, L. Flavius Domitian, who reigned
+from his thirtieth to his forty-fifth year, gives an example quite
+opposite to that of Titus: beginning with justice and severity, he soon
+degenerated into the completest despot that ever swayed the Roman
+sceptre. His cruelty, joined to an equal degree of pride, and nourished
+by suspicion and jealousy, made him the enemy of all who excelled him by
+their exploits, their riches, or their talents. The mortifications to
+which his pride must have been subjected in consequence of his
+unsuccessful wars against the Catti, and more particularly the Daci,
+increased his bad disposition. His despotism was founded upon his
+armies, whose pay he augmented one fourth; and that he might not
+thereby diminish the treasury, as he had too much done at first, he
+multiplied the _judicia majestatis_, rendering it still more terrible by
+the employment of secret informers (_delatores_), in order, by
+confiscations, to augment the wealth of his private treasury (_fiscus_).
+By confining his cruelty chiefly to the capital, and by a strict
+superintendence over the governors of provinces, Domitian prevented any
+such general disorganization of the empire as took place under Nero. His
+fall confirmed the general truth, that tyrants have little to fear from
+the people, but much from individuals who may think their lives in
+danger.
+
+  The foreign wars during this reign are rendered more worthy of remark
+  by being the first in which the barbarians attacked the empire with
+  success. Domitian's ridiculous expedition against the Catti, 82, gave
+  the first proof of his boundless vanity; as did the recall of the
+  victorious Agricola, 85, from Britain, of his jealousy. His most
+  important war was that against the Daci, or Getæ, who, under their
+  brave king Dercebal, had attacked the Roman frontiers; this again
+  occasioned another with their neighbours, the Marcomanni, Quadi, and
+  Jazygi, 86-90, which turned out so unfortunate for Rome, that Domitian
+  was obliged to purchase a peace of the Daci by paying them an annual
+  tribute.
+
+23. M. Cocceius Nerva, aged about seventy years was raised to the throne
+by the murderers of Domitian; and now, at last, seemed to break forth
+the dawn of a more happy period for the empire. The preceding reign of
+terror completely ceased at once; and he endeavoured to impart fresh
+vigour to industry, not only by diminishing the taxes, but also by
+distributing lands to the poor. The insurrection of the guards
+certainly cost the murderers of Domitian their lives; but it was at the
+same time the cause of Nerva's securing the prosperity of the empire
+after his death, by the adoption of Trajan.
+
+24. M. Ulpius Trajan (after his adoption, Nerva Trajan), a Spaniard by
+birth, governed the empire from his forty-second to his sixty-second
+year. He was the first foreigner who ascended the Roman throne, and at
+the same time the first of their monarchs who was equally great as a
+ruler, a general, and a man. After completely abolishing the _judicia
+majestatis_, he made the restoration of the _free Roman constitution_,
+so far as it was compatible with a monarchical form, his peculiar care.
+He restored the elective power to the _comitia_, complete liberty of
+speech to the senate, and to the magistrates their former authority; and
+yet he exercised the art of ruling to a degree and in a detail which few
+princes have equalled. Frugal in his expenses, he was nevertheless
+splendidly liberal to every useful institution, whether in Rome or the
+provinces, as well as in the foundation of military roads, public
+monuments, and schools for the instruction of poor children. By his wars
+he extended the dominion of Rome beyond its former boundaries; subduing,
+in his contests with the Daci, their country, and reducing it to a Roman
+province; as he likewise did, in his wars against the Armenians and
+Parthians, Armenia, Mesopotamia, and part of Arabia. Why was so great a
+character disfigured by an ambition of conquest?
+
+  The first war against the Daci, in which the shameful tribute was
+  withdrawn and Dercebal reduced to subjection, lasted from 101-103.
+  But as Dercebal again rebelled, the war was renewed in 105, and
+  brought to a close in 106, when Dacia was reduced to a Roman province,
+  and many Roman colonies established therein. The war with the
+  Parthians arose from a dispute respecting the possession of the throne
+  of Armenia (see above, p. 304), 114-116: but although Rome was
+  victorious she gained no permanent advantage thereby.
+
+  The especial source for the history of Trajan is the _Panegyricus_ of
+  PLINY THE YOUNGER; the correspondence, however, of the same writer,
+  while governor of Bithynia, with the emperor, affords us a much deeper
+  insight into the spirit of his government: PLINII _Epist._ lib. x. Who
+  can read it without admiring the royal statesman?
+
+  RITTERSHUSII _Trajanus in lucem reproductus_. Ambegæ, 1608. A mere
+  collection of passages occurring in ancient authors respecting Trajan.
+
+  _Res Trajani Imperatoris ad Danubium Gestæ, auctore_ CONRAD MANNERT.
+  Norimb. 1793: and
+
+  JOH. CHRIST. ENGEL, _Commentatio de Expeditionibus Trajani ad
+  Danubium, et origine Valachorum_. Vindob. 1794.--Both learned
+  dissertations, written for the prize offered by the Royal Society of
+  Gottingen; the first of which obtained the prize, and the other the
+  _accessit_, i. e. was declared second best.
+
+25. By the contrivances of Plotina, his wife, Trajan was succeeded by
+his cousin and pupil, whom he is said also to have adopted, P. Ælius
+Adrian, who reigned from his forty-second to his sixty-third year. He
+was acknowledged at once by the army of Asia, with which he then was,
+and the sanction of the senate followed immediately after. He differed
+from his predecessor in that his chief aim was the preservation of
+peace; on which account he gave up (rare moderation!), directly after
+his accession, the newly conquered provinces of Asia, Armenia, Assyria,
+and Mesopotamia, and so put an end to the Parthian war (see above, p.
+304.) He retained, though with some unwillingness, that of Dacia,
+because otherwise the Roman colonies would have become exposed. He well
+made up for his pacific disposition, however, in seeking, by a general
+and vigorous reform in the internal administration, and by restoring the
+discipline of the army, to give greater solidity to the empire. For that
+purpose he visited successively all the provinces of the Roman empire;
+first the eastern, and afterwards the western; making useful regulations
+and establishing order wherever he came. He improved the Roman
+jurisprudence by the introduction of the _edictum perpetuum_.
+Passionately fond of and well instructed in literature and the fine
+arts, he gave them his liberal protection, and thus called forth another
+Augustan age. Upon the whole, his reign was certainly a salutary one for
+the empire; and for any single acts of injustice of which he may be
+accused, he fully compensated by his choice of a successor. After having
+first adopted L. Aurelius Verus (afterwards Ælius Verus), who fell a
+sacrifice to his debaucheries, he next adopted T. Aurelius Antoninus
+(afterwards T. Ælius Adrianus Antoninus Pius), upon condition that he
+should again adopt M. Aurelius Verus (afterwards M. Aurelius Antoninus),
+and L. Cesonius Commodus (afterwards L. Verus), the son of Ælius Verus.
+
+  During his reign a great revolt broke out in Judæa, under Barcochab,
+  132-135, occasioned by the introduction of pagan worship into the
+  Roman colony of _Ælia Capitolina_ (the ancient Jerusalem).
+
+  The especial source for the history of Adrian, is his _Life_ and that
+  of _Ælius Verus_ by ÆLIUS SPARTIANUS _in Script. Hist. Aug. Minores_,
+  already quoted.
+
+26. The reign of Antoninus Pius, from his forty-seventh to his
+seventieth year, was without doubt the happiest period of the Roman
+empire. He found everything already in excellent order; and those
+ministers which Adrian had appointed, he continued in their places. His
+quiet activity furnishes but little matter for history; and yet he was,
+perhaps, the most noble character that ever sat upon a throne. Although
+a prince, his life was that of the most blameless individual; while he
+administered the affairs of the empire as though they were his own. He
+honoured the senate; and the provinces flourished under him, not only
+because he kept a watchful eye over the conduct of the governors, but
+because he made it a maxim of his government to continue in their places
+all those whose probity he had sufficiently proved. He observed rigid
+order in the finances, and yet without sparing where it could be of
+service in the foundation or improvement of useful institutions; as his
+erection of many buildings, establishment of public teachers with
+salaries in all the provinces, and other examples fully show. He carried
+on no war himself; on the contrary, several foreign nations made choice
+of him to arbitrate their differences. Some rebellions which broke out
+in Britain and Egypt, and some frontier wars excited by the Germans, the
+Daci, the Moors, and the Alani, were quelled by his lieutenants.
+
+  The principal and almost the only source for the history of Antoninus
+  Pius, Dion Cassius's history of this period being lost, is his _Life_
+  by JULIUS CAPITOLINUS in the _Script. Hist. August._ And even this
+  refers to his private character rather than his public history.
+  Compare the excellent _Reflections_ of MARCUS AURELIUS, i, 16. upon
+  this prince.
+
+  _Vie des Empereurs Tite Antonin et Marc Aurele_, _par_ M. GAUTIER DE
+  SIBERT. Paris, 1769, 8vo. A valuable essay on the lives of the two
+  Antonines.
+
+27. He was succeeded by Marcus Aurelius Antoninus, the philosopher (aged
+40-59 years), who immediately associated with himself, under the title
+of Augustus, L. Verus (aged 30-40 years, ! 169), to whom he gave his
+daughter in marriage. Notwithstanding the differences of their
+character, the most cordial union existed between them during the whole
+of their common reign; L. Verus, indeed, being almost always absent in
+the wars, took but a very small share in the government. The reign of M.
+Aurelius was marked by several great calamities: a dreadful pestilence,
+a famine, and almost continual wars. Nothing short of a prince like
+Aurelius, who exhibited to the world the image of wisdom seated on a
+throne, could have made so much misery tolerable. Soon after his
+accession, the Catti made an irruption upon the Rhine, and the Parthians
+in Asia. L. Verus was sent against them. But the wars on the Danube with
+the Marcomanni and their allies in Pannonia, and other northern nations,
+who now began to press forward with great force upon Dacia, were of much
+greater consequence. They occupied M. Aurelius from the year 167, with
+but little intermission, to the end of his reign. He succeeded, indeed,
+in maintaining the boundaries of the empire; but then he was the first
+who settled any of the barbarians within it, or took them into the Roman
+service. In the internal administration of affairs he closely followed
+the steps of his predecessor, except that he was rather too much
+influenced by his freedmen and family. The only rebellion which broke
+out against him, was that of Avidius Cassius, his lieutenant in Syria,
+occasioned by a false report of his death; but it was quelled by the
+destruction of that general, as soon as the truth was made known.
+
+  The war against the Parthians (see above, p. 304) was indeed brought
+  to a successful issue by Verus, the principal cities of the Parthians
+  falling into the hands of the Romans; Verus left them, however, to be
+  carried on by his lieutenants, while he rioted in debaucheries at
+  Antioch. The first war against the Marcomanni, carried on in the
+  beginning and until the death of Verus, by the two emperors together,
+  was highly dangerous for Rome, as many other nations had joined the
+  Marcomanni, particularly the Quadi, Jazygi, and Vandals, and
+  penetrated as far as Aquileia. M. Aurelius ended this war by a
+  glorious peace, 174, as he found it necessary to stop the progress of
+  Cassius's rebellion; in 178, however, the Marcomanni again commenced
+  hostilities, and before their close M. Aurelius died at Sirmium.
+  Contemporary with these wars, yet, as it seems, without any connection
+  with them, were the attacks of other nations upon Dacia, the Bastarnæ,
+  Alani, etc. who poured in from the north, probably pressed forward by
+  the advance of the Goths. _This was the first symptom of the great
+  migration of nations now beginning._
+
+  The especial sources for the history of M. Aurelius, are the
+  Biographies of him and L. Verus, written by JULIUS CAPITOLINUS, as
+  well as that of Avidius Cassius, by VULCATIUS GALLICANUS in _Script.
+  Hist. August._ The letters discovered in Milan, among and together
+  with the writings of FRONTO, are of no historical service.--His
+  principles are best learnt from his _Meditations on himself_.
+
+  CH. MEINERS _de M. Aurel. Antonini ingenio, moribus, et scriptis, in
+  Commentat. Soc. Gotting._ vol. vi.
+
+28. By means of adoption the Roman empire had been blessed, during the
+last eighty years, with a succession of rulers such as have not often
+fell to the lot of any kingdom. But in J. Commodus the son of M.
+Aurelius (probably the offspring of a gladiator), who reigned from his
+nineteenth to his thirty-first year, there ascended the throne a monster
+of cruelty, insolence, and lewdness. At the commencement of his reign he
+bought a peace of the Marcomanni that he might return to Rome. Being
+himself unable to support the burden of government, the helm of state
+was placed in the hands of the stern and cruel Perennis, præfect of the
+prætorian guard; but who, being murdered by the discontented soldiers,
+was succeeded by the freedman Cleander, who put up all for sale, till he
+fell a sacrifice to his own insatiable avarice, in a revolt of the
+people, caused by their want of provisions. The extravagant propensity
+of Commodus for the diversions of the amphitheatres, and the combats of
+wild beasts and gladiators, wherein he himself usually took a part, in
+the character of Hercules, became a chief cause of his dissipation, and
+thereby of his cruelty; till at last he was killed at the instigation of
+his concubine Marcia, Lætus the præfect of the prætorian guard, and
+Electus. The wars on the frontiers during his reign, in Dacia, and
+especially in Britain, were successfully carried on by his lieutenants,
+generals who belonged to the school of his father.
+
+  The especial source for the history of Commodus is his private life
+  by ÆL. LAMPRIDIUS, in the _Script. Hist. August._--The history of
+  Herodian begins with his reign.
+
+29. The disasters under M. Aurelius, and the extravagances of Commodus,
+had injured the empire, but not enfeebled it. Towards the close of the
+period of the Antonines it still retained its pristine vigour. If wise
+regulations, internal peace, moderate taxes, a certain degree of
+political, and unrestrained civil liberty, are sufficient to form the
+happiness of a commonwealth, it must have been found in the Roman. What
+a number of advantages did it possess over every other, simply from its
+situation! Proofs of it appear on every side. A vigorous population,
+rich provinces, flourishing and splendid cities, and a lively internal
+and foreign trade. But the most solid foundation of the happiness of a
+nation consists in its moral greatness, and this we here seek for in
+vain. Otherwise the nation would not so easily have suffered itself to
+be brought under the yoke of Commodus by prætorian cohorts and the
+legions. But what best shows the strength which the empire still
+retained, is the opposition it continued to make, for two hundred years
+longer, to the formidable attacks from without.
+
+  D. H. HEGEWISCH _upon the Epochs in Roman History most favourable to
+  Humanity_. Hamburg, 1800-8.
+
+  Foreign commerce, so flourishing in this period, could only be carried
+  on, to any extent, with the east--mostly with India--as the Roman
+  empire spread over all the west. This trade continued to be carried on
+  through Egypt, and also through Palmyra and Syria. Information
+  thereupon will be found in
+
+  W. ROBERTSON'S _Disquisition concerning the Knowledge which the
+  Ancients had of India_. London, 1791, 4to. Often reprinted. And
+  particularly upon Egypt, in
+
+  W. VINCENT, _the Periplus of the Erythrean Sea_. London, 1802, 4to. 2
+  vols. A very instructive work.
+
+  HEEREN, _Commentationes de Græcorum et Romanorum de India notitia, et
+  cum Indis commerciis_: _in Commentat. Soc. Gott._ vol. x. xi.
+
+
+
+
+SECOND SECTION.
+
+_From the death of Commodus to Diocletian, A. C. 193-284._
+
+
+  SOURCES. The Extracts of Xiphilinus from DION CASSIUS, lib.
+  lxxiii-lxxx. though often imperfect, reach down as low as the
+  consulate of Dion himself under Alexander Severus, 229.--HERODIANI
+  _Hist._ libri viii. comprise the period from Commodus to Gordian,
+  180-238.--The _Scriptores Historiæ Augustæ Minores_ contain the
+  private lives of the emperors down to Diocletian, by JULIUS
+  CAPITOLINUS, FLAVIUS VOPISCUS, etc.--The _Breviaria Historiæ Romanæ_
+  of EUTROPIUS, AURELIUS VICTOR, and S. RUFUS are particularly important
+  for this period.--Finally, the important information that may be
+  derived from the study of medals and coins, not only for this section,
+  but for the whole history of the emperors, may be best learnt by
+  consulting the writers upon those subjects: J. VAILLANT, _Numismata
+  Augustorum et Cæsarum_, _cura_ J. F. BALDINO. Rome, 1743, 3 vols. _The
+  Medallic History of Imperial Rome_, by W. COOKE. London, 1781, 2
+  vols.--But above all, the volumes belonging to this period in ECKHEL,
+  _Doctrina Nummorum Veterum_.
+
+  With the period of the Antonines begins the great work of the British
+  historian:
+
+  _The History of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire_, by EDWARD
+  GIBBON. Oxford, 1828, 8 vols. 8vo. In worth and extent this work is
+  superior to all others. It embraces the whole period of the middle
+  ages; but only the first part belongs to this period.
+
+1. The extinction of the race of the Antonines by the death of Commodus
+was attended with convulsions similar to those which took place when the
+house of Cæsar became extinct at the death of Nero. It is true that P.
+Helvius Pertinax, aged sixty-seven, præfect of the city, was raised to
+the throne by the murderers of Commodus; and that he was acknowledged,
+first by the guards, and afterwards by the senate. But the reform which
+he was obliged to make at the beginning of his reign in the finances,
+rendered him so odious to the soldiers and courtiers, that a revolt of
+the first, excited by Lætus, cost him his life before he had reigned
+quite three months. This was the first commencement of that dreadful
+military despotism which forms the ruling character of this period; and
+to none did it become so terrible as to those who wished to make it the
+main support of their absolute power.
+
+  The insolence of the prætorian guard had risen very high during the
+  reign of Commodus; but it had never, even in the time of the
+  Antonines, been entirely suppressed. It was only by large donatives
+  that their consent could be purchased, their caprice satisfied, and
+  their good humour maintained; especially at every new adoption. One of
+  the greatest reproaches to the age of the Antonines is, that those
+  great princes, who seem to have had the means so much in their power,
+  did not free themselves from so annoying a dependence.
+
+  JUL. CAPITOLINI _Pertinax Imp. in Script. Hist. Aug._
+
+2. When, upon the death of Pertinax, the rich and profligate M. Didius
+Julianus, aged fifty-seven, had outbid, to the great scandal of the
+people, all his competitors for the empire, and purchased it of the
+prætorian guard, an insurrection of the legions, who were better able to
+create emperors, very naturally followed. But as the army of Illyria
+proclaimed their general Septimius Severus, the army of Syria,
+Pescennius Niger, and the army of Britain, Albinus, nothing less than a
+series of civil wars could decide who should maintain himself on the
+throne.
+
+  ÆL. SPARTIANI _Didius Julianus, in Script. Hist. Aug._
+
+3. Septimius Severus, however, aged 49-66, was the first who got
+possession of Rome, and, after the execution of Didius Julianus, he was
+acknowledged by the senate. He dismissed, it is true, the old prætorian
+guard, but immediately chose, from his own army, one four times more
+numerous in its stead. And after he had provisionally declared Albinus
+emperor, he marched his army against Pescennius Niger, already master of
+the east, whom, after several contests near the Issus, he defeated and
+slew. Nevertheless, having first taken and destroyed the strong city of
+Byzantium, a war with Albinus soon followed, whom the perfidious Severus
+had already attempted to remove by assassination. After a bloody defeat
+near Lyons, Albinus kills himself. These civil wars were followed by
+hostilities against the Parthians, who had taken the part of Pescennius,
+and which ended with the plundering of their principal cities (see
+above, p. 304). Severus possessed most of the virtues of a soldier; but
+the insatiable avarice of his minister Plautianus, the formidable
+captain of the prætorian guard, robbed the empire even of those
+advantages which may be enjoyed under a military government, until he
+was put to death at the instigation of Caracalla. To keep his legions
+employed, Severus undertook an expedition into Britain, where, after
+extending the boundaries of the empire, he died at York (_Eboracum_),
+leaving his son the maxim, "to enrich the soldiers, and hold the rest
+for nothing."
+
+  Agricola had already erected a line of fortresses, probably between
+  the Firth of Clyde and the Firth of Forth. These were changed by
+  Adrian into a wall along the present boundaries of Scotland. Severus
+  again extended the frontiers, reestablished the fortresses of
+  Agricola, and afterwards built a wall from sea to sea; his son,
+  however, gave up the conquered country, and the wall of Adrian again
+  became the boundary of the empire.
+
+  ÆL. SPARTIANI _Septimius Severus et Pescennius Niger_.
+
+  JUL. CAPITOLINI _Claudius Albinus, in Script. Hist. Aug._
+
+4. The deadly hatred which reigned between the two sons of Severus, M.
+Aurelius Antoninus Bassianus Caracalla, aged 23-29, and his young
+step-brother Geta, aged twenty-one, led to a dreadful catastrophe; for
+at their return to Rome, and after a fruitless proposition had been made
+for a division of the empire, Geta was assassinated in the arms of his
+mother Julia Domna, together with all those who were considered as his
+friends. The restless spirit of Caracalla, however, soon drew him from
+Rome, and in traversing first the provinces along the Danube, and then
+those of the east, he ruined them all by his exactions and cruelty, to
+which he was driven for money to pay his soldiers, and to purchase peace
+of his enemies on the frontiers. The same necessity led him to grant the
+right of citizenship to all the provinces, that he might thereby gain
+the duty of the _vicesima hereditatum et manumissionum_ (twentieth upon
+inheritances and enfranchisements), which he very soon afterwards
+changed into a tenth (_decima_).--With respect to his foreign wars, his
+first was against the Catti and Alemanni, among whom he remained a long
+time, sometimes as a friend and sometimes as an enemy. But his principal
+efforts, after having previously ordered a dreadful massacre of the
+inhabitants of Alexandria, to satisfy his cruel rapacity, were directed
+against the Parthians (see above, p. 304); and in his wars against them
+he was assassinated by Macrinus, the præfect of the prætorian guard.
+
+  The præfect, or captain, of the prætorian guard became, from the time
+  of Severus, the most important officer in the state. Besides the
+  command of the guards, the finances were also under his control,
+  together with an extensive criminal jurisdiction. A natural
+  consequence of the continually increasing despotism.
+
+  ÆL. SPARTIANI _Antoninus Caracalla et Ant. Geta, in Script. Hist.
+  Aug._
+
+5. His murderer, M. Opelius Macrinus, aged fifty-three, was recognized
+as emperor by the soldiers, and forthwith acknowledged by the senate. He
+immediately created his son, M. Opelius Diadumenus, aged nine years,
+Cæsar, and gave him the name of Antoninus. He disgracefully terminated
+the war against the Parthians by purchasing a peace, and changed the
+_decima_ (tenth) of Caracalla again into the _vicesima_ (twentieth).
+However, while he still remained in Asia, Bassianus Heliogabalus,
+grand-nephew of Julia Domna, and high priest in the temple of the Sun at
+Emesa, whom his mother gave out for a son of Caracalla, was proclaimed
+emperor by the legions, and, after a combat with the guards,
+subsequently to which Macrinus and his son lost their lives, they raised
+him to the throne.
+
+  Mæsa, the sister of Julia Domna, had two daughters, both widows;
+  Soæmis, the eldest, was the mother of Heliogabalus, Mammæa, the
+  youngest, the mother of Alexander Severus.
+
+  JUL. CAPITOLINI _Opelius Macrinus, in Script. Hist. Aug._
+
+6. Heliogabalus, aged 14-18, who assumed the additional name of M.
+Aurelius Antoninus, brought with him from Syria the superstitions and
+voluptuousness of that country. He introduced the worship of his god
+Heliogabal in Rome, and wallowed openly in such brutal and infamous
+debaucheries, that history can scarcely find a parallel to his
+dissolute, shameless, and scandalous conduct. How low must the morality
+of that age have been sunk, in which a boy could so early have ripened
+into a monster!--The debasement of the senate, and of all important
+offices, which he filled with the degraded companions of his own lusts
+and vices, was systematically planned by him; and he deserves no credit
+even for the adoption of his cousin, the virtuous Alexander Severus, as
+he shortly after endeavoured to take away his life, but was himself for
+that reason assassinated by the prætorian guards.
+
+  # ÆL. LAMPRIDII _Ant. Heliogabalus, in Script. Hist. Aug._
+
+7. His young cousin and successor, M. Aurelius Alexander Severus, aged
+14-27, who had been carefully educated under the direction of his mother
+Mammæa, proved one of the best princes in an age and upon a throne where
+virtues were more dangerous than vices. Under favour of his youth he
+endeavoured to effect a reform, in which he was supported by the
+cooperation of the guards, who had elevated him to the throne. He
+restored the authority of the senate, from among whom he chose, with
+rigid justice, his privy council of state, banishing the creatures of
+Heliogabalus from their places. The revolution in the Parthian empire,
+out of which was now formed the new Persian, was of so much importance
+to Rome, that it obliged Alexander to undertake a war against
+Artaxerxes, in which he was probably victorious. But while marching in
+haste to protect the frontiers against the advance of the Germans upon
+the Rhine, his soldiers, exasperated at the severity of his discipline,
+and incited by the Thracian Maximin, murdered him in his own tent. His
+præfect of the prætorian guard, Ulpian, had already, for the same cause,
+fallen a victim to this spirit of insubordination, which was not checked
+even by the immediate presence of the emperor himself.
+
+  The revolution in Parthia, whereby a new Persian empire was formed
+  (see above, p. 304.), became a source of almost perpetual war to Rome;
+  Artaxerxes I. and his successors, the Sassanides, claiming to be
+  descendants of the ancient kings of Persia, formed pretensions to the
+  possession of all the Asiatic provinces of the Roman empire.
+
+  ÆLII LAMPRIDII _Alexander Severus_, _in Script. Hist. Aug._
+
+  HEYNE _de Alexandro Severo Judicium_, Comment. i. ii. in _Opuscula
+  Academica_, vol. vi.
+
+8. The death of A. Severus raised military despotism to the highest
+pitch, as it placed on the throne the half savage C. Julius Maximinus,
+by birth a Thracian peasant. At first he continued the war against the
+Germans with great success, repulsing them beyond the Rhine; and
+resolved, by crossing Pannonia, to carry the war even among the
+Sarmatians. But his insatiable rapacity, which spared neither the
+capital nor the provinces, made him hateful to all; and Gordian,
+proconsul of Africa, in his eightieth year, was, together with his son
+of the same name, proclaimed Augustus by the people, and immediately
+acknowledged by the senate. Upon this, Maximinus, eager to take
+vengeance on the senate, marched directly from Sirmium towards Italy. In
+the mean time, the legions of the almost defenceless Gordians were
+defeated in Africa, and themselves slain by Capellianus the governor of
+Numidia. Notwithstanding this, as the senate could expect no mercy, they
+chose as co-emperors the præfect of the city, Maximus Pupienus, and
+Clodius Balbinus, who, in conformity with the wishes of the people,
+created the young Gordian III. Cæsar. In the meanwhile Maximinus, having
+besieged Aquileia, and the enterprise proving unsuccessful, was slain by
+his own troops. Pupienus and Balbinus now seemed in quiet possession of
+the throne; but the guards, who had already been engaged in a bloody
+feud with the people, and were not willing to receive an emperor of the
+senate's choosing, killed them both, and proclaimed as Augustus,
+Gordian, already created Cæsar.
+
+  JUL. CAPITOLINI _Maximinus Gordiani tres, Pupienus et Balbinus_, _in
+  Script. Hist. August._
+
+9. The reign of the young M. Antoninus Gordianus lasted from his twelfth
+to his eighteenth year. He was grandson of the proconsul who had lost
+his life in Africa, and in the early part of his reign, acquired a
+degree of firmness from the support of his father-in-law, Misitheus,
+præfect of the prætorian guard, as well as from the successful
+expedition which he undertook into Syria against the Persians, who had
+invaded that province. But after the death of Misitheus, Philip the
+Arabian, being made præfect of the guards in his stead, found means to
+gain the troops over to himself, and, after driving Gordian from the
+throne, caused him to be assassinated.
+
+10. The reign of M. Julius Philippus was interrupted by several
+insurrections, especially in Pannonia; until at length Decius, whom he
+himself had sent thither to quell the rebellion, was compelled by the
+troops to assume the diadem. Philip was soon after defeated by him near
+Verona, where he perished, together with his son of the same name. In
+this reign the secular games, _ludi sæculares_, were celebrated, one
+thousand years from the foundation of the city.
+
+11. Under the reign of his successor, Trajanus Decius, aged fifty, the
+Goths for the first time forced their way into the Roman empire by
+crossing the Danube; and although Decius in the beginning opposed them
+with success, he was at last slain by them in Thrace, together with his
+son, Cl. Herennius Decius, already created Cæsar. Upon this the army
+proclaimed C. Trebonianus Gallus emperor, who created his son, Volusian,
+Cæsar; and having invited Hostilian, the yet remaining son of Decius,
+with the ostensible purpose of securing his cooperation, he nevertheless
+soon contrived to get rid of him. He purchased a peace of the Goths;
+but, despised by his generals, he became involved in a war with his
+victorious lieutenant, Æmilius Æmilianus, in Moesia, and was slain,
+together with his son, by his own army. In three months, however,
+Æmilianus shared the same fate; Publius Licinius Valerianus, the friend
+and avenger of Gallus, advancing against him with the legions stationed
+in Gaul. Both the people and army hoped to see the empire restored under
+Valerian, already sixty years of age; but, although his generals
+defended the frontiers against the Germans and Goths, he himself had the
+misfortune to be defeated and taken prisoner by the superior forces of
+the Persians. Upon this event his son and associate in the empire, P.
+Licinius Gallienus, who knew everything except the art of governing,
+reigned alone. Under his indolent rule the Roman empire seemed on one
+hand ready to be split into a number of small states, while on the other
+it seemed about to fall a prey to the barbarians; for the lieutenants in
+most of the provinces declared themselves independent of a prince whom
+they despised, and to which, indeed, they were driven, like Posthumius
+in Gaul, for their own security.--There were nineteen of these; but as
+many of them named their sons Cæsars, this period has been very
+improperly distinguished by the name of _the thirty tyrants_, although
+their intolerable oppressions might well justify the latter expression.
+The Persians at the same time were victorious in the east, and the
+Germans in the west.
+
+  The German nations which were now become so formidable to the Roman
+  empire, were: 1. The great confederation of tribes under the name of
+  _Franks_, who spread over Gaul along the whole extent of the Lower
+  Rhine. 2. The allied nations of the Alemanni on the Upper Rhine. 3.
+  The Goths, the most powerful of all, who had formed a monarchy upon
+  the banks of the Lower Danube and the northern coasts of the Black
+  sea, which soon extended from the Boristhenes to the Don; and who
+  became formidable, not only by their land forces, but also by their
+  naval power, especially after they had captured the peninsula of Crim
+  Tartary (_Chersonesus Taurica_); and by means of their fleets they not
+  only kept the Grecian, but likewise the Asiatic provinces in a
+  continual state of alarm.
+
+  TREBELLI POLLIONIS _Valerianus, Gallieni duo, triginta tyranni_, _in
+  Script. Hist. Aug._
+
+  # _Concerning the thirty tyrants under the Roman emperor Gallienus_,
+  by J. C. F. MANSO; at the end of his _Life of Constantine_.
+
+12. Gallienus losing his life before Milan, in the war against Aureolus
+an usurper, had nevertheless recommended M. Aurelius Claudius (aged
+45-47) for his successor. The new Augustus reestablished in some degree
+the tottering empire; not only by taking Aureolus prisoner and defeating
+the Alemanni, but also by a decisive victory gained at Nissa over the
+Goths, who had invaded Moesia. He died, however, soon after, at Sirmium,
+of a pestilential disease, naming for his successor Aurelian, a hero
+like himself, who mounted the throne upon the death of Quintillus the
+late emperor's brother, who had at first proclaimed himself Augustus,
+but afterwards died by his own hand.
+
+  TREBELLII POLLIONIS _divus Claudius_, _in Script. Hist. Aug._
+
+13. During the reign of L. Domitius Aurelianus, which lasted almost five
+years, those countries which had been partly or entirely lost to the
+empire were restored. Having first driven back the Goths and the
+Alemanni, who had advanced as far as Umbria, he undertook his expedition
+against the celebrated Zenobia, queen of Palmyra, who at that time
+possessed Syria, Egypt, and part of Asia Minor. These countries he again
+brought under the dominion of the empire, after having defeated Zenobia
+and made her prisoner. The western provinces of Gaul, Britain, and
+Spain, which since the time of Gallienus had been governed by separate
+rulers, and were now under the dominion of Tetricus, he reduced to their
+former obedience. Dacia, on the contrary, he willingly abandoned; and as
+he transported the Roman inhabitants across the Danube into Moesia, the
+latter henceforward bore the name of _Dacia Aureliani_. Hated for his
+severity, which in a warrior so easily degenerates into cruelty, he was
+assassinated in Illyria at the instigation of his private secretary
+Mnestheus.
+
+  FLAV. VOPISCI _divus Aurelianus_, _in Script. Hist. Aug._
+
+  Palmyra in the Syrian desert, enriched by the Indian trade, and one of
+  the most ancient cities in the world, became a Roman colony in the
+  time of Trajan. Odenatus, the husband of Zenobia, had acquired so much
+  celebrity by his victories over the Persians, that Gallienus had even
+  named him Augustus with himself. He was murdered, however, by his
+  cousin Mæonius, 267. Zenobia now took possession of the government for
+  her sons Vabalathus, Herennianus, and Timolaus, without, however,
+  being acknowledged at Rome. After this, in the time of Claudius, she
+  added Egypt to her dominions. Aurelian, having first defeated her near
+  Antioch and Emesa, soon afterwards took Palmyra, which, in consequence
+  of a revolt, he destroyed.--Even in its ruins Palmyra is still
+  magnificent.
+
+  _The Ruins of Palmyra_, by R. WOOD. London, 1753; and the _Ruins of
+  Balbec, otherwise Heliopolis_, by the same author, London, 1757, give
+  us clear and certain ideas of the splendour and magnitude of these
+  cities.
+
+  A. H. L. HEEREN, _de Commercio urbis Palmyræ vicinarumque urbium_, in
+  _Comment. recent. Soc. Gotting._ vol. vii. and the Appendix to
+  Heeren's Researches.
+
+14. An interregnum of six months followed upon the death of Aurelian,
+till at length the senate, at the repeated solicitations of the army,
+ventured to fill up the vacant throne. The object of their choice,
+however, M. Claudius Tacitus, the worthiest of the senators, was
+unfortunately seventy-five years old, and perished after a short reign
+of six months, in an expedition against the Goths. Upon this event the
+army of Syria raised M. Aurelius Probus to the purple; while Florianus
+the brother of Tacitus, who had already been acknowledged at Rome, was
+put to death by his own people.
+
+  FLAV. VOPISCI _Tacitus; ejusd. Florianus_, _in Script. Hist. Aug._
+
+15. The six years' reign of Probus was a warlike one. He defeated the
+Germans, and forced them beyond the Rhine and Danube; strengthening the
+frontiers by building a strong wall from the Danube, near Regensburg, to
+the Rhine. He also obliged the Persians to make peace. Nevertheless, the
+number of towns which he reestablished and peopled with prisoners of
+war, and the vineyards which he caused his soldiers to plant on the
+Rhine, are proofs that he had taste and inclination for the arts of
+peace. This policy, however, would not suit the legions! After he had
+perished, therefore, by the hands of his soldiers, they proclaimed the
+præfect of the prætorian guard, M. Aurelius Carus, emperor, who created
+his two sons Cæsars--men very unlike each other in disposition, M.
+Aurelius Carinus being one of the greatest reprobates, while M.
+Aurelius Numerianus was gentle by nature, and had a mind well formed by
+study. The new emperor, having defeated the Goths, marched against the
+Persians, but was shortly afterwards killed, it is said, by a flash of
+lightning. Nor did his son Numerianus long survive him, being murdered
+by his own father-in-law, Arrius Aper, the prætorian præfect.
+
+  FLAV. VOPISCI _Probus imper. ejusd. Carus, Numirianus et Carinus_, _in
+  Script. Hist. Aug._
+
+16. Although this period gives us a finished picture of a complete
+military despotism, it is still evident that this was owing to the
+entire separation of the military order from the rest of the people, by
+the introduction of standing armies, and the extinction of all national
+spirit among the citizens. The legions decided because the people were
+unarmed. It was, indeed, only among them, situated far from the soft
+luxuries of the capital, and engaged in almost a continual struggle with
+the barbarians, that a remnant of the ancient Roman character was still
+preserved. The nomination of their leaders to the purple became a
+natural consequence, not only of the uncertainty of the succession,
+which could not be fixed by mere ordinances, but often of necessity,
+from their being in the field under the pressure of urgent
+circumstances. Thus a succession of distinguished generals came to the
+throne: what authority, indeed, would an emperor at that time have had
+who was not a general? All durable reform, however, was rendered quite
+impossible by the quick succession of rulers. Even the best among them
+could do but very little for the internal administration; as all their
+energies were required to protect the frontiers, and defend themselves
+against usurpers, who, with the exception of the formality of being
+acknowledged by the senate, had claims as well founded as their own.
+
+17. The decline of the empire also became so much the more rapid, in
+proportion as in these days of terror luxury had increased not only in
+the splendour and profligate effeminacy of private life, but more
+particularly in public, to a pitch almost beyond belief. The latter was
+especially shown in the exhibitions of the amphitheatre and circus; by
+which not only every new ruler, but even every new magistrate was
+obliged to purchase the favour of the people. Thus these remnants of a
+free constitution served only to accelerate the general ruin! What
+enjoyments, indeed, could be found under the rod of despotism, except
+those of the grossest sensuality; and to satisfy this, the intellectual
+amusements of the theatre (mimes and pantomimes), and even those of
+rhetoric and poetry, were made to contribute.
+
+18. Yet, during this general decay, the gradual spread of the Christian
+religion was working a reform altogether of a different nature. Before
+the end of this period it had opened itself a way into every province,
+and, notwithstanding the frequent persecutions, had made converts in
+every rank of society, and was now on the eve of becoming the
+predominant form of worship. We shall be better able to estimate its
+value, if we consider it as the vehicle by which civilization made its
+way among the rude nations that now appeared on the scene, than if we
+merely consider it as the means of improving the manners and morals of
+the Roman world. In a political view it became of the greatest
+importance on account of the hierarchy, the frame-work of which was now
+in a great measure constructed among its professors. It was afterwards
+adopted as a state religion; and although the ancient creed of Rome had
+formerly been on the same footing, yet it was only calculated for the
+republic, and not at all for the now existing monarchy. The overthrow of
+paganism was necessarily attended with some violent convulsions, yet its
+loss was nothing to be compared with the support which the throne
+afterwards found in the hierarchy.
+
+  The dispersion of the Jews, and especially the persecutions which were
+  renewed from time to time, after the reign of Nero, (but which only
+  served to kindle enthusiasm,) strongly cooperated in spreading the
+  Christian religion. These persecutions were principally called forth
+  against the Christians on account of their forming themselves into a
+  separate society, which caused them to be regarded as a dangerous sect
+  at Rome, notwithstanding the general toleration granted to every other
+  system of religious belief. Although towards the end of this period,
+  only a very small proportion of the inhabitants of the Roman empire as
+  yet professed the Christian faith, it nevertheless had followers in
+  every province.
+
+  # _History of the Social Constitution of the Christian Church_, by
+  D. G. J. PLANCK, 4 parts, 1800. It is the first part of this excellent
+  work which relates to this period.
+
+
+
+
+THIRD SECTION.
+
+_From Diocletian to the overthrow of the Roman empire in the west,
+A. C. 284-476._
+
+
+  SOURCES. It now becomes of importance to enquire whether the
+  historians were Christians or pagans. ZOSIMUS, the imitator of
+  Polybius, belonged to the last. He describes the fall of the Roman
+  state, as his model does the previous part. Of his _Histories_ only
+  five books and a half, to the time of Gratian, 410, have descended to
+  us. He was certainly a violent antagonist of the Christians, yet,
+  nevertheless, the best writer of this period. AMMIANI MARCELLINI
+  _Historiarum_, lib. xiv-xxxi. from the year 353-378 (the first
+  thirteen books are lost). Probably a Christian, but yet no flatterer;
+  and, notwithstanding his tiresome prolixity, highly instructive.
+  Together with the writers of general history already noticed at p.
+  437, we must here especially add to the abbreviators, PAULI OROSII
+  _Hist._ lib. vii. and ZONARÆ _Annales_. The _Panegyrici Veteres_, from
+  Diocletian to Theodosius, can only be used with circumspection.--The
+  writers of church history, such as EUSEBIUS, in his _Hist. Eccles._
+  lib. x. and in his _Vita Constantini Magni_, lib. v. as well as his
+  continuators, SOCRATES, THEODORET, SOZOMENUS, and EVAGRIUS, are also
+  highly important for the political history of this period, though,
+  from their partiality towards the Christian emperors, they should
+  rather be classed with the panegyrists than the historians. To these
+  may be added another principal source, viz. the _Constitutions_ of the
+  emperors, which have been preserved in the _Codex Theodosianus_ and
+  _Justinianeus_, from the time of Constantine the Great.
+
+  Besides the works quoted at pages 411, 437, the Byzantine historians
+  here become of importance. We shall mention also:
+
+  _Histoire du Bas-Empire depuis Constantin_, _par_ M. LE BEAU,
+  _continuée par_ M. AMEILHON. Paris, 1824, 20 vols. 8vo. The first
+  seven parts only belong to this period.
+
+  # The German translation of GUTHRIE and GRAY'S _Universal History_,
+  5 sections, 1 vol. Leipsic, 1768. Rendered very useful by the
+  labours of Ritter.
+
+  _Histoire du Bas-Empire, depuis Constantin jusqu' à la prise de
+  Constantinople en 1453_, _par_ CARENTIN ROYOU. Paris, 1803, 4 vols.
+  8vo. A useful abridgement, without much research.
+
+1. The reign of C. Valerius Diocletian, aged 39-60, proclaimed emperor
+after the murder of Numerianus, by the troops in Chalcedon, begins a new
+section in Roman history. To the period of military despotism succeeded
+the period of partitions. After Diocletian had defeated Carinus the yet
+remaining Cæsar, in Upper Moesia, where he was assassinated, he made M.
+Valerius Maximianus Herculius, a rough warrior who had hitherto been his
+comrade in arms, the sharer of his throne. Herculius now contended with
+the Alemanni and Burgundians on the banks of the Rhine, while Diocletian
+himself made head against the Persians. Nevertheless, the two Augusti
+soon found themselves unable to withstand the barbarians, who were
+pressing forward on every side, more especially as Carausius had usurped
+and maintained the title of Cæsar in Britain. Each of them, therefore,
+created a Cæsar: Diocletian chose C. Galerius, and Maximianus Flavius
+Constantius Chlorus, both of whom had distinguished themselves as
+generals, at that time the only road to advancement. The whole empire
+was now divided between these four rulers; so that each had certain
+provinces to govern and defend; without detriment, however, to the unity
+of the whole, or to the dependence in which a Cæsar stood as the
+subordinate assistant and future successor of his Augustus.
+
+  In the partition, 292, Diocletian possessed the eastern provinces;
+  Galerius, Thrace, and the countries on the Danube (Illyricum);
+  Maximianus, Italy, Africa, and the islands; and Constantius, the
+  western provinces of Gaul, Spain, Britain, and Mauritania.
+
+2. This new system could not but have a striking effect upon the spirit
+of the government. It was now not only in fact, but also in form,
+entirely in the hands of the rulers. By their continual absence from
+Rome they became freed from that moral restraint in which the authority
+of the senate, and the name of the republic, not yet entirely laid
+aside, had held before them. Diocletian formally assumed the diadem,
+and, with the ornaments of the east, introduced its luxuries into his
+court. Thus was laid the foundation of that structure which Constantine
+the Great had to complete.
+
+3. The consequences of this new system became also oppressive to the
+provinces, inasmuch as they had now to maintain four rulers, with their
+courts, and as many armies. But however loud might be the complaints of
+the oppression occasioned thereby, it was, perhaps, the only means of
+deferring the final overthrow of the whole edifice. In fact, they
+succeeded not only in defeating the usurpers, Allectus in Britain (who
+had murdered Carausius in 293), Julian in Africa, and Achilleus in
+Egypt; but also in defending the frontiers, which, indeed, by the
+victories of Galerius over the Persians, they extended as far as the
+Tigris. Did not, however, the gloomy perspective present itself, that
+among so many rulers, and the undefined relations which existed between
+the Cæsars and the emperors, the union could not be of long continuance?
+
+4. Diocletian voluntarily abdicated the throne (although the growing
+power and encroaching disposition of Galerius might perhaps have had
+some influence), and obliged his colleague Maximianus to do the same.
+The two Cæsars, Constantius and Galerius, were proclaimed Augusti, and
+altered the division of the empire, so that the former possessed all the
+western countries, of which, however, he freely ceded Italy and Africa
+to Galerius, who had all the remaining provinces. The latter, during the
+same year, created Flavius Severus, Cæsar, and confided to him the
+government of Italy and Africa; as he did also C. Galerius Maximin, to
+whom he gave the Asiatic provinces. The administration of the two
+emperors, however, was very different; Constantius was as much beloved
+for his mild and disinterested government, as Galerius was hated for his
+harshness and prodigality. Constantius died very soon after at York,
+leaving his son Constantine heir to his dominions, who was immediately
+proclaimed Augustus by the legions, although Galerius would only
+acknowledge him as Cæsar.
+
+5. Thus Constantine, who afterwards obtained the surname of Great, began
+to rule, aged 33-64, though at first only over Britain, Spain, and Gaul;
+nevertheless, after seventeen years of violence and warfare, he
+succeeded in opening himself a way to the sole dominion of the empire.
+The rulers disagreed among themselves; and formidable usurpers started
+up and rendered war inevitable.
+
+  The history of the first seven years of Constantine, 306-313, is very
+  complicated; after that, he had only one rival to struggle with,
+  314-323. At his accession, Galerius, as Augustus, was in possession of
+  all the other provinces; of which, however, he had given to Cæsar
+  Maximin the government of those of Asia, and to Cæsar Severus, now
+  created Augustus, Italy and Africa. The latter, however, rendering
+  himself odious by his oppression, Maxentius, the son of the former
+  emperor, Maximianus, assumed the title of Augustus at Rome (Oct. 28,
+  306), and associated his father with himself in the government; so
+  that at this time there were six rulers: Galerius, Severus,
+  Constantine, Maximin, and the usurpers Maxentius and his father
+  Maximianus. But in the year 307, Severus, wishing to oppose Maxentius,
+  was abandoned by his own troops, upon which he surrendered himself to
+  Maximianus, who caused him to be executed. In his place Galerius
+  created his friend Licinius, Augustus; and Maximin obtained the same
+  dignity from his army in Asia. In the mean time, Maximianus, after
+  having endeavoured to supplant his own son in Rome, fled to
+  Constantine, who had crossed over into Gaul and there defeated the
+  Franks, 306; but having made an attempt upon the life of Constantine,
+  who had married his daughter Fausta, that emperor caused him to be put
+  to death, 310. As the excesses of Galerius soon brought him to the
+  grave, 311, there only remained Constantine, Licinius, and Maximin,
+  and the usurper Maxentius. The latter was soon defeated and slain,
+  312, before the gates of Rome, by Constantine, who thereby became
+  master of Italy and the capital. A war having broken out about the
+  same time between Maximin and Licinius, Maximin was defeated near
+  Adrianople, and then killed himself, 313. The year 314 brought on a
+  war between the two remaining emperors, Constantine and Licinius,
+  which, however, ended the same year in an accommodation, by which
+  Constantine obtained all the countries on the south bank of the
+  Danube, as well as Thrace and Moesia Inferior; it broke out again,
+  however, in 322, and was finally terminated by a decisive victory in
+  Bithynia, and the total overthrow of Licinius, whom Constantine put to
+  death, 324.
+
+6. However opposite may be the opinions formed respecting the reign of
+Constantine the Great, its consequences are perfectly plain. Although he
+annihilated military despotism, he established in its stead, if not
+completely, yet in great measure, the despotism of the court, and
+likewise the power of the hierarchy. He had already, during his
+expedition against Maxentius, decided in favour of the Christian
+religion; and since he thereby gained a vast number of partisans in all
+the provinces, and weakened at the same time the power of his
+co-emperors, or competitors, it was the surest way he could have taken
+to obtain sole dominion, the great object of his ambition. This change
+must nevertheless have had very considerable influence on every part of
+the government, as he found in the previously established hierarchy a
+powerful support of the throne; and since he, in concert with it,
+settled what was, and what was not the orthodox doctrine, he introduced
+a spirit of persecution heretofore unknown.
+
+  At a period in which religious parties must almost necessarily have
+  become political parties, we can by no means venture to judge of the
+  importance of the sect by the importance of their points of doctrine.
+  The quarrels of the Arians, which arose at this time, gave
+  Constantine, by the council of Nice, 325, the opportunity he wished
+  for, of making good his authority in religious legislation.
+
+7. The removal of the seat of empire from Rome to Constantinople was
+connected with this change in the form of worship--as a Christian court
+would have been awkwardly situated in a city still altogether
+pagan--although the need there was of protecting the frontiers against
+the Goths and Persians had a considerable share therein. It did,
+indeed, become the principal means of establishing the despotism of the
+court; but those who regard it as one of the causes of the decline of
+the empire, should remember, that for an empire fallen so low as the
+Roman was at this time, despotism was almost the only support that
+remained.
+
+  The various partitions of the empire from the time of Diocletian, had
+  led the way to this change of the capital; because a natural result of
+  that system was, that the emperors and Cæsars, when not with the army
+  as they usually were, would reside in different cities. The seat of
+  Diocletian's government was at Nicomedia; of Maximian's, at Milan;
+  even Constantine himself remained but very little at Rome. In these
+  new residences they felt themselves unfettered; and therefore,
+  although the Roman senate existed till after the time of Constantine,
+  its authority must have fallen of itself from the time of Diocletian.
+
+8. We ought not, therefore, to wonder that the consequence of this
+removal was so complete a change in the whole form of government, that
+after a short time it seemed to be altogether a different state. A
+partition of the empire was made, which, though it might in part have
+been founded on those which had previously existed, was yet so
+different, that it not only changed the ancient divisions of the
+provinces, but completely altered their mode of government.--The court,
+with the exception of polygamy, assumed entirely the form of an eastern
+court.--A revolution also had taken place in the military system, by the
+complete separation of the civil and military authorities, which the
+prætorian præfects had hitherto possessed, but who now became merely
+civil governors.
+
+  According to the new division the whole empire was divided into four
+  _præfectures_, each of which had its _dioceses_, and each diocese its
+  _provinces_. The præfectures were: I. The eastern (_præfectura
+  Orientis_); it contained five dioceses; 1. _Orientis_; 2. _Ægypti_;
+  3. _Asiæ_; 4. _Ponti_; 5. _Thraciæ_; forming altogether forty-eight
+  provinces, and comprising all the countries of Asia and Egypt,
+  together with the frontier countries of Libya and Thrace. II.
+  _Præfectura Illyrici_, containing two dioceses; 1. _Macedoniæ_; 2.
+  _Daciæ_; forming eleven provinces, and comprising Moesia, Macedon,
+  Greece, and Crete. III. _Præfectura Italiæ_, containing three
+  dioceses; 1. _Italiæ_; 2. _Illyrici_; 3. _Africæ_; forming twenty-nine
+  provinces, and comprising Italy, the countries on the south of the
+  Danube, as far as the boundaries of Moesia; the islands of Sicily,
+  Sardinia, and Corsica, and the African provinces of the Syrtis. IV.
+  _Præfectura Galliarum_, containing three dioceses; 1. _Galliæ_; 2.
+  _Hispaniæ_; 3. _Britanniæ_; forming altogether twenty-eight provinces,
+  and comprising Spain and the Balearian islands, Gaul, Helvetia, and
+  Britain.--Each of these præfectures was under a _præfectus prætorio_
+  (prætorian præfect), but who was merely a civil governor, and had
+  under him _vicarios_, in the dioceses, as well as the _rectores
+  provinciarum_, of various ranks and titles. They were named
+  _proconsules præsides_, etc. Besides these, Rome and Constantinople,
+  not being included in any of the four præfectures, had each its
+  præfect.
+
+  As principal officers of state and the court (_s. cubiculi_), we now
+  for the first time meet with the _præpositus s. cubiculi_
+  (grand-chamberlain), under whom were all the _comites palatii_ and
+  _cubicularii_, in four divisions; these, at a later period, were
+  frequently eunuchs of great influence; the _magister officiorum_
+  (chancellor, minister of the interior); the _comes sacrarum
+  largitiorum_ (minister of the finances); the _quæstor_ (the organ of
+  the emperors in legislation; minister of justice and secretary of
+  state); the _comes rei principis_ (minister of the crown-treasury)
+  [privy-purse]; the two _comites domesticorum_ (commander of the
+  household guards), each of whom had his corps (_scholas_) under him.
+  The number of the state officers and courtiers was continually
+  increasing. If the good of a commonwealth consisted in forms, ranks,
+  and titles, the Roman empire must at this time have been truly happy!
+
+  At the head of the troops were the _magistri peditum_ (masters of the
+  infantry) and the _magistri equitum_ (masters of the horse), under the
+  _magister utriusque militæ_ (general in chief of the whole army).
+  Their subordinate commanders were called _comites_ and _duces_.
+  Constantine considerably reduced the army. In the arrangement of the
+  troops he also made great alterations; these, however, were but of
+  slight consequence compared with that which was produced by admitting
+  into the service a continually increasing number of barbarians.
+
+  _Notitia dignitatem utriusque Imperii cum not._ PANCIROLLI GRÆV.
+  _Thesaur. Antiquitat. Rom._ vol. vii.
+
+9. It would naturally be expected that these great changes should lead
+to others in the system of taxation. New taxes, or old ones revived,
+were added to those already existing, and became, by the manner in which
+they were collected, doubly oppressive. We shall particularly notice,
+_a._ The annual land-tax (_indictio_). _b._ The tax upon trade (_aurum
+lustrale_). _c._ The free gift (_don. gratuit._), now grown into an
+obligatory tax (_aurum coronarium_). To these we must add the municipal
+expenses, which fell entirely upon the citizens, and especially upon the
+civic officers (_decuriones_), places which must have been generally
+held by the rich, as Constantine had in great measure appropriated the
+wealth of the cities to the endowment of churches, and the support of
+the clergy.
+
+  _a._ The land-tax, or _indiction_, which if not first introduced by
+  Constantine was entirely regulated under him, was collected after an
+  exact register, or public valuation, of all the landed estates. Its
+  amount was yearly fixed and prescribed by the emperor (_indicebatur_),
+  and levied by the rectors of provinces and the decurions; an arbitrary
+  standard (_caput_) being taken as the rate of assessment.
+
+  As this register was probably reviewed every fifteen years, it gave
+  rise to the _cycle of indictions_ of fifteen years, which became the
+  common era, beginning from September 1, 312. In this manner the tax
+  included all those who were possessed of property. _b._ The tax on
+  commerce; which was levied on almost every kind of trade. It was
+  collected every four years, whence the _aurum lustrale_. _c._ The
+  _aurum coronarium_ grew out of the custom which obtained of
+  presenting the emperors with golden crowns on particular occasions;
+  the value of which was at last exacted in money. Every considerable
+  city was obliged to pay it.
+
+10. The rapid spread of the Christian religion, the promulgation of
+which was enforced as a duty upon all its professors, was now
+accelerated by the endeavours of the court. Constantine forbade
+sacrifices, and shut up the temples; and the violent zeal of his
+successors unfortunately soon turned them into ruins.
+
+  _Histoire de Constantin-le-Grand_, _par le_ R. P. BERN. DE VARENNE.
+  Paris, 1778, 4to.
+
+  _Vita di Constantino il Grande dell'_ ABB. FR. GUSTA. Fuligno, 1786.
+  Both these works, especially the first, are written in a tone of
+  panegyric; the latest, and by far the best, is
+
+  # _Life of Constantine the Great_, by J. C. F. MANSO. Bresl. 1817.
+  With several very learned appendixes, which clear up some particular
+  points.
+
+11. The three Cæsars and sons of Constantine the Great, Constantine,
+337-340; Constantius, 337-361; and Constans, 337-350; had been carefully
+educated, and yet resembled one another as much in their vices as they
+did in their names. They indeed divided the empire again upon the death
+of their father; but were so eager after territory, which neither of
+them was qualified to govern, that a series of wars followed for the
+next twelve years, till at last Constantius was left master of the
+whole; and by the murder of most of his relations secured the throne to
+himself.
+
+  In the partition of the empire Constantine obtained the _præfectura
+  Galliarum_, Constans the _præfectura Italiæ et Illyrici_, and
+  Constantius the _præfectura Orientis_. But as Constantine desired to
+  add Italy and Africa to his portion, he attacked Constans, and
+  thereby lost his life, so that Constans came into thee possession of
+  the western countries. In consequence, however, of his wretched
+  misgovernment, Magnentius, a general, proclaimed himself emperor in
+  Gaul, and Constans was slain in endeavouring to escape, 350. A war
+  with Constantius, who was then occupied in the east, became
+  inevitable, and broke out 351. The usurper was defeated first at Mursa
+  in Pannonia, then retreating into Gaul he was again defeated, 353;
+  upon which he slew himself, together with his family.
+
+12. As Constantius, however--sunk in effeminacy and debauchery, and
+surrounded and governed by eunuchs--was unable to sustain the weight of
+government alone, he took his cousin Constantius Gallus, hitherto a
+state prisoner, and whose father he had formerly slain, to his
+assistance, created him Cæsar, and sent him into the east against the
+Parthians. But his excessive arrogance, which was fomented by his wife
+Constantina, rendered him so dangerous that Constantius recalled him,
+and caused him, upon his return, to be put to death in Istria. His
+younger brother Fl. Julian, from whom the suspicious Constantius
+believed he had nothing to fear, was promoted in his place, created
+Cæsar, and sent to defend the frontiers on the Rhine. Although Julian
+passed suddenly from study to warfare, he not only fought against the
+Germans with success, but also made a deep inroad into their country. In
+the mean time Constantius, after his generals had been beaten by the
+Persians, who wished to reconquer the provinces they had ceded, was
+preparing an expedition against them in person, and with that view
+endeavoured gradually to withdraw the troops of Julian, in consequence
+of which the latter, suspecting his design, was induced to accept the
+diadem presented by his soldiers. While marching, however, along the
+Danube against Constantius, he received information of that prince's
+death in Asia.
+
+13. Fl. Julian, (the apostate,) who reigned from his twenty-ninth to his
+thirty-second year, was the last and most highly gifted prince of the
+house of Constantine. Instructed by misfortunes and study, he yet had
+some faults, though certainly free from great vices. He began with
+reforming the luxury of the court. His abjuration of the religion now
+become dominant, and which he wished to annihilate by degrees, was an
+error in policy, which he must have discovered to his cost had his reign
+been prolonged. Wishing, however, to terminate the war against the
+Persians, he penetrated as far as the Tigris, where he lost his life in
+an engagement, after a reign of three years.
+
+  # _The Emperor Julian and his Times_, by AUGUST. NEANDER. Leipsic,
+  1812. An historical sketch.
+
+14. Fl. Jovianus, now thirty-three years of age, was immediately raised
+to the purple by the army. He concluded a peace with the Persians, by
+which he restored them all the territory that had been conquered from
+them since the year 297. After a short reign of eight months he was
+carried off by a sudden disorder; and the army proclaimed Fl.
+Valentinian at Nice in his stead, Valentinian almost immediately
+associated his brother Valens with himself in the government, and
+divided the empire by giving him the _præfectura Orientis_, and
+retaining the rest for himself.
+
+15. The reign of Valentinian I. in the east, who, in the year 367,
+created his son Gratian Augustus with himself, is distinguished by the
+system of toleration which he followed with regard to the affairs of
+religion, though in other respects a cruel prince. Nearly the whole of
+his reign was taken up in almost continual struggles with the German
+nations, who had recovered from the losses they had suffered under
+Julian. His first efforts were directed against the Franks, the Saxons,
+and the Alemanni on the Rhine; and afterwards against the Quadi and
+other nations on the Danube; where he died of apoplexy at Guntz in
+Hungary.
+
+16. In the mean time his brother Valens (aged 38-52 years) had to
+contend with a powerful insurrection which had broken out in the east. A
+certain Procopius had instigated the people to this, by taking advantage
+of the discontent occasioned by the oppression of Valens, who, having
+adopted the opinion of the Arians, was more disliked in the east than
+his brother was in the west. His war against the Persians ended with a
+truce. But the most important event that happened during his reign, was
+the entrance of the Huns into Europe, which took place towards its
+close. This in its turn gave rise to the great popular migration, by
+which the Roman empire in the west may properly be said to have been
+overthrown. The immediate consequence was the admission of the greater
+part of the Visigoths into the Roman empire, and this occasioned a war
+which cost Valens his life.
+
+  The Huns, a nomad people of Asia, belonged to the great Mongolian
+  race. Having penetrated to the Don, 373, they subdued the Goths upon
+  that river as far as the Theiss. The Goths, divided into Ostrogoths
+  and Visigoths, were separated from one another by the Dnieper. The
+  former, driven from their country, fell upon the Visigoths, in
+  consequence of which the emperor Valens was requested by the latter to
+  grant them admission into the Roman empire, and with the exception of
+  the Vandals, who had been seated in Pannonia from the time of
+  Constantine, they were the first barbarian nation that had been
+  settled within the boundaries of the empire. The scandalous oppression
+  of the Roman governor, however, drove them into rebellion; and as
+  Valens marched against them, he was defeated near Adrianople and lost
+  his life, 378.
+
+17. During these events, Gratian (aged 16-24 years) succeeded his father
+Valentinian I. in the west, and immediately associated his brother,
+Valentinian II. (aged 5-21 years) with himself in the empire; giving
+him, though under his own superintendence, the _præfectura Italiæ et
+Illyrici_. Gratian set forward to the assistance of his uncle Valens
+against the Goths, but receiving on his march an account of his defeat
+and death, and fearing the east might fall a prey to the Goths, he
+raised Theodosius, a Spaniard, who had already distinguished himself as
+a warrior, to the purple, and gave him the _præfectura Orientis et
+Illyrici_.
+
+18. The indolent reign of Gratian led to the rebellion of Maximus, a
+commander in Britain, who, crossing into Gaul, was so strongly supported
+by the defection of the Gallic legions, that Gratian was obliged to seek
+safety in flight. He was, however, overtaken and put to death at Lyons.
+By this event Maximus found himself in possession of all the _præfectura
+Galliarum_; and by promising Theodosius not to interfere with the young
+Valentinian II. in Italy, he prevailed upon him to acknowledge him
+emperor. But having broken his promise by the invasion of Italy, he was
+defeated and made prisoner by Theodosius in Pannonia, and soon after
+executed. Upon this Valentinian II. a youth of whom great hopes were
+entertained, became again master of all the west. But, unfortunately, he
+was murdered by the offended Arbogast, his _magister militum_; who,
+thereupon, raised to the throne his own friend Eugenius, _magister
+officiorum_. Theodosius, however, so far from acknowledging, declared
+war against him and made him prisoner. He himself thus became master of
+the whole empire, but died in the following year.
+
+19. The vigorous reign of Theodosius in the east, from his thirty-fourth
+to his fiftieth year, was not less devoted to politics than to religion.
+The dexterity with which he at first broke the power of the victorious
+Goths (though they still preserved their quarters in the provinces on
+the Danube), procured him considerable influence, which the strength and
+activity of his character enabled him easily to maintain. The blind
+zeal, however, with which he persecuted Arianism, now the prevailing
+creed in the east, and restored the orthodox belief, as well as the
+persecutions which he directed against the pagans and the destruction of
+their temples, occasioned the most dreadful convulsions. His efforts to
+preserve the boundaries of the empire, not a province of which was lost
+before his death, required an increase of taxes; and however oppressive
+this might be, we cannot impute it to the ruler as a crime. In an
+empire so enfeebled in itself, and which, nevertheless, had powerful
+foes on every side to contend with, it followed that every active reign
+would be oppressive. Yet never before had the internal depopulation of
+the empire made it necessary to take so many barbarians into Roman pay,
+as under this reign; whence naturally followed a change in the arms and
+tactics of the Roman armies.
+
+  P. ERASM. MULLER, _de genio sæculi Theodosiani_. Havniæ, 1798, 2 vols.
+  A very learned and in every respect excellent description of the
+  deeply-decayed Roman world as it now stood.
+
+20. Theodosius left two sons, between whom the empire was divided. Both
+parts, however, were certainly considered as forming but one empire--an
+opinion which afterwards prevailed, and even till late in the middle
+ages had important consequences--yet never since this period have they
+been reunited under one ruler. The eastern empire, comprising the
+_præfectura Orientis et Illyrici_, was allotted to the eldest son,
+Arcadius (aged 18-31) under the guardianship of Rufinus the Gaul. The
+western, or the _præfectura Galliarum et Italiæ_, to the younger,
+Honorius, aged 11-39, under the guardianship of the Vandal Stilico.
+
+21. The western empire, to the history of which we shall now confine
+ourselves, suffered such violent shocks during the reign of Honorius, as
+made its approaching fall plainly visible. The intrigues of Stilico to
+procure himself the government of the whole empire, opened a way for the
+Goths into its interior, just at a time when they were doubly
+formidable, fortune having given them a leader greatly superior to any
+they had hitherto had. Alaric king of the Visigoths established himself
+and his people in the Roman empire, became master of Rome, and mounted
+the throne: it was the mere effect of chance that he did not overthrow
+it altogether.
+
+  Both Honorius and Arcadius, especially the latter, belonged to that
+  class of men who never come to years of maturity; their favourites and
+  ministers therefore governed according to their own inclination.
+  Stilico, who made Honorius his son-in-law, was not deficient, indeed,
+  in abilities for governing; and his endeavour to obtain the management
+  of the whole empire, arose, perhaps, from the conviction that it was
+  necessary he should have it. He could not, however, gain his object by
+  intrigue; for after the murder of Rufinus; 395, he found a still more
+  powerful opponent in the eunuch Eutropius, his successor in the east.
+  Under the regency of Stilico, Gaul, in consequence of its troops being
+  withdrawn to oppose Alaric, 400, was inundated by German tribes--by
+  Vandals, Alani, and Suevi--who from thence penetrated even into Spain.
+  Nevertheless, he preserved Italy from their attacks by the victory
+  which he gained, 403, over Alaric at Verona; and again over
+  Radagaisus, 405, who had advanced with other German hordes as far as
+  Florence. But Stilico, having entered into a secret alliance with
+  Alaric, for the purpose of wresting eastern Illyrica from the empire
+  of the east, was overreached by the intrigues of the new favourite
+  Olympius, whose cabal knew how to take advantage of the weakness of
+  Honorius, and of the jealousy of the Roman and foreign soldiers.
+  Stilico was accused of aspiring to the throne, and was executed August
+  23, 408. Rome lost in him the only general that was left to defend
+  her. Alaric invaded Italy the same year, 408, and the besieged Rome
+  was obliged to purchase peace; the conditions, however, not being
+  fulfilled, he was again, 409, before Rome, became master of the city,
+  and created Attalus, the præfect of the city, emperor instead of
+  Honorius, who had shut himself up in Ravenna. In 410 he assumed the
+  diadem; and, making himself master of the city by force, gave it up to
+  be plundered by his troops. Soon afterwards, while projecting the
+  capture of Sicily and Africa, he died in lower Italy. His
+  brother-in-law and successor, Adolphus, together with his Goths, left
+  Italy, now completely exhausted, 412, went into Gaul, and from thence
+  proceeding into Spain, founded there the empire of the Visigoths: he
+  carried with him, however, Placidia the sister of Honorius, either as
+  prisoner or as hostage, and married her in Gaul. During these events
+  an usurper arose in Britain and Gaul named Constantine, 407: he was
+  vanquished, and put to death, 411, by Constantius, one of Honorius's
+  generals. This latter prince not only gave Constantius his sister
+  Placidia, who had become a widow and was restored in 417, in marriage,
+  but also named him Augustus in 421. He died, however, a few months
+  after, so that Placidia henceforward had a considerable share in the
+  government. She went nevertheless, 423, to Constantinople, where she
+  remained until the death of Honorius.
+
+  # _Fl. Stilico, or the Wallenstein of Antiquity_, by CHR. FR. SCHULZE,
+  1805. Not written by way of comparison.
+
+22. In this manner was a great part of Spain, and part of Gaul, cut off
+from the Roman empire during the reign of Honorius. After his death the
+secretary John usurped the government, but was defeated by the eastern
+emperor Theodosius II. The nephew of Honorius, Valentinian III. a minor
+(aged 6-36), was then raised to the throne, under the guardian care of
+his mother Placidia (! 450). Under his miserable reign the western
+empire was stripped of almost all her provinces with the exception of
+Italy. Yet the government of his mother, and afterwards his own
+incapacity, were as much the cause as the stormy migration of barbarous
+tribes, which now convulsed all Europe.
+
+  Britain had been voluntarily left by the Romans since 427. In Africa,
+  the governor Boniface having been driven into rebellion by the
+  intrigues of the Roman general Ætius, who possessed the ear of
+  Placidia, invited the Vandals from Spain, under the command of
+  Genseric, to come to his assistance. The latter then obtained
+  possession of the country, 429-439; indeed, even as early as 435,
+  Valentinian was obliged to make a formal cession of it to them.
+  Valentinian's wife Eudoxia, a Grecian princess, was purchased by the
+  cession of western Illyricum (Pannonia, Dalmatia, and Noricum); so
+  that of all the countries south of the Danube there now only remained
+  those which belonged to the præfecture of Italy: Rhætia and
+  Vindelicia. On the south-east of Gaul was formed, 435, the kingdom of
+  the Burgundians, which, besides the south-east part of France,
+  comprised also Switzerland and Savoy. The south-west was under the
+  dominion of the Visigoths. There remained only the territory north of
+  the Loire which still submitted to the Roman governors; the last of
+  whom, Syagrius, survived the fall of the empire itself; holding out
+  till the year 486, when he was defeated near Soissons by Clodovicus,
+  or Clovis, king of the Franks.
+
+23. But while the western empire seemed thus of itself almost to fall to
+pieces, another impetuous rush of nations took place, which threatened
+the whole of western Europe. The victorious hordes of Huns who now
+occupied the territory formerly the seat of the Goths, between the Don
+and the Theiss, and even as far as the Volga, had united themselves,
+since the year 444, under one common chief, Attila; who, by this union
+and his own superior talents as a warrior and ruler, became the most
+powerful prince of his time. The eastern empire having bought a peace by
+paying him a yearly tribute, he fell with a mighty army upon the western
+provinces. The united forces, however, of the Romans under Ætius and the
+Visigoths, obliged him near Chalons (_in campis Catalaunicis_) to
+retreat. Nevertheless, the following year he again invaded Italy, where
+he had a secret understanding with the licentious Honoria, Valentinian's
+sister. The cause of his second retreat, which was soon followed by his
+death, is unknown. The miserable Valentinian soon after deprived the
+Roman empire of its best general, being led by his suspicions to put
+Ætius to death. He himself, however, was soon doomed to undergo the
+punishment of his debaucheries, being murdered in a conspiracy formed by
+Petronius Maximus, whose wife he had dishonoured, and some friends of
+Ætius, whom he had executed.
+
+24. The twenty years which intervened between the assassination of
+Valentinian, and the final destruction of the Roman empire in the west,
+was nearly one continued series of intestine revolutions. No less than
+nine sovereigns rapidly succeeded one another. These changes, indeed,
+were but of little importance in this troublesome period, compared to
+the terror with which Genseric king of the Vandals filled the Roman
+empire: he by his naval power having become master of the Mediterranean
+and Sicily, could ravage the coasts of the defenceless Italy at his
+pleasure, and even capture Rome itself. While in Italy, the German
+Ricimer, general of the foreign troops in Roman pay, permitted a series
+of emperors to reign in his name. It would have been his lot to put an
+end to this series of Augusti, but for mere accident, which reserved
+that glory for his son and successor, Odoacer, four years after his
+father's death.
+
+  After the death of Valentinian, Maximus was proclaimed emperor; but as
+  he wished to compel Eudoxia, Valentinian's widow, to marry him, she
+  called over Genseric from Africa, who took and pillaged Rome, and
+  Maximus perished after a reign of three months, 455. He was succeeded
+  by M. Avitus, who ascended the throne at Arles; and he again was soon
+  deposed by Ricimer, 456, who, just before, had defeated the fleet of
+  the Vandals. Ricimer now placed upon the throne, first Julianus
+  Majorianus, April 1, 457; but he, having distinguished himself in the
+  wars against the Vandals, 461, was set aside, and Libius Severus put
+  in his place, who, however, died in 465, probably of poison. His
+  death was followed by an interregnum of two years, during which
+  Ricimer ruled, though without the title of emperor. At length the
+  patrician Anthemius, then at Constantinople (where they never gave up
+  their pretensions to the right of naming or confirming the sovereigns
+  of the west), was, though not without the consent of the powerful
+  Ricimer, named emperor of the west, April 12, 467, by the emperor Leo.
+  But differences having arisen between him and Ricimer, the latter
+  retired to Milan, 469, and commenced a war, in which he took and
+  pillaged Rome, and Anthemius was slain. Ricimer himself followed soon
+  after, ! Aug. 18, 472. Upon this, Anicius Olybrius, son-in-law of
+  Valentinian III. was proclaimed Augustus, but dying in three
+  months, Oct. 472, Glycerius assumed the purple at Ravenna, without,
+  however, being acknowledged at Constantinople, where they in
+  preference named Julius Nepos Augustus. The latter, in 474, having
+  expelled Glycerius, became also in his turn expelled by his own
+  general Orestes, 475, who gave the diadem to his son Romulus
+  Momyllus, who, as the last in the succession of Augusti, acquired
+  the surname of Augustulus. In 476, however, Odoacer, the leader of
+  the Germans in the Roman pay at Rome, sent him, after the execution
+  of Orestes, into captivity, and allowed him a pension. Odoacer now
+  remained master of Italy till the year 492, when the Ostrogoths,
+  under their king Theodoric, founded there a new empire.
+
+25. Thus fell the Roman empire of the west, while that of the east,
+pressed on every side, and in a situation almost similar, endured a
+thousand years, notwithstanding its intestine broils, which would alone
+have sufficed to destroy any other, and the hosts of barbarians who
+attacked it during the middle ages. The impregnable situation of its
+capital, which usually decides the fate of such kingdoms, joined to its
+despotism, which is not unfrequently the main support of a kingdom in
+its decline, can alone, in some measure, explain a phenomenon which has
+no equal in the history of the world.
+
+
+
+
+APPENDIX.
+
+    CHRONOLOGY OF HERODOTUS TO THE TIME OF CYRUS, EXTRACTED FROM THE
+    RESEARCHES OF M. VOLNEY. See Preface.
+
+
+Although Herodotus did not write his work in chronological order, yet
+we cannot doubt that he had some general plan of computing time. By
+carefully selecting and comparing the separate data scattered through
+his work, this plan to a certain extent may be traced out, and early
+history, with regard to settled chronology, must necessarily gain a good
+deal. The following essay is founded upon a procedure of this kind; it
+is drawn entirely from Herodotus, and only from data which he has
+precisely determined, the passages of his work being always referred to.
+
+The year B. C. 561, in which the fall of Astyages and the Median empire
+took place, as may be proved from Herodotus himself, is a fixed point of
+time from which we may ascend into higher antiquity. This point of time
+may be determined by the chronological data respecting the battle of
+Marathon, four years before the death of Darius (Herodotus VII. 1. 4.)
+agreeing with the general data of the Greeks, who fix it in the third
+year of the 72nd Olymp. B. C. 490. By adding to this the thirty-two
+years of Darius's reign that had already elapsed (Herodotus, ibid.), the
+eight months of Smerdis (Herodotus, III. 68.), the seven years and five
+months of Cambyses (Herodotus III. 66.), and the twenty-nine years of
+Cyrus (Herodotus, I. 214.), we obtain the year 560 as the first year of
+Cyrus.
+
+
+I. CHRONOLOGY OF THE MEDIAN EMPIRE.
+
+                                                               B. C.
+  End of the Median empire                                      561.
+  Duration of the Median empire one hundred and
+    fifty-six years (Herodotus, I, 130.)
+  The beginning of it, therefore, after their separation
+    from the Assyrians, would be                                717.
+  In this period, at first, six years of anarchy[a]         716-710.
+  Reign of Deioces fifty-three years (Herodotus, I. 102.)   710-657.
+  Reign of Phraortes, twenty-two years (ibid.)              657-635.
+  Cyaxares, forty years (I. 106.)                           635-595.
+  Irruption and dominion of the Scythians, twenty-eight
+ years (I. 203. 106.)                                       625-598.
+  Conquest of Nineveh (I. 106.)                                 597.
+  Astyages reigned thirty-five years (I. 130.)              595-561.
+
+The succession of Median kings given by Ctesias, which entirely differs
+from this, the author thinks might be explained by a duplication;
+see # _Gott. Gel. Anz._ 1810, p. 4.
+
+  [a] These are certainly not determined from Herodotus; but they
+      remain after subtracting the one hundred and fifty years'
+      reign of the four Median kings.
+
+
+II. CHRONOLOGY OF THE ASSYRIAN EMPIRE.
+
+The dominion of the Assyrians over Asia, or their empire, ended with the
+revolt of the Medes (Herodotus, I. 95.); although the existence of their
+state did not then end, but terminated with the capture of Nineveh by
+Cyaxares, B. C. 597.
+
+                                                               B. C.
+  Revolt of the Medes, as above                                 717.
+  The dominion of the Assyrians had endured five
+    hundred and twenty years (Herodotus, I. 95.)
+  The Assyrian empire lasted therefore from                1237-717.
+
+As Herodotus intended to write the history of this empire in a separate
+work (I. 184.), he only casually mentions (I. 7.) its founder Ninus, who
+began to reign 1237; and afterwards Sennacherib and his expedition (II.
+141.); and the last king, Sardanapalus (II. 150.).
+
+The mention of Sennacherib and his expedition furnishes a point of time
+for comparing the chronology of Herodotus with that of the Bible, or the
+Jews. According to the latter, Sennacherib's expedition took place B. C.
+714. (see above, p. 26.); his death takes place immediately after, and
+he has for his successor Esar-haddon, 2 Kings, xix. 37. Here then is
+certainly a contradiction, since, according to Herodotus, the Assyrian
+dominion had ceased three years before, namely, 717. M. Volney
+endeavours to reconcile this difficulty by the restoration of an ancient
+reading in the sacred text; according to which Amon, king of Judæa,
+reigned twelve years instead of two (2 Kings, xxi. 10.); from which it
+would follow, that the expedition of Sennacherib took place in 724. As
+this would leave seven years after his death for his successor
+Esar-haddon, who agrees both in time and name with the Sardanapalus of
+the Greeks (the Greek name being formed from Esar-haddon-pal, i. e.
+Esar, the lord, son of Pal), the two chronologies are thus made to agree
+exactly. But even in following the ancient usual reading, the greatest
+difference between the two statements is only ten years; quite as little
+as can be reasonably expected under such circumstances.
+
+With regard to the Assyrian chronology of Ctesias, M. Volney has
+satisfactorily shown that it is full of contradictions, and unworthy of
+any credit.
+
+
+III. CHRONOLOGY OF THE LYDIAN EMPIRE.
+
+The arrangement of the Lydian chronology rests upon the settlement of
+two principal facts: first, the great eclipse of the sun under Alyattes,
+foretold by Thales (Herodotus, I. 74.); and secondly, the conquest of
+Sardes, and overthrow of the empire under Croesus, by Cyrus; both of
+which Herodotus certainly mentions, but without assigning any precise
+date. But by a careful comparison of all the data it has been proved,
+that the great eclipse in Asia Minor (according to the Tables of Pingré)
+happened in the year 625; and the conquest of Sardes, and the end of the
+Lydian empire, B. C. 557, or in the fourth year of Cyrus. Therefore:
+
+                                                               B. C.
+  End of the Lydian empire                                      557.
+
+It subsisted under three houses; under that of the Atyadæ (fabulous and
+uncertain); under that of the Heraclidæ, five hundred and five years
+(Herodotus, I. 7.); and under the last, that of the Mermnadæ, one
+hundred and seventy years.
+
+The Heraclidæ and Mermnadæ, then, reigned altogether six hundred and
+seventy-five years. Therefore:
+
+                                                               B. C.
+  Commencement of the reign of the Heraclidæ, with Agron
+    the son of Ninus (I. 7.)                                   1232.
+  End of this house with the murder of Candaules, by Gyges      727.
+
+By fixings the time of Agron, son of Ninus, Herodotus verifies himself
+(I. 7.); as, by the preceding data, Ninus began his reign in Assyria,
+1237; consequently, it must have been in the fifth year of his reign
+that he conquered Lydia, and placed his son Agron upon the throne.
+
+                                                               B. C.
+  Dominion of the Mermnadæ, one hundred and seventy
+    years, under kings of that house                        727-557.
+  Gyges, thirty-eight years (Herodotus, I. 14.)             727-689.
+  Ardys, forty-nine years (Herodotus, I. 16.)               689-640.
+  First irruption of the Cimmerians                             670.
+  Sadyattes, twelve years (Herodotus, I. 16.)               640-628.
+  Alyattes, fifty-seven years (Herodotus, I. 25.)           628-571.
+  War with Cyaxares, ending with the great eclipse,
+    and second irruption of the Cimmerians                      625.
+  Croesus, fourteen years and fourteen days (Herodotus,
+    I. 86.)                                                 571-557.
+
+
+IV. CHRONOLOGY OF THE BABYLONIANS.
+
+For this as well as for the Egyptians there is no evidence to guide
+us, the data being very scanty, and taken from Herodotus alone. The
+chronology of the Babylonians, according to the canon of Ptolemy, begins
+with Nabonassar, 747, who was succeeded by twelve kings (mentioned in
+the same canon), down to Nabopolassar; (see above, p. 28.)
+
+                                       B. C.
+  Nabopolassar                        627-604.
+  Nebuchadnezzar                      604-561.
+  Evil-Merodach                       561-559.
+  Neriglissar                         559-555.
+  Labynetus                           555-538.
+  Conquest of Babylon by Cyrus            538.
+
+
+V. CHRONOLOGY OF THE EGYPTIANS.
+
+M. Volney very properly commences this with the dodecarchy--as of the
+earlier periods only the time of Sesostris, 1365, is ascertained;--and
+arranges it in the following manner.
+
+                                                       B. C.
+  Dodecarchy                                          671-656.
+  Psammetichus's sole dominion thirty-nine years      656-617.
+  Reign of Neco, sixteen years                        617-601.
+  -------- Psammis, six years                         601-595.
+  -------- Apries, twenty-five years                  595-570.
+  -------- Amasis, forty-four years                   570-526.
+  Psammenitus, six months                                 525.
+  Conquest of Egypt by Cambyses
+
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+I. THE REIGNING HOUSES OF MACEDON.
+
+
+I. HOUSE OF ALEXANDER THE GREAT.
+
+    PHILIP ! 336. married,  1. Olympias. 2. Cleopatra. (3. Concubines.)
+         |
+  +------------------------------------------------------------------+
+  |           1.         1. Cleopatra.           3.               3. |
+              |                                  |                |
+  ALEXANDER THE GREAT ! 323.           PHILIP ARRHIDÆUS ! 317.    |
+  married, 1. Roxana. (2. Barsine.)       married Eurydice.       |
+              |                                                   |
+  +--------------------------------------+              Thessalonice.
+  |        1.                 2.         |            married Cassander.
+     ALEXANDER ! 311.   HERCULES ! 309.
+
+
+II. HOUSE OF ANTIPATER.
+
+                       ANTIPATER ! 320.
+                             |
+          CASSANDER ! 298, married Thessalonice.
+                             |
+  +-------------------------------------------------------+
+  | PHILIP ! 297.    ANTIPATER ! 294.    ALEXANDER ! 294. |
+
+
+III. HOUSE OF ANTIGONUS.
+
+                                ANTIGONUS ! 301.
+                                       |
+                         DEMETRIUS I. POLIORCETES ! 284.
+                                       |
+  +-----------------------------------------------------------------+
+  |       Stratonice.                   ANTIGONUS I. GONATAS ! 242. |
+     married, 1. Seleucus I.                         |
+              2. Antiochus I.  +-------------------------------------+
+                               | DEMETRIUS II. ! 233.     Alcyoneus. |
+                                        |                     |
+                            +-------------------+    +---------------+
+                            | PHILIP II. ! 179. |    | ANTIGONUS II. |
+                                      |                 DOSON ! 221
+                      +------------------------------------+
+                      | PERSEUS ! 166.    Demetrius ! 180. |
+
+
+
+
+II. GENEALOGICAL TABLE OF THE SELEUCIDÆ.
+
+
+                      SELEUCUS I. NICATOR ! 281.
+  married, 1. Apame. 2. Stratonice, daughter of Demetrius Poliorcetes.
+                                   |
+  +--------------------------------------------------------------------+
+  |             1.                                            2.       |
+     ANTIOCHUS I. SOTER ! 262. married,                Phila married
+     1. Stratonice, his mother-in-law. 2. Anonymous.   Antigonus Gonatas
+                           |                           king of Macedon.
+                           |
+  +--------------------------------------------------------------------+
+  |                1.                           1.               2.    |
+    ANTIOCHUS II. THEOS ! 247.                Apame            Laodice.
+    married,                                  married Magas
+     1. Laodice, his sister-in-law.           of Cyrene.
+     2. Berenice, daughter of Ptol. Philad.
+                     |
+  +--------------------------------------------------------------------+
+  |             1.                         1.                 1.       |
+     SELEUCUS II. CALLINICUS ! 227.   Antiochus    Stratonice married
+     married Laodice,                 Hierax.      Ariarathes IV. of
+     daughter of Andromachus,                      Cappadocia.
+     father of Achæus.
+                 |
+  +--------------------------------------------------------------------+
+  | SELEUCUS III.   Stratonice married  ANTIOCHUS III. THE GREAT ! 187.|
+   CERAUNUS ! 224.    Mithridates IV.    married Laodice, daughter of
+                        of Pontus.        Mithridates IV. of Pontus.
+                                                    |
+  +------------------------------------------------------------------+
+  | Antiochus  Laodice.  |  ANTIOCHUS IV.    Cleopatra    Antiochis  |
+      ! 192.             | EPIPHANES ! 164.   married      married
+                         |       |           Ptolemy V.   Ariarathes V.
+                         |       |                         of Cappad.
+                         |   +-----------------------------+
+                         |   | ANTIOCHUS V. EUPATOR ! 161. |
+                         |
+            SELEUCUS IV. PHILOPATOR ! 176.
+              married his sister Laodice.
+                         |
+    +------------------------------------------------------+
+    |     DEMETRIUS I.           Laodice                   |
+             ! 150.       married Perseus king of Maced.
+              |
+  +--------------------------------------------------------------------+
+  | DEMETRIUS II. NICATOR ! 126. married,     ANTIOCHUS SIDETES ! 131. |
+    1. Cleopatra, daughter of Ptol. Philom.        married his
+    2. Rhodogyne.   |                        daughter-in-law, Cleopatra.
+                    |                                   |
+  +-------------------------------------+  +---------------------------+
+  |SELEUCUS V.  ANTIOCHUS GRYPHUS ! 97. |  | ANTIOCHUS CYZICENUS ! 96. |
+     ! 125.     married Cleopatra Selene,       married Cleopatra,
+                 daughter of Ptol. Phys.      daughter of Ptol. Phys.
+                           |                            |
+                           |             +----------------------------+
+                           |             | ANTIOCHUS EUSEBES ! c. 90. |
+                           |               married Cleopatra Selene.
+                           |                            |
+                           |   +---------------------------------------+
+                           |   |    ANTIOCHUS     SELEUCUS CYBIOSACTES |
+                           |      ASIATICUS ! 58.    ! 57. married
+                           |                       Berenice, daughter
+                           |                        of Ptol. Auletes.
+                           |
+  +------------------------------------------------------------------+
+  |   Seleucus       Antioch.      Philippus     Demetr.    Antioch. |
+    Epiph. ! 94.   Epiph. ! 93.   Epiph. ! 83.   Eucar.     Dionys.
+                                                ! c. 87.     ! 89.
+
+
+
+
+III. GENEALOGICAL TABLE OF THE PTOLEMIES.
+
+
+             PTOLEMY I. son of LAGUS ! 284.
+             married, 1. Eurydice, daughter of Antipater.
+                      2. Berenice.
+                     (3. Concubines.)
+                             |
+      +-----------------------------------------------------+
+      |                  |                   |              |
+      1.                 |                   |              |
+  Ptol. Ceraunus ! 279.  |                   2.             |
+  king of Macedonia.     |                Arsinoe           |
+                         2.                                 |
+              PTOL. II. PHILADELPHUS ! 246.                 3.
+              married, 1. Arsinoe, daughter        Magas of Cyrene.
+                        of Lysimachus.                   |
+                       2. His sister Arsinoe.     +-------------+
+                         |                           Berenice
+                         |
+        +-------------------------------------------------------+
+        | PTOL. III. EVERGETES ! 221.   Berenice married        |
+          Married Berenice,             Antiochus Theos.
+          daughter of Magas.
+                  |
+  +-------------------------------------------------------------+
+  | PTOL. IV. PHILOPATOR ! 204.             Magas.     Arsinoe. |
+    married, 1. His sister Arsinoe.
+            (2. Agathoclea.)
+                  |
+  +----------------------------+
+  | PTOL. V. EPHIPHANES ! 181. |
+    married Cleopatra,
+    daughter of Antiochus the Great.
+             |
+ +---------------------------------------------------------------------+
+ | PTOL. VI. PHILOMETOR ! 145.   Cleopatra.   PTOL. VII. PHYSCON ! 117.|
+   married his sister Cleopatra.              married,
+             |                                1. His sister Cleopatra.
+             |                                2. Cleopatra the younger.
+             |                               (3. Irene.)
+  Cleopatra the younger.                          |
+                                                  |
+   +-------------------------------------------------------------------+
+   |            2.             |       2.            |     3.          |
+      PTOL. VIII.              |  PTOL. ALEXANDER    |  Ptol. Apion.
+      LATHYRUS ! 81.           |  I. ! 88.           |  king of Cyrene,
+      married,                 |  married Cleopatra, |  ! 97.
+       1, 2. his two sisters.  |  daughter of        |
+      (3. Concubines.)         |  Ptol. Lathyrus.    |
+               |               |                     |
+               |               2.                    2.
+               |          Cleop. Selene.        Cleopatra.
+               |
+      +------------------------------------------------------------+
+      |        |           |        |          |          |        |
+      |        2.          |        3.         |          |        |
+      |    Cl. Berenice.   |  Ptol. of Cyprus  |  PTOL. ALEXANDER  |
+      |                    |       ! 57.       |  II. ! 80.        |
+      |                    |                   |  married          |
+      |                    |                   |  Cleop. Berenice. |
+      2.                   3.                  3.                  |
+  Cleopatra ! 88.    PTOL. AULETES ! 51.    Cleopatra.       PTOL. ALEX.
+  married            married,                                III. ! 66.
+  Alex. I.            1. His sister Cleop.
+                      2. Unknown.
+                            |
+  +--------------------------------------------------------------------+
+  |    1.                     |            2.             |   Arsinoe |
+   BERENICE ! 55.             |   PTOL. DIONYSIUS ! 47.   |    ! 43.
+   married,                   |   married Cleopatra.      |
+    1. Seleucus Cybios.       |                           |
+    2. Archelaus.             1.                          2.
+                        CLEOPATRA ! 30.        Ptol. the younger ! 44.
+                        married,               married Cleopatra.
+                         1. 2. her brothers.
+                        (3. Jul. Cæsar.)
+                         4. Antony
+
+
+
+
+IV. THE REIGNING HOUSES OF THE JEWS.
+
+
+                                   HOUSE OF THE MACCABEES.
+                                Mattathias ! B. C. 166.
+                                           |
+  +------------------------------------------------------------------+
+  |   Judas Maccabæus,        Jonathan,          Simon, high priest  |
+    general of the army    high priest ! 143.   and ethnarch, ! 135.
+         ! 161.                                          |
+                                              +----------------------+
+                                              | John Hyrcanus ! 107. |
+                                                         |
+                      +------------------------------------------------+
+                      | Aristobulus I. ! 106,   Alex. I. Jannæus ! 79. |
+                        king and high priest.     married Alexandra.
+                                                         |
+                      +------------------------------------------------+
+                      |    Hyrcanus II. ! 30.             Aristobulus. |
+                        high priest and ethnarch.             ! 49.
+                                   |
+           +-----------------------------------------+
+           | Alexander II. ! 49.     Antigonus ! 37. |
+                      |
+      +-----------------------------------------------+
+      | Aristobulus ! 34.         Mariamne ! 28.      |
+                             married Herod the Great.
+
+
+II. HOUSE OF HEROD.
+
+                               Antipater ! 43.
+                                    |
+          +----------------------------------------------------------+
+          | Salome.      Herod the Great ! A. C. 3.                  |
+                     married, 1. Doris. 2. Mariamne. 3. Many others.
+                                              |
+  +--------------------------------------------------------------------+
+  | Antipater    Alexander    Aristobulus    Archelaus,   |   Philip,  |
+    ! A. C. 3.   ! B. C. 5.   ! B. C. 5.     ethnarch,    |  tetrarch,
+                                 |            deposed     | ! A. C. 34.
+                      +-------------------+   A. C. 6.    |
+                      | Herod II. Agrippa |               |
+                           ! A. C. 44.               Antipas, tetrarch,
+                               |                     deposed A. C. 39.
+                      +---------------+              married Herodias.
+                      | Herod Agrippa |
+                         ! A. C. 100.
+
+
+
+
+V. GENEALOGICAL TABLE OF THE CÆSARS.
+
+
+I.
+
+                        C. Julius Cæsar, prætor, ! 84.
+                                        |
+  +--------------------------------------------------------------+
+  | C. JULIUS CÆSAR, dictator,               Julia ! 52.         |
+            ! 44.                        married Accius Balbus.
+              |                                  |
+  +-----------------------------+   +-----------------------+
+  | Julia ! 52. married Pompey. |   |     Accia ! 42,       |
+                                       married C. Octavius.
+                                                 |
+  +--------------------------------------------------------------------+
+  |   Octavia the elder         |       C. OCTAVIUS (CÆSAR AUGUSTUS)   |
+     married M. Marcellus.      |         ! A. C. 14 (see No. II.)
+                                |
+                    Octavia the younger married,
+               1. C. Marcellus.  2. Pompey. 3. M. Antony.
+
+
+II.
+
+                      CÆSAR OCTAVIANUS AUGUSTUS ! A. C. 14.
+    married, 1. Scribonia.    2. Livia, widow of Tiberius Claudius Nero.
+            |                                   |
+            |   +------------------------------------------------------+
+            |   | TIBERIUS NERO ! A.C. 37.   Nero Claudius Drusus ! 9. |
+            |     married, 1. Vipsania.          married Antonia
+            |              2. Julia.               the younger.
+            |               |                           |
+            |  +--------------------------+             |
+            |  | DRUSUS CÆSAR ! A. C. 25. |             |
+            |                                           |
+            |      +---------------------------------------------------+
+            |      | Germanicus                 CLAUDIUS ! A. C. 54.   |
+            |        ! A. C. 19.                married, 1. Messalina.
+            |        married Agrippina.                  2. Agrippina.
+            |              |                                  |
+            |              |      +------------------------------------+
+            |              |      | 1. Britannicus       1. Octavia    |
+            |              |        ! A. C. 34.          ! A. C. 59.
+            |              |                             married Nero.
+            |              |
+            |  +-------------------------------------------------------+
+            |  | Nero          Drusus       |          Agrippina       |
+            |    ! A. C. 29.   ! A. C. 35.  |          married,
+            |                               |           1. Cn. Domitius.
+            |                        CAIUS CALIGULA     2. Claudius.
+            |                         ! A. C. 41.             |
+            |                                                 |
+            |                  +---------------------------------------+
+            |                  |                1.                     |
+            |                           DOMITIUS NERO ! A. C. 68.
+            |                    married, 1. Octavia. 2. Poppæa Sabina
+            |
+  +----------------------------------------------------------+
+  |                    1.                                    |
+               Julia ! A. C. 17.
+    married, 1. ! M. Cl. Marcellus. 2. Agrippa. 3. Tiberius.
+                                   |
+  +------------------------------------------------------------------+
+  |     2.           2.          2.           2.            2.       |
+    C. Cæsar     L. Cæsar     Agrippina     Julia         Agrippa
+    ! A. C. 4.   ! A. C. 2.   ! A. C. 35.   ! A. C. 30.   Posthumus
+                              married                     ! A. C. 14.
+                              Germanicus.
+
+
+
+
+VI. GENEALOGICAL TABLE OF THE HOUSE OF CONSTANTINE.
+
+
+           CONSTANTIUS CHLORUS ! 306.
+           married, 1. Helena. 2. Theodora.
+                              |
+  +-----------------------------------------------------------------+
+    CONSTANTINE the Great ! 337.   |        Jul. Constantius      |
+    married, 1. Minervina.         |        ! 337. married,       |
+             2. Fausta.         Constantia          1. Galla.     |
+                |               married             2. Basilina.  |
+                |               C. Valer LICINIUS,      |         |
+                |               Cæsar, ! 324       +----------+   |
+  +--------------------------+       |              Fl. Valer.    |
+      1.    |      2.       |    +--------------+    Licinius     |
+   CRISPUS  |  CONSTANTIUS  |       1.        2.       ! 326.     |
+    ! 326.  |    ! 361.     |     Gallus    JULIAN                |
+            2.              2.    ! 354.  (the apostate)          |
+       CONSTANTINE      CONSTANS            ! 363.                |
+          ! 340.         ! 350.                          Annibalianus.
+                                                              |
+                                         +-----------------------------+
+                                         | Dalmatius      Annibalianus |
+                                           Cæsar ! 339.     ! 338.
+
+
+
+
+PRINTED BY TALBOYS AND BROWNE, OXFORD.
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+<h1 class="pg">The Project Gutenberg eBook, A Manual of Ancient History, by A. H. L.
+(Arnold Hermann Ludwig) Heeren</h1>
+<p>This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at <a
+href="http://www.gutenberg.org">www.gutenberg.org</a></p>
+<p>Title: A Manual of Ancient History</p>
+<p>       Particularly with Regard to the Constitutions, the Commerce, and the Colonies, of the States of Antiquity</p>
+<p>Author: A. H. L. (Arnold Hermann Ludwig) Heeren</p>
+<p>Release Date: May 21, 2012  [eBook #39747]</p>
+<p>Language: English</p>
+<p>Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1</p>
+<p>***START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK A MANUAL OF ANCIENT HISTORY***</p>
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+<h4>E-text prepared by Adrian Mastronardi<br />
+    and the Online Distributed Proofreading Team<br />
+    (<a href="http://www.pgdp.net">http://www.pgdp.net</a>)<br />
+    from page images generously made available by<br />
+    Internet Archive/American Libraries<br />
+    (<a href="http://archive.org/details/americana">http://archive.org/details/americana</a>)</h4>
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+<table border="0" style="background-color: #ccccff;margin: 0 auto;" cellpadding="10">
+  <tr>
+    <td valign="top">
+      Note:
+    </td>
+    <td>
+      Images of the original pages are available through
+      Internet Archive/American Libraries. See
+      <a href="http://archive.org/details/manualofancienth00heeriala">
+      http://archive.org/details/manualofancienth00heeriala</a>
+	</td>
+  </tr>
+</table>
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+<hr class="full" />
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+
+<h1>A MANUAL</h1>
+<h4>OF</h4>
+<h1>ANCIENT HISTORY,</h1>
+
+<h5>PARTICULARLY WITH REGARD TO</h5>
+
+<h2>THE CONSTITUTIONS, THE COMMERCE,<br />
+AND THE COLONIES,<br />
+<br />
+OF THE STATES OF ANTIQUITY.</h2>
+
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+<h3>BY A. H. L. HEEREN;</h3>
+
+<h5>KNIGHT OF THE NORTH STAR AND GUELPHIC ORDER;  AULIC COUNSELLOR<br />
+AND PROFESSOR OF HISTORY IN THE UNIVERSITY OF GOETTINGEN;<br />
+AND MEMBER OF SEVERAL OTHER LEARNED SOCIETIES.</h5>
+
+<h4>Translated from the German.</h4>
+
+<h4>THE SECOND EDITION, CORRECTED AND IMPROVED.</h4>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 235px;">
+<img src="images/illus-001.jpg" width="235" height="281" alt="" title="" />
+</div>
+
+<h4><big>OXFORD:</big><br />
+PUBLISHED BY D. A. TALBOYS.<br />
+<small>M DCCC XXXIII.</small>
+</h4>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 15%;" />
+<h5>OXFORD: PRINTED BY TALBOYS AND BROWNE.</h5>
+
+
+<hr style="width: 100%;" />
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_iii" id="Page_iii">[Pg iii]</a></span></p>
+<h2>TRANSLATOR'S PREFACE</h2>
+
+<h3>TO THIS EDITION.</h3>
+
+
+<p class="main">It is to the patient industry of the historians of
+Germany, that we are indebted for the first production
+of Manuals of history, and for those synchronistic
+tables which have so much facilitated
+the systematic study of ancient history; and
+among the various and profound treatises of this
+class which enrich and adorn their literature, the
+works of Heeren are distinguished by their extended
+range of enquiry, as well as by the minute
+accuracy of their details.</p>
+
+<p class="main">The work before us embodies the result of his
+laborious researches during the long period in
+which he has been engaged as public lecturer
+and professor of history in the university of Goettingen;
+and if it be any recommendation of a
+work to know that its writer has had ample time,
+ability, and opportunity to collect and elaborate
+his materials, it may be asserted, without fear of
+contradiction, that the author of the present work
+possessed all these advantages in an eminent degree.
+He has spent the greater portion of his
+life in lecturing upon the subjects of which it
+treats, and has in every case gone for his information
+immediately to the fountain head. It forms,
+too, an important feature of his work, that a list
+of the original sources, whence his own know<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_iv" id="Page_iv">[Pg iv]</a></span>ledge
+has been drawn, is placed at the head of
+each section; another is added of the principal
+writers who have touched upon or illustrated the
+particular portion of history under notice; both
+being generally accompanied with a few words of
+judicious criticism, in which the value of the
+writer's authority is estimated, and his sources,
+circumstances, and prejudices, briefly, but fairly
+set forth. Besides this advantage, the work possesses
+the merit of combining the convenience of
+the Manuals with the synchronistic method of
+instruction; as the geography, chronology, and
+biography of the countries and states of the ancient
+world are brought at once under the eye of
+the reader; and so lucid is the arrangement, that
+the darkest and most entangled portions of history
+are seen in a clear and perspicuous light.
+Professor Heeren seems, moreover, to possess in
+a more eminent degree than any other writer, the
+power of forcing, by a very few words, the attention
+of the reader upon the most important facts
+of history; and of conjuring up in his thoughts a
+train of reflections calculated at once to instruct
+and enlarge the mind. His work is not only admirably
+adapted to become a text-book in the study
+of history, but will be found equally serviceable as
+a book of reference&mdash;it will guide the student in
+his untried and intricate course, and enable the
+more advanced scholar to methodize his collected
+stores. Perhaps in no work has so much important
+information been condensed into so small a
+compass.</p>
+
+<p class="main">The estimation in which this Manual is held
+on the continent, may be gathered from the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_v" id="Page_v">[Pg v]</a></span>
+fact of its having passed through six large editions
+in German, and two in French, and from its
+having been translated into almost every language
+of Europe.</p>
+
+<p class="main">The rapidity with which the first edition, as
+well as the other writings of professor Heeren,
+have sold in this country, is a proof that they only
+required to be known here in order to be appreciated.
+The favour with which these translations
+have been received, both by the venerable author
+himself and by the British public, has been a
+source of the highest gratification to the publisher.
+The encouragement, so kindly bestowed, has urged
+him to new exertions, the fruits of which, he trusts,
+will be observable in the present volume. The
+Manual has not only been revised and corrected
+throughout, but has also been diligently compared
+with the German, and has received such ameliorations
+as the original text or the English style
+seemed to demand. When it is added to this
+that a very numerous body of corrections and
+improvements have been sent to the publisher by
+professor Heeren himself, who has patiently examined
+the translation expressly for this edition,
+he trusts that the public will be satisfied that it is
+as faithful a copy of the original work as the nature
+of things will allow.</p>
+
+<p class="main">In the preface to the last edition of this Manual
+the publisher announced his intention, should it
+be favourably received, of following it up by the
+publication of another elaborate work of the same
+author, viz. A Manual of the History of the
+States of Modern Europe and their Colonies,
+as forming one political System. This work will<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_vi" id="Page_vi">[Pg vi]</a></span>
+now very shortly appear. As an apology for the
+delay which has taken place, he begs to call to
+their notice another equally important work by
+the same author, which he has published in the
+mean time; the Historical Researches into the
+Politics, Intercourse, and Trade of the Carthaginians,
+Ethiopians, and Egyptians, with a general
+introduction; the remainder of this work, containing
+the Historical Researches into the Politics,
+Intercourse, and Trade of the Ancient Asiatic
+Nations&mdash;the Persians, Ph&#339;nicians, Babylonians,
+Scythians, and Hindoos, will appear in a few
+weeks.</p>
+
+<p class="main">To add to the usefulness of the work, an analysis
+of the contents, with dates, has been given
+in the margin. The &#8224; prefixed to some of the
+books denote that they are written in German.</p>
+
+<p class="noin">
+&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; <span class="smcap">Oxford</span>,<br />
+&nbsp; &nbsp; <i>March</i>, 1833.</p>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 100%;" />
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_vii" id="Page_vii">[Pg vii]</a></span></p>
+<h3>PROFESSOR HEEREN'S WORKS.</h3>
+
+<div class="sblockquot">
+<p class="main">The following catalogue of the historical works of Professor Heeren,
+has been sent to the Publisher by the Professor himself. They are
+uniformly printed in German, in 15 vols. 8vo. and may always be had
+together or separate of the publisher of this volume.</p>
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+
+<p class="iblockquot">VOL. I. II. III. Vermischte historische Schriften. (Miscellaneous Historical
+Pieces).</p>
+
+<p class="iblockquot">VOL. I. Einleitung. Biographische Nachrichten &uuml;ber den Verfasser.
+(Biographical Sketch of Heeren's Life, by himself.)<br />
+
+&nbsp; &nbsp; 1.  Entwickelung der politischen Folgen der Reformation f&uuml;r
+Europa. (Development of the Consequences of the Reformation
+to the Politics of Europe).<br />
+
+&nbsp; &nbsp; 2. * Versuch einer Entwickelung des Ursprungs und Fortganges
+der britischen Continental-interesse. (Essay on the Rise and
+Progress of the British Continental interests). A translation of this
+Essay will be appended to the Manual of the History of Modern
+Europe, see vol. viii. ix. below.<br />
+
+&nbsp; &nbsp; 3. Ueber den Einfluss der politischen Theorien auf Europa.
+(Of the Influence of Political Theories on Europe).</p>
+
+<p class="iblockquot">VOL. II. 1. Ueber die Erhaltung der Nationalit&auml;t besiegter V&ouml;lker.
+(On the Method of Preserving the Nationality of Conquered States.)
+Written in 1810, and suppressed by the French.<br />
+
+&nbsp; &nbsp; 2. Entwickelung der Folgen der Kreuzz&uuml;ge f&uuml;r Europa. (Development
+of the Effects of the Crusades upon Europe: An essay
+which obtained the prize of the French Institute in 1808.<br />
+
+&nbsp; &nbsp; 3. Ueber den Einfluss der Normannen auf die franz&ouml;sische
+Sprache und Po&euml;sie. (On the Influence of the Normans on the
+French Language and Poetry).<br />
+
+&nbsp; &nbsp; 4. Ueber die Colonisation von &AElig;gypten, und ihre Folgen f&uuml;r
+Europa. (On the Colonisation of Egypt, and its Probable Consequences
+to Europe).<br />
+
+&nbsp; &nbsp; 5. Der deutsche Bund in seinen Verhaltnisse zu Europa. (The
+Influence of the German Federation upon Europe).</p>
+
+<p class="iblockquot">VOL. III. 1. Ueber den historischen Werth der Biographien Plutarch's.
+(On the Historical Value of Plutarch's Lives).<br />
+
+&nbsp; &nbsp; 2. Geschichte der b&uuml;rgerlichen Unruhen der Gracchen. (History
+of the Civil Commotions under the Gracchi).<br />
+
+&nbsp; &nbsp; 3. F&uuml;nf arch&aelig;ologische und antiquarische Aufs&auml;tze. (Five Arch&aelig;ological
+and Antiquarian Tracts).</p>
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_viii" id="Page_viii">[Pg viii]</a></span></p>
+<p class="iblockquot">VOL. IV. V. Geschichte der classischen Litteratur im Mittelalter.
+(History of Classical Literature During the Middle Ages).</p>
+
+<p class="iblockquot">VOL. VI. Biographische und litterarische Denkschriften. (Biographical
+and Literary Memoirs).<br />
+
+&nbsp; &nbsp; 1. Christian Gottlob. H&euml;yne, biographisch dargestellt.  (Biographical
+Memoir of Heyne), the father-in-law of Heeren.<br />
+
+&nbsp; &nbsp; 2. Andenken an deutsche Historiker. (Memoirs of German
+Historians.)</p>
+
+<p class="iblockquot">VOL. VII. * Handbuch der Geschichte der Staaten des Alterthums.
+(Manual of Ancient History, of which this volume is the second
+edition of the English translation).</p>
+
+<p class="iblockquot">VOL. VIII. IX. * Handbuch der Geschichte der europ&auml;ische Staaten-systems
+und seiner Colonien. (Manual of the History of the European
+States-system and their Colonies).</p>
+
+<p class="iblockquot">VOL. X. * Ideen ueber die Politik, den Verkehr und den Handel des
+vornehmsten Staaten der alten Welt. (Researches into the Politics,
+Intercourse, and Trade of the Principal States of Antiquity,&mdash;Asiatic
+Nations). 1. General Introduction; 2. Persians.</p>
+
+<p class="iblockquot">VOL. XI. * Ideen, etc. (Asiatic Nations). 1. Ph&#339;nicians; 2. Babylonians;
+3. Scythians.</p>
+
+<p class="iblockquot">VOL. XII. * Ideen, etc. (Asiatic Nations). Indians.</p>
+
+<p class="iblockquot">VOL. XIII. * Ideen, etc. (African Nations). 1. Carthaginians; 2.
+Ethiopians.</p>
+
+<p class="iblockquot">VOL. XIV. * Ideen, etc. (African Nations). Egyptians.</p>
+
+<p class="iblockquot">VOL. XV. * Ideen, etc. (European Nations). Greeks.</p>
+
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+<p class="main">Those with a * prefixed are translated into English, and are either
+now published or will very shortly be so.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 100%;" />
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_ix" id="Page_ix">[Pg ix]</a></span></p>
+<h2>PREFACE</h2>
+
+<h3>TO THE FIRST EDITION.</h3>
+
+
+<p class="main">In adding to the number of Manuals on Ancient
+History already published, I feel myself bound
+to give an account of the plan on which the present
+has been executed.</p>
+
+<p class="main">It was at first designed to be used in my
+public lectures, and from them it has grown up
+to what it now is. In them I did not consider it
+necessary to state all we know or think we know
+of ancient history. Many facts highly interesting
+to the learned historian are not adapted for public
+lectures. It was therefore my great object to
+make choice of such incidents as ought to be
+known by my pupils in order to the effectual
+prosecution of their historical studies. Consequently
+I have not extended my labours so far as
+to give an historical account of every nation, but
+have limited myself to those most remarkable for
+their general civilization and political eminence.</p>
+
+<p class="main">The subjects to which I have particularly directed
+my attention are, the formation of states,
+the changes in their constitution, the routes by
+which commerce was carried on, the share which
+the different nations respectively took in its pursuit,
+and, as immediately connected with that<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_x" id="Page_x">[Pg x]</a></span>
+department, their extension severally by means of
+colonies.</p>
+
+<p class="main">The favourable reception which my larger work,
+executed after a different plan, has met with,
+would lead me to hope for a like indulgence in
+this new attempt, even if the spirit of the age did
+not so loudly call upon every historian to direct
+his chief attention to these subjects. And for
+this reason I could not rest satisfied with a mere
+detail of isolated facts, but have made it my study
+to follow the course of events, linking them into
+one connected chain; so as to represent them in
+a condensed form by continually and carefully
+forcing together the main circumstances which
+contributed to the development of the whole.</p>
+
+<p class="main">Without this, history in general would be but
+a lifeless study, more especially that of republics,
+which were so numerous in ancient times, and
+which, from their constitution being made up of
+political parties, everywhere present the most
+difficult problems for the historian's solution. Of
+all the larger divisions of my work, the arrangement
+of the Greek history I have found most troublesome,
+on account of the number of little states
+into which it is sub-divided. Historians, indeed,
+lighten this labour by confining themselves merely
+to Athens and Sparta; but by so doing they give
+us a very imperfect knowledge of the subject. I
+have endeavoured to surmount the difficulty by
+throwing the account of the smaller states and
+their colonies into the second period; by which
+means I have been able in the third and most
+important portion, the interest of which depends
+entirely upon the principal states, to carry on my<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_xi" id="Page_xi">[Pg xi]</a></span>
+history, as a whole without interruption. But in
+case others, who wish to make this Manual the
+groundwork of their lectures, should dislike this
+arrangement, they may very easily attach these
+notices to the introductory geographical survey; a
+plan I very often adopt in my own lectures. Upon
+the arrangement of the other parts, I am not aware
+of the necessity of making any observations. The
+sources from which I have drawn my materials
+are specified in every section. Particular references
+do not come within my plan; and if I have
+referred several times in the first two sections to
+my larger work, it is only on particular points,
+explanations of which may be sought for in vain
+elsewhere.</p>
+
+<p class="main">Some knowledge of ancient geography and
+the use of maps<a name="FNanchor_A_1" id="FNanchor_A_1"></a><a href="#Footnote_A_1" class="fnanchor">[a]</a>, if it has not been previously
+acquired by the student, should, I am convinced,
+always be connected with lectures on ancient
+history. That this need not extend to detailed
+explanations of ancient geography, but that it
+should be restricted to what is merely useful in
+the study of history, I have observed in the body
+of my work. The geographical chapters which
+are interspersed having been written with this
+intent, will, I hope, be judged of accordingly.
+I have taken care to arrange them so as to include
+the whole of the ancient world; it depends,
+therefore, only upon the teacher to form a more
+or less extensive course upon them.</p>
+
+<p class="main">With regard to chronology, I have followed
+throughout the same uniform plan of computing<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_xii" id="Page_xii">[Pg xii]</a></span>
+time, viz. to and from the birth of Christ. By
+preferring this method, so convenient and certain,
+to the inconvenient and uncertain one of reckoning
+from the year of the world, I hope I have deserved
+the thanks of my readers. I relinquish,
+on the other hand, all claim to merit on the score
+of having more accurately defined the chronology
+of events which occur before the time of Cyrus.
+I have, on the contrary, in this part of my labour,
+often stated round numbers, where, in many
+modern publications, precise dates may be found.
+Exact determinations of time are only necessary,
+in my opinion, where a continuous development
+of circumstances takes place; not where unconnected
+facts are recorded.</p>
+
+<p class="main">The transactions of our own times have thrown
+a light upon ancient history, and given it an interest
+which it could not formerly possess. A
+knowledge of history, if not the only, is at least
+the most certain means of obtaining a clear and
+unprejudiced view of the great drama now performing
+around us. All direct comparisons, notwithstanding
+the many opportunities which have
+tempted me, I considered as foreign to my plan;
+but if, notwithstanding in some chapters of my
+work, particularly in the history of the Roman republic,
+I may be thought to make a reference to
+the transactions of the ten years during which
+this work has been published, I do not consider
+it necessary to offer any excuse for so doing. Of
+what use is the study of history if it do not make
+us wiser and better? unless the knowledge of the
+past teach us to judge more correctly of the present?
+Should I have contributed in any measure<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_xiii" id="Page_xiii">[Pg xiii]</a></span>
+to promote this object, and should I be so fortunate
+as to lead the minds of my young friends to
+a deeper study of a science which can only in this
+way reward its admirers, I shall esteem it the most
+delightful recompense my labour can receive.</p>
+
+<p><small>
+GOETTINGEN, Sept. 23, 1799.<br />
+</small></p>
+
+
+<div class="footnote"><p class="main"><a name="Footnote_A_1" id="Footnote_A_1"></a><a href="#FNanchor_A_1"><span class="label">[a]</span></a> I have made use of D'Anville.</p></div>
+
+
+<hr style="width: 100%;" />
+<h2>PREFACE</h2>
+
+<h3>TO THE SECOND AND FOLLOWING EDITIONS.</h3>
+
+
+<p class="main">The call for a second edition of my Manual imposes
+upon me an obligation to supply the deficiencies
+of my former work. Corrections have
+been carefully made, and many parts completely
+re-written. A select list of books which treat of
+the respective departments of my subject is now
+first added; the former edition containing only
+references to the sources from which my facts
+were derived. This, I trust, will be considered an
+essential service to the friends of historical science,
+more especially the young, for whom and
+not for the learned these additions have been
+made. Their use in this place is particularly
+obvious, where it is in every one's power to procure
+the books referred to<a name="FNanchor_B_2" id="FNanchor_B_2"></a><a href="#Footnote_B_2" class="fnanchor">[b]</a>. The short criticisms
+subjoined, where it seemed necessary, will serve
+as guides for their use. In the author's depart<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_xiv" id="Page_xiv">[Pg xiv]</a></span>ment
+of the work but little has been changed,
+while its form and appearance have been improved
+by the use of different types, by more accurate
+running titles, and by ranging the dates in
+the margin. By the adoption of the latter method
+the increase in the number of pages is rendered
+inconsiderable, notwithstanding the numerous additions
+which have been made to the matter. In
+its arrangement, this work is the same as my
+Manual of the History of the European States
+and their Colonies. Beyond this, however, these
+works have no relation to each other, but have
+been executed upon quite different principles; the
+present as a history of the <i>separate</i> states of the
+ancient world, and the other as a general history
+of modern states and their colonies, as forming
+altogether one political system. Each, however,
+forms a complete work in itself, and it is by no
+means my intention to fill up the gulf which time
+has placed between them.</p>
+
+<p class="main">I regret that the acute researches of M. Volney<a name="FNanchor_C_3" id="FNanchor_C_3"></a><a href="#Footnote_C_3" class="fnanchor">[c]</a>,
+upon the chronology of Herodotus before
+the time of Cyrus, came too late into my hands
+to be made use of in its proper place in my
+second edition. In the third this has been
+done. I lay claim, at the same time, to the
+thanks of the reader for giving, in an Appendix,
+the results of these researches, together with
+references to the passages by which they are
+supported; leaving out, however, all extraneous
+matter, and everything that cannot be proved by
+the positive assertions of the father of history.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_xv" id="Page_xv">[Pg xv]</a></span></p>
+<p class="main">I cannot close this preface without again recurring
+to the advantage of the mode now becoming
+more and more general, of computing
+time in ancient history according to the number
+of years before Christ. The fact of its being certain
+and convenient has often been remarked; but
+besides this it possesses the great advantage of
+giving us at once a clear and precise notion of the
+interval that separates us from the incidents recorded;
+which it is impossible to obtain by the
+use of any other era, whether the year of the
+world, the olympiads, or the year of Rome, etc.
+And yet this peculiar advantage, so great in the
+eyes of the teacher, has not, to the best of my
+knowledge, been hitherto made the subject of remark.
+Even for the science of history itself, this
+circumstance is of greater moment than might be
+at first supposed. Should an enquirer arise who
+would closely examine all ancient history according
+to this era&mdash;setting out from the generally received
+year of the birth of Christ as from a fixed
+point, to which the labours of M. Volney are a
+good beginning&mdash;the whole science would thereby
+acquire a firmer consistency. For by this method
+all dates would not appear equally certain and
+equally uncertain, as they do in the eras which
+are computed from the year of the world; but it
+would be shown what is chronologically certain,
+what only probable, and what completely uncertain,
+according as we should recede from the
+clearer into the more obscure regions of history.
+The old manner of reckoning from the year of the
+world, in which congruity was impossible, because
+there was no agreement upon the point to<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_xvi" id="Page_xvi">[Pg xvi]</a></span>
+start from, would certainly be thrown aside; but
+where is the harm if something better and more
+certain be substituted in its place?</p>
+
+<p class="main">In the third, fourth, fifth, and sixth editions,
+though the increase in the number of pages is
+small, yet all those additions and corrections
+which I deemed necessary, and which the progress
+of knowledge and discovery, as in the case
+of Egypt and other countries, enabled me to
+effect, have been most carefully and fully made.
+The importance of these will be best seen by
+comparison.</p>
+
+<p><small><i>Goettingen</i>, 1828.</small></p>
+
+
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p class="main"><a name="Footnote_B_2" id="Footnote_B_2"></a><a href="#FNanchor_B_2"><span class="label">[b]</span></a> [The author alludes to the public library at Goettingen. <span class="smcap">Tr</span>.]</p>
+
+<p class="main"><a name="Footnote_C_3" id="Footnote_C_3"></a><a href="#FNanchor_C_3"><span class="label">[c]</span></a> Chronologie d'Herodote, conforme &agrave; son Texte par C. F. Volney. Paris,
+1809, 3 vols. See the <i>G&ouml;tt. Gel. Anz.</i> for 1810 and 1816.</p>
+</div>
+
+<hr style="width: 100%;" />
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_xvii" id="Page_xvii">[Pg xvii]</a></span></p>
+<h2>CONTENTS.</h2>
+
+
+
+<div class='center'>
+<table border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" summary="">
+<tr><td align='left'>&nbsp;</td><td align='right'><small>Page</small></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Introduction</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_1">1</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'><a href="#FIRST_BOOK">Book I.</a> Asiatic and African states previous to Cyrus</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_15">15</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>General geographical outline of Asia</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_15">ib.</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Preliminary and General Observations upon the History and Constitution of the great Asiatic Empires</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_22">22</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>History of the ancient Asiatic kingdoms before the reign of Cyrus</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_25">25</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>&nbsp; &nbsp; I. Assyrian monarchy</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_25">ib.</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>&nbsp; &nbsp; II. Median monarchy</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_26">26</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>&nbsp; &nbsp; III. Babylonian monarchy</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_27">27</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>&nbsp; &nbsp; IV. States in Asia Minor</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_29">29</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; 1. Trojan empire</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_29">ib.</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; 2. Phrygian empire</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_29">ib.</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; 3. Lydian empire</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_29">ib.</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>&nbsp; &nbsp; V. Ph&#339;nicia</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_30">30</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>&nbsp; &nbsp; VI. Syrians</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_33">33</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>&nbsp; &nbsp; VII. Jews</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_34">34</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; 1. Period of the Nomad state from Abraham till the conquest of Palestine</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_35">35</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; 2. Period of the federative republic</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_36">36</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; 3. Period of the monarchy from B. C. 1100&mdash;600</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_38">38</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; The Jewish state as one single kingdom</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_38">ib.</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; The Jewish state as a divided kingdom</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_40">40</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>African Nations</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_45">45</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>General geographical outline of Ancient Africa</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_45">ib.</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>&nbsp; &nbsp; I. Egyptians</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_47">47</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; 1st Period. From the earliest times down to the Sesostrid&aelig;, about B. C. 1500</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_51">51</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; 2nd Period. From the Sesostrid&aelig; till the sole dominion of Psammetichus, B. C. 1500&mdash;650</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_62">62</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; 3rd Period. From the reign of Psammetichus to the Persian conquest of Egypt by Cambyses, B. C. 650&mdash;525</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_69">69</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>&nbsp; &nbsp; II. Carthaginians</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_73">73</a><span class='pagenum'>[Pg xviii]</span></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; 1st Period. From the foundation of Carthage to the wars with Syracuse, B. C. 880&mdash;480</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_74">74</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; 2nd Period. From the breaking out of the wars with Syracuse to the commencement of those with Rome, B. C. 480&mdash;264</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_80">80</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; 3rd Period. From the beginning of the wars with Rome to the downfal of Carthage, B. C. 264&mdash;146</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_82">82</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'><a href="#SECOND_BOOK">Book II.</a> History of the Persian empire from B. C. 560&mdash;330</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_90">90</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'><a href="#THIRD_BOOK">Book III.</a> History of the Grecian states</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_112">112</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Geographical outline of Greece</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_112">ib.</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>&nbsp; &nbsp; 1st Period. Traditional history down to the Trojan war, about B. C. 1200</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_118">118</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>&nbsp; &nbsp; 2nd Period. From the Trojan war to the breaking out of the Persian war, B. C. 1200&mdash;500</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_127">127</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>History of the Hellenic states within Greece</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_127">ib.</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>&nbsp; &nbsp; General history</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_127">ib.</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>&nbsp; &nbsp; Sparta</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_131">131</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>&nbsp; &nbsp; Athens</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_136">136</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Principal data for the history of the smaller states:</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>I. Within the Peloponnesus:</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>&nbsp; &nbsp; <i>a.</i> Arcadia</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_142">142</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>&nbsp; &nbsp; <i>b.</i> Argos</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_142">ib.</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>&nbsp; &nbsp; <i>c.</i> Corinth</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_143">143</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>&nbsp; &nbsp; <i>d.</i> Sicyon</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_144">144</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>&nbsp; &nbsp; <i>e.</i> Achaia</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_144">ib.</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>&nbsp; &nbsp; <i>f.</i> Elis</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_145">145</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>II. Central Greece, or Hellas:</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>&nbsp; &nbsp; <i>a.</i> Megaris</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_146">146</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>&nbsp; &nbsp; <i>b.</i> B&#339;otia</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_147">147</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>&nbsp; &nbsp; <i>c.</i> Phocis</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_148">148</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>&nbsp; &nbsp; <i>d.</i> Locris</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_148">ib.</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>&nbsp; &nbsp; <i>e.</i> &AElig;tolia</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_148">ib.</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>&nbsp; &nbsp; <i>f.</i> Acarnania</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_149">149</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>III. Northern Greece:</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>&nbsp; &nbsp; <i>a.</i> Thessaly</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_149">149</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>&nbsp; &nbsp; <i>b.</i> Epirus</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_150">150</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>IV. Grecian Islands:</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>&nbsp; &nbsp; <i>a.</i> Corcyra</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_151">151</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>&nbsp; &nbsp; <i>b.</i> &AElig;gina</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_151">ib.</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>&nbsp; &nbsp; <i>c.</i> Eub&#339;a</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_152">152</a><span class='pagenum'>[Pg xix]</span></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>&nbsp; &nbsp; <i>d.</i> The Cyclades</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_152">ib.</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>&nbsp; &nbsp; <i>e.</i> Crete</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_152">ib.</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>&nbsp; &nbsp; <i>f.</i> Cyprus</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_154">154</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>History of the Grecian colonies</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_155">155</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>General observations</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_155">ib.</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Colonies on the Western coast of Asia Minor:</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_157">157</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>&nbsp; &nbsp; 1. &AElig;olian colonies</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_158">158</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>&nbsp; &nbsp; 2. Ionian colonies</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_159">159</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>&nbsp; &nbsp; 3. Dorian colonies</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_161">161</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Colonies on the coast of the Propontis and the Black sea</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_162">162</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Colonies on the coasts of Thrace and Macedonia</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_163">163</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Colonies on the western coast of Greece</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_164">164</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Grecian settlements in Lower Italy:</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>&nbsp; &nbsp; <i>a.</i> Tarentum</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_165">165</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>&nbsp; &nbsp; <i>b.</i> Croton</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_166">166</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>&nbsp; &nbsp; <i>c.</i> Sybaris</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_166">ib.</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>&nbsp; &nbsp; <i>d.</i> Thurii</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_167">167</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>&nbsp; &nbsp; <i>e.</i> Locri Epizephyrii</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_167">ib.</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>&nbsp; &nbsp; <i>f.</i> Rhegium</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_168">168</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>&nbsp; &nbsp; <i>g.</i> Cum&aelig;</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_168">ib.</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Grecian settlements in Sicily:</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>&nbsp; &nbsp; <i>a.</i> Syracuse</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_169">169</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>&nbsp; &nbsp; <i>b.</i> Agrigentum</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_174">174</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>&nbsp; &nbsp; <i>c.</i> The smaller Sicilian cities</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_175">175</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Colonies in Sardinia and Corsica</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_175">ib.</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Colonies in Gaul;&mdash;Massilia</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_176">176</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Colonies in Spain;&mdash;Saguntum</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_176">ib.</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Colonies in Africa;&mdash;Cyrene</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_176">ib.</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Period III. From the breaking out of the Persian wars to Alexander the Great, B. C. 500&mdash;336</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_178">178</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'><a href="#FOURTH_BOOK">Book IV.</a> History of the Macedonian Monarchy:</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Period I. From its origin to the death of Alexander the Great, B. C. 800&mdash;323</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_206">206</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Period II. History of the Macedonian monarchy, from the death of Alexander the Great to the battle of Ipsus, B. C. 323&mdash;301</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_222">222</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Period III. History of the separate kingdoms and states which arose out of the dismemberment of the Macedonian monarchy, after the battle of Ipsus</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_232">232</a><span class='pagenum'>[Pg xx]</span></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>&nbsp; &nbsp; I. History of the Syrian empire under the Seleucid&aelig; B. C. 312&mdash;64</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_232">232</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>&nbsp; &nbsp; II. History of the Egyptian kingdom under the Ptolemies, B. C. 323&mdash;30</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_247">247</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>&nbsp; &nbsp; III. History of Macedonia itself and of Greece, from the death of Alexander to the Roman conquest, B. C. 323&mdash;146</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_268">268</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; Ach&aelig;an league</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_280">280</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &AElig;tolian league</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_279">279</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>&nbsp; &nbsp; IV. History of some smaller or more distant kingdoms and states formed out of the Macedonian monarchy</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_290">290</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; The kingdom of Pergamus</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_291">291</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; Bithynia</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_293">293</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; Paphlagonia</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_294">294</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; Pontus</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_295">295</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; Cappadocia</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_297">297</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; Armenia</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_298">298</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; The kingdom of Parthia</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_299">299</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; The kingdom of Bactria</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_305">305</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; The restored kingdom of the Jews</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_306">306</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; 1. Under the Persians</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_307">307</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; 2. Under the Ptolemies and Seleucid&aelig;</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_308">308</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; 3. Under the Maccabees</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_309">309</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; 4. Under the family of Herod</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_311">311</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'><a href="#FIFTH_BOOK">Book V.</a> History of the Roman state:</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Introductory remarks on the Geography of Ancient Italy</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_314">314</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>&nbsp; &nbsp; Period I. From the foundation of Rome to the conquest of Italy, and the commencement of the wars with Carthage, B. C. 754&mdash;264, or A. U. C. 1&mdash;490</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_321">321</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>&nbsp; &nbsp; Period II. From the commencement of the war with Carthage to the rise of the civil broils under the Gracchi, B. C. 264&mdash;134, or A. U. C. 490&mdash;620</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_339">339</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>&nbsp; &nbsp; Period III. From the beginning of the civil broils under the Gracchi to the fall of the republic, B. C. 134&mdash;30, or A. U. C. 620&mdash;724</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_362">362</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>&nbsp; &nbsp; Period IV. History of the Roman state as a monarchy till the overthrow of the western empire, B. C. 30&mdash;A. C. 476</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_402">402</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'><span class='pagenum'>[Pg xxi]</span>Geographical outline. View of the Roman empire and provinces, and other countries connected with it by war or commerce</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_402">ib.</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>&nbsp; &nbsp; 1st Section. From Augustus C&aelig;sar to the death of Commodus, B. C. 30&mdash;A. C. 193</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_411">411</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>&nbsp; &nbsp; 2nd Section. From the death of Commodus to Diocletian, A. C. 193&mdash;284</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_437">437</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>&nbsp; &nbsp; 3rd Section. From Diocletian to the overthrow of the Roman empire in the west, A. C. 284&mdash;476</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_454">454</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Appendix. Chronology of Herodotus from the time of Cyrus, according to Volney</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_475">475</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Genealogical Table of the reigning houses of Macedon</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_481">481</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Genealogical Table of the reigning houses of the Seleucid&aelig;</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_482">482</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Genealogical Table of the reigning houses of the Ptolemies</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_483">483</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Genealogical Table of the reigning houses of the Jews</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_484">484</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Genealogical Table of the reigning houses of the C&aelig;sars</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_485">485</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Genealogical Table of the reigning houses of Constantine</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_486">486</a></td></tr>
+</table></div>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 100%;" />
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_xxii" id="Page_xxii">[Pg xxii]</a></span></p>
+<h5>OXFORD: PRINTED BY TALBOYS AND BROWNE.</h5>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 100%;" />
+<h1>MANUAL</h1>
+
+<h4>OF</h4>
+
+<h1>ANCIENT HISTORY.</h1>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 100%;" />
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_1" id="Page_1">[Pg 1]</a></span></p>
+<h2>INTRODUCTION.</h2>
+
+
+<div class="sblockquot"><p>I. The sources of ancient history may be ranged under two
+heads; the ancient writers, and the monuments still extant.
+The various writers will be mentioned in their proper places, at
+the different divisions of this work. A general view of the ancient
+monuments, so far as they are sources of history, will be found in:</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Oberlin</span>, <i>Orbis antiqui monumentis suis illustrati prim&aelig; line&aelig;</i>.
+Argentorati, 1790. Extremely defective, as many discoveries
+have been made since it was published.</p>
+
+<p>II. <span class="smcap">General Treatises on Ancient History.</span></p>
+
+<p>1. <i>The more voluminous works</i> on the subject. These may be
+divided in two classes: <i>a.</i> The part appropriated to ancient history,
+in the general treatises on universal history; <i>b.</i> Works exclusively
+devoted to ancient history.</p>
+
+<p><i>a.</i> To the first class belong:</p>
+
+<p><i>The Universal History, ancient and modern; with maps and
+additions.</i> Lond. 1736, 26 vols. folio. Reprinted in 8vo. in
+67 vols. and again in 60 vols. with omissions and additions.</p>
+
+<p>This work, compiled by a society of British scholars, has been
+translated into German, and illustrated with remarks, by <span class="smcap">Siegm.
+Jac. Baumgarten</span>. Halle, 1746, 4to. The Germans frequently
+designate it by the name of the Halle Universal History of the
+World: the first eighteen vols. comprise the ancient part.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Will. Guthrie, John Gray</span>, <i>etc.</i> <i>General History of the
+World, from the creation to the present time.</i> London, 1764&mdash;1767,
+12 vols. 8vo. This work, of no estimation in the original,
+is rendered valuable and useful by the labours of the German
+translator, <span class="smcap">C. G. Heyne</span>, (<i>Leip.</i> 1766, 8vo.) who has corrected
+the errors, inserted the dates, and added his own observations.</p>
+
+<p><i>b.</i> To the second class belong:</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Rollin</span>, <i>Histoire ancienne des Egyptiens, des Carthaginois,
+des Assyriens, des M&egrave;des el des Perses, des Mac&eacute;doniens, des<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_2" id="Page_2">[Pg 2]</a></span>
+Grecs.</i> Paris, 1824, 12 vols. 8vo.; revue par <span class="smcap">Letronne</span>: the
+last and best edition. This work, which greatly promoted the
+study of ancient history in France, still maintains its well-earned
+reputation. [It was translated into English, 1768: best edition,
+7 vols. 8vo.: frequently reprinted.] The above is generally accompanied
+by the <i>Histoire Romaine</i> of the same author. See
+below, book v. first period, <i>Sources</i>.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Jac. Ben. Bossuet</span>, <i>Discours sur l'Histoire Universelle</i>.
+Paris, 1680, 3 vols. Frequently reprinted, being considered by
+the French one of their classics.</p>
+
+<p>[English translation, by <span class="smcap">Rich. Spencer</span>. London, 1730, 8vo.]</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Millot</span>, <i>El&eacute;mens de l'Histoire G&eacute;n&eacute;rale</i>. Paris, 1772, sq.
+[Translated into English, 1778, 2 vols. 8vo.: and again, an improved
+edition, with additions.] Edinb. 1823, 6 vols. 8vo. The
+ancient history is contained in the first two volumes.</p>
+
+<p>&#8224;<span class="smcap">Joh. Matth. Schroeckh</span>, <i>General History of the World</i>,
+for the use of children. Leipzic, 1779, sq. 6 vols.</p>
+
+<p>&#8224;<span class="smcap">J. G. Eichhorn</span>, <i>History of the Ancient World</i>, 1799, third
+edition, 1817. (First part of the History of the World.)</p>
+
+<p>&#8224;<span class="smcap">Dan. G. J. Huebler</span>, <i>Sketch of the General History of the
+Nations of Antiquity, from the birth of states to the end of the
+Roman commonwealth</i>. Freyberg, 1798&mdash;1802. Five parts;
+and a continuation: <i>History of the Romans under the Emperors,
+and of the contemporary Nations, until the great migration</i>, 1803;
+three parts. A work rendered extremely useful, by the judicious
+advantage taken by the author of the labours of other writers.</p>
+
+<p>&#8224;<span class="smcap">H. Luden</span>, <i>General History of Nations</i>. 1814; three parts.</p>
+
+<p>&#8224;<span class="smcap">L. Von Dresch</span>, <i>General Political History</i>. 1815; three
+parts. In each of the above works the first part contains the
+ancient history, and exhibits the more modern views of the
+subject.</p>
+
+<p>[The following is added, as well deserving the attention of the
+English student: <span class="smcap">Ralegh</span> (Sir <span class="smcap">Walter</span>) <i>History of the World,
+Part I. extending to the end of the Macedonian Empire; with his
+Life and Trial, by Mr. Oldys</i>. Lond. 1736, 2 vols. folio. Formerly
+the best edition; but a new and improved one has been
+printed at the Clarendon press. Oxford, 1829, 8 vols. 8vo.]</p>
+
+<p>&#8224;<span class="smcap">F. Von Raumer</span>, <i>Lectures on Ancient History</i>, parts 1, 2.
+Berlin, 1821.</p>
+
+<p>Works furnishing illustrations of the progressive civilization,
+government, and commerce of early nations, although, strictly
+speaking, not treatises on ancient history, are nevertheless very<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_3" id="Page_3">[Pg 3]</a></span>
+closely connected with the subject. Among these may be mentioned:</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Goguet</span>, <i>De l'Origine des Lois, des Arts, et des Sciences, et de
+leurs progr&egrave;s ch&egrave;z les anciens peuples; nouv. &eacute;dit</i>. Paris, 1778.
+[Translated by Dr. <span class="smcap">Dunn</span> and Mr. <span class="smcap">Speerman</span>. Edinb. 1761&mdash;1775,
+3 vols. 8vo.]</p>
+
+<p>&#8224;<span class="smcap">A. H. L. Heeren</span>, <i>Reflections on the Politics, Intercourse,
+and Trade of the most eminent Nations in the Ancient World</i>.
+Third edition, with many additions. Gottingen, 1815, 8vo.; the
+third part, 1821. Fourth edition. Gottingen, 1824. [This edition,
+the last, contains many improvements and additions, suggested
+by the great discoveries of modern travellers. Part I,
+Asiatic Nations, in 3 vols. Persians, Ph&#339;nicians, Babylonians,
+Scythians, Indians. An English translation of which is at this
+moment in the press. Part II, African Nations, 2 vols. Carthaginians,
+Ethiopians, Egyptians. Part III, European Nations;
+of which only 1 volume, Greeks, has been published.]</p>
+
+<p>2. <i>Manuals</i>, or epitomes.</p>
+
+<p>The Germans are entitled to the merit of having first produced
+manuals of ancient history, all of them useful, some excellent, in
+their kind: they are a result of the progress made in this science
+at the universities.</p>
+
+<p>&#8224;<span class="smcap">J. Chr. Gatterer</span>, <i>Attempt at an Universal History of the
+World to the discovery of America</i>. Gottingen, 1792. He who
+possesses this, the last and ripest fruit of Gatterer's studies, may
+dispense with the earlier manuals published by that author.</p>
+
+<p>&#8224;<span class="smcap">Chr. Dan. Beck</span>, <i>A Short Introduction to the Knowledge
+of the Universal History of the World and of Nature</i>. Leipzic,
+1798. The first part connected with our subject extends to
+A. D. 843. This volume is enriched with such a copious and
+critical account of books relating to ancient history, that it may
+supply the place of a particular work on the subject.</p>
+
+<p>&#8224;<span class="smcap">J. A. Remer</span>, <i>Manual of the more Ancient History, from the
+creation of the world to the great migration</i>. Fourth edition.
+Brunswick, 1832.</p>
+
+<p>&#8224;<span class="smcap">J. M. Schroeckh</span>, <i>Manual of Universal History</i>. 1774:
+latest edition, 1795.</p>
+
+<p>&#8224;<span class="smcap">G. S. Bredow</span>, <i>Manual of Ancient History, with a sketch of
+the chronology of the ancients</i>. Altona, 1799, 8vo. [Translated
+into English. Lond. 1828, 12mo. In English we have:</p>
+
+<p><i>The Outlines of History</i>, in 1 vol. (forming part of Lardner's
+Cabinet Cyclop&aelig;dia) by Mr. <span class="smcap">Keightly</span>, author of a learned and<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_4" id="Page_4">[Pg 4]</a></span>
+highly useful work on Grecian Mythology, is a convenient
+abridgement. <span class="smcap">Tytler's</span> <i>Elements of General History</i>, improved
+and continued by Dr. <span class="smcap">Nares</span>. Lond. 1825, best edition; owes
+its reputation and success to the want of a better work on the
+subject.]</p>
+
+<p>3. <i>Helps.</i></p>
+
+<p>Among the works subservient to the study of ancient history,
+the first rank is justly due to the synchronistic tables.</p>
+
+<p>&#8224;<span class="smcap">D. G. J. Huebler</span>, <i>Synchronistic Tables of the History of
+Nations</i>; arranged principally according to <span class="smcap">Gatterer's</span> <i>History
+of the World</i>. In two numbers. Second edit. 1799 and 1804.</p></div>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Object of history.</div>
+
+<p>1. The object of <span class="smcap">Political History</span>
+is to recount the destinies of nations, both in respect to
+their foreign relations and internal affairs. In regard
+to domestic concerns, one of its most important
+objects is the <i>history of governments</i>: in
+respect to external affairs, it comprises not only
+an account of the wars, but likewise of the friendly
+relations and intercourse with other states.</p>
+
+<div class="sblockquot"><p>Observe here the difference between universal history, or general
+history of the human race, and the history of nations; the
+latter forms part of the former. Observe also the difference between
+political history and that of civilization, or of man as a
+human being: the latter is merely the history of man, as man,
+without regard to political circumstances.</p></div>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Divided into three parts:<br />
+first, to A. D. 500,<br />
+second, to A. D. 1500,<br />
+third, to our own times.</div>
+
+<p>2. Universal political history is usually
+divided into three parts: <i>ancient history</i>, that of the <i>middle
+ages</i>, and <i>modern history</i>.
+The first extends to the fall of the Roman empire in the west, which took
+place towards the close of the fifth century of the christian era;
+the second extends to the discovery of America, and of a passage by sea to the
+East Indies, about the end of the fifteenth century;
+the third extends from the commencement of the sixteenth century
+to the present time.</p>
+
+<div class="sblockquot"><p>The propriety of the above division is evinced by the nature of
+the events which form these epochs. The student will easily<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_5" id="Page_5">[Pg 5]</a></span>
+perceive that the division of history, into that before and after
+the birth of Christ, is not judicious.</p></div>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Commencement
+of
+political
+history.</div>
+
+<p>3. From the definition just given, it follows,
+that political history does not commence till after
+the first formation of states. Whatever is known,
+therefore, of the period previous to this, or may
+be gathered from traditions, respecting individuals
+or tribes, or their migrations, affinities, or discoveries,
+forms no part of political history, but must
+be referred to the general history of man.</p>
+
+<div class="sblockquot"><p>It is well known that a great deal of information has been preserved
+in the sacred writings concerning the early fortunes of
+the human race. From these materials have been compiled what
+has been called an <i>Historia Antediluviana</i>, sometimes considered
+as forming a separate division of history. What has been said
+above will satisfactorily account for the omission of this portion
+of history in the present work; although none can deny the high
+importance of such traditions in the investigation of the origin,
+dispersion, and civilization of the human race.</p></div>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Sources of
+history:</div>
+
+<p>4. The sources of history may be ranged under sources of
+two general heads; <i>oral traditions</i>, and <i>written documents</i>
+of various kinds. The history of every
+nation usually commences with oral tradition,
+which remains the only source, until the art of
+writing becomes known, and in some degree
+adopted by the people.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">mythology,</div>
+
+<p>5. Under the name of <i>traditional history</i> or <i>mythology</i>,
+is comprehended all the general collection
+of oral traditions preserved by a nation; and
+some such traditional history or mythology is to
+be found among every people in the first stage of
+their existence as a community. This mythology,
+however, is by no means confined to events strictly
+historical, but embraces every branch of information
+which may appear to a nation in its infancy,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_6" id="Page_6">[Pg 6]</a></span>
+of sufficient importance to be preserved and handed
+down to posterity.</p>
+
+<div class="sblockquot"><p>Hence the mythology of a people is invariably composed of
+very heterogeneous materials; it not only preserves the remembrance
+of various kinds of historical facts, but likewise the pervading
+ideas of the people with respect to the nature and worship
+of their deities; as well as the notions they had formed from
+observations and experience respecting astronomy, morals, the
+arts, etc. All these are handed down in the form of historical
+narrative; because man, as yet unpractised in abstract thinking,
+necessarily represents every thing to his mind under the figure
+of some physical object. It is just as useless, therefore, to attempt
+to mould the mythology of any people into a consistent
+and connected whole, or indeed into any scientific system whatsoever,
+as it is difficult to draw a strict line between what belongs
+to mythology, and what to pure history. It follows, therefore, that
+mythology should be employed by the historian with great caution;
+and not without judicious criticism, and an accurate knowledge
+of antiquity.</p>
+
+<p>These correct views of mythology,&mdash;the key to the whole of
+earlier antiquity,&mdash;were first set forth and illustrated by Heyne,
+in his commentaries upon Virgil and other poets, in his edition
+of Apollodorus, and in various essays published in the Transactions
+of the Gottingen Scientific Society. It is principally to
+the aid of these that the Germans owe their superiority over
+other nations in the science of antiquity.</p></div>
+
+<div class="sidenote">poetry,</div>
+
+<p>6. The place of writing among such nations, is
+generally supplied, in a great measure, by poetry;
+which being in its origin nothing more than imagery
+expressed in figurative language, must spontaneously
+arise among men, as yet wont to represent
+every thing to their minds under the form of
+images. Hence the subject matter of the poetry
+of every nation, while in a state of rudeness, is
+and can be nothing else but its mythology; and
+the great variety in the materials of which this is
+composed very naturally gave rise, at the same
+early period, to various kinds of poetry; as the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_7" id="Page_7">[Pg 7]</a></span>
+lyric, the didactic, the epic. The last of these,
+inasmuch as it contains the historic songs and the
+epopee, claims in a more especial manner the attention
+of the historian.</p>
+
+<div class="sblockquot"><p>The mythi (or fables of which this mythology was composed)
+were in later times frequently collected from the works of the
+poets, and committed to writing by grammarians; such as Apollodorus
+and others. This, however, can have had no effect on
+their original character.</p></div>
+
+<div class="sidenote">written
+documents,</div>
+
+<p>7.  The second source of history, much more
+copious and important than the former, are the
+various kinds of written monuments. These may
+be arranged according to the order of time at
+which they were brought into use, into three
+classes; 1st. Inscriptions on public monuments,
+under which head are included the coins of later
+date; 2nd. Chronological records of events, under
+the form of annals and chronicles; 3rd. Real
+philosophical works on history.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">inscriptions,</div>
+
+<p>8.  Inscriptions on public monuments erected
+to preserve the remembrance of certain events,
+though perhaps no more than a stone set upright,
+or even a bare rock, was used for that purpose,
+were undoubtedly the most ancient written memorials.
+These rude monuments became fashioned
+by art into columns, obelisks, and pyramids,
+as the taste of the nation became formed; and assumed
+that definite character which local circumstances
+and the natural features of the country
+led it to adopt, as architecture arose and attained
+to perfection among them. The very object, indeed,
+for which they were erected&mdash;the commemoration
+of remarkable events,&mdash;must have suggested
+the practice of inscribing upon them some
+particulars of the facts they were intended to per<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_8" id="Page_8">[Pg 8]</a></span>petuate.
+Of this nature, no doubt, were the oldest
+monuments, and more particularly those of
+Egypt. Their use was much more general among
+nations of a later period, especially Greece and
+Rome, than among the moderns; yet of the great
+mass of inscriptions still extant, but few comparatively
+are of any importance as regards history.</p>
+
+<div class="sblockquot"><p>The characters engraved on these monuments were either symbolical
+(hieroglyphics; see below under Egypt,) or alphabetical.
+The invention and transmission of alphabetical writing are commonly
+ascribed to the Ph&#339;nicians; although, if we may judge
+by the shape of the arrow-headed character, it was made, without
+communication with them, in the interior of Asia.</p>
+
+<p>The general collections of inscriptions are:</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Lud. Ant. Muratori</span>, <i>Novus Thesaurus veterum Inscriptionum</i>.
+Mediolani, 1739, sq. 4 vols. fol. Together with <span class="smcap">Seb. Donati</span>,
+<i>Supplementa</i>. Lucc&aelig;, 1764. <span class="smcap">Jan. Gruteri</span>, <i>Inscriptiones
+antiqu&aelig; totius orbis Romani, cura</i> <span class="smcap">J. G. Gr&aelig;vii</span>. Amstel.
+1707, 2 vols. fol.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">C. A. Boekhius</span>, <i>Corpus Inscriptionum Gr&aelig;carum, auctoritate
+et impensis Academi&aelig; literarum Borussic&aelig;</i>, vol. 1. 1827,
+folio.</p>
+
+<p>Among the separate monuments, the most important for ancient
+history is the Parian or Oxford Inscription, <i>Marmora Oxoniensia,
+Arundeliana</i>, edited by <span class="smcap">Selden</span>, 1629; by <span class="smcap">Prideaux</span>, 1677.
+The best edition is by <span class="smcap">Rich. Chandler</span>, Oxf. 1763, fol. A
+useful and portable edition has been published by <span class="smcap">Fr. Ch.
+Wagner</span>, <i>containing the Greek text, with a German translation
+and notes</i>. Gottingen, 1790, 8vo.</p></div>
+
+<div class="sidenote">coins,</div>
+
+<p>9. Coins may likewise be regarded as a source
+of ancient history, as by the light they throw upon
+genealogy and chronology, the events known from
+other authorities may be better arranged and understood.
+The importance of coins, therefore,
+becomes most sensible in those portions of history
+where our information, in consequence of
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_9" id="Page_9">[Pg 9]</a></span>
+the loss of the works of the original historians, is
+reduced to a few insulated facts and fragments.</p>
+
+<div class="sblockquot"><p><span class="smcap">Ez. Spanhemii</span>, <i>Dissertatio de Usu et Pr&aelig;stantia Numismatum</i>.
+Londini, 1707 et 1709, 2 vols. fol. The capital work, however,
+on this subject, and which embraces the whole numismatic
+science of antiquity is:</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Eckhel</span>, <i>De Doctrina Nummorum Veterum</i>. Vienn&aelig;, 1792&mdash;1798,
+8 vols. 4to. And the epitome:</p>
+
+<p>&#8224; <span class="smcap">Eckhel</span>, <i>Brief Elements of Ancient Numismatics</i>. Vienna,
+1707, 8vo. Another very useful work is:</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">J. C. Rasche</span>, <i>Lexicon Univers&aelig; Rei Nummari&aelig; Veterum</i>.
+1785, sq. 5 vols. 8vo.</p></div>
+
+<div class="sidenote">annals,</div>
+
+<p>10. Chronicles or annals form the second great
+division of written historical monuments. These
+presuppose the invention of letters, and the use
+of materials for writing upon; consequently they
+are of a later date than mere inscriptions. They
+occur, nevertheless, in the earlier periods of nations;
+and from such annals, indited by public
+authority (state chronicles,) subsequent historians
+have generally drawn materials for their works.
+In many nations, and in nearly all the eastern
+ones, history has not even yet advanced beyond
+the composition of such chronicles.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">regular
+histories.</div>
+
+<p>11. The third great division of historical writings
+is formed of works composed on philosophical
+principles, which differ from mere annals by their
+containing not only a chronological narration of
+events, but also a development of their connection
+with one another, their causes and effects.</p>
+
+<div class="sblockquot"><p>But few nations among the moderns, and we know of none
+among the ancients, except the Greeks and Romans, that had
+any acquaintance with this sort of history. A fact which may
+be attributed,&mdash;1st. To the government; for the more completely
+the affairs of a nation are under the control of arbitrary
+power and caprice, whether of one or more individuals, so much the
+less apparent is a rational internal connection of events. Hence<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_10" id="Page_10">[Pg 10]</a></span>
+philosophical history flourishes most under free governments;
+and has not even a shadow of existence under pure despotic constitutions.
+2nd. To the degree of civilization to which the nation
+may have attained: for the observing and unravelling of the
+political connection of events presupposes a considerable progress
+in philosophical culture.</p></div>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Chronology
+and Geography.</div>
+
+<p>12. Since all events are considered in reference
+to the time and place in which they occur,
+it follows that geography and chronology
+are indispensable as auxiliary sciences in the
+study of history, especially the ancient. These
+sciences, however, need not, for this purpose, be
+considered in their full extent and detail, but
+only so far as they are of use in determining and
+arranging events according to time and place.
+A fixed mode of computing time is therefore necessary
+in ancient history, as well as a continuous
+geographical description of the countries which
+were the theatres of the principal events.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Eras.</div>
+
+<p>13. No method of computing time was adopted
+generally in antiquity. Each nation, each state,
+had its own era: yet, in the explication of ancient
+history, there is an evident necessity that
+some common era should be fixed upon, by which
+a synchronistic view of the various events may be
+obtained. For this purpose, the years may be
+computed either from the creation of the world,
+or before and after Christ. The latter method
+has the advantage not only of greater certainty,
+but also of greater convenience.</p>
+
+<div class="sblockquot"><p>Of the various modes of computing time, the best known are
+those of the Greeks and the Romans; the former by olympiads,
+the latter by years from the foundation of Rome. The era of
+the olympiads commences at B. C. 776; that of the foundation
+of Rome commences at B. C. 753, according to Varro; at B. C.
+752, according to Cato.&mdash;The era of the Seleucid&aelig;, in the Syrian<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_11" id="Page_11">[Pg 11]</a></span>
+empire, commences with B. C. 312.&mdash;Various other eras, such as
+that of Nabonnassar, commencing with B. C. 747, are founded
+on observations preserved by Ptolemy, and made known by <span class="smcap">Scaliger</span>,
+in his <i>Doctrina Temporum</i>.</p>
+
+<p>Chronology constitutes a distinct science: the best introduction
+to which will be found in:</p>
+
+<p>&#8224; <span class="smcap">J. C. Gatterer</span>, <i>Epitome of Chronology</i>. Gottingen, 1777.
+A most excellent criticism on the ancient eras has lately been
+communicated to the public by:</p>
+
+<p>&#8224; <span class="smcap">L. Ideler</span>, <i>Historic Researches into the Astronomical Observations
+of the Ancients</i>. Berlin, 1806.</p>
+
+<p>&#8224; <span class="smcap">D. H. Hegewisch</span>, <i>Introduction to Historical Chronology</i>;
+1811. A very useful and portable work.</p>
+
+<p>[In English we have the laborious work of Dr. Hales:</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Hales</span> (<span class="smcap">Willm.</span>) <i>New Analysis of Chronology, explaining
+the History and Antiquities of the primitive Nations of the World,
+etc.</i> Lond. 1809-12, 4 vols. 4to. New edition, corrected and improved,
+1830, 4 vols. 8vo.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Blair's</span> <i>Chronology and History of the World, from the Creation
+to the present Time</i>. Lond. 1803, folio.</p>
+
+<p>And for the brilliant period of Greece and Rome the satisfactory
+volumes:</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">H. F. Clynton's</span> <i>Fasti Hellenici. The civil and literary
+Chronology of Greece, from the fifty-fifth to the hundred and
+twenty-fourth Olympiad</i>. Second edition, with additions. Oxford,
+1827, 4to. And the continuation of the same work to the
+death of Augustus, Oxford, 1830, 4to. In this valuable work,
+much light is also thrown upon the chronology of the times anterior
+to the period with which the first volume is principally
+occupied.]</p></div>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Geography,
+mythological
+and
+true.</div>
+
+<p>14. In ancient geography there is much care
+required to distinguish the fabulous from the
+true. With regard to true geography, as an
+auxiliary science to history, all that can be expected
+is some general information respecting the
+nature and peculiarities of the countries, respecting
+their political divisions, and finally, respecting
+the principal cities:&mdash;Long lists of the names
+of places would be quite superfluous.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_12" id="Page_12">[Pg 12]</a></span></p>
+<div class="sblockquot"><p>Fabulous geography constitutes a part of the mythology of
+every nation, and differs in each, because the ideas formed by
+every early nation respecting the form and nature of the earth
+are peculiar to itself. True geography gradually comes to light
+as civilization increases, and discovery widens its horizon.&mdash;Necessity
+of treating it historically, on account of the manifold
+changes to which the division and the face of the countries of the
+ancient world have been at various periods subjected.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Christoph. Cellarii</span> <i>Notitia Orbis Antiqui</i>. Lips. 1701&mdash;1706,
+2 vols. 4to. <i>cum observat.</i> <span class="smcap">J. C. Schwarzii</span>. Lips. 1771, et
+iterum 1773. This work was for a long time the only, and is
+still an indispensable, treatise on ancient geography.</p>
+
+<p>&#8224; <span class="smcap">H. Mannert</span>, <i>Geography of the Greeks and Romans</i>. Nuremberg,
+1788&mdash;1802. This work, now completed in 15 volumes,
+may be justly designated classical, from the historical and critical
+learning which the author has everywhere displayed. Vol. I,
+contains Spain; II, Gallia et Britain; III, Germania, Rh&aelig;tia,
+Noricum; IV, The Northern parts of the World, from the Wessel
+to China; V, India and the Persian Empire to the Euphrates,
+2 parts; VI, Asia Minor, 3 parts; VII, Thrace, Illyria, Macedonia,
+Thessaly, Epirus; VIII, Northern Greece, Peloponnesus,
+and the Archipelago; IX, Italy and Sicily, Sardinia, etc. 2 parts;
+X, Africa, 2 parts.</p>
+
+<p>&#8224; <span class="smcap">F. A. Ukert</span>, <i>Geography of the Greeks and Romans, from
+the earliest periods to the time of Ptolemy</i>: first part, first division,
+contains the historical, the second contains the mathematical
+sections. Weimar, 1816; with maps.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Gosselin</span>, <i>G&eacute;ographie des Grecs analys&eacute;e</i>. Paris, 1790, 4to.
+A development of the system of mathematical geography among
+the Greeks. Partly continued in</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Gosselin</span>, <i>Recherches sur la G&eacute;ographie des Anciens</i>. Paris,
+an. vi. vol. 1&mdash;4.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">J. Rennel</span>, <i>Geographical System of Herodotus</i>. Lond. 1800,
+4to.</p>
+
+<p>[Reprinted in 2 vols. 8vo. Lond. 1830, revised. Here, too,
+for the benefit of the English reader may be mentioned:</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Rennel's</span> <i>Treatise on the Comparative Geography of Western
+Asia, with an atlas</i>. London, 1831, 2 vols. 8vo.; published since
+the author's death. And the learned and valuable volumes of
+Dr. <span class="smcap">Cramer</span>, principal of New Inn Hall, and public orator of
+the University of Oxford; they are,</p>
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_13" id="Page_13">[Pg 13]</a></span></p>
+<p><i>Geographical and Historical Description of Ancient Greece,
+with a map, and plan of Athens.</i> Oxford, 1826, 3 vols. 8vo.</p>
+
+<p><i>Geographical and Historical Description of Ancient Italy,
+with a map.</i> Oxford, 1826, 2 vols. 8vo.</p>
+
+<p><i>Geographical and Historical Description of Asia Minor, with
+a map.</i> Oxford, 1832, 2 vols. 8vo.</p>
+
+<p>The maps which accompany these works approach very nearly
+to perfection.</p>
+
+<p>As useful compendiums, there are:</p>
+
+<p><i>An Introduction to Ancient Geography, with copious indexes
+of Ancient and Modern Names</i>, by <span class="smcap">Peter Ed. Laurent</span>,
+teacher in the Royal Naval Academy at Portsmouth. Oxford,
+1813, 8vo.</p>
+
+<p><i>A Compendium of Ancient and Modern Geography, for the
+use of Eton School; illustrating the most interesting points in
+History, Poetry, and Fable; preceded by an Introduction to the
+study of Astronomy, and containing plans of Athens, Rome, Syracuse,
+and numerous diagrams explanatory of the motions of the
+heavenly bodies</i>, by <span class="smcap">Aaron Arrowsmith</span>, Hydrographer to the
+King, 1 vol. 8vo., with or without a copious index. London,
+1830.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Butler's</span> (Dr. <span class="smcap">Sam.</span>) <i>Sketch of Ancient and Modern Geography</i>.
+Seventh edition, 8vo. Also his <i>Atlas of Ancient Geography</i>,
+consisting of twenty-one coloured maps, with a complete
+accentuated index. 8vo.]</p>
+
+<p>We are indebted to d'Anville for the best charts of ancient
+geography: <i>Atlas Orbis antiqui</i>, twelve leaves, fol.</p>
+
+<p>[The Eton Comparative Atlas of Ancient and Modern Geography,
+with the index, published in several sizes; and the Maps
+published by the Society for the Promotion of Useful Knowledge,
+are very useful and correct.]</p></div>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Divisions
+of this
+Manual.</div>
+
+<p>15. Ancient history may be treated either ethnographically,
+that is, according to separate nations
+and states; or synchronistically, that is,
+according to certain general epochs. Each of
+these methods has its advantages and its disadvantages.
+The two, however, may be combined,
+and formed into one system; and as this seems
+the most convenient, it has been adopted in the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_14" id="Page_14">[Pg 14]</a></span>
+present work, which is accordingly divided as
+follows:</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">First Book.</span>&mdash;History of the ancient Asiatic
+and African states and kingdoms anterior to Cyrus,
+or to the rise of the Persian monarchy, about the
+year B. C. 560: comprising little more than insulated
+fragments.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Second Book.</span>&mdash;History of the Persian monarchy,
+from B. C. 560 to 330.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Third Book.</span>&mdash;History of the Grecian states,
+both in Greece and other parts, to the time of
+Alexander, B. C. 336.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Fourth Book.</span>&mdash;History of the Macedonian
+monarchy, and of the kingdoms which arose out
+of its division, until they merged into the Roman
+empire.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Fifth Book.</span>&mdash;History of the Roman state,
+both as a commonwealth and a monarchy, until
+the fall of the western empire, A. D. 476.</p>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 100%;" />
+<h1>MANUAL OF ANCIENT HISTORY.</h1>
+
+
+<hr style="width: 25%;" />
+<h1><a name="FIRST_BOOK" id="FIRST_BOOK"></a>THE FIRST BOOK.</h1>
+
+<p class="iblockquot2">HISTORICAL FRAGMENTS OF THE EARLIER ASIATIC AND
+AFRICAN KINGDOMS AND STATES, PREVIOUS TO CYRUS,
+OR THE RISE OF THE PERSIAN MONARCHY.</p>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 100%;" />
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_15" id="Page_15">[Pg 15]</a></span></p>
+<h2>I.&mdash;ASIATIC NATIONS.</h2>
+
+
+<h3><i>General Preliminary Remarks on the Geography of Asia.</i></h3>
+
+<div class="sblockquot"><p>See the Introduction to Heeren's Researches into the Politics
+and Commerce of the Nations of Antiquity, prefixed to vol. 1 of
+the African Nations. Oxford, 1831.</p></div>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Extent and
+situation.</div>
+
+<p>1. Asia is the largest and the most favourably
+situated of the great divisions of the
+globe. Its superficial contents are 11,200,000
+square geogr. miles; while those of Africa do not
+exceed 4,780,000; and those of Europe are
+not more than 2,560,000. As to situation, it
+comprises the greatest portion of the northern
+temperate zone.</p>
+
+<div class="sblockquot"><p>Compare it, in this point of view, with the other quarters of
+the globe, especially Africa.&mdash;Advantages over the latter, in con<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_16" id="Page_16">[Pg 16]</a></span>sequence
+of the convenience of its indented shores&mdash;of its surrounding
+fruitful islands&mdash;of its deep gulfs and large streams&mdash;the
+few sandy deserts in its interior.</p></div>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Natural
+features.</div>
+
+<p>2. Natural features, and consequent division of
+the land, according to the course of the larger
+mountain chains and of the principal rivers.</p>
+
+<div class="sblockquot"><p>Two great mountain chains run from west to east; in the
+north, the Altai, (nameless in antiquity): in the south, Taurus.&mdash;Branches
+of both: the Caucasus, between the Black and Caspian
+seas: Imaus extending along the golden desert (desert of
+Cobi): the Paropamisus, on the north of India: the Ural (nameless
+in antiquity).&mdash;Of the rivers remarkable in ancient history,
+there are four flowing from north to south, namely, the Euphrates
+and Tigris, which fall into the Persian gulf; the Indus and
+Ganges, which fall into the Indian sea: two which run from east
+to west, and discharged their waters into the Caspian sea, (but
+now into the sea of Aral,) namely, the Oxus (or Jihon) and the
+Jaxartes (or Sirr).</p></div>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Divisions:</div>
+
+<p>3. This quarter of the globe is accordingly
+divided into Northern Asia, comprising the regions
+north of Altai; Central Asia, or the countries
+between the Altai and Taurus; and Southern
+Asia, or the lands south of Taurus.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Northern
+Asia.</div>
+
+<p>4. Northern Asia, between the 76th and 50th
+parallels of north latitude, (Asiatic Russia and
+Siberia,) was almost, though not entirely, unknown
+in antiquity.&mdash;Some obscure hints, though
+partly true, respecting it, are found in Herodotus,
+the father of history.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Central
+Asia.</div>
+
+<p>5. Central Asia, the regions extending between
+the 50th and 40th degrees of north latitude,
+Scythia and Sarmatia Asiatica, (Great Tartary
+and Mongol;) for the most part a boundless,
+barren table land, devoid of arable fields or
+forests; and consequently a mere country of<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_17" id="Page_17">[Pg 17]</a></span>
+pasture.&mdash;The inhabitants pastors, (nomads,) without
+cities or fixed abodes; recognizing no other
+political association than patriarchal government.</p>
+
+<div class="sblockquot"><p>Peculiar mode of life and character of nomad nations; powerful
+influence which they have exercised, as conquerors, on political
+history.&mdash;Whether we have a right to expect that the
+civilization of the human race will for ever continue to advance,
+when we consider that perhaps one half of it has from time immemorial
+remained, and from its physical situation must for ever
+remain, in a nomad state.</p></div>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Southern
+Asia.</div>
+
+<p>6. Southern Asia, or the regions from the 40th
+degree of N. lat. to about the equator.&mdash;Its natural
+features altogether different from those of central
+Asia. The great advantages of these regions
+compared with all other parts of the earth, in possessing
+a soil and climate highly favourable for
+agriculture; and an abundance of various costly
+productions. To these circumstances may be attributed,
+1st. The adoption of fixed habitations
+and political associations in these countries, from
+the earliest times. 2ndly. Their becoming the
+principal seat of trade, from the infancy of civilization
+to the discovery of America.</p>
+
+<div class="sblockquot"><p>Reflections upon the rise of political associations.&mdash;Whether,
+according to the general opinion, they were produced solely by
+agriculture and the possession of land; or, whether religion, by
+which I mean the common worship of one divinity as the national
+god, (communia sacra,) was not the main bond which united the
+earliest states of antiquity?&mdash;How shall we account for the very
+remarkable fact, that in the earliest civil societies in the world,
+the priesthood is generally found to be a ruling caste.&mdash;Reflections
+on early trade, particularly that of the east, before it was
+changed, by the discovery of America and the new passage to
+India, from a land trade to a sea trade.&mdash;Observations upon ancient
+commercial routes across Asia.&mdash;The banks of the large
+rivers destined by nature to become the seats of commerce for the
+interior; on the Oxus, Bactra and Maracanda, (Samarcand;) on<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_18" id="Page_18">[Pg 18]</a></span>
+the Euphrates and Tigris, Babylon.&mdash;The sea shores on the
+western coast of Asia Minor and Ph&#339;nicia, pointed out also by
+nature as places of commerce;&mdash;line of Grecian and Ph&#339;nician
+factories.</p></div>
+
+<p>7. Division of southern Asia. 1st. South-western
+Asia, from the Mediterranean to the Indus;
+2nd. South-eastern Asia, from the Indus to
+the eastern ocean.</p>
+
+<p>A. South-western Asia is again subdivided into
+the countries&mdash;1st. on this side the Euphrates&mdash;2ndly.
+between the Euphrates and Tigris&mdash;3rdly.
+between the Tigris and the Indus.</p>
+
+<p>1. <i>Countries on this side the Euphrates.</i></p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Asia Minor.</div>
+
+<p>(<i>a</i>) The peninsula of Asia Minor (Natolia).
+Principal rivers: the Halys and Sangarius. Countries:
+three towards the west, Mysia, Lydia,
+Caria. Along the shore, the Greek seaports of
+Phoc&aelig;a, Ephesus, Miletus, Smyrna, Halicarnassus,
+etc. Inland, the cities of Sardes in Lydia,
+of Pergamus in Mysia.</p>
+
+<p>Three towards the south, Lycia, Pamphylia,
+and Cilicia, with its capital Tarsus.</p>
+
+<p>Three towards the north, Bithynia, Paphlagonia,
+Pontus; with the Greek ports of Heraclea,
+Amisus, and Sinope. Two inland, Phrygia, together
+with Galatia and the capital cities of Gordium
+and Cel&aelig;n&aelig;; Cappadocia, with the city of
+Mazaca.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Islands.</div>
+
+<p>(<i>b</i>) Islands along the coast of Asia Minor: Lesbos,
+with the city of Mitylene; Chios, Samos,
+Cos, Rhodes, with cities of the same name.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Syria.<br />
+Ph&#339;nicia.<br />
+Palestine.</div>
+
+<p>(<i>c</i>) Syria, together with Ph&#339;nicia and Palestine. 1st. Syria, properly so called. Cities: Damascus,
+Emessa, Heliopolis, (Baalbec). In the desert, Palmyra. 2nd. Ph&#339;nicia, a mountainous
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_19" id="Page_19">[Pg 19]</a></span>
+tract, extending along the shore. Mountains: Libanus and Antilibanus. Cities: Tyre, on an
+island opposite the ancient Tyre, which was situate upon the mainland; Sidon, Byblus, Berytus,
+Tripolis, Aradus.
+3rd. Palestine. Mountains: Carmel, Tabor. River: Jordan, which discharges
+its waters into the Dead sea. Division of Palestine; first, according to
+the twelve tribes; afterwards into the provinces, of Jud&aelig;a, capital
+Jerusalem: of Samaria; cities, Samaria, Sichem: and of Galilee.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Arabia.</div>
+
+<p>(<i>d</i>) Peninsula of Arabia, abounding in vast sandy
+deserts, and almost entirely occupied by nomad
+tribes. Its southern and eastern coasts render it,
+nevertheless, a most important seat of trade. In
+the north, Arabia Petr&aelig;a, so called from the town
+of Petra. Inland, Arabia Deserta. In the south,
+Arabia Felix; rich, both in natural productions,
+being the native land of almost every kind of perfume,
+particularly frankincense; and also as being
+the ancient staple for the merchandise of India.
+Cities: Mariaba, Aden, etc. In the east,
+the trading town of Gerra, and the islands near
+the shore, Tylos and Aradus, (Bahrein,) both likewise
+marts for Arabian and Indian wares, particularly
+cinnamon from Taprobane (Ceylon).</p>
+
+<p>2. <i>Countries between the Euphrates and Tigris.</i></p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Mesopotamia.</div>
+
+<p>(<i>a</i>) Mesopotamia; in the interior a sterile table
+land, entirely occupied by nomad hordes. Cities
+on the Euphrates: Thapsacus, Circesium, Cunaxa;
+in the north, Zoba or Nisibis.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Armenia.</div>
+
+<p>(<i>b</i>) Armenia, north of the foregoing. Very
+mountainous; for a long time without cities, but
+at last it had Tigranocerta. Rivers: the Cyrus<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_20" id="Page_20">[Pg 20]</a></span>
+and Araxes, falling into the Caspian; and the
+Phasis, falling into the Black sea.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Babylonia.</div>
+
+<p>(<i>c</i>) Babylonia, the southern part of Mesopotamia,
+from which it was separated by the Median
+wall. A level plain, remarkable for the richness
+of its soil; formerly, by its high cultivation, its
+canals and lakes, and the erection of dams, the
+most fruitful, and, from its situation, the most
+opulent staple of inner Asia. Cities: Babylon
+on the Euphrates, Borsippa.</p>
+
+<div class="sblockquot"><p>Whether the account given by Herodotus, as an eyewitness, of
+the size and splendour of Babylon is not exaggerated?&mdash;Manner
+in which the great Asiatic cities arose out of the royal encampments
+of the nomad conquerors.</p></div>
+
+<p>3. <i>Countries between the Tigris and the Indus.</i></p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Assyria.</div>
+
+<p>(<i>a</i>) Assyria, or the province of Adiabene; a table
+land. Cities: Nineveh, (Ninus,) Arbela.</p>
+
+<div class="sblockquot"><p>The name of Assyria is also frequently taken by the Greeks
+in a wider acceptation, as comprising both Mesopotamia and Babylonia;
+it is sometimes even confounded with Syria.</p></div>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Susiana.</div>
+
+<p>(<i>b</i>) Susiana, a fruitful district, with the city
+Susa on the river Choaspes, or Eul&aelig;us (Ulai),
+one of the residences of the Persian monarchs.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Persia.</div>
+
+<p>(<i>c</i>) Persis, rugged and mountainous towards
+the north; level and fruitful in the centre; sandy
+towards the south. Rivers: the Cyrus and
+Araxes. Cities: Persepolis or Pasargada, the
+national palace and cemetery of the kings of
+Persia.</p>
+
+<div class="sblockquot"><p>The name of Persis was, in ancient as well as in modern geography,
+taken in a more extensive sense, as comprising all the
+countries between the Tigris and Indus, with the exception of
+Assyria. In this sense, it contains three countries towards the
+south&mdash;Persis, properly so called; Carmania, Gedrosia: three<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_21" id="Page_21">[Pg 21]</a></span>
+central countries&mdash;Media, Aria, Arachosia: and three countries
+towards the north&mdash;Parthia and Hyrcania, Bactria, Sogdiana.</p></div>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Carmania.</div>
+
+<p>(<i>d</i>) Carmania, an extensive country, for the
+most part desert, ranging along the Persian gulf
+and Indian sea. Cities: Carmana, Harmozia.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Gedrosia.</div>
+
+<p>(<i>e</i>) Gedrosia, tract of land running along the
+coast between Carmania and India, and washed
+by the Indian sea. A mere sandy desert; towards
+the north, mountainous. Town, Pura.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Media.</div>
+
+<p>(<i>f</i>) Media, above Persis; an extensive and very
+fruitful country; mountainous towards the north.
+Rivers: Araxes, Cyrus, and Mardus. Cities:
+Ecbatana, Rages. The northern district was
+likewise known by the name of Atropatene (Azerbeijan),
+or Lesser Media.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Aria.</div>
+
+<p>(<i>g</i>) Aria, a smooth table land, with a lake and
+river, Arius: and one city, Aria or Artacoana.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Arachosia.</div>
+
+<p>(<i>h</i>) Arachosia; a rich and fertile country on the
+frontiers of India; bounded towards the north by
+the Paropamisus chain. Cities: Arachotus and
+Prophthasia. The neighbouring highlands, occupied
+by a numerous population, (now Cabul and
+Kandahar,) are often regarded, in consequence of
+their being subject to the Persian dominion, as
+forming part of Persia. They are known by the
+name of Paropamisus.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Parthia.</div>
+
+<p>(<i>i</i>) Parthia and Hyrcania, rugged mountainous
+districts to the north of Media; but abounding in
+magnificent and fertile vales. Before and during
+the predominance of Persia, but little known and
+little valued; and without cities. It was at a
+considerably later period that the inhabitants of
+Parthia became a dominant nation.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Bactria.</div>
+
+<p>(<i>k</i>) Bactria, the country on the south bank of
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_22" id="Page_22">[Pg 22]</a></span>
+the Oxus; rich in natural productions, and one of
+the most ancient marts of Asia. River: Oxus.
+Cities: Bactra and Zariaspa.</p>
+
+<div class="sblockquot"><p>Bactria lies on the frontier of India, Little Thibet, Bukharia,
+(the north India of Herodotus and Ctesias,) and the desert of
+Cobi, (Herodotus's golden desert): the road to China runs
+through this country. Nature, by the geographical situation in
+which she has placed Bactria, seems to have destined it to be the
+great emporium for the wares of south-eastern Asia; and in proportion
+as we penetrate into early history, we become convinced
+that Bactria, like Babylon, must have been one of the earliest
+seats of international commerce, and consequently, if not the
+birthplace, one of the cradles of infant civilization.</p></div>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Sogdiana.</div>
+
+<p>(<i>l</i>) Sogdiana, the territory between the upper
+Oxus and upper Jaxartes, the latter dividing it
+from central Asia. (A part of Great Bukharia.)
+Its peculiarities and advantages similar to those
+of the neighbouring Bactria. Capital: Maracanda
+(Samarcand).</p>
+
+<p>B. South-eastern Asia, or Asia beyond the
+Indus, offers nothing remarkable for history till a
+later period. See Book v, Period iv.</p>
+
+
+
+<hr style='width: 25%;' />
+
+<h3><i>General Preliminary Observations upon the History and
+Constitution of the great Asiatic Empires.</i></h3>
+
+
+<div class="sidenote">Magnitude
+of the empires
+in
+Asia.</div>
+
+<p>1. Asia contained in ancient times, as it does
+at present, empires of immense extent, differing
+materially both in this respect and in their constitution
+from the civilized nations of Europe.
+Changes were frequent; but the form of government
+continued nearly always the same. Some
+deeply rooted and active principles therefore must<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_23" id="Page_23">[Pg 23]</a></span>
+have been in constant operation, to have given so
+repeatedly, in these various revolutions, the same
+organization to the kingdoms of Asia.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Nature of
+their revolutions.</div>
+
+<p>2. The great revolutions of Asia, with the exception
+of that caused by Alexander, were effected
+by the numerous and powerful nomad races
+which inhabited a large portion of that continent.
+Pressed by necessity or circumstances, they forsook
+their own seats, founded new kingdoms, and
+carried war and conquest into the fruitful and cultivated
+lands of southern Asia, until, enervated
+by luxury, the consequence of the change in their
+mode of life, they were in their turn, and in a
+similar manner, subjugated.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Their short
+existence.</div>
+
+<p>3. This origin, common to all Asiatic kingdoms,
+accounts for their immense extent, their rapid
+establishment, and their generally brief duration.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Similarity
+in their
+constitutions.</div>
+
+<p>4. The internal organization must, for the same
+reasons, have been nearly alike in all; and the
+constant reappearance of despotism is accounted
+for, partly by the rights of conquest, partly by
+the vast extent of the subdued countries, which
+obliged the rulers to have recourse to satrap-government.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Effects of
+polygamy.</div>
+
+<p>5. To this, it must moreover be added, that
+among all the considerable nations of inner Asia,
+the paternal government of every household was
+corrupted by polygamy: where that custom exists,
+a good political constitution is impossible;
+fathers being converted into domestic despots,
+are ready to pay the same abject obedience to
+their sovereign that they exact from their family
+and dependants in their domestic economy.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_24" id="Page_24">[Pg 24]</a></span></p>
+
+<div class="sblockquot"><p>To avoid confusion, it will be necessary to define the terms
+despotism and despotic government. In theory, we must admit
+<small>THREE</small> essentially different kinds of government. 1st. The <i>despotic</i>,
+in which the members of the state are not secured in the
+possession of their rights as men, (personal freedom and security
+of property,) nor of their rights as citizens, (active participation
+in the legislative power). Such a constitution exists only by
+force, and can never be lawful. 2nd. The <i>autocratic</i>, in which
+the members of the state are in full possession of their rights as
+men, but not of their rights as citizens. This government, therefore,
+arises from the union of the legislative and executive powers
+in the person of the ruler. In form, it is either monarchical or
+aristocratical (a pure monarchy, or a pure aristocracy). This kind
+of government is most likely to be established by usurpation; it
+may, nevertheless, be acquired by succession, or even adopted by
+common consent: it may therefore be lawful. 3rd. The <i>republican</i>,
+in which the members of the state are in possession of their
+rights, both as men and as citizens. This government necessarily
+presupposes a separation of the legislative and executive powers;
+and with regard to its form, may be either monarchical or aristocratical,
+(a moderate monarchy, or a moderate aristocracy).&mdash;How
+far can a pure democracy be called a government, and comprised
+under any of the foregoing heads?&mdash;Explanation of the
+despotism in the Asiatic kingdoms, and the attempts made to
+limit it by religion and religious institutions.</p></div>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Rise, progress,
+and
+fall of nomad
+empires.</div>
+
+<p>6. General features in the gradual internal development
+of all empires formed by nomad conquerors.
+(<i>a</i>) At first the mere occupation of rich
+territories, and levying of tribute. (<i>b</i>) Hence the
+constitutions already established among the conquered
+or tributary nations generally suffered to
+remain. (<i>c</i>) Gradual progress towards the adoption
+of a fixed abode and the building of cities, together
+with the assumption of the customs and
+civilization of the conquered. (<i>d</i>) Division into
+provinces, and, as a necessary consequence, the
+establishment of satrap-government. (<i>e</i>) Insurrections
+of the satraps, and the internal ruin of
+the state prepared thereby. (<i>f</i>) The influence<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_25" id="Page_25">[Pg 25]</a></span>
+of the seraglio on the government has the same
+effect, for its unavoidable consequences are&mdash;effeminacy
+and indolence in the rulers. (<i>g</i>) Hence
+the dissolution of the empire, or its total annihilation
+by some violent attack from without.</p>
+
+
+<hr style='width: 25%;' />
+<h3><i>Fragments of the History of the ancient Asiatic Kingdoms
+previous to Cyrus.</i></h3>
+
+<div class="sblockquot"><p>Sources, and their critical examination: 1. Jewish writings,
+particularly the books of Kings, Chroniclers, and the Prophets;
+together with the Mosaic records. 2. Greek writers, Herodotus,
+Ctesias, and Diodorus: later chroniclers, Syncellus, Eusebius,
+Ptolemy. 3. Native writer, Berosus. Futility of all endeavours
+to arrange into one work the accounts of authors so entirely different
+by birth and the times in which they flourished: a task
+attempted by the French writers, <span class="smcap">Sevin</span>, <span class="smcap">Freret</span>, and <span class="smcap">Debrosse</span>,
+in their papers contained in the M&eacute;m. de l'Acad. des
+Inscript.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Volney</span>, <i>Recherches nouvelles sur l'Histoire ancienne</i>. 1808&mdash;1814:
+very important and authentic, so far as regards the
+system of Herodotus's chronology.</p></div>
+
+
+<p><b>I. <i>Assyrian monarchy.</i></b></p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Assyrians
+of the
+Greeks different
+from
+those of the
+Hebrews.</div>
+
+<p>1. With the Greeks, Assyrian is generally a
+common name applied to the ruling nations about
+the Euphrates and Tigris before the time of Cyrus.
+With the Jews, on the contrary, it signifies
+a distinct nation of conquerors, and the founders
+of an empire. Hence a necessary discrepancy
+between the Grecian and Hebrew statements.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Grecian
+account.</div>
+
+<p>2. Assyrian history, according to Grecian authorities,
+particularly Ctesias and Diodorus, is nothing
+more than mere traditions of ancient heroes
+and heroines, who at some early period founded
+a large kingdom in the countries about the Eu<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_26" id="Page_26">[Pg 26]</a></span>phrates
+and Tigris; traditions without any chronological
+data, and in the style of the east. Ninus&mdash;Semiramis&mdash;Ninyas&mdash;Sardanapalus.</p>
+
+<div class="sblockquot"><p>According to Herodotus, an Assyrian empire of 520 years'
+duration, 1237&mdash;717. Lists of Assyrian kings in the chronicles
+of Syncellus and Eusebius.</p></div>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Jewish account.</div>
+
+<p>3. Assyrian history, according to Jewish authorities.
+Chronological history of an Assyrian empire
+between B. C. 800 and 700.&mdash;Seat of the
+nation in Assyria, properly so called.&mdash;Capital:
+Nineveh on the Tigris.&mdash;Extension of their dominion
+as far as Syria and Ph&#339;nicia.</p>
+
+<div class="sblockquot"><p>Line of Assyrian kings: 1. Pul, about 773. Invasion of Syria.
+2. Tiglath-Pileser, about 740. He overthrows the kingdom
+of Damascus. 3. Shalmaneser, about 720. He destroys the kingdom
+of Samaria. Transplantation of the inhabitants into inner
+Asia. 4. Sennacherib, about 714. Mighty expedition against
+Egypt, frustrated by a pestilence. 5. Esarhaddon.</p>
+
+<p><i>Contemporary</i>: Jews, the divided kingdoms of Israel and
+Judah.&mdash;Greeks, decennial archons at Athens.&mdash;Romans, rise
+of the state and the two first kings.</p></div>
+
+
+<p><b>II. <i>Median monarchy.</i></b></p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Different
+acceptations
+of the
+word
+Medes.</div>
+
+<p>1. The name of Medes is undoubtedly often
+used by the Greeks to designate one nation; it is,
+however, frequently made use of as a common
+appellation of the ruling nations in eastern Asia,
+from the Tigris to the Indus, (or Persia, in the
+more extensive sense of that word,) before Cyrus.&mdash;With
+the Jews: nothing more than general
+hints of the Medes as a conquering nation.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Great nations
+known
+to have existed
+east of
+the Tigris.</div>
+
+<p>2. Although the statements of the Grecian
+writers, as well as of the Zendavesta, sufficiently
+prove that long before the rise of the Persian
+power mighty kingdoms existed in these regions;
+and particularly in the eastern part, or Bactria;<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_27" id="Page_27">[Pg 27]</a></span>
+yet we have no consistent or chronological history
+of these states: nothing but a few fragments,
+probably of dynasties which ruled in Media, properly
+so called, immediately previous to the Persians.</p>
+
+<div class="sblockquot"><p><i>a. Herodotus's History of the Medes.</i> Herodotus's Medes are
+unquestionably the inhabitants of Media, properly so called.
+Division into six tribes: among these, that of the Magi.&mdash;Ruling
+nation after the overthrow of the Assyrians.&mdash;Capital of their
+empire, Ecbatana.&mdash;Boundaries: west, the Tigris and Halys;
+east, unknown.&mdash;Internal organization: graduated subjection of
+the various nations to one another, according to their distance
+from the seat of empire; rigid despotism; and imposition of tribute.
+Line of kings between B. C. 717&mdash;560. Deioces, 53 <i>y.</i>
+the founder of Ecbatana, <i>d.</i> 657.&mdash;Phraortes, 22 <i>y.</i> down to 635.
+He conquers Persia. Cyaxares I. 40 <i>y.</i> down to 595. He establishes
+military discipline among the Medes. Wages war with
+the Lydians, the Assyrians.&mdash;Irruption of the Scythians and
+Cimmerians, 625.&mdash;He takes Nineveh, 597. Astyages, 38 <i>y.</i>
+down to 560, when he was dethroned by Cyrus. According to
+Xenophon, Astyages was followed by another Median prince,
+Cyaxares II. <i>b. Ctesias's History of the Medes</i>, deduced from
+Persian archives, and contained in Diodorus. Probably a different
+dynasty in eastern Asia. Line of kings, between B. C. 800
+and 560. Arbaces, conqueror of the Assyrians, 18 <i>y.</i> Mandaucus,
+50 <i>y.</i> Sosarmes, 30 <i>y.</i> Artias, 50 <i>y.</i> Arbanes, 22 <i>y.</i>
+Art&aelig;us, 40 <i>y.</i> and Artynes, 22 <i>y.</i> Sanguinary wars with the
+nomad races of the east, the Sac&aelig;, and Cadusii. Artibarnas, 14 <i>y.</i>
+Astyages, the last king.</p>
+
+<p><i>Contemporary</i>: Jews, kingdom of Judah alone.&mdash;Greeks,
+yearly archons, Draco, Solon.&mdash;Romans, kings from Tullus Hostilius
+to Servius Tullius.</p></div>
+
+
+<p><b>III. <i>Babylonian monarchy.</i></b></p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Babylonians.</div>
+
+<p>Periods: 1st. Previous to the Chald&aelig;an conquest,
+which occurred about 630. 2nd. From the
+Chald&aelig;an conquest to the Persian, 630&mdash;538.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">1st period,
+to B. C. 630.<br />
+fragments.</div>
+
+<p>1. Babylon was not only spoken of in the most
+remote antiquity, but is mentioned in the Jewish<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_28" id="Page_28">[Pg 28]</a></span>
+traditions as the earliest scene of political treaties,
+and as the most ancient seat of intercourse
+for the nations of Asia. Traditions concerning
+Nimrod&mdash;and the erection of the tower of Babel.&mdash;Comparison
+of those traditions with the Babylonian
+mythology in Berosus.&mdash;Scanty historical
+notices of this period in the later Jewish writers;
+and probable subjection of Babylon to the Assyrian
+empire.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">2nd period, to 538.<br />
+
+Chald&aelig;ans.</div>
+
+<p>2. In the second period, 630&mdash;538, the Babylonians
+were the ruling nation of western Asia.&mdash;The
+Chald&aelig;ans take possession of Babylon,
+there establish themselves, and ultimately extend
+their empire, by conquest, to the Mediterranean.</p>
+
+<div class="sblockquot"><p>Origin of the Chald&aelig;ans: whether that name was applied to
+a distinct nation, or to the northern nomads in general?&mdash;Line of
+Chald&aelig;an kings. In the enumeration of these rulers, as given
+by Ptolemy, this line begins with Nabonassar, and the era bearing
+the name of that sovereign, which commences in the year
+B. C. 747: (probably because, under the reign of that prince, the
+adoption of the Egyptian solar year first introduced among the
+Chald&aelig;ans an exact method of reckoning time). Neither Nabonassar
+himself, nor his twelve immediate successors, are remarkable
+in history: the six last alone deserve notice. 1. Nabopolassar,
+627&mdash;604. Settlement in Babylon; and complete establishment
+of the Chald&aelig;o-Babylonian dominion, by his victory
+over Pharaoh-Nechoh, near Circesium, in 604. 2. Nebuchadnezzar,
+604&mdash;561. Brilliant period of the Chald&aelig;o-Babylonian
+empire. He conquers Ph&#339;nicia and Old Tyre about 586: Jerusalem
+in 587; probable irruptions into Egypt. Construction
+of immense buildings and canals in and about Babylon. Rapid
+decline of the empire after his death, under&mdash;3. Evil-Merodach,
+561&mdash;559. 4. Neriglissar, (probably the contemporary of Herodotus's
+Nitocris;)&mdash;555. Labosoarchad murdered, after a few
+months' reign. Nabonadius, (Herodotus's Labynetus; and probably
+the Chald&aelig;an Belshazzar;) 555&mdash;538. attacked and conquered
+by Cyrus. Sack of Babylon by the Persians, 538.</p>
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_29" id="Page_29">[Pg 29]</a></span></p>
+<p>See the section concerning the Babylonians in <span class="smcap">A. H. L. Heeren's</span>
+<i>Historical Researches</i>, vol. i, part. 2.</p>
+
+<p><i>Contemporary</i>: Jews, last sovereigns of the kingdom of
+Judah.&mdash;Greeks, Solon, Pisistratus.&mdash;Romans, Tarquinius Priscus
+and Servius Tullius.</p></div>
+
+
+<p><b>IV. <i>States and kingdoms in Asia Minor.</i></b></p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">No lasting
+empire
+formed in
+Asia Minor.</div>
+
+<p>The number and variety of the inhabitants of
+this peninsula, was probably the reason why they
+never became united into one empire. The most
+important nations among them, were the Carians
+in the west; the Phrygians in the centre, reaching
+as far as the Halys; the Syro-Cappadocians
+beyond the Halys; and the Thracians in Bithynia.
+Nevertheless we find here but three kingdoms
+deserving notice&mdash;the Trojan, the Phrygian, and
+the Lydian.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Troy.</div>
+
+<p><b>1. The Trojan empire</b> comprised western Mysia:
+its history consists of mere traditions contained
+in poets, with very uncertain chronological
+data.</p>
+
+<div class="sblockquot"><p>Kings: Teucer, about 1400.&mdash;Dardanus&mdash;Erichthonius&mdash;Tros
+(Troja)&mdash;Ilus (Ilium)&mdash;Laomedon&mdash;Priam. The destruction of
+Troy, after a ten years' war, occurred, it is probable, B. C. 1190.</p>
+
+<p><i>Contemporary</i>: Jews, time of the Judges: before the foundation
+of Rome, 450 years.</p></div>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Phrygia.</div>
+
+<p><b>2. The Phrygian empire.</b>&mdash;Almost all the kings
+were named Midas and Gordius; their succession
+cannot be accurately determined. After the death
+of the last, called Midas V., Phrygia became a
+province of the Lydian empire, about 560.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Lydia:<br />
+three dynasties there.</div>
+
+<p><b>3. The Lydian empire.</b>&mdash;The Lydians (M&aelig;onians)
+were a branch of the Carian tribe. According
+to Herodotus, three dynasties ruled in Lydia;
+the Atyad&aelig; down to 1232; the Heraclid&aelig; down
+to 727; and the Mermnad&aelig; down to 557: the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_30" id="Page_30">[Pg 30]</a></span>
+two first are almost wholly fabulous, and the proper
+history of Lydia may be said to commence
+with the last dynasty.</p>
+
+<div class="sblockquot"><p>Kings: Gyges, down to 689. From this period followed almost
+uninterrupted wars with the Greek settlements on the seacoast.
+Gyges takes Colophon. Ardys down to 640. He takes
+Priene. Under his reign, an irruption of the Cimmerians. Sadyattes
+down to 628. Alyattes down to 571. Expulsion of the
+Cimmerians. Capture of Smyrna. Cr&#339;sus down to 557. He
+takes Ephesus, and subjugates Asia Minor as far as the Halys.
+Under his reign, the first rise of a Lydian empire, which however
+is overthrown by Cyrus. Asia Minor becomes a province
+of the Persian empire.</p>
+
+<p><i>Contemporary</i> with which, in Asia, were the Medic and Babylonian
+empires.&mdash;Among the Jews, the last period of the kingdom
+of Judah.&mdash;Among the Greeks, the yearly archons at Athens.&mdash;With
+the Romans, the kings.</p></div>
+
+
+<p><b>V. <i>Ph&#339;nicia.</i></b></p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Fragments
+of Ph&#339;nician
+history.</div>
+
+<p>The Ph&#339;nicians may be regarded as one of the
+most remarkable nations of Asia during this period;
+yet we have no complete, or even connected
+history of this people. But though a few scattered
+fragments are all we possess, we may from
+these trace out a general outline.</p>
+
+<div class="sblockquot"><p>The peculiar sources of Ph&#339;nician history.&mdash;How far Sanchoniathon
+deserves to be mentioned here?&mdash;Hebrew writers, particularly
+Ezekiel; Greek writers; Josephus&mdash;Eusebius, etc. and
+the fragments which he has preserved of Menander of Ephesus,
+and Dius, historians of Tyre.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Mignot</span>, <i>M&eacute;moires sur les Ph&eacute;niciens</i>; inserted in <i>M&eacute;m. de
+l'Acad. des Inscript.</i> t. xxxiv&mdash;xlii. A series of twenty-four
+papers.</p>
+
+<p>The section concerning the Ph&#339;nicians in <span class="smcap">A. H. L. Heeren's</span>
+<i>Researches on the Politics, etc.</i></p></div>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Ph&#339;nician
+federation
+of cities.</div>
+
+<p>1. Observations on the internal state of Ph&#339;nicia.
+It did not constitute one state, or, at least,
+one single empire; but consisted of several, and<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_31" id="Page_31">[Pg 31]</a></span>
+their territories.  Alliances, however, were naturally
+formed between them, and hence a kind
+of supremacy of the more powerful, particularly of
+Tyre.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Each city
+independent,
+but
+Tyre the
+first.</div>
+
+<p>2.  But though Tyre stood at the head, and
+claimed a certain degree of superiority, each separate state still
+possessed its own particular government. In all of them we meet with
+kings, who appear to have possessed but a limited authority, as we
+always find magistrates associated with them in power. Among a
+mercantile and colonizing people, it was impossible that absolute
+despotism should endure for any length of time. Of the separate states,
+Tyre is the only one of which we possess
+a series of kings;
+<span class="sidenote">Tyrian kings.</span>
+and even that series is not complete.</p>
+
+<div class="sblockquot"><p>This line of kings, which we derive from Menander through
+Josephus, commences with Abical, the contemporary of David,
+about B. C. 1050. The most remarkable among them are: Hiram,
+the successor of Abical;&mdash;Ethbaal I. about 920;&mdash;Pygmalion,
+Dido's brother, about 900;&mdash;Ethbaal II. in whose reign
+Tyre was sacked by Nebuchadnezzar, 586.&mdash;Foundation of New
+Tyre&mdash;republican constitution under suffetes: tributary kings
+under the Persian rule;&mdash;conquest of New Tyre by Alexander,
+332. The flourishing period of Ph&#339;nicia in general, and of
+Tyre in particular, falls therefore between 1000&mdash;332.</p>
+
+<p><i>Contemporary</i> in inner Asia: monarchies of the Assyrians,
+Medes, and the Babylonians. Jews: period of the kings after
+David. Greeks: from Homer to Solon. Romans: period of
+their kings in the last two centuries.</p></div>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Ph&#339;nician
+colonies:</div>
+
+<p>3.  During this period the Ph&#339;nicians spread
+themselves by the establishment of colonies; some
+of which, particularly Carthage, became as powerful
+as the mother states.</p>
+
+<div class="sblockquot"><p>General ideas concerning colonization.&mdash;1. Colonies are absolutely
+necessary to every seafaring and commercial people,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_32" id="Page_32">[Pg 32]</a></span>
+whenever their trade extends to distant countries. 2. They have
+likewise been established for the purpose of providing for the excessive
+increase of the poor. 3. And they have sometimes arisen
+from political commotion, when the malcontents, either from
+free will, or force, have forsaken their country, and sought new
+settlements in distant regions.</p></div>
+
+<div class="sidenote">in the islands;<br />
+Spain;<br />
+Africa;<br />
+Sicily;<br />
+probably in the Persian gulf.</div>
+
+<p>4. Geographical sketch of the Ph&#339;nician colonies.
+They possessed, at a very early period,
+most of the islands of the Archipelago; from
+which, however, they were subsequently expelled
+by the Greeks. The principal countries in which
+they had settlements were the south of
+Spain (Tartessus, Gades, Carteia); the north coast of
+Africa, west of the Lesser Syrtis (Utica, Carthage,
+Adrumetum); and the north-western coast of
+Sicily (Panormus, Lilyb&aelig;um). It is likewise
+highly probable that they formed settlements towards
+the east in the Persian gulf, on the islands
+of Tylos and Aradus (Bahrein).</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Sea trade of
+the Ph&#339;nicians:</div>
+
+<p>5. This sketch of the Ph&#339;nician colonies will
+give us some idea of the extent of their sea trade
+and navigation; which, however, extended much
+farther than their colonies. Among them, as
+among other nations, commerce took its rise in
+piracy; even as late as the time of Homer, the
+Ph&#339;nicians appear to have been freebooters. The
+principal objects of their commerce were (<i>a</i>) the
+settlements in north Africa and Spain; the latter
+more particularly, on account of its rich silver
+mines. (<i>b</i>) Beyond the Pillars of Hercules, the
+west-coast of Africa; Britain and the Scilly islands,
+for the purpose of procuring tin, and, very
+probably, amber. (<i>c</i>) From Elath and Ezion-Gebar,
+ports situate at the northern extremity of the
+Arabian gulph, they undertook, in connection with
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_33" id="Page_33">[Pg 33]</a></span>
+the Jews, voyages to Ophir, that is to say, to the
+rich lands of the south, particularly Arabia Felix
+and Ethiopia. (<i>d</i>) From the Persian gulf, they
+extended their commerce to the western peninsula
+of India and the island of Ceylon. Finally, (<i>e</i>)
+<span class="sidenote">they double  the cape of Good Hope.</span>
+they made several extensive voyages of discovery,
+among which, the most remarkable was the circumnavigation
+of Africa.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Their land
+trade:</div>
+
+<p>6. Of no less importance was the land trade,
+mostly carried on by caravans. The principal
+branches of it were: (<i>a</i>) The Arabian caravan
+trade for spices and incense, imported from Arabia
+Felix, Gerra, and the Persian gulf. (<i>b</i>) The
+trade through Palmyra with Babylon, which
+opened them an indirect communication by way
+of Persia, with lesser Bukharia and little Thibet,
+probably even with China itself. (<i>c</i>) The trade
+with Armenia and the neighbouring countries in
+slaves, horses, copper utensils, etc.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">their manufactures.</div>
+
+<p>7. To all this must be added their own manufactures,
+particularly their stuffs and dyes; (the
+purple, made of the juice of a marine shellfish;)
+their manufactures of glass and toys, which, in
+their commerce with uncivilized nations, generally
+carried on by barter, were turned to good account.
+Many other important discoveries, among which
+the invention of letters holds the first rank, are
+attributed to the Ph&#339;nicians.</p>
+
+
+<p><b>VI. <i>Syrians.</i></b></p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Syria, an
+early state;</div>
+
+<p>1. The inhabitants of Syria dwelt in cities as
+early as B. C. 2000, when Abraham wandered
+over their country. This country did not form
+one single state, but consisted of several cities,
+each of which had its separate territory, and its<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_34" id="Page_34">[Pg 34]</a></span>
+chief or king; of these cities, Damascus, Hamath,
+etc. are mentioned in the most remote antiquity.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">a frequent
+object of
+conquest:<br />
+about 1040.</div>
+
+<p>2. The Syrians were, however, often subjected
+by foreign conquerors; and their country was certainly,
+at least in the time of David, a Jewish province.
+It shook off the yoke, however, in the
+time of Solomon; when Rezon, who had formerly
+been a slave, obtained possession of Damascus.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Kingdom of
+Damascus.</div>
+
+<p>3. After this, there arose the kingdom of Damascus,
+which comprised the greatest portion of
+Syria, the kings in the other cities becoming tributary
+to Damascus. The boundaries of the empire,
+too, were extended, and particularly at the
+expense of the divided kingdoms of Judah and
+Israel.</p>
+
+<div class="sblockquot"><p>The kings, whose names are taken from the books of Chronicles,
+were: Rezon, about 980. Benhadad I. about 900. Hazael,
+about 850. Benhadad II. about 830. Rezin. Under this last,
+the kingdom of Damascus was overthrown by the Assyrian conqueror
+Tiglath-Pileser, about 740.</p>
+
+<p><i>Contemporary</i> in Inner Asia: Assyrian kingdom. Jews:
+kingdoms of Israel and Judah. Greeks: settlement of the Asiatic
+colonies.&mdash;Lycurgus.</p></div>
+
+
+<p><b>VII. <i>Jews.</i></b></p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Periods of
+Jewish history.</div>
+
+<p>The history of the Jewish people, begins with
+Abraham the father of their race; that of the
+Jewish state does not commence till after the conquest
+of Palestine. It is divided into three periods.
+I. History of the Jews, as a nomad horde,
+from Abraham till their settlement in Palestine,
+B. C. 2000&mdash;1500. II. History of the Jewish
+state as a federative republic under the high
+priests and judges, from B. C. 1500&mdash;1100. III.
+History of the Jewish state under a monarchical
+government, from B. C. 1100&mdash;600, first in one<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_35" id="Page_35">[Pg 35]</a></span>
+kingdom,&mdash;975; afterwards as two separate kingdoms,
+Israel and Judah, until the downfall of the
+latter, 588.</p>
+
+<div class="sblockquot"><p>Sources of the Jewish history.&mdash;Their annals:&mdash;Books of
+Judges, Samuel, Chronicles, Kings. How those books were composed,
+and whether their authors may be considered as contemporary
+with the events they relate? How far the Hebrew poets,
+the prophets in particular, may be considered as historical authority?&mdash;<span class="smcap">Josephus</span>,
+as an antiquarian in his <i>Arch&aelig;ologia</i>, and as a
+contemporary historian in his <i>Historia Belli Romani</i>.</p>
+
+<p>Unfortunately there is not at present any satisfactory treatise
+on the Jewish history previous to the Babylonian captivity; nor
+one written in an impartial spirit, without credulity or scepticism.
+The work of <span class="smcap">Berruyer</span>, <i>Histoire du Peuple de Dieu, depuis
+son origine jusqu'&agrave; la Naissance de J. C.</i> Paris, 1742, 10 vols.
+8vo.; and the continuation, <i>depuis la Naissance de J. C.</i> 10
+vols.; and others of the same kind do not answer this description.
+<span class="smcap">Relandi</span> <i>Antiquit. Sacr. Heb.</i> The writings of <span class="smcap">J. D. Michaelis</span>,
+particularly his &#8224; Remarks on the Translation of the Old
+Testament, and his &#8224; <i>Mosaic Law</i>; together with &#8224; <span class="smcap">Herder</span>,
+<i>On the Spirit of Hebrew Poesy</i>, furnish many excellent materials.</p></div>
+
+
+<div class="sidenote">Jews as a nomad horde:<br />
+sojourn in Egypt 2000 to about 1500.</div>
+
+<p><b>I. <i>Period of the nomad state from Abraham to the conquest of
+Palestine.</i></b>&mdash;Under Abraham, Isaac, and Jacob, nothing more
+at first than a single nomad family; which, however, during its
+sojourn in Lower Egypt,
+where, during four hundred and thirty, or, according to others, two hundred and
+fifty years, it roved about in subjection to the Egyptian Pharaohs,&mdash;increased
+to a nomad nation, divided into twelve tribes.  The nation,
+however, becoming formidable from the great increase
+of its numbers, the Pharaohs, following the
+usual policy of the Egyptians, wished to compel
+the Jews to build and inhabit cities. Unaccustomed
+to restraint, they fled from Egypt under
+the conduct of Moses; and conquered, under him
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_36" id="Page_36">[Pg 36]</a></span>
+and his successor Joshua, Palestine, the land of
+promise.</p>
+
+<div class="sblockquot"><p>Moses and his legislation.&mdash;What he borrowed and what he
+did not borrow from the Egyptians?&mdash;The worship of Jehovah
+in the national sanctuary, and by national festivals, celebrated
+with ceremonies rigidly prescribed, the point of union for the
+whole nation, and the political bond which held the tribes together.&mdash;The
+caste of Levites, compared with the Egyptian caste
+of priests.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">J. D. Michaelis</span>, <i>Mosaic Law</i>. Gottingen, 1778, etc. 6 vols.
+8vo.; translated into English by Dr. <span class="smcap">Alexander Smith</span>.
+Lond. 1814, 4 vols. 8vo. The commentator frequently sees more
+than the lawgiver.</p></div>
+
+
+<div class="sidenote">Jews as a
+federate republic.</div>
+
+<p><b>II. <i>Period of the federative republic.</i></b> From the
+occupation of Palestine to the establishment of
+monarchy, 1500&mdash;1100.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Heroic age.</div>
+
+<p>1. General character of this period as the heroic
+age of the nation, which, after the gradual
+adoption of fixed dwellings and agriculture, was
+engaged in constant feuds with its neighbours, the
+vagrant Arabs, the Philistines, and the Edomites.
+Impossibility of exterminating entirely the ancient
+inhabitants according to the intention of Moses.&mdash;Hence
+the worship of Jehovah was never the <i>only</i>
+religion in the land.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Constitution.</div>
+
+<p>2. Political organization. In consequence of
+the division of land, according to tribes, and their
+separation from one another, the government long
+remained patriarchal. Each tribe preserved its
+patriarch or elder, as in the nomad state. All,
+however, had, in the worship of Jehovah, one
+common bond, uniting them into one federate
+state. Magistrates were likewise appointed in
+the cities, to whom scribes are conjoined out of
+the Levite caste.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_37" id="Page_37">[Pg 37]</a></span></p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Distribution
+of the
+Levites.</div>
+
+<p>3. The permanent union of the nation, and preservation
+of the Mosaic law, were likewise promoted
+by the distribution of the Levite caste into
+forty-eight separate towns, situated in various
+parts of the country, and by making the high
+priesthood hereditary in Aaron's family.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Disturbed
+state of the
+Jews at the
+death of
+Joshua.</div>
+
+<p>4. But when at the death of Joshua the people
+were left without a common ruler, the tie of religion
+became insufficient to hold them together;
+especially as the weaker tribes became jealous of
+the more powerful. At this time the high priests
+appear to have had but little political influence;
+and the national bond was only prevented from
+being dissolved by the dread of a foreign yoke.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Judges.</div>
+
+<p>5. The Jews were sometimes independent, at
+other times tributary. In seasons of oppression
+and distress heroes arose, jealous for the worship
+of Jehovah, to deliver them from bondage. They
+acted as chief magistrates and rulers of a part, or
+even the whole of the nation, and as champions
+of the worship of the true God. The judges, particularly
+Othniel, Deborah, and Sampson.&mdash;Concerning
+the marvellous in their history.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Kings,
+about 1150.</div>
+
+<p>6. Reestablishment of the worship of Jehovah
+by Samuel. He becomes judge, and rules as
+Jehovah's minister.&mdash;His scheme of making the
+office of judge hereditary in his own family is
+defeated by the conduct of his sons. The nation
+demands a king, whom Samuel, as minister
+of Jehovah, is called upon to appoint. His crafty
+policy in the election, which he cannot impede.
+He chooses Saul, politically speaking, the most
+insignificant man of the nation; but the tallest
+and most stately. A formal constitutional act,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_38" id="Page_38">[Pg 38]</a></span>
+according to the Mosaic command, is drawn up
+and deposited in the national sanctuary.</p>
+
+<div class="sblockquot"><p>Causes which led the nation to demand a king.&mdash;Earlier attempts
+made, particularly by <i>Abimelech</i>, to obtain regal power.</p></div>
+
+
+<p class="center"><b>III. <i>Period of the monarchy from</i> 1100&mdash;600.</b></p>
+
+<h4>I. <i>The Jewish state as one single kingdom from</i>
+1100 (1095)&mdash;975.</h4>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Saul:</div>
+
+<p>1. <i>Saul</i>, the new king, strengthened himself on
+the throne by a victory over the Ammonites; and
+a general assembly of the nation, in which Samuel
+laid down his office as judge, unanimously acknowledged
+his sovereignty. But Saul, no sooner
+became a conqueror than he threw off the tutelage
+of Samuel, and ventured himself to consult Jehovah.
+This was the occasion of a feud between
+them. Samuel, offended, privately anointed another
+young man, David the son of Jesse, as king.
+David acquires fame and popularity by his heroic
+conduct; but has much difficulty in escaping the
+jealousy of Saul.&mdash;Saul sustains himself amid
+constant wars with the neighbouring nations;
+<span class="sidenote">slain about 1055.</span>
+but at last defeated, he and all his sons, except
+one, lose their lives.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Jewish government
+and state
+under him.</div>
+
+<p>2. State of the nation and constitution under
+Saul.&mdash;The king little more than a military leader
+under the direction of Jehovah; without either
+court or fixed residence.&mdash;The people still a mere
+agricultural and pastoral race, without wealth or
+luxury; but gradually assuming the character of
+a warlike nation.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">David,
+1055&mdash;1015.</div>
+
+<p>3. Saul was succeeded by David; but not
+without opposition. Eleven tribes declare for<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_39" id="Page_39">[Pg 39]</a></span>
+Ish-bosheth, the remaining son of Saul; and David
+is only acknowledged by his own tribe, Judah.
+It is not till seven years later, and the murder of
+Ish-bosheth by his own people, that David is recognized
+as king by the whole nation.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">State of the
+nation and
+government
+in his reign.</div>
+
+<p>4. Complete formation of the nation, and a
+change of constitution during the reign of David
+over the united kingdom, which lasted thirty-three
+years. Jerusalem is made the seat of government
+and of the national sanctuary. Rigid observance
+of the worship of Jehovah, the exclusive religion
+of the nation, considered in respect to its political
+consequence.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Conquests.</div>
+
+<p>5. Vast aggrandizement of the Jewish state by
+conquest. A war with Hadadezer opens the way
+to the conquest of Syria and Idum&aelig;a. Extent of
+the kingdom from the Euphrates to the Mediterranean;
+from Ph&#339;nicia to the Red sea. Gradual
+decline towards despotism and seraglio government;
+the political consequences of which
+become apparent about the end of David's reign,
+in the rebellion of his sons.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Solomon,
+1015&mdash;975.</div>
+
+<p>6. Reign of Solomon. The brilliant government
+of a despot from the interior of his seraglio;
+unwarlike, but civilized, and fond of parade. New
+organization of the kingdom for the support of
+the court. Connections formed with the neighbouring
+states, particularly with Tyre; hence a
+participation in the southern trade carried on from
+the ports of the Red sea, conquered by David;
+but only as a monopoly of the court.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Declension
+of the state.</div>
+
+<p>7. The capital enriched by the splendour of the
+court; but the country oppressed and impoverished,
+particularly the distant tribes. Gradual<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_40" id="Page_40">[Pg 40]</a></span>
+internal decay hastened by the admixture of the
+worship of foreign gods with that of Jehovah;
+although Solomon, by the erection of the temple
+according to the plan of his father, seems to have
+wished to make the worship of the true God the
+only religion of the country. An unsuccessful
+attempt at rebellion made by Jeroboam; and by
+the Edomites, who remain tributary under their
+own kings: actual secession, even during the
+reign of Solomon, of the conquered province of
+Syria by the foundation of the kingdom of Damascus.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Rehoboam.</div>
+
+<p>8. Solomon is succeeded by his son Rehoboam,
+who has scarcely ascended the throne,
+before the malcontents, increased in number by
+his imprudence, break into open rebellion. Jeroboam
+is recalled from Egypt, and ten tribes acknowledge
+him as their king. Only two tribes,
+Judah and Benjamin, remain faithful to Rehoboam.</p>
+
+
+<h4>II. <i>The Jewish state as a divided kingdom,</i> 975&mdash;588.</h4>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Causes of the long wars between Judah and Israel.</div>
+
+<p>1. Reciprocal relations between the two kingdoms
+of Judah and Israel. Although Israel was
+more extensive and populous than Judah, yet was
+Judah, in consequence of possessing the capital,
+richest of the two; thus their power was nearly
+balanced; and hence the struggle between them
+was the more obstinate.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Policy of the kings of Israel:</div>
+
+<p>2. The kings of Israel seek to confirm the political
+division of the nation, by establishing a
+new form of worship within their dominions, in
+order to restrain their subjects from visiting the
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_41" id="Page_41">[Pg 41]</a></span>ancient seat of the national worship at Jerusalem;
+hence they were considered as the enemies of Jehovah.
+Several kings, however, even of
+<span class="sidenote">of those of Judah.</span>
+Judah were so impolitic as to mingle the worship of
+other gods with that of Jehovah. But oppression
+itself serves to sustain the worship of Jehovah;
+the number and political influence of the
+prophets increase in proportion as men feel, amid
+the turbulence of the times, need of the counsels
+of the true God; the idea of some future happier
+period under a mighty king&mdash;the idea of the Messiah
+and of his kingdom&mdash;is more fully developed
+by the lively recollection of the splendid reign of
+David.&mdash;Schools of the prophets.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Termination
+of the
+wars.</div>
+
+<p>3. The rivalry and wars between those two
+states not only continue with slight interruption,
+but become more and more fraught with danger,
+in consequence of the alliances entered into with
+foreign princes, particularly with the kings of Damascus
+and Egypt. An end is at length put to
+these feeble kingdoms by the rise of vast empires
+in Inner Asia.</p>
+
+<div class="sblockquot"><p>Most important events in the history of the two kingdoms.</p>
+
+<p>1. <span class="smcap">Kingdom of Israel</span>, 975&mdash;722; under 19 kings, from different
+families, who succeeded to the throne amid violent revolutions.
+1. Jeroboam, <i>d.</i> 954. Settlement of the royal residence
+at Shechem; of the sanctuaries at Bethel and Dan, and appointment
+of priests, not belonging to the tribe of Levi. Constant
+wars with the kings of Judah. 2. Nadab, Jeroboam's son, murdered
+in 953 by 3. Baasha, <i>d.</i> 930. This prince, by his alliance
+with the kings of Damascus, brought the kingdom of Judah into
+great danger. 4. Elah murdered in 929 by one of his generals.
+5. Zimri, in whose place the army immediately elected 6. Omri:
+this prince, at the beginning of his reign, had a rival to the
+throne in Tibni, <i>d.</i> 925. Omri founded the new capital, Samaria,
+<i>d.</i> 918. He was succeeded by his son 7. Ahab: strong connections
+by marriage with the kings of Sidon; introduction of<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_42" id="Page_42">[Pg 42]</a></span>
+the Ph&#339;nician worship of Baal. Wars with Damascus, in which
+Ahab at last perishes, 897. Under Ahab a league formed with
+the king of Judah. He is succeeded by his sons, 8. Ahaziah, <i>d.</i>
+896, and 9. Jehoram. The league with Judah continues. Jehoram
+is murdered by Jehu, 883. 10. Jehu: this king destroys
+the house of Ahab, which had given 4 kings to Israel, and does
+away with the worship of Baal. The kings of Damascus wrest
+from the kingdom of Israel the lands beyond Jordan. Jehu, <i>d.</i>
+856. He is succeeded by his son 11. Jehoahaz, <i>d.</i> 840. The
+wars with Damascus continue unsuccessful to Israel. 12. Jehoash,
+<i>d.</i> 825. He defeats the kings of Damascus and Judah.
+13. Jeroboam II. <i>d.</i> 784. He restores the kingdom of Israel to
+its ancient extent. After a turbulent interregnum of 12 years,
+he is succeeded by his son 14. Zechariah, 773; who was assassinated
+the same year, being the last remnant of the house of
+Jehu, which had given 5 kings to Israel. His murderer, 15.
+Shallum, after a reign of one month, is, in his turn, assassinated
+by 16. Menahem, <i>d.</i> 761: under his reign the first expedition
+of the Assyrians, headed by Pul, whom he buys off by tribute.
+17. His son Pekahiah murdered in 759 by 18. Pekah, under
+whose reign falls the expedition of Tiglath-Pileser the Assyrian,
+and destruction of Damascus. Pekah is assassinated in 740 by
+19. Hoshea, who, after an anarchy of eight years, obtains possession
+of the throne. Hoshea endeavours, by an alliance with
+Egypt, to shake off the Assyrian yoke; but Shalmaneser, king
+of Assyria, wages war against him, conquers Samaria, and puts
+an end to the kingdom of Israel, whose inhabitants he transplants
+to Media in Inner Asia, 722.</p>
+
+<p>2. <span class="smcap">Kingdom of Judah</span> under 20 kings of the house of David,
+975&mdash;598. The regular line of hereditary succession is generally
+followed without dispute, and is only twice interrupted by
+Athaliah's usurpation, and the intervention of foreign conquerors.
+1. Rehoboam, <i>d.</i> 958. Jerusalem is still the seat of government;
+but even during this reign the worship of Jehovah begins to fall
+into neglect, in consequence of the introduction of foreign gods.
+Besides the war with Israel, Jerusalem is attacked and plundered
+by Shishak, king of Egypt. 2. Abijah, <i>d.</i> 955. 3. Asa.
+This prince was attacked by the combined kings of Israel and
+Damascus, and, no doubt, would have sunk in the conflict, had
+he not succeeded in breaking their alliance; <i>d.</i> 914. 4. Jehoshaphat,
+the restorer of the worship of Jehovah and framer of a
+league with the kingdom of Israel. His attempt to reestablish<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_43" id="Page_43">[Pg 43]</a></span>
+the trade to Ophir, on the Red sea, is unsuccessful, <i>d.</i> 891. 5.
+Jehoram. The union with Israel is confirmed by the marriage
+of this prince with Ahab's daughter, Athaliah; but Idum&aelig;a,
+under his reign, secedes wholly from the kingdom of Judah, <i>d.</i>
+884. 6. His son Ahaziah is, in the next year, 883, assassinated
+by Jehu, the murderer and successor of Jehoram king of Israel.
+7. His mother, Athaliah, takes possession of the throne; murders
+the whole royal family; only one son of Ahaziah, 8, Joash,
+is, in consequence of his youth, rescued from the carnage, secretly
+educated in the temple, and after seven years forcibly
+placed upon the throne, by means of a revolution wrought by
+the high priest, Jehoiada; and Athaliah is slaughtered, 877.
+Joash rules under the tutelage of the priests, which leads to the
+reestablishment of Jehovah's worship. This prince is menaced
+by Hazael king of Damascus, and compelled to pay him tribute.
+Slain 838. 9. Amaziah: he defeats the Edomites, and is in his
+turn defeated by Jehoash king of Israel, by whom Jerusalem itself
+is sacked. He is slain in 811, and succeeded 10. by his son
+Azariah, (or Uzziah.) This prince was leprous, and <i>d.</i> 759.
+His son 11. Jotham, <i>d.</i> 743, became regent during the life of
+his father. The wars with Israel and Damascus recommence.
+12. Ahaz, <i>d.</i> 728. The league between the kings of Damascus
+and Israel induces Ahaz to call to his assistance Tiglath-Pileser
+king of Assyria, who overthrows the kingdom of Damascus, and
+subjects Israel and Judah to tribute. 13. Hezekiah, <i>d.</i> 699.
+He shakes off the Assyrian yoke: under his reign Shalmaneser
+destroys Samaria, 722: and Shalmaneser's successor, Sennacherib,
+undertakes his expedition against Egypt, 714. Jerusalem
+is again besieged, but fortunately relieved by the total failure of
+the expedition. Isaiah prophecies during the reign of this prince.
+14. Manasseh, <i>d.</i> 644. During his 55 years' reign, the worship
+of the Ph&#339;nician god, Baal, becomes general; that of Jehovah
+falls into contempt, and the Mosaic law into disuse. 15. Amon,
+murdered as early as 642. 16. Josiah restorer of the temple,
+and of the worship of Jehovah. The book of the Law, which
+had been cast aside and neglected, is once more found, and a
+complete reform instituted according to its principles. Palestine
+however is the first country attacked by Necos, king of Egypt;
+and Josiah falls in battle, 611. His son, 17. Jehoahaz, is, after
+a reign of three months, dethroned by Pharaoh-Nechoh, and
+his brother 18. Jehoiakim placed as a tributary prince on the
+throne. But in consequence of the rise of the Chald&aelig;o-Babylo<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_44" id="Page_44">[Pg 44]</a></span>nian
+empire, Pharaoh-Nechoh is deprived of his Asiatic conquests
+by the loss of the battle of Circesium, 606; and Jehoiakim
+becomes tributary to Nebuchadnezzar, <i>d.</i> 599. The prophet
+Jeremiah flourishes. 19. Jehoiachin, son of the former king,
+after three months' reign, is, together with the greater part of
+the nation, transplanted into Inner Asia by Nebuchadnezzar,
+after a second expedition, (commencement of the Babylonian
+captivity,) and, 20. Zedekiah, brother on the father's side to
+Jehoiachin, is seated on the throne as a tributary prince. Forming,
+however, a league with Egypt, in order to throw off the
+Babylonian yoke, Nebuchadnezzar marches a third time against
+Jerusalem, conquers it, 588, and delivers it up to pillage and
+destruction. Zedekiah, after being deprived of his eye-sight,
+and losing all his children by the hands of the executioner, is,
+together with the remaining portion of the nation, led in captivity
+to Babylon.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">S. Bernhardi</span> <i>Commentatio de causis quibus affectum sit ut
+regnum Jud&aelig; diutius persisteret quam regnum Israel; cum tabula
+geographica</i>, Lovanii, 1825, 4to. A prize essay, containing
+also several valuable enquiries into the monarchical period of the
+Jewish state.</p>
+
+<p>&#8224; <span class="smcap">Bauer</span>, <i>Manual of the History of the Hebrew Nation</i>, vol.
+i&mdash;iii, 1800. The best introduction hitherto published, not only
+to the history, but also to the antiquities of the nation, from the
+rise to the fall of the state.</p></div>
+
+
+<hr style="width: 25%;" />
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_45" id="Page_45">[Pg 45]</a></span></p>
+<h2>II. AFRICAN NATIONS.</h2>
+
+<h3><i>General Geographical Outline of Ancient Africa.</i></h3>
+
+<p class="center">See <span class="smcap">A. H. L. Heeren's</span> <i>Historical Researches</i>, etc. African
+Nations. 2 vols. 8vo. Oxford, 1831.</p>
+
+
+<div class="sidenote">Acquaintance
+of the
+ancients
+with Africa.</div>
+
+<p>1.  Although the Ph&#339;nicians had circumnavigated
+Africa, the northern part only of that
+quarter of the globe was known to antiquity.
+With that part, however, the ancients were better
+acquainted than we are at the present day, the
+coast being then occupied by civilized and commercial
+nations, who pushed their excursions far
+inland. This was the case in early times with the
+Carthaginians and the Egyptians; still more so
+with the Macedonian Greeks, under the Ptolemies,
+and under the Romans. War, hunting, and
+commerce, were, generally speaking, the objects
+which gave rise to those excursions.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">General
+view of
+Africa.</div>
+
+<p>2.  Considered as a whole, Africa is very different
+from Asia, both in situation and form. Asia
+lies almost entirely within the temperate, while
+Africa is almost wholly under the torrid zone.
+Asia abounds in deep gulfs and large rivers;
+Africa constitutes a regular triangle, and in its
+northern half possesses but two large rivers, the
+Nile and the Niger. No wonder, then, that this
+portion of our globe should form, as it were, a
+world in itself, distinguished by its productions
+and its inhabitants.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Physical
+geography
+of North
+Africa.</div>
+
+<p>3.  Physically considered, Northern Africa may
+be divided into three regions, distinguished in
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_46" id="Page_46">[Pg 46]</a></span>early antiquity by separate names. The maritime
+country along the Mediterranean, with the exception
+of Tripolis, or the Regio-Syrtica, consists
+principally of very fertile districts, and was consequently,
+at all times, very thickly inhabited:
+hence in Herodotus it bears the name of the <i>inhabited
+Africa</i>; it is now called Barbary. Above
+this, and under the 30th parallel of N. lat., succeeds
+a mountainous tract, across which stretches
+the Atlas chain of mountains; abounding in wild
+beasts and dates: hence Herodotus calls it the
+<i>wild beast Africa</i>: among the Arabs it is called
+the land of dates, (<i>Biledulgerid</i>.) Beyond this,
+and between the 30th and 20th degrees of N. lat.
+the sandy region extends right across Africa and
+Arabia: this part of Africa is therefore known,
+both among the ancients and moderns, under the
+name of Africa Deserta, or the Sandy Desert,
+(Sahara). The fruitful lands beyond the desert,
+stretching along the banks of the Niger, were
+almost wholly unknown to the Greeks: by them
+these parts were comprehended under the common
+name of Ethiopia, although that name applied
+more peculiarly to the districts above Egypt.
+The Greeks were, however, acquainted with some
+of the fruitful spots in the desert, the Oases; such
+as Augila, Ammonium, and the Oases, properly
+so called, in Egypt.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Political
+state.</div>
+
+<p>4. There exists no political division which comprises
+the whole of Africa. The north coast alone
+was inhabited by civilized nations: Egyptians,
+Cyren&aelig;ans, and Carthaginians; of which the first
+only were aboriginals. The rest of the inhabitants
+either roved about as nomad hordes, or<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_47" id="Page_47">[Pg 47]</a></span>
+formed insignificant states, of whose existence we
+have heard some account, though we possess no
+history of them. Along the shore, reckoning from
+the Plinthinetic gulf, Egypt is succeeded by: 1st.
+Marmarica, a tract without cities, consisting principally
+of sandy deserts, occupied by nomad
+hordes: this country extends from the 40&mdash;47&deg;
+E. long. from Ferro. 2nd. The fertile territory
+occupied by the Greek colonies, called Cyrena&iuml;ca,
+extended to the Greater Syrtis, 37&mdash;40&deg; E. long.
+Cities: Cyrene, Barca. 3rd. The territory of Carthage,
+extending from the Greater Syrtis to the
+Fair Promontory, 25&mdash;40&deg; E. long. This territory
+comprised (<i>a</i>) the country between the Greater
+and Lesser Syrtis, (Regio Syrtica,) which constitutes
+the modern kingdom of Tripoli; a sandy
+tract, almost wholly occupied by nomads. (<i>b</i>) the
+territory of Carthage, properly so called, (kingdom
+of Tunis). A very fruitful country; the
+southern part, called Byzacena, the northern part
+Zeugitana. Cities: Carthage, Utica, etc. 4th.
+Numidia and Mauritania; occupied during the
+Carthaginian age by nomad races. Along the
+shore some Carthaginian settlements.</p>
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<h3>EGYPTIANS.</h3>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Geography.</div>
+
+
+<p>Preliminary remarks. Egypt in its superficial
+contents is equal to about two-thirds of Germany,
+and may therefore justly be ranked among the
+more extensive countries of the globe; it greatly
+varies, however, in its physical properties. The<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_48" id="Page_48">[Pg 48]</a></span>
+soil is only sufficiently fertile for tillage on the
+banks of the Nile, and as far as the floods of that
+river extend; beyond that, on the west, is a sandy
+desert, on the east a chain of rocky mountains.
+From its entrance into Egypt at Syene,
+<span class="sidenote">Course of the Nile.</span>
+the Nile flows in one undivided stream to the city of Cercasorus,
+60 geogr. miles above its mouth, directing
+its source from south to north through a valley
+from 8 to 16 geogr. miles broad, bounded on the
+west by deserts of sand, and on the east by mountains
+of granite. At Cercasorus the stream first
+divides itself into two main branches, which formerly
+discharged their waters into the Mediterranean,
+the eastern near the city of Pelusium, the
+western near the city of Canopus (<i>ostium Pelusiacum
+et Canopicum</i>;) from these two diverged several
+intermediate branches; so that in the time of
+Herodotus there existed seven mouths of the Nile,
+but the number has not always remained the same.
+The tract between the two extreme arms of the
+Nile bears, in consequence of its triangular form,
+the name of the Delta; it was covered with cities,
+and highly cultivated. The fertile part of Egypt,
+inhabited by civilized men, was therefore confined
+to the Delta and the valley of the Nile, on the two
+banks of the stream from Syene to Cercasorus;
+to which must be added some well watered spots
+in the centre of the western desert, known under
+the name of the Oases. In consequence of the
+perpetual absence of rain, particularly in Upper
+Egypt, the fertility of the Delta and the valley of
+the Nile depends on the overflowing of the river,
+which happens at stated periods. This commences
+at the beginning of August and continues<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_49" id="Page_49">[Pg 49]</a></span>
+to the end of October; so that during three whole
+months the above-mentioned parts of the country
+are under water.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Divisions of
+Egypt.</div>
+
+<p>Egypt is divided into Upper, extending from
+Syene to the city of Chemmis, (capital, Thebes,
+or Diospolis); Central from Chemmis to Cercasorus,
+(capital, Memphis,) and Lower Egypt,
+which comprises the Delta, and the land on both
+sides: it was full of cities, among which the most
+remarkable was Sais.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Ethiopia.</div>
+
+<p>Next above Egypt lies Ethiopia, (<i>&AElig;thiopia supra
+&AElig;gyptum</i>); which, from the earliest times,
+principally through commerce, appears to have
+been closely connected with the former country.
+The regions immediately above Egypt, usually
+called Nubia, are little more than deserts of sand,
+still inhabited by roving hordes of nomad robbers.
+The rocky mountain chain, which forms the eastern
+boundary of Egypt, stretches along the Red
+sea, and was formerly of great importance to
+Nubia, from its containing, just above the
+Egyptian frontier, productive gold mines. The
+Nile, in this country, makes a wide curve to
+the west, and becomes so full of shallows as to
+render navigation difficult. The lands adjoining
+the river, however, are fertile and well inhabited;
+and contain numerous ancient monuments. Still
+higher up, reckoning from 16&deg; N. lat. the appearance
+of the country changes; the region of fertility
+commences, and its costly productions, its
+gold and its perfumes, gave rise to a profitable
+commerce. Among these countries, Meroe, with
+its capital of the same name, was celebrated in the
+days of Herodotus. By Meroe is understood a<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_50" id="Page_50">[Pg 50]</a></span>
+tract of land bounded by two rivers, the Nile on
+the west, and the Astaboras, (Tacazze,) which
+falls into the Nile, on the east; for this reason it
+is frequently, although improperly, called an island.
+This country extended towards the sources
+of the Nile, or the modern province of Gojam,
+where, under the reign of Psammetichus, the
+Egyptian caste of warriors, having for the most
+part deserted, established themselves. Meroe
+itself, like the Egyptian states, was sacerdotal,
+with a king at its head.&mdash;The city of Axum, or
+Auxume, is not indeed mentioned at so early a
+period; but if we may judge by the ruins that
+still remain, it was of equally high antiquity with
+the old Egyptian towns and with Meroe. The
+same observations apply to Adule, the harbour
+on the Arabian gulf.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Divisions of Egyptian history.</div>
+
+<p>The Egyptian history is divided into three periods
+of unequal duration; the <i>first</i> of which extends
+from the earliest time down to the Sesostrid&aelig;,
+that is to say, to about B. C. 1500: the
+<i>second</i> comprises the reigns of the Sesostrid&aelig;, or
+the brilliant period of Egypt, down to Psammetichus,
+1500&mdash;650: the <i>third</i> brings us from
+Psammetichus down to the Persian conquest,
+650&mdash;525.</p>
+
+
+<hr style="width: 25%;" />
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_51" id="Page_51">[Pg 51]</a></span></p>
+
+<h4>FIRST PERIOD.</h4>
+
+<h4><i>From the earliest times down to the Sesostrid&aelig;, about
+B. C. 1500.</i></h4>
+
+<div class="sblockquot"><p>Sources: 1. Jewish writers. <i>Moses.</i> His records contain, no
+doubt, a faithful picture of the Egyptian state in his day; but
+no continuous history can be deduced from them.&mdash;From Moses
+down to Solomon (B. C. 1500&mdash;1000.) total silence, with respect
+to Egypt, of the Hebrew writers. From Solomon down to Cyrus,
+(B. C. 1000&mdash;550.) a few scanty fragments.&mdash;Importance
+and superiority of the Jewish accounts, so far as they are <i>purely
+historical</i>. 2. Greek writers. (<i>a</i>) <i>Herodotus.</i> The first who
+published a History of the Egyptians. About seventy years after
+the destruction of the throne of the Pharaohs by the Persian conquerors,
+this author collected, in Egypt itself, the earliest accounts
+of the history of the country; he received his information
+from the most capable persons, the priests; and wrote down
+faithfully that information, such as he heard it. If, therefore,
+we would estimate at their proper worth the accounts given by
+Herodotus, it is necessary to enquire, what did the priests themselves
+know of their earlier national history? And this question
+cannot be answered until we have ascertained in what manner
+the historical records of the earlier periods were preserved among
+the Egyptians.</p>
+
+<p>The earliest history of the Egyptians, like that of all other
+nations, was traditional. They adopted, however, before any
+other nations, a sort of writing, hieroglyphics, or allegorical picture
+writing; in which the signs borrowed from natural objects
+served, as modern discoveries have proved, partly to represent
+sounds, (<i>hi&eacute;roglyphes phon&eacute;tiques</i>,) and partly to express ideas;
+in the latter case they were either representative or allegorical.
+This mode of writing, by its nature, is not so complete as the
+purely alphabetical; since, 1. It can express only a narrow circle
+of ideas, and these separately, without connection or grammatical
+inflection, at least with very few exceptions. 2. As it is not
+so well adapted to writing as to painting or engraving, it is not
+so useful for books as for public monuments. 3. Being em<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_52" id="Page_52">[Pg 52]</a></span>blematic,
+it is not intelligible without the help of a key, which
+could only be preserved in some tradition connected with the
+monument, and which was exclusively possessed by the priests;
+this key, therefore, could hardly be preserved many centuries
+without falsification. 4. The same image seems frequently to
+have been used to express very different objects.&mdash;It follows, that
+the Egyptian history, as deduced from the lips of the priests, can
+hardly have been any thing more than records connected with,
+and depending upon, public monuments: consisting, therefore,
+of mere fragments, and reducible to no consistent chronology,
+it ultimately admitted only of allegorical translation, and consequently
+was very liable to be misinterpreted. Besides their
+hieroglyphics, the Egyptians certainly had two other species of
+writing: the <i>hieratic</i>, confined to the priests, and the <i>demotic</i>,
+used in common life. Both, however, seem to have been nothing
+more than running hands derived from the hieroglyphic system;
+and we have no instance of the employment of either the one or
+the other in public monuments of the time of the Pharaohs.
+That the use of papyrus, a material on which all the above kinds
+of writing were employed, had its origin in the highest antiquity,
+or at least in the more brilliant period of the Pharaohs, we now
+know for certain, written documents belonging to those times
+having been obtained from the tombs.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Champollion le jeune</span>, <i>Pr&eacute;cis du Syst&egrave;me Hi&eacute;roglyphique
+des anciens Egyptiens</i>. Paris, 1824. The main work on this
+subject, of which the <i>Lettre &agrave; M. Dacier</i>, 1822, is but the precursor,
+and the two <i>Lettres &agrave; M. le duc de Blacas</i> the continuation.
+The new method of deciphering has received its principal
+confirmation from the work of the British consul in Egypt,
+<span class="smcap">Salt</span>, <i>Essay on the Phonetic System of Hieroglyphics</i>, 1825,
+on the authority of a comparison with the Egyptian monuments
+themselves. Hitherto, however, little more has been made out
+than the names and titles of the kings, distinguished by being
+always enclosed within a border.</p>
+
+<p>These preliminary remarks on the earlier Egyptian history,
+will derive abundant support from a perusal of the account given
+by Herodotus (ii, 99&mdash;150), of the Egyptian kings previous to
+Psammetichus. The study of that author proves beyond all
+doubt, that: I. The whole history is throughout founded on public
+monuments, and on monuments too, either in or near <i>Memphis</i>.
+We may even restrict ourselves to one single monument
+at Memphis, to the temple of Vulcan, or Phtha, the chief temple<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_53" id="Page_53">[Pg 53]</a></span>
+of that city. The history commences with Menes, the founder
+of that edifice, (c. 99.), and we are informed, respecting each of
+his successors, what was done towards the augmentation and
+embellishment of the building: those who made no addition to
+that temple, but left other monuments, (as the builders of the
+pyramids,) are denominated oppressors of the people, and contemners
+of the gods: of those princes who left no monuments at
+all, the priests could give no other information than a catalogue
+of names. II. Hence this line of kings, although the priests
+gave it to Herodotus as such, is not without interruptions, but,
+as is clearly proved by a comparison with Diodorus, contains
+many wide chasms: therefore no chronological system can be
+erected upon such a basis. III. The whole history is interwoven
+with narrations derived from hieroglyphic representations,
+and for that very reason allegorical, the meaning of which it is
+no longer possible to unravel, the priests themselves being either
+unable or unwilling to explain it, and even inclining, it appears,
+to introduce false interpretations. To this class of narrations
+belongs, for instance, that of the robbery of Rhampsinitus's treasury;
+that of his journey into hell, where he played at dice with
+Ceres, (c. 121, 122); that concerning the daughter of Cheops,
+(c. 127.); concerning the blindness of Pheron, and the manner in
+which he was cured, etc. (c. 111.) To prove that this charge is
+not without foundation, it will suffice to adduce two examples;
+one from c. 131, where Herodotus himself observes that such was
+the case; the other from c. 141, the true meaning of which we
+gather from other sources. Even in the time of Herodotus, it
+was customary with the priests to endeavour to conciliate the
+Greek and Egyptian authorities; a fact in proof of which there
+are many arguments which cannot escape the critic: such, for
+instance, as the completely <i>Gr&aelig;cised</i> history of king Proteus,
+c. 112&mdash;115.&mdash;The general result of the above observations on
+Herodotus's Egyptian history is, that it is nothing more than a
+narration connected with public monuments. To this inference
+but one objection can possibly be made, namely, that the Egyptian
+priests possessed, besides their hieroglyphics, an alphabetical
+mode of writing; consequently, that, over and above the public
+monuments, they might likewise refer to written annals; but
+this objection is overthrown by Herodotus himself. All the information
+the priests could give him beyond what has been above
+alluded to, consisted in the names of 330 kings subsequent to<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_54" id="Page_54">[Pg 54]</a></span>
+Menes; these they read from a papyrus roll, but knew nothing
+more of the kings who bore them, because <i>those sovereigns had
+left no monuments behind them</i>, (c. 100.)</p>
+
+<p>(<i>b</i>) Besides Herodotus, <i>Diodorus</i> (lib. i.) likewise furnishes us
+with the names of some Egyptian kings. This author, who
+wrote 400 years subsequently to Herodotus, visited Egypt, and
+collected his history, partly from the oral and written documents
+of the priests of <i>Thebes</i>, partly from the more ancient Greek
+writers, and particularly Hecat&aelig;us. If we consider Herodotus's
+line of kings as not continuous or uninterrupted, all appearance
+of contradiction between the two historians vanishes. Diodorus,
+like Herodotus, did not intend to give a complete enumeration
+of the Egyptian kings; but only of the most remarkable; indicating
+the interruptions by the number of generations which
+they contained.</p>
+
+<p>(<i>c</i>) Finally, different from both the above is the Egyptian
+<i>Manetho</i>, high priest at <i>Heliopolis</i>, who flourished under the
+reign of Ptolemy Philadelphus, about B. C. 260. He wrote the
+<i>&AElig;gyptiaca</i>, of which, besides several fragments in Josephus, the
+enumeration of the kings has been preserved in the chronicles of
+Eusebius and Syncellus. This catalogue is divided into three
+sections, (tomos,) each of which contains several dynasties, in all
+31, enumerated according to the different cities of Egypt. In
+each dynasty the number of kings belonging to it and the years
+of their reigns are marked. The authenticity of Manetho is now
+completely established; since the names of the Pharaohs mentioned
+by him have been deciphered on the Egyptian monuments.
+To this period belong the first seventeen dynasties; in
+the eighteenth begins the second and brilliant period, to which
+the yet remaining monuments of Upper Egypt, bearing the names
+of the founders, are to be ascribed. It is worthy of observation,
+that in Herodotus we have the documents of the priests of Memphis,
+in Diodorus those of the priests of Thebes, in Manetho
+those of the priests of Heliopolis&mdash;the three principal seats of
+sacerdotal learning:&mdash;perfect consistency cannot, therefore, be
+expected in the accounts of those historians.</p>
+
+<p>The modern writers on Egyptian antiquities, from <span class="smcap">Kircher</span>,
+<i>&#338;dipus &AElig;gyptiacus</i>, 1670, to <span class="smcap">De Pauw</span>, <i>Recherches sur les
+Egyptiens et sur les Chinois</i>, 1772, have too often substituted
+their own dreams and hypotheses for truth. The principal attempts
+at a chronological arrangement of the dynasties have been<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_55" id="Page_55">[Pg 55]</a></span>
+made by <span class="smcap">Marsham</span>, in his <i>Canon Chronicus</i>; and by <span class="smcap">Gatterer</span>,
+in his &#8224; <i>Synchronistic History of the World</i>.&mdash;Among
+the principal works on this subject may be reckoned:</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Jablonski</span> <i>Pantheon Mythicum &AElig;gyptiacum</i>, 1750, 8vo.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Gatterer</span>, <i>Commentationes de Theogonia &AElig;gypt</i>. in <i>Commentat.
+Societ. Gotting.</i> t. vii.</p>
+
+<p><i>De Origine et Usu Obeliscorum, auctore</i> <span class="smcap">G. Zoega</span>; Rom&aelig;,
+1797.</p>
+
+<p><i>L'Egypte sous les Pharaons, ou Recherches sur la G&eacute;ographie,
+la Religion, la Langue, les Ecritures, et l'Histoire de l'Egypte
+avant l'invasion de Cambyse, par</i> <span class="smcap">Champollion le Jeune</span>,
+t. i, ii. 1814. These two volumes, dedicated to the geography,
+contain the restoration of the ancient Egyptian names of provinces
+and cities deduced from Coptic authorities.</p>
+
+<p><i>Commentationes Herodote&aelig;, scribebat</i> <span class="smcap">Frid. Creuzer</span>. <i>&AElig;gyptica
+et Hellenica, pars 1.</i> Lips. 1819. A series of most acute
+and learned illustrations of different points in Egyptian antiquity,
+introduced by different passages of Herodotus.</p>
+
+<p>The volume in <span class="smcap">Heeren's</span> <i>Historical Researches</i>, etc. 1831,
+vol. ii, concerning the Egyptians; and particularly the introduction
+on hieroglyphic writing. For the best representations of the
+Egyptian monuments, we are indebted to the French expedition.
+Those of Denon in his <i>Voyage en Egypte</i>, are far superior to
+those of Pococke and Norden; but Denon's, in their turn, have
+been greatly surpassed in the magnificent work:</p>
+
+<p><i>Description de l'Egypte, Antiquit&eacute;s</i>, P. i, ii, iii. P. i, contains
+the monuments of Upper Egypt, from the frontiers of
+Nubia to Thebes; P. ii, iii, contain the monuments of Thebes
+alone.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Belzoni</span>, <i>Researches in Egypt</i>, London, 1824, with an atlas.</p>
+
+<p>&#8224; <span class="smcap">Minutoli</span>, <i>Journey to the Temple of Jupiter Ammon, and
+Egypt</i>, 1824.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">L. Burckhardt</span>, <i>Travels in Nubia</i>, London, 1819.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">F. C. Gau</span>, <i>Antiquit&eacute;s de la Nubie</i>, Paris, 1824. A worthy
+continuation of the great French work on Egypt.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Fr. Caillaud</span>, <i>Voyage &agrave; M&eacute;ro&eacute; et au Fleuve Blanc</i>, Paris,
+1825, contains the description of the monuments of Meroe.</p></div>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Early civilization
+of
+Egypt:</div>
+
+<p>1. Political civilization commenced in Egypt at
+a much earlier period than that to which history
+reaches; for even in the days of Abraham, and<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_56" id="Page_56">[Pg 56]</a></span>
+still more so in those of Moses, the government
+seems to have been so well organized, that a long
+period must necessarily have elapsed in order to
+raise the nation to that degree of civilization which
+we see it had then attained. It may, therefore,
+be safely asserted, that Egypt ranks among the
+most ancient countries of our globe in which political
+associations existed; although we cannot
+determine with equal certainty whether they did
+not exist still earlier
+<span class="sidenote">of India.</span>
+in India.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Causes of its early civilization.<br />
+The Nile:</div>
+
+<p>2. The causes which contributed to render
+Egypt thus early a civilized state, may be found
+in the natural features of the country, and its favourable
+situation, when compared with the
+rest of Africa. It is the only tract in all northern
+Africa situated on a large uninterrupted navigable
+stream: had it not been for this, it would, like the
+other parts of Africa under the same parallel, have
+been a mere desert. To this must be added two
+extraordinary circumstances: on the one hand,
+the overflowing of the river so perfectly prepares
+the soil, that to scatter the seed is almost
+the only labour of the husbandman; and yet, on
+the other hand, so many obstacles impede the
+progress of agriculture, (by the necessity of canals,
+dams, etc.) that the invention of man must necessarily have been awakened.
+<span class="sidenote">commerce.</span>
+When agriculture, and the kind of knowledge requisite for its ulterior
+development had introduced a certain degree
+of civilization into Egypt, the situation of that
+country, between Asia and Africa, and in the
+neighbourhood of the rich land of gold and spices,
+must have been highly favourable to the purposes
+of international commerce; hence Egypt appears<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_57" id="Page_57">[Pg 57]</a></span>
+in all ages to have been one of the chief seats of
+the inland or caravan trade.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Egyptian
+civilization
+came from
+the south.</div>
+
+<p>3.  It is obvious, therefore, that in the fertile
+valley of the Nile, the course of things must have
+been very different from what it was in the desert
+of Libya. Several small states appear to have
+been formed in this valley long before the existence
+of any great Egyptian kingdom. Their origin,
+as might naturally be supposed, is enveloped
+in an obscurity, which history can no longer entirely
+penetrate. It may still, however, be gathered
+from monuments and records, that Upper
+Egypt was first the seat of civilization; which, originating
+in the south, spread by the settlement
+of colonies towards the north. It is probable
+that this took place in consequence of the migration
+of some tribe, differing from the negroes, as is
+proved by the representations, both in sculpture
+and in painting, found on the yet remaining monuments
+of Egypt.</p>
+
+<p>4. The records of the high antiquity of political civilization, not only
+in India, but likewise in Arabia Felix and Ethiopia, particularly in Meroe,
+and the evident vestiges of
+<span class="sidenote">Migrations from the south.</span>
+ancient intercourse between the southern nations of our globe, prove
+with sufficient evidence the truth of such migrations,
+although they cannot be chronologically determined.
+It is certain, however, that religion
+had no small share in producing them. The national
+bond of union in Egypt not only continued
+in later times, entirely dependent upon religion,
+but was originally grounded upon it. Thus every
+step in political civilization must have depended,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_58" id="Page_58">[Pg 58]</a></span>
+if not solely, at least principally, on the caste of
+priests and on their extension.</p>
+
+<div class="sblockquot"><p>General development of the idea of division into castes. Originating
+at first in the variety of tribes settled in one and the
+same country, and their different modes of life.&mdash;Its further progress
+in despotic and in theocratic kingdoms.&mdash;Application to
+Egypt and to the Egyptian caste of priests, as an original, civilized
+tribe.</p></div>
+
+<div class="sidenote">A caste of
+priests introduce
+their religion
+and
+civilization
+in Egypt.</div>
+
+<p>5. The peculiarity of this caste was the worship
+of certain deities, the principal of which were
+Ammon, Osiris, and Phtha, confounded by the
+Greeks with their Jupiter, Bacchus, and Vulcan.
+The spread of this worship, which was always
+connected with temples, affords, therefore, the
+most evident vestiges of the spread of the caste
+itself; and those vestiges combined with the records
+of the Egyptians, lead us to conclude that
+this caste was a tribe which migrated from the
+south, from beyond Meroe in Ethiopia, and by
+the establishment of inland colonies around the
+temples founded by them, gradually extended and
+made the worship of their gods the dominant religion
+in Egypt.</p>
+
+<div class="sblockquot"><p>Proof of the accuracy of the above theory deduced from monuments
+and express testimonies concerning the origin of Thebes
+and Ammon from Meroe; it might have been inferred from the
+preservation of the worship of Ammon in the latter place. Memphis,
+again, and other cities in the valley of the Nile, are commonly
+supposed to have been founded by detachments from
+Thebes.</p></div>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Nomes.</div>
+
+<p>6. This conjecture, which agrees with the usual
+progress of population, is corroborated by the very
+ancient division of the country into districts, or
+nomes. This division was intimately connected<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_59" id="Page_59">[Pg 59]</a></span>
+with the chief temples, each of which represented
+a separate colony of the caste of priests; so that
+the inhabitants of every home belonged to the
+chief temple, and joined in the religious worship
+there performed.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Separate
+states
+founded in
+Egypt:</div>
+
+<p>7. To the gradual extension of this civilized
+tribe, which comprised, not only the caste of the
+priests, but certainly also that of the warriors,
+and perhaps some others, may be attributed the
+formation of several small states along the banks
+of the Nile; the central point of each being always
+such a colony as we have just now described;
+although each state consisted both of the aboriginal
+tribes of the neighbourhood, and of those that
+had migrated into the country. The bond which
+united every separate state was, therefore, as in
+most of those formed in the infancy of mankind,
+a common worship, in which all the members
+participated. But what, by reason of the peculiarities
+of soil and climate, could not take
+place in southern Africa, took place in Egypt:
+agriculture, and its progressive improvement, became
+the great support of civilization; and, as
+being the true foundation of states, formed the
+principal political object of the ruling caste.</p>
+
+<div class="sblockquot"><p>Refutation of the idea, that the Egyptian priests were in possession
+of great speculative knowledge; since their knowledge
+rather had constant reference to practical life, and, therefore, was
+in their hands the <i>instrumentum dominationis</i> over the people,
+by which they rendered themselves indispensable, and kept the
+former in a state of dependence.&mdash;Explanation of the close reference
+which their gods, their astronomical and mathematical sciences
+bore to agriculture.</p></div>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Manetho's
+account of
+them:</div>
+
+<p>8. According to Manetho's catalogues, these
+separate Egyptian states existed first in Upper<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_60" id="Page_60">[Pg 60]</a></span>
+and Middle Egypt; in the former were Thebes,
+Elephantine, This, and Heraclea; in the latter,
+Memphis. It is only in the last division of his
+work that we meet with states in Lower Egypt,
+such as Tanis, Mendes, Bubastis, and Sebennytus.</p>
+
+<div class="sblockquot"><p>To these states, therefore, no doubt, belong the 330 kings
+after Menes, whose names the priests read to Herodotus; as also
+those whom Diodorus mentions as reigning previous to Sesostris,
+among whom are remarked Busiris II. founder of Thebes, and
+Uchoreus, the founder of Memphis. Eusebius and Syncellus
+have preserved from Manetho the names of several of those
+kings, which Marsham has endeavoured to compare and arrange.</p></div>
+
+<div class="sidenote">obscurity
+of their
+chronology.</div>
+
+<p>9. In the absence of a certain and continuous
+chronology, it is impossible to determine accurately
+which of these states were contemporary,
+and which succeeded the others. There can be
+no question that Thebes was one of the earliest,
+if not indeed the most ancient of them all; certainly
+prior to Memphis, which was founded by
+it. According to the natural order of things,
+some of these states became wealthy and mighty,
+and swallowed up the others. Even at this early
+period, Thebes and Memphis had obtained a superiority
+over the rest.</p>
+
+<div class="sblockquot"><p>This and Elephantine appear to have been united to Thebes;
+as were the states of Lower Egypt to Memphis.</p></div>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Memphis a
+powerful
+state in Joseph's
+time:
+about 1800,
+B. C.</div>
+
+<p>10. The Mosaic records prove, that even in Joseph's
+time the state of Memphis (the real place,
+it appears, of his residence, not On, or Heliopolis,)
+comprised Middle and Lower Egypt. It possessed
+a numerous and brilliant court; castes of priests
+and warriors. Its agriculture flourished, and several
+of its institutions indicated a deeply-rooted
+civilization. But after the establishment of vassal<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_61" id="Page_61">[Pg 61]</a></span>age
+in this state by Joseph, when the class of free
+proprietors was destroyed, by making the king
+the only landholder except the priests, the troubles
+which already threatened the kingdom must have
+assumed a more dangerous and alarming aspect.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Invasions
+by the
+nomad.</div>
+
+
+<p>11.  These troubles came from abroad. Egypt,
+surrounded on all sides by nomad tribes, had
+often suffered from their irruptions, which sometimes
+poured in from the south, sometimes from the
+east. But never were these invasions so frequent
+and durable as in the period which immediately
+followed the administration of Joseph. Lower Egypt was overrun by
+the Bedouin Arabs, whose chieftains, called by the Egyptians
+<span class="sidenote">Hyksos, or Bedouins.</span>
+<i>Hyksos</i>, settled
+in the country, fortified Avaris, or Pelusium,
+and extended their dominion to Memphis, which
+they made probably the seat of their government.
+They are depicted as the oppressors of religion,
+and of the caste of priests; but when we consider
+that Moses flourished in their time, we are led to
+infer that, like the Mongols in China, they must
+have gradually adopted Egyptian manners and
+civilization. They do not appear to have gained
+possession of Thebes in Upper Egypt; and it
+seems highly probable, that the long struggle
+against them was never, or at least but for a short
+time, suspended.</p>
+
+<div class="sblockquot"><p>The dominion of the Arabian Hyksos falls between B. C.
+1800&mdash;1600; and consequently was contemporary with Moses
+and the exodus of the Jews. Josephus gives 500 years to their
+dominion, in which he probably comprises the long periods of
+earlier wars.</p></div>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Expulsion of the Hyksos:<br />
+and rising splendour of Egypt.
+</div>
+
+<p>12. Defeat, and final expulsion of the Hyksos
+from Upper Egypt by Thutmosis king of Thebes.
+The consequence of this event was not only
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_62" id="Page_62">[Pg 62]</a></span>
+the restoration of freedom and independence to
+Egypt, but also the union of the different states
+into one kingdom; as the rulers of Thebes now
+became monarchs over all Egypt. This expulsion
+of the Hyksos, which in itself cannot be considered
+otherwise than as a vast national effort,
+must have been the more deeply impressed on
+the memory of the people, as it laid the foundation
+of the splendid period which immediately
+followed.</p>
+
+<div class="sblockquot"><p>The expulsion of the Hyksos appears to have been one of
+the chief subjects on which the Egyptian artists exercised their
+talents: it is supposed to have been represented upon one of the
+large temples in Thebes. Denon, plate cxxxiii.</p></div>
+
+
+<hr style="width: 25%;" />
+<h4>SECOND PERIOD.</h4>
+
+<h4><i>From the Sesostrid&aelig; until the sole dominion of Psammetichus.
+B. C. 1500&mdash;650.</i></h4>
+
+<div class="sblockquot"><p>The sources for this period are the same as for the foregoing;
+and the history still preserves the character of records handed
+down by hieroglyphics. To this period belongs the line of kings
+subsequent to Sesostris, given both by Herodotus and Diodorus.
+Those two historians nearly agree, if we regard Herodotus's line
+of kings, not as uninterrupted, but as the fragments of a series
+deduced solely from public monuments: this will be demonstrated
+by the following table, in which the predecessors of Sesostris
+have likewise been indicated.</p>
+
+
+<div class='center'>
+<table border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" summary="">
+<colgroup><col width="50%" /><col width="50%" /></colgroup>
+<tr><th><span class="smcap">Herodotus.</span></th><th><span class="smcap">Diodorus.</span></th></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'><i>Menes.</i></td><td align='left'><i>Menes.</i></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left' rowspan='6' valign='top'>He was followed by three hundred and thirty kings belonging
+to the previous period, concerning which our information is very incomplete: among
+those sovereigns were eighteen Ethiopians, and one queen
+named Nitocris.</td>
+<td align='left'>Followed by fifty-two successors, ranging over a period of more than 1400 years.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'><i>Busiris I.</i> and eight successors; the last of whom was</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'><i>Busiris II.</i> the founder of Thebes.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_63" id="Page_63">[Pg 63]</a></span></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'><i>Osymandyas</i> and eight successors;
+the last of whom was</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'><i>Uchoreus</i>, founder of Memphis.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'><i>&AElig;gyptus</i>, grandson of the foregoing. After the lapse of twelve generations,</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'><i>M&#339;ris.</i></td><td align='left'><i>M&#339;ris.</i></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'></td><td align='left'>Seven generations.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'><i>Sesostris.</i></td><td align='left'><i>Sesostris</i> or <i>Sesoosis</i>.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left' rowspan='6' valign='top'><i>Pheron</i>, son of Sesostris.</td>
+<td align='left'><i>Sesostris II.</i> son of the foregoing:
+he assumed his father's name.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Interval comprising several generations.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'><i>Amasis</i>, and the Ethiopian,</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'><i>Actisanus.</i></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'><i>Mendes</i> or <i>Manes</i>, builder of the labyrinth.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Anarchy which lasted five generations.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'><i>Proteus</i>, in the time of the Trojan war.</td><td align='left'><i>Proteus</i> or <i>Cetes</i>, in the time of the Trojan war.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left' rowspan='2' valign='top'><i>Rhampsinitus.</i></td>
+<td align='left'><i>Remphis</i>, son of the foregoing.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Seven generations, in the course of which flourished <i>Nileus</i>, from whom the Nile derives its name.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'><i>Cheops</i>, builder of the great pyramid.</td><td align='left'><i>Chemmis</i> or <i>Chembes</i>, from Memphis, builder of the great pyramid.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'><i>Chephres</i>, brother to the foregoing, builder of a pyramid.</td><td align='left'><i>Cephren</i>, brother to the foregoing, builder of a pyramid.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'><i>Mycerinus</i>, son of Cheops, builder of a pyramid.</td><td align='left'><i>Mycerinus</i>, son of Chemmis, builder of a pyramid.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'><i>Asychis</i> the legislator.</td><td align='left'><i>Bochoris</i> the legislator.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'><i>Anysis</i>, who was blind.</td><td align='left'>Interval of several generations.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_64" id="Page_64">[Pg 64]</a></span></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'><i>Sabaco</i>, the Ethiopian.</td><td align='left'><i>Sabaco</i>, the Ethiopian</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'><i>Anysis</i>, king for the second time.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'><i>Sethos</i>, a priest of Vulcan.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Dodecarchy.</td><td align='left'>Dodecarchy.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'><i>Psammetichus</i> of Sais, sole ruler.</td><td align='left'><i>Psammetichus</i> of Sais, sole ruler.</td></tr>
+</table></div>
+
+<p>This comparative table demonstrates evidently, not only that
+Herodotus's line is often interrupted, but likewise that it is impossible
+to establish any continuous chronology, since Diodorus,
+more than once leaves the number of generations undetermined.
+Great importance, nevertheless, attaches to the date fixed by
+Herodotus, ii, 13, where he declares that king M&#339;ris flourished
+900 years before his own visit to Egypt: consequently between
+B. C. 1500 and 1450. And if, as seems highly probable, the age
+of Sesostris was the 15th century B. C. (see <span class="smcap">Zoega</span>, <i>de Obeliscis</i>),
+it cannot be denied but that we have some general epochs; and
+with these we must remain content until more satisfactory information
+can be discovered on the monuments. It should likewise
+be observed, that the discrepancy between the names of the
+kings mentioned by Herodotus and Diodorus, and those furnished
+by Manetho, may be accounted for by the fact, that the
+sovereigns were distinguished by different names on the monuments
+and in common life.</p>
+
+<p>Of the dynasties of Manetho, the 18th, 19th, 20th, and 22nd,
+belong to this period; more especially the two first, which contain
+the most important of the Pharaohs.</p></div>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Brilliant
+period of
+the Pharaohs.</div>
+
+<p>1. The following period, nearly to its termination,
+was the brilliant age of Egypt, during which
+it formed but one empire; the kings being represented
+as sovereign lords of the whole country.
+And, indeed, it was natural that the expulsion
+of the invaders should be followed by a period
+in which the military force and ardour of the
+nation would be developed, and directed to ex<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_65" id="Page_65">[Pg 65]</a></span>ternal
+conquest. The capital of the empire was,
+no doubt, Thebes, the great monuments of which
+were erected in this period; that honour, however,
+seems to have alternately belonged to Memphis,
+Herodotus's line of kings being deduced
+from the monuments of that city, and more especially
+from the temple of Phtha.</p>
+
+<div class="sblockquot"><p>The more powerful of the Pharaohs of this period, and the
+founders of the most important monuments of Upper Egypt, on
+which their names are found, are the following: belonging to
+the 18th dynasty, somewhere about 1600&mdash;1500.</p>
+
+<p><i>Amenophis I.</i> His name is likewise found beyond Egypt on
+the temple of Amada, in Nubia.</p>
+
+<p><i>Thutmosis I.</i> Commencement of the expulsion of the Hyksos.</p>
+
+<p><i>Amenophis II.</i> The Memnon of the Greeks. Complete expulsion
+of the Hyksos, and commencement of several of the
+great edifices. His name is also found on the monuments of
+Thebes, Elephantine, and even in Nubia, on the distant temple
+of Soleb. Builder of the palace of Luxor.</p>
+
+<p><i>Thutmosis II.</i> His name found in Carnac, and on the obelisk
+at the Lateran.</p>
+
+<p><i>Ramesses I.</i> Supposed to be the Danaus of the Greeks. Expelled
+by his brother:</p>
+
+<p><i>Ramesses II.</i> Miamun. Builder of the palace of Medinet-Abu
+in Thebes. One of the royal graves that have been opened
+belongs to this king.</p>
+
+<p><i>Amenophis III.</i> Renewed invasion of the Hyksos; he flees
+before them into Ethiopia; but returns victorious with his son
+Ramesses.</p>
+
+<p>Belonging to the 19th dynasty, between 1500 and 1400.</p>
+
+<p><i>Ramesses III.</i>, called the Great, and sometimes <i>Sesostris</i>;
+founder of the dynasty, liberator of Egypt, and a great conqueror.
+His name and titles, his wars and triumphs, are found
+on the temples and palaces of Luxor and Carnac, in Thebes and
+Nubia. His son and follower:</p>
+
+<p><i>Ramesses IV.</i> Pheron, rules long in peace. His name is
+found in the great pillared hall of the palace of Carnac, and on
+many other buildings.</p>
+
+<p>Among his successors but few names have been preserved
+until we come to Scheschonk or Sisac, of the 22nd dynasty, be<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_66" id="Page_66">[Pg 66]</a></span>tween
+970 and 950; he took Jerusalem under the reign of Rehoboam,
+and therefore furnishes a fixed date.</p>
+
+<p>&#8224; R. V. L. (<span class="smcap">Ruehle Von Lilienstern</span>), <i>Graphic Illustrations
+of the most ancient History and Geography of Egypt and
+Ethiopia, with an atlas, 1827</i>. A work containing every thing
+necessary for understanding the discoveries hitherto made in this
+department of history.</p></div>
+
+
+<div class="sidenote">Splendid
+reign of
+Sesostris.</div>
+
+<p>2. For this splendour, the empire was principally
+indebted to Sesostris, son of Amenophis.
+This prince is justly entitled to the surname of
+Great, which was given him by the Egyptians.
+No one will, to the letter, credit the narrative of
+his deeds, exaggerated as they were by the traditions
+of the priests, or represented, as they still
+appear, on the buildings of Thebes; but who can
+doubt the existence of a monarch of whom so
+many and such various monuments within and
+without Egypt bear witness?</p>
+
+<div class="sblockquot"><p>Critical examination of the accounts of the nine years' campaign,
+and conquests of Sesostris. His arms were principally
+directed against wealthy commercial countries; probably by
+land against Ethiopia, Asia Minor, and part of Thrace; by sea
+against Arabia Felix, perhaps even the Indian peninsula. Can
+the performance of these exploits be deemed improbable, in an
+age when western Asia did not contain a single great empire?
+The vast undertakings attributed to Sesostris in the interior of
+his dominions; extensive buildings, canals, division of the land,
+and imposition of taxes, according to a regular survey, prove that
+he must have been the sovereign of all Egypt.</p></div>
+
+
+<div class="sidenote">State of
+the constitution.</div>
+
+<p>3. Notwithstanding the great changes that were
+made, the constitution still bore the same general
+character, that of a sacerdotal aristocracy combined
+with a monarchy. Although the Egyptian
+kings, like the Indian princes, were distinct from
+the priests, yet their power was limited in various
+ways by that caste. The high priest shared the
+royal authority; the king was shackled by reli<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_67" id="Page_67">[Pg 67]</a></span>gious
+ceremonies, both in public and private life;
+he was obliged to evince his veneration for the
+established worship by the erection of public monuments;
+and all the high offices of state were
+in the hands of the priests. It cannot be denied
+that on the personal character of the king
+depended much of his power; but how strong
+must have been this aristocracy, when even successful
+conquerors were obliged to conciliate its
+approbation!</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Division
+into castes.</div>
+
+<p>4. It was probably about this time that the
+domestic relations of the people, the division into
+castes, was completed. The sacerdotal caste
+being in exclusive possession of all scientific
+knowledge, remained for that reason in possession
+of the offices of state. The caste of warriors
+could hardly have assumed its complete form before
+the country was united into one empire: in
+like manner that of the navigators could not have
+been completely established before the canals
+were excavated; although the origin of all may
+have been of a much earlier date.</p>
+
+<div class="sblockquot"><p>Comparison of the accounts given by Herodotus and Diodorus
+of the division into castes. Not only precedence in time, but
+likewise the discrepancies between the two, declare in favour of
+Herodotus.</p></div>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Prosperous
+period of Egypt,<br />
+B. C. 1500&mdash;900.<br />
+714.</div>
+
+
+<p>5. It appears, therefore, that the most prosperous
+period of the kingdom of the Pharaohs must
+be placed somewhere between B. C. 1500&mdash;900:
+although, according to Diodorus, even this period
+was interrupted by a long anarchy. The splendour
+of the empire was obscured towards the end.
+Sabaco, a foreign conqueror from Ethiopia, (probably
+from Meroe,) subjugated Egypt; after his
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_68" id="Page_68">[Pg 68]</a></span>
+departure from the country, Sethos, a priest of
+Phtha, contrary to all precedent, seated himself
+upon the throne. He was, consequently, considered
+an usurper; he offended the caste of
+warriors, and could not have escaped the dangers
+of an irruption threatened by the Assyrian, Sennacherib,
+had not a pestilence compelled the invader
+and his host to retreat.</p>
+
+<div class="sblockquot"><p>The dynasty of Sabaco, Seuechus, and Tarhaco in Meroe,
+who as conquerors subjected Upper Egypt, is comprised between
+B. C. 800&mdash;700. Their names likewise have been already discovered
+on monuments; some at Abydos in Egypt, others in
+Nubia.</p></div>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Dodecarchy.</div>
+
+<p>6. The Egyptian monarchy, however, at length
+fell, and was replaced by an oligarchy; (or perhaps
+a return was only made to the division of the
+earlier kingdoms;) twelve princes sharing among
+themselves the sovereign power. A certain degree
+of unity seems to have existed at first in this
+government; but quarrels soon sprung up among
+the princes, and they compelled one of their
+number, Psammetichus of Sais, to take flight.
+<span class="sidenote">About B. C. 650.</span>
+The exiled prince, supported by Greek and Carian
+mercenaries, contrived to avenge his wrongs; he
+drove away his rivals, and became the sole ruler.</p>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 25%;" />
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_69" id="Page_69">[Pg 69]</a></span></p>
+<h4>THIRD PERIOD.</h4>
+
+<h4><i>From the reign of Psammetichus as sole monarch to the
+Persian conquest of Egypt by Cambyses.<br />
+B. C. 650&mdash;525.</i></h4>
+
+<div class="sblockquot"><p>Herodotus, (l. ii, c. 125, etc.) is still the principal authority for
+this portion of history. His statements, however, are no longer
+derived from hieroglyphics: they are purely historical. During
+the reign of Psammetichus, the Greeks who had migrated into
+Egypt gave rise to the caste of interpreters,
+&#7953;&#961;&#956;&#951;&#957;&#949;&#8150;&#962;, who acted
+both as ciceroni for strangers, and as brokers between the Egyptians
+and Greeks: these people were enabled to give information
+respecting the history of the country. It is not, therefore, surprising
+that Herodotus should assure us, that from this time the
+history was authentic.&mdash;The names of the succeeding Pharaohs
+are likewise found on the monuments; in the erection of which
+they rivaled their predecessors.</p>
+
+<p><i>Contemporary</i>: Asia: rise and fall of the Chald&aelig;o-Babylonian
+empire; rise of the Persian monarchy.&mdash;Rome: kings from
+Numa Pompilius to Servius Tullius.&mdash;Athens: Draco; Solon;
+Pisistratus.&mdash;Jews: the last period and fall of the kingdom of
+Judah; Babylonish captivity.</p></div>
+
+
+<div class="sidenote">Revolutions
+in
+Egypt.</div>
+
+<p>1. From this epoch Egypt remained uninterruptedly
+one kingdom, the capital of which was
+Memphis, although Sais, in Lower Egypt, was the
+general residence of the royal family. Strangers,
+and more particularly Greeks, admitted into
+Egypt; partly as mercenaries, partly as merchants.
+Influence of this innovation upon the
+national character, and upon the political system
+in particular. A spirit of conquest gradually inherited
+by the Egyptian kings, is directed principally
+against Asia: hence the formation of a navy,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_70" id="Page_70">[Pg 70]</a></span>
+and wars with the great rising monarchies of Asia.
+Continued, but declining influence of the sacerdotal
+caste, and proofs of the veneration of the
+kings for the priesthood deduced from the erection
+and embellishment of temples, particularly of that
+consecrated to Phtha in Memphis.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Psammetichus
+<i>d.</i>
+B. C. 610.</div>
+
+<p>2. <i>Psammetichus.</i> He obtains sole power
+through the assistance of Greek and Carian mercenaries,
+who are continued as a standing army in
+the country. The caste of Egyptian warriors,
+taking umbrage in consequence, emigrate for the
+most part to Ethiopia, where they settle. The
+southern portico of the temple of Phtha is erected,
+and projects of conquest are formed against Asia.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Neco <i>d.</i>
+594.</div>
+
+<p>3. <i>Neco</i>, son and successor of Psammetichus.
+His extensive plans of conquest. First formation
+of a naval power; and unsuccessful attempt to
+unite by a canal the Mediterranean with the Red
+sea. Conquests in Asia as far as the Euphrates;
+but quick secession of the conquered, in consequence
+of the loss of the battle of Circesium.
+<span class="sidenote">606.</span>
+Circumnavigation of Africa undertaken at his
+command by the Ph&#339;nicians, and successfully
+performed.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Psammis <i>d.</i>
+458.</div>
+
+<p>4. <i>Psammis his son and successor.</i> Expedition
+against Ethiopia, and conquests in the interior of
+Africa.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Apries <i>d.</i>
+563.</div>
+
+<p>5. Reign of <i>Apries</i>, (the Pharaoh-hophra of the
+Hebrews). Plans of conquest against Asia;&mdash;siege
+of Sidon, and naval battle with the Tyrians;&mdash;expedition
+against Cyrene in Africa; its fatal
+result. A revolution caused thereby in Egypt,
+the inhabitants of which were averse to foreign
+wars, carried on mostly by mercenary aliens: the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_71" id="Page_71">[Pg 71]</a></span>
+revolution headed by Amasis. In the civil war
+which Apries now wages with his mercenaries
+against the Egyptians commanded by Amasis,
+he loses both his throne and life; and with him
+ends the family of Psammetichus, which had
+reigned to this time.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Amasis <i>d.</i>
+525.</div>
+
+<p>6. The usurper <i>Amasis</i> took possession of the
+sovereign power; and although he had to contend
+with a strong party, who despised him on account
+of his low origin, he contrived by popular measures,
+and by the respect he showed to the sacerdotal
+caste, to establish himself upon the throne.&mdash;His
+monuments, both at Sais and Memphis.&mdash;The
+Egyptians and Greeks become better acquainted
+and more closely connected with each
+other, partly in consequence of the marriage of
+the king with a Greek woman; but principally
+owing to the mouths of the Nile being opened to
+the Greek merchants, and the cession of Naucratis
+as a factory for their merchandise. Great
+and beneficial consequences to Egypt, which,
+under the long reign of Amasis, reaches its highest
+pitch of prosperity. This prince had already been
+engaged in disputes with the Persian conqueror,
+Cyrus, whose son and successor, Cambyses, led
+an expedition against Egypt, which Amasis, however,
+luckily for himself, escaped by a seasonable
+death.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Psammenitus.<br />
+525.</div>
+
+<p>7.  His son Psammenitus, the last of the Egyptian
+Pharaohs, is attacked by Cambyses in the
+very first year of his reign. After a single battle,
+fought at Pelusium, and a short siege of Memphis,
+the empire of the Pharaohs is overthrown, and
+Egypt merges into a Persian province. The<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_72" id="Page_72">[Pg 72]</a></span>
+powerful caste of the priests suffered most from
+the hatred of the conqueror; but the persecution
+to which they were subjected must be attributed
+rather to policy than fanaticism.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Egypt a
+province of
+Persia.</div>
+
+<p>8. Condition and fate of Egypt as a Persian
+province. After the death of Cambyses, the
+country received a Persian governor, and consequently
+became a satrapy. Immediately after
+the first tempest of war had blown over, Egypt
+was treated with mildness by the Persians. The
+country paid a moderate tribute, together with
+some royal gifts, among others the produce of the
+<span class="sidenote">Revolts</span>
+fisheries in lake M&#339;ris; nevertheless,
+repeated revolts occurred, which may be principally attributed
+to the hatred and influence of the sacerdotal caste.
+The first took place under Darius Hystaspes,
+<span class="sidenote">488 to 484.</span>
+and was quelled by Xerxes. An increase
+of tribute was the consequence.
+The second, under king Inarus, fomented and supported
+by the Athenians, happened during the reign of Artaxerxes I.;
+<span class="sidenote">463 to 456.</span>
+it was quelled by Megabyzus.
+The third occurred under Darius II. and in consequence
+of the support which the Egyptians received
+from the Greeks, was of longer duration
+than either of the former, the throne of the Pharaoh's
+<span class="sidenote">414.</span>
+being in some measure restored.</p>
+
+<div class="sblockquot"><p>This third secession of the Egyptians lasted till 354. During
+this period various kings were appointed; Amyrt&aelig;us, <i>d.</i> 408;
+Psammetichus, about 400; Nephreus, about 397; Pausiris, <i>d.</i>
+375; Nectanebus I. <i>d.</i> 365; Tachos, <i>d.</i> 363; Nectanebus II.
+conquered by Artaxerxes III. 354.</p></div>
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_73" id="Page_73">[Pg 73]</a></span></p>
+<h3>CARTHAGINIANS.</h3>
+
+
+<div class="sblockquot"><p>Sources. The first great republic which ancient records mention
+as applying both to trade and war, is undoubtedly a phenomenon
+well deserving the attention of the historical enquirer.
+Our knowledge, however, of Carthaginian history is unfortunately
+very deficient, as we possess no author who has made it the principal
+object of his attention. The immediate subject of the
+Greek and Roman writers was the history of their own country,
+and they only allude to that of Carthage in so far as it is connected
+with their main topic. This observation applies as well
+to Polybius and Diodorus, as to Livy and Appian. Even the
+information given by Justin, the only author who says any thing
+concerning the early state of Carthage, is miserably defective,
+although taken from Theopompus. (Cf. <i>Comment. de fontibus</i>
+<span class="smcap">Justini</span> <i>in Commentat. Soc. Gotting.</i> vol. xv.) Moreover, as
+Herodotus here fails us, we have not the writings of any author
+whatever who witnessed Carthage in the days of her prosperity:
+Polybius did not see that country till after the decline of its
+power; the other historians, wrote long afterwards. But although
+an uninterrupted history of Carthage does not exist, we are yet
+able to trace the main outlines of the picture of that state.&mdash;The
+modern writers on Carthage are:</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Hendrich</span>, <i>de Republica Carthaginiensium</i>, 1664. A useful
+compilation.</p>
+
+<p>&#8224; <i>History of the Republic of Carthage</i>, 2 vols. Franckfort,
+1781. A mere history of the wars.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Dampmartin</span>, <i>Histoire de la Rivalit&eacute; de Carthage et de
+Rome</i>, tom. i, ii. Very superficial.</p>
+
+<p>&#8224; <span class="smcap">W. Boetticher</span>, <i>History of Carthage</i>, part i. Berlin,
+1827. The best work on the subject; in which use has been
+made of modern researches.</p>
+
+<p>Concerning the Carthaginians, see <span class="smcap">Heeren's</span> <i>African Nations</i>,
+2 vols. 8vo. Oxford, 1831.</p></div>
+
+
+<div class="sidenote">Periods of
+Carthaginian
+history.</div>
+
+<p>The history of Carthage is most conveniently
+divided into three periods: I. From the foundation
+of the city to the commencement of the wars
+with Syracuse, B. C. 880&mdash;480. II. From the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_74" id="Page_74">[Pg 74]</a></span>
+commencement of the wars with Syracuse to
+those with Rome, 480&mdash;264.  III. From the
+commencement of the wars with Rome to the
+destruction of Carthage, 264&mdash;146.</p>
+
+
+<hr style="width: 25%;" />
+<h4>FIRST PERIOD.</h4>
+
+<h4><i>From the foundation of Carthage to the wars with Syracuse,
+B. C. 880&mdash;480.</i></h4>
+
+<div class="sblockquot"><p><i>Contemporary</i>: Inner Asia: kingdoms of the Assyrians, Babylonians,
+and first half of the Persian monarchy. Greeks:
+period from Lycurgus to Themistocles. Romans: period of the
+kings, and of the commonwealth until the establishment of the
+tribunes of the people.</p></div>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Early history
+of Carthage</div>
+
+<p>1. The foundation and primitive history of Carthage,
+like all very early and important events in
+national history, have, by long tradition, been
+wrapt in the veil of romance. The account given
+of Dido, the supposed founder of the city, cannot
+be reduced to the standard of pure historical
+truth, though it appears to justify the inference
+that some political commotions in the mother city,
+Tyre, induced a party of emigrants to proceed to
+the northern shores of Africa; where other Ph&#339;nician
+establishments had already taken place:
+here, by engaging to pay a yearly tribute, they
+purchased from the natives permission to found a
+city, the site of which was so happily chosen,
+that it only depended upon the inhabitants to
+raise it to that greatness which it afterwards attained.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Vast extent
+of the Carthaginian
+dominions.</div>
+
+<p>2. It is probable that Carthage advanced at
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_75" id="Page_75">[Pg 75]</a></span>first by slow steps; yet even at the end of this
+first period she had reached to such a height of
+power, that she was mistress of a large territory
+in Africa, and of foreign possessions still more
+extensive. Establishment of the Carthaginian
+dominion in Africa by the subjection of the neighbouring
+aboriginal tribes, and the foundation of
+Carthaginian settlements within their territories;
+the natives, Liby-Ph&#339;nicians, gradually mingled
+with the inhabitants of those colonies, and imbibed
+from them a love of agriculture and fixed
+abodes. The inhabitants of the fertile territory
+extending southward as far as the lake Triton,
+were, without exception, Carthaginian subjects.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Relation of
+Carthage
+with the
+other Tyrian
+colonies of
+Africa:</div>
+
+<p>3. Her connection, however, with the ancient
+Ph&#339;nician towns along the coast, particularly
+Utica, was of a different nature. For although
+possessed a certain authority over them,
+she did not claim absolute dominion, but rather
+stood at the head of a federation; thus affording
+a protection which must frequently have degenerated
+into oppression.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">with the
+Greek colony
+of Cyrene.</div>
+
+<p>4. In consequence of a treaty with the neighbouring
+republic of Cyrene, the whole territory
+extending between the two Syrtes was also ceded
+to the Carthaginians. The Lotophagi and Nasamones,
+inhabitants of this district, preserved their
+nomad mode of life; they must, however, from
+their trade with the interior parts of Africa, have
+been of the highest importance to Carthage.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Carthaginian colonies:<br />
+Sardinia;<br />
+Baleares;<br />
+Corsica:<br />
+part of Sicily:<br />
+Canaries;<br />
+Madeira.</div>
+
+<p>5.  System of colonization, and, as a necessary
+result, that of conquest without Africa.  It was
+evidently the aim of the Carthaginians to settle
+on islands, and to subject them to their dominion.
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_76" id="Page_76">[Pg 76]</a></span>Those lying in the western part of the Mediterranean
+occupied the first place in their plan of conquest,
+which was completely executed in Sardinia,
+the Baleares, and other small islands; perhaps
+in Corsica; in Sicily, however, they could
+never succeed to the full extent of their wishes.
+There is also every probability that the Canary
+islands and Madeira were entirely in their possession.
+On the other hand, the Carthaginians,
+previous to their wars with Rome, were in the
+practice of establishing separate settlements on
+the main land, partly in Spain, and partly on the
+western shore of Africa. In the latter, they
+adopted the policy of their ancestors, the Ph&#339;nicians,
+making the settlements so small, and
+confining them within such narrow bounds, that
+the mother country might always ensure their
+dependence.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Conquests of Mago and his family.<br />
+Carthage connected with Persia, B. C. 550&mdash;480.<br />
+Sea fight between the Carthaginians and Phoc&aelig;ans.<br />
+Colonies without the straits of Gibraltar.<br />
+539.<br />
+First treaty with Rome, 509.</div>
+
+
+<p>6. The glory of extending the territory of Carthage,
+by important conquests, belongs principally
+to the family of Mago, who, together with his two
+sons and six grandsons, established the dominion
+of the republic in Sicily, Sardinia, and Africa.
+This occurred about the same time that Cyrus,
+Cambyses, and Darius were laying the foundation
+of the Persian monarchy, with which
+Carthage even then entered into connection. The Carthaginians,
+therefore, made their first appearance, as
+extensive conquerors, in the fourth century from
+the foundation of their commonwealth; and it is
+at this period that mention is made of their first
+naval engagement, in which the Phoc&aelig;ans were
+their adversaries. In the same period may be
+dated the establishment of their colonies beyond
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_77" id="Page_77">[Pg 77]</a></span>
+the Pillars of Hercules by Hanno and Himilco&mdash;both
+probably sons of Mago;&mdash;by the former on
+the coast of Africa, by the latter on that of Spain.
+To the same period likewise is referred the first
+commercial treaty between the Carthaginians and
+Romans, in which the former appear as already
+masters of Sardinia, Africa, and a portion of
+Sicily.</p>
+
+<p>7.  To complete these conquests, and to preserve
+them when completed, the formation and
+support of vast fleets and armies were indispensably
+necessary. According to the usual practice
+<span class="sidenote">Arts military and naval of Carthage.</span>
+of those nations who apply both to trade and to
+war, the Carthaginian armies were composed for
+the most part of mercenaries. No nation, however,
+followed this plan so extensively as the
+Carthaginians, for to them half Africa and Europe
+furnished warriors.&mdash;Description of a Carthaginian
+army; development of the advantages
+and disadvantages of its organization.&mdash;Organization
+of their navy. The state supported very numerous
+fleets of war-ships, with a multitude of
+slaves who laboured at the oar, and were it seems
+public property.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Constitution
+of Carthage:<br />
+
+suffetes;<br />
+
+senate;<br />
+
+state council;<br />
+
+commons.<br />
+
+Military
+and civil
+functions
+generally
+divided.</div>
+
+<p>8.  The political constitution of Carthage, like
+that of all wealthy trading states, was an aristocracy
+composed of the noble and the opulent,
+though at all times combined with a certain admixture
+of democracy. The affairs of the state
+were confided to the hands of the two suffetes or
+kings,&mdash;who, in all probability, held their office
+for life&mdash;and to those of the senate (&#946;&#959;&#965;&#955;&#8052;) which
+contained within itself a more select council (the
+&#947;&#949;&#961;&#959;&#965;&#963;&#943;&#945;). The privilege of electing the magistrates
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_78" id="Page_78">[Pg 78]</a></span>resided with the people at large, who also shared
+the legislative power with the suffetes. Civil and
+military power was usually divided: the offices
+of general and magistrate not being always, as at
+Rome, united in the same individual,&mdash;although
+such an instance might not be of impossible occurrence:&mdash;to
+each military chief, on the contrary,
+was appointed a committee from the senate, on
+which he was more or less dependent.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Supreme
+court of the
+<i>hundred</i>:<br />
+its object;</div>
+
+
+<p>9.  The high state tribunal of the <small>HUNDRED</small> was
+instituted as a barrier to the constitution against
+the attempts of the more powerful aristocrats,
+particularly the military leaders; indeed the brilliancy
+of Mago's conquests seemed to threaten
+the republic with a military government; and immediately
+previous to his time one of the generals,
+Malchus, had actually made an attempt to
+enslave Carthage. The object of the institution
+was no doubt attained; but in later times the
+council assumed to itself a power which increased
+<span class="sidenote">its evils.</span>
+to absolute despotism. It is not improbable that
+this court likewise constituted the select committee
+(the &#947;&#949;&#961;&#959;&#965;&#963;&#943;&#945;) of the senate.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Finances of Carthage.<br />
+Tributes from the African federates:<br />
+Sardinia, etc.<br />
+the Syrtic hordes:<br />
+dues and customs:<br />
+mines.</div>
+
+<p>10.  Our information respecting the financial
+system of the Carthaginians is extremely meagre.
+The following seem to have been the principal
+sources of the public revenue. 1. The tribute
+drawn from the federate cities, and their African
+subjects. The former paid in money, the latter
+for the most part in kind; this tribute was imposed
+at the will of the government, so that in
+pressing cases the taxed nations were obliged to
+give one half of their income. 2. The case was
+the same with their external provinces, parti<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_79" id="Page_79">[Pg 79]</a></span>cularly
+with Sardinia. 3. The tribute furnished
+by the nomad hordes, partly by those in the
+Regio-Syrtica, and occasionally also by those on
+the western side. 4. The customs, which were
+levied with extreme rigour, not only in Carthage,
+but likewise in all the colonies. 5. The products
+of their rich mines, particularly those of Spain.
+In considering the financial system of the Carthaginians,
+it should not be forgotten that many of
+the nations with whom they traded, or who served
+in their armies, were unacquainted with the use
+of money.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Trade of
+Carthage:</div>
+
+<p>11. System and extent of their commerce.
+Their object was to secure a monopoly of the
+western trade; hence the practice of restricting
+the growth of their colonies, and of removing as
+much as possible all strangers from their commercial
+marts. Their trade was carried on partly
+<span class="sidenote">by sea to Britain and the Guinea coast;</span>
+by sea, and partly by land. Their sea trade,
+arising from the colonies, extended beyond the
+Mediterranean, certainly as far as the coasts of
+Britain and Guinea. Their land trade was carried
+on by caravans, consisting principally of the
+nomad tribes resident between the Syrtes: the
+<span class="sidenote">by land to the interior of Africa.</span>
+caravans travelled eastward to Ammonium and
+Upper Egypt, southward to the land of the Garamantes,
+(Fezzan,) and even still further into the
+interior of Africa.</p>
+
+
+<hr style="width: 25%;" />
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_80" id="Page_80">[Pg 80]</a></span></p>
+
+<h4>SECOND PERIOD.</h4>
+
+<h4><i>From the breaking out of the wars with Syracuse, to the
+commencement of those with Rome, B. C. 480&mdash;264.</i></h4>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Views of
+Carthage
+upon Sicily.</div>
+
+<p>1. The great object of Carthaginian policy
+during the whole of the above period, was to
+subdue Sicily; this object the nation pursued
+with extraordinary pertinacity, often approximating
+to, but never obtaining, complete success.
+The growing power of Syracuse, which likewise
+aimed at the sole possession of the island, laid
+the foundation of that national hatred which now
+arose between the Sicilian Greeks and the Carthaginians.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">rout at Himera
+by
+Gelon,
+B. C. 480.</div>
+
+<p>2. First attempt, arising out of the league
+formed with Xerxes I. upon his irruption into
+Greece. Gelon of Syracuse, in a victory more
+decisive even than that gained by Themistocles
+over the Persians at Salamis, routs the Carthaginians
+near Himera, and compels them to accede
+to a disgraceful peace.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">General extension
+of
+the Carthaginian
+empire
+in
+Africa,
+480&mdash;410.</div>
+
+<p>3. This defeat was followed by a period of
+tranquillity lasting seventy years, during which
+we know little about Carthage. All that we can
+say with any probability is, that in the mean time
+the struggle for territory between Cyrene and
+Carthage commenced and terminated to the advantage
+of the latter state, whose dominion was
+generally extended and confirmed in Africa by
+wars with the aboriginal tribes.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_81" id="Page_81">[Pg 81]</a></span></p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">War in
+Sicily renewed,
+410.</div>
+
+<p>4.  But the accession of Dionysius I. to the
+throne of Syracuse, and the ambitious project
+formed by him and his successors, of subjecting
+to their rule all Sicily and Magna-Grecia, rekindled
+once more the embers of war, which had
+only smouldered for a short time, to burst forth
+with additional violence.</p>
+
+<div class="sblockquot"><p>Repeated and bloody wars with Dionysius I. between the
+years 410&mdash;368. Neither party able to expel the other: terms
+of the last peace; that each party should remain in possession of
+what he then occupied. Second commercial treaty with Rome.</p>
+
+<p>Crafty advantage taken by the Carthaginians of the internal
+commotions at Syracuse during and subsequent to the reign of
+Dionysius II: they endeavour to obtain their end; but are
+thwarted by the heroism of Timoleon, 345&mdash;340.</p>
+
+<p>A new and frightful war with Agathocles, the seat of which
+is transferred from Sicily into Africa itself; it at last terminates
+in favour of Carthage, 311&mdash;307.</p>
+
+<p>The war with Pyrrhus, 277&mdash;275, whose ambition gave rise to
+an alliance between Carthage and Rome, contributed likewise to
+increase the preponderance of the Carthaginians in Sicily; and
+probably the perseverance of that people, and their skill in profiting
+by circumstances, would at last have enabled them to
+attain their object, had not the seeds of war been thereby scattered
+between Carthage and Rome.</p></div>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Two attempts
+at
+revolution.
+340;
+308.<br />
+
+Excellent
+state of the
+Carthaginian
+finances
+at
+the beginning of the
+first Punic
+war.</div>
+
+<p>5.  What effect these Sicilian wars had upon
+the state we are not informed. They were probably
+regarded in Carthage as a beneficial channel
+for carrying off the popular fermentation;&mdash;nevertheless,
+two attempts, both unsuccessful,
+were made by some of the aristocratical party, to
+overthrow the constitution; first by Hanno, 340,
+and afterwards by Bomilcar, 308.&mdash;At the breaking
+out, however, of the war with Rome, the
+commonwealth was so formidable and mighty,
+that even the finances of the state do not appear
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_82" id="Page_82">[Pg 82]</a></span>to have been at all affected; a circumstance of
+the highest importance. What consequence was
+it to Carthage whether 100,000 barbarians more
+or less existed in the world, so long as there remained
+plenty of men willing to suffer themselves
+to be sold, and she possessed money to purchase
+them?</p>
+
+<hr style="width: 25%;" />
+<h4>THIRD PERIOD.</h4>
+
+<h4><i>From the beginning of the wars with Rome, to the downfal
+of Carthage, B. C. 264&mdash;146.</i></h4>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Causes of
+the Punic
+wars.</div>
+
+<p>1. The wars between Carthage and Rome were
+the necessary consequences of a desire of aggrandizement
+in two conquering nations; any one
+might have foreseen the struggle between the
+two rivals as soon as their conquests should once
+begin to clash. It is, therefore, a question of
+little importance, to enquire which was the aggressor;
+and although Rome may not be entirely
+cleared of that charge, we cannot help observing
+that, according to the principles of sound policy,
+the security of Italy was hardly compatible with
+the sole dominion of the Carthaginians over the
+island of Sicily.</p>
+
+<div class="sblockquot"><p>First war with Rome, 264&mdash;241, (twenty-three years,) waged
+for the possession of Sicily, and decided almost at its commencement
+by Hiero's passing over to the Roman side. (For the history
+of it, see below, in the Roman history, Book V. Period ii,
+parag. 2 sq.)</p></div><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_83" id="Page_83">[Pg 83]</a></span></p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Fatal consequences
+of the first
+Punic war
+to Carthage.</div>
+
+<p>2. This war cost the republic, Sicily and the
+sovereignty of the Mediterranean, by which the
+fate of its other external possessions was already
+predetermined. But that which appeared at the
+first view to threaten the greatest danger, was
+the total exhaustion of its finances; a circumstance
+which will no longer surprise us, when we
+consider how many fleets had been destroyed and
+replaced, how many armies had been annihilated
+and renewed. Carthage had never before been
+engaged in such an obstinate struggle as this; and
+the immediate consequences were more terrific
+even than the war itself.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Dreadful
+civil war,
+B. C. 240&mdash;237.</div>
+
+<p>3. The impossibility of paying the mercenaries
+produced a mutiny among the troops, which rapidly
+grew into a rebellion of the subject nations,
+who had been most cruelly oppressed during the
+war. The consequence was a civil war of three
+years and a half, which probably would have
+spared the Romans the trouble of destroying Carthage,
+had not the state been snatched from ruin
+by the heroism of Hamilcar.</p>
+
+<div class="sblockquot"><p>This war, which lasted from 240 to 237, produced lasting consequences
+to the state; it gave rise to the feud between Hamilcar
+and Hanno the Great, which compelled Hamilcar to seek
+for support against the senate by becoming the leader of a democratic
+faction.</p></div>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Sardinia is
+lost, 237.</div>
+
+<p>4. The revolt spread abroad; it reached Sardinia
+and caused the loss of that most important
+island, of which the Romans, flushed with power,
+took possession, in spite of the terms of the
+peace.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Rise of the
+house of the
+Barcas:</div>
+
+<p>5. The influence of the family of the Barcas,
+supported in their disputes with the senate by the
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_84" id="Page_84">[Pg 84]</a></span>popular party, now got the upper hand in Carthage;
+and the first fruit of their power was the
+new and gigantic project of repairing the loss of
+Sicily and Sardinia by the conquest of Spain; a
+<span class="sidenote">vast projects upon Spain,</span>
+country where the Carthaginians already had
+some possessions and commercial connections.
+The immediate object of the Barcas was the support
+of their family and party; but the Spanish
+silver mines soon furnished the republic with the
+means of renewing the contest with Rome also.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">executed by
+Hamilcar
+and Hasdrubal,
+237&mdash;221.<br />
+
+By treaty
+with the
+Romans
+the Ebro is
+fixed as the
+boundary of
+their possessions
+in
+Spain, 226.<br />
+
+Carthagena founded.<br />
+
+Hannibal succeeds to the command of the
+army, 221;<br />
+
+and begins the second Punic war,
+218.</div>
+
+<p>6. During the nine years in which Hamilcar
+commanded, and in the following eight in which
+Hasdrubal, his son-in-law and successor, was at
+the head of the army, the whole of the south of
+Spain, as far as the Iberus, was brought under
+subjection to Carthage, either by negotiation or
+force of arms. The further progress of the Carthaginians
+was only arrested by a treaty with the
+Romans, in which the Iberus was fixed upon as
+a frontier line, and the freedom of Saguntum acknowledged
+by both powers. Hasdrubal crowned
+his victories as a general and as a statesman by
+the foundation of New Carthage, (Carthagena,)
+which was to be the future seat of Carthaginian
+power in the newly-conquered country. Hasdrubal
+having fallen by the hand of an assassin in
+the year 221, the party of the Barcas succeeded
+in appointing Hamilcar's son, Hannibal, a young
+man of one-and-twenty, for his successor. Hannibal
+found every thing already prepared in Spain
+for the furtherance of the hereditary project of his
+family, which was a renewal of the contest with
+Rome; and the vigour with which this project
+was pursued, clearly proves how great must have<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_85" id="Page_85">[Pg 85]</a></span>
+been the preponderance of the Barcine influence,
+at that time, in Carthage. Had the commonwealth
+attended to the marine with the same
+ardour as their great general did to the land service,
+the fate of Rome would perhaps have been
+very different.</p>
+
+<div class="sblockquot"><p>Second war with Rome, 218&mdash;201, (seventeen years,) first in
+Italy and Spain, afterwards, from 203, in Africa itself. (See
+the history of this war below, in the Roman history, Book V, Period
+ii, parag. 6 sqq.)</p></div>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Internal
+state of
+Carthage
+during the
+second Punic
+war.</div>
+
+<p>7. Until Africa became the scene of action, the
+second war cost the republic much less than the
+first; the expenses being principally defrayed by
+Spain and Italy. Hanno, however, was at the
+head of a powerful party at home, who were clamorous
+for peace, and who can say they were
+wrong? As might be expected, the family of the
+Barcas were for war, and their influence carried
+the day. That general who, with hardly any support
+from Carthage, was yet able to maintain a
+footing in the country of his powerful foes for no
+less than fifteen years, and that, too, as much by
+policy as by force of arms, must extort our admiration.
+It cannot, however, be denied, that
+during the struggle one favourable opportunity,
+at least, was let slip of making peace; a fatal
+omission, for which the hero of Cann&aelig; paid
+dearly enough, by the failure of his darling project.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">A disgraceful
+peace the result of the war.</div>
+
+<p>8. By the second peace with Rome, Carthage
+was deprived of all her possessions out of Africa,
+and her fleet was delivered into the hands of the
+Romans. She was now to be a mere trading city
+under the tutelage of Rome. But Carthage found
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_86" id="Page_86">[Pg 86]</a></span>by this peace her most formidable enemy on the
+soil of Africa itself. Massinissa had been elevated
+to the dignity of king of Numidia; and his endeavours
+to form his nomads into an agricultural
+<span class="sidenote">Massinissa of Numidia a new instrument of Roman policy.</span>
+people, and to collect them into cities, must have
+changed the military system that Carthage had
+hitherto followed. Roman policy, moreover, had
+taken care that the article inserted in his favour
+in the last treaty of peace, should be so ambiguously
+worded, as to leave abundant openings for
+dispute.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Hannibal at
+the head of affairs;<br />
+
+attempts to check the oligarchy.</div>
+
+<p>9. Even after this disgraceful peace, the family
+of the Barcas still preserved their influence, and
+Hannibal was placed as supreme magistrate at
+the head of the republic. He attempts to reform
+the constitution and the finances, by destroying
+the oligarchy of the hundred, by whom the finances
+had been thrown into confusion. Complete as
+was the success of the first blow, it soon became
+apparent that aristocratic factions are not so readily
+annihilated as armies.</p>
+
+<div class="sblockquot"><p>The democratic faction to which even the Barcas owed their
+first elevation, was the cause of the degeneracy of the Carthaginian
+constitution. By that faction the legislative authority of the
+senate and magistrates was withdrawn and transferred to the <i>ordo
+judicum</i>&mdash;probably the same as the high state tribunal of the
+hundred&mdash;which now assumed the character of an omnipotent
+national inquisition; and the members being chosen for life exercised
+oppressive despotism. This tribunal was formed of those
+who had served the office of ministers of finance, with whom it
+shared unblushingly the revenues of the state. Hannibal destroyed
+this oligarchy by a law, enacting that the members should
+hold their office but for one year; whereas before they held it
+for life. In the reform wrought by this law in the finances it
+was seen, that after all wars and losses, the revenues of the republic
+were still sufficient, not only for the usual expenditure<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_87" id="Page_87">[Pg 87]</a></span>
+and the payment of tribute to Rome, but also for leaving a surplus
+in the public treasury. Ten years had hardly elapsed before
+Carthage was enabled to pay down at once the whole of the
+tribute which she had engaged to furnish by instalments.</p></div>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Hannibal
+compelled
+to fly to Syria.</div>
+
+<p>10. The defeated party, whose interests were
+now the same with those of Rome, joined the Romans,
+to whom they discovered Hannibal's plan
+of renewing the war in conjunction with Antiochus
+the Great, king of Syria. A Roman embassy
+was sent over to Africa, under some other pretext,
+to demand that Hannibal should be given
+up. The Carthaginian general secretly fled to
+<span class="sidenote">195.</span>
+king Antiochus, at whose court he became the
+chief fomenter of the war against Rome; although
+unsuccessful in his endeavour to implicate the
+Carthaginian republic in the struggle.</p>
+
+<div class="sblockquot"><p>See hereafter the history of Syria, Book IV, Period iii, separate
+kingdoms. I. Seleucid&aelig;, parag. 18; and Book V, Period
+ii, parag. 10 sq.</p></div>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Roman influence
+completely
+established
+in Carthage.</div>
+
+<p>11. In consequence of the absence of Hannibal,
+Carthage fell once more under the dominion of
+the Romans, who contrived, by taking a crafty advantage
+of the state of parties, to give a show of
+generosity to the exercise of their power. Even
+the patriotic faction, if we may judge by the violent
+steps which they took more than once against
+Massinissa and his partisans, seem to have been
+but a tool in the hands of Rome.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">The Carthaginian
+territory
+gradually
+dismembered.</div>
+
+<p>12. Disputes with Massinissa, which led to the
+gradual partition of the Carthaginian territory in
+Africa. The manner in which this territory had
+been acquired, facilitated the discovery of claims
+upon each of the component parts; and the interference
+of Rome, sometimes disinterested, but of<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_88" id="Page_88">[Pg 88]</a></span>tener
+swayed by party feeling, ensured the possession
+of the territory to the Numidian.</p>
+
+<div class="sblockquot"><p>Even in 199, a disadvantageous treaty framed with Massinissa
+for fifty years: nevertheless the rich province of Emporia is lost
+in 193.&mdash;Loss of another province unnamed, to which Massinissa
+inherited some claims from his father.&mdash;Seizure of the province
+of Tysca, with fifty cities, about 174. Probable date of Cato's
+embassy, who returned in disgust, because his decision had been
+rejected, and became the fomenter of a project to destroy Carthage.&mdash;New
+disputes about 152.&mdash;Massinissa's party is expelled
+Carthage.&mdash;War breaks out in consequence, during which the
+king in his ninetieth year personally defeats the Carthaginians;
+and what with famine and the sword, Hasdrubal's army, which
+had been surrounded by the enemy, was nearly exterminated; in
+the mean while the Roman ambassadors, who had come to act as
+mediators, obeying their private instructions, looked on with
+quiet indifference.</p></div>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Destruction
+of Carthage;
+third Punic
+war;</div>
+
+
+<p>13. Though it is evident that the party spirit
+raging between Cato and Scipio Nasica had a
+considerable influence in hastening the destruction
+of Carthage; and though it is equally clear
+that Massinissa's late victory paved the way for
+the immediate execution of that project; yet it is
+difficult to unravel the web, by which, long before
+the declaration of war now about to follow,
+treachery prepared the final scene of this great
+tragedy. Was the account that Cato at his return
+gave of the resuscitated power of Carthage consonant
+<span class="sidenote">brought about probably by Roman duplicity.</span>
+to truth? Was not the sudden secession
+of Ariobarzanes, the grandson of Syphax, who
+was to have led a Numidian army to defend Carthage
+against Massinissa, previously arranged with
+Rome? Was not the turbulent Gisgo, who first
+incited the populace to insult the Roman ambassadors,
+and then opportunely rescued them from
+the fury of the mob, in the pay of Rome? These<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_89" id="Page_89">[Pg 89]</a></span>
+questions give rise to suspicions, although they
+cannot satisfactorily be answered. At any rate,
+it may be said, that the conduct of Rome, after
+war had broken out, corroborates the suspicion.
+The whole history of the last period sufficiently
+proves, that it was not so much the debased character
+of the nation, as party spirit, and the avarice
+of the great, which produced the fall of Carthage.
+Advantage was taken of that party spirit and avarice
+by Roman policy, which, although acting according
+to the dictates of blind passion, knew
+how to profit by dark and base intrigue.</p>
+
+<div class="sblockquot"><p>Third war with Rome and destruction of Carthage, 150&mdash;146.
+See hereafter the Roman history, Book V, Period ii, parag. 19 sq.</p></div>
+
+
+<hr style="width: 100%;" />
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_90" id="Page_90">[Pg 90]</a></span></p>
+<h1><a name="SECOND_BOOK" id="SECOND_BOOK"></a>SECOND BOOK.</h1>
+<hr style="width: 100%;" />
+
+<h3><i>History of the Persian Empire, from B. C. 560&mdash;330.</i></h3>
+
+
+<div class="sblockquot"><p>Sources. Preservation of historic records among the Persians
+themselves under the form of royal annals; origin and nature of
+those annals. As these have been destroyed, we are obliged to
+deduce the history from foreign writers, some of whom, however,
+availed themselves of the Persian annals. 1. <i>Greeks</i>: their
+authority as writers, contemporary, but not always sufficiently
+acquainted with the east. (<i>a</i>) <span class="smcap">Ctesias.</span> His court history compiled
+from Persian annals, would be the principal work did we
+possess the whole; we have, however, only an extract from it
+preserved by Photius. (<i>b</i>) <span class="smcap">Herodotus</span>: who probably availed
+himself of similar sources in some portion of his work. (<i>c</i>) <span class="smcap">Xenophon.</span>
+To this period of history belong, not only his Anabasis
+and Hellenica, but also his Cyrop&aelig;dia, or portraiture of a happy
+empire and an accomplished ruler, according to eastern ideas, exhibited
+in the example of Cyrus: of use so far as pure historic records
+are interwoven with the narrative. (<i>d</i>) <span class="smcap">Diodorus</span>, etc.
+2. <i>Jewish writers.</i> The books of <span class="smcap">Esdras</span> and <span class="smcap">Nehemiah</span>; and
+more particularly that of <span class="smcap">Esther</span>, as containing a faithful representation
+of the Persian court and its manners. 3. The accounts
+of the later <i>Persian chroniclers</i>, <span class="smcap">Mirkhond</span> in particular, who
+flourished in the thirteenth century of the christian era, can have
+no weight in the scale of criticism; they are nevertheless interesting,
+inasmuch as they make us acquainted with the ideas that
+the inhabitants of the east form of their early history.</p>
+
+<p>The modern authors on Persian history are principally those
+who have written on ancient history in general: see p. 2. A
+treatise on Persian history, deduced from eastern sources, will
+be found in the <i>Ancient Universal History</i>, vol. iv.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Brissonius</span>, <i>de Regno Persarum</i>, 1591, 8vo. A very laborious
+compilation.</p>
+
+<p>The section concerning the Persians in &#8224; <span class="smcap">Heeren</span>, <i>Ideas</i>, etc.
+vol. i, part 1.</p>
+
+<p>[<span class="smcap">Malcolm, Sir John</span>, <i>History of Persia</i>, from the earliest
+ages to the present times. Lond. 1816, 4to. 2 vols. "A valuable
+work."]</p></div><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_91" id="Page_91">[Pg 91]</a></span></p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Original
+condition
+of the Persians.</div>
+
+
+<p>1. State of the Persian nation previous to Cyrus;
+a highland people, subject to the Medes,
+dwelling in the mountainous parts of the province
+of Persis, and leading wholly, or for the most
+part, a nomad life. Division into ten clans,
+among which that of the <i>Pasargad&aelig;</i>, the noblest
+<span class="sidenote">The horde of the Pasargad&aelig;,</span>
+and ruling horde, is particularly remarkable on
+account of the figure it makes in subsequent history.&mdash;The
+result of this division was a patriarchal
+government, the vestiges of which remain visible
+in the whole of the following history of the Persians.
+Permanent distinction between the tribes
+in reference to their mode of life, observable even
+during the most flourishing period of the Persian
+state: three of the nobles or warriors, three of
+the husbandmen, and four of the shepherds.
+Argument thence deduced, that the history of the
+<span class="sidenote">has the ascendant.</span>
+Persians as a dominant nation, <i>is that of the
+nobler clans alone, and of the</i> <span class="smcap">Pasargad&aelig;</span> <i>more
+especially</i>.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote"><span class="smcap">Cyrus</span>,
+similar to
+Gengis-khan
+and other
+Asiatic
+conquerors;</div>
+
+<p>2. The personal history of Cyrus, the founder
+of the Persian monarchy, was, even in the time of
+Herodotus, so obscured under the veil of romance,
+that it was no longer possible to detect the real
+truth. It is, however, evident, that the course of
+the revolution wrought by him was, on the whole,
+the same as was followed in all similar empires
+founded in Asia. Gengis-khan, in a later age,
+was placed at the head of all the Mogol hordes;
+in the same manner was Cyrus elected chief of
+all the Persian tribes, by whose assistance he
+<span class="sidenote">founds the Persian empire about B. C. 561.</span>
+became a mighty conqueror, at the time that the
+Babylonian and Median kingdoms of Inner Asia
+were on the decline, and before the Lydian<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_92" id="Page_92">[Pg 92]</a></span>
+empire, under Cr&#339;sus, had been firmly established.</p>
+
+<div class="sblockquot"><p>Descent of Cyrus from the family of Ach&aelig;menes, (Jamshid?).
+That family belonged to the Pasargad&aelig; tribe, and therefore remained
+the ruling house.</p></div>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Of the Medo-Bactrian empire, destroyed 561.<br />
+of the Lydian empire:<br />
+Asiatic Greeks subjected, about 557<br />
+of Babylon, 538.<br />
+Cyrus is slain in battle with the Massaget&aelig;, 529.</div>
+
+<p>3. Rise of the Persian dominion, in consequence
+of the overthrow of the Medo-Bactrian
+empire, after the defeat of Astyages at Pasargada.
+Rapid extension by further conquest. Subjection
+of Asia Minor after the victory won by Cyrus in
+person over Cr&#339;sus, and capture of the Greek
+colonies by the generals of the Persian monarch.
+Conquest of Babylon and all the Babylonian provinces.
+The Ph&#339;nician cities submit themselves
+of their own accord.  Even in Cyrus's time,
+therefore, the frontiers of the Persian empire had
+been extended in southern Asia to the Mediterranean,
+to the Oxus, and to the Indus; but the
+campaign against the nomad races, inhabiting the
+steppes of Central Asia, was unsuccessful; and
+Cyrus himself fell in the contest.</p>
+
+<div class="sblockquot"><p>It cannot be denied but that in the narration of the separate
+wars waged by Cyrus, discrepancies are found in Herodotus and
+Ctesias; those two authors, however, agree in the main facts:
+and, indeed, the differences which exist between them cannot be
+considered always as direct contradictions.</p></div>
+
+<div class="sidenote">The Persians
+adopt
+the religion,
+laws, and
+civility of
+the conquered
+Medes.</div>
+
+<p>4. Immediate consequences of this great revolution
+in respect both of the conquerors and the
+conquered. Among the former, even in the time
+of Cyrus, the civilization and luxury of the Medes,
+their legislation and national religion, and the
+sacerdotal caste of the magi, who were guardians
+of that religion, had been introduced, and the
+whole system of the Persian court had been remodelled
+upon that of the Medes.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_93" id="Page_93">[Pg 93]</a></span></p>
+
+<div class="sblockquot"><p>Description of Zoroaster's legislation, and of the magian national
+religion, according to the Zend-avesta. How far the
+dogmas of Zoroaster can be considered as dominant among the
+Persians?&mdash;Proof that they were adopted only by the nobler
+tribes, more particularly the Pasargad&aelig;. Their great and beneficial
+influence on agriculture.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Anquetil Du Perron</span>, <i>Zend-avesta, ouvrage de</i> <span class="smcap">Zoroastre</span>,
+<i>traduit en Fran&ccedil;ois sur l'original Zend</i>. Paris, 1771. 4to. This
+work has been much improved by the critical discussions added
+to the German translation by <span class="smcap">J. L. Kleuker</span>. Compare the
+dissertations on Zoroaster by <span class="smcap">Meiners</span> and <span class="smcap">Tychsen</span>, in <i>Comment.
+Soc. Gotting.</i> and <span class="smcap">Heeren</span>, <i>Ideas</i>, etc. vol. i.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Hyde</span>, <i>De Religione veterum Persarum</i>; Oxon. 1700, 4to.
+Replete with learned research, and the first work that excited
+enquiry on the subject.</p>
+
+<p>&#8224; <span class="smcap">J. S. Rhode</span>, <i>Sacred Traditions of the East</i>; Breslau,
+1821. An excellent work for the study of the Zend-avesta, the
+magian religion, and the antiquities of the Medes and Persians.</p></div>
+
+
+<div class="sidenote">Expedients adopted to keep possession
+of the conquered territories.<br />
+Tribute.<br />
+Standing armies.<br />
+Transfer of whole nations.</div>
+
+<p>5.  First political constitution of the Persian empire under Cyrus. No general new organization;
+but for the most part the original institutions are preserved among the conquered, who
+are compelled to pay tribute. Royal officers, appointed to collect
+the tribute, are associated with the generals, who with numerous armies
+keep in subjection the inhabitants of the conquered
+countries. For the support of the empire
+large standing armies are kept in pay, besides
+which, recourse is frequently had to the transplanting
+of whole nations; while, as was the case
+with the Jews, some who had been formerly transplanted
+are restored to their country. With the
+same view injunctions are issued, as in the case
+of the Lydians, to effect the enervation of warlike
+races by a luxurious and effeminate system of
+education.</p>
+
+<p>6.  Cyrus leaves two sons, the elder of whom,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_94" id="Page_94">[Pg 94]</a></span>
+Cambyses, succeeds as king; the younger, Smerdis,
+(the <i>Tanyoxarces</i> of Ctesias,) becomes independent
+lord of Bactria and the eastern territories;
+but is soon after murdered by the command
+of his elder brother.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote"><span class="smcap">Cambyses</span>
+529&mdash;522.<br />
+conquers
+Egypt, etc.</div>
+
+<p>7. Under Cambyses the conquering arms of
+the Persians are directed against Africa. Egypt
+becomes a Persian province, and the neighbouring
+Libya, together with Cyrene, assume the yoke of
+their own accord. But the twofold expedition
+against the opulent commercial establishments,
+Ammonium in the west, and Meroe in the south,
+is wholly unsuccessful; that against Carthage is
+arrested in its commencement by the refusal of
+the Tyrians to join the naval armament. A colony
+of six thousand Egyptians is transplanted into
+Susiana.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">His policy
+in persecuting
+the Egyptian priesthood:<br />
+his vices probably much exaggerated.</div>
+
+<p>8. The cruelty with which Cambyses is accused
+of treating the Egyptians was directed
+rather against the powerful caste of the priests,
+than against the whole nation; and originated
+more in political than in religious motives. It
+must be observed, however, that we ought to be
+particularly on our guard against all the evil that
+is related of Cambyses, inasmuch as our information
+respecting that prince is derived entirely from
+his enemies, the Egyptian priests.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Usurpation of the magi:<br />
+death of Cambyses, 522.</div>
+
+<p>9. The usurpation of the Pseudo-Smerdis, (or
+<i>Tanyoxarces</i>,) was an attempt of the magi to replace
+a Median dynasty on the throne, by means
+of a plot hatched within the seraglio. It was the
+occasion of an accident which cost Cambyses his
+life, after a reign of seven years and a half: (or,
+according to Ctesias, of eighteen.)</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_95" id="Page_95">[Pg 95]</a></span></p>
+<div class="sidenote">The false
+<span class="smcap">Smerdis</span>,
+after a reign
+of eight
+months, is
+slain by the
+seven grandees.</div>
+
+<p>10. The Pseudo-Smerdis kept his seat on the
+throne eight months, during which he attempted
+to bring over the conquered nations to his interest
+by a remission of all tribute for three years; but
+the discovery of his cheat gave rise to a conspiracy
+of seven of the chief Persians, who could
+not brook the rule of a Mede, and the usurper lost
+his life.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">No progress made towards an established
+government under Cambyses and Smerdis.<br />
+
+The Persians having forsaken the nomad life,<br />
+
+Persepolis is built.</div>
+
+<p>11. It could not be expected that the political
+organization of the kingdom should advance to
+completion during the reign of Cambyses, who
+was almost always absent in the prosecution of
+war; or during the brief rule of the Pseudo-Smerdis.
+It remained, therefore, in the same
+state as under Cyrus. But the introduction of
+the Median court-ceremonial among the ruling
+tribe of the Persians, and the adoption of fixed
+dwellings by that tribe, rendered it necessary that
+royal residences should be erected for the reception
+of the king's court; among these Persepolis,
+(see above, p. 20,) probably commenced by Cyrus,
+was completed under Darius and Xerxes.</p>
+
+<div class="sblockquot"><p>The best drawings of the monuments of Persepolis, remarkable
+alike for their architecture, their sculpture, and their inscriptions
+in the arrow-headed character, are to be found in the Travels of
+<span class="smcap">Chardin</span> and <span class="smcap">Niebuhr</span>. Illustrations:</p>
+
+<p>&#8224; <span class="smcap">Herder's</span> <i>Persepolis</i>, in the collection of his works, vol. i.</p>
+
+<p>&#8224; <span class="smcap">Heeren</span>, <i>Ideas</i>, etc. Part I. vol. i. Great assistance in
+studying the inscriptions, is furnished by</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">De Sacy</span>, <i>M&eacute;moires sur diverses Antiquit&eacute;s de la Perse</i>;
+Paris, 1793, 4to. It must be observed, however, that this work
+is confined to the illustration of the later monuments, belonging
+to the <i>Sassanid&aelig;</i>. The most successful attempt at deciphering
+the arrow-headed inscriptions of the old Persic, since <span class="smcap">Tychsen</span>,
+<span class="smcap">Muenter</span>, and <span class="smcap">Lichtenstein</span>, will be found in</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_96" id="Page_96">[Pg 96]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>&#8224; <span class="smcap">Grotefend</span>, <i>On the Interpretation of the Arrow-headed
+Characters, particularly of the Inscriptions at Persepolis</i>, contained
+in the appendix to <span class="smcap">Heeren</span>, <i>Ideas</i>, etc. vol. ii. with an
+accompanying Zend alphabet.</p></div>
+
+
+<div class="sidenote">The seven
+grandees
+hold council
+on the future
+form of
+government.</div>
+
+<p>12. After a very remarkable debate held by
+the seven conspirators, concerning the form of
+of government which should be established, Darius,
+the son of Hystaspes, one of the family of the
+Ach&aelig;menides, was raised to the throne by an
+oracle; this king endeavoured to strengthen his
+right to the sceptre by marrying two of Cyrus's
+daughters.</p>
+
+
+<div class="sidenote"><span class="smcap">Darius</span>
+(522&mdash;486.)
+a great
+statesman
+and conqueror:</div>
+
+<p>13. The reign of Darius I. which lasted thirty-six
+years, (according to Ctesias 31,) is remarkable
+for the improvements made both in the external
+and internal administration of the Persian empire.
+In the former, by the great expeditions and conquests,
+which extended the Persian realm to its
+utmost limits; in the latter, by several important
+institutions, established for the internal organization
+of the state.</p>
+
+
+<div class="sidenote">the first
+Persian
+that carries
+his arms
+into Europe:<br />
+and is embroiled with the European Greeks.</div>
+
+
+<p>14. The expeditions of the Persians under Cyrus
+were directed against the countries of Asia;
+those of Cambyses against Africa. But those
+undertaken by Darius I. were directed against
+Europe, though the Persian territory was at the
+same time extended in the two other quarters of
+the world. In the reign of this king likewise
+commenced those wars with the Greeks, so fatal
+to the Persians; constantly fomented and supported
+by emigrant or exile Greeks, who found
+an asylum in the Persian court, and there contrived
+to raise a party.&mdash;First example of the kind
+exhibited shortly after the accession of Darius, in<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_97" id="Page_97">[Pg 97]</a></span>
+the case of Syloson, brother to Polycrates, who
+had been tyrant of Samos: at his request the
+island was taken possession of by the Persians,
+and delivered up to him after the almost total destruction
+of the male population.</p>
+
+
+<div class="sidenote">Babylon secedes,
+and
+is reduced:
+516.</div>
+
+<p>15.  Great revolt in Babylon, which would not
+submit tamely to a foreign yoke. After a siege
+of twenty-one months, Darius by stratagem regains
+possession of the city. The power of
+Babylon and the importance of its situation increased
+the jealousy with which it was guarded
+by the Persian kings; so much so, that they
+were wont to reside there a certain portion of the
+year.</p>
+
+
+<div class="sidenote">Campaign against the Scythians: 513.<br />
+The Persians, though unsuccessful, establish themselves in Europe.</div>
+
+<p>16.  First great expedition of Darius undertaken
+against the Scythians inhabiting the lands north
+of the Black sea: the former irruption of the
+Scythians into Asia afforded a pretext for the
+war, which, therefore, was considered as a general
+national undertaking. Unsuccessful as the
+Persian arms were in this vast expedition against
+the Scythians, and disgraceful as was the retreat
+from the barren steppes of the Ukrain, yet the
+power of Darius was established in Thrace and
+Macedonia, and the Persians obtained firm footing
+in Europe.</p>
+
+<div class="sblockquot"><p>Concerning the peculiar character of the Persian national wars,
+or great campaigns, in which all the conquered nations were
+obliged to participate, contrasted with the other wars waged by
+Persian troops alone.</p></div>
+
+
+<div class="sidenote">Campaign against western India, 509:</div>
+
+
+<p>17.  The next expedition made by Darius was
+more successful. It was carried on along the
+banks of the Indus, down which river Scylax, a
+Greek, had previously sailed on a voyage of
+discovery. The highlands north of the Indus
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_98" id="Page_98">[Pg 98]</a></span>were then subjected to the Persian dominion,
+and the Indus became the boundary of the
+kingdom.  About the same time that Darius
+was engaged on the Danube and the Indus,
+Aryandes, his viceroy in Egypt, led an expedition against
+<span class="sidenote">against Barca in Africa.</span>
+Barca, to avenge the murder of king
+Arcesilaus; a war which terminated in the destruction
+of the city, and the transplantation of
+its inhabitants into Asia.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Secession of the Asiatic Greeks, 502&mdash;496;<br />
+who, assisted by Athens, fire Sardes, 500,<br />
+but are completely routed off Miletus, 496.</div>
+
+<p>18. However trifling the first occurrence which
+gave rise to the revolt of the Asiatic Greeks,
+it was much more important in its consequences.
+It was set on foot by Aristagoras, lieutenant-governor
+of Miletus, who was secretly supported
+by his relation, the offended Histi&aelig;us,
+then resident at the Persian court. The share
+taken by the Athenians in this rebellion, which
+led to the burning of Sardes, was the origin of the
+national hatred between Persia and European
+Greece, and of the long series of wars that ensued.
+The confederates were this time defeated;
+but the naval battle off the island of Lada, could
+hardly have had such a fatal result, had not the
+league been previously corrupted by the craft and
+gold of Persia. Be that as it may, this war
+ended in the reduction of the Ionians, and the
+destruction of Miletus, their flourishing capital; a
+city which in those days, together with Tyre and
+Carthage, engrossed the trade of the world.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">First campaign against Greece.<br />
+under Mardonius, frustrated by a tempest off Athos, 492.<br />
+Second campaign.<br />
+Battle of Marathon, Sept. 29, 490.</div>
+
+<p>19. First attack upon Greece, particularly
+Athens. Darius, already enraged against the
+Athenians by the firing of Sardes, is still further
+instigated by the suggestions of the banished tyrant
+of Athens, Hippias, the son of Pisistratus.
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_99" id="Page_99">[Pg 99]</a></span>
+This prince, who had fled to the Persian court,
+was evidently the animating spirit of the whole
+undertaking. Although the first attempt, made
+under the command of Mardonius, was thwarted
+by a tempest, yet the mighty expedition which
+afterwards followed, was undertaken with so much
+more prudence, and conducted with so much
+knowledge of the country, that no one can fail to
+recognize the guiding hand of Hippias. Even the
+battle of Marathon, which seems to have been
+but a diversion on the side of the Persians, would
+not have decided the war, had not the activity of
+Miltiades defeated the principal design of the
+enemy upon Athens.</p>
+
+
+<div class="sidenote">Progress of
+the Persians
+towards a
+regular
+constitution.</div>
+
+<p>20. It may be said that Darius, by these foreign
+wars, debilitated the kingdom which he endeavoured
+to extend; this circumstance, however,
+it cannot be denied, increases the merit which he
+has of perfecting the internal organization of the
+empire. His reign constitutes precisely that period
+which must enter into the history of every
+nomad race that has attained to power, and is
+advancing towards political civilization; a period
+at which it becomes visible that the nation is endeavouring
+to obtain a constitution, however gradual
+the progress towards it.</p>
+
+
+<div class="sidenote">Division of
+the empire
+into <i>satrapies</i>.</div>
+
+<p>21. Division of the empire into twenty <i>satrapies</i>,
+and the imposition of a regular tribute on
+each. This division at first depended solely on
+that of the various tributary races, but from it
+gradually arose a geographic division, in which
+the ancient distinction of countries was for the
+most part preserved.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_100" id="Page_100">[Pg 100]</a></span></p>
+<div class="sblockquot"><p>Proofs that the division into satrapies was originally a mere
+arrangement for the civil government and collection of taxes,
+distinct from military power. Duties of the satraps. The attention
+they were to pay to the cultivation and improvement of
+the land; to the collection of the imposts; to the execution of
+the royal commands relating to provincial affairs. An abuse of
+this institution, at a later period, placed in the hands of these
+satraps the command also of the troops.&mdash;Various means of keeping
+the satraps in a state of dependence: royal secretaries appointed
+for each, who were to be the first to receive the king's
+commands.&mdash;Periodical visits paid to the provinces by commissioners
+under the direct appointment of the king, or by the king
+himself accompanied with an army.&mdash;Establishment of couriers
+in every part of the empire, for the purpose of securing a safe
+and rapid communication with the provinces, as was the case
+also in the Mongol countries; (not a regular post, however, the
+institution here alluded to being intended only for the court.)</p></div>
+
+
+<div class="sidenote">Persian
+finances:
+the conquered
+to
+support the
+conquerors.</div>
+
+<p>22. The Persian finance continues to preserve
+those peculiarities which naturally result from the
+formation of an empire by a nomad race of conquerors,
+desirous of living at the expense of the
+conquered, and under a despotic form of government.</p>
+
+<div class="sblockquot"><p>Collection of tribute, mostly in kind, for the support of the
+court and the armies; and in precious metals, not coined, but in
+their raw state. Application of the treasure thus collected towards
+constituting a private chest for the king. Various other
+royal imposts.&mdash;Mode of providing for the public expenditure by
+assignments on the revenues of one or several places.</p></div>
+
+
+<div class="sidenote">Art military.</div>
+
+<p>23. Organization of the military system, conformably
+to the primitive state of the nation, and
+the necessity now felt of keeping the conquered
+countries in subjection by means of standing armies.</p>
+
+<div class="sblockquot"><p>Military organization of the Persian nations, by means of a
+decimal division pervading the whole.&mdash;Royal troops cantoned in
+the open field, according to a certain division of the empire, or
+stationed as garrisons in the cities, and distinct from the encampments.&mdash;Manner
+in which the troops were supported at the cost
+and by the taxes of the provinces.&mdash;Introduction of mercenaries<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_101" id="Page_101">[Pg 101]</a></span>
+and Greeks, more particularly among the Persians, and fatal consequences
+of that measure. Military household of the satraps
+and grandees.&mdash;Institution of a general conscription in national
+wars. Formation of the Persian navy, consisting of the Ph&#339;nician,
+and not unfrequently of the Asiatic Greek fleets.</p></div>
+
+
+<div class="sidenote">The Persian
+court both a
+seraglio and
+the head
+quarters of
+the army.</div>
+
+<p>24.  From the time of Darius, the court of the
+kings of Persia attained its complete form, and
+the government soon after was wholly concentrated
+in the seraglio. Yet the mode of life which
+the kings led, surrounded by a court, taken principally
+if not wholly from the tribe of the Pasargad&aelig;,
+and changing their residence according to
+the revolutions of the seasons, still preserved the
+traces of nomad origin.</p>
+
+<div class="sblockquot"><p>Babylon, Susa, and Ecbatana, the usual residences; Persepolis
+now used as a royal cemetery. The court supported by the
+most costly productions of each province; hence arose the rigid
+ceremonial observed at the royal table.&mdash;Internal organization of
+the seraglio.&mdash;Influence of the eunuchs and queen-mothers on
+the government.</p></div>
+
+
+<div class="sidenote">Revolt of Egypt, 488:<br />
+death of Darius, 486.</div>
+
+<p>25.  Already had Darius commenced preparations
+to wreak his vengeance on Athens, when a
+revolution broke out in Egypt, and hindered him
+from prosecuting his design. He died after nominating
+for his successor Xerxes I. grandson of
+Cyrus, and his eldest son by a second wife,
+Atossa, whose influence over her husband was
+boundless.</p>
+
+
+<div class="sidenote"><span class="smcap">Xerxes I.</span> 486&mdash;465:<br />
+recovers Egypt, 484:</div>
+
+<p>26. Xerxes I. A prince educated in the seraglio,
+who knew nothing beyond the art of representing
+the pomp of royalty.  Subjection of
+Egypt, and severe treatment of that country under
+the satrap Ach&aelig;menes, brother to Xerxes.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">leads a
+mighty
+army
+against
+Greece.</div>
+
+<p>27. Xerxes' famous expedition against Greece
+was again the result of the cabals and intrigues of
+the Greek exiles, the Pisistratid&aelig;, the soothsayer
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_102" id="Page_102">[Pg 102]</a></span>Onomacritus, the Thessalian princes or Aleuad&aelig;,
+who contrived to exert their influence on the
+king's mind, and to raise a party in their favour
+among the grandees. But the progress of the
+campaign showed that no Hippias was at the
+head of the invading army, although the Persian
+king did certainly succeed in his avowed object,
+the capture and destruction of Athens.</p>
+
+<div class="sblockquot"><p>Critique on the detailed account given by Herodotus of this
+expedition, as a national undertaking in which all the subjugated
+nations were obliged to take a share.&mdash;Preparations which last
+for three years in the Persian empire; league framed with Carthage
+for the subjection of the Sicilian Greeks, 483&mdash;481. The
+expedition itself in 480; over Asia Minor and the Hellespont,
+through Thrace and Macedonia.&mdash;Muster of the army and division
+of the troops according to nations at Doriscus; the detailed
+description of which found in Herodotus, was most probably borrowed
+from some Persian document.&mdash;The pass of Thermopyl&aelig;
+taken by treachery; on the same day a naval engagement off
+Artemisium.&mdash;Athens captured and burnt. Battle of Salamis,
+Sept. 23, 480. Retreat of Xerxes; an army of picked men left
+behind, under the command of Mardonius.&mdash;Fruitless negotiations
+with the Athenians.&mdash;Second campaign of Mardonius: he
+is routed at Plat&aelig;&aelig;, Sept. 25, 479; and that event puts an end
+for ever to the Persian irruptions into Greece: on the same day
+the Persian army is defeated, and their fleet burnt at Mycale in
+Asia Minor.</p></div>
+
+
+<div class="sidenote">Persia now
+obliged to
+concentrate
+her forces in
+Asia Minor.</div>
+
+<p>28. The consequences of these repeated and
+unsuccessful expeditions, in which almost the
+whole population was engaged, must be self-evident.
+The empire was weakened and depopulated.
+The defensive war which the Persians for
+thirty years were obliged to maintain against the
+Greeks, who aimed at establishing the independence
+of their Asiatic countrymen, completely
+destroyed the balance of their power, by compelling
+them to transfer their forces to Asia<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_103" id="Page_103">[Pg 103]</a></span>
+Minor, the most distant western province of the
+empire.</p>
+
+
+<div class="sidenote">Policy of
+the Persians
+in bribing
+the Greeks.<br />
+Cimon wrests from Persia the sovereignty of the sea:<br />
+battle of the Eurymedon, 469.</div>
+
+<p>29. Little as the Greeks had to fear from the
+Persian arms, the danger with which they were
+now threatened was much more formidable, when
+the enemy began to adopt the system of bribing
+the chieftains of Greece; a system which succeeded
+beyond expectation in the first trial made
+of it with Pausanias, and perhaps was not wholly
+unsuccessful with Themistocles himself.&mdash;But the
+Persians soon found in Cimon an adversary who
+deprived them of the sovereignty of the sea; who
+in one day destroyed both their fleet and their
+army on the Eurymedon; and by the conquest of
+the Thracian Chersonese, wrested from them the
+key of Europe.</p>
+
+
+<div class="sidenote">Bloody deeds in the Persian seraglio:<br />
+Xerxes murdered.</div>
+
+<p>30.  What little we know further concerning the
+reign of Xerxes, consists in the intrigues of the
+seraglio, which now, through the machinations of
+queen Amestris, became the theatre of all those
+horrors which are wont to be exhibited in such
+places, and to which Xerxes himself at last fell a
+victim, in consequence of the conspiracy of Artabanes
+and the eunuch Spamitres.</p>
+
+<div class="sblockquot"><p>Was Xerxes the Ahasuerus of the Jews?&mdash;On the difference
+between the names of the Persian kings in Persian and Chaldee;
+not to be wondered at when we consider that they were mere
+titles or surnames, assumed by the sovereigns after their accession.</p></div>
+
+
+<div class="sidenote"><span class="smcap">Artaxerxes</span>, 465&mdash;424.<br />
+during his reign Persia is on the decline.</div>
+
+<p>31.  Artaxerxes I. surnamed Longimanus. In
+consequence of the murder of his father and his
+elder brother, in the conspiracy of Artabanes, this
+prince ascended the throne, but was unable to
+keep possession of the sceptre without assassi<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_104" id="Page_104">[Pg 104]</a></span>nating,
+in his turn, Artabanes. His reign, which
+lasted forty years, exhibits the first symptoms of
+the decline of the empire, which this king, although
+possessed of many good qualities, had not
+the talent or spirit to arrest.</p>
+
+
+<div class="sidenote">Rebellions
+in the provinces.</div>
+
+<p>32. At the very commencement of his reign
+rebellions are excited in the provinces; in the
+mean while the war with Athens continues. Two
+battles are required to repress the insurrection of
+his brother Hystaspes in Bactria.</p>
+
+
+<div class="sidenote">Second secession of Egypt, 463:</div>
+
+<p>33. Second revolt of Egypt, excited by the
+Libyan king, Inarus of Marea, in conjunction
+with the Egyptian, Amyrt&aelig;us, and supported by
+an Athenian fleet. Although the confederates
+did not make themselves masters of Memphis,
+they defeated the Persian army, commanded by
+the king's brother, Ach&aelig;menes, who lost his life
+in the battle; they were at last overpowered by
+Megabyzus, satrap of Syria, and shut up together
+with Inarus in the town of Byblus. Inarus and
+<span class="sidenote">partly quelled, 456.</span>
+his party were admitted to capitulation; but
+Amyrt&aelig;us, having taken refuge in the morasses,
+continued to make head against the Persians.</p>
+
+
+<div class="sidenote">Persian fleet and
+army defeated by Cimon, 449.<br />
+
+Disgraceful peace with Athens, 449.</div>
+
+<p>34. The Grecian war takes, once more, an unfavourable
+turn for the Persians: Cimon defeats
+the enemy's fleet and army near Cyprus. The
+fear of losing the whole of the island accordingly
+compels Artaxerxes I. to sign a treaty of peace
+with Athens, in which he recognizes the independence
+of the Asiatic Greeks, and agrees that
+his fleet shall not navigate the &AElig;g&aelig;an sea, nor
+his troops approach within three days' march of
+the coast.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Megabyzus,
+the first example
+of a
+rebellious
+satrap,
+447.</div>
+
+<p>35. But the haughty and powerful Megabyzus,
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_105" id="Page_105">[Pg 105]</a></span>enraged at the execution of Inarus, in violation of
+the promise made by him to that prince, excites
+a rebellion in Syria; repeatedly defeats the royal
+armies, and prescribes himself the conditions upon
+which he will be reconciled to his sovereign.
+This was the first great example of a successful
+insurrection excited by one of the Persian satraps;
+and chequered as were the subsequent
+fortunes of Megabyzus, his party continued to
+subsist after his death in the persons of his sons.
+He possessed in the centre of the court a support
+in the dowager queen Amestris, and the reigning
+<span class="sidenote">Death of Artaxerxes, 424.</span>
+queen Amytis; (both notorious for their excesses;)
+who kept Artaxerxes I. in a constant state of tutelage
+to the hour of his death.</p>
+
+
+<div class="sidenote"><span class="smcap">Xerxes
+II.</span> 424.</div>
+
+<p>36.  Revolutions in the government now succeed each other with rapidity and violence.
+Xerxes II. the only legitimate son and successor of Artaxerxes, is slain, after forty-five days' reign,
+by his bastard brother
+<span class="sidenote"><span class="smcap">Sogdianus.</span></span>
+Sogdianus; the latter, in his turn, after a reign of six months, is deposed
+by another bastard brother, Ochus, who ascends the throne, and assumes the name of Darius II.</p>
+
+
+<div class="sidenote"><span class="smcap">Darius II.</span> 423&mdash;404.<br />
+Rapid decline of the state.</div>
+
+<p>37.  Darius II. surnamed the Bastard, or Nothus.
+He reigns nineteen years under the tutelage
+of his wife, Parysatis, and of three eunuchs,
+one of whom, Artoxares, even attempts to open a
+way to the throne, but is put to death. In this
+period the decline of the state advances with hurried
+steps; partly by reason of the extinction of
+the legitimate royal line, partly by the increased
+practice of placing more than one province, together
+with the military command, in the hands of
+the same satrap. Although the repeated insur<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_106" id="Page_106">[Pg 106]</a></span>rections
+of the satraps are repressed, the court,
+by the breach of faith to which it is obliged to
+have recourse, in order to succeed in its measures,
+<span class="sidenote">422.</span>
+exhibits to the world a convincing proof of its infirmity.
+The revolt of Arsites, one of the king's
+brothers, who was supported by a son of Megabyzus,
+and that of Pisuthnes, satrap of Lydia, are
+quelled only by obtaining treacherous possession of their
+<span class="sidenote">414.</span>
+persons.</p>
+
+
+<p>38. In consequence of the weak state of the
+empire, the fire, which had hitherto been smouldering
+under the ashes, burst forth in Egypt.
+Amyrt&aelig;us, who had remained till now in the morasses,
+issued forth, supported by the Egyptians;
+<span class="sidenote">Third revolt of Egypt, 414.</span>
+and the Persians were again expelled the land.
+Obscure as the subsequent history may be, we
+see that the Persians were obliged to acknowledge,
+not only Amyrt&aelig;us, but his successors.
+[See page 72].</p>
+
+
+<div class="sidenote">Peloponnesian
+war favorable
+to
+the Persian
+interests.</div>
+
+<p>39. The Persians must have regarded it as a
+happy event, that the Peloponnesian war, kindled
+in Greece during the reign of Artaxerxes, and
+protracted through the whole of that of Darius II.
+had prevented the Greeks from unitedly falling
+upon Persia. It now became, and henceforward
+continued to be, the chief policy of the Persians
+to foment quarrels and wars between the Grecian
+republics, by siding at various times with various
+parties; and the mutual hatred of the Greeks
+rendered this game so easy, that Greece could
+hardly have escaped total destruction, had the
+Persian plans been always as wisely laid as they
+were by Tissaphernes; and had not the caprice
+and jealousy of the satraps in Asia Minor gene<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_107" id="Page_107">[Pg 107]</a></span>rally
+had more effect than the commands of the court.</p>
+
+<div class="sblockquot"><p>Alliance of the Persians with Sparta, framed by Tissaphernes,
+441; but in consequence of the policy of Alcibiades, and the
+artful principles of Tissaphernes, followed by no important results,
+until the younger Cyrus, satrap of all Asia Minor, was by
+Lysander, 407, brought over to the Spartan interest. (See below,
+the Grecian history, III. Period, parag. 23.)</p></div>
+
+
+<div class="sidenote"><span class="smcap">Artaxerxes II.</span>
+405&mdash;362.</div>
+
+<p>40.  Artaxerxes II. surnamed Mnemon. Although
+this prince was the eldest son of Darius,
+his right to the throne might, according to the
+Persian ideas of succession, have appeared dubious,
+since his younger brother, Cyrus, had the
+advantage over him of being the first born subsequent
+to the accession of his father.
+<span class="sidenote">Anabasis of Cyrus.</span>
+Relying on the support of his mother Parysatis, Cyrus,
+even without this claim to the throne, would, no
+doubt, have asserted his pretence to the sovereign
+power. It would have been, in all probability, a
+fortunate event for the Persian empire, had the
+fate of battle, in the ensuing war between the two
+brothers, assigned the throne to him whom nature
+seems to have pointed out as the fittest person.</p>
+
+<div class="sblockquot"><p>History of this war according to Xenophon. Battle of Cunaxa,
+in which Cyrus falls, 401. Retreat of the ten thousand Greek
+mercenaries in the service of Cyrus, under the guidance of Xenophon.</p></div>
+
+
+<div class="sidenote">Weak reign of Artaxerxes II.</div>
+
+<p>41.  During the whole of this reign, Artaxerxes,
+now firmly seated on the throne, remained under
+the tutelage of his mother, Parysatis, whose inveterate
+hatred against his wife, Statira, and
+against all who had any share in the death of her
+darling son, Cyrus, converted the seraglio into a
+theatre of bloody deeds, such as can be conceived
+and committed only in similar places.</p>
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_108" id="Page_108">[Pg 108]</a></span></p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">War with Sparta, 400.<br />
+Agesilaus in Asia, 396&mdash;394.<br />
+Peace of Antalcidas, 387.<br />
+Policy of Persia in keeping on good terms with Thebes.<br />
+War with Evagoras of Cyprus, 385.</div>
+
+<p>42. The insurrection and rout of Cyrus produced
+a corresponding change in the political relations
+between the Persian court and Sparta:
+which, however, were now determined, not so
+much by the will of the monarch himself, as by
+the satraps of Asia Minor, Tissaphernes and Pharnabazus,
+of whose jealousy Sparta knew how to
+take advantage. The former, by his severity towards
+the Asiatic Greeks, who had supported the
+cause of Cyrus, excited a war with Sparta, in
+which he himself fell a victim. The death of the
+satrap is not, however, succeeded by tranquillity;
+for Agesilaus commands in Asia, and threatens to
+overthrow the Persian throne itself. The policy
+of the Persians is shown by the war which they
+foment in Greece against Sparta: Conon is placed
+at the head of their fleet, and extricates Persia
+from her difficulties better than could have been
+done by her own generals;
+in the peace of Antalcidas she herself dictates the terms, by which
+the Grecian colonies of Asia Minor, together with
+Cyprus and Clazomen&aelig;, are again delivered into
+her possession.  The rising power of Thebes
+under Epaminondas and Pelopidas, with whom
+Persia keeps up a friendly connection, ensures
+her from any future blow at the hands of the
+Spartans.&mdash;War for the possession of Cyprus with
+Evagoras, who, however, by the subsequent peace
+retains the sovereignty of Salamis.</p>
+
+
+<div class="sidenote">War with the Cadusii, 384.<br />
+Attempt to recover Egypt, 374.</div>
+
+<p>43. The war against the Cadusii in the mountains
+of Caucasus, proves that Artaxerxes II. was
+not fitted for military command; and his attempt
+to recover Egypt from king Nectanebus I. which
+was defeated by the feud between Iphicrates<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_109" id="Page_109">[Pg 109]</a></span>
+and Artabazus, evinces that the most numerous
+Persian host could achieve nothing without the
+assistance of Grecian troops and Grecian generals.&mdash;It
+could hardly be expected that an empire
+should endure much longer, when in the court all
+was ruled by the desire of revenge in the women;
+when the political organization was already so
+corrupt, that the satraps waged war against each
+other; and when those generals who gave any
+proof of talent received no better reward than
+that of Datames.</p>
+
+
+<div class="sidenote">The succession
+to the
+throne of
+Persia is
+disputed
+and almost
+produces
+the downfal
+of the empire
+before
+the death of
+Artaxerxes.<br />
+Rebellion in the west dispelled by treachery, 362.</div>
+
+<p>44. In fact, it seemed not unlikely that the
+Persian empire would fall asunder a little before
+the death of Artaxerxes Mnemon. A quarrel
+about the succession arose in the court between
+the three legitimate sons of the king, the eldest
+of whom, Darius, was put to death: the standard
+of rebellion was erected in the western half of the
+empire, and joined by all the governors of Asia
+Minor and Syria, supported by Tachos, king of
+Egypt, to whose assistance the Spartans had sent
+Agesilaus. The insurrection, however, was quelled
+in consequence of the treachery of the chief leader,
+Orontes, who was bribed over to the court.</p>
+
+
+<div class="sidenote"><span class="smcap">Artaxerxes
+III.</span> about 362&mdash;338.<br />
+contemporary with Philip, the father of Alexander the Great.</div>
+
+<p>45. In the midst of these commotions died Artaxerxes II.: his youngest son,
+Ochus, took possession of the throne, and assumed the name of Artaxerxes III.
+This king conceived that he could not establish his power but by the total
+destruction of the royal family, numerous as it was. He was
+contemporary with Philip of Macedon, in whom he soon found a more formidable
+rival than any he could have met with in his own family.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_110" id="Page_110">[Pg 110]</a></span></p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Insurrection
+in Asia
+Minor,
+358.</div>
+
+<p>46. The new insurrection fomented by Artabazus
+in Asia Minor, was accompanied with success
+so long as it was backed by the Thebans;
+but the reception which Artabazus met
+with at the hands of Philip soon betrayed the
+secret intentions of the Macedonian king.</p>
+
+
+<div class="sidenote">Rebellion
+of the Ph&#339;nicians
+and
+Cyprians,
+356.</div>
+
+<p>47. But the extensive rebellion of the Ph&#339;nicians
+and Cyprians, in conjunction with Egypt,
+compelled the king to undertake another expedition,
+which succeeded almost beyond expectation;
+although in this case the object was again
+attained principally by treachery and by Grecian
+auxiliaries.</p>
+
+<div class="sblockquot"><p>Treachery of Mentor, the leader of the confederates: the consequent
+capture and destruction of Sidon, followed by the subjection
+of Ph&#339;nicia, 356. Capture of Cyprus by Grecian troops,
+under the command of Phocion and the younger Evagoras, 354.
+Expedition of the king in person against Egypt: victory of Pelusium,
+won over king Nectanebus II. with the help of Grecian
+mercenaries. Egypt becomes, once more, a Persian province.</p></div>
+
+
+<div class="sidenote">The Persian empire once more
+restored to its ancient bounds.<br />
+
+The king poisoned by the eunuch Bagoas,</div>
+
+<p>48. This restoration of the empire to its former
+limits was followed by a period of tranquillity,
+the result of force, as Mentor and the eunuch Bagoas,
+holding the king in complete dependence,
+divided the kingdom, as it were, between themselves;
+until Bagoas was pleased, by poison, to
+remove Artaxerxes out of his way.</p>
+
+
+<div class="sidenote">Bagoas
+places Arces
+on the
+throne, but
+soon after
+makes away
+with him.
+336.</div>
+
+<p>49. After the assassination of the royal family,
+Bagoas placed on the throne the king's youngest
+and only surviving son, Arces. Bagoas was desirous
+of reigning in the name of that prince; but
+after the lapse of two years, he found it necessary
+to depose him, and to substitute in his place a
+distant relation of the reigning family, Darius<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_111" id="Page_111">[Pg 111]</a></span>
+Codomannus, who commenced his reign by putting
+to death the wretch himself.</p>
+
+
+<div class="sidenote"><span class="smcap">Darius III.</span> 336.<br />
+His kingdom invaded by Alexander the Great, 334.</div>
+
+<p>50. Darius III. Codomannus, not having been educated, like his predecessors,
+in the seraglio, gave proof of virtues which entitled him to a better fate.
+Attacked in the second year of his
+reign by Macedon, against which Persia had
+hitherto made no preparation for resistance,&mdash;unless,
+perhaps, the dagger which pierced Philip
+was pointed by Persian hands,&mdash;Darius was unable
+at once to reestablish a kingdom which of
+itself was mouldering away. And yet, had not
+death defeated the invasion of Macedonia by his
+general, Memnon, it might have been matter of
+doubt, whether Alexander would ever have shone
+as the conqueror of
+<span class="sidenote">Alexander's dominion established in Asia, 330.</span>
+Asia.&mdash;After the loss of two
+battles, in which he fought in person, Darius III.
+fell a victim to the treachery of Bessus, and the
+burning of Persepolis made known to Asia that the
+realm of Persia was destroyed, and that the east
+must acknowledge a new lord and master.</p>
+
+<div class="sblockquot"><p>For the history of the war, see below: the history of Macedon.</p></div>
+
+
+<hr style="width: 100%;" />
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_112" id="Page_112">[Pg 112]</a></span></p>
+<h1><a name="THIRD_BOOK" id="THIRD_BOOK"></a>THIRD BOOK.</h1>
+
+<h3>HISTORY OF THE GRECIAN STATES.</h3>
+<hr style="width: 100%;" />
+
+
+<h3><i>Geographical Outline.</i></h3>
+
+
+<div class="sidenote">Boundaries of Greece:</div>
+
+<p><i>Greece</i> is bounded on the north by the Cambunian
+mountains, which separate it from Macedonia;
+on the south and east by the &AElig;g&aelig;an, on
+the west by the Ionian sea.
+<span class="sidenote">its dimensions:</span>
+Greatest length from south to north = 220 geog. miles, greatest breadth
+from west to east, = 140 geog. miles. Superficial
+contents, = 29,600 square miles.&mdash;Principal
+<span class="sidenote">rivers:</span>
+rivers: the Peneus, which discharges its waters
+into the &AElig;g&aelig;an, and the Achelous, which flows
+into the Ionian sea. Advantages in respect to
+fertility, resulting from the mildness of the climate,
+<span class="sidenote">physical advantages.</span>
+between 37&mdash;40&deg; N. lat.; from the number
+of small streams; from the qualities and variety
+of the soil, in which this country has been so
+much more blessed by nature than any other of
+similar extent, that every branch of cultivation
+may be prosecuted equally and in conjunction.&mdash;Advantages
+in reference to navigation and commerce:
+situated in the vicinity of the three
+quarters of the world, on three sides washed by
+the sea, and by reason of its irregular, indented
+coast, abounding with commodious ports and
+havens.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Divisions.</div>
+
+<p>It may be divided into Northern Greece, from
+the north boundary to the chain of &#338;ta and
+Pindus, between the Ambracian gulf west, and<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_113" id="Page_113">[Pg 113]</a></span>
+the Maliac east. Central Greece, or Hellas, down
+to the isthmus of Corinth: and the southern peninsula,
+or Peloponnesus.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote"><span class="smcap">Northern
+Greece.</span></div>
+
+<p>Northern Greece comprises two countries;
+Thessaly east, Epirus west.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Thessaly.</div>
+
+<p>1.  Thessaly, the largest and one of the most
+fruitful of the Grecian countries. Length from
+north to south 60 geog. miles; breadth from west
+to east 64 geog. miles. Rivers: the Peneus, Apidanus,
+and several smaller streams. Mountains:
+Olympus, residence of the fabulous gods, and
+Ossa in the north; the chain of &#338;ta, Othrys, and
+Pindus in the south. Division into five provinces:
+1. Esti&aelig;otis; cities: Gomphi, Azorus:
+2. Pelasgiotis; cities: Larissa, Gonni, the vale
+of Tempe: 3. Thessaliotis; cities: Pharsalus,
+etc. 4. Phthiotis; cities: Pher&aelig;, etc. 5. The
+foreland of Magnesia, with a city of the same
+name. Other territories, such as Perrh&aelig;bia, etc.
+for instance, derived their names from the non-Greek
+races who inhabited them.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Epirus.</div>
+
+<p>2.  Epirus. Next to Thessaly, the largest, although
+one of the least cultivated countries of
+Greece: 48&mdash;60 geog. miles long, and the same
+in breadth. Divisions: Molossis; city, Ambracia:
+Thesprotia; city, Buthrotum; in the interior,
+Dodona.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote"><span class="smcap">Central
+Greece.</span></div>
+
+<p>Central Greece, or Hellas, comprises nine
+countries.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Attica.</div>
+
+<p>1. Attica, a foreland, extending towards the
+south-east, and gradually diminishing. Length,
+60 geog. miles; greatest breadth, 24 geog. miles.
+Rivers: Ilissus, Cephissus. Mountains: Hymettus,
+Pentelicus, and the headland of Sunium.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_114" id="Page_114">[Pg 114]</a></span>
+City: Athens, with the harbours Pir&aelig;us, Phalereus,
+and Munychius; in the other parts no
+towns, but hamlets, &#948;&#942;&#956;&#959;&#953;, such as Marathon, Eleusis,
+Decelea, etc.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Megaris.</div>
+
+<p>2. Megaris, close to the isthmus of Corinth.
+The smallest of the Grecian countries; 16 geog.
+miles long, and from 4&mdash;8 broad. City, Megara.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">B&#339;otia.</div>
+
+<p>3. B&#339;otia, a mountainous and marshy country,
+52 geog. miles long, and from 28&mdash;32 broad.
+Rivers: Asopus, Ismenus, and several smaller
+streams. Mountains: Helicon, Cyth&aelig;ron, etc.
+Lake: Copais.&mdash;B&#339;otia was, of all the Grecian
+countries, that which contained the greatest number
+of cities, each having its own separate territory.
+Among these, the first in importance, and
+frequently mistress of the rest, was Thebes on the
+Ismenus. The others, Plat&aelig;&aelig;, Tanagra, Thespi&aelig;,
+Ch&aelig;ronea, Lebadea, Leuctra, and Orchomenus,
+are all celebrated in Grecian history.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Phocis.</div>
+
+<p>4. Phocis, smaller than Attica; 48 geog. miles
+long, from 4&mdash;20 broad. River: Cephissus.
+Mountain: Parnassus. Cities: Delphi, on Parnassus,
+with the celebrated oracle of Apollo.
+Crissa, with the harbour of Cirrha, and up the
+country Elatea. The other cities are insignificant.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Locris 1st
+and 2nd.</div>
+
+<p>5, 6. The two countries called Locris. The
+eastern on the Euripus, territory of the Locri
+Opuntii and Epicnemidii is the lesser of the two;
+being but little larger than Megaris. City: Opus;
+pass, Thermopyl&aelig;. The western Locris on the
+Corinthian gulf, station of the Locri Ozol&aelig;, is
+from 20&mdash;24 geog. miles long, and from 16&mdash;20
+broad. Cities: Naupactus on the sea, Amphissa
+up the country.</p>
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_115" id="Page_115">[Pg 115]</a></span></p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Doris.</div>
+
+<p>7. The small country of Doris, or the Tetrapolis
+Dorica, on the south side of mount &#338;ta,
+from 8&mdash;12 geog. miles long, and the same in
+breadth.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">&AElig;tolia.</div>
+
+<p>8. &AElig;tolia, somewhat larger than B&#339;otia; from
+40&mdash;52 geog. miles long, and from 28&mdash;32 broad;
+but the least cultivated country of all. Rivers:
+Achelous, which skirts Acarnania, and the Evenus.
+Cities: Calydon, Thermus.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Acarnania.</div>
+
+<p>9. Acarnania, the most western country of Hellas,
+32 geog. miles long, from 16&mdash;24 broad.
+River: Achelous. Cities: Argos Amphilochicum,
+and Stratus.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote"><span class="smcap">Peloponnesus.</span></div>
+
+<p>The peninsula of Peloponnesus contains eight
+countries.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Arcadia.</div>
+
+<p>1. Arcadia, a mountainous country, abounding
+in pastures, and situate in the centre of the peninsula;
+greatest length, 48 geog. miles; greatest
+breadth, 36 geog. miles. Mountains: Cyllene,
+Erymanthus, etc. Rivers: Alpheus, Erymanthus,
+and several smaller streams. Lake: Styx.
+Cities: Mantinea, Tegea, Orchomenus, Her&aelig;a,
+Psophis; subsequently Megalopolis, as a common
+capital.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Laconia.</div>
+
+<p>2. Laconia, likewise mountainous. Greatest
+length, 66 geog. miles; greatest breadth, 36 geog.
+miles. River: Eurotas. Mountains: Taygetus,
+and the headlands Malea and Tenarium. Cities:
+Sparta on the Eurotas; other places: Amycl&aelig;,
+Sellasia, and others of little importance.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Messenia.</div>
+
+<p>3. Messenia, west of Laconia; a more level
+and extremely fertile country, subject to the
+Spartans from B. C. 668. Greatest length, 28
+geog. miles: greatest breadth, 36 geog. miles.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_116" id="Page_116">[Pg 116]</a></span>
+City: Messene. Frontier places, Ithome and
+Ira: of the other places, Pylus (Navarino) and
+Methone are the most celebrated.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Elis.</div>
+
+<p>4. Elis, with the small territory of Triphylia, on
+the west of the Peloponnesus. Length, 60 geog.
+miles: greatest breadth, 28 geog. miles. Rivers:
+Alpheus, Peneus, Sellis, and several smaller
+streams. Cities: in the north, Elis, Cyllene, and
+Pylus. On the Alpheus, Pisa and the neighbouring
+town of Olympia. In Triphylia, a third Pylus.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Argolis.</div>
+
+<p>5. Argolis, on the east side of the peninsula;
+a foreland opposite to Attica, with which it forms
+the Sinus Saronicus. Length, 64 geog. miles:
+breadth, from 8&mdash;28 geog. miles. Cities: Argos,
+Mycen&aelig;, Epidaurus. Smaller but remarkable
+places; Nemea, Cynuria, Tr&#339;zen.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Achaia.</div>
+
+<p>6. Achaia, originally Ionia, called likewise
+&AElig;gialus, comprises the north coast. Length, 56
+geog. miles: breadth, from 12&mdash;24. It contains
+twelve cities, of which Dyme, Patr&aelig;, and Pellene
+are the most important.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Sicyonia.</div>
+
+<p>7. The little country of Sicyonia, 16 geog. miles
+long, 8 broad, with the cities of Sicyon and Phlius.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Corinth.</div>
+
+<p>8. The small territory of Corinth, of the same
+extent as the foregoing, adjoining the isthmus
+which connects Peloponnesus with the main land.
+City: Corinth, originally Ephyra, with the ports
+of Lech&aelig;um and Cenchre&aelig;; the former on the
+Corinthian, the latter on the Saronic gulf.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote"><span class="smcap">Islands.</span></div>
+
+<p>The Greek islands may be divided into three
+classes; those which lie immediately off the
+coasts, those which are collected in groups, and
+those which lie separate in the open sea.</p>
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_117" id="Page_117">[Pg 117]</a></span></p>
+
+<div class="sidenote"><i>Off the coasts.</i><br />
+
+Corcyra; Leucadia; Cephalonia and Ithaca; Zacynthus; Cythera; &AElig;gina and Salamis;<br />
+
+Eub&#339;a;</div>
+
+<p>1. Islands off the coasts. Off the west coast
+in the Ionian sea: Corcyra, opposite Epirus, 32
+geog. miles long, from 8&mdash;16 broad. City: Corcyra.
+A Corinthian colony. Opposite Acarnania;
+Leucadia, with the city and headland of
+Leucas.&mdash;Cephalonia or Same, originally Scheria,
+with the cities of Same and Cephalonia. In the
+neighbourhood lies the small island of Ithaca.&mdash;Opposite
+Elis: Zacynthus. Off the south coast:
+Cythera, with a town of the same name. Off the
+east coast, in the Saronic gulf: &AElig;gina and Salamis.
+Opposite B&#339;otia, from which it is separated
+by the strait named Euripus,
+Eub&#339;a, the most extensive of all; 76 geog. miles long, from
+12&mdash;16 geog. miles broad. Cities: Oreus, with the headland of
+Artemisium on the north, in the centre Chalcis, Eretria. Off Thessaly,
+<span class="sidenote">Scyathus, Thasus, Imbrus, Samothrace, Lemnos, etc.</span>
+Scyathus and Halonesus. Farther north, Thasus, Imbrus, Samothrace, and Lemnos.</p>
+
+
+<div class="sidenote"><i>Groups.</i><br />
+
+Cyclades and Sporades;</div>
+
+<p>2.  Clusters of islands in the &AElig;g&aelig;an sea: the
+Cyclades and Sporades; the former of which comprise
+the western, the latter the eastern islands
+of the Archipelago. The most important among
+them are, Andros, Delos, Paros, Naxos, Melos,
+all with cities of the same names.</p>
+
+
+<div class="sidenote"><i>Separate.</i><br />
+
+Crete;<br />
+
+Cyprus.</div>
+
+<p>3. The more extensive separate islands: 1.
+Crete, 140 geog. miles long, from 24&mdash;40 broad.
+Mountain: Ida. Cities: Cydonia, Gortyna, Cnossus.
+2. Cyprus, 120 geog. miles long, from 20&mdash;80
+broad. Cities: Salamis, Paphos, Citium, and
+several smaller places.</p>
+
+<div class="sblockquot"><p>Concerning the principal Greek islands off the coast of Asia
+Minor, see above, p. 18.</p>
+<p>&#8224; <span class="smcap">Fr. Carl. Herm. Kruse</span>, <i>Geographico-Antiquarian delineation
+of ancient Greece and its colonies, with reference to mo<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_118" id="Page_118">[Pg 118]</a></span>dern
+discoveries</i>. Illustrated with maps and plates: first part,
+1825. General Geography: second part, first division, 1826.
+Second division, 1827.  Special Geography of Central Greece.
+A most minute and careful description of Greece, founded on
+modern discoveries.</p></div>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 25%;" />
+<h2>FIRST PERIOD.</h2>
+
+<p class="cblockquot"><i>The most ancient traditional history, down to the Trojan
+war, about B. C. 1200.</i></p>
+
+
+<div class="sblockquot"><p>Sources: On the formation and progress of history among the
+Greeks. Preliminary enquiry into the peculiarities of Grecian
+mythology in a historical point of view, as comprising the most
+ancient history of the national tribes and heroes. A history rich
+in itself, on account of the number of tribes and their leaders;
+but embellished and altered in various ways by the poets, particularly
+the great early epic writers, and afterwards by the tragedians.&mdash;First
+advance of history from tradition, wrought by the
+logographi, especially those of the Ionian cities, Hecat&aelig;us, Pherecydes,
+etc. until <span class="smcap">Herodotus</span>, so justly called the Father of History,
+raised it at once to such a lofty pitch of eminence. (Compare
+&#8224; <i>The historical Art of the Greeks considered in its Rise and Progress,
+by</i> <span class="smcap">G. F. Creuzer</span>; 1803.) Nevertheless, in Herodotus,
+and even later writers, history continued to savour of its origin;
+and so far as the realm of tradition extended, even Theopompus
+and Ephorus felt no disinclination to borrow their materials from
+mythologists or poets. It need scarcely be observed, that in this
+first period the history is merely traditional.</p>
+
+<p>Among the moderns, the English have most successfully treated
+the subject of Grecian history: the principal works are:</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">John Gillies</span>, <i>The History of Ancient Greece, its colonies
+and conquests, from the earliest accounts till the division of the
+Macedonian empire in the east, including the history of literature,
+philosophy, and the fine arts</i>. London, 1786, 2 vols. 4to. and</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">William Mitford</span>, <i>The History of Greece</i>. London, 1784,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_119" id="Page_119">[Pg 119]</a></span>
+4 vols. 4to. Several new editions have since appeared. Translated
+into German, Jena, 1800, sqq. by <i>H. L. Eichst&auml;dt</i>. Mitford
+is perhaps superior in learning, copiousness, and solidity,
+but he certainly is greatly surpassed by Gillies in genius and taste,
+and more especially in a proper conception of the spirit of antiquity.
+[Few English critics will here coincide with our author.]</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">De Pauw</span>, <i>Recherches sur les Grecs</i>, 1701, 2 vols. 8vo. Replete
+with partial views and hypotheses.</p>
+
+<p>&#8224; <span class="smcap">Heeren</span>, <i>Researches into the politics, intercourse, and trade
+of the most celebrated nations of antiquity</i>: 3 vols. 1st part, 4th
+edit. 1826. [Translated into English, Oxford, 1830, 8vo.]</p>
+
+<p>Many important enquiries on various portions of Grecian history
+and antiquities will be found in the great collection:</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Gronovii</span>, <i>Thesaurus Antiquitatum Gr&aelig;carum</i>, 12 vols. folio.</p>
+
+<p>Others are contained in the transactions of different learned
+societies; particularly in</p>
+
+<p><i>M&eacute;moires de l'Acad&eacute;mie des Inscriptions et des Belles Lettres</i>,
+Paris, 1709, sqq. 49 vols. 4to.</p>
+
+<p><i>Commentarii</i>, (4 vols.) <i>Commentarii novi</i>, (8 vols.) <i>Commentationes</i>,
+(16 vols.) and <i>Commentationes recentiores Societatis Scientiarum
+Gotting.</i> (5 vols.)</p></div>
+
+
+<div class="sidenote">Early inhabitants of Greece.</div>
+
+<p>1. Although Greece was originally inhabited
+by several insignificant races, two principal tribes
+claim our attention, the <i>Pelasgi</i> and the <i>Hellenes</i>.
+Both probably were of Asiatic origin; but the
+difference of their language characterized them as different tribes.
+<span class="sidenote"><span class="smcap">Pelasgi.</span></span>
+The Pelasgi were the first that extended their dominion in Greece.</p>
+
+<div class="sblockquot"><p>First seat of the Pelasgians in the Peloponnesus, under Inachus,
+about B. C. 1800. According to their own traditions, they
+made their first appearance in this quarter as uncultivated savages;
+they must, however, at an early period, have made some
+progress towards civilization, since the most ancient states, Argos
+and Sicyon, owed their origin to them; and to them, perhaps,
+with great probability, are attributed the remains of those most
+ancient monuments generally termed <i>cyclopian</i>.&mdash;Extension of
+this tribe towards the north, particularly over Attica; settlement
+in Thessaly under their leaders Ach&aelig;us, Phthius, and Pelasgus;
+here they learned to apply themselves to agriculture, and re<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_120" id="Page_120">[Pg 120]</a></span>mained
+for a hundred and fifty successive years; about 1700&mdash;1500.</p></div>
+
+<div class="sidenote"><span class="smcap">Hellenes</span>:</div>
+
+<p>2. The Hellenes,&mdash;subsequently so called from
+Hellen, one of their chieftains,&mdash;originally the
+weaker of the two tribes, make their first appearance
+in Phocis, near Parnassus, under king Deucalion;
+from whence they are driven by a flood.
+<span class="sidenote">descend southward, about B. C. 1550.</span>
+They migrate into Thessaly, and drive out the
+Pelasgi from that territory.&mdash;The Hellenes soon
+after this become the most powerful race; and
+spreading over Greece, expel the Pelasgi from
+almost every part. The latter tribe maintain their
+<span class="sidenote">and obtain the ascendant</span>
+ground only in Arcadia, and the land of Dodona;
+some of them migrate to Italy, others to Crete,
+and various islands.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Hellenic
+tribes.</div>
+
+<p>3. The Hellenic tribe is subdivided into four
+principal branches, the <i>&AElig;olians</i>, <i>Ionians</i>, <i>Dorians</i>,
+and <i>Ach&aelig;ans</i>, which continue afterwards to be
+distinguished and separated by many peculiarities
+of speech, customs, and political government.
+These four tribes, although they must not be considered
+as comprising all the slender ramifications
+of the nation, are derived by tradition from Deucalion's
+immediate posterity; with whose personal
+history, therefore, the history of the tribes
+themselves and their migrations is interwoven.</p>
+
+<p>This derivation of the tribes will be better understood by an
+inspection of the following genealogical table:</p>
+
+<div class='center'>
+<table border="0" cellpadding="6" cellspacing="0" summary="">
+<tr>
+  <td colspan='4'></td>
+  <td colspan='2' align='center'>DEUCALION.</td>
+  <td colspan='4'></td>
+</tr>
+<tr><td colspan='5' class='br'></td></tr>
+<tr>
+  <td colspan='4'></td>
+  <td colspan='2' align='center'>HELLEN.</td>
+  <td colspan='4'></td>
+</tr>
+<tr><td colspan='5' class='br'></td></tr>
+<tr><td></td><td colspan='8' class="bt bl br"></td><td></td></tr>
+<tr>
+  <td colspan='2' align='center'>DORUS.</td>
+  <td colspan='2'></td>
+  <td colspan='2' align='center'>XUTHUS.</td>
+  <td colspan='2'></td>
+  <td colspan='2' align='center'>&AElig;OLUS.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr><td colspan='1' class='br'></td><td colspan='4' class='br'></td><td colspan='4' class='br'></td></tr>
+<tr><td></td><td></td><td></td><td colspan='4' class="bt bl br"></td><td></td><td></td><td></td></tr>
+<tr>
+  <td colspan='2' align='center'>DORIANS.</td>
+  <td colspan='2' align='center'>ACH&AElig;US.</td>
+  <td colspan='2'></td>
+  <td colspan='2' align='left'>ION.</td>
+  <td colspan='2' align='center'>&AElig;OLIANS.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr><td colspan='3' class='br'></td><td colspan='4' class='br'></td></tr>
+<tr>
+  <td colspan='2'></td>
+  <td colspan='2' align='center'>ACH&AElig;ANS.</td>
+  <td colspan='2'></td>
+  <td colspan='2' align='center'>IONIANS.</td>
+  <td colspan='2'></td>
+</tr>
+</table></div>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_121" id="Page_121">[Pg 121]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>4. The gradual spread of the various branches
+of the Hellenic tribe over Greece was effected by
+several migrations, between B. C. 1500&mdash;1300;
+after which they preserved the settlements they
+had already obtained until the later migration of
+the Dorians and Heraclid&aelig;, about 1100.</p>
+
+<h4><i>Principal data for the history of the separate tribes in
+this period.</i></h4>
+
+<div class="sblockquot">
+<p>1. <span class="smcap">&AElig;olus</span> follows his father Hellen into Phthiotis, which consequently
+remains the seat of the &AElig;olians; they spread from
+thence over western Greece, Acarnania, &AElig;tolia, Phocis, Locris,
+Elis in the Peloponnesus, and likewise over the western islands.</p>
+
+<p>2. <span class="smcap">Dorus</span> follows his father into Esti&aelig;otis, the most ancient
+seat of the Dorians. They are driven from thence after the
+death of Dorus by the Perrh&aelig;bi; spread over Macedonia and
+Crete; part of the tribe return, cross mount &#338;ta, and settle
+in the Tetrapolis Dorica, afterwards called Doris, where they
+remain until they migrate into Peloponnesus, under the guidance
+of the Heraclid&aelig;; about 1100. (See below, p. 127).</p>
+
+<p>3. <span class="smcap">Xuthus</span>, expelled by his brothers, migrates to Athens,
+where he marries Creusa, daughter of Erectheus, by whom he
+has sons, Ion and Ach&aelig;us. Ion and his tribe, driven out of
+Athens, settle in that part of Peloponnesus called &AElig;gialus, a
+name which by them was converted into Ionia, and in later times
+exchanged for Achaia. The Ach&aelig;ans preserve their footing in
+Laconia and Argos, until the time of the Dorian migration.</p>
+
+<p>&#8224; <span class="smcap">L. D. Huellman</span>, <i>Early Grecian History</i>, 1814. Rich in
+original views and conjectures, beyond which the early history
+of nations seldom extends.</p>
+
+<p>&#8224; <span class="smcap">D. C. Otfried Mueller</span>, <i>History of the Hellenic Tribes
+and Cities</i>, 1820, vol. 1. containing, O<i>rchomenus and the Miny&aelig;</i>;
+vols. 2, 3, containing the <i>Dorians</i>, 1825.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Colonies
+settle in
+Greece.</div>
+
+<p>5. Besides these original inhabitants, colonies
+at the same early period came into Greece from
+civilized countries, from Egypt, Ph&#339;nicia, and<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_122" id="Page_122">[Pg 122]</a></span>
+Mysia. The settlements of these strangers occurred
+probably between B. C. 1600&mdash;1400.</p>
+
+<div class="sblockquot"><p>Establishment in Attica of the colony of Cecrops, from Sais in
+Egypt, about 1550; in Argos, of the colony of Danaus, likewise
+from Egypt, about 1500.&mdash;The colony of Cadmus, from Ph&#339;nicia,
+settles in B&#339;otia about 1550.&mdash;The colony of Pelops, from
+Mysia, settles in Argos about 1400.</p></div>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Progress of
+civilization
+among the
+Hellenes.</div>
+
+<p>6. The mythology of the Hellenes proves beyond
+a doubt, that they were at first savages, like
+the Pelasgi since they had to learn even the use
+of fire from Prometheus; yet it is equally clear
+that they must, even in the earliest period, particularly
+from 1300&mdash;1200, when they had ceased
+to migrate, have made the first important steps
+towards the attainment of a certain degree of
+civilization. About the time of the Trojan war
+they appear to have been still barbarians, though
+no longer savages.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Was the
+Hellenic
+civilization
+of native or
+foreign
+growth?</div>
+
+<p>7. The origin and progress of this national organization,
+and the influence wrought upon it by
+settlers from foreign countries, are difficult subjects
+to determine. If we allow that Cecrops was
+the first who introduced marriage in Attica, and
+that agriculture and the cultivation of the olive
+were discovered in that country, it unquestionably
+follows, that the Hellenes were indebted to
+strangers for the foundation of domestic civilization.
+And when we consider that the families
+which subsequently held sway were descended
+directly from the most powerful of these strangers,
+their lasting influence can hardly be a matter of
+doubt. It must, however, be observed, that what
+the Greeks borrowed from foreigners they previously
+stamped with their own peculiar charac<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_123" id="Page_123">[Pg 123]</a></span>ter,
+so that it became, as it were, the original
+property of the nation. The question, therefore,
+is deprived of much of the importance which it
+assumes at the first glance.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Hellenic religion
+derived from
+foreigners.</div>
+
+<p>8.  The case was the same with regard to all
+branches of intellectual civilization, particularly
+religion. That many deities and religious
+rites were introduced into Greece from Egypt,
+Asia, and Thrace, and generally through Crete,
+hardly admits of a doubt; but they did not therefore
+remain Egyptian, Asiatic, or Thracian; they
+became Grecian gods. Hence it appears that the
+investigation of those relations can hardly lead to
+any important conclusion. It is a fact, however,
+of the highest importance, that whatever gods the
+<span class="sidenote">No sacerdotal caste in Greece.</span>
+Greeks adopted, no separate order of priesthood
+was established among them, still less any caste
+laying claim to the exclusive possession of knowledge.
+Several traces, nevertheless, make it probable,
+that many of the most ancient sanctuaries
+were settlements of Egyptian, Ph&#339;nician, or
+Cretan priests, who imported with them their
+own peculiar forms of worship. And notwithstanding
+this worship consisted merely of outward
+ceremonies, many ideas and institutions
+which were attached to it, became, in this manner,
+the common property of the nation.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Influence of
+the bards:</div>
+
+<p>9.  It was principally, therefore, by religion,
+that the rude mind became in some degree polished.
+But it was the ancient minstrels,
+(&#7936;&#959;&#953;&#948;&#959;&#8054;,)
+Orpheus, Linus, etc., who, by disseminating religious
+principles, contributed so much towards
+abolishing revenge, and with it the perpetual
+state of warfare which had hitherto distracted the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_124" id="Page_124">[Pg 124]</a></span>
+country. These it was who in their mysteries
+contrived in some measure to impress the narrow
+circle of the initiated with the advantages resulting
+from a civilized life.</p>
+
+<div class="sblockquot"><p><span class="smcap">Sainte-Croix</span>, <i>Recherches sur les Myst&egrave;res du Paganisme</i>,
+Paris, 1765. Translated into German, with valuable observations,
+by <span class="smcap">C. G. Lenz</span>; Gotha, 1790.</p></div>
+
+<div class="sidenote">of the oracles:</div>
+
+<p>10. The influence of religion, through the medium
+of oracles, especially those of Dodona and
+Delphi, was not less powerful. The two latter,
+with that of Olympia, were perhaps, originally
+ancient settlements of priests, such as have been
+already alluded to. The necessity of consulting
+these sanctuaries naturally led men to regard the
+oracles as the common property of the nation,
+to which every one should have access; it followed
+therefore as an inevitable consequence, that
+the direction of affairs in which all were engaged,
+depended principally on those oracles.</p>
+
+<div class="sblockquot"><p><span class="smcap">A. Van Dalen</span>, <i>De Oraculis veterum Ethnicorum Dissertationes</i>6. Amstel. 1700. A very valuable work. A comprehensive
+dissertation on the subject, however, is still wanting: a portion
+of it is treated of in</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">J. Groddek</span>, <i>De Oraculorum veterum, qu&aelig; in Herodoti libris
+continentur, natura, commentatio</i>; Gotting. 1786.</p></div>
+
+<div class="sidenote">of the religious
+festivals:</div>
+
+<p>11. It happened with Greece as with other
+countries; the tender plant of civilization grew
+up under the shelter of the sanctuary. There the
+festivals were celebrated, and there the people
+assembled; and there various tribes, who had
+hitherto been strangers to one another, met in
+peace, and conversed on their common interests.
+Hence arose spontaneously the first idea of a law
+of nations, and those connections which led to its<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_125" id="Page_125">[Pg 125]</a></span>
+development. Among these connections, that of
+the Amphictyons at Delphi was the most important,
+and continued the longest: it is probable
+that it did not assume its complete form till a
+later period; yet it appears in early times to have
+adopted the principle, that none of the cities belonging
+to the league should be destroyed by the
+others.</p>
+
+<div class="sblockquot"><p>&#8224; <span class="smcap">Fr. Wilh. Tittmann</span>, <i>Upon the Amphictyonic League</i>;
+1812. A dissertation which gained the prize of the Academy of
+Sciences at Berlin.</p></div>
+
+<div class="sidenote">of navigation:</div>
+
+
+<p>12. To religion must likewise be added navigation,
+and the consequent intercourse which
+brought the nation into contact with strangers, and
+prepared it to receive civilization. It cannot be
+denied that the navigators continued long to be
+mere pirates; but as Minos of Crete cleared the
+<span class="sidenote">about 1400</span>
+sea of freebooters, the want of another state of
+things must have been felt long before.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Age of chivalry.</div>
+
+<p>13. In the mean time the chivalrous spirit of
+the nation was gradually aroused; and developed
+the first bloom of its youthful vigour in the heroic
+ages. An affection for extraordinary undertakings
+was excited; and conducted the chieftains, not
+only individually, but also in confederate bodies,
+beyond the limits of their father-land. These undertakings
+were not only important in themselves,
+but their advantages were increased by their
+being preserved in the songs of their bards by
+means of a national poesy, such as no other people
+possessed, and such as contributed to the further
+development of the national genius.</p>
+
+<div class="sblockquot"><p>Expedition of the Argonauts to Colchis, somewhere about
+B. C. 1250; war of the seven confederate princes against Thebes<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_126" id="Page_126">[Pg 126]</a></span>
+about 1225; the town, however, was not taken until the second
+attempt made by the sons of the chiefs (Epigoni) in 1215.</p></div>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Effects of
+the Trojan
+war.</div>
+
+
+<p>14. Thus every thing was now ripe for some
+great national undertaking of all the combined
+Hellenic nations; and that object was attained in
+the war against Troy. The most important result of
+that expedition was the kindling of one common
+national spirit,&mdash;a spirit which in spite of dissensions
+and feuds, was never wholly extinguished,
+and which must almost necessarily have arisen
+<span class="sidenote">1194&mdash;1184</span>
+from an expedition carried on in so distant a
+field, which lasted ten years, in which all were
+joined, and which was crowned with such signal
+success. From the time of the Trojan war downwards
+the Hellenes always looked upon themselves
+as but one people.</p>
+
+<div class="sblockquot"><p>General view of the political state of Greece about the time
+of the Trojan war.&mdash;Division into several small states, the most
+powerful of which were Argos and Mycen&aelig;.&mdash;All those states
+were governed by hereditary chieftains or princes from a certain
+<i>family</i> (kings, &#946;&#945;&#963;&#953;&#955;&#949;&#8150;&#962;,)
+who combined the offices of leaders in
+war and judges in peace. Their authority being more or less
+extended in proportion to the qualities they possessed, and particularly
+to their valour in battle.&mdash;Manner of life among the
+people: a nation dwelling in cities, but at the same time cultivating
+the land and tending cattle; applying also to war, and
+already somewhat advanced in the art of navigation.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">A. W. Schlegel</span>, <i>De Geographia Homeri Commentatio</i>.
+Hannov. 1788. A review of the political geography of Greece
+at this period.&mdash;On the topography of Troy:</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Lechevalier</span>, <i>Description de la Plaine de Troie</i>. Translated
+and accompanied with notes by <span class="smcap">Heyne</span>, Leipzig, 1794. Compare
+<span class="smcap">Clarke</span>, <i>Travels</i>, vol. i, c. 4&mdash;6, who has thrown doubts
+on the system of Lechevalier, which has, however, been again
+confirmed by <span class="smcap">Leake</span>, <i>Travels in Asia Minor</i>.</p></div>
+
+
+<hr style="width: 25%;" />
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_127" id="Page_127">[Pg 127]</a></span></p>
+<h2>SECOND PERIOD.</h2>
+
+<p  class="cblockquot"><i>From the Trojan war to the breaking out of the Persian
+war, B. C. 1200&mdash;500.</i></p>
+
+<div class="sblockquot"><p>Sources. On no portion of the Grecian history is our information
+so scanty as upon this long period, in which we can be
+hardly said to have more than a general knowledge of many of
+the most important events. As in the foregoing period, its commencement
+is but a traditional and poetical history. It was not
+till towards the end of it that the use of writing became common
+among the Greeks; add to which the period itself was not rife
+in great national undertakings, such as might afford appropriate
+materials for the poet or historian. Besides the scattered information
+which may be gathered from Herodotus, Plutarch,
+Strabo, and above all from the introduction to Thucydides's history,
+Pausanias must not be forgotten; who, in his description
+of Greece, has preserved an abundance of most valuable documents
+relating to the separate histories of the minor states. The
+Books of Diodorus belonging to this period are lost.</p>
+
+<p>&#8224; <span class="smcap">Fr. Wilhelm Tittmann</span>, <i>Delineation of the Grecian
+Forms of Government</i>, 1822. An industrious collection of all
+the information we possess respecting this subject.</p>
+
+<p>&#8224; <span class="smcap">W. Wachsmuth</span>, <i>Grecian Antiquities with regard to Politics</i>,
+4 vols. An excellent work.</p></div>
+
+
+<h3>1. <i>History of the Hellenic states within Greece.</i></h3>
+
+<div class="sidenote"><span class="smcap">Return of
+the Heraclid&aelig;</span>:<br />
+about B. C.
+1100.</div>
+
+<p>1. The Trojan war was followed by a very
+stormy period, in consequence of the many disorders
+prevalent in the ruling families, especially
+in that of Pelops. But more violent commotions
+soon arose, caused by the attempts of
+the rude tribes of the north, particularly of the
+Dorians combined with the &AElig;tolians, who, under
+the guidance of the descendants of Hercules,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_128" id="Page_128">[Pg 128]</a></span>
+exiled from Argos, strove to obtain possession of
+Peloponnesus. Those commotions shook Greece
+during a whole century, and as the seats of most
+of the Hellenic tribes were then changed, the
+consequences were lasting and important.</p>
+
+<div class="sblockquot"><p>First unsuccessful attempt under Hyllus, son of Hercules,
+about 1180.&mdash;Repeated attempts, until at last the claims of the
+Heraclid&aelig; are made good by the grandsons of Hyllus, viz. Telephus
+and Cresphontes, together with Eurysthenes and Procles,
+sons of their brother Aristodemus, 1100.</p></div>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Consequences
+of
+that great
+revolution.</div>
+
+
+<p>2. Consequences resulting to the Peloponnesus
+from this migration. The territories of Argos,
+Sparta, Messene, and Corinth, wrested from the
+Ach&aelig;ans who had hitherto inhabited them, become
+the property of the Dorians; Elis falls
+to the share of the &AElig;tolians, who had accompanied
+the former. The Ach&aelig;ans expelled, in their
+turn expel the Ionians and settle in the country
+since called Achaia; the fugitive Ionians are received
+by their ancient kinsmen the Athenians.&mdash;But
+among the consequences of this migration of
+the Hellenic races must be reckoned likewise the
+<span class="sidenote">Colonies sent to Asia.</span>
+establishment of Greek colonies in Asia Minor;
+an occurrence of the highest importance to the
+ulterior development of the nation. This colonization
+was commenced by the &AElig;olian Hellenes,
+whose example was soon after followed by the
+Ionians, and even by the Dorians.</p>
+
+<div class="sblockquot"><p>For the history of these colonies, see the following section.</p></div>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Monarchies
+succeeded
+by republics.</div>
+
+<p>3. Although the effect of these migrations and
+wars, in which the ruder tribes oppressed the
+more civilized, must inevitably have been, not
+only to interrupt the progress of civilization, but
+even almost entirely to annihilate it, yet in this<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_129" id="Page_129">[Pg 129]</a></span>
+universal movement the foundation was laid of
+that constitution of things which afterwards existed
+in Greece. The tribes which had migrated,
+as well as those which had been expelled, remained
+at first under the dominion of their hereditary
+princes, some for a longer, others for a
+shorter time. In the two centuries, however,
+immediately subsequent to the migrations, B. C.
+1100&mdash;900, republican constitutions took the place
+of hereditary clanship in all the Grecian countries,
+the distant Epirus excepted. These republics
+continued to exist amid the various revolutions
+which happened; and the love of political freedom,
+deeply impressed on the minds of the people,
+constituted from this time the principal feature
+in the national character.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Origin of
+the small
+republics.</div>
+
+<p>4. The sequel proves, that the principal cause
+of this change so important for Greece,&mdash;this
+change, by which her future internal policy was
+for ever determined, originated in the progress
+made by the newly come tribes towards civic life,
+and consequently at the same time towards national
+civilization. In this newly constituted
+order of things, each city, with the territory
+around it, formed a separate state, and framed
+its own constitution; hence there arose as many
+free states as cities.</p>
+
+<div class="sblockquot"><p>The notion that Greece contained the same number of states
+as countries is completely false, although it cannot be denied that
+the mode of expression in most writings upon Greek history
+seems to authorize the assertion. It is true that some of those
+countries, such as Attica, Megaris, Laconia, may be each regarded
+as a separate state, because each constituted the territory
+of one city. The others, however, such as Arcadia, B&#339;otia, etc.
+did not each form one state, but comprised as many separate
+states as there were free and independent cities, each of which,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_130" id="Page_130">[Pg 130]</a></span>
+with its territory, formed one. Still, however, it must be observed,
+(<i>a</i>) that the natural ties of kindred subsisted; Arcadians,
+B&#339;otians, etc. spoke of one another as countrymen. (<i>b</i>) Voluntary
+connections were entered into between different cities,
+and sometimes all the cities of a country, as, for instance, in
+Achaia, so that the whole formed one confederation; each individual
+city nevertheless still preserved its own system of laws
+and government. Again, (<i>c</i>) in consequence of a greater share
+of power, one city assumed a sort of dominion over the other;
+as, for instance, that of Thebes over the B&#339;otian cities. This
+dominion, however, was always precarious, and depended upon
+the state of affairs. (<i>d</i>) It must likewise be observed, that
+the constitution of each separate city underwent many changes,
+wrought generally by influential citizens, (tyrants,) who not
+only possessed themselves of the supreme power, but also contrived
+frequently to make it for some time hereditary in their
+families. Every one will easily discern that the above are the
+fundamental principles of Greek history, which cannot be too
+clearly conceived, or too correctly defined; since it is self-evident
+what a wide field was by such a constitution of things
+thrown open to practical politics. The more improbable the attainment
+of fixed constitutions in the separate cities was, the
+more frequent must have been the political attempts; (attempts
+facilitated by the narrow extent of the state;) and the more frequently
+those attempts failed, the more extensive in this intellectual
+people became the mass of political ideas; the results
+of which in later times were the legislative codes of Solon and
+others.</p></div>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Unity of the
+small Grecian
+states.</div>
+
+<p>5. Although Greece was thus parcelled out
+into a number of small states, united by no common
+political bond, yet there existed a certain
+unity of the Hellenic race, a certain national
+spirit: this was produced in part by national
+festivals and games, occurring at stated periods,
+among which those in honour of Jupiter at Olympia
+were the chief. The nation at these appeared
+in all its splendour; and all Hellenes, but no
+others, were allowed to join in them. This union,
+too, was promoted by the extension of the Am<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_131" id="Page_131">[Pg 131]</a></span>phictyonic
+council: and the reason why this last
+institution was not followed by all the consequences
+which might have been expected from
+it, may perhaps be found in what naturally takes
+place in every great confederation whenever any
+of the component states become too powerful.</p>
+
+<div class="sblockquot"><p>The Amphictyonic council was certainly not a states-general,
+in which all national affairs were discussed. Its immediate office
+was to attend to the temples and the oracles of Delphi. But
+then it must be observed, 1st, that from this council originated
+the Grecian ideas of the law of nations; over the preservation
+of which the Amphictyons watched. 2. In consequence of its
+political influence on the oracle, this council, in certain cases,
+was enabled to take a share in the affairs of different states.
+3. The Amphictyons always formed a national institution, since
+none but Hellenes were admitted.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">St. Croix</span>, <i>Des anciens gouvernemens f&eacute;d&eacute;ratifs, et de la l&eacute;gislation
+de Cr&egrave;te</i>, Paris, 1796. One of the most invaluable inquiries,
+not only into the institutions of the Amphictyons, but
+also into other matters of Grecian history connected with them.</p></div>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Sparta and
+Athens.</div>
+
+<p>6. Among the different states of Greece, Sparta
+and Athens, even at this period, became celebrated,
+not only for their greater power, but also
+for their superior constitutions and their laws:
+and though it may not perhaps be strictly true,
+that the history of the rest of Greece is connected
+with that of these two cities, yet they certainly
+possess the highest claim to our attention.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Revolutions
+in the government
+of
+Sparta.<br />
+1100.</div>
+
+<p>7. History of Sparta. The Ach&aelig;ans at first were
+governed by princes of the house of Perseus, but
+after Menelaus's accession to the throne in virtue
+of his wife, by princes of the house of Pelops.
+When the latter had been expelled by the Dorians,
+Laconia fell by lot to the sons of Aristodemus,
+Procles and Eurysthenes, between whose
+families the royal power was divided, so that two<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_132" id="Page_132">[Pg 132]</a></span>
+kings constantly reigned in common, one from
+each family.</p>
+
+<div class="sblockquot"><p>Families of the Proclid&aelig; and &AElig;gid&aelig;; the latter so called
+from Agis, the son and successor of Eurysthenes.</p>
+
+<p>&#8224; <span class="smcap">J. C. F. Manso</span>, <i>An Essay on the History and Constitution
+of Sparta</i>, Leipzig, 1800 sqq. 3 vols. The most important work
+upon this subject, and which likewise contains much information
+upon various points of Grecian history connected with it.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Cragius</span>, <i>De Republica Laced&aelig;moniorum</i>, 1642.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Meursius</span>, <i>De regno Laconico</i>; and <i>Miscellanea Laconica</i>.
+Both laborious compilations.</p></div>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Conquests
+of the Dorians.</div>
+
+<p>8. The Dorians now gradually conquered, and
+established themselves in many cities of the peninsula;
+forming, if not the whole population, at
+least the only part of it that enjoyed any power,
+as the Ach&aelig;ans that remained were reduced to
+slavery. No long time, however, elapsed ere the
+city of Sparta usurped an authority over the
+whole country, which it ever afterwards preserved;
+the other towns, formerly considerable,
+becoming unfortified, defenceless, and insignificant.</p>
+
+<div class="sblockquot"><p>Relation between the Spartan citizens of the capital as a
+ruling body, and the Laced&aelig;monians, or
+&#960;&#949;&#961;&#943;&#959;&#953;&#954;&#959;&#953;, inhabitants of
+the country, as subjects who paid tribute and military service.
+Even in the time of Agis, the successor of Eurysthenes, this
+subjection was effected by force; the inhabitants of Helos were
+made slaves, as a punishment for their opposition; while the
+others, by the sacrifice of their political freedom, preserved their
+personal liberty, however confined it might be.</p></div>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Repeated
+wars of the
+Spartans.</div>
+
+<p>9. The history of the two following centuries,
+to the time of Lycurgus, exhibits nothing but the
+repeated wars of the Spartans with their neighbours
+the Argives; their domestic broils, occasioned
+by the too unequal division of property,
+by the feuds, and the diminished power of the
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_133" id="Page_133">[Pg 133]</a></span>kings, and which lasted until Lycurgus, the uncle
+and guardian of the minor king, Charilaus, about
+the year 880, gave to Sparta that constitution to
+which she was principally indebted for her subsequent
+splendour.</p>
+
+<div class="sblockquot"><p><i>Illustration of the principal features in the Spartan constitution.</i>
+Some preliminary observations are necessary. (<i>a</i>) As the
+legislation of Lycurgus occurred at so early a period, and as his
+laws were not written, but conveyed in apophthegms,
+(&#8165;&#942;&#964;&#961;&#945;&#953;,)
+which were confirmed by the oracle of Delphi, many things of
+later origin have been attributed to Lycurgus. (<i>b</i>) Much that is
+rightly attributed to him was not original, but deduced from ancient
+Dorian institutions, which being now upon the decline,
+were reestablished by force of law. Hence it follows, that the
+legislation of Lycurgus must naturally have had many points
+of resemblance with that of the Cretans, likewise of Dorian
+origin, although much, as we are told, was directly borrowed from
+them. (<i>c</i>) The principal object of the laws of Lycurgus was to
+ensure the existence of Sparta by creating and supporting a
+vigorous and uncorrupted race of men. Hence those laws had a
+more peculiar reference to private life and physical education,
+than to the constitution of the state, in which the legislator appears
+to have introduced but few alterations.</p>
+
+<p>In reference to the constitution: 1. The relation which had
+hitherto existed between the Spartans as a dominant people, and
+the Laced&aelig;monians as subjects, was preserved. 2. The two
+kings, from the two ruling families, were likewise continued, as
+leaders in war and first magistrates in peace. On the other hand,
+3. to Lycurgus is attributed the institution of a senate,
+(&#947;&#949;&#961;&#959;&#973;&#963;&#953;&#945;,)
+consisting of twenty-eight members, none of whom could be less
+than sixty years old, who were to be chosen by the people for
+life, and were to constitute the king's council in public affairs.
+4. Whether the college of the five Ephori annually chosen, was
+originally instituted by Lycurgus, or at some later period, is a
+question impossible to decide, but of little importance, since the
+great power of this college, to which every thing was finally referred
+as the highest tribunal of the state, was certainly assumed
+after the time of Lycurgus. 5. Besides the above, there were
+likewise the popular assemblies, convened according to the division
+into &#966;&#973;&#955;&#945;&#962; and
+&#8036;&#946;&#945;&#962;, at which none but Spartans could assist:<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_134" id="Page_134">[Pg 134]</a></span>
+their privileges extended no further than to approve or reject the
+measures proposed to them by the kings and the senate.</p>
+
+<p>In the laws relating to private life, Lycurgus aimed at making
+the Spartans a society of citizens, equal as far as possible with
+respect to their property and mode of life, and each deeply impressed
+with the conviction that he was the property of his
+country, to which he was bound to yield an unconditional obedience.
+Hence, 1. The new division of land, 9000 portions to
+the Spartans, and 30,000 to the Laced&aelig;monians; permission
+being given to dispose of those portions by entail or gift, but
+not by sale. 2. The removal as far as possible of every species
+of luxury, particularly by means of the daily public tables
+(&#963;&#965;&#963;&#963;&#943;&#964;&#953;&#945;)
+of all the citizens, according to their divisions, in which
+the commons were settled by law. 3. The complete organization
+of domestic society in relation both to husband and wife, parents
+and children, which was so framed as to further, even at the cost
+of morality, the grand political object, the production of vigorous
+and healthy citizens. 4. Hence, finally, the condition of the
+slaves, comprehended under the general name of helots, who,
+although they may be regarded nearly as serfs, were likewise the
+property of the state, which had the right of claiming their services
+in war.&mdash;Easy, however, as it is to enumerate thus generally
+the principal heads of the Spartan constitution, the want of
+sufficient documents renders it difficult and oftentimes impossible
+to answer a crowd of questions, which present themselves on our
+penetrating more deeply into the subject. Still, however, its
+long duration, (nearly four hundred years,) without any observable
+change, is more remarkable even than the constitution itself.
+More remarkable, inasmuch as the Spartans soon after this time
+appear as conquerors. Indeed, it could no longer be expected
+that any durable peace should exist in Greece, while the centre
+of the country was occupied by a military commonwealth, whose
+citizens must have been, by the restlessness common to man, impelled
+to war, since all the occupations of household life and of
+agriculture were left to the care of slaves.</p>
+
+<p>Besides the works mentioned above, p. 119.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Heyne</span>, <i>De Spartanorum republica Judicium</i>; inserted in
+<i>Commentat. Soc. Gotting.</i> vol. ix. Intended to correct the partial
+opinions of <span class="smcap">De Pauw</span>.</p></div>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Wars of the
+Spartans in
+Peloponnesus.</div>
+
+<p>10. Soon after the time of Lycurgus com<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_135" id="Page_135">[Pg 135]</a></span>menced
+the war of the Spartans with their neighbours,
+the Argives, the Arcadians, but more particularly
+the Messenians. The wars with these
+last appear to have originated in an old grudge
+on the part of the Dorian tribe, proceeding from
+the unequal division of lands at the occupation of
+Peloponnesus: it is nevertheless evident, that
+the quarrel between the two nations was mainly
+fostered by the ambition of the Spartan kings,
+who wrought upon a superstitious multitude by
+oracular responses and interpretations.</p>
+
+<div class="sblockquot"><p>Unimportant wars with Tegea and Argos; and disputes with
+Messene, 783&mdash;745.</p>
+
+<p>First Messenian war, 742&mdash;722, terminated by the capture of
+the frontier fortress Ithome, after the voluntary death of the
+Messenian king, Aristodemus.&mdash;The Messenians become tributary
+to the Spartans, and are obliged to give up one half of the
+revenues of their lands.&mdash;Occurrences during this war: 1. Institution,
+according to some authorities, of the college of Ephori as
+vicegerents of the kings in their absence, and arbitrators in the
+quarrels which might arise between the kings and the senate.
+2. The power of the people so far limited as to restrain the
+popular assemblies from making alterations in the resolutions
+proposed to them by the senate or the kings, and confining them
+merely to a vote of approval or rejection. 3. Insurrection of the
+Parthenii and Helots becomes the motive for sending out colonies;
+a measure to which Sparta had more than once resorted
+for the purpose of maintaining domestic tranquillity.</p>
+
+<p>Second Messenian war, 682&mdash;668, waged by the Messenians
+under the command of their hero Aristomenes, by the Spartans
+under that of Tyrt&aelig;us, who fanned the flame of war until the
+contest was terminated by the capture of the strong town Ira.
+The Messenian territory is divided among the conquerors, and
+the conquered inhabitants become, like the helots, agricultural
+slaves.</p></div>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Sparta takes
+the lead
+among the
+Dorian
+states</div>
+
+<p>11. Although the territory of the Spartans was
+greatly increased by these Messenian wars, the
+nation seems to have been a long time before it<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_136" id="Page_136">[Pg 136]</a></span>
+recovered from the struggle, and to have raised
+itself by slow steps to the first rank among the
+Dorian states, extending its boundaries at the
+expense of the Argives and Arcadians.</p>
+
+<div class="sblockquot"><p>Wars with Tegea for the most part unsuccessful; and with
+Argos, for the possession of Thyrea and the island of Cythera;
+by the accession of which the Spartan territory received an important
+augmentation, about 550.</p></div>
+
+<div class="sidenote">First interference
+of Sparta in
+affairs without
+the
+peninsula.</div>
+
+<p>12. These wars within Peloponnesus were not
+of such a nature as to give rise to any remarkable
+changes in the Spartan constitution, and for a
+long time the nation refused to take any share in
+foreign affairs. But no sooner did king Cleomenes,
+who in the end procured the deposition of
+his colleague, Demaratus, interfere in the affairs
+of the Athenians, than the seeds of strife were
+sown between these two republics. The Persian
+war next ensued, in which Sparta was obliged
+to bear a part, although Cleomenes had refused
+to participate in the insurrection of Aristagoras:
+that struggle, together with the idea of supremacy
+in Greece which now took its rise, introduced
+a series of political relations before
+unknown.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">History of
+Athens.</div>
+
+<p>13. The history of Athens during this period is
+rendered important rather by domestic revolutions,
+which gradually tended to convert the
+state into a republic, than by external aggrandizement.
+The situation and peculiarities of Attica,
+which rendered it less exposed than other parts
+of Greece to the attacks and forays of wandering
+hordes, favoured the gradual and tranquil growth
+of national prosperity; the traces of which are
+incontestable, though it would be difficult for the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_137" id="Page_137">[Pg 137]</a></span>
+most profound research to point out the whole
+course of its progress so perspicuously as the historian
+might wish.</p>
+
+<div class="sblockquot"><p>The history of Athens, of course, constitutes a main part of the
+works mentioned above, p. 119. Besides which:</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">W. Young</span>, <i>The history of Athens politically and philosophically
+considered</i>. London, 1796. 4to. Argumentation rather
+than history.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Corsini</span>, <i>Fasti Attici</i>. Florent. 1747. 4 vols. 4to. A most
+careful chronological essay.</p>
+
+<p>1. Period of kingly government down to 1068. The history
+of Athens as a state begins properly with Theseus, who succeeded
+his father &AElig;geus, about B. C. 1300. Although certain
+institutions, such as that of the areopagus, the division of the
+people into nobles, (&#949;&#8016;&#960;&#945;&#964;&#961;&#943;&#948;&#945;&#953;,)
+husbandmen, (&#947;&#949;&#974;&#961;&#947;&#959;&#953;,)
+and mechanics: (&#948;&#951;&#956;&#953;&#959;&#973;&#961;&#947;&#959;&#953;&#903;)
+a division which recals to our memory the
+Egyptian institution of castes, are perhaps of an earlier date, and
+may be ascribed to the colony of Cecrops. Theseus was, however,
+in some measure the founder of the state, since, instead of
+the four districts, (&#948;&#942;&#956;&#959;&#953;,)
+hitherto independent of one another, he
+constituted the city of Athens as the only seat of government.
+Among his successors the attention of the student is directed to
+Mnestheus, who fell before Troy; and the last king, Codrus,
+who by a voluntary sacrifice of his life rescued Attica from the
+inroads of the Dorians, 1068.</p>
+
+<p>2. Period of archons for life, taken from the family of Codrus,
+thirteen of whom ruled; 1068&mdash;752. The first was Medon, the
+last, Alcm&aelig;on. These archons succeeded, like the kings, by inheritance,
+but were accountable for their administration,
+(&#8017;&#960;&#949;&#973;&#952;&#965;&#957;&#959;&#953;.)&mdash;At
+the commencement of this period occur the migrations
+of the Ionians from Attica to Asia Minor, 1044. See
+below.</p>
+
+<p>3. Period of the decennial archons, seven of whom succeeded
+between 752&mdash;682. These likewise were taken from the family
+of Codrus. This period is devoid of any remarkable occurrences.</p>
+
+<p>4. Period extending to Solon, 682&mdash;594. that of nine archons
+yearly chosen, but so arranged that the prerogatives of the former
+kings, and the preceding archons, were divided among the three
+first of the nine. With respect to this, as well as to the other
+changes above mentioned, we know little of the causes which
+produced them, or of the manner in which they were brought
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_138" id="Page_138">[Pg 138]</a></span>about. Rise of an oppressive aristocracy, (like that of the patricians
+at Rome, immediately after the expulsion of the kings,)
+both the archons and the members of the areopagus being elected
+only from noble families. First attempt at legislation by Draco,
+622, which appears only to have consisted in a criminal code,
+rendered unavailing by its severity.&mdash;The insurrection of Cylon,
+598, in consequence of the manner in which it was quelled,
+turned out most injurious to the aristocratical party, inasmuch as
+the nobles drew upon themselves the pollution of blood, which,
+even after the purification of Epimenides, 593, was long used as
+a pretext for commotion. The political factions of the Pedi&aelig;i,
+of the Diacrii, and of the Parhali, produced an anarchy at Athens,
+during which the neighbouring Megarians took possession of the
+island of Salamis; a conquest which, however, was subsequently
+wrested from them by Solon.</p></div>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Solon's
+legislation,<br />
+594.</div>
+
+<p>14. From this state of anarchy Athens was
+rescued by Solon; a man to whom not only
+Athens, but the whole human race, are deeply
+indebted. He was chosen archon, and at the
+same time commissioned to remodel the constitution
+of Athens: and the successful manner in
+which he executed this task, laid the foundation
+of the happiness of his native country.</p>
+
+<div class="sblockquot"><p><i>Review of the prominent features in Solon's legislation.</i> Its
+main object was to abolish the oppressive aristocracy, without
+however introducing a pure democracy. 1. Provisional laws:
+abolition of the statutes of Draco, those against murder excepted:
+law enacted for the relief of debtors,
+(&#963;&#949;&#953;&#963;&#945;&#967;&#952;&#949;&#943;&#945;, nov&aelig; tabul&aelig;,)
+not so much by cancelling the debts as by diminishing their
+amount by a rise in the value of money; and likewise by ensuring
+the personal liberty of the debtor. 2. Fundamental laws,
+both in reference to the constitution and in reference to private
+life and private rights.&mdash;Constitution of the state. (<i>a</i>) Organization
+of the people by means of divisions: according to property
+into four classes; the Pentacosimedimni, or those who had
+a yearly income of 500 medimni; the Equites, (&#7985;&#960;&#960;&#949;&#8150;&#962;,) who had
+400; the Zeugit&aelig;, who had 300; and the Thetes, (capite censi,)
+whose yearly revenue did not amount to so much.&mdash;The ancient
+divisions according to heads, into wards, (&#966;&#973;&#955;&#945;&#953;,) of which there
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_139" id="Page_139">[Pg 139]</a></span>were four, and according to residence into demi, (hundreds,) of
+which a hundred and seventy are enumerated, were preserved.
+(<i>b</i>) None but citizens of the three first classes could fill all the
+offices of state; but all were admitted to the popular assemblies,
+and had a right of voting in the courts of judicature. (<i>c</i>) The
+nine archons annually chosen, who acted as supreme magistrates,
+although not permitted to assume military office at the same
+time, remained at the head of the state; the first bearing the
+name of &#7952;&#960;&#974;&#957;&#965;&#956;&#959;&#962;, the second of
+&#946;&#945;&#963;&#953;&#955;&#949;&#8058;&#962;, the third of
+&#960;&#959;&#955;&#941;&#956;&#945;&#961;&#967;&#959;&#962;,
+the remaining six that of &#952;&#949;&#963;&#956;&#959;&#952;&#8050;&#964;&#945;&#953;.
+Combined with the archons was (<i>d</i>) The council,
+(&#946;&#959;&#965;&#955;&#8052;,) which consisted of a body of four
+hundred persons annually taken from the three first classes of
+citizens; (a hundred from each ward;) these were chosen by
+lot, but were obliged to submit to a rigid examination (&#948;&#959;&#954;&#953;&#956;&#945;&#963;&#943;&#945;)
+before they entered upon office. The archons were obliged to
+consult the four hundred on every occurrence; and nothing
+could be carried down to the commons until it had been previously
+debated in this council. (<i>e</i>) To the people, consisting of
+the whole four classes, was reserved the right in its assemblies
+(&#7952;&#954;&#954;&#955;&#951;&#963;&#943;&#945;&#953;)
+of confirming the laws, of electing the magistrates, of
+debating all public affairs referred to them by the council, and
+likewise the public distribution of justice. (<i>f</i>) The areopagus
+was, according to Solon's plan, to be the main buttress of the
+constitution; that tribunal had hitherto been a mere tool in the
+hands of the aristocracy. It was composed of retired archons,
+and remained not only the supreme tribunal in capital cases, but
+likewise was charged with the superintendence of morals, with
+the censorship upon the conduct of the archons who went out of
+office, and had the prerogative of amending or rescinding the
+measures that had been approved of by the commons. The
+power of this court, which might easily have become equal to the
+college of Ephori at Sparta, might at first have been supposed
+too extensive, had not experience shown the fatal consequences
+of the reduction of that power by Pericles. This alloy of aristocracy
+and democracy certainly gives proof of a deep insight into
+the nature of republican constitutions; but Solon is not less entitled
+to praise for his endeavours to place the helm of government
+in the hands only of the most enlightened and prudent
+citizens. It must likewise be observed, that the code for private
+life given by Solon exhibits the genius of a man who regarded
+polity as subordinate to morals, and not, like Lycurgus, morals as
+subordinate to polity.</p>
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_140" id="Page_140">[Pg 140]</a></span></p>
+<p><span class="smcap">Sam. Petitus</span>, <i>De Legibus Atticis</i>, 1635. fol. The best compilation
+and illustration of the fragments remaining of the Attic
+law.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Chr. Bunsen</span>, <i>De jure Atheniensium hereditario, ex Is&aelig;o
+c&aelig;terisque oratoribus Gr&aelig;cis ducto</i>, Goett. 1812. The law of
+inheritance was a principal feature in Solon's legislation; the
+explanation of it requires a profound acquaintance with the constitution,
+so far as it was connected with government by clans
+or families.</p>
+
+<p>An explanation of the Athenian constitution will be likewise
+found in the above-mentioned works of Tittmann, Kruse, and
+Wachsmuth.</p></div>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Tyranny established in Athens by Pisistratus.</div>
+
+<p>15. The legislation of Solon, like all other state
+reforms, was not followed by the total extinction
+of party spirit. It was natural that the commons,
+now free, should wish to try their strength with
+the aristocratical party, and that, after the defeat
+of the latter, Pisistratus, who headed the commons,
+should grasp the rudder of the state without,
+therefore, necessarily abrogating the constitution
+of Solon. Modern history has proved
+with sufficient evidence, that the frame-work of a
+republic may easily subsist under the rule of an
+usurper. And would that no republics might
+fall into the hands of a worse tyrant than Pisistratus!</p>
+
+<div class="sblockquot"><p>First exaltation of Pisistratus, 561, procured by his obtaining
+a body guard; flight of the Alcm&aelig;onid&aelig; under Megacles. Pisistratus
+expelled, 560. Second exaltation of Pisistratus procured
+by his matrimonial connection with the family of Megacles,
+556&mdash;552.&mdash;His second expulsion by Megacles, 552&mdash;538.&mdash;His
+third exaltation; obtains the power by force of arms, and preserves
+it to the day of his death, 538&mdash;528. Flight of the Alcm&aelig;onid&aelig;
+into Macedonia, where they attach the malcontents to
+their party. Pisistratus is succeeded by his sons Hipparchus
+and Hippias, who rule conjointly until 514, when the elder is
+murdered by Harmodius and Aristogiton. The exiled Alcm&aelig;onid&aelig;,
+having bribed the Delphian oracle, gain over the Spartans<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_141" id="Page_141">[Pg 141]</a></span>
+to their interest: backed by a Spartan army, they take possession
+of Athens in 510; Hippias is deposed, and flies over to the Persians.</p></div>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Changes in Solon's constitution.</div>
+
+<p>16. This return of the Alcm&aelig;onid&aelig; was followed
+by a change in the constitution of Solon.
+Clisthenes, the son of Megacles, with a view of
+quenching party spirit by a new combination of
+the citizens, increased the number of wards to
+ten, and that of the members of the council to
+five hundred.&mdash;But the Athenians had to purchase
+the continuance of their freedom by a struggle
+with Sparta, who, united with the B&#339;otians
+and Chalcidians, and aided by &AElig;gina, sought to
+<span class="sidenote">527&mdash;504.</span>
+reestablish monarchy in Attica; first in the person
+of Isagoras, the rival of Clisthenes, and afterwards
+in that of the exiled Hippias. But the
+glorious success of the republic in this first struggle
+in the cause of liberty, gave an additional
+impulse to the national spirit. Impelled by that
+spirit, Athens suffered herself to be induced to
+share in the war of freedom carried on by the
+Asiatic Greeks under Aristagoras; and the audacity
+<span class="sidenote">500.</span>
+which led to the firing of Sardis, drew upon
+Attica the vengeance of the Persians, without
+which, doubtless, neither Athens or Greece would
+ever have risen to that degree of eminence which
+they ultimately attained.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">History of
+the other
+Grecian
+states.</div>
+
+<p>17. Of the history of the other states of Greece
+we have at best but few data, and even these in
+most instances are very scanty. Towards the
+end of this period Sparta and Athens had, undoubtedly,
+exalted themselves above the rest, and
+were recognized, one as the first among the Dorian,
+the latter as the first among the Ionian<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_142" id="Page_142">[Pg 142]</a></span>
+states; yet did Sparta more than once meet
+with rivals in Messene, Argos, and Tegea: while
+Athens had to contend with Megara and &AElig;gina.
+Sparta and Athens had, nevertheless, not only
+the best constitutions, but possessed also a more
+extended territory than any other of the great
+cities.</p>
+
+
+<h3><i>Principal data for the history of the smaller states.</i></h3>
+
+<p class="cblockquot">I. <i>Within the Peloponnesus.</i></p>
+
+<div class="sblockquot"><p><i>a.</i> Arcadia. The Arcadian traditions enumerate a line of
+kings or hereditary princes, said to have ruled over the whole of
+Arcadia; the line commences with Arcas and his son Lycaon,
+whose successors kept possession of the supreme power, and
+shared more or less in the ancient feuds of the Hellenic princes.
+Upon the conquest of Peloponnesus by the Dorians, Arcadia was
+the only land that did not suffer by the irruption: an advantage
+for which it was probably indebted more to its mountains, than
+to the skill of Cypselus its king. The successors of that prince
+took a part in the wars between the Messenians and Spartans,
+siding with the former: but in the second Messenian war, the
+last Arcadian king, Aristocrates II. having betrayed his allies,
+was in consequence stoned to death by his subjects, and the regal
+dignity was abolished in 668. Arcadia now became divided into
+as many small states as it contained cities with their respective
+districts; among these Tegea and Mantinea were the chief, and
+probably held the others in a certain state of control, without,
+however, depriving them wholly of their independence. As
+might have been expected in a pastoral nation, the constitution
+was democratical. In Mantinea there were wardens of the people,
+(&#948;&#951;&#956;&#953;&#959;&#973;&#961;&#947;&#959;&#953;,)
+and a senate, (&#946;&#959;&#965;&#955;&#942;.) The wars of separate cities
+are frequently mentioned, but no general confederation united
+them.</p>
+
+<p>&#8224; See <span class="smcap">A. von Breitenbauch</span>, <i>History of Arcadia</i>, 1791.</p>
+
+<p><i>b.</i> Argos. Even previously to the Dorian migration, the
+country of Argolis was parcelled out into several small kingdoms,
+such as those of Argos, Mycen&aelig;, and Tiryns. In Argos, the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_143" id="Page_143">[Pg 143]</a></span>
+oldest Grecian state next to Sicyon, ruled the forefathers of Perseus,
+who exchanged the kingdom of his ancestors for Tiryns:
+here his successors continued to reign till the time of Hercules,
+whose sons, expelled by Eurystheus, sought an asylum among
+the Dorians.&mdash;In Mycen&aelig;, said to have been built by Perseus,
+the throne was occupied by the family of Pelops: and at the
+period of the Trojan war, this little state, to which Corinth and
+Sicyon then belonged, was the most powerful in Greece, and governed
+by Agamemnon. The migration into this country by
+Pelops from Asia Minor, must have been attended with important
+consequences, since it has given a name to the whole peninsula:
+the object of Pelops, as we may infer from the riches he brought
+with him, was probably to establish a trading settlement.&mdash;At
+the Dorian conquest Argos fell to the share of Temenus, the
+Ach&aelig;ans were expelled, and the country was peopled by Dorians.
+As early as the reign of Cisus, son of Temenus, the royal power
+was so limited, that the successors of that prince hardly preserved
+any thing but the mere name: about 984 the regal dignity
+was wholly abrogated, and its place supplied by a republican
+constitution, concerning the domestic organization of which we
+know nothing more than that at Argos the government was in
+the hands of a senate, (&#946;&#959;&#965;&#955;&#8052;,) of a college of eighty citizens,
+(&#959;&#7985; &#8000;&#947;&#948;&#959;&#942;&#954;&#959;&#957;&#964;&#945;,)
+and of magistrates, who bore the name of
+&#7936;&#961;&#964;&#973;&#957;&#959;&#953;: in Epidaurus, however, there was a body of one hundred and eighty
+citizens who chose from among themselves the senate, the members
+of which were called &#7936;&#961;&#964;&#973;&#957;&#959;&#953;. As in the other states of
+Greece so in Argolis, there were as many independent states as
+there were cities; in the north Argos, Mycen&aelig;, and Tiryns; in
+the south Epidaurus and Tr&#339;zen. The two last preserved their
+independence; but Mycen&aelig; was destroyed by the Argives in 425,
+and the inhabitants of Tiryns were forcibly transplanted to Argos.
+The district of Argos, therefore, comprised the northern portion
+of the country called Argolis; but not the southern portion, which
+belonged to the towns situated therein.</p>
+
+<p><i>c.</i> Corinth. In this place, previous to the time of the Dorian
+migration, the house of Sisyphus held the royal power; and
+even at that early period Corinth is extolled by Homer for its
+wealth. The Dorians drove out the original inhabitants; and
+Aletes, belonging to the race of Hercules, became king about
+1089; the posterity of that prince held the sceptre down to the
+fifth generation. After the death of the last king, Telessus, 777,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_144" id="Page_144">[Pg 144]</a></span>
+the family of the Bacchiad&aelig;, likewise a branch of the family of
+Hercules, took possession of the government and introduced an
+oligarchy, electing annually from among themselves a Prytane.
+At last, in 657, Cypselus got the upper hand; he was succeeded,
+627, by his son Periander; both father and son were equally
+conspicuous for their avarice and cruelty. Periander (<i>d.</i> 587)
+was succeeded by his nephew Psammetichus, who reigned till
+584, when the Corinthians asserted their freedom. With regard
+to the internal organization of the republic, little more is known
+than that there were at Corinth assemblies of the commons and a
+senate, (&#947;&#949;&#961;&#959;&#965;&#963;&#943;&#945;): the government appears to have been the
+aristocracy of a trading state; for even the Bacchiad&aelig;, at least
+some of them, were merchants.&mdash;The Corinthian commerce consisted
+chiefly in the exchange of Asiatic and Italian goods, and
+therefore was mostly carried on by sea: for such a trade the city
+of Corinth offered many advantages, particularly if we consider
+the state of navigation in those times; but the sea trade of
+Corinth, however profitable to the citizens, and even to the
+state, in consequence of the customs, cannot be considered as
+very extensive.&mdash;The colonies of Corinth in the west were principally
+Corcyra, Epidamnus, Leucas, Syracuse; in the east Potid&aelig;a:
+these colonies would fain have asserted a sort of independence,
+but never succeeded for any length of time in so doing.</p>
+
+<p>From the possession of these colonies, and from the necessity
+of protecting the trader from pirates, Corinth grew to be a naval
+power; she invented triremes, and at the early date of 664 gave
+battle to the Corcyr&aelig;ans at sea. On the other hand, her wars by
+land were generally waged with the assistance of foreign subsidiaries;
+and from the facility with which she was enabled to pay
+her mercenary troops, she was the more ready to interfere in the
+domestic wars of Greece.</p>
+
+<p><i>d.</i> Sicyon. Tradition represents this state, together with Argos,
+as the most ancient in Greece; the catalogues of early kings
+and princes, who are said to have reigned at this place, make it
+probable that in early antiquity some settlements of priests were
+made in this quarter. In the times previous to the migration of
+the Dorians, Sicyon was first inhabited by the Ionians; at the
+Trojan war, however, it made part of Agamemnon's kingdom.
+At the Dorian irruption, Phalces, son of Temenus, took possession
+of Sicyon, which then became a Dorian city. After the
+abrogation of the kingship, the date of which is not precisely<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_145" id="Page_145">[Pg 145]</a></span>
+known, the constitution assumed the form of an uncurbed democracy,
+which, as usual, paved the way for the usurpation of one
+individual. Orthagoras and his posterity, the last and most celebrated
+of whom was Clisthenes, ruled over Sicyon during a whole
+century; 700&mdash;600. After the restoration of her freedom, Sicyon
+frequently suffered from revolutions; and the period of her
+highest splendour was during the latter days of Greece, when she
+became a member of the Ach&aelig;an league.</p>
+
+<p><i>e.</i> Achaia. During the spread of the Hellenes, this country,
+which till then had borne the name of &AElig;gialus, was taken possession
+of by Ion, who had been expelled from Athens, and his
+tribe, who from their leader took the name of Ionians: the country
+remained in the hands of the Ionians until the Dorian migration,
+when the Ach&aelig;ans, driven out of Argos and Laconia, pressed
+into the northern parts of Peloponnesus under Tisamenus, son
+of Orestes: they settled in the land of the Ionians, and the power
+of the chieftain descended to his posterity, until the tyranny of
+the last sovereign of that race, Gyges, (of date undetermined,)
+produced the abolition of monarchy. Achaia thereupon was parcelled
+into twelve small republics, or so many cities with their
+respective districts, each of which comprised seven or eight cantons.
+All these republics had democratic constitutions, and were
+mutually united by a league, founded on the most perfect equality,
+and which nothing but the policy of the Macedonian kings
+could dissolve; and even this dissolution gave rise to the <i>Ach&aelig;an</i>
+league, of such high importance in subsequent times. The
+Ach&aelig;ans lived in peace and happiness, inasmuch as they had not
+the vanity, before the Peloponnesian war, to interfere in the
+affairs of foreign states: their constitutions were so renowned,
+that they were adopted by several other Grecian cities.</p>
+
+<p><i>f.</i> Elis. The inhabitants in earlier times bore the name of
+Epeans, which, like that of Eleans, was traced to one of their
+ancient kings. The names of their most ancient hereditary
+princes, Endymion, Epeus, Eleus, Augias, are celebrated by the
+poets. It appears that this country was divided into several
+small kingdoms, since, at the period of the Trojan war it contained
+four, to which however must be added Pylus in Triphylia, a
+territory usually reckoned as belonging to Elis. At the epoch
+of the Dorian migration the &AElig;tolians, who had accompanied the
+Dorians, headed by their chieftain Oxylus, settled in Elis; but
+permitted the ancient inhabitants to remain in the country.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_146" id="Page_146">[Pg 146]</a></span>
+Among the successors of Oxylus was Iphitus the contemporary of
+Lycurgus, and celebrated as the restorer of the Olympian games,
+to the celebration of which Elis was indebted for the tranquil
+splendour that distinguished her from this time: her territory
+being regarded as sacred, although she had occasional disputes
+with her neighbours, the Arcadians, for precedence at the games.
+After the abolition of the royal power supreme magistrates were
+chosen, to whose office was added the charge of superintending
+the games: (Hellanodic&aelig;). These magistrates were at first two;
+they were afterwards increased to ten, one from each tribe,
+although their number frequently changed with that of the tribes
+themselves. There must likewise have been a senate, consisting
+of ninety persons, who held their places for life, since Aristotle
+makes mention of that branch of the Elean constitution. The
+city of Elis was first built in 477, before which time the Eleans
+resided in several small hamlets.</p></div>
+
+
+<p class="cblockquot">II. <i>Central Greece, or Hellas.</i></p>
+
+<div class="sblockquot"><p><i>a.</i> Megaris. Until the epoch of the Dorian migration, this
+state generally formed part of the domain of the Attic kings; or
+at least was governed by princes of that house. Immediately
+previous to that event, the Megarians, after the assassination of
+their last sovereign, Hyperion, placed the government in the
+hands of magistrates elected for stated periods. At the time of
+the Dorian irruption, under the reign of Codrus, Megara was occupied
+by Dorians, more especially those of Corinth, who consequently
+reckoned the city among their colonies, and during the
+sway of the Bacchiad&aelig; endeavoured to keep it in a state of
+dependency; a circumstance which gave rise to several wars.
+Nevertheless Megara supported her rank as a separate state, both
+in those and many subsequent wars among the Greeks, in which
+she took a share both by sea and land. About the year 600,
+Theagenes, step-father of the Athenian Cylon, had possessed
+himself of the supreme power: after the expulsion of that tyrant,
+the republican constitution was once more restored, but soon
+after merged into the lowest species of democracy. Megara,
+however, even at the period of the Persian war, in which it took
+a glorious share, appears to have recovered the character of a
+well-ordered state, although we have no information respecting
+its internal organization.</p>
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_147" id="Page_147">[Pg 147]</a></span></p>
+<p><i>b.</i> B&#339;otia. History mentions several very early races in B&#339;otia,
+such as the Aones, Hyantes, etc.; with these were mingled
+Ph&#339;nician emigrants, who had come into the country under the
+guidance of Cadmus. The stock of Cadmus became the ruling
+family, and remained so for a long time: the history of his descendants,
+who were kings of Thebes, and comprised under their
+dominion the greatest part of B&#339;otia, constitutes a main branch
+of Grecian mythology: among them were &#338;dipus, La&iuml;us, Eteocles,
+and Polynices. After the capture of Thebes by the Epigoni,
+1215, the B&#339;otians were expelled by Thracian hordes, and
+settled at Arne in Thessaly; at the time of the Dorian migration
+they returned to the land of their forefathers, and mingled with
+the &AElig;olians of those quarters. Not long after, upon the death
+of Xuthus, royalty was abolished, 1126. B&#339;otia was now divided
+into as many small states as it contained cities; of these,
+next to Thebes, the most eminent were the towns of Plat&aelig;&aelig;,
+Thespi&aelig;, Tanagra, and Ch&aelig;ronea, each of which had its own
+separate district and peculiar form of government; but all those
+constitutions appear to have been commuted into oligarchies
+about the time of the Persian war. Such had been the case even
+with Thebes, although she had received as a legislator, Philolaus
+from Corinth; but the code given by this individual cannot have
+been attended with the desired effect, as the government was
+continually fluctuating between a licentious democracy and an
+overbearing oligarchy. The B&#339;otian cities were, however, mutually
+united by a league, at the head of which stood Thebes,
+who gradually converted her right of precedence into a right of
+power, although her ambitious attempts were resisted to the last
+extremity by the separate cities, and by Plat&aelig;&aelig; in particular:
+hence sprung many wars. The general affairs were decided upon
+in four assemblies, (&#946;&#959;&#965;&#955;&#945;&#8054;,) held in the four districts into which
+B&#339;otia was divided; these assemblies in conjunction elected
+eleven B&#339;otarchs, who stood at the head of the federation as supreme
+magistrates and field marshals. The great extent and
+population of their territory might have enabled the B&#339;otians to
+act the first part on the theatre of Greece, had they not been impeded
+by their pernicious form of government, by the envy felt
+against Thebes, and by the want of union which naturally ensued.
+Yet in subsequent times the example of Epaminondas and Pelopidas
+gave proof that the genius of two men was sufficient to surmount
+all these obstacles.</p>
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_148" id="Page_148">[Pg 148]</a></span></p>
+<p><i>c.</i> Phocis was originally ruled by kings descended, it is said,
+from Phocus, the leader of a colony from Corinth. The sovereign
+power was abolished about the time of the Dorian migration;
+but the form of the republican constitution which succeeded
+remains undetermined; and of the undertakings of the
+Phocians previous to the Persian invasion, we know nothing more
+than that they waged war with the Thessalians, and were successful.
+As history never mentions the Phocians but in the
+aggregate, the whole territory must have formed but one independent
+state. To that state, however, the city of Delphi, which
+had its own constitution, did not belong: the city of Crissa
+with its fertile district, and the harbour of Cirrha, constituted a
+separate state, which became opulent by practising extortions
+upon the pilgrims to Delphi: this state lasted till 600, when, in
+consequence of the insults of the Criss&aelig;ans to the Delphian oracle,
+a war was proclaimed against them by the Amphictyons,
+which ended in 590 with the rasing of Crissa; the land of which
+was thenceforward added to the sacred glebe of Delphi.</p>
+
+<p><i>d.</i> Locris. Although we learn from early history that the
+Locrians also had their kings,&mdash;among whom Ajax, the son of
+Oileus, is renowned in the Trojan war,&mdash;and that they likewise
+in subsequent times adopted a republican form of government;
+yet the date of that revolution, and the manner in which it was
+brought about, are not known. The three tribes of Locrians remained
+politically distinct. The Locri Ozol&aelig;, west of Phocis,
+possessed the most extensive territory; each city of which stood
+independent, though Amphissa is mentioned as the capital. The
+country of the Locri Opuntii, eastward, consisted of the district
+appertaining to the city of Opus; of their domestic organization,
+as well as that of their neighbours, the Locri Epicnemidii, we
+know nothing.</p>
+
+<p><i>e.</i> &AElig;tolia. The &AElig;tolians remained the most rude and uncivilized
+of all the Hellenic races; they were little more than a
+band of freebooters, and carried on their predatory excursions
+both by sea and land. Renowned as are the names of their earliest
+heroes, &AElig;tolus, Peneus, Meleager, Diomede, the nation
+has no place in the history of the flourishing times of Greece.
+Nor did they acquire any celebrity until the Macedo-Roman
+period, when the various insignificant tribes of which they were
+composed gathered themselves together and chose one common
+leader, for the purpose of carrying on a war with the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_149" id="Page_149">[Pg 149]</a></span>
+Ach&aelig;ans. The earlier period of their history seems, however,
+to afford no previous example of such an union; their political
+constitution in those times is wholly unknown.</p>
+
+<p><i>f.</i> Acarnania. This country derived its name from Acarnan,
+son of Alcm&aelig;on, both of whom are adduced as its earliest kings.
+In the Trojan age it appears beyond a doubt, that some part at
+least of this country was subject to the governors of the island of
+Ithaca. When and how a republican government was introduced
+among the Acarnanians, and what were the peculiarities of that
+government we know not. All that can be distinguished through
+the veil of time is, that here likewise the different cities, the
+most important of which was Stratus, had each its own form of
+government. Those cities upon particular emergencies were wont
+to combine; and out of that practice in later times, during the
+Macedonian period, grew up a permanent confederation. The
+city and district of Argos Amphilochicum constituted a separate
+state, which endured a long time, and flourished greatly; it derived
+its name from Amphilochus, the founder. The inhabitants,
+however, being driven out by the Ambracians, whom they had
+themselves called in, sought assistance at the hands of the Acarnanians,
+who with the help of Athens, replaced the exiles in possession
+of their city, which thenceforward was inhabited in common
+by Amphilochians and Acarnanians, and was almost constantly
+engaged in war with Ambracia.</p></div>
+
+
+<p class="cblockquot">III. <i>Northern Greece.</i></p>
+
+<div class="sblockquot"><p><i>a.</i> The importance of Thessaly in the earliest history of Greece,
+may be gathered from the principal data enumerated above for
+the history of the Pelasgi and the Hellenes. From this country
+it was that the Hellenes proceeded and spread over Greece; and
+here likewise they maintained their original seat. In the Trojan
+age Thessaly contained ten small kingdoms, governed by hereditary
+princes, several of whom, such as Achilles and Philoctetes,
+were among the most renowned heroes of the time. In the period
+subsequent to the Trojan war and the Dorian migration,
+Thessaly must have experienced political revolutions similar to
+those of the other Grecian countries; but neither the time nor
+the manner in which those revolutions occurred can be ascertained.
+All that can be deduced from the subsequent history is,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_150" id="Page_150">[Pg 150]</a></span>
+that if the Thessalian cities ever did recover their political freedom,
+they were unable to maintain it; for in the two most eminent
+cities, Pher&aelig; and Larissa, with whose history that of the
+whole country is closely connected, the supreme power had fallen
+into the hands of arbitrary individuals, who appear to have kept
+possession of it almost without interruption. Even before the
+breaking out of the Persian war, Larissa was under the rule of
+the Aleuad&aelig;; a family who claimed descent from Hercules, and
+are specially denominated by Herodotus kings of the Thessalians.
+They preserved their power until the Macedonian period.&mdash;In
+Pher&aelig; there arose about the year 380, a tyrant, by the name of
+Jason, who extended his dominion not only over Thessaly, but
+likewise over several of the neighbouring barbarous tribes. The
+sceptre of Jason passed rapidly and successively into the hands
+of his three brothers, Polydorus, Polyphron, and Alexander. The
+last was first driven out of Larissa by the Aleuad&aelig;, assisted by
+the Macedonians; was afterwards worsted in war by Pelopidas;
+and finally, at the instigation of his wife Thebe, was murdered,
+356, by her brothers, Lycophron and Tisiphonus. The two murderers
+then assumed the supreme power, but were, in compliance
+with the request of the Aleuad&aelig;, deposed by Philip of Macedon.&mdash;Some
+other such tyrants are met with at intervals in the rest
+of the Thessalian cities, such as <i>Pharsalus</i>, etc.</p>
+
+<p><i>b.</i> Epirus. This country was occupied by several tribes, partly
+Greek and partly barbarian. The most powerful of these was
+that of the Molossi, who were governed by kings of the house of
+the &AElig;acid&aelig;, descendants of Pyrrhus, the son of Achilles. This
+Greek family was the only one that held the kingly power for a
+permanency; it must be observed, however, that previous to the
+Macedonian period, those sovereigns were by no means lords of
+the whole of Epirus; for the other non-Hellenic races, such as the
+Thesprotii, Orestii, etc. had their own separate kings. Moreover
+the Corinthian colony of Ambracia constituted a distinct state,
+generally governed as a republic, although sometimes subject to
+the rule of tyrants. But, in consequence of an alliance framed
+with the Macedonian kings, the whole of Epirus, and even Ambracia
+itself, was placed under the sceptre of the Molossian kings;
+and some of those princes, Pyrrhus II. more especially, rose to
+be mighty conquerors. See below.</p></div>
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_151" id="Page_151">[Pg 151]</a></span></p>
+
+<p class="cblockquot">IV. <i>Grecian Islands.</i></p>
+
+<div class="sblockquot"><p>Both the islands off the coast of Greece, and those of the Archipelago,
+all underwent the same political revolutions as occurred
+in the states on the main land. But those events did not
+take place till after the more ancient non-Hellenic inhabitants,
+such as the Ph&#339;nicians, Carians, etc. had been driven out, and
+the land had been taken possession of by the Hellenes. In the
+more extensive islands, which contained several cities, there generally
+arose as many small republics as there were towns, and
+those little states were wont to enter into mutual alliances. The
+smaller islands, containing but one city, formed each one small
+independent state, the territory of which comprised the whole
+island. The respective independence of these islands ceased to
+exist at the period of the Trojan war; for after the Athenians
+had by their success placed themselves at the head of confederate
+Greece, and possessed themselves of the sovereignty of the sea,
+these smaller states, although called confederates, were treated
+little better than subjects, except that their political constitutions
+were not changed.&mdash;Among the islands of the Grecian coast, the
+most remarkable in history are the following:</p>
+
+<p><i>a.</i> Corcyra, a colony of Corinth, important for its naval power
+and trade, in which it rivalled the mother state itself: a rivalry
+which occasioned many feuds and wars, and was even one of the
+principal motives that led to the Peloponnesian war. About the
+time this struggle began Corcyra had attained the height of her
+power, being able, without foreign aid, to man a fleet of 120
+galleys. The constitution appears, as at Corinth, to have been
+aristocratic, or oligarchical: but after the Persian war a democratic
+faction arose, which produced the most violent internal
+commotions, and ended in the total ruin of Corcyra.</p>
+
+<p><i>b.</i> &AElig;gina. This small island was, after the Dorian migration,
+occupied by colonists from Epidaurus; it however soon shook
+off the yoke of the mother city, and rapidly grew by commerce
+and navigation, to be one of the first Grecian states. &AElig;gina was
+for a long time the rival of Athens; over whom her naval power
+enabled her to maintain a superiority until the time of the Persian
+war. Humbled, however, by Themistocles, 485, she could
+no longer support herself against the preponderating influence of
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_152" id="Page_152">[Pg 152]</a></span>Athens; and although subsequently she made another stand for
+independence, 458, the consequences were but an increase of oppression.
+Neither must it be forgotten, that &AElig;gina suffered
+much, even before the Persian war, from internal broils, caused
+by the bitterness of party spirit engendered between the aristocratic
+and democratic factions.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">C. O. Mueller</span>, <i>&AElig;gineticorum liber</i>, 1817. This treatise
+contains not only the political history, but likewise that of trade
+and arts.</p>
+
+<p><i>c.</i> Eub&#339;a. The different cities of this island, Chalcis and
+Eretria in particular, had each its separate domestic constitution:
+in the two towns above mentioned the constitution was aristocratic,
+since the government was in the hands of the opulent,
+(Hippobat&aelig;;) nevertheless we hear of tyrants in Chalcis. After
+the Persian war Eub&#339;a became dependent upon Athens, which
+drew from that island a portion of her supplies and provisions.
+The oppression of the Athenians stirred up the minds of the
+Eub&#339;ans to rebellion, and the islanders were in the sequel ever
+ready to throw up their allegiance when a suitable opportunity
+presented itself; such an opportunity was seized in 446, when
+the island was recovered by Pericles; and the attempt was renewed
+in the Peloponnesian war.</p>
+
+<p><i>d.</i> The Cyclades were first colonized by Crete, during the
+reign of Minos. The Carian race had in earlier times spread
+over these islands, but were gradually driven out by Hellenic
+invaders, belonging principally to the Ionian and Dorian families.
+The most important was Delos, chief seat of the Ionians. Sheltered
+under the protection of Apollo, this place became the
+centre of an extensive trade, and during the Persian war, 479,
+was selected for the treasury of Greece. Next was Paros, famed
+for its marble, and for the stand it made against Miltiades, 489,
+although it afterwards shared the fate of the other islands, and
+passed under the dominion of the Athenians. We know little of
+the constitution of the other smaller islands; each of them contained
+one city of the same name as the island which constituted
+its territory.</p>
+
+<p><i>e.</i> Crete. The inhabitants of Crete were not pure Hellenes,
+but of alloyed origin, such as Curetes, Pelasgi, etc. mingled with
+whom were Hellenes, of the Dorian and &AElig;ol&iacute;an stock. In the
+earlier periods, Crete had her kings, the most celebrated of whom
+were Minos, about 1300, probably first sovereign of the whole<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_153" id="Page_153">[Pg 153]</a></span>
+island; his brother Rhadamanthus, Idomeneus, Meriones, who
+followed Idomeneus to the Trojan war, and succeeded him upon
+the throne: the last king Etearchus, about 800, after whose
+death a republican form of government was introduced. Under
+these kings Crete was powerful on sea: to Minos is ascribed the
+honour of having by his fleets purged the &AElig;g&aelig;an of pirates, occupied
+the islands, and ensured security to the mariner. To him
+likewise is attributed the Cretan legislation, the model, it is said,
+of that given to Sparta by Lycurgus. But the uncertainty as to
+what does and what does not belong to Minos, is in this case
+even greater than in that of Lycurgus; many of the laws referred
+to Minos are probably nothing more than ancient Dorian institutions.
+The insular situation which in some measure ensured
+Crete from foreign inroads, and the proximity of Egypt and
+Ph&#339;nicia must indubitably have contributed to expand the germ
+of political civilization. The abolition of the kingly office seems
+to have been the effect of internal commotions, to which Crete
+continued to be frequently exposed, even under a republican
+form of government. Those commotions originated in the jealousy
+between the two largest cities, Gortina and Cnossus, which,
+when united, ruled the rest; but when at war, shook the whole
+island, until the city of Cydonia, passing over to one of the sides,
+gave a turn to the balance. The laws instituted by Minos respecting
+private life were enforced in all the cities of the island;
+but declined at an earlier period than in the country. Each
+city had its own constitution; each possessed it senate, (&#947;&#949;&#961;&#959;&#973;&#963;&#953;&#945;,)
+at the head of which were ten censors, (&#954;&#972;&#963;&#956;&#959;&#953;,) chosen from certain
+families: these cosmi were not only prime magistrates, but
+likewise invested with the command in war, not often, it is true,
+waged by the Cretans against other nations, but, for that reason,
+more frequently with one another; a circumstance which must
+have necessarily contributed to corrupt, not only their constitution,
+but likewise their national character.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Meursii</span> <i>Creta, Rhodus, Cyprus</i>, 1675, 4to. Very laborious
+compilations. New light, however, has been thrown upon the
+subject by the inscriptions published in</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Chishull's</span> <i>Antiq. Asiatic&aelig;</i>; 1728, folio. A work which has
+been made use of by</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">St. Croix</span>, <i>Des anciens gouvernemens</i>, etc. (See above,
+p. 131.) The principal work upon Crete.</p>
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_154" id="Page_154">[Pg 154]</a></span></p>
+<p>&#8224; <span class="smcap">C. Hoeck</span>, Crete. An attempt to explain the mythology,
+history, etc. of this island, 1823.</p>
+
+<p><i>f.</i> Cyprus. This island, like Crete, was inhabited by a race of
+mixed origin, who, even in the time of Herodotus, traced their
+descent from Ph&#339;nicians, Africans, (Ethiopians,) from Greeks
+out of Arcadia, Attica, and the island of Salamis; of which last
+the city of Salamis, founded by Teucer about 1160, was a colony.
+There can be no doubt, that in earlier times the Ph&#339;nicians were
+for a long period the dominant race in the island; since in the
+flourishing days of Tyre the Cyprians rebelled against their
+oppressors, at the same time that Psalmanezer led an expedition
+against the former city, about 720: moreover, even in the present
+day, Ph&#339;nician monuments are still found in the island. From
+that time to the Persian period, there appears to have been a close
+connection between this island and the Ph&#339;nicians, although the
+Cyprians preserved their independence. Several smaller kingdoms
+afterwards arose in various cities of the island; the number
+of which in subsequent times amounted to nine, and under
+Amasis, about 550, were tributary to the Egyptians; and under
+Cambyses, 525, to the Persians: notwithstanding this species of
+subjection, the various states preserved their own kings. During
+the Persian dominion, the Cyprians more than once joined in the
+insurrections against the Persians; more particularly the kings
+of Salamis, now become the most powerful. So early as the year
+500, Onesilus joined the Ionian rebels, but was defeated. In the
+wars which afterwards ensued between the Persians and Greeks,
+Cyprus was frequently attacked by the combined Grecian fleets;
+as in 470 by Pausanias, and during the reign of Evagoras I. 449,
+by Cimon, who died at the siege of Citium; yet the Persians were
+not driven out, but appear to have kept their footing even after
+the peace of 449. Among the subsequent kings of Salamis was
+Evagoras II. (400&mdash;390,) who was master of the greatest portion
+of the island; but as in the peace of Antalcidas Cyprus was
+ceded to the Persians, he was obliged to wage a hot war against
+them, in which he lost every thing but Salamis. Finally, the
+Cyprians, in 356, took a part in the insurrection of the Ph&#339;nicians
+and Egyptians: thereupon the Persians sent an army
+against them, under the command of a younger Evagoras, (who
+had been banished by his uncle Protagoras,) and under that of
+the Athenian Phocion Salamis was besieged, but matters were
+made up by a negotiation. The nine small kingdoms of the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_155" id="Page_155">[Pg 155]</a></span>
+island continued to exist till the time of Alexander, whom they
+voluntarily joined during the siege of Tyre, 332, and thenceforward
+Cyprus constituted a part of the Macedonian monarchy.</p></div>
+
+
+<h3>2. <i>History of the Grecian Colonies.</i></h3>
+
+<div class="sblockquot"><p>To assist the student in obtaining a general view of the events
+connected with the Greek colonies, the history of them will be
+here carried on through the subsequent period.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Raoul Rochette</span>, <i>Histoire critique de l'&eacute;tablissement des Colonies
+Grecques</i>, Paris, 1815, 4 vols. The most comprehensive
+treatise on the subject: it comprises the earlier Pelasgian and the
+later Macedonian colonies, as well as those of the Hellenes.
+There is much erudition displayed in this work, but sufficient attention
+is not paid to the value of the authorities made use of.</p>
+
+<p>&#8224; <span class="smcap">D. H. Hegewisch</span>, <i>Geographic and Historic Documents relative
+to the Colonies of the Greeks</i>, Altona, 1808, 8vo. A brief
+review of the subject.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">St. Croix</span>, <i>De l'&eacute;tat et du sort des Colonies des anciens peuples</i>,
+Paris, 1786. A series of valuable and important enquiries.</p></div>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Historic importance of the Greek colonies.</div>
+
+<p>1. No nation of antiquity ever founded so many
+colonies as the Greeks: these colonies became so
+important in various respects, that an acquaintance
+with them is indispensably requisite towards
+understanding the more early history of the world.
+Not only is the history of the civilization of the
+mother country and that of early trade intimately
+connected with these settlements, but some of
+them grew to such power as to have the greatest
+influence on political history.</p>
+
+<p>2. The Grecian colonies, to which the following
+observations apply, are those founded by the
+Hellenes in the time which elapsed between the
+Dorian migration and the Macedonian period. It<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_156" id="Page_156">[Pg 156]</a></span>
+appears certain that before the date of that migration
+some Pelasgian, and perhaps even some
+Hellenic settlers passed over into Italy. The
+history of these colonies however is not only involved
+in obscurity, but it is besides known that
+they ceased after a time to be Greek. The later
+settlements of the Macedonians were of a quite
+different nature from those of the Hellenes, to
+which we now allude.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Hellenic colonies.</div>
+
+<p>3. The Hellenic race spread alike to the east
+and to the west of Greece, their settlements, however,
+were confined to the shores of the Mediterranean
+and Black sea. The countries in which
+their principal colonies were established, were
+Asia Minor and Thrace in the east; the coasts of
+Lower Italy and Sicily in the west. Nevertheless
+particular settlements were to be found scattered
+here and there on the shores of most other countries.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Origin of these colonies.</div>
+
+<p>4. The Grecian colonies had their origin either
+in political motives, being generally made in accordance
+with the express command or advice of
+an oracle, (for the propagation of the religion of
+the parent state was always connected therewith,)
+or, in commercial speculations; the former was
+the case, almost without exception, with the settlements
+made by the mother country herself;
+the latter, with those which had branched out of
+such colonies as had already exalted themselves
+by their commerce. In fact, almost all the Grecian
+colonies applied more or less to trade, even
+when that was not the sole object of their foundation.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Relations
+between colony and metropolis.</div>
+
+<p>5. The connection existing between the colo<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_157" id="Page_157">[Pg 157]</a></span>nies
+and the mother cities was generally determined
+by the same causes that led to their foundation.
+In those cases where a city had been
+founded by malcontent or banished emigrants, all
+dependence on the mother country was naturally
+out of the question; and even in the colonies established
+for the purposes of trade, that dependence
+was but feeble and brief; the mother cities
+failing in power, if not in will, to enforce it. The
+very independence of so many colonies, made (almost
+without exception) in countries preeminently
+favoured by nature in productions and climate,
+and so situated as to oblige the inhabitants to navigation
+and commerce, must have given a great
+impulse to the civilization of the Hellenic race,
+and may be regarded as the main cause of its
+rapid progress and wide extension; wider indeed
+than that of any other nation of the ancient world.
+What a variety of political ideas must have been
+formed among a people whose settlements, more
+than a hundred in number, had each its own peculiar
+form of government.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Importance of the Asiatic Greek settlements.</div>
+
+<p>6. Of the Greek colonies, the most ancient, and
+in many respects the most important, were those
+along the western coast of Asia Minor, extending
+from the Hellespont to the boundary of Cilicia.
+Here, ever since the Trojan war, which first
+made these countries generally known, Hellenes
+of the three great families, &AElig;olians, Ionians, and
+Dorians had planted settlements. These were
+the most important for trade; and here likewise
+in the native country of Homer, the father of Grecian
+civilization, of Alc&aelig;us, and of Sappho, poesy,
+both epic and lyric, expanded her first and fairest<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_158" id="Page_158">[Pg 158]</a></span>
+blossoms; and hence too, the mother country herself
+received the first impulse of moral and cultivated
+taste.</p>
+
+<div class="sblockquot"><p>1. The &AElig;olian colonies. Their original foundation dates about
+1124: they appear to have been a consequence of the Dorian
+migration, having been established during that great movement
+in Greece. The Pelopid&aelig;, who had been driven out of Peloponnesus,
+Orestes, his son Penthilus, his grandson Archelaus,
+and his great grandson Grais, successively headed the emigrants,
+who proceeded slowly by land, divided, it appears, into several
+companies, with which some B&#339;otians and others gradually
+coalesced. In Asia they occupied the coasts of Mysia and
+Caria; a strip of land which from thence derived the appellation
+of &AElig;olis. They moreover possessed the islands of Lesbos,
+Tenedos, and the Hecatonnesi. On the main land, in the
+quarter named from them &AElig;olis, they erected twelve cities, the
+most eminent of which were Cyme and Smyrna; the latter,
+however, afterwards fell into the hands of the Ionians. But
+their chief settlements were on the island of Lesbos; here they
+inhabited five cities, at the head of which, and likewise of
+all their other colonies, stood Mitylene. They had likewise
+spread inland as far as mount Ida. All these towns were independent
+of one another, and possessed their own peculiar forms
+of government: our information, however, respecting these constitutions
+extends no further than to enable us to ascertain that
+they were subject to many disorders, which it was often attempted
+to quell by nominating rulers of unlimited power, under
+the title of &AElig;symnet&aelig;. These were elected sometimes for a
+stipulated period, at others for life; the most celebrated of the
+number was Pittacus of Mitylene, who flourished about 600, and
+was the contemporary of Sappho and Alc&aelig;us. The &AElig;olians
+maintained their independence till the time of Cyrus, with the
+exception of Smyrna, which as early as 600, was captured and
+destroyed by the Lydians, and not rebuilt till four hundred years
+afterwards, when it was restored by Antigonus, and entered upon
+its flourishing period. The cities of the main land were compelled
+to acknowledge the supremacy of the Persian conqueror;
+but not the islands. The &AElig;olian cities were not leagued together
+by any permanent bond; it was only in peculiar cases that
+they debated in common. Mitylene, which they all regarded as<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_159" id="Page_159">[Pg 159]</a></span>
+their capital, was the only one of their colonies that became rich
+by trade, and formidable by its naval power. Yet in 470 it was
+tributary to Athens; having seceded in 428, at the time of the
+Peloponnesian war, it was recaptured and almost levelled to the
+earth by the Athenians.</p>
+
+<p>2. The Ionian colonies. These were, no doubt, founded at a
+later period than those of the &AElig;olians; like them, however,
+they were a consequence of the Dorian migration. The Ionians,
+driven out of Peloponnesus by the Ach&aelig;ans, had withdrawn to
+Athens, from whence, sixty years afterwards, that is to say about
+1044, they proceeded by sea to Asia, headed by Neleus and others
+of the sons of Codrus. They were joined, however, by some
+Thebans, Phocians, Eub&#339;an Abantes, and various other Greeks.
+In Asia they settled on the southern coast of Lydia and the
+northern shore of Caria; which, together with the islands of Samos
+and Chios, took from them the name of Ionia. Here they
+built twelve cities on the main land; namely, reckoning from
+north to south, Phoc&aelig;a, Erythr&aelig;, Clazomene, Teos, Lebedus,
+Colophon, Ephesus, Priene, Myus, Miletus, and in the islands,
+Samos and Chios. They possessed in common one sanctuary,
+the Panionium temple of Neptune, built on the headland of Mycale.
+Here they celebrated their festivals, and assembled to
+deliberate upon matters affecting the general interest, although
+it must still be remembered that each city was in itself independent.
+This independence was maintained until the time of
+the Lydian dynasty of the Mermnad&aelig;, and that of Cyrus, under
+whose reign they were compelled to submit to the Persian yoke.
+Still, under the Persian rule, they for the most part preserved
+their own form of government, and were subject only so much as
+they had to pay tribute. Nevertheless they seized every opportunity
+of delivering themselves from this species of thraldom;
+and hence their history in the following period is closely interwoven
+with that of Greece. The political constitution was, no
+doubt, at an early period republican in all; but these colonies
+likewise were oppressed by continual factions, and frequently
+by tyrants. Among the towns situate on the continent, the
+most remarkable were Miletus, Ephesus, and Phoc&aelig;a.  Miletus
+was the principal seat of trade. It had been founded by
+the Carians before the arrival of the Ionians; but was by the
+latter raised to opulence and power. The most flourishing period
+of its existence was between 700&mdash;500: in the latter year it was
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_160" id="Page_160">[Pg 160]</a></span>implicated in the insurrection of Aristagoras against the Persians,
+in consequence of which it was destroyed in 496. From that
+time Miletus never recovered its ancient splendour. Nevertheless,
+in the days of her prosperity Miletus was, next to Tyre and
+Carthage, the first emporium of the world. Her sea trade was
+chiefly carried on in the Euxine, and the Palus M&aelig;otis, whose
+shores, on all sides, were occupied by her colonies, amounting,
+according to some authorities, to more than a hundred. By
+means of these settlements she monopolized the whole of the
+northern trade in pulse, dry fish, slaves, and furs. Her land
+trade was carried on by the great <i>military</i> road, constructed by
+the Persians, far into the interior of Asia. Four harbours admitted
+her vessels; and her naval power was so great, that she
+had been known, more than once, to fit out, unaided, fleets of
+from eighty to a hundred sail.&mdash;Phoc&aelig;a. The flourishing period
+of this establishment was contemporary with that of Miletus;
+but ended at the rise of the Persian dominion, 540, when the
+Phoc&aelig;ans, rather than submit to the Persian yoke, chose to forsake
+the city of their fathers and migrate to Corsica, although
+one half of the inhabitants repented of their resolution and returned.
+Phoc&aelig;a had the most extensive trade by sea of all the
+Grecian cities; they were to the west what the Milesians were
+to the north. Their navigation extended as far as Gades; and
+they not only visited the coasts of Italy, Gaul, and Corsica, but
+even founded colonies in these countries; as for instance, Aleria
+in Corsica, Elea in Italy, and, above all, Massilea, (Marseilles,) on
+the coast of Gaul.&mdash;Ephesus. This city was likewise originally
+founded by the Carians, but subsequently occupied by the Ionians.
+Its independence was maintained until the time of Cr&#339;sus,
+who annexed it to his other conquests about 560. The constitution
+was aristocratic; the government being in the hands of
+a senate, (&#947;&#949;&#961;&#959;&#973;&#963;&#953;&#945;,) combined with the magistrates,
+(&#7952;&#960;&#943;&#954;&#955;&#951;&#964;&#959;&#953;):
+and the family which had once possessed the throne preserved
+certain prerogatives. Ephesus was not so important in a commercial
+point of view as Phoc&aelig;a and Miletus; but was much
+celebrated for its temple of Diana, which in 355 was fired by
+Erostratus, and afterwards rebuilt with more sumptuous splendour.
+The flourishing period of Ephesus appears to have commenced
+at this time, long after that of Miletus and Phoc&aelig;a had
+terminated; for both in the Macedonian and Roman ages Ephesus
+was regarded as the first city of Asia Minor.&mdash;Of the cities
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_161" id="Page_161">[Pg 161]</a></span>on the islands, Samos was the most important, for its trade,
+and for its naval power. The period of its splendour was under
+the reign of the tyrant Polycrates, 540&mdash;523, whose sway extended
+over the sea and islets of the neighbourhood. Syloson,
+brother to the tyrant, having by the assistance of the Persians,
+517, obtained possession of Samos, the island was almost depopulated.
+Soon afterwards Samos became dependent upon the
+Athenians, who in 440 introduced a democratic form of government,
+and made it the rendezvous for her troops and fleets
+during the war with Sparta.&mdash;Chios was scarcely inferior to Samos,
+either in power or wealth. It submitted to the Persian
+yoke with the rest of the Ionian colonies; but was so powerful,
+that in 500, at the insurrection of Aristagoras, ninety-eight sail
+of the combined fleet belonged to Chios. After the defeat of
+Xerxes, 469, it entered into the Athenian league, from which it
+endeavoured to secede in the Peloponnesian war, 412. The
+naval power of the Chians was still considerable; and those
+islanders had the high honour of not suffering prosperity to inflate
+them with overweening ambition.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">F. G. Rambach</span>, <i>De Mileto ejusque coloniis</i>, 1790, 4to.</p>
+
+<p>3. The Dorian colonies. These were situated in Asia Minor,
+upon the southern coast of Caria, and in the islands of Cos and
+Rhodes, but were all planted at a later period than the Ionian
+colonies, and, no doubt, were the result of successive migrations.
+The Dorians appear to have gradually spread beyond Peloponnesus,
+over the islands of the Archipelago to the Asiatic coast:
+in Rhodes they erected the cities of Ialyssus, Camirus, and Lindus;
+in Cos a city of the same name; on the main land two
+cities, Halicarnassus and Cnidus. These six ancient colonies
+had, like the Ionians, one common sanctuary, the temple of
+Apollo Triopius, where they celebrated their festivals and held
+their deliberative assemblies. Halicarnassus, however, was afterwards
+excluded from the confederation. They remained independent
+until the Persian period, although the constitutions of
+the separate cities were subject to violent revolutions; thus at
+Cnidus the oligarchy was converted into a democracy; Halicarnassus
+was likewise generally subject to the Carian sovereigns,
+among whom Mausolus and Artemisia are names familiar to all.&mdash;The
+three cities in Rhodes appear never to have grown to any
+importance; that of Rhodes, not built till after the irruption of
+Xerxes into Greece, 480, soon eclipsed the others: its flourish<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_162" id="Page_162">[Pg 162]</a></span>ing
+period began after the death of Alexander. At no period of
+early history could the Dorian colonies, or those of the &AElig;olians,
+compete in wealth and commerce with the Ionians.</p></div>
+
+<p>7. The shores of the Propontis, the Black sea,
+and the Palus M&aelig;otis, were likewise covered
+with Grecian settlements. Nearly all these were
+colonies of the city of Miletus alone, and were,
+without exception, all of them the marts of a
+prosperous trade. Although the date of each
+cannot be precisely defined, they must have arisen
+between the eighth and sixth centuries before the
+Christian era. They were not only sovereigns of
+the Black sea, but likewise extended their trade
+over the whole of southern Russia, and eastward
+to the regions beyond the Caspian sea; that is,
+to great Bukharia.</p>
+
+<div class="sblockquot"><p>On the Propontis stood Lampsacus (adjoining the Hellespont)
+and Cyzicus, on an island connected with the continent by means
+of bridges. The latter town certainly was one of the most beautiful
+and flourishing cities of Asia; but this did not occur until
+the Roman age, and was in consequence of the fostering protection
+of the Romans.&mdash;Opposite to Cyzicus, on the Thracian coast,
+was Perinthus, subsequently called Heraclea; at the mouth of
+the Thracian Bosporus stood Byzantium, over against which
+was Chalcedon. The prosperity of all these towns affords sufficient
+proof of the skill with which sites were chosen for the establishment
+of colonies.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Heyne</span>, <i>Antiquities Byzantina: Commentationes du&aelig;</i>, 1809.
+The first of which contains the fragments of the earlier history of
+Byzantium.</p>
+
+<p>The colonies of the Black sea were: on the southern coast of
+Bithynia, Heraclea, in the territory of the Maryandini. This
+place preserved its republican constitution amid frequent broils
+and revolutions, brought about by the oligarchic and democratic
+factions, until about B. C. 370, when the democrats having gained
+the upper hand, a path was opened to Clearchus, who became tyrant,
+and abrogated the senate, (&#946;&#959;&#965;&#955;&#8052;;) the family of the tyrant
+continued for a long time in possession of power, after he himself<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_163" id="Page_163">[Pg 163]</a></span>
+had been murdered by two disciples of Plato.&mdash;In Paphlagonia
+was Sinope, the most powerful of all the Grecian settlements on
+the Black sea, of which it long held the sovereignty. The freedom
+and independence of this place lasted to about 100, when it
+fell under the dominion of the kings of Pontus, and afterwards
+under that of the Romans. The principal source from which it
+derived its wealth were the shoals of migratory fish
+(&#960;&#951;&#955;&#940;&#956;&#965;&#948;&#949;&#962;,)
+which, issuing from the Palus M&aelig;otis, spread along the shore of
+the Black sea down to the Thracian Bosporus.&mdash;In Pontus was
+Amisus, the mother city of Trapezus, and which shared the fate
+of Sinope.&mdash;On the eastern coast stood the cities of Phasis, Dioscurias,
+and Phanagoria: this last was the principal mart of the
+slave trade, and, during the Macedonian period, the staple for
+Indian commodities imported across the Oxus and the Caspian
+sea.&mdash;In the Chersonesus Taurica stood Panticap&aelig;um, capital
+city of the little Grecian kingdom of Bosporus, whose kings
+(among whom Spartacus, about 439, and more especially Leucon,
+about 350, are celebrated) remained in alliance with Athens till
+Mithridates the Great laid there the foundation of his dominion.&mdash;On
+the northern coast was the city of Tanais, on the mouth of
+a river of the same name at the bottom of the Palus M&aelig;otis.
+Olbia was situated at the mouth of the Borysthenes. These two
+places, and Olbia in particular, were of the highest importance
+for the inland trade, which issuing from thence in a northern and
+easterly direction, was extended to the very centre of Asia.&mdash;The
+colonies of the western coast, such as Apollonia, Tomi, and
+Salmidessus, were of less notoriety.</p></div>
+
+<p>8. The coast of Thrace and Macedonia, washed
+by the &AElig;g&aelig;an sea, was likewise covered with
+Grecian colonies, from various cities, and especially
+from Corinth and Athens. The Athenians
+having obtained in the Persian war the sovereignty
+of the sea, endeavoured to establish their
+dominion in this part of the world; hence the
+cities in that quarter were closely implicated in
+the quarrels and wars excited, first by the jealousy
+between Sparta and Athens, and afterwards by
+that which sprang up between Athens and Macedonia,
+in the reign of Philip.</p>
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_164" id="Page_164">[Pg 164]</a></span></p>
+<div class="sblockquot"><p>On the Thracian coast of the Chersonesus, regarded as the
+key of Europe, and ranging along the Hellespont, were the
+towns of Sestos, Cardia, and &AElig;gospotamos; farther to the west
+stood Maronea and Abdera, the latter a colony of Teos. Of far
+greater importance, however, were the towns on the Macedonian
+coast, Amphipolis, Chalcis, Olynthus, Potid&aelig;a. The first of these
+towns, founded about B. C. 464, was a colony from Athens, which
+endeavoured to keep it in a state of dependence. Chalcis was a
+colony from a city of the same name in Eub&#339;a. In 470 it was
+dependent on Athens; but in 432, the inhabitants having raised
+the standard of rebellion, forsook their houses and voluntarily
+withdrew to Olynthus.&mdash;Olynthus derived its name from the
+founder, one of the sons of Hercules: in the course of time it
+ranked among the most powerful cities of Thrace, although it was
+tributary to the Athenians. It took a share in the war between
+Athens and Sparta, and continued to be a flourishing city until
+348, when it was taken by Philip of Macedon, and destroyed.&mdash;Potid&aelig;a
+was a colony of Corinth, from which it received annual magistrates,
+(&#7952;&#960;&#953;&#948;&#951;&#956;&#953;&#959;&#973;&#961;&#947;&#959;&#953;,)
+having become tributary to Athens
+after the Persian war, it revolted in 431: obliged to yield to the
+Athenian arms, its inhabitants were expelled, and their place supplied
+by an Athenian colony. It now became a possession of
+Athens, and remained so till it was taken by Philip in 358.</p></div>
+
+<p>9. The Grecian settlements westward of the
+mother country were, almost without exception,
+made at a later period than those in the &AElig;gean
+and Black seas: they reached nevertheless to an
+equal degree of splendour; and though their
+trade was not so extensive, it was equally profitable:
+these colonies not only rivalled those we
+have above described, in wealth, but surpassed
+them in power, being generally characterized by
+the wisdom and prudence displayed in their respective
+constitutions. The foundation of most of
+them may be dated between B. C. 750 and 650;
+consequently at a period when all the cities in
+the mother country had already been republicanized:
+and at a time when there could be no lack<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_165" id="Page_165">[Pg 165]</a></span>
+of domestic troubles, which would furnish sufficient
+motives for emigration.</p>
+
+<div class="sblockquot"><p>1. Grecian settlements in Lower Italy. The most numerous
+and important of these were scattered around the bay of Tarentum;
+they extended likewise along the western coast of Italy up
+to Naples. These colonies were variously traced to the Dorian,
+Ach&aelig;an, and Ionian families: they were likewise distinguished
+by political characteristics, the government in the Dorian settlements
+being generally more aristocratic, in the rest more democratic:
+it must be observed, however, that, with respect to the
+various revolutions which the respective constitutions underwent,
+it is hardly possible to give any general information, excepting
+so far as regards the earliest times. Of Dorian origin were Tarentum,
+and its colonies Heraclea and Brundusium. Of Ach&aelig;an
+origin were Sybaris and Croton, together with the colonies of the
+latter, Laus, Metapontum, Posidonia; which last founded in its
+turn, Terina, Caulonia, and Pandosia. Of Ionian origin were
+Thurii, (built on the site where Sybaris had formerly stood,)
+Rhegium, Elea, Cum&aelig;, and its branch settlement of Neapolis.
+Locri Epizephyrii, a colony of the Locri Ozol&aelig;, may be regarded
+as an &AElig;olian city. The most remarkable of these cities in respect
+of general history are:</p>
+
+<p><i>a.</i> Tarentum, founded by the Parthenii, from Sparta, about
+707. It waged several wars with the aboriginal tribes in the
+vicinity, the Messapians, Lucanians, etc. and grew to be one of the
+richest and most powerful of the maritime towns. The brilliant
+period of Tarentum appears to have fallen between 500 and 400.
+Excess of wealth subsequently introduced luxury, which extinguished
+the national spirit. Nevertheless Tarentum preserved
+its independence until 273, when, after the war with Pyrrhus,
+it fell under the Roman dominion. The constitution was originally
+a moderate aristocracy; but was commuted soon after the
+Persian war into a democracy, which was, however, curbed by
+prudent restrictions. Tarentum had its senate, (&#946;&#959;&#965;&#955;&#8052;,) without
+whose consent war could not be undertaken; its magistrates
+elected half by lot, half by majority of votes given in the assemblies
+of the commons. Among its most celebrated citizens is
+reckoned the Pythagor&aelig;an Archytas, who, after the year B. C.
+390, was frequently at the head of the state, filling the offices of
+general and supreme magistrate. The constitution appears to
+have preserved its form until the Roman period, although the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_166" id="Page_166">[Pg 166]</a></span>
+national spirit was greatly corrupted by a luxury almost exceeding
+the limits of credibility.</p>
+
+<p><i>b.</i> Croton, founded 710 by the Ach&aelig;ans, under the guidance
+of Myscellus from Rhype in Achaia. This city must have attained
+to very great power during the very first century of its
+existence; since in the battle of Sagra against the Locrians,
+which may with probability be dated about 600, the Crotoniates
+were able to set on foot an army of 120,000 men. Neither does
+the defeat which they there suffered appear to have debilitated
+the settlement for any length of time; for in 510, with nearly
+the same number of forces, they attacked the Sybarites, and destroyed
+their city. The original constitution was, no doubt, a
+moderate democracy; but we are unacquainted with the details
+of its organization. Pythagoras was the reformer of customs,
+moral and political, not only at Croton, but in several other of
+the Italico-Greek cities. This philosopher arrived at Croton
+about 540, and there laid the foundation of the league or secret
+association named after him; the object of which was, not to
+change the form of government in the Italian cities, but to create
+men capable of managing the helm of state. This reform and
+influence of the Pythagor&aelig;ans lasted about thirty years, when
+their order underwent the same fate as generally befalls a secret
+association founded with a political view. Probably about 510
+the Pythagor&aelig;ean league was broken asunder by the democratic
+faction under Cylon. The consequence was universal anarchy,
+not only in Croton, where, about 494, a certain Clinias usurped
+the supreme power, but likewise in the other cities: these disorders,
+however, were quelled by the intervention of the Ach&aelig;ans;
+and the Ach&aelig;an colonies not only adopted the laws of their
+mother cities, but likewise soon afterwards signed a league in the
+temple of Jupiter Homorius, about 460: it appears that Croton,
+having already recovered from the blow it had received, was at
+the head of this league. In this happy posture affairs remained
+till about 400. After the kings of Syracuse had commenced
+their attacks on Magna Gr&aelig;cia, Croton was repeatedly captured;
+as in B. C. 389 by Dionysius I. and about 321; and again, in
+299, by Agathocles. Finally, after the war with Pyrrhus, 277,
+it became dependent on Rome.</p>
+
+<p><i>c.</i> Sybaris was founded about 720, like the foregoing, by the
+Ach&aelig;ans, who were mingled with Tr&#339;zenians: this settlement
+existed till 510, when it was destroyed by Croton. Soon after
+its foundation it became one of the most extensive, populous, and<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_167" id="Page_167">[Pg 167]</a></span>
+luxurious cities, so much so, that the effeminacy of the Sybarites
+became proverbial. Sybaris appears to have been at the height of
+her prosperity from about 600&mdash;550; she then possessed a respectable
+territory, comprising four of the neighbouring tribes,
+and twenty-five cities or places. The extraordinary fertility of
+the soil, and the admission of all strangers to the rights of citizenship,
+tended to increase the population so much, that Sybaris,
+in the war against Croton, is said to have brought into the field
+300,000 men. The vast wealth possessed, not only by Sybaris,
+but by the other cities in this quarter, was probably derived from
+the great trade in oil and wine carried on with Africa and Gaul:
+that such was the case at Agrigentum we know with certainty.
+The constitution of Sybaris was likewise, it appears, a moderate
+democracy: towards the year 510 one Telys took possession of
+the supreme power, and drove out five hundred of the optimates,
+who fled to Croton. The Crotoniates received the exiles, and
+the Sybarites having put to death their ambassadors, a war was
+kindled between the two cities, and ended in 510 by the defeat
+of the Sybarites and the destruction of their city.</p>
+
+<p><i>d.</i> Thurii, founded near the site of ancient Sybaris in 446 by
+Athens, although the inhabitants were of mixed origin; a circumstance
+which gave rise at first to many domestic broils, the
+citizens disputing as to who was the real founder; at last, 433,
+the Delphian oracle declared the city to be a colony of Apollo.
+The constitution was at first a moderate democracy; but this was
+soon converted into an oligarchy, all the power and the best lands
+having been taken possession of by the Sybarite families who
+had joined the settlement. The Sybarites were, however, again
+expelled, and Thurii grew into importance by the confluence of
+several new colonies out of Greece; its constitution was meliorated
+by the adoption of the laws of Charondas of Catana.
+The principal enemies of the Thurians were the Lucanians, by
+whom they were beaten, 390. The desultory attacks of that
+tribe obliged them, 286, to crave the assistance of the Romans,
+which soon after afforded the Tarentines an excuse for attacking
+them. Thurii now formed a part of the Roman dependencies,
+and after suffering much in the Carthaginian wars, was at last,
+B. C. 190, occupied by a Roman colony.</p>
+
+<p><i>e.</i> Locri Epizephyrii. The question of their origin is subject
+to dispute: the causes of this uncertainty are, that here, as in
+most other of the cities, various bands of colonists arrived at various
+times, and those bands themselves were composed of a mix<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_168" id="Page_168">[Pg 168]</a></span>ture
+of several Grecian stocks. The chief colony was sent out,
+B. C. 683, by the Locri Ozol&aelig;. After suffering much from violent
+internal commotions, Locri found, about 660, a lawgiver in
+Zaleucus, whose institutions remained more than two centuries
+inviolate. The constitution was aristocratic, the administration
+being in the hands of a hundred families. The supreme magistrate
+was called cosmopolis. The senate consisted of a thousand
+members, probably elected from the commons, with whom resided,
+either wholly or partially, the legislative power. The
+maintenance of the laws was, as in other Grecian cities, committed
+to the nomophylaces. Locri was certainly neither so
+wealthy nor so luxurious as the cities above mentioned; but she
+was honourably distinguished by the good manners and quiet
+conduct of her citizens, who were contented with their government.
+The flourishing period of this city lasted till the time of
+Dionysius II. who having been driven out of Syracuse, fled with
+his dependents to Locri, the native country of his mother: by
+his insolence and licentiousness of manners the city was brought
+to the verge of ruin; after his return to Syracuse, 347, the Locrians
+avenged their wrongs upon his family. Locri afterward
+maintained its recovered independence until the time of Pyrrhus,
+who, 277, placed a garrison in the town; the Locrians, however,
+put the troops to the sword, and passed over to the Roman side:
+the city was in consequence sacked by Pyrrhus in 275. From
+that time Locri remained a confederate town dependent on Rome,
+and suffered much in the second Punic war.</p>
+
+<p><i>f.</i> Rhegium, a colony from Chalcis in Eub&#339;a, 668: here also
+the government was aristocratic, the supreme power being in the
+hands of a council of a thousand men, selected only from Messenian
+families, which had joined the original settlers. Hence arose
+an oligarchy, of which Anaxilaus took advantage to assume the
+sole dominion, 494, in which he was succeeded by his sons. These
+having been driven out, 464, commotions ensued, which, after a
+time, were quelled by adopting the laws of Charondas. Rhegium
+now enjoyed a period of happiness, which lasted till B. C.
+392, when it was captured and destroyed by Dionysius I. Dionysius
+II. restored it in some measure; but in 281 the city was
+taken possession of by a Roman legion, who being sent for the
+purpose of garrisoning the place, murdered the inhabitants. The
+soldiers were punished with death, 271; but Rhegium thenceforth
+remained in a state of dependence upon Rome.</p>
+
+<p><i>g.</i> Cum&aelig;, founded as early as 1030, from Chalcis in Eub&#339;a.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_169" id="Page_169">[Pg 169]</a></span>
+This city attained at an early period to a high degree of power
+and prosperity; its territory being of considerable extent, its
+navy respectable, and Neapolis and Zancle (or Messana) among
+its colonies. The government was a moderate aristocracy: this
+constitution was subverted about 544, by the tyrant Aristodemus;
+but restored after his assassination. Cum&aelig; was subject to
+repeated annoyances from the petty Italian nations; and in 564
+she was invaded and defeated by the Etruscans and Daunians
+combined; in 474 she beat the Etruscans at sea: but in 420
+was captured by the Campanians; together with whom she became
+a dependent of Rome in 345. Cum&aelig;, nevertheless, in consequence
+of its harbour of Puteoli, preserved a share of importance,
+even under the Roman dominion.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Heyne</span>, <i>Prolusiones 16 de civitatum Gr&aelig;carum per magnam
+Gr&aelig;ciam et Siciliam institutis et legibus</i>. Collected in his <i>Opuscula</i>,
+vol. vii.</p>
+
+<p>2. Grecian settlements in Sicily. These occupied the eastern
+and southern shores of the island: they were founded in the
+same period as those of Magna Gr&aelig;cia, and belonged partly to
+the Dorian, partly to the Ionian stocks. Of Dorian origin were
+Messana and Tyndaris, from Messene; Syracuse, who in her
+turn founded Acr&aelig;, Casmen&aelig;, and Camarina, from Corinth;
+Hybla and Thapsus from Megara; Segesta from Thessaly; Heraclea
+Minoa from Crete; Gela, which founded Agrigentum,
+from Rhodes; and Lipara, on the small island of that name,
+from Cnidus. Of Ionian origin were Naxus, the founder of
+Leontini; Catana and Tauromenium, from Chalcis; Zancle,
+(after its occupation by Messenian colonists, called Messana,)
+founded by Cum&aelig;, and in its turn founder of Himera and Myl&aelig;.
+The most remarkable of these towns in ancient history are:</p>
+
+<p><i>a.</i> Syracuse, the most powerful of all the Greek colonies, and
+consequently that concerning which our information is the most
+copious. The history of Syracuse, on which, as that town was
+for a long time mistress of the greatest part of the island, depends
+nearly the whole history of Sicily, comprises four periods.
+1. From the foundation, B. C. 735, to Gelon, 484; a space of
+two hundred and fifty-one years. During this period Syracuse
+was a republic, but does not appear to have risen to any very
+great height of power: yet she founded the colonies of Acr&aelig;,
+665, Casmen&aelig;, 645, and Camarina, 600. The assistance of her
+parent city, Corinth, and Corcyra, alone prevented her falling a
+prey to Hippocrates, sovereign of Gela; and even then she was<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_170" id="Page_170">[Pg 170]</a></span>
+obliged to cede Camarina, 497. The constitution was aristocratic;
+but not free from domestic troubles. The administration
+was in the hands of the opulent,
+(&#947;&#945;&#956;&#972;&#961;&#959;&#953;;) but these were, about
+485, expelled by the democratic faction and their own mutinous
+slaves. They fled to Casmen&aelig;, and by the help of Gelon, sovereign
+of Gela, were restored to their homes; Gelon retaining the
+power in his own hands. 2. From Gelon to the expulsion of
+Thrasybulus, 484&mdash;466. The three brothers, Gelon, Hiero, and
+Thrasybulus, successively ruled over Syracuse. Gelon, 484&mdash;477.
+He was at once the founder of the greatness of Syracuse,
+and of his own power: this he effected partly by increasing the
+population, bringing in new inhabitants from other Greek cities,
+and partly by the great victory he won over the Carthaginians,
+in alliance with the Persians, 480. At this early period Syracuse
+was so powerful, both by sea and by land, as to justify Gelon
+in claiming the office of generalissimo of Greece, when Sparta
+and Athens came to solicit his aid. His beneficent reign not only
+gained him the love of the Syracusans during his life, but likewise
+procured him heroic honours after death at the hands of a
+grateful people. He died in 477, and was succeeded by his
+brother Hiero I. who had till then ruled over Gela. The reign
+of this prince was splendid, his court was brilliant, and a fostering
+protection was extended to arts and sciences. Hiero's power
+strengthened by the establishment of new citizens, both in Syracuse
+and its subordinate towns of Catana and Naxus, whose original
+inhabitants are translated to Leontini.&mdash;Wars waged against
+Thero, 476, and his son Thrasid&aelig;us, tyrants of Agrigentum:
+after the expulsion of Thrasid&aelig;us, that town forms an alliance
+with Syracuse; the Syracusan fleet sent to the assistance of
+Cum&aelig;, wins a victory over the Etruscans. Hiero, dying in 467,
+was succeeded by his brother Thrasybulus, who, after a short
+reign of eight months, was expelled for his cruelty by the Syracusans
+and the confederate cities. 3. From the expulsion of
+Thrasybulus to the elevation of Dionysius I.; Syracuse a free
+democratic state: from 466&mdash;405. Reestablishment of republican
+forms of government in Syracuse and the other Grecian cities;
+accompanied, however, with many commotions and civil wars,
+proceeding from the expulsion of the new citizens and the restoration
+of the ancient inhabitants to their property.&mdash;Increasing
+power and prosperity of Syracuse, who is now at the head of the
+confederate Grecian cities in the island, and soon endeavours to
+convert her precedence into supremacy. The new democratic<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_171" id="Page_171">[Pg 171]</a></span>
+constitution quickly suffers from the diseases incident to that
+form of government; a vain attempt is made to apply a remedy
+by the introduction of the petalismus, B. C. 454; in the mean
+time the Siculi, aboriginal inhabitants of Sicily, unite in closer
+league under their leader Ducetius; attempting to expel the
+Greeks, 451, they engage the Syracusans in reiterated wars; the
+arms of Syracuse are successful, her authority is confirmed by the
+subjection of the ambitious Agrigentum, 446, and by her naval
+victory over the Etruscans. First but unsuccessful attempt of
+the Athenians to interpose in the domestic affairs of Sicily, by
+siding with Leontini against Syracuse, 427; eleven years afterward
+occurs the great expedition against Syracuse, 415&mdash;413,
+caused by the disputes between Segesta and Selinus; the expedition
+ends in the total rout of the Athenian fleet and army, (see
+below,) and the power of Syracuse reaches its zenith. A constitutional
+reform takes place, 412, brought about by Diocles,
+whose laws were subsequently adopted by several other of the
+Sicilian cities. The magistrates were chosen by lot. The rest
+of the laws, which appear to have had reference to the criminal
+code, were the production of a committee over which Diocles presided;
+these enactments were so beneficial to Syracuse, that the
+author of them was honoured with a temple after his death. Yet
+as early as 410, a renewal of the differences between Segesta and
+Selinus afforded a pretext for war with Carthage, from whom the
+Segestani had besought assistance; by this war the whole state
+of affairs in Sicily was subverted. The rapid strides made by
+the Carthaginians, who, under the command of Hannibal the son
+of Gisgo, took, 409, Selinus and Himera, and even Agrigentum,
+406, engendered domestic factions and commotions within Syracuse;
+and amid those disorders the crafty Dionysius succeeded
+first in obtaining the office of general, and then, after supplanting
+his colleagues, the sovereign power of Syracuse, 405. 4. From
+Dionysius I. to the Roman occupation, 405&mdash;212. Dionysius I.
+405&mdash;368. Ominous commencement of his reign, by a defeat at
+Gela and the mutiny of his troops.&mdash;A plague wasting the Carthaginian
+army, he is enabled to patch up a peace, B. C. 405, by
+which it is agreed, that Carthage, besides her territory in the
+island, shall retain all the conquests made during the war, together
+with Gela and Camarina. But the project of expelling
+the Carthaginians out of Sicily, in order to subject the whole
+island, and to fall upon Magna Grecia, kindles a long series of
+wars both with Carthage and the cities of Magna Grecia. Second
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_172" id="Page_172">[Pg 172]</a></span>war with Carthage against Hannibal and Himilco, 398&mdash;392.
+Dionysius loses all that he before had conquered, and is himself
+besieged in Syracuse; but a plague once more attacking the
+Carthaginians, rescues him from his predicament, 396; deeds of
+hostility continued notwithstanding till 392, when a peace was
+signed, by which Carthage ceded the town of Tauromenium.&mdash;From
+394, desultory attacks on the confederate Grecian cities in
+Lower Italy, particularly on Rhegium, the chief seat of the
+Syracusan emigrants, which, after repeated invasions, is at last
+compelled to yield, 387. Third war with Carthage, 383, against
+Mago; Dionysius wins a victory, which is however followed by
+a greater defeat; and the war ends the same year by the adoption
+of a peace, according to which each party is to retain what
+he then had; the Halycus is fixed as the boundary line; so that
+Selinus and a portion of the territory of Agrigentum remain in
+the hands of the Carthaginians. Fourth war: inroad upon the
+Carthaginian states; it ends, however, in the signing of a treaty.
+The decision of these wars generally depended on the side taken
+by the Siculi, the most powerful aboriginal race in Sicily. Dionysius
+I. having died by poison, 368, was succeeded by Dionysius
+II. his eldest son by one of his two wives, Doris of Locri,
+but under the guardianship of his step-uncle Dio, the brother of
+Dionysius's other wife Aristomache. Neither Dio or his friend
+Plato, who was three times invited to Syracuse, were able to improve
+the character of a prince whose mind had been corrupted
+by bad education.&mdash;Dio is banished, 360. He returns, 357, and,
+in the absence of Dionysius, takes possession of Syracuse, all but
+the citadel. Dionysius now has recourse to stratagem; he excites
+in the city distrust of Dio, and foments dissension between him
+and his general Heraclidas; meanwhile he himself withdraws to
+Italy, taking with him his treasures. Dio is compelled to retire
+from the city, which is sacked by the troops garrisoned in the
+citadel; hereupon the Syracusans themselves fetch back Dio; he
+possesses himself of the citadel and wishes to restore the republican
+government, but soon falls a victim to party spirit, being
+murdered by Callipus, B. C. 354, who usurped the government
+till 353, when he is driven out by Hipparinus, a brother of Dionysius,
+who keeps possession till 350. After ten years' absence,
+Dionysius II. by a sudden attack, becomes once more master of
+the city, 346. The tyranny of this prince, and the treachery of
+Icetas of Gela, whom the Syracusans called in to their assistance,
+but who leagues himself with the Carthaginians, and the for<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_173" id="Page_173">[Pg 173]</a></span>midable
+attempts of the latter, compel the citizens to apply to
+the mother city Corinth: Corinth sends to their assistance Timoleon
+with a small force, 345. Rapid change of affairs wrought
+by Timoleon: he beats Icetas and the Carthaginians: in 343
+Dionysius is forced to deliver up the citadel and evacuate the
+country; he retires to Corinth, where he leads a private life.
+Restoration of the republican government, not only in Syracuse,
+where the laws of Diocles are reinstituted, but also in the rest of
+the Grecian cities: the revolution confirmed by a great victory
+over the Carthaginians, 340. In the midst of the execution of
+his plans Timoleon dies, 337, the most splendid example of a
+republican that history affords! From 337&mdash;317; almost a chasm
+in the history of Syracuse. Wars with Agrigentum; the usurpation
+of Sosistratus, disturbs the peace, both external and internal.
+The character of the Syracusans was already too foully corrupted
+for one to expect that liberty could again be established among
+them, without the personal superintendence of a Timoleon. They
+deserved the fate that befell them, when, in 317, that daring adventurer
+Agathocles assumed the sovereign power, which he
+maintained till 289. Renewal of the plan for expelling the
+Carthaginians from the island, and subjecting Magna Gr&aelig;cia.
+Hence arises a new war with Carthage, in which Agathocles is
+defeated, 311, and besieged in Syracuse: by a bold stroke he
+passes over into Africa, accompanied by part of his fleet and
+army, and there with general success prosecutes the war until
+307: the insurrection of most of the Grecian cities in Sicily recalls
+him from the theatre of war; his views in Africa are consequently
+defeated. In the peace of 306 both parties retain what
+they had at the beginning of the war. The wars in Italy are
+confined to the sacking of Croton, and a victory won over the
+Bruttii; and are rather predatory expeditions than regular wars.
+In the year 289, Agathocles died by poison, and his murderer,
+M&aelig;non, seized the power; he is expelled by the general Icetas,
+and flies over to the Carthaginians. Icetas rules as pretor till
+278, when, in his absence, the government is usurped by Thynion,
+who meets with a rival in the person of Sosistratus; in the
+mean while the mercenaries of Agathocles (the Mamertini) possess
+themselves of Messana, and the Carthaginians press forward
+to the very gates of Syracuse. The Syracusans invite Pyrrhus
+of Epirus over from Italy; that prince takes possession of the
+whole of Sicily as far as Lilyb&aelig;um; but having by his haughtiness
+incurred general hatred and disgust, he is obliged to eva<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_174" id="Page_174">[Pg 174]</a></span>cuate
+the island, B. C. 275. The Syracusans now appoint
+Hiero, a descendant of the ancient royal family, to the office of
+general: after defeating the Mamertini he is called to the
+throne, 269. At the breaking out of the war between Carthage
+and Rome, the new king forsakes his alliance with Carthage,
+and, passing over to the Roman side, thereby purchases a long
+and tranquil reign until 215, when he dies of old age. Under
+this wise prince Syracuse enjoyed a degree of happiness and
+prosperity which none of her demagogues had been able to effect.
+After his death the Carthaginian party became predominant;
+Hieronymus the grandson of Hiero is murdered, 214, and Hannibal's
+intrigues enable the Carthaginian party to keep the upper
+hand, by contriving to place at the head of affairs his friends
+Hippocrates and Epicydes, who entangle Syracuse in a war with
+Rome; and the city, after a long siege, celebrated by the inventions
+of Archimedes, is brought to ruin, 212.&mdash;The history of
+Syracuse is a practical compendium of politics: what other state
+ever underwent so many and such various revolutions?</p>
+
+<p>The history of Syracuse was at an early period disfigured by
+partiality. For the topography, see &#8224; <span class="smcap">Bartel's</span>
+<i>Letters from Calabria and Sicily</i>, vol. iii. with a plan.</p>
+
+<p>&#8224; <span class="smcap">A. Arnold</span>, <i>History of Syracuse, from its foundation to the
+overthrow of liberty by Dionysius</i>. Gotha, 1816.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Mitford</span>, <i>History of Greece</i>: the fourth volume contains the
+history of Syracuse, and a defence of the elder Dionysius. It
+would seem that even now it is difficult to write this history in
+an impartial spirit.</p>
+
+<p><i>b.</i> Agrigentum, a colony of Gela, founded 582. The first city
+of Sicily next to Syracuse, of which it was frequently the rival.
+Its first constitution was that of the mother city; that is to say,
+Dorian or aristocratic. It fell, however, soon after its foundation,
+under the dominion of tyrants; the first of whom noticed in history
+is Phalaris, who flourished probably 566&mdash;534. He was
+succeeded by Alcmanes, 534&mdash;488, who was followed by Alcander,
+an indulgent ruler, in whose reign the wealth of Agrigentum
+seems to have already been considerable. More renowned
+than the foregoing was Theron, the contemporary and stepfather
+of Gelon; he ruled from B. C. 488&mdash;472: in conjunction with
+Gelon he routed the Carthaginian army, 480, and subjected Himera.
+His son and successor, Thrasyd&aelig;us, was beaten by Hiero
+and expelled, 470; whereupon the Agrigentines, as allies of
+Syracuse, introduced a democracy. The period following, 470<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_175" id="Page_175">[Pg 175]</a></span>&mdash;405,
+is that in which Agrigentum, blessed with political freedom,
+attained the highest degree of public prosperity. She was one of
+the most opulent and luxurious cities in the world, and in the
+display of public monuments one of the most magnificent. For
+her wealth she was indebted to the vast trade in oil and wine
+that she carried on with Africa and Gaul, in neither of which
+were those productions hitherto naturalized. In the year 446
+the Agrigentines, excited by envy, fell upon the Syracusans, but
+were defeated. In the war with Athens they took no share; but
+in the Carthaginian invasion of Sicily, 405, Agrigentum was
+taken and destroyed; from this blow she recovered but slowly,
+and never effectually. By Timoleon she was, in some measure,
+restored, 340; and under Agathocles, 307, was able to head the
+cities combined against him, but was beaten. After the death
+of Agathocles, a tyrant, by the name of Phintias, took possession
+of the sovereign power; and was attacked, 278, by Icetas of
+Syracuse. At the breaking out of the first Punic war, Agrigentum
+was used by the Carthaginians as a military dep&ocirc;t; but was
+taken by the Romans as early as 262.</p>
+
+<p><i>c.</i> The fate of the other Sicilian cities was more or less dependent
+on that of Agrigentum and Syracuse: they all had originally
+republican forms of government; but though the Ionian
+colonies had a celebrated legislator in the person of Charondas,
+(probably about 660,) they had the same fortune with the rest,
+of being frequently oppressed by tyrants, either from among their
+own citizens, or by those of Syracuse, who often used to drive
+out the old inhabitants, and introduce a new population more devoted
+to their interest: hence must have sprung manifold wars.
+The foregoing history shows how grievously they likewise suffered
+in the wars between Syracuse and Carthage. Following the
+dates of their respective foundations, they may be thus arranged:
+Zancle, (after 664, known by the name of Messana,) the earliest,
+though of uncertain date; Naxus, 736; Syracuse, Hybla, 735;
+Leontini, Catana, 730; Gela, 690; Acr&aelig;, B. C. 665; Casmen&aelig;,
+645; Himera, 639; Selinus, 630; Agrigentum, 582. The
+dates of the rest cannot be ascertained with any degree of
+accuracy.</p>
+
+<p>3. On the other islands and coasts of the Mediterranean we
+meet with various insulated Grecian settlements; in Sardinia,
+the cities Garalis and Olbia: the date of their foundation unknown;
+in Corsica, Alaria, (or Alalia,) a colony of Phoc&aelig;ans
+founded, 561; hither the inhabitants of the mother city betook
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_176" id="Page_176">[Pg 176]</a></span>themselves in 541; and subsequently, after the naval engagement
+with the Etruscans and Carthaginians, withdrew, some to
+Rhegium, others to Massilia, 536.</p>
+
+<p>4. On the coast of Gaul stood Massilia, founded by the Phoc&aelig;ans,
+who had been driven out of Corsica after the above mentioned
+naval engagement, 536; or rather, there was on the same
+site an old settlement which was now increased. Massilia rapidly
+grew in wealth and power. Our information respecting
+the wars she waged on the sea against Carthage and the Etruscans
+is but of a general kind. Her territory on the main land,
+although rich in wine and oil, was limited in extent; she established,
+nevertheless, several colonies along the shores of Spain
+and Gaul, among which Antipolis, Nic&aelig;a, and Olbia are the best
+known. The trade of Massilia was carried on partly by sea, and
+partly by land, through the interior of Gaul. The constitution was
+a moderate aristocracy. The chief power was in the hands of six
+hundred individuals; the members of this council were called
+timuchi, they held their places for life, were obliged to be married
+men with families, and descended at least to the third generation
+from citizens. At the head of this council stood fifteen
+men, three of whom were chief magistrates. As early as 218
+Massilia was in alliance with Rome, under whose fostering protection
+she grew in prosperity; her freedom was preserved to her
+until the war between Pompey and C&aelig;sar; having sided with
+the former, she was stormed, 49, by C&aelig;sar's army. She soon retrieved
+herself, and, under the reign of Augustus, Massilia was
+the seat of literature and philosophy, in which public lectures
+were there given as at Athens.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Aug. Bruekner</span>, <i>Historia Reipublic&aelig; Massiliensium</i>. Gotting.
+1826. A prize essay.</p>
+
+<p>5. On the Spanish coast stood Saguntum,
+(&#918;&#945;&#954;&#965;&#957;&#952;&#8056;&#962;,)
+a colony from the island of Zacynthus; the date of its foundation is undetermined.
+It became opulent by its commerce; but at the
+opening of the second Punic war, B. C. 219, was destroyed by
+Hannibal, as being an ally of Rome.</p>
+
+<p>6. On the coast of Africa lay Cyrene, founded at the suggestion
+of the Delphic oracle in 631, by the island of Thera. The
+constitution was at first monarchical. Kings: Battus I. the
+founder, 631&mdash;591. In whose family the sceptre remained.
+Arcesilaus I. <i>d.</i> 575. Under the reign of his successor, Battus
+II. surnamed the happy, (<i>d.</i> 554,) the colony was much strengthened
+by new comers from Greece. The Libyans, bereaved of
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_177" id="Page_177">[Pg 177]</a></span>their lands, seek for help at the hands of Apries, who is defeated
+by the Cyren&aelig;ans, 570, and in consequence loses his
+crown.&mdash;Arcesilaus II. <i>d.</i> 550. Rebellion of his brothers, and
+foundation of Barca, an independent town ruled by its own separate
+kings. Secession of the Libyan subjects. He is put to
+death by his brother or friend Learchus, who in his turn is poisoned
+by Eryxo the widow of Arcesilaus. Her son, Battus III.
+surnamed the lame, (<i>d.</i> about 529,) succeeds to the throne. The
+royal power confined within narrow limits by the laws of Demonax
+of Mantinea: the king retains nothing more than the revenue
+and priestly office. His son Arcesilaus III. becomes of his
+own accord tributary to the Persians; in conjunction with his
+mother, Pheretime, he seeks to reestablish the regal supremacy,
+but is expelled; nevertheless he regains possession of Cyrene.
+In consequence of his cruelty he is assassinated in Barca, about
+516. Pheretime seeks for help from the Persian satrap of Egypt,
+Aryandes, who by craft gets possession of Barca; the inhabitants
+are carried away and translated into Bactria, 512. Soon after
+Pheretime dies. It seems probable that another Battus IV. and
+Arcesilaus IV. must have reigned at Cyrene, to whom Pindar's
+fourth and fifth Pythian Odes are addressed: their history, however,
+is veiled in obscurity. Cyrene then received a republican
+constitution, probably somewhere about 450; but we are unacquainted
+with the internal details of the government. Yet
+though Plato was invited by the Cyren&aelig;ans to give them laws,
+and though they had for their legislator Democles of Arcadia,
+they appear never to have been blessed with a good and stable
+constitution. Not only is mention often made of domestic troubles,
+as in 400, when amid the uproar excited by Ariston most
+of the aristocratic party were cut off; but we likewise frequently
+meet with tyrants. Concerning the external affairs of this state
+we know nothing but a few general facts relative to the border
+wars with Carthage. Subsequently to Alexander, Cyrene became
+a part of the Egyptian kingdom; so early as the reign of
+Ptolemy I. it was added to that realm by his general Ophellas,
+about B. C. 331. It now continued to receive various rulers
+from the family of the Ptolemies (see below) until the reign of
+Ptolemy Physcon, when it became a separate state, the bastard
+son of that prince, Apion by name, having made it over to the
+Romans, 97. Cyrene possessed a considerable share of trade,
+consisting partly in the exportation of country produce, more especially
+the Silphium, (Laser,) partly in a varied intercourse
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_178" id="Page_178">[Pg 178]</a></span>with Carthage, Ammonium, and thence with the interior of
+Africa. The former splendour and importance of this city and
+the neighbouring country are testified by an abundance of most
+noble ruins; a more accurate research into which every friend of
+antiquity must desire.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Hardion</span>, <i>Histoire de Cyr&egrave;ne</i>, in <i>M&eacute;m. de l'Acad&eacute;mie des
+Inscriptions</i>, t. iii.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">J. P. Thrige</span>, <i>Historia Cyrenes, inde a tempore quo condita
+urbs est, usque ad &aelig;tatem, qua in provinci&aelig; formam a Romanis
+redacta est: particula prior, de initiis coloni&aelig; Cyrenen deduct&aelig;,
+et Cyrenes Battiadis regnantibus historia</i>. Havni&aelig;, 1819. The
+best work on Cyrene. It is hoped that the author will not disapppoint
+our expectations of the second part, which is to contain
+the period of republican government. [The whole was completed
+in 1828. The learned and ingenious author has neglected no authority
+whether ancient or modern, and is particularly cautious
+and judicious in his researches.]</p>
+
+<p>A ray of light has lately, for the first time, been thrown on
+the remains still found in Cyrenaica by <span class="smcap">Della Cella</span>, <i>Viaggio
+di Tripoli</i>; translated by Spieker, in the &#8224; <i>Journal of the latest
+travels by sea and by land</i>, Sept. 1820.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">W. Beechey</span>, <i>Proceedings to explore the northern coast of
+Africa from Tripoli eastward</i>, 1827.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">F. R. Pacho</span>, <i>Relation d'un voyage &agrave; Marmarique et Cyrenaique</i>,
+1828. A most accurate description.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">T. Ehrenberg</span>, <i>Travels through North Africa</i>, in the
+years 1820&mdash;1825, by Dr. W. F. Hemprich and Dr. C. G.
+Ehrenberg. Berlin, 1828.</p></div>
+
+
+<hr style="width: 25%;" />
+<h2>THIRD PERIOD.</h2>
+
+<p class="cblockquot"><i>From the commencement of the Persian wars to the time of
+Alexander the Great, B. C. 500&mdash;336.</i></p>
+
+
+<div class="sblockquot"><p>Sources. The chief writers in this period are: For the history
+of the Persian wars to the battle of Plat&aelig;&aelig;, 479, Herodotus.
+For the period between 479 and the breaking out of the Peloponnesian
+war, we must, in the absence of contemporary authors,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_179" id="Page_179">[Pg 179]</a></span>
+consider Diodorus Siculus as the principal authority.&mdash;The beginning
+of the 11th book, which commences with the year 480,
+(the 6th, 7th, 8th, 9th, and 10th books being lost,) to the middle
+of the 12th; the chronology of this author, however, must in
+several cases be rectified after Thucydides's summary in lib. i.
+For the period of the Peloponnesian war, 431&mdash;410, the history
+of Thucydides is the capital work; but it must be accompanied
+by Diodorus, from the middle of the 12th book to the middle of
+the 13th.&mdash;From the year 410 to the battle of Mantinea, 362,
+the principal sources are the Hellenics of Xenophon, and occasionally
+his Anabasis and Agesilaus; together with Diodorus,
+from the middle of the 13th book to the end of the 15th. For
+the years intervening from 362&mdash;336, no contemporary historian
+has been preserved; Diodorus's 16th book must therefore here be
+considered as the chief source: for the times of Philip, however,
+recourse may likewise be had to the speeches of Demosthenes
+and &AElig;schines. The Lives of Plutarch and Nepos often touch
+upon this period, but cannot be regarded as authentic sources;
+of still less authority are the abridged documents given by Justin
+and some others.</p>
+
+<p>The modern authors on this, the brilliant period of Greece,
+are, of course, the same as have been enumerated above: (see
+p. 118.) To whom must here be added:</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Potter</span>, <i>Arch&aelig;ologia Gr&aelig;ca; or the Antiquities of Greece:</i>
+2 vols. 8vo. Lond. 1722. Translated into German by J. J. Rambach,
+3 vols. 1775.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Barthelemy</span>, <i>Voyage du Jeune Anacharsis en Gr&egrave;ce</i>. (Between
+the years B. C. 362 and 338.) Paris, 1788, 5 vols. Accompanied
+with charts and plans, illustrating the topography of
+Athens, etc. This work is conspicuous for a rare union of good
+taste and erudition; unattended, however, with an equal share
+of critical acumen and a correct appreciation of antiquity.</p>
+
+<p>&#8224; <i>History of the Origin, Progress, and Fall of Science in
+Greece and Rome</i>, by <span class="smcap">C. Meiners</span>. Gottingen, 1781. It contains
+also a delineation of the political state of affairs; but does
+not extend beyond the age of Philip.</p>
+
+<p>The principal works on the monuments of ancient Greece are:</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Le Roy</span>, <i>Les Ruines des plus beaux Monumens de la Gr&egrave;ce</i>.
+Paris, 1758, 2nd edit. 1770, fol. The first in point of time; but
+far surpassed by:</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">J. Stuart</span>, <i>The Antiquities of Athens measured and deli<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_180" id="Page_180">[Pg 180]</a></span>neated</i>;
+3 vols. Lond. 1762: the 4th vol. published in 1816.
+In beauty and accuracy of execution superior to all.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">R. Dalton</span>, <i>Antiquities and Views of Greece and Egypt</i>,
+1691, fol. The Egyptian monuments are confined to those of
+Lower Egypt.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">R. Chandler</span>, <i>Ionian Antiquities</i>. London, 1796, 1797,
+2 vols. fol. A worthy companion to Stuart.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Choiseul Gouffier</span>, <i>Voyage pittoresque dans la Gr&egrave;ce</i>,
+vol. i, 1779: vol. ii, 1809. Confined principally to the islands
+and Asia Minor.</p></div>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Beneficial
+effects of
+the Persian
+invasion.</div>
+
+<p>1. From a multitude of small states, never
+united but continually distracted by civil broils&mdash;and
+such at the beginning of this period were
+the states of Greece&mdash;any thing important could
+hardly be expected without the occurrence of
+some external event, which, by rallying the divided
+forces round one point, and directing them
+toward one object, should hinder them from mutually
+exhausting one another. It was the hostile
+attempt of Persia that first laid the foundation of
+the future splendour of Greece; certain states
+then grew so rapidly in power, that upon their
+particular history hinges the general history of all
+the rest.</p>
+
+<div class="sblockquot"><p>Causes which led to the Persian war. Share taken by Athens
+in the Ionian insurrection and firing of Sardes, B. C. 500. (see
+above, p. 98.) Intrigues of Hippias, first with the satraps, and
+afterwards at the Persian court itself.&mdash;First expedition, that of
+Mardonius, thwarted by a storm, 493.</p></div>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Athens and
+Sparta
+alone reject
+the demands
+of Persia:<br />
+B. C. 491.</div>
+
+<p>2. Not even the summons to acknowledge the
+Persian authority was sufficient to rouse the national
+energy of the Greeks. All the islands, and
+most of the states on the main land, submitted
+to the yoke; Sparta and Athens alone boldly rejected
+it. The Athenians, unassisted, under their
+leader Miltiades, acquainted from his youth with<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_181" id="Page_181">[Pg 181]</a></span>
+the Persians and their mode of warfare, and with
+the superiority of the arms of his countrymen, became
+the saviours of Greece.</p>
+
+<div class="sblockquot"><p>Quarrel of Athens and Sparta with &AElig;gina, which sides with
+the Persians, 491; and consequent deposition of Demaratus, king
+of Sparta, by his colleague Cleomenes.</p>
+
+<p>Persian expedition of Datis and Artaphernes under the guidance
+of Hippias: frustrated by the battle of Marathon, B. C.
+Sept. 29, 490, and the failure of an attempt upon Athens.</p></div>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Expedition
+against Paros
+by Miltiades.</div>
+
+<p>3. The immediate consequence of this victory
+was a naval expedition against the islands, more
+particularly Paros, to which Miltiades, out of a
+private grudge, persuaded the Athenians. It was
+undertaken for the purpose of levying contributions;
+and seems to have given the Athenians the
+first idea of their subsequent dominion of the sea.
+The Athenians punished Miltiades for the failure
+of this expedition, although the effect of their own
+folly; yet was this act of injustice a source of happiness
+to Athens; as the fall of Miltiades made
+room for the men who laid the solid foundation of
+her glory and greatness.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Internal
+state of
+Athens.</div>
+
+<p>4.  As usual in every democratic state rising to
+power, the history of Athens now becomes that
+of eminent individuals, standing at the head of
+affairs, as generals or demagogues. Themistocles,
+who united to an astonishing degree in his own
+person the most splendid talents of statesman and
+general, with a spirit of intrigue, and even of
+egotism; and Aristides, whose disinterestedness,
+even in those days, was singular at Athens, were
+the real founders of the power of this commonwealth.
+Athens, however, was more indebted to
+the first than to the latter.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_182" id="Page_182">[Pg 182]</a></span></p>
+
+<div class="sblockquot"><p>Rivalry of these two men, 490&mdash;486. While Themistocles at
+the head of the Athenian fleet prosecutes the design of Miltiades
+against the islands, the management of state affairs is confided to
+Aristides. On the return, however, of Themistocles as conqueror,
+Aristides is by ostracism banished Athens, 486. Themistocles
+alone, at the head of affairs, pursues his plan for making Athens
+a maritime power. In consequence of a war against the object
+of popular hatred, &AElig;gina, B. C. 484, he prevails on the Athenians
+to devote the income from the mines to the formation of a
+navy. While Athens is thus rising to power, Sparta suffers from
+the insanity of one of her kings, Cleomenes, (succeeded in 482 by
+his half brother Leonidas,) and the arrogance of the other, Leotychides.</p></div>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Second expedition
+of
+the Persians
+defeated
+by
+Themistocles:
+480.</div>
+
+<p>5. The glory of frustrating the second mighty
+Persian invasion of Greece under Xerxes I. belongs
+to Themistocles alone. Not only his great
+naval victory off Salamis, but still more the manner
+in which he contrived to work upon his countrymen,
+proves him to have been the greatest
+man of the age, and the deliverer of Greece, now
+united by one common bond of interest.&mdash;All
+national leagues are weak in themselves: yet how
+strong may even the weakest be made when held
+together by one great man, who knows how to animate
+it with his own spirit!</p>
+
+<div class="sblockquot"><p>Themistocles' plan for the conduct of the war; first, a common
+union of all the Hellenic states; a measure which succeeds to a
+certain degree, the honour of the command being left to the
+Spartans; secondly, the sea made the theatre of war.&mdash;Gallant
+death of Leonidas with his three hundred Spartans and
+seven hundred Thespians, July 6, 480. An example of heroism
+which contributes as much to the greatness of Greece as the victory
+of Salamis. About the same time naval engagements off
+Artemisium in Eub&#339;a, with two hundred and seventy-one sail.
+The leaders of the Greeks are kept to their posts merely by bribery;
+the means of purchasing their services being for the most
+part furnished by Themistocles himself.&mdash;Athens, deserted by
+its inhabitants, is taken and burnt by Xerxes, July 20. Retreat<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_183" id="Page_183">[Pg 183]</a></span>
+of the Grecian fleet into the bay of Salamis: revocation of all
+exiles, Aristides among the rest.&mdash;Politic measures adopted by
+Themistocles to hinder the dispirited Greeks from taking flight,
+and at the same time to secure to himself, in case of need,
+an asylum with the Persian monarch.&mdash;Naval engagement and
+victory off Salamis, Sept. 23, 480, with three hundred and eighty
+sail, (one hundred and eighty of which were Athenian,) against
+the Persian fleet, already much weakened: retreat of Xerxes.&mdash;Poets
+and historians have disfigured these events by fanciful exaggerations:
+still, however, they may show us how commonly
+human weakness is attended with human greatness!</p></div>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Battles of
+Plat&aelig;&aelig; and
+Mycale,
+Sept. 25, 479.</div>
+
+<p>6. The victory of Salamis did not conclude the
+war; but the negotiations entered into during the
+winter months with the Persian general, Mardonius,
+left in Thessaly, and with the Asiatic
+Greeks, to excite them to throw off the yoke,
+show how far the confidence of the nation in its
+own strength had increased. But by the battle
+fought on land at Plat&aelig;&aelig;, under the command
+of the Spartan, Pausanias, (guardian to Plistarchus,
+son of Leonidas,) and the Athenian, Aristides;
+together with the naval battle at Mycale
+on the same day, and the destruction of the Persian
+fleet, the Persians are for ever driven from
+the territory of Greece, though the war continues
+for some time longer.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Sparta has
+the ascendancy
+to 470.</div>
+
+<p>7. The expulsion of the Persians wrought an
+entire change in the internal and external relations
+of Greece. From being the aggressed the
+Greeks became the aggressors; to free their
+Asiatic countrymen is now the chief object or
+pretext for the continuation of a war so profitable;
+the chief command of which abides with
+Sparta until B. C. 470.</p>
+
+<div class="sblockquot"><p>Athens rebuilt and fortified by Themistocles despite of Spartan
+jealousy, 478: formation of the Pir&aelig;us, an event of still<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_184" id="Page_184">[Pg 184]</a></span>
+greater importance, 477.&mdash;Naval expedition under Pausanias,
+accompanied by Aristides and Cimon, undertaken against Cyprus
+and Byzantium, for the purpose of expelling the Persians, 470.
+Treachery and fall of Pausanias, 469. In consequence of the
+Spartans' haughtiness, the supreme command devolves upon the
+Athenians.</p></div>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Athens assumes
+the
+chief command:</div>
+
+<p>8. This transfer of the command to Athens had
+a decided effect on all the subsequent relations
+of Greece, not only because it augmented the
+jealousy between Sparta and Athens, but because
+Athens exercised her predominance for a purpose
+entirely different from that of Sparta.&mdash;Establishment
+of a permanent confederacy, comprising most
+of the Grecian states without Peloponnesus, especially
+the islands, and an adjustment of the contributions
+to be annually furnished by each, with
+the view of prosecuting the Persian war, and
+liberating the Asiatic Greeks from the Persian
+yoke. Although the common treasury was first
+established at Delos, the superintendence of it
+was confided to Athens; and such a manager as
+Aristides was not always to be found.&mdash;Natural
+consequence of this new establishment: 1. What
+had hitherto been mere military precedence, becomes
+in the hands of Athens a right of political
+prescription, and that, as usual, is soon converted
+into a sovereignty. Hence her idea of the supremacy of Greece,
+(&#7936;&#961;&#967;&#8052; &#964;&#8134;&#962; &#7961;&#955;&#955;&#940;&#948;&#959;&#962;,)
+as connected with that of the sea,
+(&#952;&#945;&#955;&#945;&#963;&#963;&#959;&#954;&#961;&#945;&#964;&#943;&#945;.)
+2. The oppression of the Athenians, sometimes real, at
+other times presumed, after a short time, rouses
+the spirit of discontent and contumacy among
+several of the confederates: hence, 3. The gradual
+formation of a counter league, headed by<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_185" id="Page_185">[Pg 185]</a></span>
+Sparta, who maintains her supremacy over the
+greatest part of the Peloponnesus.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">consequences
+of that
+change.</div>
+
+<p>9. The changes introduced into the internal organization
+are not to be determined solely by the
+palpable alterations made in any of Lycurgus's
+or Solon's institutions. In Sparta, the general
+frame-work of Lycurgus's constitution subsisted;
+nevertheless the power was virtually in the hands
+of the ephori, whose dictatorial sway placed
+Sparta in the formidable posture she now assumed.&mdash;At
+Athens, in proportion as the importance
+of foreign relations increased, and amid the
+protracted struggles between the heads of the democratic
+and aristocratic parties, the real power,
+under the outward appearance of a democracy,
+gradually centered in the hands of the ten annually elected generals,
+(&#963;&#964;&#961;&#945;&#964;&#951;&#947;&#959;&#8054;,) who with more
+or less effect played the parts of demagogues.</p>
+
+<div class="sblockquot"><p>Abrogation of the law that excluded the poorer citizens from
+official situations, B. C. 478.</p>
+
+<p>Expulsion of Themistocles, implicated in the fall of Pausanias,
+principally through the intrigues of Sparta: he is first banished
+by ostracism, 469, but in consequence of further persecution he
+flies over to the Persians, 466.</p></div>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Brilliant
+period of
+Athens.</div>
+
+<p>10. The following forty years, from 470&mdash;430,
+constitute the flourishing period of Athens. A
+concurrence of fortunate circumstances happening
+among a people of the highest abilities and
+promoted by great men, produced here phenomena,
+such as have never since been witnessed. Political
+greatness was the fundamental principle of the
+commonwealth; Athens had been the guardian,
+and the champion of Greece, and she wished to
+appear worthy of herself. Hence in Athens alone
+were men acquainted with public splendour, exhi<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_186" id="Page_186">[Pg 186]</a></span>bited
+in buildings, in spectacles, and festivals, the
+acquisition of which was facilitated by private
+frugality. This public spirit animating every citizen,
+expanded the blossoms of genius; no broad
+line of distinction was anxiously drawn between
+private and public life; whatever great, whatever
+noble was produced by Athens, sprung up verdant
+and robust out of this harmony, this buxom
+vigour of the state. Far different was the case
+with Sparta; there rude customs and laws arrested
+the development of genius: there men
+were taught to die for the land of their forefathers:
+while at Athens they learnt to live for it.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Athenian
+civilization.</div>
+
+<p>11. Agriculture continued the principal occupation
+of the citizens of Attica; other employments
+were left to the care of slaves. Commerce
+and navigation were mainly directed towards the
+Thracian coast and the Black sea; the spirit of
+trade, however, was never the prevailing one.
+As affairs of state became more attractive, and
+men desired to participate in them, the want of
+intellectual education began to be felt, and sophists
+and rhetoricians soon offered their instruction.
+Mental expertness was more coveted than
+mental knowledge; men wished to learn how to
+think and to speak. A poetical education had
+long preceded the rise of this national desire;
+poesy now lost nothing of its value: as heretofore
+Homer remained the cornerstone of intellectual
+improvement. Could it be that such blossoms
+would produce other fruits than those which ripened
+in the school of Socrates, in the masterpieces
+of the tragedians and orators, and in the
+immortal works of Plato?<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_187" id="Page_187">[Pg 187]</a></span></p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Changes in
+the persons
+at the head
+of affairs.</div>
+
+<p>12. These flowers of national genius burst forth
+in spite of many evils, inseparable from such a
+constitution established among such a people.
+Great men were pushed aside; others took their
+places. The loss of Themistocles was supplied
+by Miltiades's son Cimon; who to purer politics
+united equal talents. He protracted the war
+against the Persians in order to maintain the
+union of the Greeks; and favoured the aristocratic
+party at the same time that he affected popularity.
+Even his enemies learnt by experience, that the
+state could not dispense with a leader who
+seemed to have entered into a compact for life
+with victory.</p>
+
+<div class="sblockquot"><p>Another expedition under Cimon; and victory by sea and land
+near the Eurymedon, B. C. 469. He takes possession of the
+Hellespontine Chersonesus, 468. Some of the Athenian confederates
+already endeavour to secede. Hence, 467, the conquest
+of Caristus in Eub&#339;a; subjection of Naxos, 466, and from
+465&mdash;463, siege and capture of Thasos, under Cimon. The
+Athenians endeavour to obtain a firmer footing on the shore of
+Macedonia; and for that purpose send out a colony to Amphipolis,
+465.</p>
+
+<p>Great earthquake at Sparta; gives rise to a ten years' war,
+viz. the third Messenian war or revolt of the Helots, who fortify
+themselves in Ithome, 465&mdash;455: in this war the Athenians, at
+the instigation of Cimon, send assistance to the Spartans, 461,
+who refuse the proffered aid. The democratic party seize the
+opportunity of casting on Cimon the suspicion of being in the
+interest of Sparta; he is banished by ostracism, 461.</p></div>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Aristides
+dies, 467.</div>
+
+<p>13. The death of Aristides, and the banishment
+of Cimon, concur in elevating Pericles to the
+head of affairs; a statesman whose influence had
+begun to operate as early as 469. Less a general
+than a demagogue, he supported himself in authority
+during forty years, until the day of his
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_188" id="Page_188">[Pg 188]</a></span>death, and swayed Athens without being either
+archon or member of the areopagus. That under
+him the constitution must have assumed a more
+democratic character, is demonstrated by the fact
+<span class="sidenote">Pericles dies, 429.</span>
+of his exaltation as leader of the democratic
+party. The aristocrats, however, contrive until
+444 to set up rivals against him in the persons of
+the military leaders, Myronides, Tolmidas, and
+more particularly the elder Thucydides.</p>
+
+<div class="sblockquot"><p>Change in the spirit of administration under Pericles, both in
+reference to internal and external relations. A brilliant management
+succeeds to the parsimonious economy of Aristides; and
+yet, after the lapse of thirty years, the state treasury was full.&mdash;Limitation
+of the power of the areopagus by Ephialtes, B. C. 461.
+The withdrawal of various causes which formerly came under the
+jurisdiction of that tribunal must have diminished its right of
+moral censorship.&mdash;Introduction of the practice of paying persons
+who attended the courts of justice.</p>
+
+<p>With regard to external relations, the precedence of the Athenians
+gradually advanced toward supremacy; although their relations
+with all the confederates were not precisely the same. Some
+were mere confederates; others were subjects.&mdash;Augmentation
+in the imposts on the confederates, and transfer of the treasury
+from Delos to Athens, 461. The jealousy of Sparta and the
+discontent of the confederates keep pace with the greatness of
+Athens.</p>
+
+<p>Unsuccessful attempt to support by the help of an Athenian
+fleet and troops, Inarus of Egypt in his insurrection against the
+Persians, 462&mdash;458.</p>
+
+<p>Wars in Greece: the Spartans instigate Corinth and Epidaurus
+against Athens. The Athenians, at first defeated near Hali&aelig;,
+in their turn rout the enemy, 458, and then carry the war against
+&AElig;gina, which is subdued, 457. In the new quarrel between
+Corinth and Megara respecting their boundaries, the Athenians
+side with Megara; Myronides conquers at Cimolia, 457. Expedition
+of the Spartans to the support of the Dorians against
+Phocis; and hence arises the first rupture between Athens,
+Sparta, and B&#339;otia. First battle of Tanagra, in which the
+Spartans are victorious in the same year, 457. The B&#339;otians,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_189" id="Page_189">[Pg 189]</a></span>
+incited by the Spartans, are in the second battle of Tanagra
+worsted by Myronides, 456. The recall of Cimon, at the suggestion
+of Pericles himself, in consequence of the first defeat.</p></div>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Cimon restored.<br />
+
+450.<br />
+
+449.</div>
+
+<p>14.  Cimon recalled from exile, endeavours to
+reestablish the domestic tranquillity of Greece, and
+at the same time to renew the war against the Persians.
+He succeeds in his attempt after the lapse
+of five years; and the consequence is a victorious
+expedition against the Persians. He defeats their
+fleet off Cyprus, and routs their army on the
+Asiatic coast. The fruit of this victory is the
+celebrated peace with Artaxerxes I. (see above,
+p. 104.) Ere that peace is concluded Cimon dies,
+too soon for his country, while occupied with the
+siege of Citium.</p>
+
+<div class="sblockquot"><p>Termination of the third Messenian war in favour of Sparta,
+by the cession of Ithome, B. C. 455. Meantime Athens continues
+the war with Peloponnesus; Tolmidas and Pericles
+making an incursion by sea on the enemy's territory, 455&mdash;454.
+At the same time Pericles, by sending out colonies to the Hellespont,
+endeavours to secure more firmly the Athenian power in
+that quarter: a colony is likewise sent out to Naxos, 453.&mdash;Cimon
+negotiates a truce, which is adopted first (451) tacitly,
+afterwards formally, (450,) for five years. The result of this
+truce is his victorious expedition against the Persians, and the
+consequent peace with that nation. Although the conditions of
+the peace prescribed by Cimon were sometimes infringed, they
+appear to have been ratified by all parties.</p></div>
+
+<div class="sidenote">State of
+Greece after
+the peace
+with Persia.<br />
+
+431.</div>
+
+<p>15.  The conclusion of peace with Persia, glorious
+as it was, and the death of the man whose
+grand political object was to preserve union among
+the Greeks, again aroused the spirit of internal
+strife. For notwithstanding nearly twenty years
+intervened before the tempest burst with all its
+fury, this period was so turbulent during its course,
+that Greece seldom enjoyed universal peace.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_190" id="Page_190">[Pg 190]</a></span>
+While Athens by her naval strength was maintaining
+her ascendancy over the confederates, and
+while some of those confederates were raising the
+standard of rebellion and passing over to Sparta,
+every thing was gradually combining towards the
+formation of a counter league, the necessary consequence
+of which must have been a war, such as
+the Peloponnesian. Up to this time Athens was
+at the height of her power; she was governed by
+Pericles, who, in every thing but the name, was
+sole ruler during this period, and for that reason
+she experienced few of the evils resulting from
+a democratic constitution. Who, indeed, could
+overthrow a demagogue whose presence of mind,
+even in the greatest good fortune, never once deserted
+him; who knew how to keep alive among
+his fellow-citizens the conviction that, however
+exalted they might be, it was to him alone they
+were indebted for it?</p>
+
+<div class="sblockquot"><p>During the five years' truce the sacred war for the possession
+of the Delphian oracle took place, and it is given by the Spartans
+to the city of Delphi; but after their return is given back again
+by the Athenians to the Phocians, B. C. 448. The Athenians
+commanded by Tolmidas, are defeated by the B&#339;otians, 447.
+This expedition, undertaken in opposition to the advice of Pericles,
+contributes to increase his influence; particularly as he reduces
+to obedience the revolted Eub&#339;a and Megara, 446. End
+of the five years' truce with Sparta; and renewal of hostilities,
+445; further warlike proceedings are repressed by a new thirty
+years' peace, which lasts, however, only fourteen years.&mdash;Complete
+suppression of the aristocratic party, by the banishment of
+the elder Thucydides, 444; the whole administration of the state
+consequently centres in the hands of Pericles.&mdash;Democracy in
+the confederate states favoured; forcibly introduced in Samos,
+which, after a nine months' siege, is obliged to submit to Pericles,
+440.&mdash;Commencement of the war between Corinth and Corcyra,
+on the subject of Epidamnus, 436, which the Corcyr&aelig;ans take<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_191" id="Page_191">[Pg 191]</a></span>
+possession of after winning a naval victory, 435. The Athenians
+take part in the quarrel, and side with the Corcyr&aelig;ans, 432.
+The rupture with Corinth, and the policy of Perdiccas II. king
+of Macedonia, lead to the secession of the Corinthian colony of
+Potid&aelig;a, which previously belonged to the Athenian confederacy:
+the war thereby is extended to the Macedonian coast. Engagement
+near Potid&aelig;a, and siege of that town, 432. The Corinthians
+direct their steps to Sparta, and excite the Spartans to war; which
+is further accelerated by the attack of the Thebans upon Plat&aelig;&aelig;,
+the confederate of Athens, 431.</p></div>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Peloponnesian
+war,<br />
+431&mdash;404.</div>
+
+<p>16.  The history of the twenty-seven years' war,
+known by the name of the Peloponnesian, or great
+Grecian war, which swept away the fairest flowers
+of Greece, is the more deserving attention from
+its being not merely a struggle between nations,
+but likewise against certain forms of government.
+The policy of Athens, which to establish or preserve
+her influence in foreign states, excited the
+multitude against the higher orders, had on all
+sides given rise to two factions, the democrat or
+Athenian, and the aristocrat or Spartan; and the
+mutual bitterness of party spirit produced the
+most violent disorders.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Power and
+influence of
+Athens and
+Sparta.</div>
+
+<p>17.  The respective relations of the two head
+states of Greece to their confederates, were at
+this time of a very opposite nature. Athens, as
+a naval power, was mistress of most of the islands
+and maritime cities, which, as tributary confederates,
+rendered for the most part a forced obedience.
+Sparta, as a land power, was allied with
+most of the states on the continent, which had
+joined her side of their own accord, and were
+not subject to tribute. Sparta therefore presented
+herself as the deliverer of Greece from the Athenian
+yoke.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_192" id="Page_192">[Pg 192]</a></span></p>
+
+<div class="sblockquot"><p>Confederates of the Athenians: the islands Chios, Samos, Lesbos,
+all those of the Archipelago, (Thera and Melos excepted,
+which stood neutral,) Corcyra, Zacynthus; the Grecian colonies
+in Asia Minor, and on the coast of Thrace and Macedonia; in
+Greece itself, the cities of Naupactus, Plat&aelig;&aelig;, and those of Acarnania.&mdash;Confederates
+of the Spartans: all the Peloponnesians,
+(Argos and Achaia excepted, which stood neutral,) Megara, Locris,
+Phocis, B&#339;otia, the cities of Ambracia and Anactorium,
+and the island of Leucas.</p></div>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Internal state of
+Athens and
+Sparta.</div>
+
+<p>18. Sketch of the internal state of Athens and
+Sparta at this period. The power of Athens depended
+mainly on the state of her finances; without
+which she could not support a fleet, and without
+a fleet her ascendancy over the confederates
+would of course fall to ground. And although
+Pericles, notwithstanding his lavish public expenditure,
+was able to enter upon the war with
+6,000 talents in the treasury, experience could
+not fail to show that, in such a democratic state
+as Athens was now become under Pericles, the
+squandering of the public money was an unavoidable
+evil. This evil was produced, however, at
+Athens much less by the peculations of individual
+state officers than by the demands of the multitude,
+who for the most part lived at the expense
+of the state treasury. On the other hand, Sparta
+as yet had no finance; and only began to feel the
+want of it as she began to acquire a naval power,
+and entered upon undertakings more vast than
+mere incursions.</p>
+
+<div class="sblockquot"><p>Financial system of the Athenians. Revenue: 1. The tribute
+paid by the confederates (&#966;&#972;&#961;&#959;&#953;)
+increased by Pericles from four
+hundred and sixty to six hundred talents. 2. Income from the
+customs, (which were farmed,) and from the mines at Laurium.
+3. The caution money of the non-citizens: (&#956;&#941;&#964;&#959;&#953;&#954;&#959;&#953;.)
+4. The taxes on the citizens, (&#949;&#7984;&#963;&#966;&#959;&#961;&#945;&#8054;,)
+which fell almost entirely on the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_193" id="Page_193">[Pg 193]</a></span>
+rich, more particularly on the first class, the members of which
+were not only to bear the burthen of fitting out the fleet,
+(&#964;&#961;&#953;&#949;&#961;&#945;&#961;&#967;&#943;&#945;&#953;,)
+but were likewise to furnish means for the public festivals
+and spectacles, (&#967;&#959;&#961;&#951;&#947;&#943;&#945;&#953;.)
+The whole income of the republic at
+this time was estimated at 2,000 talents. But the disbursements
+made to the numerous assistants at the courts of justice (the principal
+means of existence with the poorer citizens, and which,
+more than any thing else, contributed to the licentiousness of the
+democracy and the oppression of the confederates, whose causes
+were all brought to Athens for adjudication,) together with the
+expenditure for festivals and spectacles, even at this time, absorbed
+the greatest part of the revenue.</p>
+
+<p>&#8224; <span class="smcap">F. Boekh</span>, <i>Public Economy of the Athenians</i>, 2 parts,
+Berlin, 1816. The chief work on the subject. [Ably translated
+by <span class="smcap">J. C. Lewis</span>, esq. of Christ Church in this university.]</p>
+
+<p><i>Athenian Letters, or the Epistolary Correspondence of an
+Agent of the King of Persia, residing at Athens during the Peloponnesian
+war.</i> London, 1798, 2 vols. 4to. The production
+of several young authors; first printed, but not published, in
+1741. This sketch comprises, not only Greece, but likewise
+Persia and Egypt.</p></div>
+
+<div class="sidenote">First period
+of the war,<br />
+431&mdash;422.<br />
+429.<br />
+430.</div>
+
+<p>19. First period of the war until the fifty years'
+peace. Beginning of the war unsuccessful to
+Athens during the first three years, under the
+conduct of Pericles, in whose defensive plan we
+may perhaps discern the infirmities of age. The
+Athenians, however, suffered less from the annual
+inroads of the Spartans than from the plague, to
+which Pericles himself at last fell a victim. The
+alliance of the Athenians with the kings of Thrace
+and Macedonia extended the theatre of war; on
+the other hand, Sparta had already conceived the
+idea of an alliance with Persia.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Consequence
+of
+the death
+of Pericles.<br />
+427.<br />
+424.<br />
+422.</div>
+
+<p>20. The death of Pericles was, for the next
+seven years, during which the place of that great
+man was supplied by Cleon a currier, followed
+by all the evils of an uncurbed democracy. The
+atrocious decrees with respect to Mitylene, which
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_194" id="Page_194">[Pg 194]</a></span>after seceding, had been recaptured, and the insurrection
+of the Corcyr&aelig;an populace against the
+rich, characterized the party spirit then dominant
+in Greece better than the few insignificant events of
+a war conducted without any plan. Sparta, however,
+found in young Brasidas a general, such as
+are wont to arise in revolutionary times. His prosecution
+of the war on the Macedonian coast
+might have brought great danger to Athens, had
+he so early not fallen a victim to his own gallantry.</p>
+
+<div class="sblockquot"><p>Capture of Amphipolis by Brasidas, and exile of Thucydides,
+424. Engagement near Amphipolis between Brasidas and
+Cleon; and death of those two generals, 422.</p></div>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Peace not
+lasting.
+422.<br />
+
+Alcibiades
+at the head
+of affairs,
+420.</div>
+
+<p>21. The peace now concluded for fifty years
+could not be of long duration, as many of the confederates
+on either side were discontented with
+its terms. All hope of tranquillity must have
+been at an end when the management of Athenian
+affairs fell into the hands of a youth like Alcibiades,
+in whom vanity and artifice held the place
+of patriotism and talent, and who thought war
+the only field in which he could gain credit.
+Against him what availed the prudence of Nicias?&mdash;Happy
+was it for Athens that during the whole
+of this period Sparta never produced one man
+who could match even with Alcibiades!</p>
+
+<div class="sblockquot"><p>Attempt of some states, Corinth especially, to set Argos at the
+head of a new confederacy; this measure Athens likewise favours,
+421.&mdash;Violation of the peace, 419; the war indirect until
+415, and limited to assisting the confederates on either side.&mdash;Alcibiades's
+plan of giving Athens the preponderance in Peloponnesus,
+by an alliance with Argos, is defeated by the battle
+of Mantinea, 417.&mdash;Exterminating war of the Athenians waged
+against the Melians, who wish to preserve their neutrality,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_195" id="Page_195">[Pg 195]</a></span>
+whereas neutrality in the weaker party now becomes a crime,
+416.</p></div>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Project
+upon Sicily.</div>
+
+<p>22. Alcibiades's party brings forward at Athens
+the project of conquering Sicily, under the pretence
+of succouring the Segestani against the Syracusans.
+This rash expedition, in which the
+hopes both of the Athenians and of its instigator
+Alcibiades were blighted, gave to Athens the first
+great blow, from which she never after, even with
+the utmost exertion of her strength, recovered;
+especially as Sparta also was now become a naval
+power.</p>
+
+<div class="sblockquot"><p>Early interference of the Athenians with the concerns of the
+Sicilian Greeks.&mdash;A fleet and army under the command of Nicias,
+Lamachus, and Alcibiades, sent against Sicily, 415.&mdash;Accusation,
+recall, and flight of Alcibiades to Sparta: formal rupture
+of the peace by an inroad of the Spartans into Attica, where
+they fortify Decelea, 414. Unsuccessful siege of Syracuse, 414;
+and total annihilation of the Athenian fleet and army by the
+assistance of the Spartans under Gylippus, 413.</p></div>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Athens after
+the war
+in Sicily.</div>
+
+<p>23. Fatal as in the present circumstances the
+blow struck in Sicily must appear to have been
+to Athens, yet the calamity was surmounted by
+Athenian enthusiasm, never greater than in times
+of misfortune. They maintained their supremacy
+over the confederates; but the part which Alcibiades,
+in consequence of the new posture his
+own personal interest had assumed at Sparta,
+took in their affairs, brought about a twofold domestic
+revolution, which checked the licentious
+democracy.</p>
+
+<div class="sblockquot"><p>Alliance of the Spartans with the Persians, and indecisive engagement
+off Miletus&mdash;Flight of Alcibiades from Sparta to Tissaphernes;
+his negotiations to gain the satrap over to the interests
+of Athens, 411.&mdash;Equivocal policy of Tissaphernes.&mdash;Negotiations
+of Alcibiades with the chiefs of the Athenian army<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_196" id="Page_196">[Pg 196]</a></span>
+at Samos, and the consequent revolution at Athens, and overthrow
+of the democracy by the appointment of the supreme
+council of four hundred in place of the &#946;&#959;&#965;&#955;&#8052;, and of a committee
+of five thousand citizens in place of the popular assembly, 411.&mdash;The
+army assumes the right of debate; names Alcibiades to be
+its leader; but declares again for democracy.&mdash;Great commotions
+at Athens in consequence of the discomfiture of the fleet at Eretria,
+and the secession of Eub&#339;a. Deposition of the college of
+four hundred, after a despotic rule of four months;&mdash;Reformation
+of the government;&mdash;Transfer of the highest power to the
+hands of the five thousand;&mdash;Recall of Alcibiades, and reconciliation
+with the army.</p></div>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Brilliant
+period of
+Alcibiades,<br />
+411&mdash;410.<br />
+
+410.</div>
+
+<p>24. Brilliant period of Alcibiades's command.
+The reiterated naval victories won by the Athenians
+over the Spartans under Mindarus, who,
+mistrusting Tissaphernes, now forms an alliance
+with Pharnabazus, satrap of the north of Asia
+Minor, oblige the Spartans to propose peace,
+which haughty Athens, unluckily for herself, rejects.</p>
+
+<div class="sblockquot"><p>Two naval engagements on the Hellespont, 411.&mdash;Great victory
+by sea and land won near Cyzicus, 410.&mdash;Confirmation of
+the Athenian dominion over Ionia and Thrace by the capture of
+Byzantium, 480. Alcibiades returns covered with glory; but in
+the same year is deposed, and submits to a voluntary exile, 407.</p></div>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Anabasis of
+Cyrus,
+407.<br />
+
+406.<br />
+
+406.<br />
+
+405&mdash;403.</div>
+
+<p>25. Arrival of the younger Cyrus in Asia Minor;
+the shrewdness of Lysander wins him over
+to the Spartan interest. The republican haughtiness
+of Lysander's successor, Callicratidas,
+shown to Cyrus, was a serious error in policy;
+for, unassisted by Persian money, Sparta was
+not in a condition to pay her mariners, nor consequently
+to support her naval establishment.
+After the defeat and death of Callicratidas, the
+command is restored to Lysander, who terminates
+the twenty seven years' war triumphantly for
+Sparta.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_197" id="Page_197">[Pg 197]</a></span></p>
+
+<div class="sblockquot"><p>Naval victory of Lysander over the Athenians at Notium, 407;
+in consequence of which Alcibiades is deprived of the command.&mdash;Appointment
+of ten new leaders at Athens; Conon among the
+number.&mdash;Naval victory of Callicratidas at Mitylene; Conon is
+shut up in the harbour of that place, 406.&mdash;Great naval victory
+of the Athenians; defeat and death of Callicratidas at the &AElig;ginuss&aelig;
+islands, near Lesbos, 406.&mdash;Unjust condemnation of the
+Athenian generals.&mdash;Second command of Lysander, and last <i>decisive</i>
+victory by sea over the Athenians at &AElig;gospotamos on the
+Hellespont, Dec. 406.&mdash;The loss of the sovereignty of the sea is
+accompanied by the defection of the confederates, who are successively
+subjected by Lysander, 406.&mdash;Athens is besieged by
+Lysander in the same year, 405; the city surrenders in May,
+404.&mdash;Athens is deprived of her walls; her navy is reduced to
+twelve sail; and, in obedience to Lysander's commands, the constitution
+is commuted into an oligarchy, under thirty rulers, (tyrants.)</p></div>
+
+<div class="sidenote">End of the
+Peloponnesian
+war.</div>
+
+<p>26. Thus ended a war destructive in its moral,
+still more than in its political, consequences.
+Party spirit had usurped the place of patriotic
+feeling; as national prejudice had that of national
+energy. Athens being subdued, Sparta stood at
+the head of confederate Greece; but Greece very
+soon experienced the yoke of her deliverers to be
+infinitely more galling than that of the people hitherto
+called her oppressors. What evils must
+not have ensued from the revolutions Lysander
+now found it necessary to effect in most of the
+Grecian states, in order to place the helm of government
+in the hands of his own party under the
+superintendence of a Spartan harmost?&mdash;How
+oppressive must not have been the military rule
+of the numerous Spartan garrisons?&mdash;Nor could
+any alleviation of tribute be hoped for, now that
+in Sparta it was acknowledged that the "state
+must possess an exchequer."&mdash;The arrogance and
+rapacity of the new masters were rendered more<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_198" id="Page_198">[Pg 198]</a></span>
+grievous by their being more uncivilized and destitute.</p>
+
+<div class="sblockquot"><p>History of the reign of terror at Athens under the thirty tyrants,
+403.&mdash;What happened here must likewise have happened
+more or less in the other Grecian cities, which Lysander found
+it necessary to revolutionize. In all quarters his party consisted
+of men similar to Critias and his colleagues, who appear to have
+been long before united in clubs
+(&#7953;&#964;&#945;&#953;&#961;&#949;&#943;&#945;&#953;) intimately connected
+with each other; from which were now taken the most daring
+revolutionists, in order to place them everywhere at the head of
+affairs.</p></div>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Expulsion
+of the thirty
+tyrants.<br />
+
+403.</div>
+
+<p>27. Happy revolution in Athens, and expulsion
+of the thirty tyrants by Thrasybulus, favoured by
+the party at Sparta opposed to Lysander, and
+headed by king Pausanias. Restoration and reform
+of Solon's constitution; general amnesty.
+It was easy to reestablish forms;&mdash;to recall the
+departed spirit of the nation was impossible!</p>
+
+<div class="sblockquot"><p><span class="smcap">Ed. Ph. Hinrichs</span>, <i>De Theramenis, Criti&aelig; et Thrasybuli,
+virorum tempore belli Peloponnesiaci inter Gr&aelig;cos illustrium,
+rebus et ingenio, Commentatio</i>, Hamburgi, 1820. An inquiry
+which exhibits much research and impartiality.</p></div>
+
+<div class="sidenote">War of the
+Spartans
+with Persia,
+400.</div>
+
+<p>28. The defeat of the younger Cyrus entangles
+the Spartans in a war with the Persians, the same
+year that, after the death of king Agis, Agesilaus
+takes possession of the regal dignity. We willingly
+forget his usurpation as we follow him
+in his heroic career. None but a man of genius
+could have instructed Sparta how to support for
+so long a time the extravagant character which
+she had now undertaken to play.</p>
+
+<div class="sblockquot"><p>Opening of the war with Persia by Tissaphernes's attack on
+the &AElig;olian cities of Asia Minor, 400.&mdash;Command of Thimbron,
+who, 398, is succeeded by the more successful and fortunate Dercyllidas.&mdash;Availing
+himself of the jealousy between Tissaphernes
+and Artabazus, he persuades the latter to a separate truce, 397.&mdash;Command
+of Agesilaus; his expedition into Asia, from the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_199" id="Page_199">[Pg 199]</a></span>
+spring of 396 until 394. The conviction which he obtained of
+the domestic weakness of the Persian empire in the successful
+invasion of Phrygia, 395, seems to have matured in the mind of
+Agesilaus the idea of overturning the Persian throne: this design
+he would have accomplished had not the Persians been politic
+enough to kindle a war against Sparta in Greece itself.</p></div>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Corinthian
+war, 394.<br />
+
+387.</div>
+
+<p>29.  The Corinthian war, waged against Sparta
+by Corinth, Thebes, and Argos, to which Athens
+and the Thessalians unite, terminated by the
+peace of Antalcidas. The tyranny of Sparta, and
+more particularly the recent devastation of Elis,
+a sacred territory, were the alleged pretexts;
+but the bribes of Timocrates, the Persian envoy,
+were the real causes of this war.</p>
+
+<div class="sblockquot"><p>Irruption of the Spartans into B&#339;otia; they engage and are
+routed at Haliartus, 394. Lysander falls on the field of battle;
+and Agesilaus is recalled out of Asia.&mdash;His victory at Coronea
+ensures to the Spartans the preponderance by land; but the discomfiture
+of their navy near Cnidus at the same time, gives to
+their enemies the sovereignty of the sea: Conon, who commanded
+the combined Persian and Athenian fleets, avails himself,
+with consummate skill, of this success to reestablish the independence
+of Athens, 393.&mdash;Sparta endeavours by apparently
+great sacrifices to bring over the Persians to her interests: the
+peace at last concluded by the efforts of the skilful Antalcidas,
+(see above, book ii, parag. 42), was readily agreed to by the
+Spartans, as they gave up only what otherwise they could not
+have retained. The preponderance of Sparta on the continent
+of Greece was established by the article which invested them
+with the power of seeing the conditions of the treaty fulfilled:
+the stipulated freedom of the Grecian cities was but an apparent
+disadvantage; and now that the Asiatic colonies were given up,
+the contest for power in Greece itself must be decided by land,
+and not by sea.</p></div>
+
+<div class="sidenote">386.<br />
+
+384.<br />
+
+383&mdash;380.<br />
+
+382.</div>
+
+<p>30. The quarrels which, after the peace of
+Antalcidas, Sparta began to have with Mantinea
+and Phlius, and still more so her participation in
+those between the Macedo-Greek cities and the
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_200" id="Page_200">[Pg 200]</a></span>over-powerful Olynthus, prove too plainly the arrogance
+with which Sparta behaved to the weaker
+states. But the arbitrary appropriation of the
+citadel of Thebes by Ph&#339;bidas,&mdash;an act not indeed
+commanded, yet approved by Sparta,&mdash;was
+attended with more serious consequences than
+were at first expected. Would that all authors
+of similar breaches of good faith and the law of
+nations were visited with the same vengeance!</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Rivalry of Sparta and Thebes.</div>
+
+<p>31. Period of the rivalry of Sparta and Thebes,
+Thebes, from the year 378. The greatness of Thebes was
+the work of two men, who knew how to inspire
+their fellow-citizens and confederates with their
+own heroic spirit: with them Thebes rose, with
+them she fell. Rarely does history exhibit such
+a <i>duumvirate</i> as that of Epaminondas and Pelopidas.
+How high must our estimation of Pythagoras
+be, even had his philosophy formed but one
+such man as Epaminondas!</p>
+
+<div class="sblockquot"><p>Liberation of Thebes from Spartan rule by the successful attempt
+of Pelopidas and his fellow-conspirators, 378. Vain attempts
+against Thebes, by the Spartans under Cleombrotus, 378,
+and Agesilaus, 377 and 376. The defensive war conducted by
+Pelopidas, during which he established the Theban supremacy in
+B&#339;otia, and brought over the Athenians, (whose fleet, 376, beat
+that of the Spartans,) deserves our admiration more than the
+winning of a battle.&mdash;The vast plans of Thebes were not unfolded,
+however, till Epaminondas was at the head of affairs.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Seran de la Tour</span>, <i>Histoire d'Epaminondas</i>. Paris, 1752.</p>
+
+<p>&#8224; <span class="smcap">Meissner</span>, <i>Life of Epaminondas</i>. Prague, 1801, 2 parts.
+In which the authorities are duly considered.</p>
+
+<p>&#8224; <span class="smcap">J. G. Scheibel</span>, <i>Essays towards a better understanding of
+the Ancient World</i>, 1809. The second part contains an essay
+upon the history of Thebes, as the first does on that of Corinth.</p></div>
+
+<div class="sidenote">General peace in Greece
+mediated by
+Persia:
+374.<br />
+
+372.</div>
+
+<p>32. A general peace is concluded in Greece
+through the mediation of the Persians, (who wish
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_201" id="Page_201">[Pg 201]</a></span>to obtain auxiliaries against the Egyptians,) under
+the condition that all the Grecian cities shall be
+free: it is acceded to by Sparta and Athens, but
+rejected by Thebes, because she cannot admit the
+condition without again falling under the Spartan
+yoke. In fact, the lofty language used by Epaminondas,
+as envoy to Sparta, shows that it was
+problematic whether Sparta or Thebes should
+now be at the head of Greece. Could the idea,
+therefore, of a perfect equality between the states
+of Greece be other than chimerical?</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Epaminondas:
+371&mdash;362.</div>
+
+<p>33. The long struggle maintained so gloriously
+by Epaminondas against Sparta is remarkable
+both in a political and military point of view.
+The power of Sparta was abased; Epaminondas
+invented a new system of tactics, (out of which
+soon after sprang the Macedonian art of war;)
+and as soon as he found confederates in Peloponnesus
+itself, he made his way to the very gates
+of Sparta.</p>
+
+<div class="sblockquot"><p>Victory won by the Thebans at Leuctra, July 8, 371, and annihilation
+of what hitherto had been called the supremacy of
+Sparta.&mdash;First irruption into Peloponnesus preceded by alliances
+with Arcadia, Elis, and Argos.&mdash;The attack upon Sparta itself
+is unsuccessful; but the freedom of Messene is restored, 369.</p></div>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Sparta in alliance
+with
+Athens.</div>
+
+<p>34. Sparta in distress forms an alliance with
+Athens, under the stipulation that the command
+shall alternately be in the hands of the two confederates;
+conditions, no doubt, humiliating to
+Spartan pride! It however affords them the
+means of frustrating Epaminondas's new attempt
+on Corinth and the Peloponnesus. Even Dionysius
+I. of Syracuse, thinks himself bound to assist
+the Spartans as being Dorians.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_202" id="Page_202">[Pg 202]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>35. Thebes played a no less brilliant part in the
+north than she did in the south. And had the
+attempts to liberate Thessaly from the rule of the
+tyrant, Alexander of Pher&aelig;, been attended with
+success, Thebes would have received a vast increase
+of power. Even in Macedonia she acted
+as arbitress.</p>
+
+<div class="sblockquot"><p>First and successful expedition of Pelopidas into Thessaly,
+368.&mdash;After the decision of the disputed succession to the Macedonian
+throne, young Philip is brought as hostage to Thebes, and
+educated in the house of Epaminondas.&mdash;Pelopidas is sent as
+ambassador, and taken prisoner by Alexander; hence the second
+expedition of the Thebans, in which Epaminondas rescues the
+army and delivers his friend, 367.</p></div>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Alliance of
+Thebes and
+Persia.</div>
+
+<p>36. Alliance of Thebes with Persia successfully
+brought about by Pelopidas. In the intrigues
+of the opponents at the Persian court, the
+object of each was to bring that court over to his
+own interest. Yet the domineering tone in which
+the Persians wished to dictate peace, had not the
+consequences that might have been expected;
+and although Sparta consented to her confederates
+remaining neutral, she would not forego her
+claims on Messene. The establishment of a navy
+would have been of more important consequences
+to Thebes than this alliance, had not all these
+plans, together with the greatness of Thebes, been
+<span class="sidenote">365.</span>
+swept away by the premature death of her two
+leading men.</p>
+
+<div class="sblockquot"><p>Last expedition of Pelopidas against Alexander of Pher&aelig;, in
+which he himself falls, 364.&mdash;New irruption into Peloponnesus
+caused by the commotions in Arcadia.&mdash;Battle of Mantinea, and
+death of Epaminondas, June 27, 362.&mdash;General peace in Greece
+mediated by the Persians; Sparta does not assent to it on account<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_203" id="Page_203">[Pg 203]</a></span>
+of Messene, but sends Agesilaus to Egypt, there to support the
+insurrection of Tachos.</p></div>
+
+<div class="sidenote">State of
+Greece after
+the war
+between
+Thebes and
+Sparta.</div>
+
+<p>37. The result of this bloody struggle for the
+supremacy of Greece was, that neither Sparta
+nor Thebes obtained it; the former of these states
+being weakened by the loss of Messene, the latter
+by the loss of its leaders, and both strained by
+their violent exertions. The situation of Greece
+after this war seems to have been thus far
+changed, that no state had the predominance; an
+independence proceeding from enervation. Even
+Athens, who by means of her naval power still
+preserved her influence over the cities on the
+coast and in the islands, lost the greater part in
+the war of the allies, together with three of her
+most celebrated leaders, Chabrias, Timotheus,
+and Iphicrates, whose places were ill supplied by
+Chares.</p>
+
+<div class="sblockquot"><p>Confederacy of the islands Cos, Rhodes, and Chios, and the
+city of Byzantium; their secession from Athens, 358.&mdash;Unsuccessful
+siege of Chios, before which Chabrias falls, 358; of Byzantium,
+357. Athens suffers a still greater injury from the
+cabals of Chares against his colleagues Timotheus and Iphicrates,
+and from her imprudent participation in the insurrection of Artabazus,
+356. The threats of Artaxerxes III. force Athens to make
+a peace, in which she is obliged to acknowledge the freedom of
+her confederates.</p></div>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Sacred war.<br />
+356&mdash;346.</div>
+
+<p>38. At the very time when the growing power
+of Macedonia under Philip ought to have united
+all the Grecian states, had such an union been
+within the range of possibility, Greece plunged
+into another civil war of ten years' duration, which
+is known by the name of the sacred or Phocian
+war. The Amphictyonic assembly, whose duty
+it was to maintain peace, and whose influence had<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_204" id="Page_204">[Pg 204]</a></span>
+been in the present circumstances reinstated,
+abused its authority by kindling discord. The
+hatred of the Thebans, who sought for new opportunities
+of quarrel with Sparta, and the ambition
+of the Phocian Philomelus, were the real
+causes which led to the war, which the policy
+of Philip knew how to prolong till the precise
+moment favourable to his own particular views
+arrived. The treasures of Delphi circulating in
+Greece, were as injurious to the country as the
+ravages which it underwent. A war springing out
+of private passions, fostered by bribes and subsidiary
+troops, and terminated by the interference
+of foreign powers, was exactly what was requisite
+for annihilating the scanty remains of morality and
+patriotism still existing in Greece.</p>
+
+<div class="sblockquot"><p>Sentence of the Amphictyons against Sparta on account of the
+former surprise of the citadel of Thebes by Ph&#339;bidas; and
+against Phocis on account of the tillage of the sacred lands of
+Delphi, 357.&mdash;Philomelus is elected general of the Phocians; the
+rifling of the treasury of Delphi enables him to take into his pay
+Athenian and other auxiliaries, and to carry war against the
+Thebans and their confederates, the Locrians, etc. under pretence
+of their being the executors of the Amphictyonic decrees.
+Philomelus having fallen, 353, is succeeded by his brother Onomarchus,
+more skilful than himself in intrigue and war: but
+Onomarchus having fallen, 352, in the battle with Philip in
+Thessaly, is followed by Phayllus. Philip even thus early endeavours
+to push through Thermopyl&aelig; into Greece, but is repelled
+by the Athenians. He executes this plan after his peace
+with Athens, 347, and having procured the expulsion of the
+Phocians from the Amphictyonic council, gets their place and
+right of vote to be transferred to himself.</p></div>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Philip's advance
+into
+Greece.<br />
+338.<br />
+336.</div>
+
+<p>39. From the very first advance of Philip, the
+fate of Greece could scarcely afford matter for
+doubt; although the eloquence of Demosthenes
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_205" id="Page_205">[Pg 205]</a></span>warded it off until the second invasion, caused by
+the Amphictyonic sentence passed on the Locrians.
+(See below, book iv. parag. 15.) The
+battle of Ch&aelig;ronea laid the foundation of Macedonia's
+complete ascendancy over the Grecian
+republics: by the appointment of Philip to be
+generalissimo of Greece in the Persian war, that
+ascendancy was, as it were, formally acknowledged;
+nor did it end with the assassination of
+that prince.</p>
+
+
+<hr style="width: 100%;" />
+<h1><a name="FOURTH_BOOK" id="FOURTH_BOOK"></a>FOURTH BOOK.</h1>
+
+<h3>HISTORY OF THE MACEDONIAN MONARCHY.</h3>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 100%;" />
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_206" id="Page_206">[Pg 206]</a></span></p>
+<h2>FIRST PERIOD.</h2>
+
+<p class="cblockquot"><i>From its origin to the death of Alexander the Great. B. C.</i> 800&mdash;323.</p>
+
+
+<div class="sblockquot"><p>Sources. We have no historian who wrote, particularly, on
+Macedonia, before the time of Alexander. The facts relative to
+the earlier history previous to Philip are collected from Diodorus,
+Justin, Thucydides, and Arrian; from Diodorus more especially.
+In consequence of the loss of the other historians, Diodorus
+is the chief authority for the history of Philip; the
+speeches of Demosthenes and &AElig;schines must likewise be consulted,
+but not made use of without caution and judicious historical
+criticism. With respect to Alexander the Great, as so many
+writers on his reign have been destroyed by time, Arrian must
+now be considered as the chief authority, on account of the care
+he has shown in the selection of his authorities, conjointly with
+the seventeenth book of Diodorus. Plutarch's biography contains
+several valuable additional facts; and even the superficial Curtius
+might furnish us with abundance of information, did his accounts
+offer higher claims to our credit.</p></div>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Origin of
+the kingdom:
+about<br />
+B. C. 813.</div>
+
+<p>1. An Hellenic colony from Argos, headed by
+the Temenid&aelig;, a branch of the Heraclid&aelig;, settled
+in Emathia, and laid the feeble foundation of the
+Macedonian empire, which was in time to rise to
+such power. Not only did the settlers keep their
+footing in the country, in spite of the aboriginal
+inhabitants; but their princes gradually extended
+their territory, by subjecting or expelling several
+of the neighbouring tribes. Their earlier history,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_207" id="Page_207">[Pg 207]</a></span>
+not excepting even the names of their kings, is
+buried in obscurity till the time of the Persian
+invasions.</p>
+
+<div class="sblockquot"><p>The three first Macedonian kings, Caranus said to have ruled
+twenty-eight years, C&#339;nus twenty-three, Tyrmas forty-five,
+were unknown to Herodotus, who names as founder of the Macedonian
+monarchy, Perdiccas, 729&mdash;678. Of this prince and
+his successors Arg&aelig;us, <i>d.</i> 640, Philip I. <i>d.</i> 602, &AElig;ropus, <i>d.</i> 576,
+and Alcetas, <i>d.</i> 547, nothing more is known than that they waged
+war, with various success against the neighbouring Pierians and
+Illyrians, who had their own kings.</p></div>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Situation at
+the time of
+the Persian
+invasion.<br />
+479.</div>
+
+
+<p>2.  When the Persians commenced their incursions
+into Europe, Macedonia, by its situation,
+must have been one of the first countries they
+ravaged. Accordingly, as early as the reign of
+Darius Hystaspis, the Macedonian kings were
+tributary to the Persians; and were indebted for
+their deliverance from that yoke, not to their own
+valour, but to the victories of the Greeks. The
+battle of Plat&aelig;&aelig; restored independence to the
+Macedonian kingdom, although that independence
+was not formally acknowledged by the Persians.</p>
+
+<div class="sblockquot"><p>Immediately after the Scythian campaign, 513, Amyntas
+(<i>d.</i> 498,) became tributary to the Persians; his son and successor,
+Alexander, (<i>d.</i> 454,) was in the same state of subjection, and
+was even compelled to join the expedition of Xerxes.</p></div>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Situation
+after the retreat
+of the
+Persians.<br />
+
+<i>d.</i> 424.</div>
+
+<p>3. But the expulsion of the Persians still left
+Macedonia exposed to the attacks of other formidable
+neighbours; on one side there was the
+Thracians, among whom, under Sitalces, and his
+successor, Seuthes, arose the powerful kingdom
+of the Odrys&aelig;; on the other, the Athenians,
+who, availing themselves of their extensive navy,
+reduced to subjection the Grecian settlements<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_208" id="Page_208">[Pg 208]</a></span>
+on the Macedonian shores. Harassing as these
+neighbours were to the Macedonian kings, they
+proved to be the very instruments by which Macedonia
+became so early and so deeply involved
+in the affairs of Greece.</p>
+
+<div class="sblockquot"><p>Commencement of the differences with Athens, under the
+reign of Perdiccas II, 454&mdash;413; Athens having supported his
+brother Philip against him.&mdash;Defection of Potid&aelig;a, and fortification
+of Olynthus, into which the Greeks from Chalcis and other
+cities are transplanted, 432. Potid&aelig;a being forced to surrender
+to Athens, 431, Perdiccas contrives to play so skilful a part in
+the Peloponnesian war just now commencing, that he outwits the
+Athenians, parrying the attack of Sitalces by a marriage of his
+sister with Seuthes, the heir to that prince, 429. His alliance
+with Sparta, 424, is very detrimental to the Athenians, Brasidas
+wresting Amphipolis from their hands; nevertheless Perdiccas
+chooses rather to conclude a peace with Athens, 423, than to
+throw himself entirely into the arms of his new allies.</p></div>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Archelaus
+lays the
+foundation
+of Macedonia,
+413&mdash;400.</div>
+
+<p>4. Archelaus, the successor of Perdiccas, introduced
+agriculture and civilization among the
+Macedonians, who were never, however, recognized
+by the Hellenes as their legitimate brethren:
+highways and military roads were constructed;
+forts were erected; and the court became
+the seat of literature. In these days the
+Macedonian kingdom seems to have comprised
+Emathia, Mygdonia, and Pelagonia, to which
+may be added some of the neighbouring tribes,
+who, although governed by their own kings, were
+tributary. The power of the kings was insignificant
+when unaided by the nobles, among whom,
+as was the case with all the hereditary princes of
+Greece, they merely held the right of precedence.
+How difficult was it, even in Alexander's time, to
+erase from the minds of the Macedonian nobility
+the recollection of their former importance!<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_209" id="Page_209">[Pg 209]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>5. The murder of Archelaus was followed by a
+stormy period, wrapped in obscurity: the unsettled
+state of the succession raised up many
+pretenders to the throne, each of whom easily
+found the means of supporting his claims, either
+in some of the neighbouring tribes, or in one of
+the Grecian republics.</p>
+
+<div class="sblockquot"><p>&AElig;ropus, as guardian to the young king Orestes, usurps the
+supreme power, B. C. 400&mdash;394. After his death, and the murder
+of his son Pausanias, 393, the throne was seized by Amyntas
+II. son of Philip, and brother to Perdiccas II. who was
+nevertheless unable to maintain his power until he had gained
+a victory over Arg&aelig;us, the brother of Pausanias, who was backed
+by the Illyrians, 390&mdash;369. The war with Olynthus, 383&mdash;380,
+could not be brought to a successful conclusion until he had
+formed an alliance with Sparta.</p></div>
+
+<p>6.  The three sons of Amyntas II, Alexander,
+Perdiccas, and Philip, successively ascended the
+throne after the death of their father; but so violent
+were the commotions during the reigns of
+the two former, that the future existence of Macedonia
+as a kingdom might have been regarded
+as problematical: it is certain that they were
+obliged to submit to the payment of tribute to
+the Illyrians.</p>
+
+<div class="sblockquot"><p>Alexander, in opposition to his rival, Ptolemy of Alorus,
+placed on the throne by Pelopidas, sends his youngest brother
+Philip as hostage to Thebes: in the same year he is deposed by
+Ptolemy, 368. Reign of Ptolemy, 388&mdash;365, with the stipulation
+imposed, 367, by Pelopidas, that he shall only hold the
+sceptre in reserve for the two younger brothers. Murder of
+Ptolemy, 365, by Perdiccas III. who is nearly overwhelmed
+by Pausanias, another and earlier pretender to the crown; he is
+at last firmly seated on the throne by the Athenians, under Iphicrates,
+364. But as early as 360 he falls in the war against the
+Illyrians, leaving behind him a son, Amyntas, still a minor, and
+a younger brother Philip, who escapes from Thebes in order to
+gain possession of the throne.</p></div><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_210" id="Page_210">[Pg 210]</a></span></p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Philip,
+360&mdash;336.</div>
+
+<p>7. The reign of Philip, which lasted twenty-four
+years, is one of the most instructive and interesting
+in the whole range of history, as well on
+account of the prudence he displayed, as for the
+manner in which his plans were arranged and
+executed. Though it may be difficult to trace in
+his morals the pupil of Epaminondas, yet it is impossible
+to view without feelings of astonishment
+the brilliant career of a man, who, under the almost
+hopeless circumstances in which he commenced
+his course, never lost his firmness of
+mind, and who in the highest prosperity preserved
+his coolness of reflection.</p>
+
+<div class="sblockquot"><p>The history of Philip, even in his own days, was distorted to
+his disadvantage by orators and historians. Demosthenes could
+not, Theopompus would not, be impartial; and the information
+contained in Diodorus and Justin is mostly derived from the
+work of the latter.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Olivier</span>, <i>Histoire de Philippe, roi de Mac&eacute;doine</i>. Paris,
+1740, 2 vols. 8vo. A defence of Philip.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">De Bury</span>, <i>Histoire de Philippe, et d'Alexandre le grand</i>.
+Paris, 1760, 4to. A very mean performance.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Th. Leland</span>, <i>The History of the Life and Reign of Philip
+king of Macedon</i>. London, 1761, 4to. Dry, but exhibiting much
+reading and strict impartiality.</p>
+
+<p>In <span class="smcap">Mitford</span>, <i>History of Greece</i>, vol. iv, Philip has found his
+most zealous panegyrist and defender. It would seem that, even
+in the present day, it is impossible to write an impartial history
+of this monarch.</p></div>
+
+<p>8. Melancholy posture of the Macedonian affairs
+at the beginning of Philip's reign. Besides
+victorious foes abroad, there were at home two
+pretenders to the throne, Arg&aelig;us, backed by
+Athens, Pausanias, supported by Thrace; and
+Philip himself, at first, was merely regent, and
+not king. In the two first years, however, every<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_211" id="Page_211">[Pg 211]</a></span>
+thing was changed, and Macedonia recovered her
+independence. The newly-created phalanx ensured
+victory over the barbarians; recourse was
+had to other means than force for success against
+the suspiciousness of Athens and the neighbouring
+Greek settlements, particularly against the
+powerful Olynthus. It is in the conduct of these
+affairs that the peculiar sagacity of Philip is displayed.</p>
+
+<div class="sblockquot"><p>After the defeat of Arg&aelig;us, peace is purchased from Athens
+by a momentary recognition of the freedom of Amphipolis, 360.&mdash;Removal
+of Pausanias by means of an accommodation with
+Thrace.&mdash;By the conquest of the P&aelig;onians and Illyrians, 359,
+the boundaries of Macedonia are extended to Thrace, and westward
+to the lake Lychnitis.&mdash;As early as 360 Philip was proclaimed
+king.</p></div>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Policy of
+Philip:</div>
+
+<p>9. Development of Philip's further plans of
+aggrandizement.&mdash;By the gradual subjection of
+the Macedo-Greek cities, he proposed, not only
+to make himself sole master in Macedonia, but
+also to remove the Athenians from his domain.&mdash;The
+first object of his policy against Greece was
+to get himself acknowledged as a Hellen, and Macedonia
+as a member of the Hellenic league.
+Hence the subsequent tutelage in which Macedonia
+held Greece was not converted into a
+formal subjection, a proceeding which would have
+savoured too much of barbarian origin.&mdash;The execution
+of all these plans was facilitated by the
+possession of the Thracian gold mines, which enabled
+Philip to create finances as well as the
+phalanx.</p>
+
+<div class="sblockquot"><p>Capture of Amphipolis, 358; in the mean while Athens is
+amused with promises, and Olynthus with the momentary cession
+of Potid&aelig;a, which had likewise been captured: this event is followed
+by the conquest of the mountainous districts, abounding in<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_212" id="Page_212">[Pg 212]</a></span>
+gold, which extend from the Nestus to the Strymon, and furnished
+an annual income of nearly 1,000 talents.</p></div>
+
+<div class="sidenote">possesses
+himself of
+Thessaly:</div>
+
+<p>10. The interference of Philip in the affairs of
+Thessaly dates from the year 357; the possession
+of that country was an object equally important
+for the furtherance of his views upon Greece, as
+for the improvement of his finances. He first
+stepped forth as the deliverer of Thessaly, and
+ended in making it a province of Macedonia.</p>
+
+<div class="sblockquot"><p>Expulsion of the tyrants from Pher&aelig;, at the request of the
+Aleuad&aelig;, 356; the tyrants, however, receive support in the sacred
+war from the Phocians under Onomarchus. The final defeat
+of Onomarchus, 352, makes Philip master of Thessaly; he places
+Macedonian garrisons in the three chief places, and thus supports
+his authority in the country until he is pleased to make it entirely
+a Macedonian province, 344.</p></div>
+
+<div class="sidenote">takes advantage
+of
+the sacred
+war:</div>
+
+<p>11. The protraction of the sacred war in
+Greece furnished Philip with an excellent opportunity
+of promoting his views upon that country;
+although his first attempt at an irruption, too
+precipitately undertaken, was frustrated by the
+Athenians. The capture of Olynthus, notwithstanding
+the assistance afforded it by the Athenians,
+after a season of apparent inaction, insured
+the safety of the frontiers in his rear; and by a
+master stroke of policy, almost at the very moment
+in which he was driving the Athenians out
+of Eub&#339;a, he found means to enter with them
+into negotiations, which, after repeated embassies,
+were closed by a peace, opening to him the
+way through Thermopyl&aelig;, and enabling him to
+raise a party favourable to himself within the very
+walls of Athens.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">invades
+Greece:</div>
+
+<p>12. First descent of Philip into Greece, and
+termination of the sacred war by reducing the
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_213" id="Page_213">[Pg 213]</a></span>
+Phocians. The place which he now obtained in
+the Amphictyonic council, had been the height
+of his wishes; and the humility of Sparta proved
+how firmly his ascendancy over Greece was already
+established.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">fosters a
+party in
+Greece;</div>
+
+<p>13.  Brief view of the state of Greece, and more
+particularly of Athens, after the sacred war; description
+of the means by which Philip succeeded
+in creating and supporting parties favourable to
+his own interests in the Grecian states. Bribery
+was not his only instrument; what he gave he
+borrowed from others; the main feature of his
+policy was, that he seldom or ever recurred to the
+same means. Scheming and consistent even in
+his drunken revels, he hardly ever appears under
+the same form.</p>
+
+<div class="sblockquot"><p>Dreadful consequences to the morals of the Greeks, resulting
+from the spirit of party, the decline of religion, and the vast increase
+in the circulating medium, produced by the treasures of
+Delphi and Macedonia.&mdash;Estimate of the power of Athens during
+the period of Demosthenes and Phocion. It seems that, unfortunately,
+the eloquence and political acuteness of the former
+was not accompanied with sufficient talents for negotiation; the
+latter, perhaps, did not place confidence enough in his country,
+while Demosthenes placed too much. In spite of public indolence
+and effeminacy, Athens was still enabled to support her
+rank as a maritime power, the navy of Philip not being equal to
+hers.</p>
+
+<p>&#8224; <span class="smcap">A. G. Becker</span>, <i>Demosthenes as a Statesman and an Orator</i>.
+An historico-critical introduction to his works: 1815. A very
+useful work, both as a history and as an introduction to the political
+orations of Demosthenes.</p></div>
+
+<div class="sidenote">is thwarted
+by Phocion;</div>
+
+<p>14.  New conquests of Philip in Illyria and
+Thrace. The Adriatic sea and the Danube appear
+to have been the boundaries of his empire
+on this side. But the views of the Macedonian<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_214" id="Page_214">[Pg 214]</a></span>
+king were directed less against the Thracians,
+than against the Grecian settlements on the Hellespont;
+and the attack of the Athenian Diopithes
+furnished him a pretext for making war
+against them. The siege, however, of Perinthus
+and Byzantium, was frustrated by Phocion, to the
+great vexation of Philip; an event which aroused
+the Athenians, and even the Persians, from their
+lethargy.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">but obtains
+the command
+in the
+second sacred
+war;</div>
+
+<p>15. Policy of Philip after this check.&mdash;At the
+very time that, engaged in a war against the barbarians
+on the Danube, he appears to have wholly
+lost sight of the affairs of Greece, his agents redouble
+their activity. &AElig;schines, richly paid for
+his services, proposes in the Amphictyonic council,
+that, to punish the sacrilegious insults of the
+Locrians to the Delphian oracle, he should be
+elected leader of the Greeks in this new sacred
+war. Following his usual maxim, Philip suffers
+himself to be entreated.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">and falls
+upon
+Greece.</div>
+
+<p>16. Second expedition of Philip into Greece.
+His appropriation of the important frontier town
+of Elatea soon showed that, for this time at least,
+he was not contending merely for the honour of
+Apollo.&mdash;Alliance between Athens and Thebes
+brought about by Demosthenes.&mdash;But the defeat
+of Ch&aelig;ronea in the same year decided the dependence
+of Greece. Philip now found it easy to
+play the magnanimous character towards Athens.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Philip's
+designs
+against
+Persia.</div>
+
+<p>17. Preparations for the execution of his plan
+against Persia, not as his own undertaking, but as
+a national war of the Hellenes against the barbarians.
+Thus, while Philip, by obtaining from the
+Amphictyons the appointment of generalissimo<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_215" id="Page_215">[Pg 215]</a></span>
+of Greece against the Persians, secured in an <i>honourable</i>
+manner the dependence of the country,
+the splendour of the expedition flattered the nation
+at whose expense it was to be conducted.
+It is a question, indeed, whether Philip's own private
+views extended much further!</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Internal
+state of
+Macedonia
+under Philip.</div>
+
+<p>18. The internal government of Macedonia,
+under so skilful and successful a conqueror, must
+necessarily have been absolute. No pretender
+would dare to rise up against such a ruler, and
+the body guard (&#948;&#959;&#961;&#965;&#966;&#972;&#961;&#959;&#953;) established by him at the
+beginning of his reign, and taken from the Macedonian
+nobility, contributed much to keep up a
+proper understanding between the prince and the
+nobles. The court became a military staff, while
+the people, from a nation of herdsmen, was converted
+into a nation of warriors.&mdash;Philip was unfortunate
+only in his own family; but the blame
+is not to be attributed to him if he could not agree
+with Olympias.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Philip murdered,
+336.</div>
+
+<p>19. Philip murdered by Pausanias at &AElig;g&aelig;,
+probably at the instigation of the Persians, while
+celebrating the marriage of his daughter.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Alexander:
+336&mdash;323.</div>
+
+<p>20. The reign of <span class="smcap">Alexander</span> the <span class="smcap">Great</span>, in
+the eyes of the historical inquirer, derives its
+great interest, not only from the extent, but
+from the permanence, of the revolution which he
+effected in the world. To appreciate properly
+the character of this prince, who died just as he
+was about to carry his mighty projects into execution,
+is no easy task; but it is totally repugnant
+to common sense to suppose that the pupil
+of Aristotle was nothing more than a wild and
+reckless conqueror, unguided by any plan.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_216" id="Page_216">[Pg 216]</a></span></p>
+
+<div class="sblockquot"><p><span class="smcap">St. Croix</span>, <i>Examen critique des anciens historiens d'Alexandre-le-grand</i>,
+2nd. edition, <i>consid&eacute;rablement augment&eacute;e</i>. Paris,
+1804, 4to. The new edition of this, which is the principal work
+on the history of Alexander, and important in more respects than
+one, contains more than the title implies, though by no means a
+strictly impartial estimate of that prince's character.</p></div>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Disturbances
+of the
+Macedonian
+court.</div>
+
+<p>21. Violent commotions at court, in the conquered
+countries, and in Greece, after the death of Philip.
+Great as his power appeared to be, the preservation
+of it depended entirely on the first display of
+character in his successor. Alexander showed
+himself worthy to inherit the sceptre by his victorious
+expedition against the Thracians; (to whom,
+and more especially to his alliance with the
+Agrians, he was afterwards indebted for his light
+horse;) and by the example which he exhibited
+to Greece in his treatment of Thebes.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Alexander,
+generalissimo
+of
+Greece.</div>
+
+<p>22. Appointment of Alexander in the assembly
+at Corinth to be generalissimo of the Greeks.
+Yet what his father would probably have turned
+to a very different account, he allowed to remain
+a mere nominal office.&mdash;Development of his plan
+of attack upon Persia.&mdash;The want of a navy, soon
+experienced by Alexander, would probably have
+frustrated his whole project, had not Memnon's
+counterplan of an inroad into Macedonia been
+thwarted by the celerity of the Macedonian king.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Battle of the
+Granicus.</div>
+
+<p>23. Passage over the Hellespont, and commencement
+of the war. The tranquillity of his
+kingdom and of Greece appeared to be secured,
+Antipater being left at the head of affairs.&mdash;The
+victory on the Granicus opens to Alexander a
+path into Asia Minor; but the death of Memnon,
+which soon after followed, was perhaps a greater
+advantage than a victory.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_217" id="Page_217">[Pg 217]</a></span></p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Battle of
+Issus.<br />
+333.<br />
+332.</div>
+
+
+<p>24. The victory of Issus, gained over Darius in
+person, appears to have given Alexander the first
+idea of completely overturning the Persian throne,
+as was proved by the rejection of Darius's offers
+of peace. When indeed have not the plans of
+conquerors been dependent on the course of
+events? Yet Alexander must have been pretty
+certain of his future victory, since he permitted
+Darius to escape, while he sat down seven months
+before Tyre, in order to make himself master of
+the sea; and, after the conquest of Egypt without
+a battle, to which the possession of Tyre opened
+the way, to build Alexandria, and erect to himself
+a monument more lasting than all his victories.</p>
+
+<div class="sblockquot"><p>Although Alexandria perhaps in the end may have surpassed
+the expectations of the founder, yet the selection of the site, favourable
+only for navigation and commerce, shows that an eye
+was originally had to those objects.</p></div>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Decisive battle of
+<span class="smcap">Arbela</span>.<br />
+
+Oct. 1, 331.</div>
+
+<p>25. Invasion of Inner Asia, facilitated by the
+tacit submission of the ruling tribes, and by the
+state of cultivation in which the country was
+found. On the plains of Arbela the Macedonian
+tactics were completely triumphant.  It might
+now be said that the throne of Persia was overturned;
+and the unexpectedly easy capture of
+Babylon, Susa, and Persepolis, was surely of
+more importance for the moment than the pursuit
+of a flying king.</p>
+
+<div class="sblockquot"><p>Insurrection of the Greeks quelled by Antipater; Alexander
+himself falls in with the malcontent envoys to Darius in the interior
+of Asia.</p></div>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Persia wholly subjected.</div>
+
+<p>26. The subjection of the north-eastern provinces
+of the Persian empire would perhaps have
+been attended with the greatest difficulties, had
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_218" id="Page_218">[Pg 218]</a></span>not the astonishing activity of the conqueror
+crushed in their birth the schemes of the treacherous
+<span class="sidenote">330.</span>
+Bessus, who, after the assassination of Darius,
+wished to erect a separate kingdom in Bactria.
+The Jaxartes was now the northern boundary
+of the Macedonian monarchy, as it had hitherto
+<span class="sidenote">329.</span>
+been that of the Persian. Besides, the
+possession of the rich trading countries, Bactria
+and Sogdiana, was in itself an object of vast importance.</p>
+
+<div class="sblockquot"><p>During this expedition, the execution of Philotas and his father
+Parmenio took place, though both were, probably, guiltless
+of the conspiracy laid to their charge, 330. After the death of
+Darius, Alexander met with almost constant opposition in his
+own army: the majority of the troops fancying that that event
+precluded the necessity of any further exertions. Cautious as
+Alexander was in his treatment of the Macedonian nobles, we
+may discern, not however by the mere example of Clitus, how
+difficult they found it to banish from their memory the relations
+in which they had formerly stood to their kings.</p></div>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Alexander
+marches
+against
+India.<br />
+328&mdash;326.</div>
+
+<p>27. Alexander's expedition against India had,
+no doubt, its origin in that propensity to romantic
+enterprise which constituted a main feature in his
+character. Yet what could be more natural than
+that a close view of Persian splendour, the conquest
+of such wealthy countries, and the desire of
+prosecuting his vast commercial designs, should
+gradually mature in the mind of the Macedonian
+king the plan of subjecting a country which
+was represented as the golden land of Asia. To
+this likewise the scantiness of geographic information
+must have greatly contributed; if he pressed
+forward to the eastern seas, the circle of his dominion
+would, it was supposed, be complete.&mdash;It
+appears very certain that Alexander was destitute<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_219" id="Page_219">[Pg 219]</a></span>
+of a sufficient knowledge of the country when he
+entered upon this expedition.</p>
+
+<div class="sblockquot"><p>Alexander's invasion was directed against Northern India, or the
+Panjab; in those days a populous and highly cultivated country;
+now the seat of the Seiks and Mahrattas; and then, as now, inhabited
+by warlike races. He crossed the Indus at Taxila (Attock,)
+passed the Hydaspes (Behut or Chelum,) and, availing
+himself of the quarrels between the Indian princes, defeated the
+king, Porus. He then proceeded across the Acesines (Jenaub)
+and Hydraotes (Rauvee). The eastern verge reached in this expedition
+was the river Hyphasis (Beyah;) here, having already
+proceeded half way to the Ganges, the conqueror was, by a
+mutiny in his army, compelled to retreat. His return was
+through the country of the Malli (Multan) as far as the Hydaspes,
+when the majority of his troops took ship, and were floated
+along that stream into the Acesines, and from thence into the
+Indus, which they followed down to its mouth.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Rennel</span>, <i>Memoir of a Map of Hindostan</i>. London, 1793,
+(3d. edit.) and</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">St. Croix</span>, <i>Examen</i>, etc. (see p. 216.) furnish all the necessary
+historical and geographical explanations relative to the Persian
+and Indian campaigns of Alexander.</p></div>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Consequences
+of
+this expedition.</div>
+
+<p>28. Although Alexander was obliged to give up
+the project of conquering India, yet the connection
+between Europe and the east, which has
+continued from that time, was the work of his
+hands. While the communication on land was
+secured by the establishment of various settlements,
+the communication by sea was opened by
+the voyage of his admiral, Nearchus, from the
+Indus to the Euphrates. In the mean time
+Alexander himself proceeded to Persis and Babylon,
+across the desert, and the unexplored provinces
+of Gedrosia and Carmania.</p>
+
+<div class="sblockquot"><p>Nearchus's voyage (our knowledge of which is derived from his
+own journal, preserved in Arrian's <i>Indica</i>) lasted from the be<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_220" id="Page_220">[Pg 220]</a></span>ginning
+of October, 326, to the end of February, 325: nearly the
+same time was occupied in the almost incredible land march of
+the king.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Vincent</span>, <i>The Voyage of Nearchus from the Indus to the
+Euphrates</i>. London, 1797, 4to. Exhibiting the most learned
+researches, and illustrated with excellent charts.</p></div>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Alexander's
+policy in the
+conquered
+countries:</div>
+
+<p>29. After the abandonment of India, the whole
+circuit of Alexander's conquests was precisely
+that of the former Persian empire; his later projects
+were probably directed against Arabia alone.
+However easy it had been to make these conquests,
+it was a more difficult task to retain them;
+for Macedonia, exhausted by continual levies of
+men, could not furnish efficient garrisons. Alexander
+removed this difficulty, by protecting the
+conquered from oppression; by showing proper
+respect to their religion; by leaving the civil
+government in the hands of the native rulers who
+had hitherto possessed it; and by confiding to
+Macedonians the command only of the garrisons
+left in the chief places, and in the newly established
+colonies. To alter as little as possible in
+the internal organization of countries was his fundamental
+principle.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">his views.</div>
+
+<p>30. Simple as Alexander's plans were in the
+outset, their simplicity was more than compensated
+by the magnitude and importance of their results.
+Babylon was to be the capital of his empire, and
+consequently of the world. The union of the
+east and the west was to be brought about by
+the amalgamation of the dominant races by intermarriage,
+by education, and, more than all, by
+the ties of commerce, the importance of which
+much ruder conquerors, in Asia itself, soon learnt<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_221" id="Page_221">[Pg 221]</a></span>
+to appreciate. In nothing probably is the superiority
+of his genius more brilliantly displayed,
+than in his exemption from all national prejudice,
+particularly when we consider that none of his
+countrymen were in this respect to be compared
+with him. To refuse him this merit is impossible,
+whatever judgment we may form of his general
+character.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Death of
+Alexander,<br />
+April 21,
+323.</div>
+
+<p>31. Sudden death of Alexander at Babylon by
+fever; under the peculiar circumstances of the
+time, the greatest loss mankind could experience.
+From the Indus to the Nile the world lay in
+ruins; and where was now the architect to be
+found, that could gather up the scattered fragments
+and restore the edifice?</p>
+
+<div class="sblockquot"><p>Alexander's disorder may be easily accounted for by the hardships
+he had undergone, and the impure air to which he exposed
+himself in cleaning out the canals about Babylon. He certainly
+was not poisoned; and in the charge of immoderate drunkenness
+brought against him, we must take into account the manners of
+the Macedonian and Persian courts. Was it not the same with
+Peter the Great? In estimating his moral character we must
+bear in mind the natural vehemence of his passions, ever inclined
+to the most rapid transitions; nor should we forget the unavoidable
+influence of constant success upon mankind.</p></div>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 25%;" />
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_222" id="Page_222">[Pg 222]</a></span></p>
+
+<h2>SECOND PERIOD.</h2>
+
+<p class="cblockquot"><i>History of the Macedonian monarchy, from the death of
+Alexander the Great to the battle of Ipsus, B. C.</i>
+323&mdash;301.</p>
+
+
+<div class="sblockquot"><p>To enable the reader to take a general view, the history of the
+European events is resumed below, under the head of the history
+of Macedonia Proper.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Sources.</span> Diodorus, lib. xviii&mdash;xx. is the great authority
+for this portion of history. He compiled mostly, for this period,
+from a contemporary historian, Hieronymus of Cardia. He is
+followed by Plutarch in the Lives of Eumenes, Demetrius, and
+Phocion; and by Justin, lib. xiii, etc. Of Arrian's history of
+Alexander's successors, nothing unfortunately remains but a few
+fragments in Photius.</p>
+
+<p>&#8224; <span class="smcap">Mannert</span>, <i>History of Alexander's successors</i>. Nuremberg,
+1787. Composed with the usual judgment and learning of that
+author.</p></div>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Measures
+adopted at
+the death of
+Alexander.</div>
+
+<p>1. The very first measure adopted after the
+death of Alexander contained within itself the
+seeds of all the dire revolutions that afterwards
+ensued. Not only were the jealousy and ambition
+of the nobles aroused, but even the interference
+of the army was exhibited in the most
+terrific manner. Although the idea of the supremacy
+of the royal family was cast off only by
+degrees, yet the dreadfully disturbed state in
+which that family stood, rendered its fall unavoidable.</p>
+
+<div class="sblockquot"><p>State of the royal family at the death of Alexander. He left
+his wife Roxana pregnant, who at the end of three months
+brought into the world the rightful heir to the sceptre, Alexander;
+he left likewise an illegitimate son, Hercules; a bastard<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_223" id="Page_223">[Pg 223]</a></span>
+half-brother, Arrhid&aelig;us; his mother, the haughty and cruel
+Olympias, and a sister, Cleopatra, both widows; the artful Eurydice,
+(daughter to Cyane, one of Philip's sisters,) subsequently
+married to the king, Arrhid&aelig;us; and Thessalonica, Philip's
+daughter, afterwards united to Cassander of Macedonia.</p></div>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Arrhid&aelig;us and Alexander joint kings:<br />
+
+<span class="smcap">Perdiccas</span> regent.<br />
+
+<span class="smcap">Antipater</span> in Europe.</div>
+
+<p>2. The weak Arrhid&aelig;us, under the name of
+Philip, and the infant Alexander were at last
+proclaimed kings, the <i>regency</i> being placed in
+the hands of Perdiccas, Leonnatus, and Meleager;
+the last of whom was quickly cut off at the instigation
+of Perdiccas. Meanwhile Antipater, with
+whom Craterus had been joined as civil ruler, had
+the management of affairs in Europe.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Violent revolutions.</div>
+
+<p>3. The sequel of the history becomes naturally
+that of satraps, who fell out among themselves,
+all being ambitious to rule, and none willing to
+obey. Twenty-two years elapsed ere any massy
+edifice arose out of the ruins of the Macedonian
+monarchy. In few periods of history are the revolutions
+of affairs so violent, in few periods,
+therefore, is it so difficult to unravel the maze of
+events. For this purpose the most convenient
+division of the history is into <i>three</i> periods: the
+first extending to the death of Perdiccas, 321:
+the second to the death of Eumenes, 315: the
+third to the defeat and death of Antigonus at the
+battle of Ipsus, 301.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Division of
+the empire.<br />
+B. C. 323.</div>
+
+<p>4. First grant of the provinces made by Perdiccas.
+The vanity of this man seems to have induced
+him to select the office of regent, in order
+that no separate province might fall to his share;
+he placed his whole reliance on having the command
+of the royal army, although it had already
+given so many proofs of its determination to command
+rather than to obey.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_224" id="Page_224">[Pg 224]</a></span></p>
+
+<div class="sblockquot"><p>In this division Ptolemy son of Lagus received Egypt; Leonnatus,
+Mysia; Antigonus, Phrygia, Lycia, and Pamphylia; Lysymachus,
+Macedonian Thrace; Antipater and Craterus remained
+in possession of Macedonia.&mdash;The foreigner, Eumenes, would
+hardly have received Cappadocia, although yet to be conquered,
+had Perdiccas been able to dispense with his services. The remaining
+provinces either did not come under the new division, or
+else their governors are unworthy of notice.</p></div>
+
+<div class="sidenote">First acts of Perdiccas.</div>
+
+<p>5. The first acts of Perdiccas's government
+showed how little dependence he could place on
+the obedience of men who hitherto had been his
+colleagues. The general insurrection among the
+mercenaries who had been settled by Alexander
+<span class="sidenote">Insurrection in Upper Asia.</span>
+in Upper Asia, and now wished to return to their
+homes, was, no doubt, quelled by Python's destruction
+of the rebels; but it was not Python's
+fault that he did not make himself independent
+master of the scene of mutiny.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Disobedience of Antigonus and Leonnatus.</div>
+
+<p>6. Still more refractory was the behaviour of
+Leonnatus and Antigonus, when they received
+orders to put Eumenes in possession of his province.
+Antigonus was too haughty to obey; and
+Leonnatus preferred going over into Europe to
+marry Cleopatra; there, however, he almost immediately
+met with his death in the Lamian war.
+(See below, book iv. period iii. parag. 2.) Perdiccas,
+therefore, was himself obliged to undertake
+the expedition with the royal army; he succeeded
+<span class="sidenote">322.</span>
+by the defeat of Ariarathes.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Perdiccas
+wishes to
+marry Cleopatra,
+but is
+frustrated;</div>
+
+<p>7. Ambitious views of Perdiccas, who, in order
+to ascend the throne by a marriage with Cleopatra,
+repudiates Nic&aelig;a, the daughter of Antipater.
+Cleopatra actually came over to Asia;
+but Perdiccas, being obliged, at the request of
+the army, to marry Eurydice, Philip's niece, after<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_225" id="Page_225">[Pg 225]</a></span>
+the murder of her mother Cyane, to the king
+Arrhid&aelig;us, found her a troublesome rival and
+opponent in the government.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">seeks to ruin
+Antigonus
+and Ptolemy.</div>
+
+<p>8. Attempts of Perdiccas to overthrow Antigonus
+and Ptolemy, by accusing them before the
+army. Antigonus passes over to Antipater in
+Macedonia; and gives rise to the league between
+Antipater, Craterus, and Ptolemy, against Perdiccas
+and Eumenes.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">War between the two parties, 321.</div>
+
+<p>9. Commencement and termination of the first
+war. Perdiccas himself marches against Egypt,
+leaving his friend Eumenes to command in Asia
+Minor: meanwhile Antipater and Craterus fall
+upon Asia; the former advances towards Syria
+against Perdiccas; the latter is defeated and slain
+by Eumenes. Before the arrival, however, of
+Antipater, Perdiccas, after repeated and vain attempts
+to cross the Nile, falls a victim to the insurrection
+<span class="sidenote">320.</span>
+of his own troops.&mdash;Thus three of the
+principal personages, Perdiccas, Craterus, Leonnatus,
+were already removed from the theatre of
+action; and the victorious Eumenes, now master
+of Asia Minor, had to maintain, unaided, the
+struggle against the confederates.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">320&mdash;315.<br />
+
+<span class="smcap">Antipater</span> regent.<br />
+
+320.</div>
+
+<p>10. Second period, from the death of Perdiccas
+to that of Eumenes.&mdash;Python and Arrhid&aelig;us
+quickly resigning the regency, it is assumed by
+Antipater.&mdash;New division of the provinces at Trisparadisus
+in Syria. Seleucus receives Babylon;
+Antigonus is promised, besides his former possessions,
+all those of the outlawed Eumenes.</p>
+
+<p>11. War of Antigonus with Eumenes. The latter,
+defeated by treachery, shuts himself up in the
+mountain fastness of Nora, there to await more<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_226" id="Page_226">[Pg 226]</a></span>
+favourable times; and Antigonus remains master
+of all Asia Minor: in the mean time Ptolemy
+ventures to take possession of Syria and Ph&#339;nicia.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Antipater dies. 320.<br />
+
+<span class="smcap">Polysperchon</span> regent.<br />
+
+319.</div>
+
+<p>12. Death of the regent Antipater, in the same
+year, (320;) he bequeaths the regency to his friend,
+the aged Polysperchon, to the exclusion of his own
+son Cassander. Antigonus now begins to unfold
+his ambitious plans; he endeavours vainly to win
+over Eumenes, who deceives him in the negotiations,
+and seizes the opportunity of leaving his
+mountain fastness.</p>
+
+<p>13. Eumenes's plan to strengthen himself in
+Upper Asia; as he is on the way he receives
+tidings of his being appointed generalissimo of the
+royal troops. What better man could Polysperchon
+have selected for the office than he who in
+his conduct towards Antigonus exhibited so striking
+an example of attachment to the royal house?</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">318.</div>
+
+<p>14. Exertions of Eumenes to maintain himself
+in Lower Asia, ineffectual, the naval victory
+won by Antigonus over the royal fleet, commanded
+by Clitus, depriving him of the empire
+of the sea. He bursts into Upper Asia; where,
+in the spring, he unites with the satraps, who had
+<span class="sidenote">317.</span>
+taken arms against the powerful Seleucus of Babylon.</p>
+
+<p>15. Antigonus following up the royal general,
+Upper Asia becomes the theatre of war. Victorious
+as was at first the stand made by Eumenes,
+neither valour nor talent were of any avail against
+the insubordination of the royal troops, and the
+jealousy of the other commanders. Attacked in
+winter quarters by Antigonus, he was, after the
+battle, delivered into the hands of his enemy by
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_227" id="Page_227">[Pg 227]</a></span>the mutinous Argyraspid&aelig;, who had lost their
+<span class="sidenote">315.</span>
+baggage: he was put to death, and in him the
+king's family lost its only loyal supporter.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">317.<br />
+
+315.<br />
+
+315&mdash;301.</div>
+
+<p>16. Great changes had also taken place in the
+royal family. Her enemy Antipater having deceased,
+Olympias, invited by Polysperchon, who
+wished to strengthen himself against Cassander,
+had returned from Epirus, and put to death Arrhid&aelig;us
+together with his wife, Eurydice: in the
+year following she was besieged in Pydna by
+Cassander, and being obliged to surrender, was
+in her turn executed; meanwhile Cassander held
+Roxana and the young king in his own power.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Predominance of Antigonus.</div>
+
+
+<p>17. Third period, from the death of Eumenes
+to that of Antigonus.&mdash;The rout of Eumenes
+seemed to have established for ever the power of
+Antigonus in Asia; still animated with the fire of
+youth, though full of years, he saw himself revived
+in his son Demetrius, fond of boisterous
+revelry, but gallant and talented.&mdash;Even Seleucus
+<span class="sidenote">315.</span>
+thought it time to consult his safety by flying
+from Babylon into Egypt.</p>
+
+<p>18. Changes introduced by Antigonus into the
+upper provinces; return to Asia Minor, where his
+presence seemed indispensable, by reason of the
+aggrandizement of Ptolemy in Syria and Ph&#339;nicia,
+of the Macedonian Cassander in Europe,
+of Lysimachus in Mysia, and the Carian Cassander
+in Asia Minor.&mdash;He repossesses himself of
+Ph&#339;nicia, a country of the first importance for
+the construction of a fleet.</p>
+
+<div class="sblockquot"><p>Siege of Tyre, 314&mdash;313: it lasts fourteen months; a proof
+that the city was certainly not razed by Alexander.</p></div>
+
+<p>19. The fugitive Seleucus forms a league<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_228" id="Page_228">[Pg 228]</a></span>
+against Antigonus and Demetrius, between Ptolemy,
+the two Cassanders, and Lysimachus. But
+Antigonus frustrates their combination, himself
+driving out the Carian Cassander, and his son
+marching against Ptolemy.</p>
+
+<div class="sblockquot"><p>Victory won by Ptolemy over Demetrius at Gaza, 312; after
+which Seleucus marches back to Babylon, and, although subsequently
+followed up by Demetrius, permanently maintains his
+footing in Upper Asia.&mdash;On the other hand, Ptolemy, at the first
+approach of Antigonus with the main body, surrenders back Syria
+and Ph&#339;nicia, 312.</p></div>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Peace
+concluded,
+311.</div>
+
+<p>20. A general peace concluded between Antigonus
+and his enemies, Seleucus only excepted,
+from whom Upper Asia is to be again wrested.
+The first article, that each should retain what he
+had, demonstrates pretty evidently that the treaty
+was dictated solely by Antigonus; the second,
+that the Greek cities should be free, was pregnant
+with the seeds of a new war, ready to burst
+forth at every favourable opportunity; the third,
+that the young Alexander should be raised to the
+throne upon attaining his majority, was probably
+the death warrant of the hapless prince, who, that
+same year, together with his mother, was murdered
+by Cassander.&mdash;Shortly after, at the instigation
+of Antigonus, Cleopatra was put to death,
+in order that Ptolemy might be thwarted in his
+object, which depended on a matrimonial connection
+with that princess.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Disputes on
+the liberation
+of
+Greece.</div>
+
+<p>21. Even the execution of the articles must
+have given rise to hostilities; Ptolemy wishing
+to force Antigonus, and he, on his side, to compel
+Cassander, to withdraw the garrisons from the
+Grecian towns; a condition which neither party
+felt inclined to fulfil. Grecian freedom was now<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_229" id="Page_229">[Pg 229]</a></span>
+but a name; this, however, is not the only example
+history furnishes of political ideas making
+the greatest stir long after they have survived
+their own existence; for then they become excellent
+tools in the hands of artful designers.</p>
+
+<div class="sblockquot"><p>Expedition of Demetrius to liberate Athens, 308. The day
+when he announced freedom to the Athenians, must have been
+the happiest of his life! Few portions of history present such a
+scope for the contemplation of human nature as the twofold sojourn
+of Demetrius at Athens.</p></div>
+
+<p>22.  The growing power of Ptolemy on the
+sea, and the capture of Cyprus, determines Antigonus
+to an open rupture: he commands his son
+to drive Ptolemy out of the island.</p>
+
+<div class="sblockquot"><p>Naval victory of Demetrius off Cyprus, 307, perhaps the
+greatest and most bloody in history; nevertheless, as little decisive
+to the general question as are most naval battles. The assumption
+of the royal title, first by the conqueror, afterwards by
+the conquered, and ultimately by all the rest, was but a mere
+form now that the royal family was extirpated.</p></div>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Rhodes besieged.</div>
+
+<p>23.  The conquerors having failed in their project
+of subduing Egypt, made the wealthy republic
+of the Rhodians, as an ally of that country,
+the victim of their fury. But though in the renowned
+siege of their capital, Demetrius earned
+<span class="sidenote">305.</span>
+his title of Poliorcetes, the noble defence of the
+Rhodians afforded an illustrious example of the
+power of discipline in conjunction with well-guided
+patriotism. The invitation of the Athenians
+came seasonably to Demetrius; he raised
+the blockade and proceeded to complete the
+<span class="sidenote">304.</span>
+liberation of Greece, the necessity of which became
+every day more pressing.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Demetrius
+again visits
+Greece.</div>
+
+<p>24.  Second sojourn of Demetrius in Greece.
+The expulsion of Cassander's garrisons from the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_230" id="Page_230">[Pg 230]</a></span>
+Grecian cities, and more particularly from those
+in Peloponnesus; the appointment of Demetrius
+as generalissimo of Greece, for the conquest of
+Macedonia and Thrace; proved not only to Cassander,
+but also to the other princes, that their
+common interest loudly called upon them to resist
+the over-powerful Antigonus.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">League
+against
+Antigonus,
+302.</div>
+
+<p>25. Third grand league of Cassander, Ptolemy,
+and Seleucus, against Antigonus and his son;
+brought about by Cassander. How easily, even
+after the violent irruption of Lysimachus into
+Asia Minor, might Antigonus have dispersed the
+gathering storms, had not his presumption led
+him to place an overweening reliance on his own
+good fortune!</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Junction of
+Seleucus
+and Lysimachus,
+301.</div>
+
+<p>26. Junction of Seleucus of Babylon and Lysimachus,
+in Phrygia. Antigonus, to concentrate
+his forces, recalls his son, who had pushed
+on to the borders of Macedonia. The cautious
+Ptolemy, on the other hand, is afraid to invade
+Syria; and, in consequence of a false report, that
+Lysimachus had been defeated, retires full of
+alarm, into Egypt.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Battle of
+Ipsus,
+301.</div>
+
+<p>27. Great and decisive battle fought at Ipsus
+in Phrygia, in the spring of 301, which costs Antigonus
+his life, and annihilates his empire, as
+the two conquerors divide it between themselves,
+without taking any account of the absent confederates.
+Asia Minor, as far as mount Taurus,
+falls to the share of Lysimachus; and all the rest,
+with the exception of Cilicia, which is given to
+Plisthenes, Cassander's brother, is left to Seleucus.&mdash;Demetrius,
+by the help of his navy,
+escapes into Greece.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_231" id="Page_231">[Pg 231]</a></span></p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Domestic organization
+of the
+monarchy.</div>
+
+<p>28. The almost unbroken series of wars which
+had raged from the time of Alexander, must have
+precluded the possibility of much being effected
+with respect to domestic organization. It appears
+to have been nearly, if not wholly, military.
+Yet were the numerous devastations in some
+measure compensated by the erection of new cities,
+in which these princes vied with one another,
+impelled partly by vanity to immortalize
+their names, partly by policy to support their dominion,
+most of the new settlements being military
+colonies. Nevertheless this was but a sorry
+reparation for the manifold oppressions to which
+the natives were exposed by the practice of quartering
+the army upon them. The spread of the
+language and civilization of the Greeks deprived
+them of all national distinction; their own languages
+sinking into mere provincial dialects.
+Alexander's monarchy affords a striking example
+of the little that can be expected from a forced
+amalgamation of races, when the price of that
+amalgamation is the obliteration of national character
+in the individuals.</p>
+
+<div class="sblockquot"><p><span class="smcap">Heyne</span>, <i>Opum regni Macedonici auctarum, attritarum et
+eversarum, caus&aelig; probabiles; in Opusc.</i> t. iv. This collection
+contains several other treatises on Grecian and Macedonian history,
+which cannot be all separately enumerated.</p></div>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 25%;" />
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_232" id="Page_232">[Pg 232]</a></span></p>
+
+<h2>THIRD PERIOD.</h2>
+
+<p class="cblockquot"><i>History of the kingdoms and states which arose upon the
+dismemberment of the
+Macedonian Monarchy after the battle of Ipsus.</i></p>
+
+
+<p class="cblockquot">I. <span class="smcap">History of the Syrian empire under the Seleucid&aelig;</span>,
+B. C. 312&mdash;64.</p>
+
+<div class="sblockquot"><p><span class="smcap">Sources.</span> Neither for the history of the Syrian, nor for that
+of the Egyptian and Macedonian kingdoms, has any eminent
+writer been preserved. The fragments of the lost books of Diodorus,
+and, from the time that these kingdoms became allies of
+Rome, those of Polybius, several narratives of Livy, the Syriaca
+of Appian, and a few of Plutarch's Lives, are the principal authorities;
+too frequently we are obliged to rely upon the extracts
+of Justin. For the history of the Seleucid&aelig;, in consequence of
+the political connection between these princes and the Jews, the
+Antiquities of Josephus and the book of Maccabees become of
+importance. Besides these authorities, the many coins that have
+been preserved of these kings, afford much information respecting
+their genealogy and chronology.</p>
+
+<p>Of modern publications on the subject, the principal work is</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Vaillant</span>, <i>Imperium Seleucidarum sive historia regum Syri&aelig;</i>,
+1681, 4to. The enquiry is principally grounded on coins, as is
+the case with</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Froelich</span>, <i>Annales rerum et regum Syri&aelig;</i>. Vienn&aelig;, 1754.</p></div>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Seleucus
+Nicator,</div>
+
+<p>1. The kingdom of the Seleucid&aelig; was founded
+in Upper Asia by Seleucus Nicator. It was an
+extensive empire; but, being composed of various
+countries united only by conquest, it could possess
+but little internal stability except what it derived
+from the power of its rulers. That power fell
+with the founder; and the transfer of the seat of<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_233" id="Page_233">[Pg 233]</a></span>
+empire from the banks of the Tigris to Syria, entangled
+the Seleucid&aelig; in all the political disputes
+of the western world, and facilitated the insurrection
+of the upper provinces. The history of this
+kingdom divides itself into the periods before and
+after the war with Rome; although at the breaking
+out of this war the seeds of its decline and
+fall had already been sown.</p>
+
+<div class="sblockquot"><p>Seleucus received, 321, Babylon as his province; but after the
+defeat of Eumenes was obliged to take to flight, 315, in order to
+avoid subjection to the conqueror Antigonus. But his moderate
+government had rendered him so popular, that after the victory
+won by Ptolemy over Demetrius at Gaza, 312, he could safely
+venture to return with only a few adherents to Babylon. In this
+year commences the kingdom of the Seleucid&aelig;.</p></div>
+
+<div class="sidenote">founds the kingdom of the Seleucid&aelig;.<br />
+
+B. C. 313.<br />
+
+311.</div>
+
+<p>2. In the ten following years, and while Antigonus
+was busied in Asia Minor, Seleucus laid
+the foundation of his power over all Upper Asia,
+with a facility to which the detestation excited
+by the rigid government of Antigonus mainly contributed.
+After his victory over Nicanor of
+Media, all in that quarter declared spontaneously
+for him; and the unsuccessful expedition of Demetrius
+taught Antigonus himself, that it would
+no longer be prudent to assert his claims. As
+early as 307, Seleucus was in possession of all
+the countries between the Euphrates, Indus, and
+Oxus.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Campaign
+against
+India,<br />
+305.</div>
+
+<p>3. Great campaign in India undertaken by Seleucus
+against king Sandracottus. He penetrated
+as far as the Ganges, and the close alliance he
+formed with the Indian sovereign lasted a long
+time after, and was kept up by embassies. The
+great number of elephants which he brought back<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_234" id="Page_234">[Pg 234]</a></span>
+with him was not the only advantage accruing
+from this expedition; the intercourse with the
+east seems to have been permanently reestablished.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Seat of government
+removed
+into Syria,<br />
+301.</div>
+
+<p>4. By the battle of Ipsus Seleucus added to
+his dominions the greater part of the territories
+of Antigonus;&mdash;Syria, Cappadocia, Mesopotamia,
+and Armenia. Unfortunately Syria now became
+the head province, notwithstanding C&#339;le-Syria
+and Ph&#339;nicia were left in the hands of Ptolemy.
+How widely different would have been the course
+of historic events, had the seat of empire remained
+at Seleucia on the Tigris, and the Euphrates
+continued to be the western boundary of
+the Seleucid&aelig;!</p>
+
+<p>5. Reciprocal relations between the several
+kings, who now combine in forming a kind of political
+system, in which continued exertions to
+maintain a balance of power by alliance and marriage
+are plainly discernible.</p>
+
+<div class="sblockquot"><p>Connection between Seleucus and Demetrius Poliorcetes, by
+the marriage of the former with the beautiful Stratonice, daughter
+of the latter; made with the view of counterbalancing a
+similar connection between Ptolemy and Lysimachus; Lysimachus
+and his son Agathocles having united themselves with two
+daughters of Ptolemy.</p></div>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Long peace
+in Asia,<br />
+301&mdash;283.</div>
+
+<p>6. The eighteen years of tranquillity enjoyed
+by Asia after the battle of Ipsus, prove that Seleucus
+was one of the few followers of Alexander
+who had any genius for the arts of peace. He
+either founded or embellished a vast number of
+cities, the most important of which were the
+capital, Antiochia in Syria, and the two Seleucias,
+one on the Tigris, the other on the Orontes: the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_235" id="Page_235">[Pg 235]</a></span>
+flourishing prosperity of several of these places
+was the result of the restoration of eastern trade;
+new channels for which appear to have been
+opened at this period on the main streams of Asia,
+and more particularly on the Oxus.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">The empire
+divided into
+satrapies.</div>
+
+<p>7. The home department of his empire was
+organized into satrapies, of which there were
+seventy-two. But Alexander's maxim, "to give
+the satrapies to natives," was wholly forgotten by
+his followers; and the Seleucid&aelig; were not long
+before they experienced the evil consequences of
+swerving from that practice. Under such a prince
+as Seleucus scarce any kingdom could of itself
+fall to pieces; but the king himself paved the way
+for the dismemberment of his empire, by ceding
+<span class="sidenote">293.</span>
+Upper Asia, together with his consort Stratonice,
+to his son Antiochus; not, however, without the
+previous approbation of the army.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Conquest of Asia Minor.<br />
+282.<br />
+281.</div>
+
+<p>8. War with Lysimachus, kindled by ancient
+jealousy, and now fomented by family feuds. The
+battle of Curopedion cost Lysimachus his throne
+and his life; and Asia Minor became a part of the
+Syrian realm. But as Seleucus was crossing over
+to Europe, to add Macedonia to his dominions, he
+fell by the hand of an assassin, Ptolemy Ceraunus,
+and with him the splendour of his kingdom was
+extinguished.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Antiochus
+Soter,<br />
+281&mdash;262.</div>
+
+<p>9. The reign of his son, Antiochus I. surnamed
+Soter, seemed not unprosperous, inasmuch as the
+empire preserved its former extension; but in
+any state founded upon conquest, the failure of
+new attempts at an increase of territory is a sure
+token of approaching ruin; and this was the case
+here.&mdash;In such a state, the more immediately all<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_236" id="Page_236">[Pg 236]</a></span>
+depends on the person of the ruler, the more
+rapid and sensible are the effects of degeneration
+in a family like that of the Seleucid&aelig;.</p>
+
+<div class="sblockquot"><p>The late conquests of his father in Asia Minor entangled Antiochus
+in new wars; although, by the marriage of his stepdaughter
+Phila with Antigonus Gonatas, he ceded his claims on
+Macedonia, 277.&mdash;Fruitless attempt at subjecting Bithynia,
+279; the king of that country, Nicomedes, calls in the Gauls,
+who had invaded Macedonia, and gives them a settlement in Galatia,
+277, where they keep their footing, even after the victory
+won over them by Antiochus, 275, and by their participation in
+the wars, as mercenaries, become of importance.&mdash;The newly
+risen state of Pergamus likewise thrives, at the expense of the
+Syrian empire, in spite of Antiochus's attack, 263; and the inroad
+into Egypt, for the purpose of supporting the rebel Magas,
+is anticipated by Ptolemy II. 264.</p></div>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Antiochus Theus,<br />
+262&mdash;247.<br />
+Rise of the Parthian and Bactrian kingdoms.</div>
+
+<p>10. Antiochus II. surnamed &#920;&#949;&#972;&#962;. During his
+reign the sway was in the hands of women; and
+the diseased state of the interior of the empire
+became palpable by the secession of various eastern
+provinces, out of which arose the Parthian
+and Bactrian kingdoms. The boundless luxury
+of the court hurried on the decline of the ruling
+family; having once begun to sink, it could not
+without difficulty have retrieved its virtue independently
+of the matrimonial connections now
+constantly formed from within itself.</p>
+
+<div class="sblockquot"><p>Ascendancy of his stepsister and wife Laodice, and of his sister
+Apame, relict of Magas; the latter involves him in war with
+Ptolemy II. to vindicate her claims upon Cyrene; it ends by
+Antiochus's marriage with Berenice, daughter of Ptolemy, and
+his repudiation of Laodice, 260&mdash;252. Having, after the death
+of Ptolemy, 247, put away Berenice and taken back Laodice; the
+latter, distrusting his motives, cuts him off by poison.&mdash;The secession
+of Parthia happened in consequence of the expulsion of
+the Macedonian governor by Arsaces, founder of the house of the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_237" id="Page_237">[Pg 237]</a></span>
+Arsacid&aelig;: that of Bactria, on the other hand, was brought about
+by the Macedonian governor himself, Theodotus, who asserted
+his independence. (Concerning these two kingdoms, see below,
+book iv. period iii. Dist. Kingdoms iv. parag. 4, 5.) At first, the
+former of these kingdoms comprised but a part of Parthia; the
+latter only Bactria, and, perhaps, Sogdiana; both, however, were
+soon enlarged at the expense of the Seleucid&aelig;.</p></div>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Seleucus
+Callinicus,<br />
+247&mdash;227.</div>
+
+<p>11. Seleucus II. surnamed Callinicus. His
+reign, twenty years in duration, is one unbroken
+series of wars; in which the kingdom, already
+enfeebled, was subverted, partly by the struggle
+with Egypt, caused by the hatred between Laodice
+and Berenice; partly by the jealousy of his
+brother Antiochus Hierax; and partly by vain
+attempts at recovering the upper provinces.</p>
+
+<div class="sblockquot"><p>Assassination of Berenice, and most unfortunate war thereby
+kindled with Ptolemy Evergetes of Egypt, 247&mdash;244. The assistance
+which Seleucus obtains from his junior brother, Antiochus,
+governor of Asia Minor, induces Ptolemy to a truce, 243;
+but another war ensues between the two brothers, in which Antiochus,
+at first conqueror, is himself soon afterwards conquered
+in his turn, 243&mdash;240; and during this contest, Eumenes of
+Pergamus greatly increases his territory at the expense of Syria,
+242.&mdash;His first campaign against Arsaces, who had formed an
+alliance with the Bactrian king, ended in a defeat, 238, regarded
+by the Parthians as the real epoch of the foundation of their
+kingdom. In the second campaign, 236, he himself fell into the
+hands of the Parthians, and remained a prisoner till the day of his
+death, 227.</p></div>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Seleucus
+Ceraunus,
+227.<br />
+224.</div>
+
+<p>12.  His elder son Seleucus III. surnamed Ceraunus,
+on the point of taking the field against
+Attalus king of Pergamus, was removed by poison.
+But the dominion of the Seleucid&aelig; was
+reestablished in Asia Minor by his mother's fraternal
+nephew, Ach&aelig;us; and the crown ensured
+to the younger brother Antiochus, governor of
+Babylon.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_238" id="Page_238">[Pg 238]</a></span></p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Antiochus
+the Great,<br />
+224&mdash;187.</div>
+
+<p>13. The long reign of Antiochus III. surnamed
+the Great, is not only the most eventful in Syrian
+history, but likewise marks an epoch, by the
+relations now commencing between Syria and
+Rome.&mdash;To earn the title of <i>great</i> was a task of
+no extreme difficulty in such a line of princes.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Insurrection
+in Media
+and
+Persia.<br />
+218.<br />
+220.</div>
+
+<p>14. Great power of Hermias the Carian, who
+soon became so formidable to the young monarch,
+that he was obliged to rid himself of him by murder.
+The great stand made by the brothers,
+Molo and Alexander, satraps of Media and Persia,
+who probably had an understanding with
+Hermias, threatened the king with the loss of all
+the upper provinces: it ended in the defeat of
+Molo, Hermias being at last no longer able to
+hinder the king from marching against him in
+person.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">War with
+the Ptolemies:
+insurrection
+of Asia
+Minor, 220.<br />
+
+219.<br />
+
+217.<br />
+
+216.</div>
+
+<p>15. The intrigues of Hermias excited Ach&aelig;us
+to rebellion in Asia Minor: but Antiochus held
+more important, first to execute the plan he
+had previously traced, of ejecting the Ptolemies
+from their possessions in Syria; great as the success
+which at first attended this expedition, it
+was completely traversed by the battle of Raphia.&mdash;Combining
+with Attalus of Pergamus, Antiochus
+then defeated Ach&aelig;us, who, being shut up
+in the citadel of Sardes, was treacherously delivered
+into his hands.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Campaign
+in the upper
+provinces,<br />
+214&mdash;205.<br />
+
+210.<br />
+
+206.</div>
+
+<p>16. Great campaign of Antiochus in the upper
+provinces, in consequence of the seizure of Media
+by Arsaces III.&mdash;Hostilities ended in a compact,
+by which Antiochus agreed formerly to cede Parthia
+and Hyrcania; Arsaces, on his side, pledging
+himself to furnish assistance against Bactria.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_239" id="Page_239">[Pg 239]</a></span>&mdash;But
+the war with Bactria was also followed by a
+peace, leaving the king, Euthydemus, in possession
+of his crown and dominions.&mdash;The expedition
+now undertaken by Antiochus, in company with
+Demetrius of Bactriana, against India, extended,
+probably far up the country, and was attended
+with important consequences to Bactriana. (See
+below, history of Bactria, book iv. per. iii. Dist.
+Kingdoms iv. parag. 5.)</p>
+
+<p>The result of these great expeditions was the
+establishment of the supremacy of the Seleucid&aelig;
+in Upper Asia; those countries excepted which
+had been formally resigned.</p>
+
+<div class="sblockquot"><p>On his return through Arachotus and Carmania, where he wintered,
+he likewise undertook a naval expedition on the Persian
+gulf: here Gerrha, in possession of its freedom, appears a flourishing
+place of trade.</p></div>
+
+<div class="sidenote">War with Egypt,<br />203.</div>
+
+<p>17.  Resumption of the plan against Egypt,
+after the death of Ptolemy Philopator; and alliance
+with Philip of Macedonia, then carrying on
+war in Asia. Antiochus, it is true, attained his
+end in the expulsion of the Ptolemies from their
+possessions in Syria, C&#339;le-Syria, and Ph&#339;nicia;
+but then, his success brought him in contact with
+<span class="sidenote">203&mdash;198.</span>
+Rome, an event of decisive importance to himself
+and his successors.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">War with Rome.<br />
+197.<br />
+195.</div>
+
+<p>18.  Growth of the disputes between the king
+and Rome, proceeding from the conquest of the
+major part of Asia Minor and the Thracian Chersonesus;
+meanwhile Hannibal had taken refuge
+at the Syrian court, and the probability daily increased
+of a great league being formed against
+Rome, although that power, after conquering Carthage,
+201, and Macedonia, 197, had succeeded
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_240" id="Page_240">[Pg 240]</a></span>in winning over Greece even, by the magic spell
+of <i>freedom</i>. But Antiochus ruined all: instead of
+following Hannibal's advice, and attacking the
+Romans on their own ground, he stood on the defensive,
+and suffered himself to be invaded by
+them in Asia. His defeat at Magnesia near
+Mount Sipylus compelled him to accede to such
+<span class="sidenote">190.</span>
+conditions as Rome chose to dictate, and the
+power of the Syrian empire was for ever broken.</p>
+
+<div class="sblockquot"><p>For the history of this war, see below in the Roman history.
+Book v. per. ii. parag. 10, 11.</p></div>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Conditions
+of peace
+with Rome.</div>
+
+<p>19. The conditions of the peace were: 1st.
+That Antiochus should evacuate Asia Minor;
+(Asia cis Taurum.) 2nd. That he should pay
+down 15,000 talents; and to Eumenes of Pergamus
+four hundred. 3rd. That Hannibal and some
+others should be delivered up, and the king's
+younger son Antiochus, be given as an hostage.&mdash;The
+loss of the surrendered countries was a consequence
+of this peace, less disadvantageous to
+the Syrian kings, than the use made of it by the
+conquerors. By adding the greatest part of the
+ceded territories to those of the kings of Pergamus,
+the Romans raised up alongside of their enemy a
+rival, whom they might at their own will use as a
+political engine against him.&mdash;Rome took care
+likewise that the stipulated sum should be paid
+by instalments in twelve years, to the end that
+Syria might be kept in a permanent state of dependence.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Seleucus
+Philopator,<br />
+187&mdash;176.</div>
+
+<p>20. Murder of the king, 187. The reign of his
+elder son, Seleucus IV. surnamed Philopator, was
+a period of tranquillity; peace arising from weakness.&mdash;Though
+once he unsheathed his sword in<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_241" id="Page_241">[Pg 241]</a></span>
+defence of Pharnaces king of Pontus, against Eumenes,
+his fear of Rome soon compelled him to
+restore it to the scabbard. He exchanged his son
+for his brother at Rome; but fell a victim to the
+ambition of his minister Heliodorus.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Antiochus
+Epiphanes,<br />
+176&mdash;164.</div>
+
+<p>21. Antiochus IV. surnamed Epiphanes. Educated
+at Rome, he sought to combine the popular
+manners of a Roman with the ostentatious luxury
+of a Syrian; and thereby became an object of
+universal hatred and contempt. Our information
+respecting his history is too meagre to allow of our
+deciding whether most of the evil reported of him,
+in the Jewish accounts especially, may not be
+exaggerated. At any rate, among all his faults,
+we may still discern in him the germs of good
+qualities.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">His war
+against
+Egypt,<br />
+172&mdash;168:</div>
+
+<p>22. War with Egypt, springing out of Ptolemy
+Philometor's claims upon C&#339;le-Syria and Palestine.
+Obscure as many parts are in the history
+of this war yet it is evident that success attended
+the arms of Antiochus, and that he would have
+become master of Egypt had not Rome interfered.</p>
+
+<div class="sblockquot"><p>The pretext for war, on the Egyptian side, was, that those
+provinces had by Antiochus III. been promised as a dowry to
+Cleopatra, sister of Antiochus and the mother of Philometor:
+Antiochus Epiphanes, on his side, laid claim to the regency of
+Egypt, as uncle to the young king, who, however, was soon declared
+of age.&mdash;Opening of the war, and victory won by Antiochus
+at Pelusium, 171; in consequence of which Cyprus is betrayed
+into his hands.&mdash;Pelusium is fortified with a view of insuring
+the possession of C&#339;le-Syria, and of facilitating an irruption
+into Egypt.&mdash;Another victory, 170, and Egypt subdued as
+far as Alexandria. Philometor driven by a sedition out of Alexandria,
+where his brother Physcon is seated on the throne, falls
+into the hands of Antiochus, who concludes with him a most ad<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_242" id="Page_242">[Pg 242]</a></span>vantageous
+peace, and takes his part against Physcon. Hence
+siege is laid to Alexandria, 169; attended with no success.
+Upon the retreat of Antiochus, Philometor, concluding a separate
+peace with his brother, according to which both are to rule in
+conjunction, is admitted into Alexandria. Antiochus, bitterly
+enraged, now declares war against both brothers, who crave assistance
+from Rome: he once more penetrates into Egypt, 168;
+where the Roman ambassador, Popillius, assumes so lofty a tone,
+that the Syrian king is glad to purchase peace by the surrender
+of Cyprus and Pelusium.</p></div>
+
+<div class="sidenote">his intolerance:</div>
+
+<p>23. The religious intolerance of Epiphanes,
+exhibited in his wish to introduce the Grecian
+worship everywhere among the subjects of his
+empire, is the more remarkable, as such instances
+were less frequent in those times. This intolerance
+seems to have taken its rise, not only in the
+love of pomp, but in the cupidity of the king, who
+by that means was enabled to appropriate to himself
+the treasures of the temples, no longer inviolate,
+since the defeat of his father by Rome. The
+<span class="sidenote">167.</span>
+consequent sedition of the Jews, under the Maccabees,
+laid the foundation of the future independence
+of that people, and contributed not a
+little to weaken the Syrian kingdom.</p>
+
+<div class="sblockquot"><p>See below; History of the Jews, book iv. per. iv; Small
+states Jews, parag. 6. The deep decay of the finances of the
+Seleucid&aelig;, palpable from the latter days of Antiochus the Great,
+may be accounted for well enough, by the falling off of the revenue,
+accompanied with increased luxury in the kings, (an instance
+of which is furnished in the festivals celebrated by Antiochus
+Epiphanes at Daphne, 166,) and in the vast presents constantly
+sent to Rome, in addition to the tribute, for the purpose
+of keeping up a party there.</p></div>
+
+<div class="sidenote">his death,<br />
+165.</div>
+
+<p>24. His expedition also into Upper Asia, Persis
+especially, where great disorders were likewise
+excited by the introduction of the Grecian reli<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_243" id="Page_243">[Pg 243]</a></span>gion,
+had for its object not only the recovery of
+Armenia, but the rifling of the temples. He died,
+however, on his way to Babylon.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Antiochus Eupator.<br />
+
+164&mdash;161.</div>
+
+<p>25.  The real heir to the throne, Demetrius,
+being detained at Rome as an hostage, Epiphanes
+was first succeeded by his son Antiochus V. surnamed
+Eupator, a child nine years old. During
+his short reign, the quarrels of his guardians, the
+despotism of the Romans, the protracted war with
+the Jews, and the commencing conquests of the
+Parthians, reduced the kingdom of the Seleucid&aelig;
+to a powerless state.</p>
+
+<div class="sblockquot"><p>Contest between Lysias, regent in the absence of Epiphanes,
+and Philip, appointed by the king, previously to his death, as
+guardian of the young prince, terminated by the defeat of Philip,
+162.&mdash;Eupator's right acknowledged at Rome, in order that the
+guardianship might fall into the hands of the senate, who administer
+the government by means of a commission sent over into
+Syria, and completely deprive the king of all power of resistance.
+Octavius, head of the commission, put to death, probably at the
+instigation of Lysias.&mdash;While the Parthian king, Mithridates I.
+is prosecuting his conquests at the expense of the Syrian kingdom
+in Upper Asia, Demetrius secretly escapes out of Rome,
+takes possession of the throne, and causes Eupator and Lysias to
+be put to death, 161.</p></div>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Demetrius
+Soter,<br />
+161&mdash;150.</div>
+
+<p>26. Demetrius I. surnamed Soter.  He succeeded
+in getting himself acknowledged at Rome,
+on which all now depended. The attempts to
+extend his power, by supporting Orofernes, the
+pretender to the crown of Cappadocia, against
+the king Ariarathes, had their origin partly in
+family relations, but still more, as was the case
+with almost all political transactions of those
+times, in bribery. By this act he only drew upon
+himself the enmity of the kings of Egypt and
+Pergamus; as, moreover, he was hated by his sub<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_244" id="Page_244">[Pg 244]</a></span>jects
+on account of his intemperance, the chances
+of success were greatly in favour of the shameful
+<span class="sidenote">154.</span>
+usurpation of Alexander Balas, brought about
+by Heraclidas the expelled governor of Babylon,
+and backed by the yet more shameful conduct of
+the Roman senate, who acknowledged his title to
+the throne. The Syrian kingdom was now fallen
+so low, that both king and usurper were obliged
+to court the favour of the Jews under Jonathan,
+hitherto regarded as rebels. In the second battle
+Demetrius lost his life.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Alexander
+Balas,<br />
+150&mdash;145.</div>
+
+<p>27. The usurper Alexander Balas endeavoured
+to confirm his power by a marriage with Cleopatra,
+daughter of Ptolemy Philometor: but he
+soon evinced himself more unworthy even than
+his predecessor of wielding the sceptre. While
+he abandoned the government to his favourite,
+the detested Ammonius, the eldest remaining son
+of Demetrius succeeds not only in raising a party
+against the usurper, but even in prevailing on
+Philometor to side with himself, and give him in
+marriage Cleopatra, whom he takes away from
+Balas. The consequence of this alliance with
+<span class="sidenote">145.</span>
+Egypt was the defeat and downfal of Balas, although
+it cost Philometor his life.</p>
+
+<div class="sblockquot"><p>The account, that Philometor wished to conquer Syria for
+himself, must probably be understood as meaning that he had
+formed the design of recovering the ancient Egyptian possessions,
+C&#339;le-Syria and Ph&#339;nicia. Otherwise, why should he
+have given his daughter to a second pretender to the throne?</p></div>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Demetrius Nicator, 145&mdash;126.<br />
+
+145.<br />
+
+144.<br />
+
+143.<br />
+
+142.<br />
+
+140&mdash;130.</div>
+
+<p>28. Demetrius II. surnamed Nicator, 145&mdash;141,
+and for the second time, 130&mdash;126. The disbanding
+of his father's mercenaries having roused
+the indignation of the army, the cruelty of his
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_245" id="Page_245">[Pg 245]</a></span>favourite Lasthenes kindled a sedition in the capital,
+which could not be quenched without the
+assistance of the Jews, under their high priest and
+military chieftain, Jonathan.&mdash;While affairs were
+in this posture, Diodotus, subsequently called
+Tryphon, a dependent of Balas, excited an insurrection,
+by bringing forward Antiochus, the latter's
+son, and even, with the help of Jonathan,
+seating him on the throne of Antioch: soon after,
+Tryphon, having by treachery got Jonathan into
+his power, removed Antiochus by murder, and
+assumed the diadem himself.&mdash;Notwithstanding
+Demetrius kept his footing only in a part of Syria,
+he was enabled to obey the call of the Grecian
+colonists in Upper Asia, and support them against
+the Parthians, who had overrun the country as
+far as the Euphrates.&mdash;Although victorious in the
+commencement of the contest, he was soon after
+taken by the Parthians, and remained ten years
+a prisoner, though treated meanwhile as a king.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Antiochus of Sida.<br />
+139.<br />
+132.<br />
+131.
+</div>
+
+<p>29. In order to maintain herself against Tryphon,
+Cleopatra marries the younger, and better
+brother, Antiochus of Sida, (Sidetes); he being
+at first in alliance with the Jews,&mdash;who, however,
+were soon after subdued&mdash;defeats and overthrows
+Tryphon. Being now lord and master of Syria,
+he undertakes a campaign against the Parthians;
+at the commencement, befriended by the subjects
+of the Parthians, he is successful, but soon afterwards
+is attacked in winter quarters by those
+very friends, and cut to pieces, together with all
+his army.</p>
+
+<div class="sblockquot"><p>If the accounts of the wanton licentiousness of his army are
+not exaggerations, they furnish the clearest proof of the military<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_246" id="Page_246">[Pg 246]</a></span>
+despotism of those times. By continued pillage and extortion,
+the wealth of the country had been collected in the hands of the
+soldiers; and the condition of Syria must have been pretty nearly
+the same as that of Egypt under the Mamluk sultans.</p></div>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Demetrius Nicator restored,<br />
+130&mdash;126.<br />
+126.</div>
+
+<p>30. Meanwhile Demetrius II. having escaped
+from prison, again seated himself on the throne.
+But being now still more overbearing than before,
+and meddling in the Egyptian affairs, Ptolemy
+Physcon set up against him a rival in the
+person of Alexander Zebinas a pretended son of
+Alexander Balas; by him he was defeated and
+slain.</p>
+
+<div class="sblockquot"><p>The Parthian king Phraates II. had, at first, liberated Demetrius,
+to whom his sister Rhodogune was united by marriage, in
+order that, by appearing in Syria, he might oblige Antiochus to
+retreat. Antiochus having fallen, Phraates would fain have recaptured
+Demetrius, but he escaped.</p></div>
+
+<div class="sidenote">126&mdash;85.</div>
+
+<p>31. The ensuing history of the Seleucid&aelig; is a
+picture of civil wars, family feuds, and deeds of
+horror, such as are scarcely to be paralleled. The
+utmost verge of the empire was now the Euphrates;
+all Upper Asia acknowledging the dominion
+of the Parthians. The Jews, moreover,
+having completely vindicated their independence,
+the kingdom was consequently confined to Syria
+and Ph&#339;nicia. So thoroughly decayed was the
+state, that even the Romans&mdash;whether because
+there was no longer anything to plunder, or because
+they conceived it more prudent to suffer
+the Seleucid&aelig; to wear themselves out in mutual
+quarrels&mdash;do not seem to have taken any account
+<span class="sidenote">Syria becomes a Roman province, 64.</span>
+of it, until, at the conclusion of the last war with
+Mithridates, they thought proper formally to annex
+it to their empire as a province.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_247" id="Page_247">[Pg 247]</a></span></p>
+
+<div class="sblockquot"><p>War between Alexander Zebinas and the ambitious relict of
+Demetrius, Cleopatra, who with her own hand murders her eldest
+son Seleucus, B. C. 125, for pretending to the crown, which she
+now gives to her younger son, Antiochus Gryphus; the new
+king, however, soon saw himself compelled to secure his own life
+by the murder of his mother, 122; Alexander Zebinas having
+been the year before, 123, defeated and put to death. After a
+peaceful rule of eight years, 122&mdash;114, Antiochus Gryphus is involved
+in war with his half-brother Antiochus Cyzicenus, son of
+Cleopatra by Antiochus Sidetes: it ends, 111, in a partition of
+territory. But the war between the brothers soon burst out
+anew, and just as this hapless kingdom seemed about to crumble
+into pieces, Gryphus was murdered, 97.&mdash;Seleucus, the eldest of
+his five sons, having beaten and slain Cyzicenus, 96; the eldest
+son of the latter, Antiochus Eusebes, prosecuted the war against
+the sons of Gryphus; Eusebes being at last defeated, 90, the
+surviving sons of Gryphus fell to war among themselves, and the
+struggle continued until the Syrians, weary of bloodshed, did
+what they ought to have done long before, viz. made over the
+sovereign power to Tigranes the king of Armenia, 85. Yet
+Eusebes's widow, Selene, retained Ptolemais till 70; and her elder
+son Antiochus Asiaticus, at the time that Tigranes was beaten
+by Lucullus, in the Mithridatic war, took possession of some
+provinces in Syria, 68; these were wrested from him after the
+total defeat of Mithridates by Pompey, when Tigranes was
+obliged to give up his claim, and Syria became a province of the
+Roman empire, 64. Antiochus Asiaticus died 58; his brother
+Seleucus Cybiosactes, having married Berenice, was raised to
+the Egyptian throne, but murdered at her command, 57; and
+thus the family of the Seleucid&aelig; was completely swept away.</p></div>
+
+
+<p class="cblockquot">II. <i>History of the Egyptian kingdom under the Ptolemies,</i>
+323&mdash;30.</p>
+
+<div class="sblockquot"><p>The sources of this history are for the most part the same as
+in the foregoing section; see above, p. 232; but unfortunately
+still more scanty; for in the first place, less information can here
+be derived from the Jewish writers; secondly, as on the coins
+struck under the Ptolemies no continuous series of time is
+marked, but only the year of the king's reign, they are by no
+means such safeguards to the chronology as those of the Seleu<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_248" id="Page_248">[Pg 248]</a></span>cid&aelig;.
+With respect to some few events, important illustrations
+are supplied by inscriptions.</p>
+
+<p>By modern writers, the history of the Ptolemies has been
+composed under a form almost entirely chronological, and by no
+means treated of in the spirit which it deserves.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Vaillant</span>, <i>Historia Ptolem&aelig;orum</i>, fol. Amstelodam. 1701.
+Illustration by the aid of coins.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Champolion Figeac</span>, <i>Annales des Lagides, ou Chronologie
+des Rois d'Egypte, successeurs d'Alexandre le Grand</i>. Paris,
+1819, 2 vols. This treatise, which was honoured with a prize
+by the Acad&eacute;mie des Inscriptions, has by no means exhausted
+the whole of the subject. See</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">J. Saint-Martin</span>, <i>Examen Critique de l'ouvrage de</i> <span class="smcap">M. Ch.
+F.</span> <i>intitul&eacute; Annales des Lagides</i>. Paris, 1820.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Letronne</span>, <i>Recherches pour servir &agrave; l'histoire de l'Egypte
+pendant la domination des Grecs et des Romains, tir&eacute;es des inscriptions
+Grecques et Latines, relatives &agrave; la chronologie, &agrave; l'etat
+des arts aux usages civils et religieux de ce pays</i>. Paris, 1828.
+It cannot be denied that the author has thrown a much clearer
+light on the subjects mentioned in his title.</p></div>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Flourishing
+state of
+Egypt
+under the
+Ptolemies.</div>
+
+<p>1. Egypt, under the Ptolemies, fulfilled, and
+perhaps more than fulfilled, the designs projected
+by Alexander; it became not only a mighty
+kingdom, but likewise the centre of trade, and of
+science. The history of Egypt, however, confines
+itself, almost solely, to that of the new capital,
+Alexandria; the foundation of that city produced,
+imperceptibly, a change in the national character,
+which never could have been wrought by main
+force. In the enjoyment of civil welfare and religious
+freedom, the nation sunk into a state of
+political drowsiness, such as could scarce have
+been expected in a people who so often rose up
+against the Persians.</p>
+
+<div class="sblockquot"><p>Alexandria, originally, was no doubt a military colony; it was
+not long, however, before it became a general place of resort for
+all nations, such as was scarcely to be met with in any other town
+of that day. The inhabitants were divided into three classes;<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_249" id="Page_249">[Pg 249]</a></span>
+<i>Alexandrines</i>, (that is to say, foreigners of all nations, who had
+settled in the place; next to the Greeks, the Jews were, it appears,
+the most numerous,) <i>Egyptians</i>, and <i>Mercenaries</i> in the
+king's service. The Greeks and Macedonians divided into wards
+(&#966;&#965;&#955;&#945;&#962;), constituted the citizens; they were under municipal
+government; the others, such as the Jews, formed bodies corporate
+according to their respective nations. The more important,
+in so many respects, that Alexandria is for history, the more it
+is to be regretted that the accounts respecting it, which have
+reached us, are so far from satisfactory!&mdash;Concerning the topography
+of ancient Alexandria:</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Bonamy</span>, <i>Description de la ville d'Alexandrie</i> in the <i>M&eacute;m. de
+l'Acad&eacute;mie des Inscript.</i> vol. ix. Compare:</p>
+
+<p>&#8224; <span class="smcap">J. L. F. Manso</span>, <i>Letters upon ancient Alexandria</i>, in his
+<i>Vermischte Schriften</i>, vol. i.</p></div>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Ptolemy
+Soter,<br />
+B. C. 323&mdash;284.<br />
+
+321.<br />
+
+307.</div>
+
+<p>2. Ptolemy I. surnamed Soter, the son of
+Lagus, received Egypt for his share, at the first
+division after the death of Alexander. Aware of
+the value of his lot, he was the only one of
+Alexander's successors that had the moderation
+not to aim at grasping all. No doubt he was, by
+the ambition of the other princes, entangled in
+their quarrels, but his conduct was so cautious,
+that Egypt itself was never endangered. Twice
+attacked in that country, first by Perdiccas, afterwards
+by Antigonus and Demetrius, he availed
+himself successfully of his advantageous position,
+and moreover, in this period, added to his dominion
+several countries without Africa, such as
+Ph&#339;nicia, Jud&aelig;a, C&#339;le-Syria, and Cyprus.</p>
+
+<div class="sblockquot"><p>The possession of Ph&#339;nicia and C&#339;le-Syria, by reason of their
+forests, was of indispensable necessity to Egypt as a naval power.
+They frequently changed masters. The first occupation of those
+provinces by the Egyptian government, occurred in 320, soon
+after the rout of Perdiccas by Ptolemy's general Nicanor, who
+took the Syrian satrap Laomedon prisoner, established his footing
+in the whole of Syria, and placed garrisons in the Ph&#339;nician<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_250" id="Page_250">[Pg 250]</a></span>
+cities. In 314 it was again lost to Antigonus, after his return
+out of Upper Asia, and the siege of Tyre. Ptolemy having
+defeated Demetrius at Gaza, 312, repossessed himself of those
+countries, but soon after evacuated them on the appearance of
+Antigonus, to whom they were ceded by the peace of 311. At
+the conclusion of the last grand league against Antigonus, 303,
+Ptolemy once more occupied them: but alarmed at a false report,
+that Antigonus had gained a victory, he retreated into Egypt,
+leaving nevertheless troops in the cities. After the battle of
+Ipsus, 301, those countries were made over to him, and continued
+in the hands of the Ptolemies until they were lost at the
+second invasion of Antiochus the Great, 203.</p>
+
+<p>Cyprus, (see p. 154) like most other islands, acknowledged
+submission to those who possessed the sovereignty of the sea, and
+therefore could not escape the dominion of the Ptolemies. It
+was taken possession of by Ptolemy as early as 313. Still the
+separate cities of the islands preserved their kings, among whom
+Nicocles of Paphos, having entered into a secret league with
+Antigonus, was put to death, 310. After the great seafight,
+307, Cyprus fell into the hands of Antigonus and Demetrius.
+Subsequently to the battle of Ipsus, 301, it remained indeed at
+first in the power of Demetrius; but that prince being gone over
+to Macedonia, Ptolemy, 294, seized an opportunity of recovering
+it, and the island from that time remained under the dominion
+of Egypt. Availing themselves of their naval strength, the
+Egyptian kings frequently exerted sovereign power over the
+coasts of Asia Minor, especially Cilicia, Caria, and Pamphylia,
+which appear to have absolutely formed a part of their territory
+under the second Ptolemy. It is, however, hardly possible to
+define with accuracy what were their real possessions in those
+quarters.</p></div>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Cyrene and
+Libya annexed
+to
+Egypt.</div>
+
+<p>3. Ptolemy likewise extends his territory within
+Africa, by the capture of Cyrene; in consequence
+of which Libya, or the neighbouring
+countries betwixt Cyrene and Egypt, fell under
+his dominion. It is probable, also, that even in
+his reign the frontier of the Egyptian empire was
+advanced into &AElig;thiopia; but for this assertion we
+have no positive authority.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_251" id="Page_251">[Pg 251]</a></span></p>
+
+<div class="sblockquot"><p>The fall of Cyrene was brought about by domestic broils: at
+the time the place was besieged by Thimbron, a portion of the
+exiled nobles fled to Ptolemy; the Egyptian prince commanded
+that they should be reinstated by his general Ophellas, who took
+possession of the town itself, 321. An insurrection in 312 was
+quelled by Agis, Ptolemy's general: nevertheless it would appear
+that Ophellas had almost established his independence, when,
+by the treachery of Agathocles, with whom he had entered into a
+league against Carthage, he perished, about 308. Cyrene was
+now seized by Ptolemy, and given to his son Magas, who ruled
+over it fifty years.</p></div>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Constitution
+of the
+government.</div>
+
+<p>4. With respect to the internal government of
+Egypt, our information is far from complete. The
+division into districts or nomes was continued;
+subject perhaps, in some cases, to alterations.
+The power of the king appears to have been unlimited;
+the extreme provinces were administered
+by governors, appointed by the sovereign;
+similar officers were probably placed at the head
+of the various districts of Egypt itself; but hardly
+any document relative to the home department of
+that country has reached our time. High public
+situations, at least in the capital, appear exclusively
+reserved to Macedonians or Greeks; no
+Egyptian is ever mentioned as holding office.</p>
+
+<div class="sblockquot"><p>There were four magistrates at Alexandria: the Exegetes,
+whose office was to provide for the wants of the city; the Chief
+Judge; the Hypomnematographus&mdash;(Registrar of the archives?)&mdash;and the
+&#931;&#964;&#961;&#945;&#964;&#951;&#947;&#8056;&#962; &#957;&#965;&#954;&#964;&#949;&#961;&#953;&#957;&#8056;&#962;,
+no doubt, the supervisor of the
+police, whose duty it was to watch over the peace of the city at
+night. We have the express testimony of Strabo, that these
+offices, which continued under the Romans, had already existed
+under the kings; whether their establishment can be dated as
+far back as the time of Ptolemy I. is a question that does not
+admit of a solution.&mdash;The number of the districts or nomes appears
+to have been augmented; probably with a political view,
+in order that no governor or monarch should be invested with too
+great a share of power.</p></div><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_252" id="Page_252">[Pg 252]</a></span></p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">The priest-caste
+and
+religion remain.</div>
+
+<p>5. Be that as it may, it is an undoubted fact,
+that the ancient national constitution and administration
+were not entirely obliterated. The
+caste of priests, together with the national religion,
+continued to exist; and though the influence
+of the former was considerably diminished,
+it did not entirely cease. A certain sort of
+worship was, by appointed priests, paid to the
+kings, both in their lifetime and after their death.
+Memphis, though not the usual residence of the
+court, remained the capital of the kingdom; there
+the ceremony of coronation was performed; and
+its temple of Phtha was still the head sanctuary.
+What influence had not the religion of the Egyptians
+upon that of the Greeks! It were difficult
+to say which nation borrowed most from the
+other.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Character
+of the first
+of the Ptolemies.</div>
+
+<p>6. The regeneration of Egypt from the state of
+general ruin into which she had been plunged,
+and the permanent tranquillity she enjoyed during
+nearly thirty years, the duration of the reign of
+Ptolemy I.&mdash;at a time when the rest of the world
+was harassed by continual wars,&mdash;must have
+heightened her prosperity under so mild and beneficent
+a ruler. But Ptolemy was certainly the
+only prince who could have taken advantage of
+these favourable circumstances. Though a soldier
+by profession he was highly accomplished,
+was himself a writer, and had a genius for all the
+arts of peace, which he fostered with the open-handed
+liberality of a king: while amidst all the
+brilliant splendour of his court, he led himself the
+life of a private individual.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_253" id="Page_253">[Pg 253]</a></span></p><div class="sblockquot"><p>Increase of Alexandria by the importation of vast numbers of
+colonists; especially Jews.&mdash;Erection of several superb buildings,
+more particularly the Serapeum.&mdash;Measures taken for the extension
+of trade and navigation.&mdash;The twofold harbour on the
+sea, and on the lake Mareotis.&mdash;The Pharus built.</p></div>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Literature
+encouraged.</div>
+
+<p>7.  But what more than any thing else distinguished
+Ptolemy from his contemporaries was his
+regard for the interests of science. The idea of
+founding the Museum sprung out of the necessities
+of the age, and was suited to the monarchical
+form of government now prevalent. Where
+in those days of destruction and revolution could
+the sciences have found a shelter, if not under
+the protection of a prince? But under Ptolemy
+they found more than a shelter, they found a rallying
+point. Here accordingly the exact sciences
+were perfected: and although the critic's art
+which now grew up could not form a Homer or a
+Sophocles, should <i>we</i>, had it not been for the
+Alexandrines, be at present able to read either
+Homer or Sophocles?</p>
+
+<div class="sblockquot"><p>Foundation of the Museum, (Society of the learned,) and of
+the first library in Bruchium, (afterwards removed to the Serapeum;)
+probably under the direction of Demetrius Phalereus.
+A proper estimation of the services rendered by the Museum is
+yet wanting: what academy in modern Europe, however, has
+done so much?</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Heyne</span>, <i>De genio S&aelig;culi Ptolem&aelig;orum</i>. <i>In Opuscul.</i> t. i.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Matter</span>, <i>Essai historique sur l'&eacute;cole d'Alexandrie</i>, 1820.</p></div>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Ptolemy
+Philadelphus,<br />
+284&mdash;246.</div>
+
+<p>8.  Ptolemy II. surnamed Philadelphus, son of
+Berenice, the second wife of his father, had
+ascended the throne in 286 as joint king. His
+reign, which lasted thirty-eight years, was more
+peaceful even than that of his predecessor, whose<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_254" id="Page_254">[Pg 254]</a></span>
+spirit seemed to inspire him in every thing, save
+that he was not a warrior: but, by that very
+reason, the arts of peace, trade, and science were
+promoted with the greater energy. In his reign
+Egypt was the first power by sea, and one of the
+first by land, in the world; and even though the
+account given by Theocritus of its thirty-three
+thousand cities may be regarded as the exaggeration
+of a poet, it is very certain that Egypt
+was in those days the most flourishing country in
+existence.</p>
+
+<div class="sblockquot"><p>The commerce of Alexandria was divided into three main
+branches: 1. The land-trade over Asia and Africa. 2. The sea-trade
+on the Mediterranean. 3. The sea-trade on the Arabian
+gulf, and Indian ocean.&mdash;With regard to the land-trade of Asia,
+especially that of India carried on by caravans, Alexandria was
+obliged to share it with various cities and countries: since one of
+its chief routes traversed the Oxus, and Caspian, to the Black
+sea; while the caravans, travelling through Syria and Mesopotamia,
+spread for the most part among the seaports of Ph&#339;nicia
+and Asia Minor.&mdash;The trade over Africa extended far west, and
+still farther south. Westward it was secured by the close connection
+between Cyrene and Alexandria; and no doubt followed
+the same roads as in earlier times: of far greater importance was
+that carried on with the southern countries, or &AElig;thiopia, into the
+interior of which they now penetrated, principally for the purpose
+of procuring elephants. The navigation on the Arabian and
+Indian seas had likewise for its immediate object the &AElig;thiopian
+trade, rather than the Indian.&mdash;The measures taken by Ptolemy
+with this view, consisted partly in the building of harbours
+(Berenice, Myos Hormos) on the Arabian gulf; partly in establishing
+a caravan from Berenice to Coptos on the Nile, down
+which latter the goods were further transmitted to their destination;
+for the canal connecting the Red sea with the Nile, although,
+perhaps, completed at this time, was nevertheless but
+little used. The grand deposit for these wares was the lesser
+harbour of Alexandria, united by a canal with the lake Mareotis,
+which in its turn communicated by another canal with the Nile;
+so that the account we receive of the lesser harbour being more<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_255" id="Page_255">[Pg 255]</a></span>
+thronged and full of bustle than the larger one, need not excite
+our surprise. With regard to the trade on the Mediterranean, it
+was shared between Alexandria, Rhodes, Corinth, and Carthage.
+The chief manufactories appear to have been those of cotton
+stuffs, established in or near the temples.</p>
+
+<p>The best inquiry into the trade of Alexandria will be found in
+<span class="smcap">J. C. D. De Schmidt</span>, <i>Opuscula, res maxime Aegyptiorum illustrantia</i>,
+1765, 8vo.</p></div>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Revenue
+of Egypt.</div>
+
+<p>9.  It would be important to know what, in a
+state like Egypt, was the system of imposts,
+which under Philadelphus produced 14,800 silver
+talents, (four millions sterling,) without taking into
+account the toll paid in grain. In the extreme
+provinces, such as Palestine, the taxes were annually
+farmed to the highest bidder, a mode of
+levy attended with great oppression to the people.
+The case appears to have been very different with
+regard to Egypt itself; the customs, however,
+constituted the main branch of the revenue.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Events of
+the reign
+of Philadelphus.</div>
+
+<p>10.  The wars waged by Ptolemy II. were
+limited to those against Antiochus II. of Syria,
+and Magas of Cyrene, half-brother to the Egyptian
+king; the former sprung out of the latter.
+Luckily for Egypt, Ptolemy II. was of a weak
+constitution, and by his state of health was incapacitated
+from commanding his armies in person.&mdash;Under
+his reign the first foundation was laid,
+by means of reciprocal embassies, of that connection
+with Rome which afterwards decided the fate
+of Egypt.</p>
+
+<div class="sblockquot"><p>Magas had, after the defeat of Ophellas, received Cyrene, 308.
+He had married Apame, daughter of Antiochus I., and in 266
+had raised the standard of rebellion with the intention of invading
+Egypt itself, when an insurrection in Marmarica compelled him
+to retreat; he contrived, notwithstanding, to prevail upon his<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_256" id="Page_256">[Pg 256]</a></span>
+father-in-law to undertake an expedition against Egypt, which,
+however, was frustrated by Philadelphus, 264. To terminate this
+contest, Magas was about to unite his daughter Berenice with
+the eldest son of Philadelphus; Apame, wishing to thwart the
+negotiation, fled over to her brother, Antiochus II. whom, after
+her husband's death, 258, she excited to a war against Egypt,
+which closed in 252.&mdash;The embassy to Rome originated in the
+victory won by the Romans over Pyrrhus, 273; it was answered
+by another from the Romans, 272.</p></div>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Character
+of Ptolemy
+Philadelphus.</div>
+
+<p>11. The son inherited from his father all but
+the simplicity of domestic life: under the reign of
+Philadelphus, the court was first thrown open to
+that effeminate luxury, which soon wrought the
+destruction of the Ptolemies as it had previously
+done that of the Seleucid&aelig;; at the same time was
+introduced the pernicious practice of intermarriages
+in the same family, by which the royal
+blood was more foully contaminated here even
+than in Syria. Philadelphus set the first example,
+by repudiating Arsinoe the daughter of Lysimachus,
+and then marrying his own sister, likewise
+named Arsinoe; this princess preserved her influence
+over the king as long as she lived, although
+she did not bring him an heir, but adopted the
+children of her predecessor.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Ptolemy
+Evergetes,<br />
+246&mdash;221.</div>
+
+<p>12. Ptolemy III. surnamed Evergetes. Under
+him, Egypt, from being merely mercantile, assumed
+the character of a conquering state; notwithstanding
+his warlike spirit, he was not uninspired
+with that genius for the arts of peace peculiar
+to his family. His conquests were directed
+partly against Asia in the war with Seleucus II.
+and extended as far as the borders of Bactria; and
+partly, it is probable, against the interior of Ethiopia,
+and the western coast of Arabia. Countries<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_257" id="Page_257">[Pg 257]</a></span>
+so wealthy, and with which commerce had made
+men so well acquainted, could hardly escape the
+arms of such a formidable power as Egypt; yet
+she seems to have made scarcely any other use
+of this extension of territory, than to insure the
+safety of her commercial routes.</p>
+
+<div class="sblockquot"><p>The main source of the history of Ptolemy Evergetes, is the
+inscription on the monument erected by that prince at Adule
+in Ethiopia: it contains a chronological list of his conquests,
+a copy of which has been preserved to us by Cosmas Indicopleustes;
+modern researches, however, have shown the probability
+of its having consisted of two inscriptions, one referring
+to Evergetes, the other to a later king of Abyssinia.&mdash;According
+to this monument, Ptolemy inherited from his father, besides
+Egypt itself, Libya, that is to say, western Africa as far as
+Cyrene, C&#339;le-Syria, Ph&#339;nicia, Lycia, Caria, Cyprus, and the
+Cyclades.&mdash;War with Seleucus Callinicus caused by the murder
+of Berenice (see above, p. 237.); lasted until the ten years' truce,
+246&mdash;240. During this war, he conquered the whole of Syria as
+far as the Euphrates, and most of the maritime countries in Asia
+Minor, from Cilicia to the Hellespont: an easy prey to a naval
+power. Whether the conquest of the countries beyond the Euphrates,
+Mesopotamia, Babylonia, Persis, Susiana, and Media
+as far as Bactria, was effected in these four years, or not till between
+240 and 230, is a question which cannot be determined
+with certainty. If we may judge by the booty brought back,
+this campaign was rather a foray than a regular expedition for
+conquest, though Ptolemy, indeed, appointed governors in Cilicia
+and Babylonia; yet the peculiar situation of affairs in Asia
+at the time, Seleucus being at war with his brother Antiochus
+Hierax, and the Parthian and Bactrian kingdoms being also in a
+state of infant feebleness, afforded unusual opportunities for an
+expedition of this sort.</p>
+
+<p>The southern conquests, so far as they may be referred to
+Evergetes, were effected during the last period of his reign, in a
+separate war. They comprised: 1st. The greatest part of modern
+Abyssinia,&mdash;for as the catalogue of nations commences with
+that of Abyssinia, it necessarily follows that Nubia had already
+been subjected to Egypt.&mdash;The mountain range along the Arabian
+gulf, the plain of Sennaar as far as modern Darfur, the lofty<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_258" id="Page_258">[Pg 258]</a></span>
+chain of mountains to the south, beyond the fountains of the
+Nile. All these conquests were made by the king in person;
+and from those distant lands to Egypt, commercial roads were
+opened. 2nd. The western coast of Arabia, from Leuke Kome
+to the southern point of Arabia Felix, was conquered by his
+generals and admirals: here, likewise, the security of the commercial
+roads was established.</p>
+
+<p><i>Monumentum Adulitanum</i>, published in <span class="smcap">Fabricius</span>, <i>B. Gr&aelig;c.</i>
+t. ii.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Montfaucon</span>, <i>Coll. Patr.</i> t. i. and in <span class="smcap">Chishull</span>, <i>Antiquit.
+Asiatic&aelig;</i>.</p>
+
+<p>The assertion that the monument bears two different inscriptions
+is made by <span class="smcap">Salt</span>, in the narrative of his travels contained
+in the <i>Travels of Lord Valentia</i>.</p></div>
+
+<p>13. Egypt was singularly blessed in having
+three great kings, whose reigns filled one whole
+century. A change now ensued; but that change
+was brought about by the natural course of
+events; in fact, it could scarcely be expected that
+the court should remain untainted by such luxury
+as must have prevailed in a city, which was the
+main seat of trade, and the deposit of the treasures
+of the richest countries.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Ptolemy
+Philopator,<br />
+221&mdash;234.</div>
+
+<p>14. Ptolemy IV. surnamed Philopator. A debauchee
+and a tyrant, who, during the greater
+portion of his reign, remained under the tutelage
+of the crafty Sosibius, and, after the decease of
+that individual, fell into the yet more infamous
+hands of Agathocles and his sister Agathoclea.
+Philopator being contemporary with Antiochus
+the Great, the dangers that threatened Egypt
+under such a reign seemed to be doubled; they
+were, however, averted by the ill-deserved victory
+of Raphia (see above, p. 238).</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Ptolemy
+Epiphanes,<br />
+204&mdash;181.<br />
+
+203.<br />
+
+202.</div>
+
+<p>15. Agathocles and his sister would fain have
+taken into their own hands the guardianship of
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_259" id="Page_259">[Pg 259]</a></span>his son Ptolemy V. surnamed Epiphanes, a child
+only five years old; but the people having risen
+up and made a terrible example of them, the
+office of guardian was confided to the younger
+Sosibius and to Tlepolemus. The reckless prodigality
+of the former soon gave rise to a feud between
+him and his colleague, who was at least
+cunning enough to keep up appearances. Meanwhile
+the critical posture in which the kingdom
+was placed, by the attack of the enleagued kings
+of Syria and Macedonia, compelled the nation to
+defer the regency to Rome and the senate, who
+had hitherto carefully cherished an amicable connection
+with Egypt.</p>
+
+<div class="sblockquot"><p>The regency confided to M. Lepidus, 201, who hands over the
+administration to Aristomenes of Acarnania. The sequel will
+show how decidedly important this step was for the ulterior destinies
+of Egypt. By the war of the Romans against Philip, and
+their differences with Antiochus, Egypt was, no doubt, for the
+present extricated from her embarrassment; but nevertheless in
+198 she lost her Syrian possessions, notwithstanding Antiochus
+III. had promised to give them as a dowry to Cleopatra, the affianced
+bride, and subsequently the consort of the young king of
+Egypt.</p>
+
+<p>To this time, or about 197, belongs the celebrated inscription
+on the Rosetta stone, erected by the caste of priests as a tribute of
+gratitude for past benefits, after the consecration of the king at
+Memphis upon his coming of age: a monument important alike
+for pal&aelig;ography, and for the knowledge of Egyptian administration.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Ameilhon</span>, <i>Eclaircissemens sur l'inscription Grecque du monument
+trouv&eacute; &agrave; Rosette</i>. Paris, 1803.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Heyne</span>, <i>Commentatio de inscriptione Gr&aelig;ca ex Aegypto Londinum
+apportata</i>, in the <i>Commentat. Societ. Gotting.</i> vol. xv.</p></div>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Character
+of Epiphanes.<br />
+
+184.<br />
+
+183.</div>
+
+<p>16. The hopes conceived of Epiphanes, were
+grievously disappointed as he grew up to manhood.
+His guardian Aristomenes fell a victim to
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_260" id="Page_260">[Pg 260]</a></span>his tyranny; nay, his cruelty drove even the patient
+Egyptians to rebel, although the insurrections
+were stilled by his counsellor and general
+Polycrates. His reign happened during the period
+in which Rome crushed the power of Macedonia
+and Syria; and notwithstanding the close alliance
+between Epiphanes and Antiochus III. the Romans
+succeeded in holding the Egyptian king in
+dependence; he was, however, in the twenty-eighth
+year of his age, brought to an early grave
+by intemperance and debauchery.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Ptolemy
+Philometor,<br />
+181&mdash;145.</div>
+
+<p>17. Of his two sons, the elder, a child five years
+old, was his immediate successor; this prince, by
+the title of Ptolemy VI. surnamed Philometor, ascended
+the throne under the guardianship of his
+mother Cleopatra, who fulfilled the duties of her
+office to the satisfaction of all, until 173. But,
+after her death, the regency having fallen into the
+hands of Eul&aelig;us an eunuch, and Len&aelig;us, these
+individuals, asserting their claims to C&#339;le-Syria
+and Ph&#339;nicia, engaged with Antiochus Epiphanes
+in a war exceedingly detrimental to Egypt, until
+Rome commanded peace to be made.</p>
+
+<div class="sblockquot"><p>Antiochus, after the victory of Pelusium, B. C. 171, and the
+treacherous surrender of Cyprus, having possessed himself of
+Egypt as far as Alexandria, a faction arose in the city; Philometor
+was expelled, and his younger brother Physcon seated on
+the throne, 170.&mdash;The exile Philometor fell into the power of
+Antiochus, who compelled the fugitive to sign a separate peace,
+highly injurious to the interests of Egypt. The articles were
+not, however, ratified; Philometor secretly entering into an
+agreement with his brother that they should both rule in common,
+169. Antiochus having in consequence again made an inroad
+into Egypt, the two kings addressed themselves for assistance
+to the Ach&aelig;ans and to the Romans: the latter forthwith
+despatched an embassy to Antiochus, commanding him to<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_261" id="Page_261">[Pg 261]</a></span>
+evacuate the territory of their allies, which happened accordingly,
+168.</p></div>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Disputes
+between the
+sons of
+Epiphanes.</div>
+
+<p>18.  In the contest, which soon afterwards ensued
+between the two brothers, the younger was
+driven out and sought a refuge at Rome; when a
+partition of the kingdom between the princes was
+determined upon: the senate, however, after due
+consideration, refused to confirm the decision, so
+that the disputes between the two kings were rekindled
+and protracted, until the younger fell into
+the power of the elder.</p>
+
+<div class="sblockquot"><p>In the first division, 164, Philometor received Egypt and
+Cyprus; and the infamous Physcon had for his share Cyrene
+and Libya. But, during his stay at Rome, Physcon, contrary to
+all justice, obtained the promise of Cyprus; Philometor refusing
+to give up that portion of his share, and Cyrene having risen up
+against its king, Physcon ran the risk of losing the whole of his
+dominions. In the war which, supported by Rome, he waged
+against his brother, Physcon fell, 159, into the hands of Philometor,
+who not only forgave him, but, leaving him in possession
+of Cyrene and Libya, added some cities in the place of Cyprus,
+and promised him his daughter in marriage.</p></div>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Philometor
+interferes
+in the affairs
+of Syria.</div>
+
+<p>19.  During the last period of his reign, Philometor
+was almost exclusively busied with Syrian
+affairs. He supported Alexander Balas against
+Demetrius, and even gave him his daughter Cleopatra.
+Nevertheless, he afterwards passed over
+to the side of Demetrius, seated him on the
+throne, gave him in marriage this same Cleopatra,
+who had been taken away from Balas. But in
+the battle in which Balas was overthrown, the
+Egyptian king also received his death wound.
+<span class="sidenote">145.</span>
+He may be regarded as one of the good princes
+of the Ptolemaic dynasty, especially if compared
+with his brother.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_262" id="Page_262">[Pg 262]</a></span></p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Ptolemy
+Physcon,<br />
+145&mdash;117.</div>
+
+<p>20. His younger brother Ptolemy VIII. surnamed
+Physcon, and likewise Evergetes II. a
+monster both in a moral and a physical sense,
+who had hitherto been king of Cyrene, now possessed
+himself of the throne of Egypt by marrying
+his predecessor's widow and sister, Cleopatra,
+whom, however, after having murdered her son,
+he repudiated for her daughter of the same name.
+This prince accordingly, once more united the divided
+kingdom; but at the same time that he was
+purchasing the sanction of Rome by vile adulation,
+he maintained himself at Alexandria by
+means of military law, which soon converted the
+city into a desert, and obliged him to attract
+foreign colonists by large promises. Another
+<span class="sidenote">130.</span>
+bloody massacre, however, produced an insurrection
+in the town, which compelled the king to flee
+to Cyprus, the Alexandrines, meanwhile, raising
+to the throne his repudiated wife Cleopatra.
+Physcon, nevertheless, with the assistance of his
+mercenaries, recovered the sceptre, and wielded
+it to the day of his death.</p>
+
+<div class="sblockquot"><p>That a prince of such a character should nevertheless be a
+friend to science, and himself an author, must ever be regarded
+as a singular phenomenon; yet his exaction of manuscripts, and
+his treatment of the learned, whole crowds of whom he expelled,
+betray the despot.</p></div>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Ptolemy
+Lathyrus,
+116&mdash;81.<br />
+
+116.<br />
+
+107.<br />
+
+89.<br />
+
+88.</div>
+
+<p>21. His widow, the younger Cleopatra, to gratify
+the Alexandrines, was obliged to place on the throne
+the elder of her two sons, Ptolemy IX. surnamed
+Lathyrus, who was living in a sort of banishment
+at Cyprus: to the younger, Ptolemy Alexander
+I. who was her favourite, she accordingly gave the
+island of Cyprus. But Lathyrus not choosing to
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_263" id="Page_263">[Pg 263]</a></span>obey her in everything, she compelled him to exchange
+Egypt for Cyprus, and gave the former to
+her younger son. But neither was the new king
+able to brook the tyranny of his mother: as she
+threatened even his life, he saw no other means
+of escape than to anticipate her design; but failing
+in his project, he was obliged to take to flight,
+and, after a vain attempt to recover the throne,
+perished. The Alexandrines then reinstated in
+the government his elder brother Lathyrus, who
+ruled till the year 81, possessing both Egypt and
+Cyprus.</p>
+
+<div class="sblockquot"><p>Revolt and three years' siege of Thebes in Upper Egypt, still
+one of the most wealthy cities even in those days, but after its
+capture almost levelled to the earth; about 86.&mdash;Complete separation
+of Cyrenaica from Egypt: this province had been bequeathed
+by Physcon as a separate branch-state to his illegitimate
+son, Apion, 117; that prince, after a tranquil reign, bequeathed
+it, in his turn, to the Romans, 96, who at first allowed it to retain
+its independence.</p></div>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Obscure
+period of
+the history.<br />
+81&mdash;66.</div>
+
+<p>22. Lathyrus left one daughter born in wedlock,
+Berenice, and two illegitimate sons, Ptolemy
+of Cyprus and Ptolemy Auletes.  Besides the
+above, there was a lawful son of Alexander I. of
+the same name as his father, and at that time residing
+at Rome with the dictator Sylla. The following
+history is obscured by clouds, which,
+amid the contradiction of accounts, cannot be entirely
+dispelled. Generally speaking, Egypt was
+now a tool in the hands of powerful individuals at
+Rome, who regarded it but as a financial speculation
+whether they actually supported a pretender
+to the Egyptian crown, or fed him with
+vain hopes. All now saw that Egypt presented<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_264" id="Page_264">[Pg 264]</a></span>
+a ripe harvest; but they could not yet agree by
+whom that harvest should be reaped.</p>
+
+<div class="sblockquot"><p>The first successor of Lathyrus in Egypt was his legitimate
+daughter Cleopatra Berenice, 81: at the end of six months, however,
+Sylla, then dictator at Rome, sent his client Alexander II.
+to Egypt, 80; that prince married Berenice, and with her ascended
+the throne. Nineteen days after Alexander murdered his consort,
+and, according to Appian, was himself about the same time cut
+off by the Alexandrines, on account of his tyranny. We afterwards
+hear, notwithstanding, of a king Alexander, who reigned
+until 73, or, according to others, until 66; when, being driven
+out of Egypt, he fled to Tyre, and called upon the Romans for
+that aid, which probably through C&aelig;sar's intercession, would
+have been granted, had not the supplicant soon after died at the
+place of his refuge. He is said to have bequeathed by will his
+kingdom to Rome; and although the senate did not accept the
+legacy, it does not appear to have formally rejected the offer; in
+consequence of which, frequent attempts were made at Rome for
+effecting the occupation.&mdash;Either, therefore, Appian's account
+must be false, and this person was the same Alexander II. or he
+was some other person bearing that name, and belonging to the
+royal house.&mdash;Be this as it may, after the death of Lathyrus the
+kingdom was dismembered: and one of his illegitimate sons,
+Ptolemy, had received Cyprus, but that island was taken from
+him, 57, and converted into a Roman province: the other, Ptolemy
+Auletes, seems to have kept his footing either in a part of
+Egypt, or in Cyrene, and was probably the cause of Alexander's
+expulsion, at whose decease he ascended the throne; although
+the Syrian queen Selene, sister to Lathyrus, asserted her son's
+claims at Rome, as legitimate heir to the throne of Egypt. With
+C&aelig;sar's assistance, Auletes, however, succeeded in obtaining the
+formal acknowledgment of his right at Rome, 59. But the measures
+taken by the Romans with regard to Cyprus, gave rise to
+a sedition at Alexandria, 57, in consequence of which Auletes,
+being compelled to flee, passed over into Italy: or, perhaps, he
+was ordered to take this step by the intrigues of some Roman
+grandees, anxious of an opportunity to reinstate him. Pompey's
+attempts, with this view, are thwarted by Cato, 56. Meanwhile
+the Alexandrines placed Berenice, the eldest daughter of Auletes,
+on the throne; she married first Seleucus Cybiosactes, as<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_265" id="Page_265">[Pg 265]</a></span>
+being the lawful heir; and after putting that prince to death,
+united herself to Archelaus, 57.&mdash;Actual restoration of Auletes
+by the purchased assistance of Gabinius, the Roman governor of
+Syria; and execution of Berenice, whose husband had fallen in
+the war, 54. Not long after, this miserable prince, no less
+effeminate than tyrannical, died, 51.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">J. R. Forster</span>, <i>Commentatio de successoribus Ptolem&aelig;i VII.</i>
+Inserted in <i>Comment. Soc. Gotting.</i> vol. iii.</p></div>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Cleopatra,<br />
+51&mdash;31.</div>
+
+<p>23. Auletes endeavoured by his last testament
+to insure the kingdom to his posterity, nominating
+as his successor, under the superintendence of the
+Roman nation, his two elder children. Ptolemy
+Dionysos, then thirteen years old, and Cleopatra,
+seventeen, who were to be united in wedlock:
+his two younger children, Ptolemy Neoteros and
+Arsinoe, he recommended to the Roman senate.
+Notwithstanding these measures, Egypt would
+not have escaped her fate upwards of twenty
+years longer, had not the impending calamities
+been diverted by the internal posture of affairs
+at Rome, and still more by the charms and policy
+of Cleopatra, who through her alliance with C&aelig;sar
+and Antony not only preserved but even aggrandized
+her kingdom. From this time, however,
+the history of Egypt is most closely implicated
+with that of Rome.</p>
+
+<div class="sblockquot"><p>Feuds between Cleopatra and her brother, excited and fomented
+by the eunuch Pothinus, in whose hands the administration
+was: they lead to open war: Cleopatra, driven out, flees to
+Syria, where she levies troops: C&aelig;sar in pursuit of the conquered
+Pompey arrives at Alexandria, and in the name of Rome, assumes
+the part of arbitrator between the king and queen, but
+suffers himself to be guided by the artifices of Cleopatra, 48.
+Violent sedition in Alexandria, and C&aelig;sar besieged in Bruchium,
+the malcontent Pothinus having brought Achillas, the commander
+of the royal troops into the city. The hard struggle in
+which C&aelig;sar was now engaged, demonstrates not only the bit<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_266" id="Page_266">[Pg 266]</a></span>terness
+of the long rankling grudge of the Alexandrines against
+Rome, but shows also how decisive, to the whole of Egypt, were
+the revolutions of the capital. Ptolemy Dionysos having fallen
+in the war, and C&aelig;sar being victorious, the crown fell to Cleopatra,
+47, upon condition of marrying her brother, when he
+should be of age: but as soon as the prince grew to manhood,
+and had been crowned at Memphis, she removed him by
+poison, 44.</p></div>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Egypt becomes
+a
+Roman
+province.</div>
+
+<p>24. During the life of C&aelig;sar, Cleopatra remained
+under his protection, and consequently in
+a state of dependence. Not only was a Roman garrison
+stationed in the capital city, but the queen
+herself, together with her brother, were obliged to
+visit him at Rome. After the assassination of
+C&aelig;sar, she took the side of the triumviri, not
+without endangering Egypt, threatened by Cassius
+who commanded in Syria; and after the
+death of her brother, succeeded in getting them
+to acknowledge as king, Ptolemy C&aelig;sarion, a
+son whom she pretended to have had by C&aelig;sar.&mdash;But
+the ardent passion conceived by Antony
+for her person, soon after the discomfiture of the
+republican party, now attached her inseparably
+to his fortunes; which, after vainly attempting
+to win over the victorious Octavius, she at last
+shared.</p>
+
+<div class="sblockquot"><p>The chronology of the ten years in which Cleopatra lived, for
+the most part, with Antony, is not without difficulty, but, according
+to the most probable authorities, may be arranged in the
+following manner. Summoned before his tribunal, on account of
+the pretended support afforded by some of her generals to Cassius,
+she appears in his presence at Tarsus, in the attire, and
+with the parade, of Venus, 41; he follows her into Egypt. In
+the year 40, Antony, called back to Italy by the breaking out of
+the Perusine war, is there induced, by political motives, to
+espouse Octavia; meanwhile Cleopatra abides in Egypt. In the
+autumn of 37, she goes to meet him in Syria, where he was<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_267" id="Page_267">[Pg 267]</a></span>
+making ready for the war against the Parthians, until then prosecuted
+by his lieutenants; here she obtained at his hands Ph&#339;nicia&mdash;Tyre
+and Sidon excepted,&mdash;together with Cyrene and
+Cyprus; and in 36 went back to Alexandria, where she remained
+during the campaign. The expedition ended, Antony
+returned into Egypt and resided at Alexandria. From thence
+it was his intention to attack Armenia in 35; this design, however,
+he did not effect until 34, when, after taking the king prisoner,
+he returned in triumph to Alexandria, and presented to
+Cleopatra, or to his three children by her, all the countries of
+Asia from the Mediterranean to the Indus, already conquered
+or to be conquered. Preparing then to renew, in conjunction
+with the king of Media, his attack on the Parthians, he is prevailed
+upon by Cleopatra to break with Octavia, who was to
+bring over troops to him, 38. A war between him and Octavius
+being now unavoidable, the Parthian campaign already opened
+is suspended, and Cleopatra accompanies Antony to Samos, 32,
+where he formally repudiated Octavia. From hence she followed
+him in his expedition against Octavius, which was decided
+by the battle of Actium, fought September 2, 31.&mdash;Octavius
+having pursued his enemy into Egypt, Alexandria was besieged,
+30, and after Antony had laid violent hands on himself,
+the place surrendered; and Cleopatra, not brooking to be dragged
+a prisoner to Rome, followed the example of her lover, and procured
+her own death.</p></div>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Flourishing
+state of
+Egypt.</div>
+
+<p>25. Even in this last period, Egypt appears to
+have been the seat of unbounded wealth and effeminacy.
+The line of infamous princes who had
+succeeded to the third Ptolemy were unable to
+destroy her prosperity. Strange, however, as this
+seems, it may be easily accounted for when we
+consider that the political revolutions scarcely
+ever overstepped the walls of the capital, and that
+an almost perpetual peace ruled in the country:
+that Egypt was the only great theatre of trade;
+and that that trade must have increased in the
+same proportion as the spirit of luxury increased
+in Rome, and in the Roman empire. The power<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_268" id="Page_268">[Pg 268]</a></span>ful
+effects wrought on Egypt by the growth of
+Roman luxury, are most convincingly demonstrated
+by the state of that country when it had
+become a Roman province; so far from the trade
+of Alexandria decreasing in that period,&mdash;though
+the city suffered in the first days after the conquest&mdash;it
+subsequently attained an extraordinary
+and gigantic bulk.</p>
+
+
+<p class="cblockquot">III. <i>History of Macedonia and of Greece in general, from
+the death of Alexander to the Roman conquest, B. C.
+323&mdash;146.</i></p>
+
+<div class="sblockquot"><p>The sources for this history are the same as have been quoted
+above: see p. 232. Until the battle of Ipsus, 301, Diodorus is
+still our grand authority. But in the period extending from 301
+to 224, we meet with some chasms: here almost our only sources
+are the fragments of Diodorus, a few of Plutarch's lives, and the
+inaccurate accounts of Justin. From the year 224, our main
+historian is Polybius; and even in those parts where we do not
+possess his work in its complete form, the fragments that have
+been preserved must always be the first authorities consulted.
+Livy, and other writers on Roman history, should accompany
+Polybius.</p>
+
+<p>Among modern books, besides the general works mentioned
+above p. 1. we may here in particular quote:</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">John Gast, D. D.</span> <i>The History of Greece, from the accession
+of Alexander of Macedon, till the final subjection to the
+Roman power, in eight books.</i> London, 1782, 4to. Although
+not a master-piece of composition, yet too important to be passed
+over in silence.</p></div>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Extent of
+Macedonia.</div>
+
+<p>1. Of the three main kingdoms that arose out
+of Alexander's monarchy, Macedonia was the most
+insignificant, not only in extent,&mdash;particularly as
+till B. C. 286 Thrace remained a separate and
+independent province,&mdash;but likewise in population
+and wealth. Yet, being, as it were, the
+head country of the monarchy, it was considered<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_269" id="Page_269">[Pg 269]</a></span>
+to hold the first rank; and here at first resided
+the power which, nominally at least, extended
+over the whole. As early, however, as the year
+311, upon the total extermination of Alexander's
+family, it became a completely separate kingdom.
+From that time its sphere of external operation
+was for the most part confined to Greece, the history
+of which, consequently, is closely interwoven
+with that of Macedonia.</p>
+
+<div class="sblockquot"><p>Posture of affairs in Greece at Alexander's decease: Thebes
+in ruins: Corinth occupied by a Macedonian garrison: Sparta
+humiliated by the defeat she had suffered at the hands of Antipater
+in her attempt at a revolt against Macedonia, under Agis
+II. 333&mdash;331: Athens on the other hand flourishing, and although
+confined to her own boundaries, still by her fame, and
+her naval power, the first state in Greece.</p></div>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Antipater.<br />
+Lamian war,<br />
+B. C. 323.</div>
+
+<p>2. Although at the first division of the provinces,
+Craterus, as civil governor, was united
+with Antipater, the latter had the management of
+affairs. And the termination, as arduous as it
+was successful, of the Lamian war,&mdash;kindled immediately
+after the death of Alexander, by the
+Greeks, enthusiastic in the cause of freedom,&mdash;enabled
+him to rivet the chains of Greece more
+firmly than they had ever been before.</p>
+
+<div class="sblockquot"><p>The Lamian war&mdash;the sparks of which had been kindled by
+Alexander's edict, granting leave to all the Grecian emigrants,
+twenty thousand in number, nearly the whole of whom were in
+the Macedonian interest, to return to their native countries,&mdash;was
+fanned to a flame by the democratic party at Athens. Urged
+by Demosthenes and Hyperides, almost all the states of central
+and northern Greece, B&#339;otia excepted, took up arms in the cause;
+and their example was quickly followed by most of those in Peloponnesus,
+with the exception of Sparta, Argos, Corinth, and
+the Ach&aelig;ans. Not even the Persian war produced such general
+unanimity! The gallant Leosthenes headed the league.&mdash;Defeat
+of Antipater, who is shut up in Lamia; Leosthenes, however,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_270" id="Page_270">[Pg 270]</a></span>
+falls in the siege of that place, B. C. 323, and although Leonatus&mdash;who
+with the view of ascending the throne by his marriage
+with Cleopatra, had come to the assistance of the Macedonians&mdash;was
+beaten and slain, 322, the Greeks were finally overwhelmed
+by the reinforcements, brought to Antipater out of Asia, by
+Craterus. And Antipater having fully succeeded in breaking
+the league, and negotiating with each separate nation, was enabled
+to dictate the terms. Most of the cities opened their gates
+to Macedonian troops; besides this, Athens was obliged to purchase
+peace through the mediation of Phocion and Demades, by
+an alteration in her constitution,&mdash;the poorer citizens being excluded
+from all share in the government, and for the most part
+translated into Thrace&mdash;and by a pledge to deliver up Demosthenes
+and Hyperides; whose place Phocion occupied at the
+head of the state.&mdash;The &AElig;tolians, the last against whom the
+Macedonian wars were directed, obtained better terms than they
+had ventured to expect, Antipater and Craterus being obliged to
+hurry over to Asia in order to oppose Perdiccas.</p></div>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Olympias
+retires to Epirus.<br />
+
+Antipater dies, and
+names Polysperchon
+his successor,<br />
+320&mdash;316.</div>
+
+<p>3. That hatred which, even in the lifetime of
+Alexander, had sprung up between Antipater and
+Olympias, in consequence of his not permitting
+the dowager queen to rule, induced her to withdraw
+to Epirus; her rankling envy being still
+more embittered by the influence of the young
+queen Eurydice. See above, p. 224. Antipater,
+dying shortly after his expedition against Perdiccas,
+in which his colleague Craterus had fallen,
+and he himself had been appointed regent, nominates
+his friend, the aged Polysperchon, to succeed
+him as regent and head guardian, to the exclusion
+of his own son Cassander. Hence arose
+a series of quarrels between the two, in which,
+unfortunately for themselves, the royal family
+were implicated and finally exterminated, Cassander
+obtaining the sovereignty of Macedonia.</p>
+
+<div class="sblockquot"><p>Cassander having secured the interest of Antigonus and Ptolemy,
+makes his escape to the former, 319: he had previously en<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_271" id="Page_271">[Pg 271]</a></span>deavoured
+also to raise a party in Macedonia and Greece, particularly
+by getting his friend Nicanor to be commander at Athens.&mdash;Measures
+taken by Polysperchon to oppose him; in the first
+place, he recalls Olympias out of Epirus, but the princess dares
+not come without an army; in the next place, he nominates Eumenes
+commander of the royal troops in Asia (see above, p. 225);
+he likewise endeavours to gain the Grecian cities, by recalling
+the Macedonian garrisons, and changing the governors set over
+them by Antipater. These latter, however, were in most of the
+cities too firmly established to suffer themselves thus to be deposed;
+and even the expedition into Peloponnesus, undertaken
+by Polysperchon to enforce his injunctions was attended but with
+partial success.&mdash;In the same year occurs a twofold revolution in
+Athens, whither Polysperchon had sent his son Alexander, nominally
+for the purpose of driving out Nicanor, but virtually to
+get possession of that important city. In the first place, Alexander
+and Nicanor appearing to unite both for the attainment of
+one and the same object, the democratic party rise up, and overthrow
+the rulers, hitherto taken from Antipater's party, and
+headed by Phocion, who is compelled to swallow poison: soon
+after, however, Cassander occupies the city, excludes from the
+administration all that possess less than ten mines, and places at
+the head of affairs Demetrius Phalereus, who, from 318 to 307,
+ruled with great prudence.&mdash;Not long after, Olympias returns
+with an army from Epirus; the Macedonian troops of Philip
+and Eurydice having passed over to her side, she wreaks her revenge
+on the royal couple, and on the brother of Cassander, all of
+whom she puts to death, 317. Cassander, nevertheless, having
+obtained reinforcements in Peloponnesus, takes the field against
+her; she is besieged in Pydna, where, disappointed in the hope
+of being relieved either by Polysperchon or by &AElig;acidas of Epirus,
+both of whom were forsaken by their men, she is obliged to surrender,
+316. Cassander, having caused her to be condemned by
+the Macedonian people, has her put to death.</p></div>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Cassander.</div>
+
+<p>4. Cassander being now master, and, from
+302, king of Macedonia, confirmed his dominion
+by a marriage with Thessalonice, half-sister to
+Alexander, and at the same time endeavoured to
+corroborate as far as possible his authority in
+Greece. Polysperchon and his son Alexander,
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_272" id="Page_272">[Pg 272]</a></span>it is true, still made head in Peloponnesus; but
+the states without the peninsula, &AElig;tolia excepted,
+were all either allies of Cassander, or occupied
+by Macedonian troops.
+<span class="sidenote">314.</span>
+After the defeat of the
+league against Antigonus, in which Cassander
+had borne a part, general peace was concluded,
+with the proviso, that the Grecian cities should
+be free, and that the young Alexander, when of
+age, should be raised to the throne of Macedonia:
+<span class="sidenote">311.</span>
+this induced Cassander to rid himself both of the
+young prince and his mother Roxana by murder:
+but he thereby exposed himself to an attack from
+Polysperchon, who, availing himself of the discontent
+of the Macedonians, brought back Hercules,
+the only remaining illegitimate son of Alexander.
+Cassander diverted the storm by a new crime,
+instigating Polysperchon to murder the young
+Hercules, under promise of sharing the government:
+Polysperchon, however, unable to possess
+himself of the Peloponnesus which had been promised
+him, appears to have preserved but little
+influence. Cassander met likewise with formidable
+opponents in the persons of Antigonus and
+his son; and although delivered by the breaking
+<span class="sidenote">308.</span>
+out of the war with Ptolemy from the danger of
+the first invasion of Greece by Demetrius, his
+situation was more embarrassing at the second
+irruption; from which, however, he was extricated
+by the circumstance of Antigonus being obliged
+<span class="sidenote">307.</span>
+to recall his son, on account of the newly formed
+league (see above, p. 230).</p>
+
+<div class="sblockquot"><p>Antigonus, on his return from Upper Asia, declares loudly
+against Cassander, B. C. 314; despatches his general Aristodemus
+to Peloponnesus, and frames a league with Polysperchon<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_273" id="Page_273">[Pg 273]</a></span>
+and his son Alexander; the latter, however, Cassander succeeds
+in winning over by a promise of the command in Peloponnesus.
+Alexander was soon after murdered, but his wife Cratesipolis
+succeeded him, and commanded with the spirit of a man. Meanwhile,
+Cassander carried war against the &AElig;tolians, who sided
+with Antigonus, 313; but Antigonus, 312, having sent his general
+Ptolemy into Greece with a fleet and army, Cassander lost
+his supremacy. In the peace of 311, the freedom of all the
+Grecian cities was stipulated; but this very condition became
+the pretext of various and permanent feuds; and Cassander having
+murdered the young king, together with his mother, drew
+upon himself the arms of Polysperchon, who wished to place
+Hercules on the throne, 310; but the pretender was removed in
+the manner above described, 309.&mdash;Cassander now endeavouring
+to reestablish his power over Greece, Demetrius Poliorcetes was
+by his father sent into that country in order to anticipate Ptolemy
+of Egypt, in the enforcement of the decree for the freedom
+of the Greeks, 308; the result at Athens was the restoration of
+democracy, and the expulsion of Demetrius Phalereus.&mdash;From
+any further attack of Demetrius, Cassander was delivered by the
+war which broke out between Antigonus and Ptolemy, (see
+above, p. 229.) and had the leisure, once more, to strengthen his
+power in Greece, until 302, when Demetrius arrived a second
+time, and, as generalissimo of liberated Greece, pressed forward
+to the borders of Macedonia; Demetrius was, however, recalled
+by his father into Asia, and at the battle of Ipsus, 301, lost all
+his dominions in that quarter of the world. Yet although Athens
+closed her harbours against him, he still maintained his possessions
+in Peloponnesus, and even endeavoured to extend them;
+from thence, in 297, he sallied forth, and once more took possession
+of his beloved Athens, and after driving out the usurper
+Lachares, forgave her ingratitude.</p></div>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Cassander
+dies, and
+leaves the
+throne to
+his sons;</div>
+
+<p>5. Cassander survived the establishment of his
+throne by the battle of Ipsus only three years:
+and bequeathed Macedonia as an inheritance to
+his three sons, the eldest of whom, Philip, shortly
+after followed his father to the grave.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Antipater
+and Alexander.</div>
+
+<p>6. The two remaining sons, Antipater and
+Alexander, soon worked their own destruction.
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_274" id="Page_274">[Pg 274]</a></span>Antipater having murdered his own mother Thessalonice,
+on account of the favour she showed his
+brother, was obliged to flee; he applied for help
+to his father-in-law Lysimachus of Thrace, where
+he soon after died. Meanwhile Alexander, fancying
+that he likewise stood in need of foreign assistance,
+addressed himself to Pyrrhus, king of
+Macedonia, and to Demetrius Poliorcetes, both of
+whom obeyed the call only with the expectation
+of being paid. After various snares reciprocally
+laid for each other, the king of Macedonia was
+murdered by Demetrius, and with him the race
+<span class="sidenote">295.</span>
+of Antipater became extinct.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Demetrius,
+294&mdash;287.</div>
+
+<p>7. The army proclaimed Demetrius king; and
+in his person the house of Antigonus ascended
+the throne of Macedonia, and, after many vicissitudes,
+established their power. His seven years'
+reign, in which one project succeeded the other,
+was a constant series of wars; and as he never
+could learn how to bear with good fortune, his
+ambition was at last his ruin.</p>
+
+<div class="sblockquot"><p>The kingdom of Demetrius comprised Macedonia, Thessaly,
+and the greatest part of the Peloponnesus; he was also master
+of Megara and Athens.&mdash;Twofold capture of Thebes, which had
+been rebuilt by Cassander, 293, and 291; unsuccessful attempt
+upon Thrace, 292. His war with Pyrrhus, 290, in whom men
+fancied they beheld another Alexander, had already alienated
+the affections of the Macedonians; but his grand project for the
+recovery of Asia induced his enemies to get the start of him;
+and the hatred of his subjects compelled him secretly to escape
+to Peloponnesus, to his son Antigonus, 287. Athens, taking advantage
+of his misfortunes, drove out the Macedonian garrison,
+and, by the election of archons, reestablished her ancient constitution;
+although Demetrius laid siege to the town, he allowed
+himself to be pacified by Crates. Having once more attempted
+to prosecute his plans against Asia, he was obliged, 286, to sur<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_275" id="Page_275">[Pg 275]</a></span>render
+to Seleucus his father-in-law, who, out of charity, kept
+him till the day of his death, 284.</p></div>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Pyrrhus of
+Epirus,<br />
+287,
+286.</div>
+
+
+<p>8.  Two claimants to the vacant throne now
+arose, viz. Pyrrhus of Epirus and Lysimachus of
+Thrace; but although Pyrrhus was first proclaimed
+king, with the cession of half the dominions,
+he could not, being a foreigner, support his
+power any longer than the year 286, when he was
+deposed by Lysimachus.</p>
+
+<div class="sblockquot"><p>The sovereigns of Epirus, belonging to the family of the
+&AElig;acid&aelig;, were properly kings of the Molossi. See above, p. 150.
+They did not become lords of all Epirus, nor consequently of any
+historical importance, until the time of the Peloponnesian war.
+After that period Epirus was governed by Alcetas I. about 384,
+who pretended to be the sixteenth descendant from Pyrrhus, the
+son of Achilles; Neoptolemus, father to Olympias, by whose
+marriage with Philip, 358, the kings of Epirus became intimately
+connected with Macedonia, <i>d.</i> 352; Arymbas, his brother, <i>d.</i>
+342; Alexander I. son of Neoptolemus, and brother-in-law to
+Alexander the Great; he was ambitious to be as great a conqueror
+in the west as his kinsman was in the east, but he fell in
+Lucania, 332. &AElig;acides, son of Arymbas, <i>d.</i> 312. Pyrrhus II.
+his son, the Ajax of his time, and, we might almost say, rather an
+adventurer than a king. After uninterrupted wars waged in
+Macedonia, Greece, Italy, and Sicily, he fell at last at the
+storming of Argos, 272. He was followed by his son Alexander
+II. in the person of whose successor, Pyrrhus III. 219, the
+male line became extinct. Although the daughter of this last
+prince, Deidamia, succeeded to the throne, the Epirots were not
+long before they established a democratic government, which endured
+till such time as they were, together with Macedonia and
+the rest of Greece, brought under the Roman yoke, 146.</p></div>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Lysimachus.<br />
+
+282.</div>
+
+<p>9.  In consequence of the accession of Lysimachus,
+Thrace, and for a short time even Asia
+Minor, were annexed to the Macedonian kingdom.
+But rankling hatred and family relations soon
+afterwards involved Lysimachus in a war with<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_276" id="Page_276">[Pg 276]</a></span>
+Seleucus Nicator, in which, at battle of Curopedion,
+he lost both his throne and his life.</p>
+
+<div class="sblockquot"><p>Execution of the gallant Agathocles, eldest son of Lysimachus,
+at the instigation of his step-mother Arsinoe: his widow Lysandra
+and her brother Ptolemy Ceraunus, who had already been
+driven out of Egypt by his step-mother Berenice, go over, followed
+by a large party, to Seleucus, whom they excite to war.</p></div>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Seleucus.</div>
+
+<p>10. The victorious Seleucus, already lord of
+Asia, now causing himself to be proclaimed likewise
+king of Macedonia, it seemed as if that
+country was again about to become the head seat
+of the whole monarchy. But shortly after he
+had crossed over into Europe, Seleucus fell by
+the murderous hand of Ptolemy Ceraunus, who,
+<span class="sidenote">281.</span>
+availing himself of the treasures of his victim, and
+of the yet remaining troops of Lysimachus, took
+possession of the throne; by another act of treachery
+he avenged himself of Arsinoe, his half-sister;
+but just as he conceived himself securely
+established, he lost both his crown and his life
+by the irruption of the Gauls into Macedonia.</p>
+
+<div class="sblockquot"><p>The irruption of the Gauls, threatening desolation not only to
+Macedonia but to the whole of Greece, took place in three successive
+expeditions. The first under Cambaules, (probably 280,)
+advanced no further than Thrace, the invaders not being sufficiently
+numerous. The second in three bodies; against Thrace
+under Ceretrius; against P&aelig;onia under Brennus and Acichorius;
+against Macedonia and Illyria under Belgius, 279. By the last-mentioned
+chieftain Ptolemy was defeated; he fell in the contest.
+In consequence, Meleager first, and Antipater subsequently,
+were appointed kings of Macedonia; but both, on account
+of incapacity, being soon afterwards deposed, a Macedonian
+noble, Sosthenes, assumed the command, and this time liberated
+his country. But the year 278 brought with it the main storm,
+which spent its fury principally on Greece: Sosthenes was defeated
+and slain: and although the Greeks brought all their<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_277" id="Page_277">[Pg 277]</a></span>
+united forces into the field, Brennus and Acichorius burst into
+Greece on two different sides, and pushed on to Delphi, the object
+of their expedition; from hence, however, they were compelled
+to retreat; and most of them were cut off by hunger, cold,
+or the sword. Nevertheless a portion of those barbarians stood
+their ground in the interior of Thrace, which, consequently, was
+for the most part lost to Macedonia: another portion, consisting
+of various hordes, the Tectosag&aelig;, Tolistobii, and Trocmi, crossed
+over to Asia Minor, where they established themselves in the
+country called after them Galatia (see above, p. 236). Although
+there can be no doubt that the Tectosag&aelig; must have come from
+the innermost parts of Gaul, the mode of attack demonstrates
+that the main tide of invaders consisted of the neighbouring
+races; and, in fact, in those days the countries from the Danube
+to the Mediterranean and Adriatic were mostly occupied by
+Gauls.&mdash;Greece, though she strained every nerve, and with the
+exception of Peloponnesus, was united in one league, could scarcely
+bring forward more than 20,000 men to stem the torrent.</p></div>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Antigonus
+Gonnatas.</div>
+
+<p>11. Antigonus of Gonni, son to Demetrius, now
+seated himself on the vacant throne of desolated
+Macedon; he bought off his competitor, Antiochus
+I. named Soter, by treaty and marriage.
+Successfully as he opposed the new irruption of
+the Gauls, he was dethroned by Pyrrhus, who,
+<span class="sidenote">274.</span>
+on his return from Italy, was a second time proclaimed
+king of Macedonia. That prince, however,
+having formed the design of conquering the
+Peloponnesus, and, after an ineffectual attack on
+Sparta, which was repelled with heroic gallantry,
+wishing to take possession of Argos, fell at the
+<span class="sidenote">272.</span>
+storming of the latter place.</p>
+
+<div class="sblockquot"><p>Extraordinary as these frequent revolutions appear, they may
+be easily accounted for by the mode of warfare in those days.
+Every thing depended on the armies; and these were composed
+of mercenaries, ever willing to fight against him they had defended
+the day before, if they fancied his rival to be a more
+valiant or fortunate leader. Since the death of Alexander, the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_278" id="Page_278">[Pg 278]</a></span>
+Macedonian phalanx was no longer dependent on its captains,
+but they on their men. The impoverishment of the countries, in
+consequence of war, was such, that the soldier's was almost the
+only profitable trade; and none prosecuted that trade more ardently
+than the Gauls, whose services were ever ready for any
+one who chose to pay for them.</p></div>
+
+<p>12. After the death of Pyrrhus, Antigonus
+Gonnatas recovered the Macedonian throne, of
+which he and his descendants kept uninterrupted
+possession, yet not till after a violent contest with
+Alexander, the son and successor of Pyrrhus.
+But no sooner were they secure from foreign
+rivals, than the Macedonian policy was again
+directed against Greece, and the capture of
+Corinth seemed to insure the dependence of the
+whole country, when the formation of the &AElig;tolian,
+and the yet more important Ach&aelig;an, league,
+gave rise to relations entirely new, and of the
+highest interest, even for the universal history of
+the world. After so many storms, the sun of
+Greece was about to set in all his splendour!</p>
+
+<div class="sblockquot"><p>The ancient confederacy of the twelve Ach&aelig;an cities (see
+above, p. 145.) had subsisted until the death of Alexander, but
+was dissolved in the subsequent commotions; particularly when,
+after the battle of Ipsus, 301, Demetrius and his son made Peloponnesus
+the principal seat of their power. Some of these cities
+were now garrisoned by those princes, while in others arose
+tyrants, generally favourable to their interests. In 281, four
+asserted their freedom and renewed the ancient federation;
+which, five years afterwards, was gradually joined by the rest,
+Antigonus being busied elsewhere, in consequence of his occupation
+of the Macedonian throne. But the league did not become
+formidable till the accession of foreign states. This took place,
+in the first instance, with Sicyon, through the exertions of the
+liberator of that town, Aratus, who now became the animating
+spirit of the federation; and in 243 brought over Corinth, after
+the expulsion of the Macedonian garrison, and Megara. Afterwards
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_279" id="Page_279">[Pg 279]</a></span>
+the league gradually acquired strength, by the junction of
+several Grecian cities, Athens among others, 229; and thereby
+excited the jealousy of the rest. And as Aratus, who was more
+of a statesman than a general, and possessed but little independence,
+had in the very outset joined the party of Ptolemy II. the
+league soon became involved in the disputes of the great powers,
+and was too often but a mere tool in their hands. The main
+principles on which it was founded were the following: 1. Complete
+political equality of all the federate cities; in this respect
+it essentially differed from all the earlier federations in Greece.
+2. Unconditional preservation of the domestic government in
+every one of the cities. 3. The meeting twice a year of deputies
+from all the cities, at &AElig;gium, and afterwards at Corinth; for
+transacting all business of common interest, particularly foreign
+affairs, and also for the purpose of electing the strategus, or military
+leader and head of the union, and the ten demiurgi, or supreme
+magistrates.&mdash;But what more than all contributed to exalt this
+league, founded on pure liberty, was the virtue of Aratus, 213,
+Philop&#339;men, 183, and Lycortas, 170; men who breathed into
+it the spirit of union, until, enfeebled by Roman policy, it was
+overthrown.</p>
+
+<p>&#8224; <span class="smcap">Breitenbauch</span>, <i>History of the Ach&aelig;ans and their league</i>,
+1782.</p>
+
+<p>The &AElig;tolian league was formed about 284, in consequence of
+the oppressions of the Macedonian kings. The &AElig;tolians had
+likewise a yearly congress, pan&aelig;tolium, at Thermus; where they
+chose a strategus and the apocleti, who constituted the state
+council. They had, besides, their secretary,
+&#947;&#961;&#945;&#956;&#956;&#945;&#964;&#949;&#973;&#962;;
+and supervisors, &#7956;&#966;&#959;&#961;&#959;&#953;,
+whose particular functions are, however, matter
+of doubt. This federation did not increase like the Ach&aelig;an,
+none but &AElig;tolians being admitted. The more unpolished this
+piratical nation remained, the more frequently it was used as the
+tool of foreign, and particularly of Roman, policy.</p></div>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Demetrius
+II.
+243&mdash;233.</div>
+
+<p>13. Antigonus, in the latter part of his reign,
+had recourse to various means, and more especially
+to an alliance with the &AElig;tolians, for the
+purpose of counterpoising the Ach&aelig;ans. He died
+in his eightieth year, and was succeeded by his
+son, Demetrius II. who waged war upon the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_280" id="Page_280">[Pg 280]</a></span>
+&AElig;tolians, now, however, supported by the Ach&aelig;ans;
+and endeavoured to repress the growth of
+the latter, by favouring the tyrants of particular
+cities. The remainder of the reign of this prince
+is little more than a chasm in history.</p>
+
+<div class="sblockquot"><p>The vulgar assertion that this prince conquered Cyrene and
+Libya, originates in a confusion of names; his uncle Demetrius,
+son of Poliorcetes of Ptolemais, being mentioned by Plutarch as
+king of Cyrene. The history of that town, from 258 to 142, is
+enveloped in almost total darkness: cf. Prolog. Trogi, l. xxvi. ad
+calcem Justini.</p></div>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Antigonus
+Doson,<br />
+233&mdash;221.</div>
+
+<p>14. Demetrius's son Philip was passed over;
+his brother's son, Antigonus II. surnamed Doson,
+being raised to the throne. This king was occupied
+the most of his time by the events in Greece,
+where a very remarkable revolution at Sparta,
+as we learn from Plutarch, had raised up a formidable
+enemy against the Ach&aelig;ans; and so
+completely altered the relative position of affairs,
+that the Macedonians, from having been opponents,
+became allies of the Ach&aelig;ans.</p>
+
+<div class="sblockquot"><p>Sketch of the situation of Spartan affairs at this period: the
+ancient constitution still continued to exist in form; but the
+plunder of foreign countries, and particularly the permission to
+transfer landed estates, obtained by Epitadeus, had produced
+great inequality of property. The restoration of Lycurgus's constitution
+had, therefore, a twofold object; to favour the poor by
+a new agrarian law and release from debts, and to increase the
+power of the kings by repressing that of the ephori.&mdash;First attempt
+at reform 244, by king Agis III; attended in the beginning
+with partial success, but eventually frustrated by the
+other king, Leonidas, and terminating in the extinction of Agis
+and his family, 241. Leonidas, however, was succeeded, 236,
+by his son Cleomenes, who victoriously defeated the plans of
+Aratus to force Sparta to accede to the Ach&aelig;an league, 227;
+this king, by a forcible revolution, overthrew the ephori, and
+accomplished the project of Agis, at the same time increasing<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_281" id="Page_281">[Pg 281]</a></span>
+the Spartans by the admission of a number of peri&aelig;ci; and enforcing
+the laws of Lycurgus referring to private life; but as in
+a small republic a revolution cannot be confirmed without some
+external war, he attacked the Ach&aelig;ans as early as 224; these
+being defeated, implored, through Aratus, the help of Antigonus;
+Cleomenes in consequence was, at the battle of Sellasia, 222,
+obliged to yield to superior force, and with difficulty escaped
+over to Egypt; while Sparta was compelled to acknowledge her
+independence as a gift at the hands of Antigonus. Such was
+the miserable success of this attempt made by a few great men
+on a nation already degenerate. The quarrels between the ephori
+and king Lycurgus and his successor Machanidas, placed Sparta
+in a state of anarchy, which ended, 207, in the usurpation of the
+sovereign power by one Nabis, who destroyed the ancient form
+of government. Let him who would study great revolutions
+commence with that just described; insignificant as it is, none
+perhaps furnishes more instructive lessons.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Plutarchi</span> <i>Agis et Cleomenes</i>. The information in which
+is principally drawn from the Commentaries of Aratus.</p></div>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Philip II.
+221&mdash;179.</div>
+
+<p>15. Philip II. son of Demetrius. He ascended
+the throne at the early age of sixteen, endowed
+with many qualities, such as might, under favourable
+circumstances, have formed a great prince.
+Macedonia had recruited her strength during a
+long peace; and her grand political aim, the supremacy
+of Greece, secured by the connection of
+Antigonus with the Ach&aelig;ans, and by the victory
+of Sellasia, seemed to be already within her grasp.
+But Philip lived in a time when Rome was pursuing
+her formidable plans of aggrandizement:
+the more vigorous and prompt his efforts were to
+withstand that power, the more deeply was he
+entangled in the new maze of events, which embittered
+the rest of his life, and at last brought
+him to the grave with a broken heart, converted
+by misfortune into a despot.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">War of the
+two leagues,<br />
+221&mdash;217.</div>
+
+<p>16. The first five years of Philip were occupied
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_282" id="Page_282">[Pg 282]</a></span>by his participation in the war between the
+Ach&aelig;ans and &AElig;tolians, called the war of the two
+leagues; notwithstanding the treachery of his
+minister Apellas and his dependents, the prince
+was enabled to dictate the conditions of peace,
+according to which both parties were to remain
+in possession of what they then had. The conclusion
+of this peace was hastened by the news
+of Hannibal's victory at Thrasymenus, Philip being
+then instigated to form more extensive projects
+by Demetrius of Pharus, who had fled before the
+Romans, and soon acquired unlimited influence
+with the Macedonian king.</p>
+
+<div class="sblockquot"><p>The war of the two leagues arose out of the piracies of the
+&AElig;tolians on the Messenians, the latter of whom the Ach&aelig;ans
+undertook to protect, 221. The errors committed by Aratus
+compelled the Ach&aelig;ans to have recourse to Philip, 220; whose
+progress, however, was for a long time impeded by the artifices
+of Apellas's faction, who wished to overthrow Aratus. The
+Acarnanians, Epirots, Messenians, and Scerdilaidas of Illyria,
+(who, however, soon after declared against Macedonia,) combined
+with Philip and the Ach&aelig;ans; the &AElig;tolians, on the other
+hand, commanded by their own general, Scopas, had for their
+allies the Spartans and Eleans.&mdash;The most important consequence
+of this war for Macedonia was, that she began again to
+be a naval power.&mdash;About the same time a war broke out between
+the two trading republics of Byzantium and Rhodes (the
+latter supported by Prusias I. of Bithynia) insignificant in itself,
+but which, as a commercial war, originating in the duties imposed
+by the Byzantines, was the only one of its kind in this
+age, 222. The Rhodians, so powerful in those days by sea, compelled
+their adversaries to submit.</p></div>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Negotiations
+between
+Philip
+and
+Hannibal,
+214.</div>
+
+<p>17. The negotiations between Philip and Hannibal
+concluded with an alliance, in which reciprocal
+help was promised towards annihilating
+Rome. But Rome contrived to excite so many
+foes against Philip on the borders of his own<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_283" id="Page_283">[Pg 283]</a></span>
+kingdom, and availed herself so skilfully of her
+naval power, that the execution of this plan was
+prevented until it became possible to attack the
+Macedonian king in Greece; where he had made
+himself many enemies, by the domineering tone
+he had assumed towards his allies at the time
+that, sensible of his power, he was about to enter
+upon a wider sphere of action.</p>
+
+<div class="sblockquot"><p>Commencement of hostilities by Rome, against Philip: immediately
+that the alliance of Philip and Hannibal was known, a
+squadron with troops on board was stationed off the coast of
+Macedonia, by which the king himself was defeated at Apollonia,
+214.&mdash;Alliance of Rome with the &AElig;tolians, joined likewise
+by Sparta and Elis, Attalus king of Pergamus, and Scerdilaidas
+and Pleuratus, kings of Illyria, 211. On Philip's side were the
+Ach&aelig;ans, with whom Philop&#339;men more than supplied the loss
+of Aratus, occasioned, 213, by the Macedonian king; to them
+were joined the Acarnanians and B&aelig;otians.&mdash;Attacked on every
+side, Philip successfully extricated himself from his difficulties;
+in the first place, he compelled the &AElig;tolians, who had been
+abandoned by Attalus and Rome, to accept separate terms,
+which, shortly after, Rome, consulting her own convenience,
+converted into a general peace, inclusive of the allies on either
+side, 204.</p></div>
+
+<div class="sidenote">War with
+Attalus,
+203&mdash;200.</div>
+
+
+<p>18. New war of Philip against Attalus and the
+Rhodians, carried on for the most part in Asia
+Minor; and his impolitic alliance with Antiochus
+III. to attack Egypt. But can Philip be blamed
+for his endeavours to disarm the military servants
+of the Romans? Rome, however, did not grant
+him time to effect his designs; the Macedonian
+king was taught at Chios, by woeful experience,
+<span class="sidenote">202.</span>
+that his navy had not increased proportionably
+with that of the Rhodians.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">War with
+Rome,
+200&mdash;197.</div>
+
+<p>19. The war with Rome suddenly hurled the
+Macedonian power from its lofty pitch; and by
+laying the foundation of Roman dominion in the
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_284" id="Page_284">[Pg 284]</a></span>east, wrought a change in almost all the political
+relations of that quarter. The first two years of
+the war showed pretty evidently, that mere force
+<span class="sidenote">198.</span>
+could scarcely overturn the Macedonian throne.
+But T. Quintius Flaminius stepped forward; with
+the magic spell of freedom he intoxicated the
+Greeks; Philip was stripped of his allies; and
+the battle of Cynoscephal&aelig; decided everything.
+<span class="sidenote">197.</span>
+The articles of the peace were: 1. That all Grecian
+cities in Europe and Asia should be independent,
+and Philip should withdraw his garrisons.
+2. That he should surrender the whole of
+his navy, and never afterwards keep more than
+500 armed men on foot. 3. That he should not,
+without previously informing Rome, undertake
+any war out of Macedonia. 4. That he should
+pay 1,000 talents by instalments, and deliver up
+his younger son Demetrius as an hostage.</p>
+
+<div class="sblockquot"><p>The Roman allies in this war were: the &AElig;tolians, Athenians,
+Rhodians, the kings of the Athamanes, Dardanians, and Pergamus.&mdash;The
+Ach&aelig;ans at the beginning sided with Philip, but
+were subsequently gained over by Flaminius. See below, in the
+Roman History.</p></div>
+
+<div class="sidenote">196.</div>
+
+<p>20. Soon after, the freedom of Greece was
+solemnly proclaimed at the Isthmian games by
+Flaminius: but loud as the Greeks were in their
+exultations, this measure served merely to transfer
+the supremacy of their country from Macedonia
+to Rome: and Grecian history, as well as the
+Macedonian, is now interwoven with that of the
+Romans. To foster quarrels between the Greek
+states, with the especial view of hindering the
+Ach&aelig;ans from growing too formidable, now became
+a fundamental principle at Rome; and<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_285" id="Page_285">[Pg 285]</a></span>
+Roman and anti-Roman parties having quickly
+arisen in every city, this political game was easily
+played.</p>
+
+<div class="sblockquot"><p>Flaminius even took care that the Ach&aelig;ans should have an
+opponent in the person of Nabis, although under the necessity of
+waging war against him previous to his return into Italy, 194.&mdash;In
+192, war between Nabis and the Ach&aelig;ans; followed after
+the murder of Nabis, at the hands of the &AElig;tolians, by the accession
+of Sparta to the Ach&aelig;an league.&mdash;But about the same time
+Greece once more became the theatre of foreign war; Antiochus
+having firmly seated himself in the country, and enleagued
+himself with several tribes, but more particularly the &AElig;tolians,
+inspired with bitter and long-standing hatred against the
+Romans. These last, however, after the expulsion of Antiochus
+from Greece, 191, paid dearly for their secession; nor was peace
+granted them by Rome till after long and unsuccessful supplications,
+189.</p></div>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Fate of
+Philip.</div>
+
+
+<p>21. While war was pending between the Romans
+and Antiochus, Philip, in the character of
+one of the numerous allies of Rome, ventured to
+increase his territory at the expense of the Athamanes,
+Thracians, and Thessalians. To keep
+him in good humour he was permitted to effect
+those conquests; but after the termination of
+the war the oppression of Rome became so galling,
+<span class="sidenote">190.</span>
+that it could not be otherwise than that all
+his thoughts should centre in revenge, and all his
+exertions be directed towards the recovery of
+power. Meanwhile the violent measures adopted
+for repeopling his exhausted kingdom&mdash;such is
+the punishment of ambition which usually awaits
+even the victorious!&mdash;the transplantation of the
+inhabitants of whole cities and countries, and the
+consequent and unavoidable oppression of several
+of his neighbours, excited universal complaints;
+and where was the accuser of Philip to whom
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_286" id="Page_286">[Pg 286]</a></span>Rome would not now lend a ready ear?&mdash;His
+younger son, Demetrius, the pupil of Rome, and
+<span class="sidenote">183.</span>
+by her intended, it is probable, to succeed to the
+crown, alone diverted the impending fate of Macedonia.
+But after the return of that prince from
+his embassy, the envy of his elder and bastard
+brother, Perseus, grew into an inveterate rancour,
+such as could not be quenched but by the death
+<span class="sidenote">181.</span>
+of the younger. The lot of Philip was indeed
+hard, compelled as a father to judge between his
+two sons; but the measure of human woe was
+filled, when after the death of his favourite child
+he discovered that he was innocent; are we to
+wonder that sorrow should soon have hurried him
+<span class="sidenote">179.</span>
+to a premature grave!</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Roman policy
+against
+the Ach&aelig;an
+league.<br />
+189.<br />
+183.</div>
+
+<p>22. The same policy which was observed by
+the Romans towards Philip, they pursued towards
+the Ach&aelig;ans, with whom, since the termination
+of the war with Antiochus, they had assumed a
+loftier tone; and this artful game was facilitated
+by the continual quarrels among the Greeks themselves.
+Yet the great Philop&#339;men, worthy of a
+better age, maintained the dignity of the league
+at the very time that the Romans presumed to
+speak as arbitrators. After his decease they
+found it easy to raise a party among the Ach&aelig;ans
+themselves, the venal Callicrates offering his services
+for that purpose.</p>
+
+<div class="sblockquot"><p>The Ach&aelig;ans was continually embroiled either with Sparta or
+with Messene: the grounds of difference were, that in both of
+those states there were factions headed by persons who, out of
+personal motives, and for the most part hatred to Philop&#339;men,
+wished to secede from the league; on the other hand, the prevailing
+idea among the Ach&aelig;ans was, that this league ought to
+comprise the whole of the Peloponnesus. In the war against the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_287" id="Page_287">[Pg 287]</a></span>
+Messenians, 183, Philop&#339;men, at the age of seventy, was taken
+prisoner by the enemy and put to death.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Plutarchi</span>, <i>Philop&#339;men</i>. Nearly the whole of which is compiled
+from the lost biography of Polybius.</p></div>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Perseus,
+179&mdash;168.</div>
+
+<p>23. The last Macedonian king, Perseus, had
+inherited his father's perfect hatred of the Romans,
+together with talents, if not equal, at least
+but little inferior. He entered into the speculations
+of his predecessor, and the first seven years
+of his reign was occupied in constant exertions
+to muster forces against Rome; with this view
+he called the Bastarn&aelig; out of the north, in order
+to settle them in the territories of his enemies the
+Dardanians; he endeavoured to form alliances
+with the kings of Illyria, Thrace, Syria, and Bithynia;
+above all, he strove by negotiations and
+promises to reestablish the ancient influence of
+Macedonia in Greece.</p>
+
+<div class="sblockquot"><p>The settlement of the Bastarn&aelig; (probably a German race, resident
+beyond the Danube) in Thrace and Dardania, in order
+with them to carry war against the Romans, was one of the plans
+traced out by Philip, and now partially executed by Perseus.&mdash;In
+Greece the Macedonian party, which Perseus formed chiefly
+out of the great number of impoverished citizens in the country,
+would probably have gained the upper hand, had not the fear inspired
+by Rome, and the active vigilance of that power, interposed
+an effectual bar. Hence the Ach&aelig;ans, apparently at least,
+remained on the Roman side; the &AElig;tolians, by domestic factions,
+had worked their own destruction; the case was the same
+with the Acarnanians; and the federation of the B&#339;otians had
+been completely dissolved by the Romans, 171. On the other
+hand, in Epirus the Macedonian party was superior; Thessaly
+was occupied by Perseus; several of the Thracian tribes were
+friendly to him; and in king Gentius he found an ally who
+might have been highly useful, had not the Macedonian prince,
+by an ill-timed avarice, deprived himself of his assistance.</p></div>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Defeat at Perseus at
+Pidna.</div>
+
+<p>24.  The commencement of open hostilities was
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_288" id="Page_288">[Pg 288]</a></span>hastened by the bitter hatred existing between
+Perseus and Eumenes, and by the intrigues of
+the latter at Rome. Neglect of the favourable
+moment for taking the field, and the defensive
+system, skilfully in other respects as it was
+planned, caused the ruin of Perseus, as it had
+done that of Antiochus.  Nevertheless he protracted
+<span class="sidenote">172&mdash;168.</span>
+the war to the fourth year, when the battle
+of Pidna decided the fate both of himself and
+his kingdom.</p>
+
+<div class="sblockquot"><p>Miserable condition of Perseus until his capture at Samothrace;
+and afterwards until his death at Rome, 166.</p></div>
+
+<p>25. According to the system at that period followed
+by Rome, the conquered kingdom of Macedonia
+was not immediately converted into a province;
+it was first deprived of all offensive power,
+by being republicanized and divided into four
+districts, wholly distinct from one another, and
+bound to pay Rome half the tribute they were
+before wont to furnish to their kings.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Fall of the
+Ach&aelig;an
+league.</div>
+
+<p>26. It was in the natural order of things that
+the independence of Greece, and more especially
+that of the Ach&aelig;an league, should fall with Perseus.
+The political <i>inquisition</i> of the Roman commissaries
+not only visited with punishment the declared
+partizans of Macedonia; but even to have
+stood neutral was a crime that incurred suspicion.
+Rome, however, amid the rising hatred, did not
+deem herself secure until by one blow she had
+rid herself of all opponents of any importance.
+Above a thousand of the most eminent of the
+Ach&aelig;ans were summoned to Rome to justify
+themselves, and there detained seventeen years
+<span class="sidenote">Callicrates, 167&mdash;150.</span>
+in prison without a hearing. While at the head<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_289" id="Page_289">[Pg 289]</a></span>
+of the league, stood the man who had delivered
+them up, Callicrates, (<i>d.</i> 150.) a wretch who could,
+unmoved, hear "the very boys in the streets taunt
+him with treachery."&mdash;A more tranquil period, it
+is true, now ensued for Greece, but it was the
+result of very obvious causes.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Greece becomes
+a
+Roman
+province,
+150&mdash;148.</div>
+
+<p>27. The ultimate lot both of Macedon and
+was decided by the system now adopted
+at Rome, that of converting the previous dependence
+of nations into formal subjection. The insurrection
+of Andriscus in Macedonia, an individual
+who pretended to be the son of Perseus, was
+quelled by Metellus, the country being constituted
+a Roman province; two years afterwards, at
+the sack of Corinth, vanished the last glimmer of
+Grecian freedom.</p>
+
+<div class="sblockquot"><p>The last war of the Ach&aelig;ans arose out of certain quarrels with
+Sparta, 150, fomented by Di&aelig;us, Critolaus, and Damocritus, who
+had returned bitterly enraged from the Roman prison; in these
+disputes Rome interfered, with the design of wholly dissolving
+the Ach&aelig;an league. The first pretext that offered for executing
+this scheme was the ill-treatment of the Roman ambassadors at
+Corinth, 148; war, however, still raging with Carthage and
+Andriscus, the Romans preserved for the present a peaceful tone.
+But the party of Di&aelig;us and Critolaus would have war; the
+plenipotentiaries of Metellus were again insulted, and the
+Ach&aelig;ans declared war against Sparta and Rome. In the very
+same year they were routed by Metellus, and their leader Critolaus
+fell in the engagement; Metellus was replaced in the
+command by Mummius, who defeated Di&aelig;us the successor of
+Critolaus, took Corinth and razed it to the ground, 146. The
+consequence was, that Greece, under the name of Achaia, became
+a Roman province, although to a few cities, such as Athens, for
+instance, some shadow of freedom was still left.</p></div>
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_290" id="Page_290">[Pg 290]</a></span></p>
+
+<p class="cblockquot">IV. <i>History of some smaller or more distant Kingdoms
+and States erected out of the Macedonian monarchy.</i></p>
+
+<div class="sblockquot"><p><span class="smcap">Sources.</span> Besides the writers enumerated above, (see p. 232.)
+Memnon, an historian of Heraclea in Pontus, deserves particular
+mention in this place, (see p. 162): some extracts from his work
+have been preserved to us by Photius, Cod. 224. In some individual
+portions, as, for instance, in the Parthian history, Justin<a name="FNanchor_A_4" id="FNanchor_A_4"></a><a href="#Footnote_A_4" class="fnanchor">[a]</a>
+is our main authority; as are likewise Ammianus Marcellinus,
+and the extracts from Arrian's <i>Parthica</i>, found in Photius. The
+coins of the kings are also of great importance; but unfortunately
+Vaillant's Essay shows, that even with their assistance the chronology
+still remains in a very unsettled state. For the Jewish
+history, Josephus (see p. 35.) is the grand writer: of the Books
+of the Old Testament, those of Ezra and Nehemiah, together
+with the Maccabees, although the last are not always to be depended
+upon.</p>
+
+<p>The modern writers are enumerated below, under the heads of
+the different kingdoms. Much information is likewise scattered
+about in the works on ancient numismatics.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_A_4" id="Footnote_A_4"></a><a href="#FNanchor_A_4"><span class="label">[a]</span></a> As Justin did no more than extract from Trogus Pompeius, a question
+presents itself of great consequence to various portions of ancient history; what
+authorities did Trogus Pompeius follow? The answer will be found in two
+treatises by <span class="smcap">A. L. L. Heeren</span>: <i>De fontibus et auctoritate Trogi Pompeii, ejusque
+epitomatoris Justini</i>, inserted in <i>Comment. Soc. Gott.</i> vol. 15.</p></div>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Smaller
+states rising
+out of Alexander's
+empire.</div>
+
+<p>1. Besides the three main empires into which
+the monarchy of Alexander was divided, there
+likewise arose in those extensive regions several
+branch kingdoms, one of which even grew in time
+to be among the most powerful in the world. To
+these belong the kingdoms of, 1. Pergamus.
+2. Bithynia. 3. Paphlagonia. 4. Pontus. 5. Cappadocia.
+6. Great Armenia. 7. Little Armenia.
+8. Parthia. 9. Bactria. 10. Jewish state subsequent
+to the Maccabees.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_291" id="Page_291">[Pg 291]</a></span></p>
+<div class="sblockquot"><p>We are acquainted with the history of these kingdoms, the
+Jewish state alone excepted, only so far forth as they were implicated
+in the concerns of the greater empires; of their internal
+history we know little, often nothing. With respect to many of
+them, therefore, little more can be produced than a series of
+chronological data, indispensable, notwithstanding, to the general
+historian.</p></div>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Kingdom of
+Pergamus,<br />
+B. C. 283&mdash;133.</div>
+
+<p>2. The kingdom of Pergamus, in Mysia, arose
+during the war between Seleucus and Lysimachus.
+It owed its origin on the one hand to the
+prudence of its rulers, the wisest of whom luckily
+reigned the longest; and, on the other, to the
+weakness of the Seleucid&aelig;: for its progressive
+increase it was indebted to the Romans, who in
+aggrandizing the power of Pergamus acted with a
+view to their own interest. History exhibits
+scarcely one subordinate kingdom whose princes
+took such skilful advantage of the political circumstances
+of the times; and yet they earned
+still greater renown by the anxiety they showed,
+in rivalling the Ptolemies, to foster the arts of
+peace, industry, science, architecture, sculpture,
+and painting. How dazzling the splendour with
+which the small state of Pergamus outshines
+many a mighty empire!</p>
+
+<div class="sblockquot"><p>Philet&aelig;rus, lieutenant of Lysimachus, in Pergamus, asserts
+his independence; and maintains possession of the citadel and
+town, 283&mdash;263. His nephew, Eumenes I. 263&mdash;241, defeats
+Antiochus I. at Sardes, 263, and becomes master of &AElig;olis and
+the circumjacent country. His nephew, Attalus I. 241&mdash;197,
+after his victory over the Galatians, 239, becomes king of Pergamus:
+a noble prince, and one whose genius and activity embraced
+everything. His wars against Ach&aelig;us brought him in
+alliance with Antiochus III. 216. Commencement of an alliance
+with Rome, arising out of his participation in the &AElig;tolian league
+against Macedon, 211, in order to thwart Philip's project of conquest.
+Hence, after Philip's irruption into Asia, 203, participa<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_292" id="Page_292">[Pg 292]</a></span>tion
+on the side of Rome, in the Macedonian war. His son Eumenes
+II. the inheritor of all his father's great qualities succeeds
+him, 197&mdash;158. As a reward for his assistance against Antiochus
+the Great, the Romans presented him with almost all the
+territories possessed by the vanquished king in Asia Minor,
+(Phrygia, Mysia, Lycaonia, Lydia, Ionia, and a part of Caria,)
+which thereafter constituted the kingdom of Pergamus; this
+prince extended his frontiers, but lost his independence. In the
+war with Perseus he was scarce able to preserve the good will of
+the senate, and therewith his kingdom. His brother, Attalus II.
+158&mdash;138, a more faithful dependent of Rome, took part in
+nearly all the concerns of Asia Minor, more especially Bithynia.
+His nephew, Attalus III. 138&mdash;133, a prince of unsound mind,
+bequeathed his kingdom to the Romans, who, after vanquishing
+the lawful heir, Aristonicus, 130, took possession of it, annexing
+it to their empire, under the shape of a province called Asia.&mdash;Great
+discoveries and vast establishments made at Pergamus.
+Rich library; subsequently transferred by Antony to Alexandria,
+as a present for Cleopatra. Museum. Discovery of parchment,
+an invaluable auxiliary to the preservation of works of literature.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Choiseuil Gouffier</span>, <i>Voyage pittoresque de la Gr&egrave;ce</i>, vol.
+ii. 1809. Containing excellent observations, both on the monuments
+and history of Pergamus, as well as on those of all the
+neighbouring coasts and islands.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Sevin</span>, <i>Recherches sur les rois de Pergame</i>, inserted in the
+<i>M&eacute;m. de l'Acad. des Inscript.</i> vol. xii.</p>
+
+<p>From the fall of Tyre and the unsuccessful attempt of Demetrius,
+B. C. 307, to the establishment of Roman dominion in the
+east, 300&mdash;200, was the brilliant period of Rhodes; alike important
+for political wisdom, naval power, and extensive trade.
+At the head of the senate (&#946;&#959;&#965;&#955;&#8052;) were presidents,
+(&#960;&#961;&#965;&#964;&#945;&#957;&#949;&#8150;&#962;,)
+who went out of office every half year, and were honoured with
+precedence in the meetings of the commons. Friendship with
+all, alliance with none, was the fundamental maxim of Rhodian
+policy, until subverted by Rome. Thus was preserved the dignity
+of the state, together with its independence and political
+activity&mdash;where do we not meet with Rhodian embassies?&mdash;and
+permanent splendour, resulting from the cultivation of arts and
+sciences. What proofs of general commiseration did not Rhodes
+enjoy after that dreadful earthquake, which threw down even the
+famous colossus, 227! Long did her squadrons command the
+&AElig;g&aelig;an; over that sea, the Euxine, and the western parts of the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_293" id="Page_293">[Pg 293]</a></span>
+Mediterranean as far as Sicily, her commerce extended, consisting
+in the rich exchange of commodities between three quarters
+of the globe. Her revenue proceeded from the customs, and was
+abundant; until, blinded by avarice, she sought to obtain at
+Per&aelig;a a territory on the mainland; an ambition of which the
+Romans availed themselves to her detriment, by presenting her
+with Lycia and Caria, 190. And yet did this republic outlive that
+of Rome! Great, indeed, is the chasm left in general history by
+the loss of the internal history of this island!</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">P. D. Ch. Paulsen</span>, <i>Commentatio exhibens Rhodi descriptionem
+Macedonica &aelig;tate, Gotting&aelig;</i>, 1818. A prize essay.</p></div>
+
+<p>3. The other small kingdoms of Asia Minor are
+fragments rather of the Persian than of the Macedonian
+monarchy; for Alexander's march following
+another direction, they were not formally
+subjugated by that conqueror. The lines of their
+kings are generally traced back to an early period
+of the Persian age; but, properly speaking, their
+rulers in those days were nothing more than viceroys:
+selected indeed, for the most part, from the
+royal family, they bore the title of princes, and,
+in the gradual decline of the empire, not unfrequently
+threw up their allegiance. Nevertheless
+these kingdoms do not appear as really independent
+until after the time of Alexander. Connected
+with the Grecian republics Heraclea, Sinope,
+Byzantium, etc. they formed, both in the
+Macedonian and Roman ages, a system of small
+states, often distracted by internal wars, and still
+oftener mere tools in the hands of the more
+powerful.</p>
+
+<div class="sblockquot"><p>1. <i>Bithynia.</i> As early as the Persian period, mention is made
+of two kings in Bithynia, Dydalsus and Botyras. The son of
+the latter, Bias, B. C. 378&mdash;328, made head against Caranus,
+one of Alexander's generals; as did also his son Zip&#339;tas, <i>d.</i> 281,
+against Lysimachus.&mdash;Lycomedes I. <i>d.</i> 248. He called the Gauls<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_294" id="Page_294">[Pg 294]</a></span>
+over from Thrace, 278, and with their assistance deposed his
+brother Zip&#339;tas; the Gauls in consequence kept their footing in
+Galatia, and were for a long time an object of terror to Asia
+Minor. Zelas, <i>d.</i> about 232; established his dominion after a
+war with his half-brothers. Prusias I. son-in-law and ally of
+Philip II. of Macedon, <i>d.</i> 192. He sided with the Rhodians
+in the commercial war against Byzantium, 222, (see above,
+p. 282.) and directed his arms, 196, against Heraclea, a Grecian
+city in Bithynia, with a respectable territory along shore. Prusias
+II. waged war against Eumenes II. at the instigation of
+Hannibal, who had fled to his court, 184; he was subsequently
+about to deliver up the fugitive to the Romans; had not Hannibal
+put a period to his existence, 183: this king likewise waged
+war against Attalus II. 153; in both these contests Rome acted
+as mediator. Prusias, who had the meanness to style himself a
+freedman of the Romans, was dethroned by his own son, Nicomedes
+II. <i>d.</i> 92; a confederate of Mithridates the Great, with
+whom, nevertheless, he afterwards fell out concerning the appropriation
+of Paphlagonia and Cappadocia. Nicomedes was murdered
+by his son Socrates, who was, however, compelled to flee;
+in consequence of which Nicomedes III. succeeded to the crown.
+Deposed by Mithridates, who supported his half-brother Socrates,
+he was reinstated by Rome, 90. Having, however, at the instigation
+of the Romans, 89, attacked Mithridates, he was defeated
+and expelled in the first Mithridatic war, now kindled; but in
+the peace of 85, he was again reinstated by Sulla. At his death,
+75, he bequeathed Bithynia to the Romans; and this legacy gave
+rise to the third Mithridatic war.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Vaillant</span>, <i>Imperium Arsacidarum</i>, vol. ii. See below.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Sevin</span>, <i>Recherches sur les rois de Bithynie</i>; inserted in the
+<i>M&eacute;m. de l'Acad&eacute;mie des Inscript.</i> vol. xii.</p>
+
+<p>2. <i>Paphlagonia.</i> Even in the Persian age, the rulers of this
+country were but nominally subject. After Alexander's death,
+B. C. 323, it fell into the hands of the kings of Pontus; it was,
+however, subsequently, again ruled by its own monarchs; among
+whom we hear of Morzes, about 179; Pyl&aelig;menes I. about 131:
+who assisted the Romans in the war against Aristonicus of Pergamus.&mdash;Pyl&aelig;menes
+II. <i>d.</i> before 121; who is said to have bequeathed
+his kingdom to Mithridates V. of Pontus. Hence
+Paphlagonia came to be implicated in the fortunes of Pontus,
+(see just below,) until after the fall of Mithridates the Great, 63,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_295" id="Page_295">[Pg 295]</a></span>
+that kingdom was converted into a province, with the exception
+of one of the southern districts, to which the Romans left some
+shadow of freedom.</p>
+
+<p>3. <i>Pontus.</i> The later kings of this country derived their origin
+from the family of the Ach&aelig;menid&aelig;, or house of Persia. In the
+Persian age they remained dependent or tributary princes: and
+as such we must consider Artabazes, son of Hystaspes, <i>d.</i> 480,
+Mithridates I. <i>d.</i> 368, and Ariobarzanes, <i>d.</i> 337, mentioned as
+the earliest kings of Pontus.  Mithridates II. surnamed Ctistes,
+<i>d.</i> 302, was one of the first to acknowledge subjection to Alexander;
+after the death of the conqueror he sided with Antigonus,
+who treacherously caused him to be murdered. His son, Mithridates
+III. <i>d.</i> 266, (the Ariobarzanes of Memnon,) not only maintained
+himself after the battle of Ipsus against Lysimachus, but
+likewise possessed himself of Cappadocia and Paphlagonia. Mithridates
+IV. father-in-law to Antiochus the Great, waged an unsuccessful
+war against Sinope. The year of his death is undetermined,
+Pharnaces, <i>d.</i> about 156. He conquered Sinope 183;
+and that town then became the royal residence. War with Eumenes
+II. whom Rome had made so powerful, and with his allies;
+terminated by a treaty, according to which Pharnaces ceded
+Paphlagonia, B. C. 179. Mithridates V. <i>d.</i> about 121. He was
+an ally of the Romans, from whom, after the defeat of Aristonicus
+of Phrygia, he contrived to obtain Great Phrygia. Mithridates
+VI. surnamed Eupator, about 121&mdash;64. He bore the title of
+Great, an epithet to which he was as fully entitled as Peter I. in
+modern history; indeed he resembled the Russian prince in
+almost everything except in good fortune. His reign, although
+of the highest importance to general history, is, particularly in
+the portion previous to the wars with Rome, replete with chronological
+difficulties.&mdash;At the age of twelve years he inherits from
+his father not only Pontus, but likewise Phrygia, and a reversionary
+title to the throne of Paphlagonia, vacated by the death
+of Pyl&aelig;menes II.&mdash;During his nonage, 121&mdash;112, while by
+voluntarily inuring himself to hardships, he contrived to elude
+the treacherous hostility of his guardians, Rome deprived him of
+Phrygia. His conquests in Colchis and on the eastern side of
+the Black sea, 112&mdash;110.&mdash;Commencement of the Scythian wars.
+Called by the Greeks of Crimea to their assistance, he expelled
+the Scythians; subjected several insignificant Scythian princes
+on the mainland; and entered into alliances with the Sarmatic<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_296" id="Page_296">[Pg 296]</a></span>
+and even Germanic races as far as the Danube, 108&mdash;105, having
+already a view to the invasion of Italy from the north.&mdash;This war
+ended, he travels over Asia, (Asia Minor?) about 104&mdash;103.&mdash;At
+his return, after punishing with death his faithless sister and wife,
+Laodice, he makes good his pretensions to Paphlagonia, which he
+divides with Nicomedes II. 102. The Roman senate demanding
+the restoration of that province, Mithridates not only refuses to
+accede, but likewise takes possession of Galatia; meanwhile Nicomedes
+places on the throne of Paphlagonia one of his own sons,
+whom he gives out to be a son of Pyl&aelig;menes II. and denominates
+Pyl&aelig;menes III.&mdash;Rupture with Nicomedes II. 101; the
+subject of dispute, Cappadocia, which, after removing the king,
+Ariarathes VII. his brother-in-law, with the assistance of Gordius,
+Mithridates himself now wished to possess; he is anticipated,
+however, by Nicomedes II. who marries Laodice, Ariarathes's
+widow.&mdash;Mithridates, notwithstanding, expels his rival, under
+pretence of holding the kingdom for his sister's son, Ariarathes
+VIII. whom at the end of a few months he puts to death at a
+private conference, 94; he defeats the brother of the murdered
+prince, Ariarathes IX. and then places on the throne, under the
+name of Ariarathes X. his own son, who is given out to be a third
+son of Ariarathes VII; in opposition to whom Nicomedes sets up
+another pretended Ariarathes. The Roman senate, meanwhile,
+declare both Paphlagonia and Cappadocia free, B. C. 92; attending,
+however, to the desires of the Cappadocians, they sanction
+the election of Ariobarzanes to the crown; and he is put in possession
+of the kingdom by Sylla, as propr&aelig;tor of Cilicia, likewise
+in 92.&mdash;Mithridates, on the other hand, forms an alliance with
+the king of Armenia, Tigranes, to whom he gives his daughter in
+marriage; and employs him in expelling Ariobarzanes.&mdash;He
+himself, after the death of Nicomedes II. 92, supports the claims
+of the deceased king's exiled son, Socrates Chrestus, against the
+bastard Nicomedes III. and in the mean time takes possession of
+Paphlagonia. Nicomedes and Ariobarzanes are reinstated by a
+Roman embassy, 90, Mithridates, in order to gain time against
+Rome, causing Socrates to be put to death. The hostilities of
+Nicomedes, instituted by Rome, gave rise to the first Roman war,
+89&mdash;85, carried on in Asia and Greece, and brought to a conclusion
+by Sylla. By the peace of 85, Mithridates restores Bithynia,
+Cappadocia, and Paphlagonia.&mdash;War with the revolted
+Colchians and Bosporans, 84.&mdash;Second war with Rome brought<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_297" id="Page_297">[Pg 297]</a></span>
+about by the Roman governor, Murena, 83&mdash;81. Mithridates
+hereupon appoints his son, Machares, king of Bosporus, (Crimea,)
+whom he afterwards himself causes to be put to death, 66; he
+was likewise, in all probability, the instigator of the migration of
+the Sarmat&aelig; out of Asia into Europe, in order to maintain his
+conquests in that quarter, about 80. Fresh disputes with Rome
+about Cappadocia, of which Tigranes takes possession, and third
+war with Rome, 75&mdash;64. The contest ended in the downfal of
+Mithridates, caused by the treachery of his son Pharnaces;
+Pontus became a Roman province; although the Romans, in the
+sequel, appointed over a portion of the country princes from the
+royal house, Darius, Polemo I. Polemo II. until Nero reduced
+it again wholly to the state of a province.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Vaillant</span>, <i>Imperium Ach&aelig;menidarum</i> in his <i>Imperium Arsacidarum</i>,
+tom. ii. With the assistance of the coins.</p>
+
+<p>For the history of Mithridates the Great, previously treated
+without sufficient chronological accuracy, see <span class="smcap">De Brosses</span>, <i>Histoire
+de la R&eacute;p. Romaine</i>, and more especially</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Joan. Ernst. Woltersdorf</span>, <i>Commentatio vitam Mithridatis
+Magni, per annos digestam, sistens; pr&aelig;mio ornata ab A. Phil.
+Ord. Gotting&aelig;:, A</i>. 1812.</p>
+
+<p>4. <i>Cappadocia.</i> Until the time of Alexander this country
+remained a province of the Persian empire, although the governors
+occasionally made attempts at insurrection. The ruling family
+was here likewise a branch of the royal house; Ariarathes I. was
+particularly distinguished about B. C. 354. The prince contemporary
+with Alexander was Ariarathes II. who, being attacked
+by Perdiccas and Eumenes, fell in the contest, 322. Nevertheless,
+his son, Ariarathes III. supported by the Armenians, recovered
+the sceptre about 312. The son of this king, Ariaramnes,
+formed a matrimonial connection with the Seleucid&aelig;, uniting his
+son Ariarathes IV. with the daughter of Antiochus &#920;&#949;&#972;&#962;. Ariarathes
+IV. during his lifetime, associated in the government his son
+Ariarathes V. <i>d.</i> 162. who married Antiochis, daughter to Antiochus
+the Great: this princess, finding herself at first barren,
+procured two supposititious sons, one of whom, Orophernes, subsequently
+wrested the sceptre from the legitimate and later born
+son, Ariarathes VI. but was afterwards expelled by the rightful
+heir, 157. In the war against Aristonicus of Pergamus, 131, he
+fell, as an ally of the Romans, leaving behind him six sons; five of
+whom were cut off by his ambitious relict Laodice; the sixth<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_298" id="Page_298">[Pg 298]</a></span>
+however, Ariarathes VII. ascended the throne, and was married
+to Laodice, sister of Mithridates the Great, at whose instigation
+he was murdered by Gordius, under pretence of placing on the
+throne his sister's son, Ariarathes VIII; this last prince was soon
+after treacherously put to death by Mithridates, 94, and his brother
+Ariarathes IX. defeated 93, died of a broken heart; Mithridates
+then placed on the throne his own son, Ariarathes X. a lad
+eight years old. The independence of Cappadocia having meanwhile
+been proclaimed at Rome, the inhabitants of the country,
+in order to preclude domestic broils, themselves elect a king, appointing
+to that dignity Ariobarzanes I. who was installed by
+Sylla, 92, and, backed by the Romans, kept his footing in the
+Mithridatic wars. In 63 he made the crown over to his son,
+Ariobarzanes II. who was slain by the army of Brutus and Cassius,
+43, as was his brother, Ariobarzanes III. 34, by Mark
+Antony; Antony then appointed Archelaus to be king, who enticed
+to Rome by Tiberius, A. D. 17, was there assassinated;
+and Cappadocia then became a Roman province.</p>
+
+<p>5. <i>Armenia</i> was a province of the Syrian empire until the defeat
+of Antiochus the Great by Rome, 190. That defeat was
+followed by the accession of Antiochus's lieutenants, Artaxias
+and Zariadras; and now arose the two kingdoms of Armenia
+Major and Armenia Minor (the latter on the west bank of the
+Upper Euphrates). In Armenia Major the family of Artaxias
+kept possession of the throne, under eight (according to others
+<i>ten</i>) consecutive kings, until B. C. 5.&mdash;The only remarkable
+prince of this line was Tigranes I. 95&mdash;60, son-in-law and ally
+of Mithridates the Great, and lord of Asia Minor, Cappadocia,
+and Syria. He was, however, at the peace of 63, obliged to give
+up all, so that Armenia was dependent on the Romans, and remained
+so until B. C. 5, when it became the object of contention
+between the Romans and Parthians, being ruled at intervals by
+kings appointed by both parties, who endeavoured thereby to
+protect their own provinces. Finally, in A. D. 412, Armenia became
+a province of the new Persian empire.&mdash;In Asia Minor the
+descendants of Zariadras ruled dependently on Rome; after its
+defection under Mithridates the Great it usually formed part of
+some one of the neighbouring kingdoms, until in the reign of
+Vespasian it was converted into a province of the Roman empire.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Vaillant</span>, <i>Elenchus regum Armeni&aelig; Majoris</i>, in his <i>Hist.
+Imp. Arsacidarum</i>.</p></div><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_299" id="Page_299">[Pg 299]</a></span></p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Bactrian
+and Parthian
+empires.</div>
+
+<p>4. Besides the above small kingdoms, two
+mighty empires arose in Inner Asia, both out
+of Alexander's monarchy, and at the same time:
+these were the Parthian and the Bactrian; each
+having previously constituted a part of the empire
+of the Seleucid&aelig;, from which they seceded under
+Antiochus II. The Parthian kingdom, or that of
+the Arsacid&aelig;, B. C. 256&mdash;A. D. 226, at the maximum
+of its extension, comprised the countries
+between the Euphrates and Indus. Its history,
+so far as we are acquainted with it, is divided
+into four periods (see below); but unfortunately
+our information is so imperfect respecting all that
+relates to the Parthians, except their wars, that
+even the most important particulars are beyond
+the reach of conjecture.</p>
+
+<div class="sblockquot"><p>Main facts in the history and constitution of the Parthian kingdom.
+<i>a.</i> Like the ancient Persian empire, the Parthian arose out
+of the conquests made by a rude mountain race of Central Asia,
+whose Scythian (probably Tatarian) origin, betrayed itself even in
+later times by their speech and mode of life: their conquests,
+however, were not effected with the same rapidity as those of the
+Persians. <i>b.</i> This empire increased at the expense of the Syrian
+in the west, and of the Bactrian in the east; but its dominion was
+never permanently established beyond the Euphrates, Indus, and
+Oxus. <i>c.</i> The wars with Rome, commencing in B. C. 53, and
+springing out of disputes for the possession of the Armenian
+throne, were for a long time unfortunate for the Romans. Success
+did not accompany the arms of Rome until she had discovered the
+art of raising her own parties within the kingdom itself, by lending
+her support to pretenders, an art rendered comparatively easy,
+by the unfavourable situation of the Parthian capital Seleucia
+and the neighbouring town of Ctesiphon, the real head quarters
+of the court. <i>d.</i> The empire was indeed divided into satrapies,
+eighteen of which are enumerated; nevertheless it comprised
+likewise several small kingdoms, which preserved their own<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_300" id="Page_300">[Pg 300]</a></span>
+rulers, only that they were tributary, such, for instance, as Persis,
+etc. The Gr&aelig;co-Macedonian settlements were also in possession
+of great privileges, and of their own civic governments;
+Seleucia more especially, where the coins of the Parthian sovereigns
+were struck. <i>e.</i> The constitution was monarchal-aristocratic,
+something like that of the Poles, in the period of the
+Jagellons. At the king's side sat a supreme state council, (<i>senatus</i>,
+in all probability what was called the <i>megistanes</i>,) who had
+the power of deposing the king, and the privilege, it is supposed,
+of confirming his accession previous to the ceremony of coronation,
+performed by the field-marshals (<i>surenas</i>). The right of
+succession was only so far determined as belonging to the house
+of the Arsacid&aelig;; the many pretenders to which this uncertainty
+gave rise, produced factions and domestic wars, doubly injurious
+to the empire when fomented and shared by foreigners. <i>f.</i> With
+regard to Asiatic commerce, the Parthian supremacy was of importance,
+inasmuch as it interrupted the direct intercourse between
+the western and eastern countries: it being a maxim of
+the Parthians not to grant a passage through their country to any
+stranger. This destruction of the trade occurs in the third period
+of the empire, being a natural result of the many wars with
+Rome, and the distrust thence ensuing. The East India trade,
+in consequence, took another road through Palmyra and Alexandria,
+which were indebted to it for their splendour and prosperity.
+<i>g.</i> It is probable that this was the reason why excessive
+luxury took a less hold on the Parthians than on the other ruling
+nations of Asia, notwithstanding their predilection for Grecian
+manners and literature, at that time generally prevalent throughout
+the east.</p>
+
+<p><i>Line of the kings.</i> I. Syrian period; that of reiterated wars
+with the Seleucid&aelig;, until 130. Arsaces I. 256&mdash;253, founder of
+the Parthian independence, by procuring the death of the Syrian
+viceroy, Agathocles, to which he was instigated by the insult
+offered to his brother Tiridates. Arsaces II. (Tiridates I.) brother
+of the foregoing, <i>d.</i> 216. He possessed himself of Hyrcania,
+about 244, confirmed the Parthian power by a victory on Seleucus
+Callinicus, 238, whom he took prisoner, 236. Arsaces III.
+(Artabanus I.) <i>d.</i> 196. In his reign occurred the unsuccessful
+attempt of Antiochus III. who, in the treaty of 210, was obliged
+to renounce all claims on Parthia and Hyrcania, in return for
+which Arsaces lent his assistance to Antiochus in the war against<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_301" id="Page_301">[Pg 301]</a></span>
+Bactria. Arsaces IV. (Priapatius,) <i>d.</i> about 181. Arsaces V.
+(Phraates I.) <i>d.</i> about 144; he conquered the Mardians on the
+Caspian. His brother, Arsaces VI. (Mithridates I.) <i>d.</i> 136. He
+raised the hitherto confined kingdom of Parthia to the rank of a
+mighty empire, having, after the decease of Antiochus Epiphanes,
+164, by the capture of Media, Persis, Babylonia, and other
+countries, extended the frontiers westward to the Euphrates, and
+eastward to the Hydaspes, beyond the Indus. The invasion of
+Demetrius II. of Syria, supported by an insurrection of the conquered
+races, ended, 140, in the capture of the aggressor. Arsaces
+VII. (Phraates II.) <i>d.</i> about 127. Invasion of Antiochus
+Sidetes, 132, who was at first successful, but being soon afterwards
+cut off together with his whole army, 131, the Parthian
+empire was for ever freed from the attacks of the Syrian kings.</p>
+
+<p>II. Period of the eastern nomad wars; from 130&mdash;53. After
+the fall of the Bactrian empire, which had hitherto formed the
+eastern rampart of the Parthians, violent wars took place with
+the nomad tribes of Central Asia (Scyth&aelig;, Dah&aelig;, Tochari, etc.)
+in which Arsaces VII. was slain. Arsaces VIII. (Artabanus II.)
+shared the same fate about 124. Arsaces IX. (Mithridates II.)
+<i>d.</i> 87. This prince appears to have restored tranquillity to the
+east after bloody wars; he met, however, with a powerful rival
+in Tigranes I. of Armenia. In his reign occurred the first transactions
+between the Parthians and Romans, 92, Sylla being propr&aelig;tor
+of Cilicia. Arsaces X. (Mnasciras,) <i>d.</i> about 76, waged
+a long war for the succession with his follower on the throne, the
+septuagenarian, Arsaces XI. (Sinatroces,) <i>d.</i> about 68. Unsuccessful
+war with Tigranes I. In consequence of civil wars, and of
+that with Tigranes, together with the formidable power of Mithridates
+the Great, the Parthian empire was now greatly weakened.
+Arsaces XII. (Phraates III.) <i>d.</i> 60, contemporary with the third
+Mithridatic war. Although both parties eagerly courted his alliance,
+and he himself was engaged in the contest with Tigranes,
+he, notwithstanding, observed an armed neutrality, and made the
+Parthian empire continue to be respected as far as the Euphrates.
+Neither Lucullus nor Pompey durst attack him. The fall of
+Mithridates and of his empire, 64, constitutes, however, an epoch
+in the Parthian history, the Romans and Parthians having now
+become immediate neighbours.&mdash;Arsaces XIII. (Mithridates II.)
+<i>d.</i> 54, deposed after several wars, by his younger brother Orodes,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_302" id="Page_302">[Pg 302]</a></span>
+and at last put to death, after the capture of Babylonia, where
+he had taken refuge.</p>
+
+<p>III. Roman period; from B. C. 53, to A. D. 226; comprising
+the wars with Rome. Arsaces XIV. (Orodes I.) <i>d.</i> 36. In his
+reign the first war with Rome, caused by the invasion of Crassus;
+it ends in the annihilation of the invading army and general,
+53. In consequence of this victory the Parthians acquired such
+preponderance, that during the civil wars they were frequently
+masters on this side of the Euphrates, and in 52&mdash;51 proceeded
+to attack Syria.&mdash;In the war between Pompey and C&aelig;sar they
+sided with the former, and thus furnished the latter with a pretext
+for his Parthian expedition, which, however, was prevented
+by his murder in 44; again in the war between the triumviri
+and Brutus and Cassius, 42, they took the republican side. After
+the defeat of Brutus and Cassius, the Parthians, at the instigation
+of the Roman general and ambassador Labienus, and commanded
+by him and Pacorus, (eldest son to Arsaces,) spread over the
+whole of Syria and Asia Minor, 40; but, after violent exertions,
+were driven back by Ventidius, Antony's general, 39, 38; Pacorus
+lost his life, and his father died of grief. Arsaces XV.
+(Phraates IV.) <i>d.</i> A. D. 4, contemporary of Augustus. He confirmed
+his power by murdering his brothers and their dependents;
+his views were likewise furthered by the failure of Antony's
+expedition, B. C. 36, which ended pretty nearly in the
+same manner as that of Crassus. The remainder of his reign
+was disturbed by a pretender to the throne, Tiridates, who, after
+his defeat, 25, found an asylum at the court of Augustus. The
+threatened attack of Augustus was diverted by Phraates's restoration
+of the standards taken from Crassus, 20; a dispute,
+however, subsequently arose respecting the possession of the Armenian
+throne, A. D. 2, on which account Caius C&aelig;sar was despatched
+into Asia, and accommodated matters by a treaty. The
+ultimate fate both of the king and the empire was principally
+decided by a female slave, Thermusa, sent as a present from Augustus;
+this woman, wishing to ensure the succession to her own
+son, prevailed upon the king to send his four sons to Rome as
+hostages, under the pretext of anticipating domestic troubles, 18.&mdash;A
+practice which from that time became frequent, the Parthian
+kings thinking it a convenient mode of ridding themselves of
+dangerous competitors, while the Romans knew how to make the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_303" id="Page_303">[Pg 303]</a></span>
+proper use of them.&mdash;Thermusa's son having grown up, she removed
+the king, and seated Phraataces on the throne, under the
+name of Arsaces XVI; he was, however, put to death by the
+Parthians, A. D. 4; and the crown given to one of the Arsacid&aelig;,
+Orodes II, (Arsaces XVII.) who was, however, immediately afterwards
+slain by reason of his cruelty. In consequence, Vonones
+I. the eldest of the sons of Phraates sent to Rome, was
+called back and placed on the throne (Arsaces XVIII.); but
+that prince having brought with him Roman customs and luxury,
+was expelled, A. D. 14, with the assistance of the northern nomads,
+by Artabanes III. (Arsaces XIX.) <i>d.</i> 44, a distant relation:
+the fugitive took possession of the vacant throne of Armenia,
+but was soon after driven from thence likewise by his rival.
+Tiberius took advantage of the consequent disorders to send Germanicus
+into the east, A. D. 17, from whence he was never to return.
+The remainder of the reign of Artabanus was very stormy,
+Tiberius on the one hand taking advantage of the factions
+between the nobles to support pretenders to the crown; the
+revolts of the satraps, on the other hand, giving proof of the declension
+of the Parthian power. After his death war raged between
+his sons; the second, Vardanes, (Arsaces XX.) <i>d.</i> 47,
+made good his pretensions to the crown, and took North Media,
+(Atropatene;) he was succeeded by his elder brother Gotarzes,
+(Arsaces XXI.) <i>d.</i> 50, to whom Claudius unsuccessfully opposed
+Meherdates, educated as an hostage at Rome. Arsaces XXII.
+(Vonones II.) succeeded, after a reign of a few months, by Arsaces
+XXIII. (Vologeses I.) <i>d.</i> 90. The possession of the Armenian
+throne, given by this prince to his brother Tiridates, by the
+Romans to Tigranes, grandson of Herod the Great, excited a
+series of disputes, which began so early as the reign of Claudius,
+A. D. 52, and under Nero broke out into open war, waged with
+some success on the Roman side by Corbulo, 56&mdash;64, and closed
+by Tiridates going, after the death of Tigranes, to Rome, and
+there accepting the crown of Armenia as a gift at the hands of
+Nero, 65. Arsaces XXIV. (Pacorus,) <i>d.</i> 107, contemporary with
+Domitian. All that we know of him is, that he embellished the
+city of Ctesiphon. Arsaces XXV. (Cosroes,) <i>d.</i> about 121. The
+claims to the throne of Armenia implicated him in a war with
+Trajan, 114, during which Armenia, together with Mesopotamia
+and Assyria, were converted into Roman provinces. Trajan's
+consequent and successful inroad into the interior parts of the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_304" id="Page_304">[Pg 304]</a></span>
+Parthian dominions, 115&mdash;116, followed by the capture of Ctesiphon,
+and the appointment of Parthamaspates as king, appears
+to have been facilitated by the domestic commotions and civil
+wars which had for a long time harassed the empire. Nevertheless,
+in the following year, 117, Hadrian was compelled to give
+up all the conquered country; the Euphrates was again acknowledged
+as the boundary; Parthamaspates was appointed king of
+Armenia; and Cosroes, who had taken refuge in the upper satrapies,
+was reinstated on the throne, of which he seems ever after
+to have kept quiet possession. Arsaces XXVI. (Vologeses II.)
+<i>d.</i> 149. Parthia under his reign, and Rome under that of Antoninus
+Pius, remained on good terms. Arsaces XXVII. (Vologeses
+III.) <i>d.</i> 191. Under the reign of this king, the contemporary
+of Marcus Aurelius and L. Verus, the war with Rome was
+again kindled, 161, by Verus, and carried on in Armenia and
+Syria; Cassius, the legate of Verus, at last got possession of
+Seleucia, and demolished that city, 165.&mdash;Arsaces XXVIII.
+(Ardawan or Vologeses IV.) <i>d.</i> 207. This king having taken
+the part of Pescenninus Niger, in the war between him and Septimius
+Severus, was, after the defeat of his friend, 194, routed in
+a war with Septimius Severus, 197, and the chief towns of Parthia
+were sacked by the invaders. He is, without authority, represented
+as succeeded by a Pacorus, who took the name of Arsaces
+XXIX.: his real successor, however, appears to have been Arsaces
+XXIX. (Vologeses V.) <i>d.</i> 216. Domestic wars among his
+sons, fomented by Caracalla. Arsaces XXX. (Artabanus IV.)
+At the beginning of his reign, this prince likewise was contemporary
+with Caracalla, who, in order to pick a quarrel, demanded
+his daughter in marriage; according to some, Arsaces refused
+her, in consequence of which the Roman emperor undertook a
+campaign into Armenia; according to others, Arsaces having assented,
+and escorted his daughter to Caracalla, was, by an abominable
+stroke of treachery, cut off, together with all his train,
+A. D. 216. Caracalla having been murdered, 217, his successor,
+Macrinus, signed a peace with the Parthians. But Arsaces subsequently
+raised his brother Tiridates to the throne of Armenia;
+this act spurred the Persian Artaxerxes, son of Sassan, to rebellion;
+the Parthian king, defeated in three battles, fell in the last,
+thus putting a period to the family and dominion of the Arsacid&aelig;,
+226, and Artaxerxes became the founder of the New Persian
+kingdom, or that of the Sassanid&aelig;. The revolution was
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_305" id="Page_305">[Pg 305]</a></span>
+accompanied not only with a change of dynasty, but with a total
+subversion of the constitution.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Vaillant</span>, <i>Imperium Arsacidarum et Ach&aelig;menidarum</i>, Paris,
+1725, 2 vols. 4to. The first part comprises the Arsacid&aelig;; the
+second the kings of Bithynia, Pontus, and Bosporus. It is an
+attempt, not altogether faultless, to arrange the series of kings,
+by the assistance of coins.</p>
+
+<p>&#8224; <span class="smcap">C. F. Richter</span>, <i>Historico-critical essay upon the dynasties
+of the Arsacid&aelig; and Sassanid&aelig;, according to the Persian, Grecian,
+and Roman authorities</i>. A prize essay. Leipzic, 1804.
+A comparative research into the eastern and western sources.
+The chronology in the above sketch has been corrected by this
+work, in conjunction with</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Th. Chr. Tychsen</span>, <i>Commentationes de Nummis Persarum et
+Arsacidarum</i>; inserted in <i>Commentat. Nov. Soc. Sc. Gotting.</i>
+vol. i. iii.</p></div>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Bactria.</div>
+
+<p>5. The Bactrian kingdom arose nearly at the
+same time as the Parthian, 254; its origin, however,
+was of a different nature,&mdash;the independence
+of this state being asserted by the Grecian
+governor, who was consequently succeeded by
+Greeks;&mdash;its duration likewise was much shorter,
+extending only from B. C. 254 to B. C. 126.
+Scarce any fragments have been preserved of the
+history of this empire, the borders of which appear
+at one time to have extended to the banks
+of the Ganges, and the frontiers of China.</p>
+
+<div class="sblockquot"><p>Founder of the empire, Diodatus or Theodotus I. B. C. 254;
+he threw off his allegiance to the Syrian king, under Antiochus
+II. He appears to have been master not only of Bactria, but
+also of Sogdiana. He likewise threatened the Parthians; after
+his decease, 243, his son and successor, Theodotus II. signed a
+treaty and alliance with Arsaces II. but was nevertheless deprived
+of his crown by Euthydemus of Magnesia, about 221. Antiochus
+the Great, at the conclusion of the Parthian war, directed his
+arms against Euthydemus, 209&mdash;206; the contest ended in a
+peace, by which Euthydemus, after delivering up his elephants,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_306" id="Page_306">[Pg 306]</a></span>
+was not only left in possession of the crown, but was allied to the
+Syrian family by the marriage of his son Demetrius with a
+daughter of Antiochus. Demetrius, though a great conqueror,
+does not seem to have been king of Bactria; his dominions comprised,
+it is probable, North India and Malabar, whose history
+now becomes closely connected with that of Bactria, although
+consisting only of mere fragments. The throne of Bactria fell to
+Apollodotus, and after him to Menander, who extended his conquests
+as far as Serica, while Demetrius was establishing his dominion
+in India, [as sovereign of which country he is represented
+in a medal lately discovered,] and where, about this time, several
+Greek states appear to have existed, perhaps ever since the expedition
+of Antiochus III. 205. Menander was succeeded, about
+181, by Eucratidas, under whose reign the Bactrian empire attained
+its greatest extension; after defeating the Indian king,
+Demetrius, who had been the aggressor, he, with the assistance
+of the Parthian conqueror, Mithridates, (Arsaces VI.) annexed
+India to his own empire, 148. On his return, he was murdered
+by his son; the same, probably, that is mentioned afterwards by
+the name of Eucratidas II. He was the ally of Demetrius II. of
+Syria, and the main instigator of his expedition against the Parthians,
+142; Demetrius being defeated by Arsaces VI. Eucratidas
+was, in consequence, deprived of a portion of his territory;
+overpowered soon after by the nomad races of Central Asia, the
+Bactrian empire fell to the ground, and Bactria itself, together
+with the other countries on this side of the Oxus, became a prey
+to the Parthians.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Th. Sieg. Bayer</span>, <i>Historia regni Gr&aelig;corum Bactriani</i>. Petropol.
+1738, 4to. The few remaining fragments are in this work
+collected with industry and arranged with skill.</p>
+
+<p>[<span class="smcap">Tod</span>, <i>Account of Greek, Parthian, and Hindu Medals</i>, in
+<i>Transactions of the R. Asiatic Society</i>, vol. i. part ii, p. 316.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Tychsen</span>, <i>De Nummis Gr&aelig;cis et Barbaris in Bochara nuper
+retectis</i>, in <i>Comment. Nov. Soc. Sc. Gotting.</i> vol. vi.]</p></div>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Kingdom of
+the Jews.</div>
+
+<p>6. The restored kingdom of the Jews was likewise
+a fragment of the Macedonian monarchy;
+and although it ranked only with the smaller
+states, its history in various respects deserves our
+attention, few nations having had so powerful an<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_307" id="Page_307">[Pg 307]</a></span>
+influence on the progress of human civilization.
+The foundation of the independence of the Jews
+was not, it is true, laid before the year 167;
+yet their domestic constitution had previously
+assumed its main features, and their history,
+reckoning from the return of the Babylonian captivity,
+accordingly divides itself into four periods:
+1. Under the Persian supremacy, 536&mdash;323. 2.
+Under the Ptolemies and Seleucid&aelig;, 323&mdash;167.
+3. Under the Maccabees, 167&mdash;39. 4. Under
+the Herodians and Romans, B. C. 39. to A. D. 70.</p>
+
+<div class="sblockquot"><p>First period under the Persians. By permission from Cyrus,
+a colony of Jews belonging to the tribes of Benjamin, Judah, and
+Levi, returned to the land of their forefathers, 536: this colony,
+headed by Zorobabel, of the ancient royal family, and the high
+priest Joshua, consisted of about 42,000 souls; the far more important
+and wealthy portion of the nation preferred to remain on
+the other side of the Euphrates, where they had been settled for
+seventy years, and continued to be a numerous people. The new
+settlers found it difficult to keep their footing, principally in consequence
+of differences, produced by the intolerance they themselves
+evinced at the building of the temple, with their neighbours
+and kinsmen the Samaritans, to whom the colony was only a
+cause of expense. The Samaritans, subsequently, having erected
+a separate temple at Garizim, near Sichem, about 336, not only
+separated completely, but laid the foundation of an inveterate
+hatred between the two nations. Hence the prohibition to rebuild
+the city and temple, brought about by their means, under
+Cambyses, 529, and Smerdis, 522, and not taken off until 520,
+in the reign of Darius Hystaspes. The new colony did not receive
+a permanent internal constitution till the time of Ezra and
+Nehemiah; both brought in fresh colonists, the former in 478,
+the latter in 445. The country was under the dominion of the
+satraps of Syria; but in the increasing domestic declension of the
+Persian empire, the high priests gradually became the virtual
+rulers of the nation. Nevertheless, even at the time of Alexander's
+conquest, 332, the Jews seem to have manifested proofs of
+fidelity to the Persians.</p>
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_308" id="Page_308">[Pg 308]</a></span></p>
+<p>Second period under the Ptolemies and Seleucid&aelig;, 323&mdash;167.
+After the death of Alexander, Palestine, in consequence of its
+situation, generally shared the fate of Ph&#339;nicia and C&#339;le-Syria,
+(see above, p. 249.) being annexed to Syria.&mdash;Capture of Jerusalem,
+and transplantation of a vast colony of Jews to Alexandria
+by Ptolemy I. 312; from thence they spread to Cyrene, and
+gradually over the whole of North Africa, and even into &AElig;thiopia.
+From 311&mdash;301 the Jews remained, however, subject to
+Antigonus. After the overthrow of his empire, they remained,
+301&mdash;203, under the dominion of the Ptolemies; the most conspicuous
+of their high priests during this interval were Simon the
+Just, <i>d.</i> 291, and afterwards his son, Onias I. <i>d.</i> 218, who, by
+withholding the tribute due to Ptolemy III. exposed Jud&aelig;a to
+imminent danger.&mdash;In the second war of Antiochus the Great
+against Egypt, 203, the Jews, of their own free will, acknowledged
+themselves his subjects, and assisted in driving out the
+Egyptian troops, who, under their general, Scopas, had again
+possessed themselves of the country, and the citadel of Jerusalem,
+198. Antiochus confirmed the Jews in the possession of all their
+privileges; and although he promised their country, together
+with C&#339;le-Syria and Ph&#339;nicia, to Ptolemy Epiphanes, as the
+future dowry of his daughter, Jud&aelig;a still remained under the
+Syrian supremacy; except that the revenue was for a time divided
+between the Syrian and Egyptian kings.&mdash;The high priests
+and self-chosen ethnarchs or alabarchs were at the head of the
+people; and we now find mention made for the first time of a
+senate, or the sanhedrim. But the rout of Antiochus the Great
+by the Romans was also the remote cause of the subsequent misfortunes
+of the Jews. The consequent dearth of money in which
+the Syrian kings found themselves, and the riches of the temple
+treasures, the accumulation of the sacred income and gifts, made
+the office of high priest an object of purchase under Antiochus
+Epiphanes: hence arose quarrels between the pontifical families,
+and out of those sprung factions, which Antiochus Epiphanes was
+desirous to turn to his own account, by the introduction of Grecian
+institutions among the Jews, in order thereby to promote the
+subjection of that people, now raised by its privileges almost to
+the rank of a state within that of Syria. Deposition of the high
+priest, Onias III. 175; his brother Jason having obtained the
+mitre by purchase, and the introduction of Grecian customs:
+Jason, however, was in his turn supplanted by his brother Mene<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_309" id="Page_309">[Pg 309]</a></span>laus,
+172. During the civil war arising out of these events, Antiochus
+Epiphanes, at that time conqueror in Egypt, (see above,
+p. 241.) takes possession of Jerusalem, 170, being provoked by
+the behaviour of the Jews to Menelaus, the high priest of his own
+appointment: the consequent oppression of the Jews, who now
+were to be Hellenized by main force, soon occasioned the rise
+under the Maccabees.</p>
+
+<p>Third period under the Maccabees, 167&mdash;39. Commencement
+of the rebellion against Antiochus IV. brought about by the
+priest Mattathias, 167, who was almost immediately succeeded,
+166&mdash;161, by his son Judas Maccab&aelig;us. Supported by the
+fanaticism of his party, Judas defeats in several battles the generals
+of Antiochus, who was absent in Upper Asia, where he died,
+164; the Jewish leader is even said to have been favoured by
+Rome. The primary object of the insurrection was not, however,
+political independence; they fought only for religious freedom.
+Under Antiochus V. the sedition continued successful, both
+against the Syrian king and the high priest Alcimus, his creature,
+163; Judas having died soon after his defeat by Demetrius I.
+was succeeded by his brother Jonathan, 161&mdash;143. The death
+of the high priest, Alcimus, 160, opened the path of Jonathan to
+that office, which he received in the ensuing war between Demetrius
+I. and Alexander Balas, 143, (see above, p. 244, 245.) both
+rivals courting his alliance: Jonathan sided with Balas, and consequently,
+from being merely the leader of a party, came to be
+head of the nation, which still, nevertheless, continued to pay
+tribute to the kings. Notwithstanding the favour he had shown
+to Balas, after the overthrow of that pretender, he was confirmed
+in his dignity by Demetrius I. 145; to whose assistance he
+marched at the subsequent great revolt in Antioch. Jonathan
+however, in 144, passed over to the side of the usurper, Antiochus,
+the son of Balas, (see above, p. 245.) and was by embassy
+presented with the friendship of the Romans in the same year,
+but by the treachery of Tryphon was taken and put to death,
+143. His brother and successor, Simon, 143&mdash;135, having declared
+against Tryphon, was by Demetrius II. not only confirmed
+in his dignity, but excused from paying tribute; he likewise received
+the title of prince, (ethnarch;) and appears to have struck
+coins. After the capture of Demetrius, Antiochus Sidetes allowed
+Simon to remain in possession of those privileges so long as he
+stood in need of his assistance against Tryphon; but after the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_310" id="Page_310">[Pg 310]</a></span>
+death of that usurper, he caused him, 130, to be attacked by
+Cendeb&aelig;us, who was defeated by the sons of Simon. Simon
+having been murdered by his son-in-law, Ptolem&aelig;us, who aspired
+to the government, 135, was succeeded by his son, John Hyrcanus,
+135&mdash;107, who was compelled again to acknowledge submission
+to Antiochus Sidetes; but after the defeat and death of
+that prince by the Parthians, 130, he asserted his entire independence.
+The deep decline of the Syrian kingdom, the constant
+civil wars by which it was distracted, and the renewed league
+with the Romans, not only enabled Hyrcanus easily to maintain
+his independence, but likewise to increase his territory, by the
+conquest of the Samaritans and Idum&aelig;ans. But with him ended
+the heroic line. Scarcely was he delivered from foreign oppression,
+when domestic broils arose; the Pharisees and Sadducees
+had hitherto been mere religious sects, but were converted into
+political factions by Hyrcanus, who, offended with the Pharisees,
+probably in consequence of their wish to separate the pontifical
+and princely offices, went over to the Sadducees; the former sect,
+the orthodox, were as usual supported by the many; the latter,
+the innovators, in consequence of the laxity of their principles,
+were favoured by the wealthy. Hyrcanus's eldest son, the cruel
+Aristobulus, 107, assumed the royal title, but soon after dying,
+106, was succeeded by his younger brother, Alexander Jann&aelig;us,
+106&mdash;79. His reign was an almost unbroken series of insignificant
+wars with his neighbours, this prince wishing to play the
+conqueror; and having likewise had the imprudence to irritate
+the powerful party of the Pharisees, these made him the object
+of public insult, and excited a tumult, 92, which was followed
+by a bloody civil war which lasted six years. Jann&aelig;us, it is
+true, maintained himself during the struggle; but the opposite
+party was so far from being annihilated, that, at his death, when
+passing over his sons, the feeble Hyrcanus (who possessed the
+pontifical dignity) and the ambitious Aristobulus, he bequeathed
+the crown to his widow Alexandra, it was with the understanding
+that she should join the party of the Pharisees: during her reign,
+therefore, 79&mdash;71, the Pharisees held the reins of government,
+and left her only the name. Provoked at this, Aristobulus,
+shortly before the death of the queen, endeavoured to obtain
+possession of the throne, and ultimately obtained his ends, notwithstanding
+Alexandra nominated Hyrcanus to be her successor.
+Hyrcanus, at the instigation of his confidant, the Idum&aelig;an Anti<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_311" id="Page_311">[Pg 311]</a></span>pater,
+who was the progenitor of the Herodians, and assisted by
+the Arabian prince Aretas, waged war against his brother, 65, and
+shut him up in Jerusalem: but the Romans were arbitrators,
+and Pompey, then all-powerful in Asia, decided for Hyrcanus,
+64; the party of Aristobulus, however, refusing to accede, the
+Roman general took possession of Jerusalem; made Hyrcanus
+high priest and prince, under condition that he should pay tribute;
+and took as prisoners to Rome Aristobulus and his sons,
+who, however, subsequently escaped and caused great disturbances.
+The Jewish state being now dependent on Rome, remained
+so, and the yoke was confirmed by the policy of Antipater
+and his sons, who followed the general maxim of entire devotion
+to Rome, in order thereby to succeed in wholly removing the
+reigning family. As early as 48, Antipater was appointed procurator
+of Judea by C&aelig;sar, whom he had supported at Alexandria,
+and his second son Herod, governor in Galilee, soon became sufficiently
+powerful to threaten Hyrcanus and the sanhedrim, 45.
+He gained the favour of Antony, and thus maintained himself
+amid the tempests which, after the assassination of C&aelig;sar, 44,
+shook the Roman world, powerful as the party opposed to him
+were: that party, however, at last, in lieu of the ill-fated Hyrcanus,
+the only surviving son of Aristobulus, placed Antigonus at
+their head, and, assisted by the Parthians, then flourishing in
+power, seated him on the throne, 39. Herod having fled to
+Rome, not only met with a gracious reception at the hands of the
+triumviri, but was by them appointed king.</p>
+
+<p>Fourth period under the Herodians, B. C. 39 to A. D. 70.
+Herod the Great, B. C. 39 to A. D. 1. put himself in possession
+of Jerusalem and all Jud&aelig;a, B. C. 37, and confirmed his power
+by marrying Mariamne of the house of the Maccabees. Notwithstanding
+his severity shown to the party of Antigonus, and
+the house of the Maccabees, the total extinction of which Herod
+deemed necessary for his own safety; yet so greatly did the
+wasted country stand in need of peace, that for that very reason
+his reign may be said to have been a happy one. Availing himself
+of the liberality of Augustus, whose favour he contrived to
+obtain after the defeat of Anthony, B. C. 31, Herod gradually
+increased the extent of his kingdom, which at last comprised
+Jud&aelig;a, Samaria, Galilee, and beyond the Jordan, Per&aelig;a, Itur&aelig;a,
+and Trachonitis, (that is to say, the whole of Palestine,) together
+with Idum&aelig;a; from these countries he derived his income with<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_312" id="Page_312">[Pg 312]</a></span>out
+being obliged to pay any tribute. The deference consequently
+shown by Herod to Rome, was but the effect of a natural policy,
+and his conduct in that respect could be objected to him only by
+bigoted Jews. To his whole family, rather than to himself individually,
+are to be attributed the executions which took place
+among its members; happy had it been if the sword had smitten
+none but the guilty and spared the innocent. In the last year
+but one of his reign is placed the birth of Christ (according to
+the usually adopted computation, made in the sixth century by
+Dionysius Exiguus. But the more accurate calculations of modern
+chronologists show that the real date of the Saviour's birth was
+probably four years earlier).&mdash;According to his will, with some
+few alterations made by Augustus, his kingdom was divided
+among his three surviving sons; Archelaus, as ethnarch, receiving
+the greater moiety, Jud&aelig;a, Samaria, and Idum&aelig;a; the two
+others, as tetrarchs, Philip a part of Galilee and Trachonitis, Antipas
+the other part of Galilee, and Per&aelig;a, together with Itur&aelig;a;
+subsequently to which division, the various parts did not, in consequence,
+all share the same fate.&mdash;Archelaus, by misgovernment,
+soon lost his portion, A. D. 6; Jud&aelig;a and Samaria were
+consequently annexed as a Roman province to Syria, and placed
+under procurators subordinate to the Syrian governors: among
+these procurators, the most famous is Pontius Pilate, about A. D.
+27&mdash;36, under whom the founder of our religion appeared and
+suffered, not as a political&mdash;although accused of being so&mdash;but as
+a moral reformer. On the other hand, Philip retained his tetrarchy
+until the day of his death, A. D. 34, when his country
+had the same lot with Jud&aelig;a and Samaria. Soon after, that is
+to say, in A. D. 37, it was, however, given by Caligula, with the
+title of king, to Agrippa, (grandson of Herod by Aristobulus,) as
+a recompense for his attachment to the family of Germanicus;
+and when Antipas, who wished to procure a similar favour for
+himself but instead of it, was deposed, 39, Agrippa received his
+tetrarchy also, 40, and soon afterwards, by the possession of the
+territory which had belonged to Archelaus, became master of the
+whole of Palestine. Agrippa having died in A. D. 44, the whole
+country being appended to Syria, became a Roman province, and
+received procurators, although Chalcis, 49, and subsequently also,
+53, Philip's tetrarchy, were restored as a kingdom to his son
+Agrippa II. <i>d.</i> 90. The oppression of the procurators, and of
+Gessius Florus in particular, who obtained the office, A. D. 64,
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_313" id="Page_313">[Pg 313]</a></span>
+excited the Jews to rebellion, which, 70, ended in the capture
+and destruction of their city and temple by Titus. The spread
+of the Jews over the whole civilized world of that time, although
+previously commenced, was by this event still further increased;
+and at the same time the extension of Christianity was prepared
+and facilitated. Even after the conquest, Jerusalem not only
+continued to exist as a city, but was also still considered by the
+nation as a point of union; and the attempt, under Adrian, to
+establish a Roman colony there, produced a fearful sedition.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Basnage</span>, <i>Histoire des Juifs depuis J. C. jusqu' &agrave; present</i>.
+La Haye, 1716, 15 vols. 12mo. The first two parts only, properly
+speaking, belong to this period; but the others likewise
+contain several very valuable historical researches.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Prideaux</span>, <i>The Old and New Testament connected in the
+history of the Jews and their neighbouring nations</i>. Lond. 1714,
+2 vols. This work, together with that above quoted, have always
+been esteemed the grand books on the subject. The French
+translation of Prideaux's Connection is, by its arrangement, more
+convenient for use than the original: this translation was published
+at Amsterdam, 1722, 5 vols. 8vo. under the title of <span class="smcap">Prideaux</span>,
+<i>Histoire des Juifs et des peuples voisins depuis la d&eacute;cadence
+des Royaumes d'Israel et de Juda, jusqu' &agrave; la mort de J. C.</i></p>
+
+<p>&#8224; <span class="smcap">J. D. Michaelis</span>, <i>Translation of the Books of Esdras, Nehemiah,
+and Maccabees</i>, contains in the observations several historic
+discussions of high importance.</p>
+
+<p>&#8224; <span class="smcap">J. Remond</span>, <i>Essay towards a history of the spread of Judaism,
+from Cyrus to the total decline of the Jewish state</i>.
+Leipzig, 1789. The industrious work of a young scholar.</p>
+
+<p>To the works enumerated p. 34, 35, must be added, for the
+more ancient history of the Jews:</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">J. L. Bauer</span>, <i>Manual of the history of the Hebrew nation,
+from its rise to the destruction of its state</i>. Nuremberg, 1800,
+2 parts, 8vo. As yet the best critical introduction, not only to
+the history, but also to the antiquities of the nation.</p>
+
+<p>&#8224; In the works of <span class="smcap">J. J. Hess</span>, belonging to this subject, namely,
+<i>History of Moses</i>; <i>History of Joshua</i>; <i>History of the Rulers
+of Judah</i>, 2 parts; <i>History of the Kings of Judah and Israel</i>:
+the history is throughout considered in a theocratic point of
+view.</p></div>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 100%;" />
+<h1><a name="FIFTH_BOOK" id="FIFTH_BOOK"></a>FIFTH BOOK.</h1>
+<h3>HISTORY OF THE ROMAN STATE.</h3>
+<hr style="width: 100%;" />
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_314" id="Page_314">[Pg 314]</a></span></p>
+<p class="cblockquot"><i>Introductory remarks on the Geography of Ancient Italy.</i></p>
+
+
+<div class="sidenote">General
+outline of
+Italy.</div>
+
+<p>Italy constitutes a peninsula, bounded on the
+north by the Alps, on the west and south by the
+Mediterranean, and on the east by the Adriatic
+sea. Its greatest length from north to south is
+600 geogr. miles; its greatest breadth, taken at
+the foot of the Alps, is 320 geogr. miles; but that
+of the peninsula, properly so called, is not more
+than 120 geogr. miles. Superficial contents,
+81,920 sq. geogr. miles. The principal mountain
+range is that of the Apennines, which, diverging
+occasionally to the west, or east, stretch
+from north to south through Central and Lower
+Italy. In the earlier times of Rome, these mountains
+were covered with thick forests. Main
+streams: the Padus (Po) and the Athesis, (Adige,)
+both of which discharge their waters in the Adriatic;
+and the Tiberis, (Tiber,) which falls into
+the Mediterranean. The soil, particularly in the
+plains, is one of the most fertile in Europe; on
+the other hand, many of the mountain tracts
+admit but of little cultivation. In that period
+when the Mediterranean was the grand theatre
+of trade, Italy, by her situation, seemed destined
+to become the principal mart of Europe; but she<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_315" id="Page_315">[Pg 315]</a></span>
+never in ancient times availed herself sufficiently
+of this advantage.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Divisions
+of Italy.</div>
+
+<p>It is divided into <i>Upper</i> Italy, from the Alps to
+the small rivers of Rubicon and Macra; (this
+part, however, of Italy, until presented with the
+right of citizenship under C&aelig;sar, was, according
+to the Roman political geography, considered as
+a province;) into <i>Central</i> Italy, from the Rubicon
+and the Macra down to the Silarus and Frento;
+and into <i>Lower</i> Italy from those rivers to the
+southern land's end.</p>
+
+
+<p class="center">I. <i>Upper Italy comprises the two countries, Gallia Cisalpina
+and Liguria.</i></p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Cisalpine
+Gaul.</div>
+
+<p>1. Gallia Cisalpina, or Togata, in contradistinction
+to Gallia Transalpina. It bears the name
+of Gallia, in consequence of being for the most
+part occupied by Gallic races. This country is
+one continuous plain, divided by the Padus into
+two parts, the northernmost of which is therefore
+denominated Gallia Transpadana, (inhabited by
+the Taurini, Insubres, and Cenomani,) while the
+southern part (inhabited by the Boii, Senones,
+and Lingones) is known by the name of Gallia
+Cispadana. Various streams contribute to swell
+the Padus; from the north the Duria, (Durance,)
+the Ticinus, (Tessino,) the Addua, (Adda,) the
+Ollius, (Oglio,) the Mintius, (Minzio,) and several
+less important rivers; from the south, the Tanarus,
+(Tanaro,) the Trebia, etc. The Athesis,
+(Adige,) the Plavis, (Piave,) and a number of
+smaller mountain streams, roll their waters directly
+into the Adriatic.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_316" id="Page_316">[Pg 316]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>The cities in Gallia Cisalpina were, generally
+speaking, Roman colonies; and most of them
+have preserved to this day their ancient names.
+Among these are reckoned in Gallia Transpadana,
+principally, Tergeste, Aquileia, Patavium, (Padua,)
+Vincentia, Verona, all east of the Athesis;
+Mantua, Cremona, Brixia, (Brescia,) Mediolanum,
+(Milan,) Ticinum, (Pavia,) and Augusta
+Taurinorum, (Turin,) all west of the Athesis. In
+Gallia Cispadana we meet with Ravenna, Bononia,
+(Bologna,) Mutina, (Modena,) Parma, Placentia,
+(Piacenza). Several of the above places
+received municipal rights from the Romans.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Liguria.</div>
+
+<p>2. Liguria. This country deduced its name
+from the Ligures, one of the old Italic tribes: it
+extended from the river Varus, by which it was
+divided from Gallia Transalpina, down to the
+river Macra; northward it extended to the Padus,
+and comprised the modern territory of Genoa.&mdash;Cities:
+Genua, an extremely ancient place; Nic&aelig;a,
+(Nice,) a colony of Massilia; and Asta,
+(Asti.)</p>
+
+
+<p class="center">II. <i>Central Italy comprises six countries; Etruria, Latium,
+and Campania on the west; Umbria, Picenum,
+and Samnium on the east.</i></p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Etruria.</div>
+
+<p>1. Etruria, Tuscia, or Tyrrhenia, was bounded
+north by the Macra, which divided it from Liguria;
+south and east by the Tiberis, which separated
+it from Latium and Umbria. Main river,
+the Arnus, (Arno). It is for the most part a
+mountainous country; the seashore only is level.
+This country derives its name from the Etrusci,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_317" id="Page_317">[Pg 317]</a></span>
+a very ancient people, composed, it is probable,
+of an amalgamation of several races, and even
+some early Grecian colonies, to which latter they
+were indebted, not indeed for all their arts, but
+for that of writing; to commerce and navigation
+the Etrusci were indebted for their opulence
+and consequent splendour. Cities: between the
+Macra and Arnus, Pis&aelig;, (Pisa,) Florentia, F&aelig;sul&aelig;;
+between the Arnus and Tiberis, Volaterr&aelig;,
+(Volterra,) Volsinii, (Bolsena,) on the Lacus Volsiniensis,
+(Lago di Bolsena,) Clusium, (Chiusi,)
+Arretium, (Arrezzo,) Cortona, Perusia, (Perugia,)
+in the neighbourhood of which is the Lacus Thrasimenus,
+(Lago di Perugia,) Falerii, (Falari,) and
+the wealthy city of Veii. Each of the above
+twelve cities had its own individual ruler, <i>lucumo</i>;
+although frequent associations were formed among
+them, yet no firm and lasting bond seems to have
+united the nation into one.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Latium.</div>
+
+<p>2. Latium, properly the residence of the Latini,
+from the Tiberis north, to the promontory of Circeii,
+south; hence that country was likewise denominated
+Latium Vetus. Subsequently, under
+the name of Latium was likewise reckoned the
+country from Circeii, down to the river Liris,
+(Latium Novum;) so that the boundaries came to
+be, north, the Tiberis, south, the Liris: the seat
+of the Latins, properly speaking, was in the fruitful
+plain extending from the Tiber to Circeii;
+around them, however, dwelt various small tribes,
+some eastward, in the Apennines, such as the
+Hernici, Sabini, &AElig;qui, and Marsi; others southward,
+such as the Volsci, Rutuli, and Aurunci.&mdash;Rivers:
+the Anio (Teverone) and Allia, which<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_318" id="Page_318">[Pg 318]</a></span>
+fall into the Tiber, and the Liris, (Garigliano,)
+which empties itself into the Mediterranean. Cities
+in Latium Vetus: Rome, Tibur, Tusculum,
+Alba Longa, Ostia, Lavinium, Antium, Gabii, Velitr&aelig;,
+the capital of the Volsci, and several smaller
+places. In Latium Novum: Fundi, Terracina,
+or Anxur, Arpinum, Minturn&aelig;, Formi&aelig;.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Campania.</div>
+
+<p>3. Campania. The country lying between the
+Liris, north, and the Silarus, south. One of the
+most fruitful plains in the world, but at the same
+time greatly exposed to volcanic eruptions. Rivers:
+the Liris, the Vulturnus, (Voltorno,) the
+Silarus, (Selo). Mountain: Vesuvius. Campania
+derived its name from the race of the Campani.
+Cities: Capua the principal one; and also Linternum,
+Cum&aelig;, Neapolis, Herculaneum, Pompeii,
+Stabi&aelig;, Nola, Surrentum, Salernum, etc.</p>
+
+
+<p class="center"><i>The three eastern countries of Central Italy are as follows</i>:</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Umbria.</div>
+
+<p>1. Umbria. It is bounded, north, by the river
+Rubico, south, by the river &AElig;sis, (Gesano,) dividing
+it from Picenum, and by the Nar, (Nera,) dividing
+it from the Sabine territory. It is for the
+most part plain. The Umbrian race had in early
+times spread over a much larger portion of Italy.
+Cities: Ariminium, (Rimini,) Spoletium, (Spoleto,)
+Narnia, (Narni,) and Ocriculum, (Otriculi.)</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Picenum.</div>
+
+<p>2. Picenum. Bounded, north, by the &AElig;sis,
+south, by the Atarnus, (Pescara.) The people are
+called Picentes. This country consists in a fertile
+plain. Cities: Ancona and Asculum Picenum,
+(Ascoli.)<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_319" id="Page_319">[Pg 319]</a></span></p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Samnium.</div>
+
+<p>3. Samnium, the name of a mountain tract extending
+from the Atarnus, north, to the Frento,
+south; although that country reckoned among its
+inhabitants, not only the rude and powerful Samnites,
+but also several less numerous races; for
+instance, the Marrucini and Peligni in the north,
+the Frentani in the east, and the Hirpini in the
+south. Rivers: the Sagrus and the Tifernus.
+Cities: Allif&aelig;, Beneventum, and Caudium.</p>
+
+
+<p class="center">III. <i>Lower Italy, or Magna Grecia, comprised four countries;
+Lucania and Bruttium on the western side, Apulia
+and Calabria on the eastern.</i></p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Lucania.</div>
+
+<p>1. Lucania. Boundaries: north, the Silarus,
+south, the Laus. For the most part a mountain
+tract. It derived its name from the race of the
+Lucani, a branch of the Ausones, or chief nation
+of Lower Italy. Cities: P&aelig;stum, or Posidonia,
+still renowned for its ruins, and Helia, or Velia.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Bruttium.</div>
+
+<p>2.  Bruttium, (the modern Calabria,) or the
+western tongue of land from the river Laus to the
+southern land's end at Rhegium. The river
+Brandanus constitutes the eastern frontier. A
+mountainous country, deriving its name from the
+Bruttii, (a half savage branch of the Ausones,)
+who dwelt in the mountains, while the seashores
+were occupied by Grecian settlements. Cities:
+Consentia, (Cosenza,) Pandosia, Mamertum, and
+Petilia. (Concerning the Greek colonies see
+above p. 155.)</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Apulia.</div>
+
+<p>3.  Apulia.  The country ranging along the
+eastern coast, from the river Frento to the commencement
+of the eastern tongue of land; an ex<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_320" id="Page_320">[Pg 320]</a></span>tremely
+fertile plain, and particularly adapted to
+grazing cattle. Rivers: the Aufidus (Ofanto) and
+the Cerbalus. This country is divided into two
+parts by the Aufidus, the northern called Apulia
+Daunia, the southern called Apulia Peucetia. Cities:
+in Apulia Daunia; Sipontum and Luceria:
+in Apulia Peucetia; Barium, Cann&aelig;, and Venusia.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Calabria.</div>
+
+<p>4. Calabria or Messapia, the smaller eastern
+tongue of land, which terminates in the promontory
+of Iapygium. Cities: Brundusium (Brindisi)
+and Callipolis (Gallipoli). Concerning Tarentum
+and other Grecian colonies, see above, p. 155.</p>
+
+<p>Three large islands are likewise reckoned as
+appertaining to Italy: they are Sicily, Sardinia,
+and Corsica. According to the political geography
+of the Romans they were, however, considered
+as provinces. Although the above islands
+were, along the coast, occupied by aliens, the aboriginals,
+under their own kings, maintained a
+footing in the inland parts; among these the Siculi,
+said to have migrated from Italy, were the
+most celebrated; they remained in Sicily, and
+gave their name to the whole island. Concerning
+the cities, the more important of which were,
+some of Ph&#339;nician, but the most part of Grecian,
+origin, see above, p. 30, and p. 155, sqq.</p>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 25%;" />
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_321" id="Page_321">[Pg 321]</a></span></p>
+<h2>FIRST PERIOD.</h2>
+
+
+<p class="iblockquot2"><i>From the foundation of Rome to the conquest of Italy and
+the commencement of the wars with Carthage, B. C. 754&mdash;264,
+or A. U. C. 1&mdash;490.</i></p>
+
+<div class="sblockquot">
+<p><span class="smcap">Sources.</span> The most copious author, and, if we except his
+system of deducing everything connected with Rome from
+Greece, the most critical of all those who have written on the
+earlier history of Rome and Italy, is Dionysius Halicarnassensis,
+in his <i>Arch&aelig;ologia</i>: of this work only the first eleven books,
+reaching down to the year 443, have been preserved; to these,
+however, must be added the fragments of the nine following
+books, xii&mdash;xx. discovered in 1816, and published by the Abbate
+Mai of Milan. Next to Dionysius is Livy, who as far as lib. iv,
+c. 18, is our main authority, till B. C. 292. Of the Lives of
+Plutarch the following belong to this period, Romulus, Numa,
+Coriolanus, Poplicola and Camillus; which for the knowledge
+and criticism they display, are perhaps more important even than
+Livy and Dionysius, see <span class="smcap">A. H. L. Heeren</span>, <i>De fontibus et auctoritate
+vitarum Plutarchi</i>, inserted in <i>Comment Recentiores Soc.
+Scient. Gott. Comment. I. II. Gr&aelig;ci, III. IV. Romani</i>; reprinted
+also as an appendix to the editions of Plutarch by Reiske
+and Hutten, <i>Gottingen</i>, 1821, <i>ap. Dieterich</i>. The sources of the
+most ancient Roman history were extremely various in kind.
+The traditions of the Fathers were preserved in historical ballads;
+(no mention is ever made of any grand epic poem;) and in this
+sense there existed a bardic history; by no means, however,
+wholly poetic, for even the traditions of Numa's Institutes are
+without the characteristics of poetry. The art of writing was in
+Italy of earlier origin than the city of Rome; how far, consequently,
+the public annals, such as the <i>Libri Pontificum</i>, extended
+back in early time remains undetermined. Several of
+the memorials are, beyond a doubt, mere family records, whether
+preserved by vocal tradition or in written documents. To the
+above must be added monuments, not only buildings and works
+of arts, but also treaties engraved on tables; of which, nevertheless,
+too little use seems to have been made. The Romans having
+learnt the art of writing from the Greeks, their history was as<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_322" id="Page_322">[Pg 322]</a></span>
+frequently written in Greek as in Latin; and that not only by
+Greeks, such as, in the first place, Diocles of Peparethus, but
+likewise by Romans, such as Fabius Pictor, at an early period.
+From these last sources Dionysius and Livy compiled. The
+more ancient Roman history given by these authorities rests,
+therefore, in part, but by no means entirely, on tradition and
+poetry; still further amplified by the rhetoric style, that of the
+Greeks more especially. At what epoch the Roman history lays
+aside the poetic character can hardly be determined with certainty;
+it may be traced even in some parts of the period extending
+from the expulsion of the kings to the conquest by the
+Gauls.&mdash;For the purposes of chronology, great importance attaches
+to the <i>fasti Romani</i>, contained partly in inscriptions, (<i>fasti
+Capitolini</i>,) partly in manuscripts. They have been collected
+and restored by Pighius, Noris Sigonius, etc. in <span class="smcap">Gr&aelig;vii</span>, <i>Thes.
+A. R.</i> vol. xi.; likewise in <span class="smcap">Almeloveen</span>, <i>Fast. Rom.</i> I. II.
+Amstel. 1705, etc.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Pighii</span> <i>Annales Romanorum</i>. Antwerp, 1615, fol. 2 vols.
+An essay towards a chronological arrangement; it reaches down
+to Vitellius.</p>
+
+<p>The Roman history has been copiously treated of by the moderns
+in many works besides those on universal ancient history
+before enumerated, (p. 2.). We shall mention only the more important.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Rollin</span>, <i>Histoire Romaine, Depuis la foundation de Rome
+jusqu' &agrave; la bataille d'Actium</i>. 13 vols. 8vo. Paris, 1823, &eacute;dit.
+revue par Letronne. This history, which extends to B. C. 89,
+has been continued and terminated by <span class="smcap">Crevier</span>. Although the
+critical historian might suggest much that is wanting in this
+work, it nevertheless contributed to advance the study.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Ed. Ferguson</span>, <i>The History of the Progress and Termination
+of the Roman Republic</i>. London, 1783, 4to. On the whole,
+the best work on the history of the Roman republic; it has superceded
+the earlier work of <span class="smcap">Goldsmith</span>.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">P. Ch. Levesque</span>, <i>Histoire de la R&eacute;publique Romaine</i>, 3 vols.
+Paris, 1807. He who would still wish to admire with blind enthusiasm
+the glory of ancient Rome, had better not read this
+work.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">B. G. Niebuhr</span>, <i>Roman History</i>.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_323" id="Page_323">[Pg 323]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>Rather criticism than history; the author seems to be perpetually
+endeavouring to overthrow all that has hitherto been admitted.
+The spirit of acuteness is not always that of truth; and
+men do not so lightly assent to the existence of a constitution
+which not only is contrary to the broad view of antiquity&mdash;inferences
+drawn from some insulated passages not being sufficient to
+overturn what is corroborated by all the others&mdash;but likewise, according
+to the author's own avowal, stands opposed to all analogy
+in history. But truth gains even where criticism is wrong; and
+the value of some deep researches will not for that reason be
+overlooked.&mdash;Consult on this subject:</p>
+
+<p>&#8224; <span class="smcap">W. Wachsmuth</span>, <i>Researches into the more Ancient History
+of Rome</i>. Halle, 1819.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">C. F. Th. Lachmann</span>, <i>Commentatio de fontibus T. Livii in
+prima Historiarum Decade</i>. Gotting&aelig;, 1821. A prize essay.</p>
+
+<p>For the works upon the Roman constitution see below, at the
+end of this and at the beginning of the third period.</p>
+
+<p>Abundance of most important writings upon Roman antiquities
+will be found in the great collections:</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Gr&aelig;vii</span> <i>Thesaurus Antiquitatum Romanarum</i>. Lugd. Batav.
+1694, sq. 12 vols. fol. and likewise in</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Salengre</span>, <i>Thesaurus Antiquitatum Romanarum</i>. Venet.
+1732, 3 vols. fol.</p>
+
+<p>Many excellent papers, particularly in</p>
+
+<p><i>M&eacute;moires de l'Acad&eacute;mie des Inscriptions</i>.</p>
+
+<p>With the exception of <span class="smcap">Nardini</span>, <i>Roma Vetus</i>, inserted in
+<span class="smcap">Gr&aelig;vii</span> <span class="smcap">Thes. A. R.</span> t. iv. the best work on the topography of
+ancient Rome is</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Venuti</span>, <i>Descrizione Topografica delle Antichit&agrave; di Roma</i>.
+P. I. II. Roma, 1763; and especially the new edition of that
+work by <span class="smcap">Visconti</span>, 1803. There is also:</p>
+
+<p>&#8224; <span class="smcap">S. H. L. Adler</span>, <i>Description of the city of Rome</i>. Altona,
+1781, 4to.</p>
+
+<p>The best representation of the monuments of ancient Rome
+will be found in</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Piranesi</span>, <i>Antichit&agrave; di Roma</i>, 3 vols. fol.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<div class="sidenote">General
+characteristic
+of Roman
+history.</div>
+
+<p>1. In certain respects, the history of Rome is
+always that of one town, inasmuch as until the
+period of the C&aelig;sars, the city continued mistress<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_324" id="Page_324">[Pg 324]</a></span>
+of her extensive territory. The main parts of the
+internal constitution of Rome were formed during
+this first period; which, considered in an historical
+point of view, can hardly be said to be void
+of interest. Whether every fundamental institution
+had its origin precisely at the epoch to which
+it is attributed, is a question of little importance;
+it is sufficient to observe, that they certainly arose
+in this period; and that the steps by which the
+constitution was developed are, upon the whole,
+determined beyond the possibility of a doubt.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Romans
+of Latin
+origin.</div>
+
+<p>2. Exaggerated and embellished as the most
+ancient traditions of the Romans respecting their
+origin may be, they all agree in this, that the
+Romans belonged to the race of the Latini, and
+that their city was a colony of the neighbouring
+Alba Longa. Long before this the custom seems
+to have obtained with the Latini, of extending the
+cultivation of their country by colonies.</p>
+
+<div class="sblockquot"><p>The primitive history of Rome is as difficult to reduce to pure
+historic truth as that of Athens, or any other city of antiquity;
+this proceeds from its being principally founded on traditions,
+handled by poets and rhetoricians, and likewise differing from
+one another; as may be seen in Plutarch's Romulus. As the
+knowledge of those traditions, such as they are found in Dionysius
+and Livy, attaches to so many other subjects, it would be
+improper to pass them over in silence; and that they contained
+truths as well as poetic fictions is proved most evidently by the
+political institutions of which they narrate the origin, and which
+certainly reached back to those times. To attempt to draw a
+line of demarcation between mythical and historic times would
+be to mistake the real nature of mythology.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">L. de Beaufort</span>, <i>Sur l'incertitude des cinq premiers si&egrave;cles de
+l'histoire Romaine</i>, nouv. &eacute;d. &agrave; la Haye, 1750, 2 vols. 8vo. Every
+thing that can be said against the credibility of the primitive
+Roman history has been developed by Beaufort with abundant,
+and often with laboured, acuteness.</p></div><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_325" id="Page_325">[Pg 325]</a></span></p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Kings of
+Rome.</div>
+
+<p>3. During the first two hundred and forty-five
+years subsequent to its foundation this city was
+under the rule of governors, denominated kings;
+these, however, were not hereditary, still less
+were they invested with unlimited power, although
+they exerted themselves to become both
+perpetual and absolute. On the contrary, in this
+period was framed a municipal constitution, demonstrative
+of the existence, even at this early
+date, of a considerable degree of political civilization;
+in its principal parts this constitution was,
+no doubt,&mdash;as in every colony,&mdash;copied from that
+of the mother city. Its principal features were:
+<i>a.</i> Establishment and internal organization of the
+senate. <i>b.</i> Establishment and progress of the
+patrician or hereditary nobility, which, supported
+by the privilege of administering the sacred affairs,
+and by the introduction of family names,
+quickly formed, in opposition to the plebeians, a
+political party ever growing in power, although
+not, therefore, a mere sacerdotal caste. <i>c.</i> Organization
+of the people (<i>populus</i>), and modes of
+popular assembly (<i>comitia</i>), founded thereupon;
+besides the original division according to heads
+into <i>tribus</i> and <i>curi&aelig;</i>, another was subsequently
+introduced according to property into <i>classes</i> and
+<i>centuri&aelig;</i>, out of which, besides the more ancient
+<i>comitia curiata</i>, arose the very artificially constructed
+<i>comitia centuriata</i>. <i>d.</i> Religious institutions,
+(<i>religiones</i>,) which being most closely connected
+with the political constitution, formed a
+state religion, by means of which everything in
+the state was attached to determined forms, and
+received a higher sanction. Nor must we omit
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_326" id="Page_326">[Pg 326]</a></span><i>e.</i> the relations in private life established by law,
+the clientship, marriage, and especially paternal
+authority. In consequence of those domestic relations,
+a spirit of subordination and discipline,
+from the earliest times, pervaded the people; and
+to that spirit the Romans were indebted for the
+glory to which they attained.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Destruction
+of Alba
+Longa.</div>
+
+<p>4. Notwithstanding many little wars with their
+immediate neighbours the Sabines, &AElig;qui, and
+Volsci, together with various cities of the Etrusci,
+and even with the Latins themselves, Rome added
+but little to her territory: nevertheless she took
+the first step towards her aggrandizement; from
+the time of the destruction of Alba Longa, she
+aimed at being the head of the collected cities of
+the Latins, and finally attained the object of her
+ambition.</p>
+
+<div class="sblockquot"><p>Line of kings. Romulus, 754&mdash;717. First establishment of
+the colony; augmentation in the number of the citizens, produced
+by the establishment of an asylum, and an union with
+part of the Sabines. Numa Pompilius, <i>d.</i> 679. By representing
+this prince as the founder of the religion of the Roman state,
+that religion received the high sanction of antiquity. Tullus
+Hostilius, <i>d.</i> 640. The conquest and destruction of Alba lays
+the foundation of Roman supremacy in Latium. Ancus Martius,
+<i>d.</i> 618. He extends the territory of Rome to the sea; the
+foundation of the port of Ostia proves that Rome already applied
+to navigation, the object of which was perhaps as yet rather
+piracy than trade. Tarquinius Priscus, <i>d.</i> 578. A Grecian by
+descent. Under his conduct Rome was already able to enter the
+field against the confederate Etrusci. Servius Tullius, <i>d.</i> 534.
+The most remarkable in the line of Roman kings. He placed
+Rome at the head of the confederacy of the Latins, which he
+confirmed by <i>communia sacra</i>. On his new division of the
+people according to property were raised the highly important
+institutions of the <i>census</i> and <i>comitia centuriata</i>. The necessity
+of this measure is demonstrative of the great and increasing
+prosperity of the Roman citizens; there can be no doubt, how<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_327" id="Page_327">[Pg 327]</a></span>ever,
+that by its adoption the frame of the republic was already
+completed. Tarquinius Superbus, (the tyrant,)&mdash;509. This individual,
+having taken forcible possession of the throne as nephew
+to Priscus, endeavoured to confirm his power by a close connection
+with the Latins and Volsci; by this, as well as by his tyranny,
+he offended both the patrician and plebeian parties. His
+deposition, and the consequent reformation of the government,
+were however, properly speaking, brought about by the ambition
+of the patricians.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Algarotti</span>, <i>Saggio sopra la durata de' regni de' r&egrave; di Roma</i>.
+(Op. t. iii.) Chronological doubts. Can the raising of difficulties
+deserve the name of criticism?</p></div>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Consular
+government,
+B. C. 509.</div>
+
+<p>5. The only direct consequence to the internal
+constitution of Rome, proceeding from the abolition
+of royalty was, that that power, undetermined
+as it had been while in the hands of the kings,
+was transferred to two consuls, annually elected.
+Meanwhile the struggle for liberty, in which the
+new republic was engaged with the Etrusci and
+Latins, contributed much to arouse the republican
+spirit which henceforward was the main
+feature of the Roman character&mdash;the evils of popular
+<span class="sidenote">498.</span>
+rule being in times of need remedied by the
+establishment of the dictatorship. The party,
+however, which had deposed the ruling family,
+took wholly into their own hands the helm of
+state; and the oppression of these aristocrats,
+shown principally towards their debtors, who had
+become their slaves, (<i>nexi</i>,)&mdash;notwithstanding
+<span class="sidenote">507.</span>
+the <i>lex de provocatione</i> established by Valerius Poplicola,
+ensuring to the people the highest judicial
+power&mdash;was so galling, that after the lapse of a
+few years it gave rise to a sedition of the commons,
+(<i>plebis</i>,) the consequence of which was the
+establishment of annually elected presidents of the people
+<span class="sidenote">493.</span>(<i>tribuni plebis</i>).</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_328" id="Page_328">[Pg 328]</a></span></p>
+<div class="sblockquot"><p>First commercial treaty with Carthage, 508, in which Rome
+appears certainly as a free state, but not yet as sovereign of all
+Latium; the most important monument of the authenticity of
+the earlier Roman history.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Heyne</span>, <i>F&#339;dera Carthaginiensium cum Romanis super navigatione
+et mercatura facta</i>: contained in his Opusc. t. iii. Cf.
+&#8224; <span class="smcap">A. H. L. Heeren</span>, <i>Ideas</i>, etc. Appendix to the second vol.</p></div>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Rise of the
+Roman
+constitution.</div>
+
+<p>6. The further development of the Roman constitution
+in this period, hinges almost wholly on
+the struggle between the new presidents of the
+commons and the hereditary nobility; the tribunes,
+instead of confining themselves to defend
+the people from the oppression of the nobles, soon
+began to act as aggressors, and in a short time
+so widely overstepped their power, that there remained
+no chance of putting an end to the struggle
+but by a complete equalization of rights. A
+long time elapsed ere this took place; the aristocracy
+finding a very powerful support both in
+the clientship and in the religion of the state,
+operating under the shape of auspices.</p>
+
+<div class="sblockquot"><p>Main facts of the contest: 1. In the trial of Coriolanus the
+tribunes usurp the right of summoning some patricians before
+the tribunal of the people.&mdash;Hence arise the <i>comitia tributa</i>;
+that is to say, either mere assemblies of the commons, or assemblies
+so organized that the commons had the preponderance.
+This institution gave the tribunes a share in the legislation,
+subsequently of such high importance, those officers being allowed
+to lay proposals before the commons. 2. More equitable distribution
+among the poorer classes of the lands conquered from the
+neighbouring nations, (the most ancient <i>leges agrari&aelig;</i>,) suggested
+by the ambitious attempts of Cassius, 486. 3. Extension of the
+prerogatives of the <i>comitia tributa</i>, more especially in the election
+of the tribunes, brought about by Volero, 472. 4. Attempts
+at a legal limitation of the consular power by Terentillus, (<i>lex
+Terentilla</i>,) 460, which, after a long struggle, at last leads to
+the idea of one common written code, 452, which is likewise<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_329" id="Page_329">[Pg 329]</a></span>
+realized in spite of the opposition at first made by the patricians.</p>
+
+<p>&#8224; <span class="smcap">Chr. F. Schulze</span>, <i>Struggle between the Democracy and
+Aristocracy of Rome, or History of the Romans from the Expulsion
+of Tarquin to the Election of the first Plebeian Consul</i>.
+Altenburgh, 1802, 8vo. A most satisfactory development of this
+portion of Roman history.</p></div>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Code of the
+twelve tables.</div>
+
+<p>7. The code of the twelve tables confirmed the
+ancient institutions, and was in part completed by
+the adoption of the laws of the Greek republics,
+among which Athens in particular is mentioned,
+whose counsels were requested by a special deputation.
+In this, however, two faults were committed;
+not only were the commissioners charged
+with drawing up the laws elected from the patricians
+<i>alone</i>, but they were likewise constituted
+sole magistrates, with <i>dictatorial</i> power, (<i>sine provocatione</i>;)
+whereby a path was opened to them
+for an usurpation, which could be frustrated only
+by a sedition of the people.</p>
+
+<div class="sblockquot"><p>Duration of the power of the Decemviri, 451&mdash;447. The
+doubts raised as to the deputation sent to Athens are not sufficient
+to invalidate the authenticity of an event so circumstantially
+detailed. Athens, under Pericles, was then at the head of
+Greece; and, admitting the proposed design of consulting the
+Greek laws, it was impossible that Athens should have been
+passed over. And indeed, why should it be supposed, that a
+state which fifty years before had signed a commercial treaty
+with Carthage, and could not be unacquainted with the Grecian
+colonies in Lower Italy, might not have sent an embassy into
+Greece?</p>
+
+<p>The yet remaining fragments of the code of the twelve tables
+are collected and illustrated in <span class="smcap">Bachii</span> <i>Hist. Jurisprudenti&aelig; Roman&aelig;</i>;
+and in several other works.</p></div>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Its enactments.</div>
+
+<p>8. By the laws of the twelve tables the legal
+relations of the citizens were the same for all; but
+as that code seems to have contained very little<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_330" id="Page_330">[Pg 330]</a></span>
+in reference to any peculiar constitution of the
+state, the government not only remained in the
+hands of the aristocrats, who were in possession
+of all offices, but the prohibition, according to the
+new laws of marriage between patricians and plebeians,
+appeared to have raised an insurmountable
+barrier between the two classes. No wonder,
+then, that the tribunes of the people should
+have immediately renewed their attacks on the
+patricians; particularly as the power of those popular
+leaders was not only renewed, but even
+augmented, as the only limit to their authority
+was the necessity of their being unanimous in
+their acts, while each had the right of a negative.</p>
+
+<div class="sblockquot"><p>Besides the other laws made in favour of the people at the renewal
+of the <i>tribunicia potestas</i>, 446, that which imported <i>ut
+quod tributim plebes jussisset, populum teneret</i>, frequently renewed
+in subsequent times, and meaning, in modern language,
+that the citizens constituted themselves, must, it would appear,
+have thrown the supreme power into the hands of the people;
+did not the Roman history, like that of other free states, afford
+examples enough of the little authority there is to infer from the
+enactment of a law that it will be practically enforced.</p></div>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Dissensions
+between patricians
+and
+plebeians.</div>
+
+<p>9. The main subjects of the new dissensions
+between patricians and plebeians, excited by the
+tribune Canuleius, were now the <i>connubia patrum
+cum plebe</i>, and the exclusive participation of the
+patricians in the consulship, of which the tribunes
+demanded the abolition. The repeal of the former
+law was obtained as early as 445, (<i>lex Canuleia</i>;)
+the right of admission to the consulship was
+not extended to the Plebeians, till after a struggle
+annually renewed for eighty years; during which,
+when, as usually was the case, the tribunes forbade
+the military enrolment, recourse was had to
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_331" id="Page_331">[Pg 331]</a></span>a transfer of the consular power to the yearly
+elected commanders of the legions; a place to
+which plebeians were entitled to aspire, (<i>tribuni
+militum consulari potestate.</i>)&mdash;Establishment of the
+<span class="sidenote">Censors.</span>
+office of <small>CENSORS</small>, designed at first for nothing
+more than to regulate the taking of the census,
+and invested with no higher authority than what
+that required, but who soon after, by assuming
+to themselves the <i>censura morum</i>, took rank
+among the most important dignitaries of the
+state.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Petty wars.</div>
+
+<p>10. Meanwhile Rome was engaged in wars,
+insignificant but almost uninterrupted, arising out
+of the oppression, either real or imaginary, which
+she exercised as head of the neighbouring federate
+cities, (<i>socii</i>,) comprising not only those of the
+Latins, but likewise, after the victory of lake Regillus,
+those of the other nations: the cities embraced
+every opportunity of asserting their independence,
+and the consequent struggles must
+have depopulated Rome, had not that evil been
+diverted by the maxim of increasing the complement
+of citizens by admitting the freedmen, and
+not unfrequently even the conquered, to the enjoyment
+of civic privileges. Little as these feuds,
+abstractedly considered, deserve our attention,
+they become of high interest, inasmuch as they
+were not only the means by which the nation
+was trained to war, but also led to the foundation
+of that senatorial power, whose important
+consequences will be exhibited hereafter.</p>
+
+<div class="sblockquot"><p>Among these wars attention must be directed to the last,
+that against Veii, the richest city in Etruria; the siege of that
+place, which lasted very nearly ten years, 404&mdash;395, gave rise<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_332" id="Page_332">[Pg 332]</a></span>
+to the introduction among the Roman military of winter campaigning,
+and of pay; thus, on the one hand, the prosecution of
+wars more distant and protracted became possible, while on the
+other the consequences must have been the levy of higher taxes,
+(<i>tributa</i>).</p></div>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Rome burnt
+by the
+Gauls.</div>
+
+<p>11. Not long after, however, a tempest from the
+north had nearly destroyed Rome. The Sennonian
+Gauls, pressed out of northern Italy through
+Etruria, possessed themselves of the city, the
+capitol excepted, and reduced it to ashes; an
+event which made so deep an impression on the
+minds of the Romans, that few other occurrences
+in their history have been more frequently the object
+of traditional detail. Camillus, then the deliverer
+of Rome, and in every respect one of the
+chief heroes of that period, laid a double claim to
+the gratitude of his native city, by overruling,
+after his victory, the proposal of a general migration
+to Veii.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Feuds revived.</div>
+
+<p>12. Scarcely was Rome rebuilt ere the ancient
+feuds revived, springing out of the poverty of the
+citizens, produced by an increase of taxation consequent
+on the establishment of military pay, and
+by the introduction of gross usury. The tribunes,
+Sextius and Licinius, by prolonging their term of
+office to five years, had established their power;
+while Licinius, by an agrarian law, decreeing that
+no individual should hold more than five hundred
+<i>jugera</i> of the national lands, had ensured the popular
+favour; so that at last they succeeded in
+<span class="sidenote">A consul chosen from the commons.</span>
+obtaining, that one of the consuls should be chosen
+from the commons; and although the nobility, by
+the nomination of a pr&aelig;tor from their own body,
+and of <i>&aelig;diles curules</i>, endeavoured to compensate<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_333" id="Page_333">[Pg 333]</a></span>
+for the sacrifice they were obliged to make, yet
+the plebeians having once made good a claim to
+the consulship, their participation in the other
+magisterial offices, (the dictatorship, 353, the censorship,
+348, the pr&aelig;torship, 334,) and even the
+priesthood, (300,) quickly followed as a matter of
+course. Thus at Rome the object of political
+equality between commons and nobles was attained;
+and although the difference between the
+patrician and plebeian families still subsisted,
+they soon ceased to form political parties.</p>
+
+<div class="sblockquot"><p>A second commercial treaty entered into with Carthage, 345,
+demonstrates that even at this time the navy of the Romans was
+anything but contemptible; although its principal object as yet
+was mere piracy. Roman squadrons of war however appear
+more than once within the next forty years.</p></div>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Samnite
+war.</div>
+
+<p>13. Far more important than any wars in which
+Rome had hitherto been engaged, were those
+soon about to commence with the Samnites. In
+former contests the object of Rome had been to
+establish her supremacy over her immediate
+neighbours; but in these, during a protracted
+contest of fifty years, she opened a way to the
+subjugation of Italy, and laid the foundation of
+her future greatness.</p>
+
+<div class="sblockquot"><p>Commencement of the wars against the Samnites, the Campanians
+having called the Romans to their assistance against that
+nation, 343. These wars, carried on with vigorous exertion and
+various success, lasted, with but short intermissions, till 290.
+This is the true heroic age of Rome, ennobled by the patriotic
+valour of Decius Mus, (father and son, both voluntary victims,)
+Papirius Cursor, Q. Fabius Maximus, etc. The consequences of
+this struggle were: <i>a.</i> The Romans learnt the art of mountain
+warfare, and thereby for the first time acquired a peculiar system
+of military tactics; not, however, till they had been, 321, obliged
+to pass under the <i>furcas Caudinas</i>. <i>b.</i> Their relations were<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_334" id="Page_334">[Pg 334]</a></span>
+more firmly established with their neighbours the Latins and
+Etrurians, by the complete conquest of the former, 340, and by
+repeated victories over the latter, more especially in 308. <i>c.</i>
+Great national federations having arisen in Italy, particularly
+during the last period of the Samnite wars, the Romans entered
+into connection with the more distant nations of the country;
+with the Lucanians and Apulians, by the first league, 323, with
+the Umbri, from the year 308; and although the nature of this
+connection frequently varied, the different nations were perpetually
+struggling for independence, and were consequently at enmity
+with Rome. In this period, moreover, commenced the
+practical illustration of the leading ideas of Rome upon the political
+relations in which she placed the conquered with regard to
+herself.</p></div>
+
+<div class="sidenote">War against
+the Tarentines,
+who
+are assisted
+by Pyrrhus.</div>
+
+<p>14. After the subjection of the Samnites, Rome,
+wishing to confirm her dominion in Lower Italy,
+was thereby, for the first time, entangled in war
+with a foreign prince; the Tarentines, too feeble
+to maintain alone their footing against the Romans,
+called Pyrrhus of Epirus to their assistance.
+He came, indeed, but not so much to further the
+views of the Tarentines as to advance his own;
+but even in victory, he learnt by experience that
+the Macedonian tactics gave him but a slight preponderance,
+which the Romans soon transferred
+to their own side, exhibiting the truth of the principle,
+that a good civic militia, sooner or later,
+will always get the upper hand of mercenary
+troops.</p>
+
+<div class="sblockquot"><p>The idea of calling upon Pyrrhus for assistance was the more
+natural, as the predecessor of that prince, Alexander I. (see
+above p. 275.) had endeavoured, but without success, to effect
+conquests in Lower Italy. In the first war with Pyrrhus, 280&mdash;278,
+two battles were fought, the first at Pandosia, 280, the other
+at Asculum, 279; in both of which Rome was unsuccessful.
+But Pyrrhus, after crossing over into Sicily, 278, (see above, p.
+173, 174.) once more returned into Italy, 275, when he was de<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_335" id="Page_335">[Pg 335]</a></span>feated
+by the Romans at Beneventum, and compelled to evacuate
+Italy, leaving a garrison at Tarentum. That city, however, soon
+afterwards, 272, fell into the hands of the Romans, whose dominion
+was consequently extended to the extremity of Lower Italy.</p></div>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Roman colonies.</div>
+
+<p>15. The chief means to which, even from the
+earliest times, the Romans had recourse for the
+foundation of their dominion over the conquered,
+and at the same time for the prevention of the too
+great increase of the needy classes at Rome, was
+the establishment of colonies of their own citizens,
+which, being settled in the captured cities, served
+likewise as garrisons. Each colony had its own
+distinct internal constitution, modelled, for the
+most part, upon that of the mother city itself;
+hence to keep the colonies in perfect dependence
+naturally became an object of Roman policy.
+This colonial system of the Romans, necessarily
+and spontaneously arising out of the rude custom
+of bereaving the conquered of their lands and
+liberty, assumed its main features in the Samnite
+war, and gradually embraced the whole of Italy.
+Closely connected with this system was the construction
+of military highways, (<i>vi&aelig; militares</i>,) one
+of which, the Appian Way, was constructed so
+early as 312, and to this day remains a lasting
+monument of the greatness of Rome at that
+period.</p>
+
+<div class="sblockquot"><p>Even at the time of Hannibal's invasion, the number of Roman
+colonies amounted to 53: but several which had been settled
+returned to the mother city.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Heyne</span>, <i>De Romanorum prudentia in coloniis regendis</i>: inserted
+in <i>Opusc.</i> vol. iii. Cf. <i>Prolusiones de veterum coloniarum
+jure ejusque causis</i>, in his <i>Opusc.</i> vol. i.</p></div>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Relations
+between
+Rome and
+the Italian
+nations.</div>
+
+<p>16. But the relations existing between Rome
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_336" id="Page_336">[Pg 336]</a></span>and the Italian nations were extremely various in
+kind. 1. A few cities and nations enjoyed the
+full privileges of Roman citizenship; in some instances,
+however, without the right of voting in
+the <i>comitia</i> (<i>municipia</i>). 2. The privileges of the
+colonies (<i>jus coloniarum</i>) were of a more restricted
+nature; the colonists were indeed in possession
+of their own civic government, but had no further
+share whatever either in the <i>comitia</i> or magistracies
+of Rome. The other inhabitants of Italy
+were either federates (<i>socii, f&#339;dere juncti</i>) or subjects
+(<i>dedititii</i>). The first (<i>a</i>) preserved their internal
+form of government; but on the other hand
+(<i>b</i>) were obliged to furnish tribute and auxiliary
+troops (<i>tributis et armis juvare rempublicam</i>).
+Their further relation with Rome depended upon
+the terms of the league. The most advantageous
+of these terms were 3. in favour of the Latins,
+although each of their cities had its own separate
+league (<i>jus Latii</i>;) as 4. the rest of the Italian
+nations had their <i>jus Italicum</i>. On the other
+hand, 5. the subjects, <i>dedititii</i>, were deprived of
+their internal constitutions, and were governed
+by Roman magistrates, (<i>pr&aelig;fecti</i>,) annually renewed.</p>
+
+<div class="sblockquot"><p><span class="smcap">C. Sigonius</span>, <i>De antiquo jure civium Romanorum</i>; and his
+treatise <i>De antiquo jure Itali&aelig;</i>, inserted both in his <i>Opera</i> and
+in <span class="smcap">Gr&aelig;vii</span> <i>Thes. Ant. Rom.</i> t. ii. contain the most learned researches
+on the details of these relations.</p></div>
+
+<div class="sidenote">The Roman
+constitution
+a democracy.</div>
+
+<p>17. The internal constitution of Rome itself,
+now completed, bore the character of a democracy,
+inasmuch as equality of rights existed both
+for nobles and commons. Yet this democracy was
+modified by expedients so various and wonderful<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_337" id="Page_337">[Pg 337]</a></span>&mdash;the
+rights of the people, of the senate, of the
+magistrates, fitted so nicely into each other, and
+were so firmly supported by the national religion,
+connecting every thing with determinate forms&mdash;that
+there was no reason, at that time, to fear the
+evils either of anarchy, or, what is much more
+astonishing when we consider the warlike character
+of the people, those of military despotism.</p>
+
+<div class="sblockquot"><p>The rights of the people consisted in the legislative power, so
+far as fundamental national principles were concerned, and in the
+election of the magistrates. The distinction between the <i>comitia
+tributa</i> (as independent of the senate) and the <i>comitia centuriata</i>
+(as dependent on the senate) still existed as to form, but
+had lost all its importance, the difference between patricians and
+plebeians being now merely nominal, and the establishment of
+the <i>tribus urban&aelig;</i>, 303, excluding the too great influence of the
+people (<i>forensis factio</i>) upon the <i>comitia tributa</i>. The rights of
+the senate consisted in administering and debating all transitory
+national affairs, whether foreign relations, (war and peace only
+excepted, in which the consent of the people was requisite,)
+financial concerns, or matters regarding domestic peace and security.
+But the manner in which the senate was supplied must
+have made it the first political body at that time in the world.
+The rights and rank of magistrates were founded on their greater
+or lesser <i>auspicia</i>, no public affair being entered upon except
+<i>auspicato</i>. Consequently he only who was in possession of the
+former could hold the highest civic and military power; (<i>imperium
+civile et militare; suis auspiciis rem gerere</i>;) as dictator,
+consul, pr&aelig;tor; such was not the case with those who had only
+the lesser <i>auspicia</i>. The union of civil and military power in
+the person of the same individual was not without its inconveniences,
+but military despotism was in some measure guarded
+against by the prohibition of any magistrate possessing military
+command within Rome itself. We must not dismiss this subject
+without observing, that as the Roman constitution arose merely
+out of practice, there never having been any completely written
+charter, we cannot expect that all the details should be clearly
+ascertained; to attempt, therefore, in default of such authority,
+to describe all the minuti&aelig; would be the surest way to fall into
+error.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_338" id="Page_338">[Pg 338]</a></span></p>
+<p>Of the numerous works on the Roman constitution and on
+Roman antiquities, we shall mention:</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">De Beaufort</span>, <i>La R&eacute;publique Romaine, ou plan g&eacute;n&eacute;ral de
+l'ancien gouvernement de Rome</i>. La Haye, 1766, 2 vols. 4to.
+A most copious work, and one of the most solid in regard to the
+matters discussed; although it does not embrace the whole of the
+subject.</p>
+
+<p><i>Histoire critique du gouvernement Romain</i>; Paris, 1765.
+Containing some acute observations.</p>
+
+<p><i>Du Gouvernement de la republique Romaine</i>, <i>par</i> <span class="smcap">A. Ad. de
+Texier</span>, 3 vols. 8vo. Hamburg, 1796. This contains many
+enquiries peculiar to the writer.</p>
+
+<p>Some learned researches respecting the principal points of the
+Roman constitution, as <span class="smcap">Sigonius</span> and <span class="smcap">Gruchius</span> <i>de comitiis Romanorum</i>,
+<span class="smcap">Zamocius</span> <i>de Senatu Romano</i>, etc. will be found collected
+in the first two vols, of <span class="smcap">Gr&aelig;vius</span>, <i>Antiq. Roman.</i></p>
+
+<p>For the popular assemblies of the Romans, an antiquarian
+essay by Chr. Ferd. Schulze, Gotha, 1815, chiefly according to
+Niebuhr, may be consulted.</p>
+
+<p>Among the numerous manuals of Roman antiquities, <span class="smcap">Nieuport</span>,
+<i>explicatio rituum Romanorum, ed. Gesner</i>. Berol. 1743,
+promises at least as much as it performs. Of those which profess
+to treat of Roman antiquities in general, none have yet risen
+above mediocrity. Jurisprudence, however, has been much more
+successfully handled. We cite the two following excellent compendiums:</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Bachii</span>, <i>Historia Jurisprudenti&aelig; Roman&aelig;</i>. Lips. 1754.
+1796.</p>
+
+<p>&#8224; <span class="smcap">C. Hugo</span>, <i>Elements of the Roman Law</i>; 7th edit. Berlin,
+1820.</p></div>
+
+<hr style="width: 25%;" />
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_339" id="Page_339">[Pg 339]</a></span></p>
+<h2>SECOND PERIOD.</h2>
+
+<p class="iblockquot2"><i>From the commencement of the war with Carthage to the
+rise of the civil broils under the Gracchi, B. C. 264&mdash;134.
+Year of Rome, 490&mdash;620.</i></p>
+
+
+<div class="sblockquot"><p><span class="smcap">Sources.</span> The principal writer for this highly interesting
+period, in which was laid the foundation of the universal dominion
+of Rome, is Polybius as far as the year 146, not only in the
+complete books preserved to us, which come down to 216, but
+also in the fragments. He is frequently followed by Livy, lib.
+xxi&mdash;xlv. 218&mdash;166. Appian, who comes next, does not confine
+himself merely to the history of the war; Florus gives us only an
+abridgement. The lives of Plutarch which relate to this portion
+of history, are <span class="smcap">Fabius Maximus</span>, <span class="smcap">P. &AElig;milius</span>, <span class="smcap">Marcellus</span>,
+<span class="smcap">M. Cato</span>, and <span class="smcap">Flaminius</span>.</p>
+
+<p>Of modern writers we dare only mention one:&mdash;and who is
+worthy to be ranked beside him?</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Montesquieu</span>, <i>Considerations sur les causes de la grandeur
+et de la d&eacute;cadence des Romains</i>.</p></div>
+
+
+<p>1. The political division of Italy laid the foundation
+for the dominion of Rome in that country;
+the want of union and political relations in the
+world paved the way to her universal empire.
+The first step cost her much, the succeeding followed
+<span class="sidenote">Struggle between Carthage and Rome;</span>
+easily and rapidly; and the history of the
+struggle between Rome and Carthage only shows
+on a larger scale what the history of Greece exhibits
+on a smaller. The whole of the following
+history confirms the fact, that two republics cannot
+exist near each other, without one being destroyed
+<span class="sidenote">its extent.</span>
+or subjected: but the vast extent of this
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_340" id="Page_340">[Pg 340]</a></span>struggle, the important consequences which followed,
+together with the wonderful exertions
+made, and the great men engaged on both sides,
+gave it an interest which cannot be found in that
+<span class="sidenote">State of the two parties.</span>
+of any other nations. Though the power and resources
+of both states were nearly equal in appearance,
+they were widely different in quality
+and circumstances. Carthage, besides her dominion
+over the seas, had also a better furnished
+treasury, by which she was enabled to enlist into
+her service as many <i>mercenaries</i> as she pleased:
+Rome, on the contrary, <i>strong in herself</i>, had all
+the advantages possessed by a nation of warriors
+over one partly commercial, partly military.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">The first
+war of twenty-three
+years, B. C.
+264&mdash;241.</div>
+
+<p>2. The first war of twenty-three years between
+the two republics, arose from very slight causes:
+it soon, however, became a struggle for the possession
+of Sicily, which in the end naturally extended
+itself to the dominion of the sea. Rome,
+by the aid of her newly-built fleet, having obtained
+for some time this power, was enabled to
+attack Africa, and succeeded in driving the Carthaginians
+from Sicily.</p>
+
+<div class="sblockquot"><p>The occupation of Messina by the Romans, 264, gave rise to
+this war. The defection of Hiero king of Syracuse from the
+side of Carthage, and his joining the Romans, first gave the latter
+the idea of expelling the Carthaginians from the island. The
+victory near Agrigentum, and capture of that city in 262, seemed
+to facilitate the execution of this project: it also convinced the
+Romans of the necessity of their having a naval power. We
+shall the less wonder at their forming a fleet in Italy, where wood
+was then plentiful, if we remember their previous experience in
+naval affairs; these were not the first vessels of war which they
+constructed, but only the first large ones which they built upon
+a Carthaginian model. The first naval victory of the Romans
+under Duilius, by the aid of grappling machines, 260. The<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_341" id="Page_341">[Pg 341]</a></span>
+project then conceived of carrying the war into Africa was one of
+the great ideas of the Romans, and from that time it became a
+ruling maxim of the state, to attack the enemy in his own territory.
+The second and very remarkable naval victory of the Romans,
+257, opened the way for them to Africa, and shows their
+naval tactics in a very brilliant light: but the unfortunate issue
+of their expedition to Africa, restored the equilibrium; and the
+struggle for the dominion of the sea became the more obstinate,
+as success did not altogether favour one party. The result of the
+contest appears to have turned upon the possession of the eastern
+promontories of Sicily, Drepanum, and Lilyb&aelig;um, which were
+in a manner the bulwarks of the Carthaginians, and seemed impregnable
+since Hamilcar Barca had taken the command of them,
+247. The last naval victory of the Romans, however, under the
+consul Lutatius, 241, having cut off the communication between
+Sicily and Carthage, and the finances of both parties being completely
+exhausted, a peace was concluded upon the conditions:
+1. That the Carthaginians should evacuate Sicily and the small
+islands adjacent. 2. That they should pay to Rome, by instalments
+in ten years, for the expenses she had been at in carrying
+on the war, the sum of 2,200 talents. 3. That they should not
+make war against Hiero king of Syracuse.</p></div>
+
+<p>3. The issue of this war placed the political
+connections of Rome in a new situation, and necessarily
+extended her influence abroad. The
+length of the war and the manner of its conclusion
+had, moreover, inspired a national hatred,
+such as is only found in republics; the conviction
+also that they could not remain independent of
+one another, must have become much more striking,
+as the points of contact had greatly increased
+since the beginning of the war. Who does not
+know the arrogance of a republic after the first
+essay of her power has been crowned with success!
+Rome gave a striking example of this by
+her invasion of Sardinia in the midst of peace.
+<span class="sidenote">Effect of these successes on the constitution.</span>
+These successes had also a sensible effect on the
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_342" id="Page_342">[Pg 342]</a></span>Roman constitution. For although in appearance
+its form was not in the least changed, yet the
+power of the senate now acquired that preponderance
+which the ruling authority of a republic
+never fails to do after long and successful wars.</p>
+
+<div class="sblockquot"><p>Origin and nature of the governments of the first Roman provinces,
+in part of Sicily and in Sardinia.</p></div>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Chastisement
+of the
+Illyrian pirates.</div>
+
+<p>4. An opportunity was soon afforded the Romans,
+in the Adriatic sea, of making use of their
+superior naval power, in chastising the pirates of
+Illyria under their queen Teuta. By effecting
+this, they not only secured their authority over
+that sea, but at the same time formed their first
+political relations with the Grecian states; relations
+which soon afterwards became of great importance.</p>
+
+<div class="sblockquot"><p>Commencement of the first Illyrian war, 230, which ended with
+the subjugation of Teuta, 226. The war, however, again broke out,
+222, against Demetrius of Pharus, who conceived himself inadequately
+rewarded by Rome for the services he had rendered her
+in the preceding war. The Romans found him a much more
+dangerous adversary than had been expected, even after his expulsion
+and flight to Philip, 220, (see above, p. 282.) Throughout
+this war, Rome appeared as the deliverer of the Grecian
+states, which had suffered extremely from the plunder of these
+freebooters; Corcyra, Apollonia, and other cities placed themselves
+formally under her protection, while the Ach&aelig;ans, &AElig;tolians,
+and Athenians vied with each other in showing their gratitude.</p></div>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Relations
+with
+Greece.</div>
+
+<p>5. In the mean time, while Carthage endeavoured
+to make up for the loss of Sicily and Sardinia by
+extending her Spanish dominions, which the
+jealousy of Rome restrained her from carrying
+beyond the Ebro (p. 84.), Rome herself had a
+new war to maintain against her northern neigh<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_343" id="Page_343">[Pg 343]</a></span>bours
+the Gauls, which ended after a violent contest
+with the establishment of her authority over
+the north of Italy.</p>
+
+<div class="sblockquot"><p>From the first Gallic war to the burning of Rome, 390, the
+Gauls had repeated their attacks in 360 and 348, even to the
+conclusion of the peace in 336. But in the latter part of the
+Samnite war, a formidable confederacy having taken place among
+the Italian tribes, some of the Gauls enlisted as mercenaries in
+the service of the Etruscans, while others allied themselves to
+the Samnites. This led them to take part in these wars in 306,
+302, and 292, until they were obliged, together with the Etruscans,
+to sue for peace in 284, before which time the Romans had
+sent a colony into their country, near Sena. This peace lasted
+till 238, when it was disturbed by the incursion of the transalpine
+Gauls; without, however, their coming to any war with Rome.
+But in 232, the proposition of Flaminius the tribune, (<i>lex Flaminia</i>),
+to divide the lands conquered from the Senones, became
+the cause of new disturbances. Upon this occasion, the Gauls
+entered into an alliance with their transalpine countrymen, the
+G&aelig;sates on the Rhone, who had been accustomed to engage as
+mercenaries. These having crossed the Alps, the dreadful war
+of six years (226&mdash;220) began, in which, after defeating the
+Gauls near Clusium, 225, the Romans pursued them into their
+own territory, and encamped upon the Po, 223. The Gauls
+having been again completely overthrown by Marcellus, were
+obliged to sue for peace; when the Roman colonies of Placentia
+and Cremona were established. The number of men capable of
+bearing arms in all Italy subject to the Romans during this war
+amounted to 800,000.</p></div>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Hannibal
+takes the
+command
+in Spain,</div>
+
+
+<p>6. Before this storm was totally appeased, in
+which it is probable that Carthaginian policy was
+not altogether inactive, Hannibal had obtained the
+chief command in Spain. From the reproach of
+having first begun the war, he and his party
+cannot be cleared; Rome, in the situation she
+then was, could hardly desire it; he however
+who strikes the first blow is not always the real
+aggressor. The plan of Hannibal was the de<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_344" id="Page_344">[Pg 344]</a></span>struction
+of Rome; and by making Italy the
+<span class="sidenote">and makes Italy the seat of war.</span>
+principal seat of the war, he necessarily turned
+the scale in his favour; because Rome, obliged
+to defend herself, left to him all the advantages
+of attack. The preparations she made for defence,
+show that it was not believed possible he
+could execute his enterprise by the route which
+he took.</p>
+
+<div class="sblockquot"><p>The history of this war, 218&mdash;201, of which no later transaction
+has been able to destroy the interest, is divided into three
+parts: the history of the war in Italy; the contemporary war in
+Spain; and from 203, the war in Africa. Hannibal's invasion
+of Italy in the autumn, 218&mdash;engagement near the river Ticinus
+and the battle of Trebia, in the same year. Battle near the lake
+Thrasymenus in the spring, 217. Seat of the war transferred
+to Lower Italy, and the defensive system of the dictator Fabius
+until the end of the year. Battle of Cann&aelig;, 216, followed by
+the conquest of Capua and the subjection of the greater part of
+Lower Italy. The defensive mode of warfare afterwards adopted
+by the Carthaginian, arose partly from his desire to form a junction
+with his brother Asdrubal and the Spanish army, and partly
+from his expectation of foreign support by means of alliances,
+with Syracuse, after the death of Hiero, 215, and with Philip of
+Macedon, 216. These hopes, however, were frustrated by the
+Romans.&mdash;Syracuse was besieged and taken, 214&mdash;212, (see
+above, p. 174.) and Philip kept employed in Greece, (see above,
+p. 282.) In addition to this, the Romans retook Capua, notwithstanding
+the audacious march of Hannibal towards Rome,
+211, and he had now no succour left except the reinforcement
+which Asdrubal was bringing from Spain. The latter, however,
+was attacked immediately upon his arrival in Italy, near Sena,
+by the consuls Nero and Livius, and left dead on the field, 207.
+From this time the war in Italy became only of secondary importance,
+as Hannibal was obliged to act on the defensive in
+Bruttium.</p>
+
+<p><i>The Course of Hannibal over the Alps ascertained</i>, by <span class="smcap">J.
+Whittaker</span>. London, 1794, 2 vols. 8vo. The author endeavours
+to prove that the passage of Hannibal was over the great
+St. Bernard, and criticises the opinions of other writers.</p>
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_345" id="Page_345">[Pg 345]</a></span></p>
+<p>[We may likewise mention the learned treatise:&mdash;</p>
+
+<p><i>A Dissertation on the Passage of Hannibal over the Alps.</i>
+By <span class="smcap">H. L. Wickham</span>, M. A. and the Rev. <span class="smcap">J. A. Cramer</span>, M. A.
+second edition, Oxon.]</p>
+
+<p>The war in Spain began nearly about the same time between
+Asdrubal and the two brothers, Cn. and P. Cornelius Scipio,
+and was continued, with various success, till the year 216, the
+issue depending much upon the disposition of the Spaniards
+themselves. The plan of Carthage after the year 216, was to
+send Asdrubal with the Spanish army into Italy, and to supply
+its place by an army from Africa; two victories, however, gained
+by the Scipios near the Ebro, 216, and the Illiberis, 215, prevented
+this from being effected, till at last both fell under the
+superior power and cunning of the Carthaginians, 212. But the
+arrival of the youthful P. Cornelius Scipio, who did not appear
+merely to his own nation as an extraordinary genius, entirely
+changed the face of affairs, and the fortunes of Rome soon became
+attached to his name, which alone seemed to promise victory.
+During his command in Spain, 210&mdash;206, he won over
+the inhabitants while he defeated the Carthaginians, and for the
+furtherance of his great design, contracted an alliance with Syphax
+in Africa, 206. He was unable, however, to prevent the
+march of Asdrubal into Italy, 208, which nevertheless rendered
+it an easy task for him to subdue all Carthaginian Spain as far
+as Gades, 206, and thus procured him the consular dignity at his
+return, 205.</p>
+
+<p>The carrying of the war into Africa by Scipio, notwithstanding
+the opposition of the old Roman generals, and the desertion
+of Syphax, who at the persuasion of Sophonisba again went over
+to the Carthaginians (whose loss however was well repaid by
+Masinissa, whom Scipio had won over to his side in Spain), was
+followed by an important consequence; for after he had gained
+two victories over Asdrubal and Syphax, 203, and taken the
+latter prisoner, the Carthaginians found it necessary to recall
+Hannibal from Italy, 202; and the battle of Zama terminated
+the war, 201. The following were the conditions of peace:
+1. That the Carthaginians should only retain the territory in
+Africa annexed to their government. 2. That they should give
+up all their ships of war, except ten triremes, and all their elephants.
+3. That they should pay, at times specified, 10,000
+talents. 4. That they should commence no war without the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_346" id="Page_346">[Pg 346]</a></span>
+consent of Rome. 5. That they should restore to Masinissa all
+the houses, cities, and lands that had ever been possessed by
+himself or his ancestors.&mdash;The reproach usually cast upon the
+Carthaginians, of having left Hannibal unsupported in Italy, in
+a great measure vanishes, if we remember the plan formed in
+216, to send the Spanish army into Italy, and to replace it by
+an African one: a plan formed with much ability, and followed
+with as much constancy. We may add to this, that the Barcine
+faction maintained its influence in the government even to the
+end of the war. But why they, who by the treaty of peace gave
+up five hundred vessels of war, suffered Scipio to cross over
+from Sicily, without sending one to oppose him, is difficult to
+explain.</p></div>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Power of
+Rome increased
+by
+the war.</div>
+
+<p>7. Notwithstanding her great loss of men, and
+the devastation of Italy, Rome felt herself much
+more powerful at the end of this war than at the
+beginning.  Her dominion was not only established
+over Italy, but extensive foreign countries
+had been brought under it; her authority over the
+seas was rendered secure by the destruction of the
+naval power of the Carthaginians. The Roman
+<i>form</i> of government, it is true, underwent no
+change, but its <i>spirit</i> much, as the power of the
+senate became almost unlimited; and although
+the dawn of civilization had broken over Rome,
+since her intercourse with more civilized foreigners,
+the state still remained altogether a nation
+of warriors. And now, for the first time,
+appears in the page of history the fearful phenomenon
+<span class="sidenote">She becomes a military republic.</span>
+of a great military republic; and the history
+of the next ten years, in which Rome overthrew
+so many thrones and free states, gives a
+striking proof, that such a power is the natural
+enemy to the independence of all the states within
+the reach of her arms. The causes which led
+Rome from this time to aspire after the dominion
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_347" id="Page_347">[Pg 347]</a></span>of the world are to be found neither in her geographical
+situation, which for a conquering power
+by land seemed rather unfavourable; nor in the
+inclination of the people, who were opposed to
+the first war against Philip; but singly and entirely
+in the spirit of her government. The means,
+however, whereby she obtained her end, must
+not be sought for merely in the excellence of her
+armies and generals, but rather in that uniform,
+sharp-sighted, and dexterous
+<span class="sidenote">Her policy.</span>
+policy, by which
+she was enabled to frustrate the powerful alliances
+formed against her, notwithstanding the
+many adversaries who at that time sought to form
+new ones. But where could be found such another
+council of state, embodying such a mass
+of practical political wisdom, as the Roman senate
+must have been from the very nature of its organization?
+All this, however, would not have been
+<span class="sidenote">State of the rest of the world.</span>
+sufficient to have subjugated the world, if the
+want of good government, the degeneracy of the
+military art, and an extremely corrupt state of
+morals among both rulers and people, in foreign
+states, had not seconded the efforts of Rome.</p>
+
+<div class="sblockquot"><p>View of the political state of the world at this period. In
+the west, Sicily (the whole island after 212), Sardinia, and Corsica,
+from the year 237, and Spain, divided into citerior and
+ulterior (the latter rather in name than in fact), had become
+Roman provinces 206; the independence of Carthage had been
+destroyed by the last peace, and her subordination secured by
+the alliance of Rome with Masinissa; Cisalpine Gaul, formed
+into a province, served as a barrier against the inroads of the
+more northern barbarians. On the other side, in the east, the
+kingdom of Macedonia, and the free states of Greece, forming
+together a very complicated system, had opened a connection
+with Rome since the Illyrian war, 230, and Philip's alliance
+with Hannibal, 214. Of the three powers of the first rank,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_348" id="Page_348">[Pg 348]</a></span>
+Macedonia, Syria, and Egypt, the two former were allied against
+the latter, who, on her part, maintained a good understanding
+with Rome. The states of secondary rank were, those of the &AElig;tolian
+league, the kings of Pergamus, and the republic of Rhodes,
+with some smaller, such as Athens: these had allied themselves
+to Rome since the confederacy against Philip, 211. The
+Ach&aelig;an league, on the contrary, was in the interests of Macedonia,
+which Rome always endeavoured to attach to herself, in
+order to make head against those of the first rank.</p></div>
+
+<div class="sidenote">War
+against
+Philip,
+200.<br />
+
+T. Quintius
+Flaminius,
+198,<br />
+
+lays the
+foundation
+of Roman
+power in the
+east.<br />
+
+179.<br />
+
+198.</div>
+
+<p>8. A declaration of war against Philip, notwithstanding
+the opposition of the tribunes of the people,
+and an attack upon Macedonia itself, according
+to the constant maxim of carrying the war
+into the enemy's country, immediately followed.
+They could not, however, drive Philip so soon
+from the fastnesses of Epirus and Thessaly, which
+were his bulwarks. But Rome possessed in T.
+Quintius Flaminius, who marched against Philip
+as the deliverer of Greece, a statesman and general
+exactly fitted for a period of great revolutions.
+By the permanency of his political influence
+he became indeed the true founder of the
+Roman power in the east. Who could better
+cajole men and nations, while they were erecting
+altars to him, than T. Quintius? So artfully indeed
+did he assume the character of a great
+genius, such as had been given by nature to
+Scipio, that he has almost deceived history itself.
+The struggle between him and Philip consisted
+rather in a display of talents in political stratagem
+and finesse than in feats of arms: even before the
+battle of Cynoscephal&aelig; had given the finishing
+stroke, the Romans had already turned the balance
+in their favour, by gaining over the Ach&aelig;an
+league.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_349" id="Page_349">[Pg 349]</a></span></p>
+
+<div class="sblockquot"><p>The negotiations between Rome and Macedonia, from the
+year 214, give the first striking examples of the ability and
+address of the Romans in foreign policy; and they are the more
+remarkable, as the treaty with the &AElig;tolians and others, 211 (see
+above, p. 283), was the remote cause of the transactions which
+afterwards took place in the east. The peculiar system adopted by
+the Romans, of taking the lesser states under their protection as
+allies, must always have given them an opportunity of making
+war on the more powerful whenever they chose. This in fact
+happened in the present case, notwithstanding the peace concluded
+with Philip, 204. The chief object of the Romans in
+this war, both by sea and land, was to drive Philip completely
+out of Greece. The allies on both sides, and the conditions of
+peace, were similar to those concluded with Carthage (see above,
+p. 284). The destruction of the naval power of her conquered
+enemies became now a maxim of Roman policy in making peace;
+and she thus maintained the dominion of the seas without any
+great fleet, and without losing the essential character of a dominant
+power by land.</p></div>
+
+<p>9. The expulsion of Philip from Greece brought
+that country into a state of dependence upon
+Rome; an event which could not have been better
+secured than by the present of liberty which T.
+Quintius conferred upon its inhabitants at the
+Isthmian games. The system of surveillance,
+which the Romans had already established in the
+west over Carthage and Numidia, was now adopted
+in the east over Greece and Macedonia. Roman
+commissioners, under the name of ambassadors,
+were sent into the country of the nations in alliance,
+and were the principal means by which this
+system of espionage was carried on. These however
+did not fail to give umbrage to the Greeks,
+particularly to the turbulent &AElig;tolians; more especially
+as the Romans seemed in no hurry to withdraw
+their troops from a country which they had
+declared to be free.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_350" id="Page_350">[Pg 350]</a></span></p>
+
+<div class="sblockquot"><p>Liberty was expressly granted to the state which had taken
+the part of Philip, namely, to the Ach&aelig;ans; to the others it was
+naturally understood to belong. It was nevertheless three years,
+194, before the Roman army evacuated Greece and withdrew
+from the fortified places. The conduct of T. Quintius during
+this period fully shows what he was. The Greeks indeed had
+much want of such a guardian if they wished to remain quiet:
+his conduct, however, in the war against Nabis, 195, shows that
+he had not really at heart the tranquillity of Greece.</p></div>
+
+<div class="sidenote">War with
+Syria.</div>
+
+
+<p>10. The treaty of peace with Philip contained
+the seeds of a new and greater war with Syria;
+but though this seemed inevitable at that time,
+it did not break out till six years afterwards; and
+in but few periods of the history of the world is
+so great a political crisis to be found, as in this
+short interval. The fall of Carthage and Macedonia
+had shown the rest of the world what it
+had to expect from Rome; and there was no
+lack of great men sufficiently endowed with courage
+and talents to resist her.
+<span class="sidenote">Danger of a formidable league against Rome;</span>
+The danger of a formidable league between Carthage, Syria, and
+perhaps Macedonia, was never so much to be
+feared, as when Hannibal, now at the head of
+affairs, laboured to effect it with all the zeal which
+his hatred of Rome could inspire; and they might
+calculate with certainty beforehand on the accession
+of many smaller states. Rome, however, by
+<span class="sidenote">which she frustrates.</span>
+her equally decided and artful policy procured
+Hannibal's banishment from Carthage, amused
+Philip by granting him some trifling advantages,
+and gained over the smaller states by her ambassadors.
+By these means, and by taking advantage
+of the intrigues in the court of Syria, she
+prevented this coalition from being formed. Antiochus
+was therefore left without assistance in<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_351" id="Page_351">[Pg 351]</a></span>
+Greece, except from the &AElig;tolians, and a few other
+unimportant allies; while Rome drew from hers,
+especially the Rhodians and Eumenes, advantages
+of the greatest consequence.</p>
+
+<div class="sblockquot"><p>The first cause of contention between Rome and Antiochus
+was the liberty of Greece, which the former wished to extend to
+the Grecian cities of Asia, and to those in particular which had
+belonged to Philip, and afterwards to Antiochus; while the latter
+contended, that Rome had no right to intermeddle with the affairs
+of Asia. The second cause of dispute was the occupation
+of the Thracian Chersonesus by Antiochus, 196, in right of some
+ancient pretensions; and Rome, on her part, would not tolerate
+him in Europe. This quarrel therefore commenced as early as
+196, but did not become serious till the year 105, when in consequence
+of Hannibal's flight to Antiochus, together with the
+turbulence and excitement of the &AElig;tolians, whose object it was
+to embroil the rival powers, the political horizon was completely
+overcast. What a fortunate thing it was for Rome that such
+men as Hannibal and Antiochus could not understand each
+other!</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Heyne</span>, <i>de f&#339;derum ad Romanorum opes imminuendas initorum
+eventis eorumque causis; in Opusc.</i> vol. iii.</p></div>
+
+
+<p>11. This war was much sooner brought to a
+termination than the Macedonian, owing to the
+<span class="sidenote">191.</span>
+half-measures adopted by Antiochus.
+After having been driven from Greece by Glabrio, and
+after two naval victories had opened to the Romans
+the way to Asia, he felt inclined to act on
+the defensive; but in
+<span class="sidenote">Battle of Magnesia, 192.</span>
+the battle near Magnesia at
+the foot of Mount Sipylus, L. Scipio gathered the
+laurels which more properly belonged to Glabrio.
+The total expulsion of Antiochus from Asia Minor,
+even before this victory, had been the chief object
+of the war.
+<span class="sidenote">Conditions of peace.</span>
+The conditions of peace (see above, p. 284.) were such, as not only weakened
+Antiochus, but reduced him to a state of dependence.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_352" id="Page_352">[Pg 352]</a></span></p>
+
+<div class="sblockquot"><p>During this contest in the east, a sanguinary war was going on
+in the west; from the year 201 in Spain, where the elder Cato
+commanded; and from 193 in Italy itself, against the Ligurians.
+Whatever may be said upon the means made use of by Rome to
+increase the number of her citizens, it will always be difficult to
+comprehend, not only how she could support all these wars without
+being thereby weakened, but how at the same time she could
+found so many colonies!</p></div>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Moderation
+of Rome.</div>
+
+
+<p>12. Even after the termination of this war,
+Rome refrained with astonishing moderation from
+appearing in the light of a conqueror: it was only
+for the liberty of Greece, and for her allies, that
+she had contended! Without keeping a foot of
+land for herself, she divided, with the exception
+of the free Grecian cities, the conquered Asia
+Minor between Eumenes and the Rhodians;
+the manner, however, in which she dealt with
+the &AElig;tolians, who after a long supplication for
+peace were obliged to buy it dearly, shows that
+she also knew how to treat unfaithful allies. The
+<span class="sidenote">War against the Gauls in Asia Minor, 189.</span>
+war against the Gauls in Asia Minor was not less
+necessary for the preservation of tranquillity in
+that country, than it was injurious to the morals
+and military discipline of the Roman army. They
+here learned to levy contributions.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">200&mdash;190.<br />
+Rome the arbitress of the world.</div>
+
+<p>13. Thus, within the short space of ten years,
+was laid the foundation of the Roman authority
+in the east, and the general state of affairs entirely
+changed. If Rome was not yet the ruler,
+she was at least the arbitress of the world from
+the Atlantic to the Euphrates. The power of the
+three principal states was so completely humbled,
+that they durst not, without the permission of
+Rome, begin any new war; the fourth, Egypt,
+had already, in the year 201, placed herself under<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_353" id="Page_353">[Pg 353]</a></span>
+the guardianship of Rome; and the lesser powers
+followed of themselves: esteeming it an honour
+to be called the <i>allies of Rome</i>. With this name
+the nations were lulled into security, and brought
+under the Roman yoke; the new political system
+of Rome was founded and strengthened, partly
+by exciting and supporting the weaker states
+against the stronger, however unjust the cause
+of the former might be, and partly by factions
+which she found means to raise in every state,
+even the smallest.</p>
+
+<div class="sblockquot"><p>Although the policy of Rome extended itself everywhere by
+means of her commissioners, or ambassadors, yet she kept a
+more particular guard against Carthage by favouring Masinissa
+at her expense, against the Ach&aelig;an league by favouring the
+Spartans, and against Philip of Macedon by favouring every one
+who brought any complaint against him (see above, p. 285).</p></div>
+
+<p>14. Although these new connections and this
+intercourse with foreign nations greatly aided the
+diffusion of knowledge and science, and was followed
+by a gradual improvement in her civilization,
+yet was it nevertheless, in many respects,
+detrimental to the internal state of Rome. The
+introduction of the scandalous Bacchanalia, which
+were immediately discovered and forbidden, shows
+how easily great vices may creep in among a
+people who are only indebted for their morality to
+their ignorance. Among the higher classes also
+the spirit of intrigue manifested itself to an astonishing
+degree; particularly by the attacks directed
+against the Scipios by the elder Cato,
+whose restless activity became the instrument of
+his malignant passions. The severity of his censorship
+did not repair the evils caused by his immorality
+and pernicious politics.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_354" id="Page_354">[Pg 354]</a></span></p>
+
+<div class="sblockquot"><p>Voluntary exile of Scipio Africanus to Linternum, 187. He
+dies there, 183, the same year in which Hannibal falls under the
+continued persecution of Rome. His brother Scipio Asiaticus is
+also unable to escape a trial and condemnation, 185. One would
+have expected a sensible effect from the exile of these two great
+men; but, in a state where the ruling power is in the hands of a
+body like what the Roman senate was, the change of individuals
+is but of little consequence.</p></div>
+
+<div class="sidenote">New broils with Philip, 185.<br />
+His death, 179.</div>
+
+<p>15. Fresh disputes arose, as early as 185, with
+Philip of Macedon, who soon found that they had
+spared him no longer than it suited their own
+convenience. Although the intervention of Philip's
+youngest son, upon whom the Romans had
+formed some design, prevented the powers from
+coming to an immediate rupture, and war was
+still further delayed by Philip's death, yet the
+national hatred descended to his successor, and
+continued to increase, notwithstanding an alliance
+concluded with him, until the
+<span class="sidenote">Open war, 172.</span>
+war openly broke out (see above, p. 287).</p>
+
+<div class="sblockquot"><p>The first circumstance which gave umbrage to Philip was the
+small portion they permitted him to conquer in Athamania and
+Thessaly during the war against Antiochus. But what sharpened
+his animosity, much more than the object in dispute, was the
+conduct of the Roman commissioners, before whom he, the king,
+was called upon to defend himself as an accused party, 184.
+The exclamation of Philip, that "the sun of every day had not
+yet set," showed his indignation, and at the same time betrayed
+his intention. The interval previous to the breaking out of the
+war was anything rather than a time of peace for Rome; for
+besides that the Spanish and Ligurian wars continued almost
+without intermission, the revolts which broke out in Istria, 178,
+and in Sardinia and Corsica, 176, produced much bloodshed.</p></div>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Second Macedonian
+war, ends
+with the
+ruin of
+the kingdom,
+168.</div>
+
+<p>16. In the second Macedonian war, which
+ended with the destruction of Perseus and his
+kingdom (see above, p. 288), it required the ac<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_355" id="Page_355">[Pg 355]</a></span>tive
+efforts of Roman policy to prevent a powerful
+confederacy from being formed against her; as
+Perseus used all his endeavours to stimulate, not
+only the Grecian states, and Thrace and Illyria,
+but also Carthage and Asia, to enter into alliance
+with him. Where was it that Rome did not at
+this crisis send her ambassadors? She did not,
+indeed, succeed so far as to leave her enemy quite
+alone, but prepared new triumphs for herself over
+the few allies she left him. The devastated Epirus,
+and Gentius king of Illyria, suffered dearly for the
+assistance they had lent him; the states also which
+had remained neuter, the Rhodians and Eumenes,
+were made to feel severely that they were the
+mere creatures of Rome.</p>
+
+<div class="sblockquot"><p>Beginning of the Macedonian war, 171, before Rome was prepared;
+a deceitful truce, which raised the indignation even of
+the elder senators, was the means resorted to for gaining time.
+Notwithstanding this, the war at first, 170 and 169, was favourable
+to Perseus; but he wanted resolution and judgment to
+enable him to turn his advantages to account. In 168, Paulus
+&AElig;milius, an old general, against the usual custom of the Romans,
+took the command. Bloody and decisive battle near Pydna,
+June 22, 168. So completely may one day overturn a kingdom
+which has only an army for its support! Contemporary with this
+war, and highly fortunate for Rome, was the war of Antiochus
+Epiphanes with Egypt. No wonder that Rome did not, till 168,
+through Popilius, command peace between them! (See above,
+p. 261.)</p></div>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Its consequences.</div>
+
+<p>17. The destruction of the Macedonian monarchy
+was attended with consequences equally
+disastrous to the conquerors and the conquered.
+To the first it soon gave the notion of becoming
+the masters of the world, instead of its arbiters;
+and it exposed the latter, for the next twenty<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_356" id="Page_356">[Pg 356]</a></span>
+years, to all the evils inseparable from such a
+catastrophe. The system of politics hitherto pursued
+by Rome could not last much longer; for if
+nations suffered themselves to be brought under
+the yoke by force, it was not to be expected that
+they would long be held in dependence under the
+specious name of liberty. But the state of things
+after this war was such as contributed to hasten a
+change in the form of the relations which existed
+between Rome and her allies.</p>
+
+<div class="sblockquot"><p>The republican constitution given to the already ruined and
+devastated Macedonians (see above, p. 288.) and Illyrians, and
+which, according to the decree of the senate, "showed to all
+people that Rome was ready to bestow liberty upon them," was
+granted upon such hard conditions, that the enfranchised nation
+soon used every endeavour to procure themselves a king. Greece
+however suffered still more than Macedonia. Here, during the
+war, the spirit of faction had risen to the highest pitch; and the
+arrogant insolence of the Roman party, composed for the most
+part of venal wretches, was so great, that they persecuted not
+only those who had espoused an opposite faction, but even those
+who had joined no faction at all. Rome nevertheless could not
+believe herself secure, until she had destroyed, by a cruel artifice,
+all her adversaries (see above, p. 288).</p></div>
+
+<p>18. Entirely in the same spirit did Rome proceed
+against the other states from whom she had
+anything to fear. These must be rendered defenceless;
+and every means of effecting that purpose
+was considered justifiable by the senate.
+The quarrels between the successors to the throne
+of Egypt were taken advantage of to cause dissensions
+in that kingdom (see above, p. 260);
+while Syria was retained in a state of tutelage,
+by keeping the rightful heir to the throne at
+Rome; and its military power neutralized by
+means of their ambassadors (see above, p. 243).<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_357" id="Page_357">[Pg 357]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>19. From these facts we may also conclude,
+that the injuries now meditated against Carthage
+were not separate projects, but rather formed part
+of the general system of Roman policy at this
+period, although particular events at one time retarded
+their execution, and at another hastened it.
+History, in recounting the incredibly bad treatment
+which Carthage had to endure before her
+fall, seems to have given a warning to those nations
+who can take it, of what they may expect
+from the domination of a powerful republic.</p>
+
+<div class="sblockquot"><p>Cato was chief of the party which sought the destruction of
+Carthage, both from a spirit of envy against Scipio Nasica, whom
+he hated for his great influence in the senate; and because, when
+ambassador to Carthage, he thought they did not treat him with
+sufficient respect. But Masinissa's victory, 152 (see above,
+p. 88), and the defection of Utica, brought this project into immediate
+play. Beginning of the war, 150, the Carthaginians
+having been previously inveigled out of their arms. The city,
+however, was not captured and destroyed till 146, by P. Scipio
+&AElig;milianus. The Carthaginian territory, under the name of
+Africa, was then made a Roman province.</p></div>
+
+<div class="sidenote">A new war
+with Macedonia
+and
+Greece.</div>
+
+<p>20. During this third war with Carthage, hostilities
+again broke out in Macedonia, which
+brought on a new war with Greece, and entirely
+changed the state of both these countries. In
+Macedonia, an impostor named Andriscus, who
+pretended to be the son of Philip, placed himself
+at the head of that highly disaffected people,
+assumed the name of Philip, and became, particularly
+<span class="sidenote">148.</span>
+by an alliance with the Thracians, very
+formidable to the Romans, until overcome by
+Metellus. Rome wishing to take advantage of
+this crisis to dissolve the Ach&aelig;an league, the
+Ach&aelig;an war broke out (see above, p. 289). This
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_358" id="Page_358">[Pg 358]</a></span>war was begun by Metellus, and terminated by
+Mummius with the
+<span class="sidenote">Terminated by the destruction of Corinth, 146.</span>
+destruction of Corinth. By
+reducing both Macedonia and Greece to the form
+of provinces, Rome now gave evident proof that
+no existing relations, nor any form of government,
+can prevent nations from being subjugated by a
+warlike republic, whenever circumstances render
+it possible.</p>
+
+<div class="sblockquot"><p>It might have been expected, that the destruction of the two
+first commercial cities in the world, in the same year, would have
+been followed by important consequences to the course of trade;
+but the trade of Carthage and Corinth had already been drawn
+to Alexandria and Rhodes, otherwise Utica might, in some respects,
+have supplied the place of Carthage.</p></div>
+
+<div class="sidenote">War in Spain, 146.<br />
+140.<br />
+133.</div>
+
+<p>21. While Rome was thus destroying thrones
+and republics, she met in Spain with an antagonist&mdash;a
+simple Spanish countryman named Viriathus&mdash;whom,
+after six years' war, she could only
+rid herself of by assassination. The war, nevertheless,
+continued after his death against the Numantines,
+who would not be subjected, but were
+at last destroyed by Scipio &AElig;milianus.</p>
+
+<div class="sblockquot"><p>The war against the Spaniards, who of all the nations subdued
+by the Romans defended their liberty with the greatest obstinacy,
+began in the year 200, six years after the total expulsion
+of the Carthaginians from their country, 206. It was exceedingly
+obstinate, partly from the natural state of the country, which was
+thickly populated, and where every place became a fortress;
+partly from the courage of the inhabitants; but above all, owing
+to the peculiar policy of the Romans, who were wont to employ
+their allies to subdue other nations. This war continued, almost
+without interruption, from the year 200 to 133, and was for the
+most part carried on at the same time in Hispania Citerior, where
+the Celtiberi were the most formidable adversaries, and in Hispania
+Ulterior, where the Lusitani were equally powerful. Hostilities
+were at the highest pitch in 195, under Cato, who reduced<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_359" id="Page_359">[Pg 359]</a></span>
+Hispania Citerior to a state of tranquillity 185&mdash;179, when
+the Celtiberi were attacked in their native territory; and 155&mdash;150,
+when the Romans in both provinces were so often beaten,
+that nothing was more dreaded by the soldiers at home than to
+be sent there. The extortions and perfidy of Servius Galba
+placed Viriathus, in the year 146, at the head of his nation, the
+Lusitani: the war, however, soon extended itself to Hispania
+Citerior, where many nations, particularly the Numantines, took
+up arms against Rome, 143. Viriathus, sometimes victorious and
+sometimes defeated, was never more formidable than in the
+moment of defeat; because he knew how to take advantage of
+his knowledge of the country, and of the dispositions of his countrymen.
+After his murder, caused by the treachery of C&aelig;pio,
+140, Lusitania was subdued; but the Numantine war became
+still more violent, and the Numantines compelled the consul
+Mancinus to a disadvantageous treaty, 137. When Scipio, in
+the year 133, put an end to this war, Spain was certainly tranquil;
+the northern parts, however, were still unsubdued, though
+the Romans penetrated as far as Galatia.</p></div>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Attalus III.
+leaves his
+kingdom to
+the Romans.<br />
+
+133&mdash;130.</div>
+
+<p>22. Towards the end of this period, the Romans
+obtained at a much cheaper rate the possession
+of one of their most important provinces;
+for the profligate Attalus III. king of Pergamus,
+bequeathing them the whole of his kingdom (on
+what account is uncertain, see above, p. 292.),
+they immediately took possession of it, and kept
+in spite of the resistance of the legitimate heir
+Aristonicus, merely ceding, as a recompense,
+Phrygia to Mithridates V. king of Pontus. Thus,
+by a stroke of the pen, the largest and finest part
+of Asia Minor became the property of Rome.
+If this extraordinary legacy was the work of
+Roman policy, she paid dearly enough, in the
+long run, for this accession to her power and
+riches, by the destruction of her morals, and the
+dreadful wars to which this legacy gave rise
+under Mithridates.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_360" id="Page_360">[Pg 360]</a></span></p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Roman
+provinces.</div>
+
+
+<p>23. The foreign possessions of Rome, besides
+Italy, comprised at this time under the name of
+provinces, a name of much higher signification
+in the Latin language than in any other, Hispania
+Citerior and Ulterior, Africa (the territory of Carthage),
+Sicily, Sardinia and Corsica, Liguria, and
+Cisalpine Gaul, in the west; and in the east,
+Macedonia, Achaia, and Asia (territory of Pergamus).
+The inhabitants of these countries were
+<span class="sidenote">How governed.</span>
+entirely subject to Rome. The administration
+of them was carried on by those who had enjoyed
+the office of consul, and by pr&aelig;tors, subordinate
+to whom were the qu&aelig;stors, or collectors
+of the revenue. The highest military and
+civil powers were united in these governors; a
+principal cause of that horrible oppression which
+was soon felt. Troops were always kept up in
+the provinces; and the Latin language everywhere
+introduced (except only where Greek was
+spoken), that the inhabitants might be made as
+much like Romans as possible.</p>
+
+<div class="sblockquot"><p>Till nearly the end of this period, pr&aelig;tors were expressly appointed
+to each province. It was not till after the origin of the
+<i>qu&aelig;stiones perpetu&aelig;</i>, that it became the custom for the pr&aelig;tors
+who had vacated office, to succeed to the provinces (<i>propr&aelig;tores</i>),
+a principal cause of the degeneracy of the Roman constitution.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">C. Sigonius</span>, <i>de Antiquo jure provinciarum in Gr&aelig;vii Thes.
+Antiq. Rom.</i> vol. ii.</p></div>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Roman revenue.</div>
+
+<p>24. The acquisition of these rich countries
+naturally had great influence in augmenting the
+revenue of the Romans. Though Rome was not
+indeed a state, like Carthage, altogether dependent
+upon finances, yet she kept these ad<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_361" id="Page_361">[Pg 361]</a></span>justed
+in a wonderful manner; a spirit of nice
+order being observed in this as well as in every
+other department of her administration. If in
+extraordinary emergencies recourse were had to
+native loans, to a change in the value of money,
+or a monopoly of salt, order was soon restored;
+while the booty obtained from conquered countries
+was also a great source of the public income
+so long indeed as it was reserved for the state,
+and did not become the prey of the generals.</p>
+
+<div class="sblockquot"><p>Sources of the Roman revenue (<i>vectigalia</i>) were: 1. Tribute
+<i>a.</i> from the Roman citizens; that is to say, a property-tax imposed
+by the senate according to the urgency of the case (which,
+however, was remitted, for a long time, after the war with Perseus,
+168, being no longer necessary). <i>b.</i> Tribute of the allies
+(<i>socii</i>) in Italy: which seems also to have been a property-tax;
+differing in different places. <i>c.</i> Tribute of the provinces: in
+some a heavy poll-tax, in others taxes on property; in all, however,
+they were paid in natural productions, mostly ordinary,
+though sometimes extraordinary, as well for the salary of the
+governor as for the supply of the capital. 2. The revenue from
+the national domains (<i>ager publicus</i>), both in Italy (especially
+Campania) and in the provinces; the tythes (<i>decum&aelig;</i>) of which
+were paid by means of leases for four years, granted by the censors.
+3. The revenue from the customs (<i>portoria</i>), collected in
+the seaports and frontier towns. 4. The revenue arising from
+the mines (<i>metalla</i>), particularly the Spanish silver mines; the
+proprietors of which were obliged to pay a duty to the state.
+5. The duty upon enfranchised slaves (<i>aurum vicesimarium</i>).
+All receipts flowed into the national treasury, the <i>&aelig;rarium</i>; all
+outgoings were exclusively ordered by the senate; and the people
+were consulted as little with regard to them as they were respecting
+the imposts. The officers employed were the <i>qu&aelig;stores</i>,
+under whom were the <i>scrib&aelig;</i>, divided into <i>decurias</i>, who, though
+certainly subordinate, had nevertheless great influence. Their
+services, as they were not yearly changed, must have been indispensable
+to the <i>qu&aelig;stores</i> for the time being; and the whole
+management of affairs, at least in detail, must have fallen into
+their hands.</p>
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_362" id="Page_362">[Pg 362]</a></span></p>
+<p>Upon the finances of Rome, the best work at present is:&mdash;</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">P. Burmanni</span>, <i>Vectigalia Populi Romani</i>. Leyden, 1734,
+4to.</p>
+
+<p>Two excellent treatises have since appeared in German upon
+this subject:&mdash;</p>
+
+<p>&#8224; <span class="smcap">D. H. Hegewisch</span>, <i>Essay upon Roman Finances</i>. Antona,
+1804, and</p>
+
+<p>&#8224; <span class="smcap">R. Bosse</span>, <i>Sketch of the System of Finance in the Roman
+State</i>. Brunswick, 1803, 2 parts. Both include the periods of
+the republic and the monarchy.</p></div>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 25%;" />
+<h2>THIRD PERIOD.</h2>
+
+<p class="iblockquot2"><i>From the beginning of the civil broils under the Gracchi,
+to the fall of the republic. B. C. 134&mdash;30. Year of
+Rome, 620&mdash;724.</i></p>
+
+
+<div class="sblockquot"><p><span class="smcap">Sources.</span> Concerning the first half of this important period
+of the republic, down to the time of Cicero, we are sadly in
+want of precise information. Not one of the contemporary
+writers has been preserved to us, nor indeed any one of the
+later historians who have compiled a history of the whole period.
+<span class="smcap">Appian</span>, <i>de Bellis Civilibus</i>; <span class="smcap">Plutarch</span>, in his <i>Lives of the
+Gracchi</i>; and the spirited <i>Compendium</i> of <span class="smcap">Vel. Paterculus</span>,
+are, for this portion, our principal authorities; and even the imperfect
+summaries of the lost books of Livy, so masterly supplied
+by Freinshemius here become of importance. For the times
+which follow, the <i>Jugurtha</i> and <i>Cataline</i> of Sallust, are two excellent
+historical cabinet pieces, and become the more valuable
+for the insight they at the same time give us of the internal condition
+of Rome. His great work, however, <i>The Histories</i>, is,
+with the exception of a few precious fragments, unfortunately
+lost. For the times of <span class="smcap">C&aelig;sar</span> and <span class="smcap">Cicero</span>, we have the <i>Commentaries</i>
+of the first, and the <i>Orations</i> and <i>Letters</i> of the latter;
+both fertile sources of information. What is left us of <span class="smcap">Dio Cassius's</span>
+<i>History</i>, begins with the year 69 before Christ. Of <span class="smcap">Plu<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_363" id="Page_363">[Pg 363]</a></span>tarch's</span>
+<i>Lives</i>, besides those of the Gracchi, the following are
+connected with this period: <span class="smcap">C. Marius, Sylla, Lucullus,
+Crassus, Sertorius, Cato of Utica, Cicero, Brutus</span>, and
+<span class="smcap">Antonius</span>. Upon the sources for these lives, see my treatises
+cited above, p. 321.</p>
+
+<p>Among the moderns, the greater part of this period is particularly
+treated of by:&mdash;</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">De Brosses</span>, <i>Histoire de la R&eacute;publique Romaine dans le
+cours du VII<sup>e</sup> Si&egrave;cle par Salluste</i>, &agrave; Dijou, 1777, 3 vols. 4to.</p>
+
+<p>In German by <span class="smcap">J. C. Schleuter</span>, 1790, etc. with remarks,
+4 vols. The editor of this capital work had an idea of translating
+Sallust, and supplying what is lost. It contains, besides
+a translation of Jugurtha and Cataline, the period between both,
+of which Sallust treats in his <i>Histories</i>: that is, from Sylla's
+abdication, B. C. 79&mdash;67; and is equally important for its own
+merits and for the period to which it belongs.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Vertot</span>, <i>Histoire des r&eacute;volutions arriv&eacute;es dans le gouvernement
+de la R&eacute;publique Romaine</i>. Paris, 1796, 6 vols. 12mo. Although
+this justly esteemed work includes the foregoing period,
+it is particularly valuable for the present.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Mably</span>, <i>Observations sur les Romains</i>. Gen&egrave;ve, 1751, 2 vols.
+8vo. A survey of the internal history; ingenious, but as superficial
+as the <i>Observations sur les Grecs</i> by the same author.</p></div>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Civil wars.<br />
+
+Power of the senate creates an aristocracy,<br />
+
+which is opposed by the tribunes of the people.</div>
+
+<p>1. The foregoing period is composed of the
+history of foreign wars alone; in this, on the contrary,
+Rome appears in a continual state of internal
+commotion. And if foreign hostilities interrupt
+this state of things for a short time, it is
+only that it may be renewed with more violence,
+till at last it ends in a furious civil war. As the
+almost boundless power of the senate had laid
+the foundation of an exceedingly hateful family
+aristocracy, against which the tribunes of the
+people arrayed themselves, in the character of
+powerful demagogues, there arose a new struggle
+between the aristocratic and democratic parties,
+which almost immediately grew into two powerful<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_364" id="Page_364">[Pg 364]</a></span>
+factions. This contest, from its extent and its
+consequences, soon became much more important
+than the ancient one between the patricians and
+the plebeians.</p>
+
+<div class="sblockquot"><p>This family aristocracy gradually arose from the power of the
+magistrates, who now not only enjoyed a very high political importance,
+but, by the government of the provinces, acquired
+immense wealth. The present aristocracy, then, consisted of the
+ruling families (<i>nobiles</i>) concentrated in the senate. The struggle
+with the opposite party, the people (<i>plebs</i>), became so much the
+more violent in consequence of the great abuses which had
+crept into the administration, particularly in the division of the
+lands of the republic; the ruling families securing to themselves
+the fruits of all the victories and conquests, while the power of
+the democracy, by the vast accumulation of people (without the
+means of livelihood, although voting in the <i>comitia</i>), especially
+of enfranchised slaves, who, though strangers, mostly without
+power or property, formed, nevertheless, the greater part of
+what was then called the Roman people.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">G. Al. Ruperti</span>, <i>Stemmata gentium Romanarum</i>. Goett.
+1795, 8vo. Almost indispensable for obtaining a clear insight
+into the history of the Roman families, and of course into that
+of the state.</p></div>
+
+<div class="sidenote">First disturbances
+under T. S.
+Gracchus.
+B. C. 133.<br />
+
+He desires
+to relieve
+the distress
+of the lower
+orders,
+and dies in
+the attempt:</div>
+
+
+<p>2. Commencement of the disturbances under
+the tribunate of Tib. Sempronius Gracchus, whom
+former connections had long made the man of the
+people. His desire was to relieve the distress
+of the lower orders; and the means whereby he
+hoped to do this was a better division of the
+lands of the republic, now almost exclusively in
+the hands of the aristocracy. His reform, therefore,
+naturally led at once to a struggle with that
+party. Tib. Gracchus however soon found, by
+experience, that a demagogue cannot stop where
+he would, however pure his intentions may be
+at first; and no sooner had he obtained a pro<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_365" id="Page_365">[Pg 365]</a></span>longation
+of his term of office, in opposition to
+the usual custom, than he fell a sacrifice to his
+undertaking.</p>
+
+<div class="sblockquot"><p>The first agrarian law of Gracchus was confirmed by the
+people, notwithstanding the fruitless opposition of his colleague
+Octavius, who was deposed; it decreed, that no person should
+possess above five hundred acres of land, nor any child above half
+that quantity. This law was, in fact, only a renewal of the
+ancient <i>lex Licinia</i>; in the condition, however, in which Rome
+now was, it bore much harder upon the property usurped by the
+great families, than it did in former times. Appointment of
+a committee for dividing the national lands, and for enquiring
+also at the same time which were the property of the state (<i>ager
+publicus</i>) and which were not. New popular propositions of the
+elder Gracchus, especially that for the division of the treasures
+left by king Attalus of Pergamus, with the view of securing his
+continuance in office; great insurrection of the aristocratic party
+under Scipio Nasica, and murder of Tiberius Gracchus, on the
+day of electing the new tribunes of the people.</p></div>
+
+<div class="sidenote">his fall does
+not destroy
+his party.</div>
+
+
+<p>3. The fall of the chief of the new party,
+however, occasioned any thing rather than its destruction.
+Not only was there no mention of an
+abrogation of the agrarian law, but the senate
+was obliged to allow the place in the commission,
+which had become vacant by the death of Gracchus,
+to be filled up; and Scipio Nasica himself
+was sent out of the way, under the pretext of an
+embassy to Asia. The party of the senate did,
+<span class="sidenote">132.</span>
+indeed, find a powerful support for a short time
+in the return of Scipio &AElig;milianus (<i>d.</i> 129) from
+Spain; but its greatest support was found in the
+difficulties of the law itself, which prevented its
+execution.</p>
+
+<div class="sblockquot"><p>Great revolt of the slaves in Sicily under Eunus, 134&mdash;131.
+This contributed not a little to keep alive the dissensions, as it
+showed the necessity of a reform.</p></div><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_366" id="Page_366">[Pg 366]</a></span></p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">The tribunes
+endeavour
+to
+increase
+their power.
+130.</div>
+
+<p>4. Evident endeavours of the tribunes of the
+people to increase their power, Gracchus having
+now awakened them to a sense of it. Not satisfied
+with a seat and voice in the senate, Carbo
+wished that the renewing of their dignity should
+be passed into a law. By the removal, however,
+of the chiefs of the lower party, upon honourable
+pretexts, new troubles were put off for some
+years.</p>
+
+<div class="sblockquot"><p>First establishment of the Roman power in Transalpine Gaul
+by M. Fulvius Flaccus, on the occasion of his being sent to the
+assistance of Massilia, 128. Southern Gaul became a Roman
+province as early as 122, in consequence of the defeat of the
+Allobrogi and Averni by Q. Fabius, who had been sent against
+them to support the &AElig;dui, the allies of Rome. Capture of the
+Balearian isles by Metellus, 123. Qu&aelig;storship of C. Gracchus
+in Sicily, 128&mdash;125.</p></div>
+
+<div class="sidenote">C. Gracchus.</div>
+
+<p>5. These palliative remedies, however, availed
+nothing after the return of C. Gracchus from
+Sicily with a full determination to tread in the
+footsteps of his brother. Like him, it is true,
+he fell a victim to his enterprise; but the storm
+that he raised during the two years of his tribunate
+fell so much the more heavily, as the
+popular excitement was more general, and from
+his possessing more of the shining talents necessary
+to form a powerful demagogue than his
+brother.</p>
+
+<div class="sblockquot"><p>First tribunate of C. Gracchus, 123. Renewal of the agrarian
+law, and rendering its provisions more strict. Nevertheless, as
+he increased the fermentation by his popular measures and by
+acting the demagogue, and obtained the renewal of the tribunate
+for the following year, 122, he so far extended his plan, as to
+render it not only highly dangerous to the aristocracy, but even
+to the state itself. Establishment of distributions of corn to the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_367" id="Page_367">[Pg 367]</a></span>
+poor people. Plan for the formation of the knights (<i>ordo equestris</i>)
+into a political body, as a counterbalance to the senate, by
+conferring on it the right of administering justice, (<i>judicia</i>,)
+which was taken from the senate. Still more important project
+of granting to the Italian allies the privileges of Roman citizenship;
+and also the formation of colonies, not only in Campania,
+but also out of Italy, in Carthage. The highly refined policy of
+the senate, however, by lessening this man of the people in the
+eyes of his admirers, through the assistance of the tribune Livius
+Drusius, prevented his complete triumph; and, once declining,
+Gracchus soon experienced the fate of every demagogue, whose
+complete fall is then irretrievable. General insurrection, and
+assassination of C. Gracchus, 121.</p></div>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Victory of
+the aristocratic
+faction.</div>
+
+<p>6. The victory of the aristocratic faction was
+this time not only much more certain and bloody,
+they turned the advantages it gave them to
+such good account, that they eluded the agrarian
+law of Gracchus, and indeed, at last, completely
+abrogated it. But the seeds of discord already
+disseminated, especially among the Italian allies,
+could not be so soon checked, when once the
+subjects of these states had conceived the idea
+that they were entitled to a share in the government.
+How soon these party struggles might
+be renewed, or indeed a civil war break out, depended
+almost entirely upon foreign circumstances,
+and the chance of a bolder leader being
+found.</p>
+
+<div class="sblockquot"><p>Agrarian law evaded: at first by repealing an act which prohibited
+the transfer of the national lands already divided, whereby
+the patricians were enabled to buy them again;&mdash;afterwards by
+the <i>lex Thoria:</i> complete stop put to all further divisions, a land-tax,
+to be distributed among the people, being instituted in its
+stead; but even this latter was very soon annulled.</p>
+
+<p>&#8224; <span class="smcap">D. H. Hegewisch</span>, <i>History of the Civil Wars of the
+Gracchi</i>. Altona, 1801.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_368" id="Page_368">[Pg 368]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>&#8224; <i>History of the Revolution of the Gracchi in my Miscellaneous
+Historical Works.</i> Vol. iii. 1821.</p></div>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Effects of
+this party-spirit
+in
+corrupting
+the nation.</div>
+
+<p>7. Visible effects of this party spirit upon
+public morals, which now began to decline the
+more rapidly, in proportion to the increase of
+foreign connections. Neither the severity of the
+censorship, nor the laws against luxury (<i>leges
+sumtuari&aelig;</i>), nor those which now became necessary
+against celibacy, could be of much service in
+this respect. This degeneracy was not only to be
+found in the cupidity of the higher ranks, but also
+in the licentiousness of the lower orders.</p>
+
+<div class="sblockquot"><p>Luxury in Rome was first displayed in the public administration
+(owing to the excessive accumulation of wealth in the treasury,
+especially during the Macedonian wars) before it infected
+private life; and the avarice of the great long preceded the latter.
+The sources from whence they satisfied this passion were found
+in the extortions of the governors of provinces, their great power,
+and the distance from Rome rendering the <i>leges repetundarum</i> of
+but little effect. Probably the endeavours of the allied princes
+and kings to gain a party in the senate was a still more fruitful
+source, as they could obtain their end only by purchase, and so
+gave a new impulse to the cupidity and intriguing disposition of
+the members of that council. But private luxury requires everywhere
+some time to ripen. It attained its height immediately
+after the Mithridatic wars.</p>
+
+<p>&#8224; <span class="smcap">D. Meiner</span>, <i>History of the Corruption of the Morals and
+Constitution of the Romans</i>. Leips. 1782.</p>
+
+<p>&#8224; <span class="smcap">Meierotto</span>, <i>Morals and Manners of the Romans at different
+periods of the Republic</i>. Berlin, 1776. Which considers
+the subject in several points of view.</p>
+
+<p>&#8224; <span class="smcap">C. A. Bottiger</span>, <i>Sabina, or, morning scenes at the toilette
+of a rich Roman lady</i>. Leips. 1806, 2 vols. A true and lively
+description of the luxury of the Roman ladies, but principally at
+its most brilliant period. It has been translated into French.</p></div>
+
+<div class="sidenote">The African
+war against
+Jugurtha.
+118&mdash;106.</div>
+
+
+<p>8. This corruption was manifested in a striking
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_369" id="Page_369">[Pg 369]</a></span>manner in the next great war that Rome entered
+into, which was in Africa, against Jugurtha of
+Numidia, the adopted grandson of Masinissa;
+and soon after against his ally Bocchus of Mauritania.
+This war, kindled and maintained by the
+avarice of the Roman nobles, which Jugurtha had
+already had an opportunity of knowing at the
+siege of Numantia, paved the way to the aggrandizement of
+<span class="sidenote">C. Marius</span>
+C. Marius, a new demagogue, who,
+being also a formidable general, did much more
+harm to the state than even the Gracchi.</p>
+
+<div class="sblockquot"><p>Commencement of the quarrel of Jugurtha with the two sons
+of Micipsa, and assassination of Hiempsal, one of them, 118.&mdash;When
+the other, Adherbal, arrived at Rome, 117, the party of
+Jugurtha had already succeeded, and obtained a partition of the
+kingdom. New attack upon Adherbal, who is besieged in Cirta,
+and, notwithstanding the repeated embassies of Rome to Jugurtha,
+is compelled to surrender, and is put to death, 112. The
+tribune C. Memmius constrains the senate to declare war against
+Jugurtha; but Jugurtha purchases a peace of the consul Calpurnius
+Piso, 111.&mdash;Nevertheless Memmius hinders the ratification
+of the peace, and Jugurtha is required to justify himself at
+Rome. He would probably, however, have bought his acquittal,
+if the murder of his kinsman Massiva, 110, by the help of Bomilcar,
+had not rendered it impossible. The war is renewed
+under the consul Sp. Albinus and his brother Aulus, 110, but with
+very little success, until the incorruptible Q. Metellus took the
+command, 109, who would have put an end to it, notwithstanding
+the great talents now displayed as a general by Jugurtha,
+and his alliance with Bocchus, 108, had he not been supplanted
+by Marius, who obtains the consulship by his popularity, 107.
+Marius is obliged to have recourse to perfidy to get Jugurtha
+into his hands, who is betrayed by Bocchus, 106. Numidia is
+divided between Bocchus and two grandsons of Masinissa,
+Hiempsal and Hiarbas.</p></div>
+
+<div class="sidenote">obtains the
+consulate;</div>
+
+
+<p>9. The elevation of Marius to the consulate not
+only humbled the power of the aristocracy, but
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_370" id="Page_370">[Pg 370]</a></span>also showed, for the first time, that the way was
+open to a man of low birth (<i>homo novus</i>) to the
+highest offices; the method, however, which he
+had taken to form his army, entirely against the
+Roman custom, that is, of composing it of the
+lower orders (<i>capite censis</i>) must have rendered
+him doubly formidable. Nevertheless, he would
+scarcely have effected so great a change in the
+constitution, if a new and terrible war had not
+rendered his services indispensable:&mdash;this was
+<span class="sidenote">defeats the Cimbri and Teutones;</span>
+the threatened invasion of the Cimbri and Teutones
+the most powerful nations of the north,
+during which a new and violent rebellion of the
+slaves was raging in Sicily:&mdash;for after the defeat
+of so many Roman armies, the people believed
+that no one but the conqueror of Jugurtha could
+save Italy; and Marius knew so well how to turn
+this to account, that he remained consul during
+four successive years.</p>
+
+<div class="sblockquot"><p>The Cimbri, or Cimmerians, probably a nation of German
+origin, from beyond the Black sea, originated a popular migration
+which extended from thence as far as Spain. Their march was
+perhaps occasioned, or accelerated, by the Scythian war of
+Mithridates; and their course, like that of most nomad races,
+was from east to west along the Danube. They had already, in
+113, defeated the consul Papirius Carbo, near Noreia in Styria.
+In their progress towards the west they were joined by German,
+Celtic, and Helvetic tribes (the <i>Teutones</i>, <i>Ambrones</i>, and <i>Tigurians</i>).&mdash;Attack
+Roman Gaul, 109, where they demand settlements
+and defeat Junius Silanus the consul.&mdash;Defeat of L.
+Cassius Longinus and M. Aurelius Scaurus, 107.&mdash;Great defeat
+of the Romans in Gaul, 105, occasioned by the disagreement of
+their generals, the consuls, Cn. Manlius and Q. Servius C&aelig;pio.
+Marius obtains the command, and remains consul from 104&mdash;101.
+The migrations of the Cimbri&mdash;a part of whom reach the Pyrenees,
+but are driven back by the Celtiberians, 103&mdash;give Marius<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_371" id="Page_371">[Pg 371]</a></span>
+time to complete his army. In 102, after dividing themselves,
+they first attempted to penetrate into Italy: the Teutones
+through Provence, and the Cimbri by Tyrol.&mdash;Great defeat and
+slaughter of the Teutones by Marius, near Aix, 102.&mdash;The Cimbri,
+on the contrary, effect an invasion and make progress till
+Marius comes to the help of Catulus. Great battle and defeat of
+the Cimbri near the Po, July 30, 101.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">J. Muller</span>, <i>Bellum Cimbricum</i>. Tigur, 1772. A youthful
+essay of that celebrated historian. Compare</p>
+
+<p>&#8224; <span class="smcap">Mannert</span>, <i>Geography,</i> etc. part iii.</p></div>
+
+<div class="sidenote">buys his
+sixth consulate.</div>
+
+<p>10. Although during this war the power of the
+popular party had sensibly increased, yet the
+storm did not break out until Marius <i>bought</i>
+his sixth consulate. Now, even in Rome itself,
+he wished to avenge himself upon his
+enemies; and what could the senate do, when it
+had at its head a demagogue in the consul himself?&mdash;His
+league with the tribune Saturnius, and
+the pr&aelig;tor Glaucias, forming already a true triumvirate,
+would have overthrown the republic
+after the expulsion of Metellus, if the unbridled
+licentiousness of the rabble connected with his
+allies had not obliged him to break with them,
+lest he should sacrifice the whole of his popularity.</p>
+
+<div class="sblockquot"><p>The measures of this cabal, who wished to appear as if treading
+in the steps of the Gracchi, were principally directed against
+Q. Metellus, the chief of the party of the senate, and who, since
+the African war, had been the mortal foe of Marius. After the
+exile of Metellus, occasioned by his opposition to a new agrarian
+law, this faction usurped the rights of the people, and lorded it
+in the committees; until, at a new election of consuls, a general
+revolt, favoured by Marius himself, took place of all the well-disposed
+citizens against them; Saturnius and Glaucias were
+besieged in the capitol, forced to surrender, and executed. The<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_372" id="Page_372">[Pg 372]</a></span>
+return of Metellus from his voluntary exile soon followed, 92,
+much against the will of Marius, who was obliged to retire into
+Asia.</p></div>
+
+<div class="sidenote">98&mdash;91.</div>
+
+<p>11. The few years of tranquillity which Rome
+now enjoyed, brought to maturity many benefits
+and many evils, the seeds of which had been
+already sown. On one hand the rising eloquence
+of Antonius, Crassus, and others, was employed
+with effect against the oppressors of the provinces
+in the state trials (<i>questiones</i>); and some
+generous spirits used all their endeavours to heal
+the wounds of Sicily, Asia, and other provinces, by
+a better administration; while, on the other hand,
+the power of the <i>ordo equestris</i> became a source of
+much abuse: for besides their right to sit in the
+tribunals (<i>judiciis</i>), which C. Gracchus had conferred
+upon them, they had also obtained the
+farming of the leases, and thereby the collection
+of the revenue in the provinces; by which means
+they were enabled not only to oppose every reform
+that was attempted in the latter, but even
+at Rome to hold the senate in a state of dependence.
+The struggle which now arose between
+them and the senate respecting the <i>judicia</i>
+(or right to preside in the tribunal), was one of
+the most fatal to the republic, as this right was
+abused by them for the purpose of satisfying their
+personal rancour, and oppressing the greatest
+men. The tribune M. Livius Drusus the younger,
+it is true, wrested from them half their power;
+but, alas! the manner in which he did it kindled
+into a flame the fire which had been smouldering
+from the time of the Gracchi.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_373" id="Page_373">[Pg 373]</a></span></p><div class="sblockquot"><p>Acquisition of Cyrene by the testament of king Apion, 97;
+notwithstanding which it maintained its independence, although
+probably by paying a tribute. Adjustment of the differences
+between the kings of Asia Minor by the pr&aelig;tor Sylla, 92 (see
+above, p. 294).</p></div>
+
+<div class="sidenote">War of the
+allies,
+91&mdash;88.</div>
+
+<p>12. Revolt of the Italian tribes, who desire to
+obtain the right of Roman citizens; whereupon
+the bloody <i>war of the allies</i> ensues. Although
+the oppression of Rome had been preparing this
+war for a long time, yet it was an immediate
+consequence of the intrigues of the Roman demagogues,
+who since the law of the younger
+Gracchus, had, with the view of making themselves
+popular, continually flattered the allies
+with the hope of sharing the privileges of Roman
+citizenship. It was however soon seen, that the
+allies were not at a loss among themselves for
+leaders, capable of forming great plans and executing
+them with vigour. Italy was about to
+become a republic, with Corfinium for its capital
+instead of Rome. Neither could Rome have
+saved herself from such an event, but by gradually
+permitting the allies to enjoy the complete
+freedom of the city.</p>
+
+<div class="sblockquot"><p>After the civil wars of the Gracchi, large bands of the allies
+were continually flocking to Rome. These were in the pay of the
+demagogues, whom the <i>lex Licinia</i>, 95, had banished from Rome,
+and thereby laid the foundation of the revolt. From that time
+the conspiracy among these tribes began, and attained without
+interruption such a degree of maturity, that the carelessness of
+Rome can only be accounted for from the party fury which then
+existed, and which the <i>lex Varia</i>, 91, enacted against the promoters
+of rebellion, served only to inflame the more. The murder
+of the tribune Livius Drusus, 91, a very ambiguous character,
+brought the affair to an open rupture. In this alliance were
+the Marsi, Picentes, Peligni, Marrucini, Frentani, the Samnites,
+who played a principal part, the Hirpini, Apuli, and the Lu<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_374" id="Page_374">[Pg 374]</a></span>cani.
+In this war, which was so much the more bloody, as it was
+mostly composed of separate contests and sieges, especially of the
+Roman colonies, Cn. Pompeius the elder, L. Cato, Marius, and,
+above all, Sylla, particularly distinguished themselves on the side
+of the Romans; and among the generals of the allies Pompadias,
+C. Papius, etc.&mdash;Concession of the freedom of the city, first to
+such allies as remained faithful, the Latins, Umbrians, etc. by
+the <i>lex Julia</i>, 91; afterwards, by degrees, to the remainder by
+the <i>lex Plotia</i>. Some, nevertheless, still continued in arms.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Heyne</span>, <i>de Belli Socialis causis et eventu, in Opusc.</i> t. iii.</p></div>
+
+<p>13. The war now just ended, essentially changed
+the constitution of Rome, as she no longer remained,
+as hitherto, the exclusive head of the
+whole state; and although the new citizens were
+only formed into eight tribes, yet their influence
+must soon have been felt in the committees, on
+account of the readiness with which they promoted
+factions. Besides this, the long-cherished
+private hatred between Marius and Sylla was
+greatly strengthened by this war, as Sylla's fame
+was considerably raised thereby, while that of
+Marius was proportionably diminished. An opportunity
+was only wanted, like that which the
+first Pontine war soon furnished, to stir up a new
+civil war, which threatened to destroy the liberty
+of Rome.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Alliance of
+Marius with
+Sulpicius
+against
+Sylla,
+88.</div>
+
+<p>14. Alliance of Marius with the tribune Sulpicius,
+with the view of wresting from Sylla the
+command of the forces against Mithridates, already
+conferred upon him by the senate. The
+ease with which Sylla, at the head of an army on
+which he could depend, expelled the chiefs of
+this party, seems to have left him ignorant of the
+fact, that the party itself was not thereby destroyed.
+However judicious may have been his<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_375" id="Page_375">[Pg 375]</a></span>
+other measures, the elevation of Cinna to the consulship
+was an error in policy of which Italy had
+still more reason to repent than himself. How
+much blood might have been spared if Sylla had
+not unseasonably wished to become popular!</p>
+
+<div class="sblockquot"><p>Proposition of Sulpicius for an indiscriminate distribution of
+the new citizens and freemen among all the tribes of Italy,
+that he might thereby gain a strong party in his favour, which,
+by a violent assembly of the people, transfers the command from
+Sylla to Marius. March of Sylla upon Rome, and expulsion of
+Marius, who, by a series of adventures almost surpassing belief,
+escapes to Africa and is proscribed with his son and ten of his
+partisans. Reestablishment of the power of the senate, whose
+number is made up by three hundred knights. Sylla, after
+having caused his friend C. Octavius and his enemy L. Cinna to
+be elected consuls, hastens back to Greece.</p></div>
+
+<div class="sidenote">First war against Mithridates. 89&mdash;85.<br />
+
+His great power:<br />
+
+that of Rome divided.</div>
+
+<p>15. First war against Mithridates the Great.
+Sylla gains several victories over that king's
+generals in Greece; wrests from him all his
+conquests, and restricts him to his hereditary dominions.
+Rome since the time of Hannibal had
+met with no such powerful opponent as the king
+of Pontus, who in a few months had become
+master of all Asia Minor, Macedonia, and Greece,
+and threatened even Italy itself; we must besides
+consider, that the war on the side of Rome was
+carried on in a manner altogether different from
+that of any previous one; as Sylla, after the victory
+of the opposite party, being himself proscribed
+in Rome, was obliged to continue it with
+his own army, and his own private resources.
+The unfortunate countries which were the theatre
+of this war, felt as many calamities during the
+struggle, as Italy was doomed to suffer after its
+close.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_376" id="Page_376">[Pg 376]</a></span></p>
+
+<div class="sblockquot"><p>Commencement of the war by Mithridates before the termination
+of that of the allies, 89, by taking possession of Cappadocia
+and Paphlagonia. He was not less formidable by his alliance
+with the tribes along the Danube, and his navy, than by his land
+forces; and the irritation of the people of Asia against Rome
+rendered his enterprise still more easy. Double victory over
+Nicomedes king of Bithynia and the Roman general M. Aquilius,
+followed by the conquest of all Asia Minor except the isle of
+Rhodes. Massacre of all the Roman citizens in the states of
+Asia Minor. Expedition of the king's army into Greece, under
+the command of his general Archelaus, who makes Athens the
+theatre of the war, 88. Siege and capture of that unfortunate
+town by Sylla, 1st March, 87. Repeated great defeats of
+Mithridates's army under the command of Archelaus, near Chalcis,
+and afterwards near Orchomenus, by Sylla, 86, whose general
+plan was formed upon the entire destruction of his enemies.
+Negotiations for peace commenced by Archelaus, and finally
+settled at a personal conference between Sylla and Mithridates.
+The adverse party in Rome, however, had in the mean time sent
+a new army into Asia Minor, to act as well against Sylla as
+against Mithridates, under the command of L. Valerius Flaccus,
+who, however, is assassinated by his lieutenant Fimbria. The
+latter gains some advantages over the king, but, being shut up
+by Sylla, kills himself. Owing to the licentiousness of his army,
+which Sylla dared not restrain; and the heavy contributions exacted
+by him in Asia Minor after the peace, in order to carry
+on the war in Italy, 84; together with the bodies of pirates
+formed out of the fleet disbanded by Mithridates, these unfortunate
+countries were almost ruined; the opulent cities more
+especially.</p></div>
+
+<div class="sidenote">New revolution in Rome<br />
+under Cinna and Marius.</div>
+
+<p>16. But during this war a new revolution took
+place in Rome, which not only overthrew the
+order reestablished by Sylla, but also, by the
+victory of the democratic faction under Cinna and
+Marius, gave rise to a wild anarchy of the people,
+and which the death of Marius, alas, too late for
+Rome! only rendered more destructive; as the
+leaders themselves could no longer restrain the
+savage hordes of their own party.  However<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_377" id="Page_377">[Pg 377]</a></span>
+dreadful the prospect of the return of Sylla might
+seem, it was nevertheless the only hope that
+remained for all those who had not joined the
+popular faction, or had not some connection with
+its leaders.</p>
+
+<div class="sblockquot"><p>Revolt of Cinna, brought on by the proscriptions, soon after
+the departure of Sylla; Cinna, by distributing the new citizens
+into all the tribes, hoped to raise himself a party; but C. Octavius,
+at the head of the senate and ancient citizens, drove him
+from Rome, and forced him to give up the consulship, 87. He
+however soon raised a powerful army in Campania, and recalled Marius
+from exile. Capture and pillage of Rome, already weakened
+by famine, and horrible massacre of the inhabitants; after which
+Marius and Cinna name themselves consuls and banish Sylla.
+Death of Marius, 13th Jan. 86. C. Papirius Carbo succeeds him
+in the consulship. The mediation of the senate is useless, as the
+chiefs of both parties can only hope for security by the annihilation
+of their adversaries. The murder of Cinna by his own soldiers,
+84, entirely deprives the dominant faction of a competent leader.
+Neither the cowardly Carbo, although he remained consul alone,
+nor the stupid Norbanus, nor the youth C. Marius (the son), had
+sufficient personal authority for that purpose; and Sertorius
+leaves Italy in good time to kindle a new flame in Spain.</p></div>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Sylla's return,
+and
+bloody civil
+war,
+83.</div>
+
+<p>17. Return of Sylla to Italy, and a terrible
+civil war, which ends only with the extermination
+of the democratic faction, and his own elevation
+to the perpetual dictatorship. Although his enemies
+had so much advantage over him in point of
+numbers, yet their party was so little consolidated,
+that he with his veterans could not fail to
+obtain an easy victory. The slaughter during this
+war fell for the most part upon the Italian tribes,
+who had joined the party of Marius, and this
+afforded Sylla the means of giving settlements to
+his own soldiers; but most of the horrors of this
+revolution which fell to the share of Rome, were
+reserved till the day of victory was past.
+<span class="sidenote">Sylla's proscription.</span>
+Sylla's<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_378" id="Page_378">[Pg 378]</a></span>
+proscription, which should only have punished his
+personal enemies, was the signal for a general
+massacre, as every one took that opportunity to
+rid himself of his private foes; and avarice did as
+much as vengeance. Who in these days, so terrible
+to Italy, was sure of his life or property?
+And yet, when we consider the dreadful circumstances
+which attended the foregoing dominion of
+the people, deduct all that was done without
+Sylla's knowledge, and consider how much he was
+obliged to do in order to satisfy his army, we
+shall find it difficult to say how far he deserves
+the reproach of wanton cruelty.</p>
+
+<div class="sblockquot"><p>Sylla's arrival; victory over Norbanus immediately after, and
+seduction of the army of the consul Scipio, 82. After this
+almost every person of distinction declared in his favour, and the
+young Pompey having brought to him an army which he had
+himself raised, his party acquired more consideration, and himself
+more power. Victory over the younger Marius, near Sacriportum,
+who throws himself into Pr&aelig;neste, where he is besieged.
+But the great and decisive battle gained before the gates of
+Rome, over the Samnites under the command of Telisinus, is
+followed by the fall of Pr&aelig;neste and the capture of Rome.
+After the proscription which immediately ensued, Sylla is created
+perpetual dictator, and secures his power in Rome by the emancipation
+of ten thousand slaves, whose masters he had proscribed;
+and in Italy by colonies of his veterans, whom he establishes at
+the expense of his enemies.</p></div>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Reform in
+the constitution:
+81&mdash;79.<br />
+
+power of the senate restored.<br />
+
+Sylla's abdication, 79.</div>
+
+<p>18. Great reform in the constitution during the
+two years' dictatorship of Sylla. The aristocracy
+of the senate, which he filled up with knights,
+was not only reestablished, but he also stopped
+the sources from which the great disorders of the
+democracy had hitherto proceeded. It seems
+probable that his natural indolence, which led<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_379" id="Page_379">[Pg 379]</a></span>
+him to prefer a life of luxurious ease to one of
+laborious activity, when he was no longer spurred
+to the latter by his passions, was the chief cause
+of his voluntary abdication. He had, however,
+the great advantage over Marius, of not being the
+sport of his own feelings. The conduct of Sylla,
+indeed, was so consistent throughout, that it satisfactorily
+shows he knew very well what was his
+ultimate aim&mdash;which Marius never did.</p>
+
+<div class="sblockquot"><p>Internal regulations of Sylla by the <i>leges Corneli&aelig;</i>. 1. Law
+to restrain the influence of the tribunes, by taking from them
+their legislative power. 2. Law respecting the succession to the
+magistracy; the number of pr&aelig;tors fixed to eight, and the qu&aelig;stors
+to twenty. 3. <i>Lex de majestate</i>, especially to limit the
+power of the governors of provinces, and to abolish their exactions.
+4. <i>Lex de judiciis</i>, whereby the <i>judicia</i> were again restored to the
+senate. 5. Several police regulations, <i>de sicariis</i>, <i>de veneficiis</i>,
+etc. for the preservation and tranquillity of Rome, upon which
+everything depended. 6. The <i>lex de civitate</i>, taking from the
+Latins and several Italian cities and tribes the privileges of
+Roman citizens, upon which they set so much store, although
+we scarcely know in what they consisted. <i>Foreign wars</i>: War
+in Africa against the leaders of the democratic faction, Cn. Domitius
+and king Hiarbas, which is ended by a triumph to Pompey,
+80. Second war against Mithridates begun by Murena,
+in hopes of obtaining a triumph, to whom Archelaus came over;
+but which, under the command of Sylla, terminates in an accommodation.</p></div>
+
+<div class="sidenote">A state like
+Rome exposed
+to
+convulsions.</div>
+
+<p>19. Nevertheless it was impossible that the
+enactments of Sylla should be long observed; as
+the evil lay too deep to be eradicated by laws.
+A free state like that of Rome, with no middle
+class, must, from its nature, be exposed to continual
+convulsions, and these will be more or less
+violent in proportion to its greatness. Besides,
+as in the last revolution almost all property had<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_380" id="Page_380">[Pg 380]</a></span>
+changed hands, there was spread over all Italy a
+powerful party, who desired nothing so much as
+<span class="sidenote">Counter-revolution desired by many.</span>
+a counter-revolution. And to this we may add,
+that there were many young men, such as Lucullus,
+Crassus, and above all Pompey, who had
+opened to themselves a career during the late
+troubles, which they would scarcely yet wish to
+bring to a close. It will not then appear strange,
+that immediately after the death of Sylla (&#8224; 88), a
+<span class="sidenote">&AElig;milius Lepidus.</span>
+consul, M. &AElig;milius Lepidus, should form the design
+of becoming a second Marius; a design which
+could only be frustrated by the courage and activity
+of such a patriotic citizen as Q. Lutatius
+Catulus, his colleague.</p>
+
+<div class="sblockquot"><p>Attempt of Lepidus to rescind the acts of Sylla, 78. Defeated,
+first before Rome and again in Etruria, by Catulus and Pompey,
+77, after which he dies in Sardinia.</p></div>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Civil war of Sertorius in Spain.<br />
+
+77&mdash;72.</div>
+
+<p>20. But much more dangerous for Rome might
+have been the civil war kindled by Sertorius in
+Spain, if the plan of that exalted republican to
+invade Italy had succeeded. Even Pompey himself,
+after a six years' struggle, would hardly have
+prevented it, had it not been for the worthlessness
+of the Roman vagabonds who surrounded
+him, and his assassination by Perpenna. The
+rapid termination of the war after the fall of its
+conductor, is a circumstance much more creditable
+to Sertorius than to the conqueror Pompey.</p>
+
+<div class="sblockquot"><p>The forces of Sertorius in Spain, consisted not only of the
+party of Marius which he had collected, but more essentially of
+the Spaniards, particularly the Lusitanians, whom he had inspired
+with an unbounded confidence in himself. Very variable
+success of the war against Metellus and Pompey, who receive
+but very little support from Rome, 77&mdash;75. Negotiation of Ser<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_381" id="Page_381">[Pg 381]</a></span>torius
+with Mithridates the Great, and interchange of embassies
+without any important result, 75. Sertorius assassinated by
+Perpenna, 72.</p></div>
+
+<div class="sidenote">The third
+Mithridatic
+war; combined
+with
+the servile
+war, and
+that of the
+pirates,</div>
+
+
+<p>21. Before, however, the flame of war was
+totally extinguished in the west, Mithridates
+kindled a new and much fiercer one in the east;
+at the same time a war of slaves and gladiators
+was raging with terrible fury in Italy itself; and
+whole fleets of pirates not only ravaged the Italian
+coasts, but threatened Rome herself with a famine,
+and obliged her to have recourse to a mode
+of naval warfare altogether peculiar. All these
+enemies were not without intelligence with one
+another; and colossal as was the power of the republic
+at that time, and rich as Rome was in distinguished
+men, it seems probable that the storm
+<span class="sidenote">threatens the downfal of Rome.</span>
+which beat on every side between 75&mdash;71, would
+have razed her to the ground, if a stricter alliance
+could have been formed between Sertorius, Spartacus,
+and Mithridates. But the great difficulty
+of communication which at that time existed, and
+without which probably a republic such as the
+Roman never could have been formed, proved of
+more assistance at this crisis than at any other.</p>
+
+<div class="sblockquot"><p>The third Mithridatic war, occasioned by the will of Nicomedes
+king of Bithynia, who had bequeathed his kingdom to
+Rome (see above, p. 294), was carried on in Asia Minor, first by
+Lucullus, 74&mdash;67, and afterwards by Pompey, 66&mdash;64. Mithridates,
+being better prepared, had already concluded an alliance
+with Sertorius in Spain, 75. But the deliverance of Cyzicus by
+Lucullus, 73, and the defeat of the king's fleet, intended to act
+against Italy, not only frustrated all his original plans, but were
+followed by the occupation of his own dominions, 72 and 71, by
+the enemy, notwithstanding a new army which Mithridates collected,
+mostly from the nomad hordes of Northern Asia. Flight<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_382" id="Page_382">[Pg 382]</a></span>
+of Mithridates to Tigranes, 71, who positively refused to deliver
+him up, and formed an alliance with him, 70; while the Parthian,
+Arsaces XII. held both parties in suspense by negotiations.
+Victory of Lucullus over the allied sovereigns, near Tigranocerta,
+69, and Artaxata, 68; but the mutinies which now
+broke out among his troops not only hindered him from following
+up these advantages, but turned the scale so much in Mithridates's
+favour, that in 68 and 67 he quickly regained almost all his
+dominions, even while the Roman commissioners were on their
+route to take possession of them. Lucullus, by his reform in the
+finances of Asia Minor, raises a powerful party against himself in
+Rome, and thereby loses his command.</p></div>
+
+<div class="sidenote">The servile
+war,
+73&mdash;71.</div>
+
+
+<p>22. The war of the slaves and gladiators, which
+happened nearly at the same time, was, from the
+theatre of action being in its neighbourhood,
+equally dangerous to Rome; it became still more
+terrible from the violence with which these outraged
+beings sought to revenge their wrongs, and
+more formidable from the talents of their leader,
+Spartacus; and the conclusion of this struggle
+seemed, therefore, of so much importance to
+Rome, that it gave
+<span class="sidenote">terminated by Crassus.</span>
+M. Crassus a much higher influence
+in the state than he could ever have obtained
+by his riches alone.</p>
+
+<div class="sblockquot"><p>Commencement of this war by a number of runaway gladiators,
+who, being strengthened by an almost general revolt of the
+slaves in Campania, 73, soon became very formidable. The defeat
+of four generals, one after the other, throws open to Spartacus
+the road to the Alps, and enables him to leave Italy; but
+the greediness of booty manifested by his hordes, who wished to
+plunder Rome, obliged him to return. Crassus takes the command
+and rescues Rome, 72; upon which Spartacus retires into
+Lower Italy, hoping to form a junction with the pirates, and to
+carry the war into Sicily, but is deceived by them, 71. His
+complete overthrow near the Silarus, 71. Pompey, then returning
+from Spain, finds means to seize a sprig of the laurel chaplet
+which by right should have adorned only the brow of Crassus;<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_383" id="Page_383">[Pg 383]</a></span>
+hence arises a misunderstanding between these two commanders,
+during their consulate, 70, which threatened to be dangerous
+to the state.</p></div>
+
+<div class="sidenote">The war
+against the
+pirates;</div>
+
+
+<p>23.  The war against the pirates of Sicily and
+Isauria was not only very important in itself, but
+still more so in its consequences. It procured
+for Pompey a legal power such as no Roman general
+had ever before enjoyed; and the quick and
+glorious manner in which he brought it to a close,
+opened for him the way to the great object of his
+<span class="sidenote">terminated by Pompey.</span>
+ambition&mdash;the conduct of the war in Asia against
+Mithridates.</p>
+
+<div class="sblockquot"><p>The extraordinary power acquired by these pirates was owing
+partly to the great negligence of the Romans in sea affairs, (see
+page 340), partly to the war against Mithridates, who had taken
+the pirates into his pay, and partly also to the Roman oppressions
+in Asia Minor. War had been undertaken against them as early
+as 75, by P. Servilius; but his victories, though they procured
+him the title of <i>Isauricus</i>, did them but little harm. They were
+to be dreaded, not only for their piracies, but because they also
+offered an easy means of communication between the other enemies
+of Rome from Spain to Asia. The new attack of the pr&aelig;tor
+M. Antonius upon Crete, proved a complete failure; but it was
+the cause of that hitherto independent island being again attacked,
+68, by Metellus, and reduced to a Roman province, 67.
+Pompey takes the command against the pirates with extraordinary
+privileges, obtained for him by Gabinius, and finishes the
+war in forty days, 67.</p></div>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Fall of Mithridates.</div>
+
+<p>24.  After these triumphs over so many enemies,
+Mithridates was the only one which now remained;
+and Pompey had here again the good
+fortune to conclude a struggle already near its
+end; for notwithstanding his late success, Mithridates
+had never been able completely to recover
+himself. His fall undoubtedly raised the power<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_384" id="Page_384">[Pg 384]</a></span>
+of Rome in Asia Minor to its highest pitch; but
+it brought her, at the same time, into contact
+with the Parthians.</p>
+
+<div class="sblockquot"><p>Pompey obtains the conduct of the war against Mithridates
+with very extensive privileges, procured for him by the tribune
+Manilius (<i>lex Manilia</i>), notwithstanding the opposition of Catulus,
+67. His victory by night, near the Euphrates, 66. Subjection
+of Tigranes, while Mithridates flies into the Crimea, 65,
+whence he endeavours to renew the war. Campaign of Pompey
+in the countries about the Caucasus, 65; he marches thence into
+Syria, 64. Mithridates kills himself in consequence of the defection
+of his son Phraates, 63. Settlement of Asiatic affairs
+by Pompey: besides the ancient province of Asia, the maritime
+countries of Bithynia, nearly all Paphlagonia and Pontus, are
+formed into a Roman province, under the name of Bithynia;
+while on the southern coast Cilicia and Pamphylia form another
+under the name of Cilicia; Ph&#339;nicia and Syria compose a third,
+under the name of Syria. On the other hand, Great Armenia
+is left to Tigranes; Cappadocia to Ariobarzanes; the Bosphorus
+to Pharnaces; Jud&aelig;a to Hyrcanus (see page 310); and some
+other small states are also given to petty princes, all of whom
+remain dependent on Rome. The tribes inhabiting Thrace during
+the Mithridatic war, were first defeated by Sylla, 85, and their
+power was afterwards nearly destroyed by the proconsuls of Macedonia:
+as by Appius, in 77; by Curio, who drove them to
+the Danube, 75&mdash;73; and especially by M. Lucullus, while his
+brother was engaged in Asia. Not only the security of Macedonia,
+but the daring plans of Mithridates rendered this necessary.</p></div>
+
+<div class="sidenote">State of Rome;<br />
+changes in her constitution;<br />
+the restoration of the power of the tribunes.</div>
+
+<p>25. The fall of Mithridates raised the republic
+to the highest pitch of her power: there was no
+longer any foreign foe of whom she could be
+afraid. But her internal administration had undergone
+great changes during these wars. Sylla's
+aristocratic constitution was shaken by Pompey,
+in a most essential point, by the reestablishment
+of the power of the tribunes, which was done because
+neither he nor any leading men could ob<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_385" id="Page_385">[Pg 385]</a></span>tain
+their ends without their assistance. It was
+by their means that Pompey had procured such
+unlimited power in his two late expeditions, that
+the existence of the republic was thereby endangered.
+It was, however, a fortunate circumstance
+for Rome, that Pompey's vanity was sufficiently
+gratified by his being at the head of affairs, where
+he avoided the appearance of an oppressor.</p>
+
+<div class="sblockquot"><p>Reiterated attempts of the tribune Sicinius to annul the constitution
+of Sylla defeated by the senate, 76. But as early as
+75 Opimius obtained that the tribunes should not be excluded
+from honourable offices, and that the judgments (<i>judicia</i>) should
+be restored to the knights (<i>equites</i>). The attempts of Licinius
+Macer, 72, to restore the tribunes to all their former powers,
+encountered but a short opposition; and their complete reestablishment
+was effected by Pompey and Crassus during their consulate,
+in 70.</p></div>
+
+<div class="sidenote">This victory
+of the democrats
+leads to an
+oligarchy.
+70.<br />
+
+Catiline's conspiracy.</div>
+
+
+<p>26. This victory of the democratic faction, however,
+in consequence of the use made of it by
+some leading men, necessarily led the way to an
+oligarchy, which after the consulate of Pompey
+and Crassus became very oppressive.  Catiline's
+conspiracy, which was not matured till after several
+attempts, would have broken up this confined
+aristocracy, and placed the helm of state
+in the hands of another and still more dangerous
+faction: a faction composed in part of needy profligates
+and criminals dreading the punishment
+of their crimes, and partly of ambitious nobles.
+It occasioned a short civil war; but procured
+<span class="sidenote">Cicero.</span>
+Cicero a place in the administration. With what
+pleasure do we forgive the little weaknesses and
+failings of one so gifted with talents and great
+virtues! of one who first taught Rome, in so<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_386" id="Page_386">[Pg 386]</a></span>
+many ways, what it was to be great in the robe
+of peace!</p>
+
+<div class="sblockquot"><p>Catiline's first conspiracy, in which C&aelig;sar and Crassus seem
+to have been implicated, 66, as well as in the second, 65: failure
+of the former by chance&mdash;of the latter through Piso's death.
+The third broke out in 64, as well in Rome, where the conspirators,
+having no armed force, were soon suppressed by the vigilance
+and activity of Cicero, 63, as in Etruria, where a victory
+of the proconsul Antonius over Catiline, who was left dead on
+the field, concluded it, 62.</p></div>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Effects of
+the Asiatic
+war on the
+Roman
+manners.</div>
+
+
+
+
+
+
+<p>27. The suppression of this conspiracy, however,
+did not stay the effect which the recently
+concluded Asiatic war had upon Roman manners.
+The luxury of the east, though united with
+Grecian taste, which had been introduced among
+the great by Lucullus; the immense riches poured
+into the treasury by Pompey; the tempting examples
+of unlimited power, which single citizens
+had already exercised; the purchase of the
+magistracy by individuals, in order, like Verres,
+after the squandering of millions, to enrich themselves
+again in the provinces; the demands of
+the soldiers upon their generals; and the ease
+with which an army might be raised by him who
+had only money enough to pay it; all these circumstances
+must have foreboded new and approaching
+convulsions, even if the preceding
+storms in this colossal republic, in which we
+must now judge of virtues and vices, as well as
+of riches and power, by a very magnified standard,
+had not formed
+<span class="sidenote">Great men of this period: Cato.</span>
+men of that gigantic character
+they did:&mdash;men like Cato, who struggled
+alone to stem the impetuous torrent of the revolution,
+and was sufficiently powerful to retard its
+progress for a time; or, like
+<span class="sidenote">Pompey.</span>
+Pompey, who by
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_387" id="Page_387">[Pg 387]</a></span>good fortune and the art of acquiring influence,
+arose to a degree of authority and power never
+before attained by any citizen of a free state; or,
+like
+<span class="sidenote">Crassus.</span>
+Crassus, "who only considered him as rich
+that could maintain an army by his own private
+means," founding their pretensions on wealth; or,
+finally, like the aspiring and now powerful
+<span class="sidenote">C&aelig;sar.</span>
+C&aelig;sar,
+whose boundless ambition could only be surpassed
+by his talents, and courage, "who would
+rather be the first in a village than the second
+in Rome." The return of Pompey from Asia,
+threatening the senate with a new dictator, appeared
+an eventful moment.</p>
+
+<div class="sblockquot"><p>Attempt of Pompey, through the tribune Metellus Nepos, to
+be allowed to return to Rome at the head of his army, frustrated
+by the firmness of Cato, 62.</p></div>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Pompey's
+return revives
+the
+struggle between
+him
+and the senate,
+61.</div>
+
+
+<p>28.  The arrival of Pompey in Rome renewed
+the struggle between the senate and that powerful
+general, although he had disbanded his army on
+landing in Italy. The ratification of his management
+of affairs in Asia, which was the chief point
+of contention, was opposed by the leading men of
+the senate, Cato, the two Metelli, and Lucullus,
+which induced Pompey to attach himself entirely
+to the popular party, by whose means he hoped
+to obtain his end;
+<span class="sidenote">C&aelig;sar's return from Lusitania, 61.</span>
+C&aelig;sar's return, however, from
+his province of Lusitania, entirely changed the
+face of affairs.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Triumvirate
+of C&aelig;sar,
+Pompey,
+and Crassus,
+60.<br />
+
+C&aelig;sar's
+consulate,
+59,<br />
+
+obtains him
+the government
+of the
+two Gauls
+and Illyria
+for five
+years.</div>
+
+<p>29. Close union between C&aelig;sar, Pompey, and
+Crassus; that is, a secret alliance, formed by the
+interposition of C&aelig;sar. That which formed the
+height of the ambition of Pompey and Crassus
+was only regarded by C&aelig;sar as the means by
+which he might be able to effect his. His con<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_388" id="Page_388">[Pg 388]</a></span>sulate&mdash;a
+kind of dictatorship under the mask of
+great popularity&mdash;necessarily paved the way to
+his future career, as by giving him the government
+of the two Gauls and Illyria for five years,
+it opened a wide field for conquest, and gave him
+an opportunity of forming an army devoted to his
+will.</p>
+
+<div class="sblockquot"><p>C&aelig;sar's abode and campaign in Gaul from the spring of 58 till
+the end of the year 50. By arresting the emigration of the Helvetians,
+and by the expulsion of the Germans, under Ariovistus,
+from Gaul, 58, C&aelig;sar gained an opportunity of intermeddling in
+the internal affairs of that country, and afterwards of subduing
+it, which was completed by his victory over the Belg&aelig;, 57, and
+the Aquitani, 56; so that C&aelig;sar was at liberty to undertake his
+several expeditions, as well in Britain, 55 and 54, as in Germany,
+54 and 53. But the repeated revolts of the Gauls, 53&mdash;51,
+especially under Vercingetorix, 52, occasioned a war no less obstinate
+than their first conquest. Roman policy continued the
+same throughout. The Gauls were subdued, by the Romans appearing
+as <i>their deliverers</i>; and in the country they found allies
+in the &AElig;dui, Allobroges, etc.</p></div>
+
+<p>30. The triumvirate, in order to establish their
+power upon a solid foundation, took care, by the
+management of the tribune Clodius, to get rid of
+the leaders of the senate, Cato and Cicero, before
+the departure of C&aelig;sar; and this they did by
+giving the former a kingdom to govern, and by
+procuring the banishment of the latter. They
+must however soon have discovered, that so bold
+a demagogue as Clodius could not be used as a
+mere machine. And, indeed, after C&aelig;sar's departure
+he raised himself so much above the triumvirs,
+that Pompey was soon obliged, for his
+own preservation, to permit Cicero to return from
+exile, which could only be effected by the most
+violent efforts of the tribune Milo. The power of<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_389" id="Page_389">[Pg 389]</a></span>
+Clodius, however, was but little injured thereby,
+although Pompey, to put a stop to the source of
+these disorders, and revive his own popularity,
+procured the nomination of himself as <i>pr&aelig;fectus
+annon&aelig;</i>, or superintendent of provisions.</p>
+
+<div class="sblockquot"><p>Exile of Cicero, the greater part of which he spent in Macedonia,
+from April, 58, till 4th Sept. 57. Ptolemy king of Cyprus
+deposed, and that island reduced to a Roman province by
+Cato, on the proposition of Clodius, 57 (see page 264). The
+personal dislike of Clodius and the riches of the king were the
+causes that brought upon him this misfortune.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Middleton's</span> <i>Life of Cicero</i>, 2 vols. 8vo. This work is almost
+a complete history of Rome during the age of Cicero; for
+whom the writer discovers an undue partiality.</p>
+
+<p>&#8224; <span class="smcap">M. Tullius Cicero</span>, <i>all his Letters translated, in chronological
+order, and illustrated with notes</i>, by <span class="smcap">C. M. Wieland</span>.
+Zurich, 1808. With a preliminary view of the life of Cicero.
+Of all Germans the writings of Wieland, whether original or
+translations (and to which can we give the preference?) afford
+the most lively insight into Greek and Roman antiquity at various
+periods. What writer has so truly seized its spirit, and
+placed it so faithfully and elegantly before his readers? His
+labours on the Letters of Cicero (whose foibles he exposes with
+a rigorous and unflinching hand) serve to make us much better
+acquainted with Rome, as it then was, than any Roman history.</p></div>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Jealousy of
+the triumvirate.</div>
+
+<p>31. A jealousy arises between the triumvirate,
+as C&aelig;sar, though absent, still found means to
+keep up his party at Rome in such watchful activity,
+that Pompey and Crassus considered it
+impossible to maintain their own influence, except
+by procuring such concessions as had been
+made to him. Harmony once more restored by
+an accommodation at Lucca, as the parties found
+it necessary to preserve a good understanding
+with each other.</p>
+
+<div class="sblockquot"><p>The terms of this accommodation were; that C&aelig;sar should
+have his government prolonged for another five years; and that
+Pompey and Crassus should enjoy the consulship for the ensuing<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_390" id="Page_390">[Pg 390]</a></span>
+year, the former receiving the provinces of Spain and Africa;
+and the latter that of Syria, for the purpose of carrying on a war
+against the Parthians. In proportion as these conditions were
+kept secret, there remained less secrecy respecting the alliance
+itself.</p></div>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Second
+consulate of
+Pompey
+and Crassus,
+55.</div>
+
+<p>32. Second consulate of Pompey and Crassus.
+It was only amidst violent storms that they could
+effect their purposes; as it depended upon which
+faction should first gain or keep possession of the
+forum. The resistance they met with from the
+inflexible disposition of Cato, who in his austere
+virtue alone found means to secure himself a
+powerful party, shows how unfairly those judge
+who consider the power of the triumvirate as unlimited,
+and the nation as entirely corrupted.</p>
+
+<div class="sblockquot"><p>Campaign of Crassus against the Parthians, undertaken at his
+own expense, 54. Instead, however, of gathering laurels like
+C&aelig;sar, he and his whole army were completely overthrown in
+Mesopotamia, 53; and the Parthians from this time maintain a
+powerful preponderance in Asia (see above, p. 302).</p></div>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Pompey
+aspires to
+become
+head of the
+republic;</div>
+
+<p>33. As the triumvirate by this failure of Crassus
+was reduced to a duumvirate, Pompey (who remained
+in Rome, and governed his provinces by
+lieutenants), in the midst of continual domestic
+broils, which he cunningly took care to foment,
+was evidently aiming to become the acknowledged
+head of the senate and republic. The
+idea that a dictator was necessary prevailed more and more
+<span class="sidenote">53.</span>
+during an anarchy of eight months, in
+which no appointment of a consul could take
+place; and notwithstanding the opposition of
+Cato, Pompey succeeded, after a violent commotion,
+in which Clodius was murdered by Milo, in
+getting himself nominated
+<span class="sidenote">is appointed sole consul, 52.</span>
+sole consul; a power
+equal to that of dictator.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_391" id="Page_391">[Pg 391]</a></span></p>
+
+<div class="sblockquot"><p>Consulate of Pompey, 52, in which, at the end of seven months,
+he took as colleague his father-in-law Metellus Scipio. The government
+of his provinces, which afterwards became the chief
+seat of the republicans, is prolonged for five years.</p></div>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Civil war
+inevitable.</div>
+
+<p>34. From this time civil war became inevitable;
+for not only the chiefs of the parties, but
+also their adherents desired it. The approach of
+the time when C&aelig;sar's command would expire,
+necessarily hastened the crisis. Could it be supposed
+that the conqueror of Gaul would return
+to a private life, and leave his rival at the head of
+the republic? The steps taken on both sides
+towards an accommodation were only made to
+escape the odium which would attach to him who
+struck the first blow. But Pompey unfortunately
+could never understand his opponent, who did all
+himself, all completely, and all alone. The brilliant
+light in which Pompey now appeared, as
+<i>defender of the republic</i>, delighted him so much,
+that it made him forget what belonged to its defence;
+while C&aelig;sar avoided, with the greatest
+care, every appearance of usurpation. The friend,
+the protector of the people against the usurpations
+of their enemies, was the character which
+he now chose to assume.</p>
+
+<div class="sblockquot"><p>Commencement of the contest upon C&aelig;sar's demand to be
+allowed to hold the consulship while absent, 52. C&aelig;sar, by the
+most lavish corruption, had increased his adherents in Rome,
+gained the tribunes, and among them especially the powerful
+speaker C. Curio (whom he did not think too dearly purchased
+at the price of about half a million sterling); by this man it was
+suggested to C&aelig;sar that he should give up his command, and
+leave a successor to be appointed in his place, 51, if Pompey
+would do the same: a proposition which created a prejudice
+much in his favour. Repeated, but insincere offers of both parties
+for an accommodation, 50, till at last a decree of the senate<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_392" id="Page_392">[Pg 392]</a></span>
+was passed, Jan. 7, 49, by which C&aelig;sar was commanded "to
+disband his army under the penalty of being declared an enemy
+to the republic," without regard to the intercessions of the tribunes,
+whose flight to him gave an appearance of popularity to his
+party. C&aelig;sar crosses the Rubicon, the boundary of his province.</p></div>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Civil war
+between
+C&aelig;sar and
+Pompey.</div>
+
+<p>35. The civil war now about to break out,
+seemed likely to spread over nearly all the countries
+of the Roman empire; as Pompey, finding
+it impossible to maintain himself in Italy, had
+chosen Greece for the principal theatre of the
+war; while his lieutenants, with the armies under
+their command, occupied Spain and Africa.
+C&aelig;sar, by the able disposition of his legions, was
+everywhere present, without exciting beforehand
+any suspicion of his movements. A combination
+of circumstances, however, carried the war into
+Alexandria, and even as far as Pontus; indeed it
+might be called rather a series of six successive
+wars than merely one, all of which C&aelig;sar, by
+flying with his legions from one quarter of the
+world to the other, ended, within five years, victoriously
+and in person.</p>
+
+<div class="sblockquot"><p>Rapid occupation of Italy in sixty days (when the troops
+under Domitius surrendered at Corfinus), which, as well as
+Sicily and Sardinia, were subdued by C&aelig;sar almost without opposition;
+Pompey, with his troops and adherents, having crossed
+over to Greece. C&aelig;sar's first campaign in Spain against Pompey's
+generals, Afranius and Petreius, whom he forces to surrender;
+this, however, is counterbalanced by the loss of the legions under
+Curio in Africa. In December, 49, however, C&aelig;sar is again in
+Italy, and named dictator, which he exchanges for the consulate.
+Spirited expedition into Greece with the ships he had been previously
+collecting together, Jan. 4, 49. Unfortunate engagement
+at Dyrrachium. Removal of the war into Thessaly, and decisive
+battle of Pharsalia, July 20, 48, after which Pompey flies to
+Alexandria, where he is killed on his landing. C&aelig;sar arrives
+three days after him at Alexandria.</p></div><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_393" id="Page_393">[Pg 393]</a></span></p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">C&aelig;sar again
+dictator.</div>
+
+<p>36. C&aelig;sar, after the victory of Pharsalia, again
+nominated dictator, with great privileges. The
+death of Pompey, however, does not destroy his
+party; and the six months' war of Alexandria,
+as well as the expedition into Pontus against
+Pharnaces, gave them time to rally their forces
+both in Africa under Cato, and in Spain under
+the sons of Pompey.</p>
+
+<div class="sblockquot"><p>During the Alexandrine war (see above, p. 266) and the expedition
+against Pharnaces, the son of Mithridates,&mdash;who had
+obtained the kingdom of his father, but was slain by C&aelig;sar immediately
+after his arrival, 47,&mdash;great disorders had broken out
+in Rome, caused by the tribune Dolabella's flattering the people
+with the abolition of debts (<i>nov&aelig; tabul&aelig;</i>), notwithstanding the
+military power of M. Antony, whom C&aelig;sar had sent to Rome as
+master of the horse (<i>magister equitum</i>), as this abandoned sensualist
+at first actually favoured the projects of the tribune.
+C&aelig;sar's return to Rome, December, 47, put an end, it is true, to
+these disorders; but the increase of the opposite party in Africa,
+and an insurrection among his soldiers, obliged him to set out
+for Africa immediately, January, 46. Victory near Thapsus
+over Scipio and Juba; after which Cato kills himself at Utica.
+Numidia, the kingdom of Juba, becomes a Roman province.
+C&aelig;sar after his return to Rome in June, is only able to stay
+there four months, as, before the end of the year, he is obliged to
+set out for Spain to crush the dangerous efforts of Pompey's two
+sons. Bloody battle at Munda, March, 45, after which Cneius is
+killed, but Sextus escapes to the Celtiberians.</p></div>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Enquiry into
+the views
+of C&aelig;sar.</div>
+
+<p>37. Nothing seems more evident than that
+C&aelig;sar did not, like Sylla, overthrow the republic
+for the purpose of reestablishing it; and it is
+perhaps impossible to say what could be the final
+views of a childless usurper, who throughout his
+whole career, seemed only to be guided by an inordinate
+ambition, springing from a consciousness
+of superior powers, and to satisfy which, no means
+seemed to him difficult or unlawful. The period<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_394" id="Page_394">[Pg 394]</a></span>
+of his dictatorship was so short, and so much interrupted
+by war, that his ultimate plans had not
+time for their development. He endeavoured to
+establish his dominion by popular measures; and
+although his army must still have been his main
+support, yet no proscription was granted to satisfy
+it. The reestablishment of order in the distracted
+country of Italy, and particularly in the
+capital, was his first care; and he proposed to
+follow that by an expedition against the powerful
+Parthian empire. His attempts, however, to obtain
+the diadem, seemed to place it beyond a
+doubt that he wished to introduce a formal monarchy.
+But the destruction of the form of the
+republic was shown to be more dangerous than
+the overthrow of the republic itself.</p>
+
+<div class="sblockquot"><p>The following were the honours and privileges granted to
+C&aelig;sar by the senate. After the battle of Pharsalia, 48, he was
+nominated dictator for one year and consul for five years; and
+obtained the <i>potestas tribunicia</i>, as well as the right of making
+war and peace, the exclusive right of the committees, with the
+exception of the tribunes, and the possession of the provinces.
+The dictatorship was renewed to him, 47, for ten years, as well
+as the <i>pr&aelig;fectura morum</i>, and was at last, 145, conferred upon
+him for ever, with the title of <i>imperator</i>. Although C&aelig;sar thus
+became absolute master of the republic, it appears to have been
+done without laying aside the republican forms.</p></div>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Conspiracy
+formed against
+him,
+44.
+by Brutus,
+Cassius, etc.<br />
+
+His Death, March 15.</div>
+
+<p>38. Conspiracy against C&aelig;sar, formed by Brutus
+and Cassius, and terminating in the death of
+C&aelig;sar. Men so exalted as were the chiefs of
+this plot, easily understand one another; and it
+was quite in accordance with their character not
+to meditate upon the consequences of their deed.
+C&aelig;sar's death was a great misfortune for Rome.
+Experience soon showed that the republic could<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_395" id="Page_395">[Pg 395]</a></span>
+not be reestablished thereby; and his life might
+probably have spared the state some of those calamities
+which now, by its change to a monarchy,
+became unavoidable.</p>
+
+<div class="sblockquot"><p>We still want a discriminating life of C&aelig;sar, who in modern
+times has been as extravagantly praised as Alexander has been
+unjustly censured. As generals and conquerors, both were
+equally great&mdash;and little; as a man, however, the Macedonian,
+in the brilliant period of his life, to which C&aelig;sar never attained,
+was superior; to the great political ideas which developed themselves
+in Alexander, we know of none corresponding in C&aelig;sar;
+who knew better than any how to attain dominion, but little of
+preserving it.</p>
+
+<p><i>Histoire de la Vie de Jules C&aelig;sar</i>, <i>par</i> <span class="smcap">M. de Bury</span>, Paris,
+1758, 2 vols. 8vo.</p>
+
+<p>&#8224; <i>Life of C. Julius C&aelig;sar</i>, <i>by</i> <span class="smcap">A. G. Meissner</span>, <i>continued by</i>
+J. Ch. L. Haken, 1811, 4 parts. At present the best.</p>
+
+<p><i>Caius Julius C&aelig;sar, from original sources</i>, <i>by</i> <span class="smcap">Professor
+S&ouml;ltl</span>. A short biography, judiciously executed.</p></div>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Amnesty
+declared;
+but not approved
+by
+Antony and
+Lepidus.</div>
+
+<p>39. Notwithstanding the amnesty at first declared,
+the funeral obsequies of C&aelig;sar soon
+showed, that peace was of all things the least
+desired by his generals, M. Antony and M. Lepidus,
+now become the head of his party; and the
+arrival of C&aelig;sar's nephew, C. Octavius (afterwards
+C&aelig;sar Octavianus), whom he had adopted
+in his will, rendered affairs still more complicated,
+as every one strove for himself; Antony's particular
+object being to raise himself into C&aelig;sar's
+place. However earnestly they sought to gain
+the people, it was in fact the legions who decided,
+and the command of them depended, for
+the most part, upon the possession of the provinces.
+We cannot therefore wonder, that while
+they sought to revenge the murder of C&aelig;sar, this<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_396" id="Page_396">[Pg 396]</a></span>
+became the chief cause of the struggle, and in a
+few months led to a civil war.</p>
+
+<div class="sblockquot"><p>At the time of C&aelig;sar's death, M. Antonius was actual consul,
+and Dolabella consul-elect; M. Lepidus <i>magister equitum</i> (master
+of the horse); M. Brutus and Cassius, pr&aelig;tors (the first,
+<i>pr&aelig;tor urbanus</i>). C&aelig;sar had given to the former the province
+of Macedonia, and to the latter that of Syria, which had been
+confirmed to them by the senate. M. Lepidus had been nominated
+to Transalpine, and D. Brutus to Cisalpine Gaul. But
+soon after the murder of C&aelig;sar, Antony obtained, by a decree
+of the people, Macedonia for himself, and Syria for his colleague
+Dolabella, with whom he had formed a close connection; instead
+of which the senate decreed to Cassius Cyrene, and to Brutus,
+who now had the important charge of supplying Rome with
+provisions, Crete. But soon after (June 1, 44), Antony desired,
+by a new change, to obtain Cisalpine Gaul for himself, and
+Macedonia for his brother C. Antony, both of which he procured
+from the people.</p></div>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Antony endeavours
+to
+establish
+himself in
+Cisalpine
+Gaul.</div>
+
+<p>40. As M. Antony sought by force to establish
+himself in Cisalpine Gaul, and D. Brutus refused
+to give it up to him, and retired into Mutina, a
+short, indeed, but very bloody civil war arose,
+(<i>bellum mutinense</i>.) The eloquence of Cicero had
+caused Antony to be declared an enemy of the
+republic; and the two new consuls, Hirtius and
+Pansa, together with C&aelig;sar Octavianus, were
+sent against him. The defeat of Antony compelled
+him to seek refuge beyond the Alps with
+Lepidus; but the two consuls being slain, Octavianus
+at the head of his legions was too importunate
+to be refused the consulship, and soon
+convinced the defenceless senate, how impossible
+it was to reestablish the commonwealth by their
+powerless decrees. The employment, moreover,
+of the <i>magistratus suffecti</i>, which soon after arose,
+was in itself a sufficient proof that it was now no<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_397" id="Page_397">[Pg 397]</a></span>
+more than the shadow of what it had formerly
+been.</p>
+
+<div class="sblockquot"><p>The Mutine war begins in December, 44, and closes with the
+defeat of Antony at Mutina, April 14, 43. Octavius obtains the
+consulate, Sept. 22.</p></div>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Formation
+of a triumvirate
+by C.
+Octavianus,
+M. Antony,
+and Lepidus.</div>
+
+<p>41. Octavianus, deserting the party of the
+senate, enters into a secret negotiation with Antony
+and Lepidus; the consequence of which is
+a meeting of the parties at Bononia, and the formation
+of a new triumvirate. They declare
+themselves the chiefs of the republic for five
+years, under the title of <i>triumviri reipublic&aelig; constituend&aelig;</i>;
+and dividing the provinces among themselves
+according to their own pleasure, they make
+the destruction of the republican party their principal
+object. A new proscription in Rome itself,
+and a declaration of war against the murderers of
+C&aelig;sar, were the means by which they proposed
+to effect it.</p>
+
+<div class="sblockquot"><p>The agreement of the triumvirate was concluded Nov. 27, 43,
+after which the march of the triumvirs upon Rome gives the
+signal for the massacre of the proscribed, which soon extends all
+over Italy, and in which Cicero perishes, Dec. 7. The cause of
+this new proscription was not party hatred alone, but was as
+much, perhaps more, owing on the one hand to the want of
+money for carrying on the war they had undertaken, and on the
+other to a desire of satisfying the turbulent demands of the legions.
+Where is to be found a time so full of terror as this, when
+even tears were forbidden?</p></div>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Civil war
+between the
+oligarchy
+and republicans.</div>
+
+<p>42. The civil war, now on the eve of breaking
+out, may be considered therefore as a war between
+the oligarchy and the defenders of the
+republic. The Roman world was, as it were,
+divided between the two; and although the former
+had possession of Italy, and the western pro<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_398" id="Page_398">[Pg 398]</a></span>vinces,
+that advantage seemed counterbalanced to
+the chiefs of the opposite party by the possession
+of the eastern countries, and the naval power of
+Sextus Pompey, which seemed to assure them
+the dominion of the sea.</p>
+
+<div class="sblockquot"><p>M. Brutus had taken possession of his province of Macedonia
+as early as the autumn of 44; while Cassius, on the contrary,
+had to contend for that of Syria with Dolabella, who by the
+murder of the proconsul Trebonius had possessed himself of Asia.
+Being, however, for this offence, declared an enemy by the
+senate, and shut up in Laodicea by Cassius, he killed himself,
+June 5, 43. From this time Brutus and Cassius were masters
+of all the eastern provinces, at whose expense they maintained
+their troops, though not without much oppression. S. Pompey,
+after the victory of Munda, 45, having secreted himself in Spain,
+and afterwards become a chief of freebooters, had grown very
+powerful; when the senate, after C&aelig;sar's assassination, having
+made him commander of the sea-forces, he with them took possession
+of Spain, and, after the conclusion of the triumvirate, of
+Sicily, and then, very soon after, of Sardinia and Corsica. It was
+a great thing for the triumvirate, that C. Pompey did not know
+how to reap half the profit he might have done from his power
+and good fortune.</p></div>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Its seat in
+Macedonia.</div>
+
+<p>43. Macedonia became the theatre of the new
+civil war, and together with the goodness of their
+cause, superior talents, and greater power both
+by land and sea, seemed combined to ensure the
+victory to Brutus and Cassius. But in the decisive
+battle at Philippi, fortune played one of her
+most capricious tricks, and with the two chiefs
+fell the last supporters of the republic.</p>
+
+<div class="sblockquot"><p>Double battle at Philippi towards the close of the year 42;
+voluntary death of Cassius after the first, and of Brutus after the
+second engagement.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Plutarchi</span> <i>Vita Bruti</i>; from the narratives of eyewitnesses.</p></div>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_399" id="Page_399">[Pg 399]</a></span></p>
+<div class="sidenote">Quarrels of
+the oligarchy
+among
+themselves.</div>
+
+
+<p>44. The history of the eleven years intervening
+between the battle of Philippi and that of Actium,
+is little more than an account of the quarrels
+of the oligarchy among themselves. The most
+subtle was, in the end, victorious; for M. Antony
+possessed all the sensuality of C&aelig;sar, without
+his genius: and the insignificant Lepidus
+soon fell a sacrifice to his own vanity and weakness.
+While Antony went into Asia to arrange
+the affairs of the eastern provinces, and from
+thence with Cleopatra to Alexandria, Octavianus
+returned to Rome. But the famine which then
+reigned in that city through Pompey's blockade
+of the seacoast; the misery spread throughout
+Italy by the wresting of patrimonial lands from
+the proprietors to distribute among the veterans;
+and the insatiable covetousness of the latter rendered
+his situation as dangerous now as it had
+<span class="sidenote">Fulvia causes a civil war;</span>
+been before the war. Besides all this, the hatred
+of the enraged consort of Antony, who had entered
+into an alliance with her brother-in-law, the
+consul L. Antony, brought on, towards the end
+of the year, a civil war, which ended with the
+surrender and burning of Perusium, in which L.
+Antony had shut himself up, and which was
+already much weakened by famine.</p>
+
+<div class="sblockquot"><p>The <i>bellum Perusinum</i> lasted from the end of the year 41 till
+April, 40.</p></div>
+
+<div class="sidenote">40.</div>
+
+<p>45. This war, however, had nearly led to one
+still greater; for M. Antony, as the enemy of
+Octavianus, had come to Italy in order to assist
+his brother, and with the intention of forming an
+alliance with S. Pompey against the former. But
+fortunately for the world, not only was harmony<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_400" id="Page_400">[Pg 400]</a></span>
+restored between the triumvirs, but on account of
+the great famine which prevailed at Rome, a
+peace was also concluded with Pompey, although
+it lasted but a very short time.</p>
+
+<div class="sblockquot"><p>The principal object of the peace between the triumvirs was a
+new division of the provinces, by which the city of Scodra in
+Illyria was fixed upon as the boundary. Antony obtained all the
+eastern provinces; Octavianus all the western; and Lepidus
+Africa. Italy remained in common to them all. The marriage
+of Antony with Octavia, Fulvia being dead, was intended to cement
+this agreement. In the peace concluded with S. Pompey
+at Misenum, he obtained the islands of Sicily, Sardinia, and Corsica,
+and the promise of Achaia.</p></div>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Pompey recommences
+the war;<br />
+
+which
+causes his
+destruction,
+38; and
+Lepidus's
+expulsion,
+39.</div>
+
+<p>46. Pompey, however, was not long in finding
+that an alliance between him and the triumvirs
+would only end in his own destruction; and the
+war which he soon commenced, and which Octavianus
+could not bring to a close but with the
+assistance of Agrippa, was of so much the more
+importance, as it not only decided the fate of
+Pompey, but by leading to dissensions, and the
+expulsion of Lepidus, reduced the triumvirate to
+a duumvirate.</p>
+
+<div class="sblockquot"><p>After a doubtful engagement at sea, 38, and the formation of
+a new fleet, Pompey was attacked on all sides at the same time;
+Lepidus coming from Africa, and Antony sending also some
+ships. Final overthrow of Pompey, who flies to Asia and there
+perishes.&mdash;Lepidus wishing to take possession of Sicily, Octavianus
+gains over his troops, and obliges him to retire from the
+triumvirate.</p></div>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Foreign
+wars prevent
+Augustus
+and Antony
+from
+coming to
+an open
+rupture.<br />
+
+35&mdash;33.<br />
+
+Antony offends
+Rome
+and
+divorces
+Octavia, 32.</div>
+
+<p>47. The foreign wars in which Octavianus as
+well as Antony were engaged in the following
+years, prevented for some time their mutual
+jealousy from coming to an open rupture. Octavianus,
+to tame his unruly legions, employed them
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_401" id="Page_401">[Pg 401]</a></span>with some success against the nations of Dalmatia
+and Pannonia; whilst Antony undertook an expedition
+against the powerful Parthians and their
+neighbours. But in offending Rome by his conduct
+in these wars, he only armed his opponent
+against himself; and his formal separation from
+Octavia, loosened the only tie which had hitherto
+held together the two masters of the world.</p>
+
+<div class="sblockquot"><p>After his first stay in Alexandria, 41, Antony returned to Italy,
+40, and then, having made peace with Octavianus, he carried his
+new wife Octavia with him into Greece, where he remained till
+the year 37. Although his lieutenant Ventidius had fought with
+success against the Parthians, who had invaded Syria (see
+above, p. 302.), Antony determined to undertake an expedition
+against them himself, 36. But although in alliance with
+Artavasdes king of Armenia (whom he soon after accused of
+treachery), in seeking to effect an entrance into Parthia, by
+passing through Armenia and Media, a different route from that
+taken by Crassus, he was very nearly meeting with the same
+fate, and the expedition completely failed. He then revenged
+himself upon Artavasdes, who fell into his hands in a fresh expedition
+which he made, 34, and deprived him of his kingdom.
+After his triumphal entrance into Alexandria, he made a grant
+of this as well as other countries to Cleopatra and her children.
+(See above, p. 267.) In 33, he intended to renew his expedition
+against the Parthians, in alliance with the king of Media; but
+having, at the instigation of Cleopatra, ordered Octavia to return
+home, when she had already come as far as Athens on her way to
+meet him, Octavianus and Antony reciprocally accused each other
+before the senate, and war was declared at Rome, though only
+against Cleopatra.</p></div>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Greece the
+seat of war
+between
+Antony and
+Octavianus.<br />
+
+Antony defeated at Actium, 2d. Sept. 31;<br />
+
+his death, 30,
+leaves Octavianus
+without a
+rival.</div>
+
+<p>48. Greece became again the theatre of war;
+and although the forces of Antony were most
+considerable, yet Octavianus had the advantage
+of having, at least in appearance, the better
+cause. The naval victory of Actium decided for
+Octavianus, who could scarcely believe it, till he
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_402" id="Page_402">[Pg 402]</a></span>found that Antony had forsaken his fleet and
+army, the latter of which surrendered without
+striking a blow. The capture of Egypt followed,
+(see above, p. 267.) and that country was reduced
+to a Roman province; the death of Antony and
+Cleopatra ended the war, and left Octavianus
+absolute master of the republic.</p>
+
+<div class="sblockquot"><p>The history of the last days of Antony, principally after his
+decline, having been written under the rule of his enemies, must
+be received with that mistrust which all such histories require.
+It has furnished abundant matter for the retailers of anecdote.
+The history of Cleopatra rests partly on the accounts of her physician
+Olympus, of which Plutarch made use.</p></div>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 25%;" />
+<h2>FOURTH PERIOD.</h2>
+
+<p class="iblockquot2">HISTORY OF THE ROMAN STATE AS A MONARCHY TO THE
+OVERTHROW OF THE WESTERN EMPIRE.  B. C. 30.&mdash;A. C.
+476.</p>
+
+
+<p class="iblockquot2"><i>Geographical outline. View of the Roman empire and
+provinces, and other countries connected with it by war
+or commerce.</i></p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Boundaries
+of the Roman
+empire.</div>
+
+<p>The ordinary boundaries of the Roman empire,
+which, however, it sometimes exceeded, were in
+Europe the two great rivers of the Rhine and
+Danube; in Asia, the Euphrates and the sandy
+desert of Syria; in Africa likewise, the sandy
+regions. It thus included the fairest portions of
+the earth, surrounding the Mediterranean sea.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_403" id="Page_403">[Pg 403]</a></span></p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">European countries: Spain.</div>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">European countries</span>: I. Spain (Hispania).
+Boundaries: on the east the Pyrenees, on the
+south, north, and west, the sea. Principal rivers:
+the Minius (Minho), Durius (Douro), Tagus
+(Tejo), Anas (Guadiana), B&aelig;tis (Guadalquiver),
+which flow into the Atlantic; and the Iberus
+(Ebro), which falls into the Mediterranean.
+Mountains: besides the Pyrenees, the Idubeda
+along the Iberus, Orospeda (Sierra Morena).
+<span class="sidenote">Lusitania.</span>
+Divided into three provinces.
+1. Lusitania:
+northern boundary the Durius, southern, the
+Anas.  Principal tribes: Lusitani, Turdetani.
+Principal town: Augusta Emerita.
+<span class="sidenote">B&aelig;tica.</span>
+2. B&aelig;tica:
+boundaries on the north and west the Anas, on
+the east the mountains of Orospeda. Principal
+tribes: Turduli, Bastuli. Principal towns: Corduba
+(Cordova), Hispalis (Seville), Gades (Cadiz),
+Munda.
+<span class="sidenote">Tarraconensis.</span>
+3. Tarraconensis, all the remainder of
+Spain. Principal tribes: Call&aelig;ci, Astures, Cantabri,
+Vascones, in the north; Celtiberi, Carpetani,
+Ilergetes, in the interior; Indigetes, Cosetani,
+etc. on the Mediterranean. Chief towns:
+Tarraco (Tarragona), Cartago Nova (Carthagena),
+Toletum (Toledo), Ilerda (Lerida); Saguntum
+and Numantia (Soria) were already destroyed.
+<span class="sidenote">Balearic isles.</span>
+The Balearic isles, Major (Majorca), and Minor
+(Minorca), were considered as belonging to
+Spain.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Transalpine Gaul:</div>
+
+<p>II. Transalpine Gaul. Boundaries: on the
+west the Pyrenees; on the east the Rhine, and a
+line drawn from its source to the little river
+Varus, together with that river itself; on the
+north and south the sea. Principal rivers: the
+Garumna (Garonne), Liger (Loire), Sequana
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_404" id="Page_404">[Pg 404]</a></span>(Seine), and Scaldis (Scheldt), which empty
+themselves into the ocean; the Rhodanus (Rhone),
+which is increased by the Arar (Saone), and falls
+into the Mediterranean; and the Mosella (Moselle)
+and Mosa (Meuse), which flow into the
+Rhine. Mountains: besides the Alps, the Jura,
+Vogesus (Vosge), and Cebenna (Cevennes).
+Divided into four provinces.
+<span class="sidenote">Gallia Narbonensis.</span>
+1. Gallia Narbonensis,
+or Braccata. Boundaries: on the west
+the Pyrenees, on the east the Varus, on the north
+the Cevennian mountains. Principal tribes:
+Allobroges, Volc&aelig;, Calyes. Principal towns:
+Narbo (Narbonne), Tolosa (Toulouse), Nemausus
+(N&icirc;mes), Massilia (Marseilles), Vienna.
+<span class="sidenote">Gallia Celtica.</span>
+2. Gallia Lugdunensis, or Celtica. Boundaries: to the
+south and west the Liger (Loire), to the north the
+Sequana, to the east the Arar. Principal tribes:
+&AElig;dui, Lingones, Parisii, Cenomani, etc. all of
+Celtic origin. Principal towns: Lugdunum
+(Lyons), Lutetia Parisiorum (Paris), Alesia
+(Alise).
+<span class="sidenote">Gallia Aquitanica.</span>
+3. Gallia Aquitanica. Boundaries: the
+Pyrenees on the south, the Liger on the north
+and east. Principal tribes: Aquitani (of Iberian
+origin), Pictones, Averni, etc. of Celtic descent.
+Principal towns: Climberis, Burdegala (Bourdeaux).
+<span class="sidenote">Gallia Belgica.</span>
+4. Gallia Belgica. Boundaries: on the
+north and east the Rhine, on the west the Arar,
+on the south the Rhodanus as far as Lugdunum,
+so that it comprised at first the countries bordering
+on the Rhine and Helvetia. The latter,
+however, were afterwards separated from it under
+the names of Germania Inferior and Superior.
+Principal tribes: Nervii, Bellovaci, etc. in the
+north, of Belgic origin; Treviri, Ubii, of Ger<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_405" id="Page_405">[Pg 405]</a></span>man
+origin; Sequani, Helvetii, in the interior,
+of Celtic origin. Principal towns: Vesentio
+(Besan&ccedil;on), Verodunum (Verdun), etc. Along
+the Rhine in Germania Inferior: Colonia Agrippina
+(Cologne). In Germania Superior: Mogontiacum
+(Mayence, or Mentz), and Argentoratum
+(Strasburg).</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Cisalpine
+Gaul.</div>
+
+<p>III. Gallia Cisalpina, or Togata (Lombardy,
+see above, p. 315). But as from the time of
+C&aelig;sar the inhabitants enjoyed all the privileges
+of Roman citizens, it may be reckoned as forming
+part of Italy.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Sicily.</div>
+
+<p>IV. Sicilia; divided into Syracuse and Lilyb&aelig;um.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Sardinia,
+Corsica.</div>
+
+<p>V. Sardinia and Corsica, see above, p. 320.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">British
+islands.</div>
+
+<p>VI. The Insul&aelig; Britannic&aelig; (British islands);
+but of these, only England and the southern part
+of Scotland were reduced into a Roman province
+in the time of Nero, under the name of Britannia
+Romana. Principal rivers: Tamesis (Thames)
+and Sabrina (Severn). Cities: Eboracum (York)
+in the north, Londinum (London) in the south.
+Into Scotland, Britannia Barbaria, or Caledonia,
+the Romans often penetrated, but without being
+ably completely to conquer it; and as for Hibernia,
+Ierne (Ireland), it was visited by Roman
+merchants, but never by Roman legions.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Countries
+south of the
+Danube:
+Vindelicia.</div>
+
+<p>VII.  The countries south of the Danube,
+which were subdued under Augustus and formed
+into the following provinces: 1. Vindelicia.
+Boundaries: on the north the Danube, on the
+east the &AElig;nus (Inn), on the west Helvetia, on
+the south Rh&aelig;tia. Principal tribes: Vindelici,
+Brigantii, etc. Principal towns: Augusta Vin<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_406" id="Page_406">[Pg 406]</a></span>delicorum
+(Augsburg), Brigantia (Bregenz).
+<span class="sidenote">Rh&aelig;tia.</span>
+2. Rh&aelig;tia. Boundaries: on the north Vindelicia,
+on the east the Inn and the Salza, on the south
+the chain of the Alps from Lacus Verbanus (Lago
+Maggiore) to Belinzona, on the west Helvetia.
+Principal tribe: Rh&aelig;ti. Principal towns: Curia
+(Chur), Veldidena (Wilden), Tridentum (Trent).
+<span class="sidenote">Noricum.</span>
+3. Noricum. Boundaries: on the north the
+Danube, on the west the &AElig;nus, on the east the
+mountain Cetius (Kahlenberg), and on the south
+the Julian Alps and the Savus (Save). Principal
+tribes: Boii. Cities: Jovavum (Salzburg),
+Boiodurum (Passau).
+<span class="sidenote">Pannonia Superior.</span>
+4. Pannonia Superior.
+Boundaries: on the north and east the Danube,
+on the south the Arrabo (Raab), on the west the
+mountain Cetius. Cities: Vindobona (Vienna),
+Caruntum.
+<span class="sidenote">Pannonia Inferior.</span>
+5. Pannonia Inferior. Boundaries:
+on the north the Arrabo, on the east the Danube,
+on the south the Savus. Cities: Taurunum (Belgrade),
+Mursa (Esseg), and Sirmium.
+<span class="sidenote">M&#339;sia Superior.</span>
+6. M&#339;sia
+Superior. Boundaries: on the north the Danube,
+on the south Mount Scardus, or Scodrus, on the
+west Pannonia, on the east the river Cebrus
+(Ischia). Cities: Singidunum (Semlin), and
+Naissus (Nissa).
+<span class="sidenote">M&#339;sia Inferior.</span>
+7. M&#339;sia Inferior. Boundaries:
+on the north the Danube, on the west the
+Cebrus, on the south mount H&aelig;mus (the Balkan),
+and on the east the Pontus Euxinus. Cities:
+Odessus (Varna), Tomi (Tomisvar).</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Illyricum.</div>
+
+<p>VIII. Illyricum, in its most extensive signification,
+comprised all the provinces south of the
+Danube, together with Rh&aelig;tia and Dalmatia:
+but Illyricum Proper comprehends only the lands
+along the coast of the Adriatic, from Rh&aelig;tia in<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_407" id="Page_407">[Pg 407]</a></span>
+Italy to the river Drinus, and easterly to the
+Savus. Principal towns: Salona, Epidaurus
+(near the present Ragusa), Scodra (Scutari).</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Macedonia.</div>
+
+<p>IX.  Macedonia.  Boundaries: on the north
+mount Scodrus, on the south the Cambunian
+mountains, on the west the Adriatic, and on the
+east the &AElig;gean sea. Rivers: the Nestus, Strymon,
+and Halyacmon, which fall into the &AElig;gean
+sea, and the Apsus and A&ouml;us, which fall into the
+Adriatic. Principal tribes: P&aelig;ones in the north,
+Pieres and Mygdones in the south. Principal
+towns: Pydna, Pella, Thessalonica, Philippi,
+with other Greek colonies (see above, p. 164).
+Dyrrachium and Apollonia on the western coast.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Thrace.</div>
+
+<p>X.  Thrace had for some time kings of her own,
+though dependent on Rome, and was first reduced
+to a Roman province under Claudius.
+Boundaries: on the north Mount H&aelig;mus, on
+the west the Nestus, on the south and east the
+sea. River: Hebrus. Principal tribes: Triballi,
+Bessi, and Odrys&aelig;. Cities: Byzantium, Apollonia,
+Ber&#339;a.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Achaia.</div>
+
+<p>XI.  Achaia (Greece), see above, p. 131.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Dacia.</div>
+
+<p>XII.  To the north of the Danube the province
+of Dacia was brought under the Roman empire
+by Trajan. Boundaries: on the south the Danube,
+on the west the Tibiscus (Theiss), in the
+east the Hierasus (Pruth), in the north the
+Carpathian mountains. Principal tribe: Daci.
+Chief cities; Ulpia Trajana and Tibiscum.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Asiatic
+provinces.
+Asia Minor.</div>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Asiatic provinces</span>: I. Asia Minor contained
+the provinces: 1. Asia (see above, p. 293).
+2. Bithynia, together with Paphlagonia and part
+of Pontus. 3. Cilicia, with Pisidia (see above,
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_408" id="Page_408">[Pg 408]</a></span>p. 18.)
+<span class="sidenote">Syria. Isle of Cyprus.</span>
+II. Syria and Ph&#339;nicia. III. The isle
+of Cyprus.  Several other states, likewise dependent,
+still preserved their kings: as, Jud&aelig;a
+(became a Roman province, A. D. 44.), Commagene
+(province A. D. 70, and, together with
+Jud&aelig;a, added to Syria), Cappadocia (province
+A. D. 17), Pontus (completely a province under Nero).
+<span class="sidenote">Free states.</span>
+Free states at this time: Rhodes, Samos
+(provinces A. D. 70), and Lycia (province A. D.
+43). Beyond the Euphrates, Armenia and Mesopotamia
+were reduced to provinces by Trajan,
+but, as early as the time of Adrian, were abandoned.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">African
+provinces.
+Egypt.
+Cyrenaica.
+Africa.
+Mauritania.</div>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">African provinces.</span> I. Egypt. II. Cyrenaica,
+with the isle of Crete. III. Africa, Numidia
+(see above, p. 47). Mauritania still had
+its separate king, but he was set aside, A. D. 41,
+and the country divided into two provinces:
+1.  Mauritania C&aelig;sariensis. Boundaries: on the
+east the river Ampsaga, on the west the Mulucha.
+Principal places: Igilgilis and C&aelig;saria.
+2.  Mauritania Tingitana, from the river Mulucha
+to the Atlantic ocean. Capital: Tingis.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">States on
+the borders.
+Germany.</div>
+
+<p>Principal states on the borders of the empire:
+I. Germania. Boundaries: on the south the Danube,
+on the north the sea, on the west the Rhine,
+on the east undetermined, though the Vistula is
+generally regarded as such. Principal rivers:
+the Danubius, Rhenus (Rhine), Albis (Elbe),
+Visurgis (Weser), Viadrus (Oder), and the Vistula;
+the Lupias (Lippe) and Amisia (Ems) are
+likewise frequently mentioned. Mountains and
+forests: the Hercynian forest, a general name for
+the forest mountains, particularly of eastern Ger<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_409" id="Page_409">[Pg 409]</a></span>many.
+Melibocus (the Hartz), Sudetus (the
+Thuringian forest); the forest of Teutoburg, to
+the south of Westphalia, etc. It would be useless
+to seek for a general political division, or for
+the cities, of ancient Germany; we can only
+point out the situation of the principal tribes. It
+is necessary, however, to precede this by two
+observations: 1. The same territory, in the tide of
+forcible emigration and conquest, and particularly
+after the second century, often changed its inhabitants.
+2. The names of some of the principal
+tribes often became that of a confederacy. The
+principal tribes in the period of Augustus were,
+in northern Germany; the Batavi in Holland;
+the Frisii in Friesland; the Bructeri in Westphalia;
+the lesser and larger Chauci in Oldenburg
+and Bremen; the Cherusci, likewise the
+name of a confederation, in Brunswick; the Catti
+in Hesse. In southern (central) Germany: the
+Hermunduri in Franconia; the Marcomanni in Bohemia.
+<span class="sidenote">Alemanni.</span>
+The Alemanni, not the name of a
+single tribe, but of a confederation, are first mentioned
+in the third century: in the period of
+Augustus these tribes, and the principal of those
+of eastern Germany, which gradually became
+known, were included under the general name of
+<span class="sidenote">Suevi.</span>
+Suevi.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Scandinavia.</div>
+
+<p>The northernmost countries of Europe were
+considered as isles of the German ocean, and
+therefore regarded as belonging to Germany.
+They were Scandinavia, or Scandia (southern
+Sweden), Nerigon (Norway), and Eningia, or
+probably Finningia (Finland). The northernmost
+island was called Thule.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_410" id="Page_410">[Pg 410]</a></span></p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Sarmatia.</div>
+
+<p>The north of Europe, from the Vistula to the
+Tanais (Don), was comprised under the general
+name of Sarmatia; but beyond the territory
+about the Danube, and especially Dacia (see
+above, p. 407), they were only in a slight degree
+acquainted with the coast of the Baltic, by the
+amber trade.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Parthia.</div>
+
+<p>In Asia the Roman empire was bounded by
+Great Armenia (see above, p. 19, and 299), the
+Parthian empire from the Euphrates to the Indus
+(see above, p. 19&mdash;22), and the peninsula of
+Arabia (see above, p. 19).</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">India.</div>
+
+<p>Eastern Asia, or India, became known to the
+Romans by a commercial intercourse carried
+on between them, and which began soon after
+the conquest of Egypt. It was divided into
+India on this side the Ganges, that is: 1. The
+territory between the Indus and Ganges; 2. The
+peninsula on this side, the western coast of which
+in particular (Malabar), was very well known;
+and, 3. The island of Taprobana (Ceylon),
+and India beyond the Ganges, to which also the
+distant Serica belonged: but of all these countries
+they had but a very imperfect knowledge.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Africa.</div>
+
+<p>The boundaries of Africa were &AElig;thiopia above
+Egypt, and G&aelig;tulia and the great sandy desert
+of Libya, above the other provinces.</p>
+
+
+<hr style='width: 25%;' />
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_411" id="Page_411">[Pg 411]</a></span></p>
+
+<h2>FIRST SECTION.</h2>
+
+<p class="cblockquot"><i>From Augustus C&aelig;sar to the death of Commodus,
+B. C. 30. A. C. 193.</i></p>
+
+<div class="sblockquot"><p><span class="smcap">Sources.</span> For the whole of this period <span class="smcap">Dion Cassius</span>,
+lib. li&mdash;lxxx, is our historian; though of his last twenty books
+we have only the abridgment of Xiphilinus. For the history
+of the emperors from Tiberius to the beginning of Vespasian's
+reign, the principal writer is <span class="smcap">Tacitus</span>, in his <i>Annals</i>, A. C.
+14&mdash;63; (of which, however, part of the history of Tiberius,
+32&mdash;34, all of Caligula and the first six years of Claudius, 37&mdash;47,
+as well as the last year and a half of Nero, are unfortunately
+lost); and in his <i>History</i>, of which scarcely the first three years,
+69&mdash;71, are come down to us. <span class="smcap">Suetonius's</span> <i>Lives of the C&aelig;sars</i>,
+down to Domitian, are so much the more valuable, because
+in a state like the Roman it becomes of importance to know the
+character and domestic life of the ruling men. For the reigns of
+Augustus and Tiberius the <i>History</i> of <span class="smcap">Velleius Paterculus</span>
+is not of less consequence, although written in a court-like tone.
+The sources for the history of the separate C&aelig;sars will be given
+as we come to them.</p>
+
+<p>The following are the labours of modern writers:</p>
+
+<p><i>Histoire des Empereurs et des autres Princes qui ont r&eacute;gn&eacute;
+dans les six premiers si&egrave;cles de l'Eglise</i>, <i>par</i> <span class="smcap">M. Lenain de
+Tillemont</span>. &agrave; Bruxelle, 1707, 5 vols. 8vo. (An earlier edition
+in 4to. 1700, 4 vols.) The work of Tillemont has some worth
+as a laborious compilation, but is superseded in its execution by
+the following:</p>
+
+<p><i>Histoire des Empereurs Romains, depuis Auguste jusqu' &agrave;
+Constantin</i>, <i>par</i> <span class="smcap">M. Crevier</span>. Paris, 1749, 12 vols. 8vo.
+[Translated into English.] A continuation of Rollin's Roman
+History (see above, p. 318), quite in the spirit of that writer,
+and by one of his school.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Dr. Goldsmith's</span> <i>Roman History, from the foundation of the
+city of Rome to the destruction of the western empire</i>. London,
+1774, 2 vols. 8vo. Rather a sketch than a detailed history (see
+above, p. 321, sqq.).</p>
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_412" id="Page_412">[Pg 412]</a></span></p>
+<p>&#8224; <i>History of Rome under the Emperors, and of the contemporary
+nations</i>, <i>by</i> <span class="smcap">M. D. G. H. Hubler</span>.  Fryburg, 1803,
+3 parts. Continuation of the work cited p. 2: it reaches down
+to Constantine.</p></div>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Augustus
+C&aelig;sar
+B. C. 30&mdash;A.
+C. 14.</div>
+
+<p>1. Octavianus C&aelig;sar, on whom the senate
+conferred the honourable title of Augustus, which
+they periodically renewed, and which descended
+to his successors, possessed the sole dominion
+of the empire during forty-four years. The
+government, notwithstanding the great revolutions
+by which the republic had been converted
+into a monarchy, was not yet, either in fact or
+in form, altogether a despotic one. The private
+interest of the ruler required that the republican
+form should be preserved to the utmost, as without
+that he could not make an entire change;
+and the rest of his history sufficiently shows,
+that the cruelty with which he may be reproached
+in the early part of his career, was
+rather owing to circumstances than to his natural
+disposition. But during a reign so long, so
+tranquil, and so fortunate, could it be otherwise
+than that the republican spirit which at the beginning
+existed only in a few individuals, should
+evaporate of itself!</p>
+
+<div class="sblockquot"><p>The forms under which Augustus held the different branches
+of supreme power (dictatorship excepted) were;&mdash;the consulate,
+which, till B. C. 21, was annually renewed; and the <i>potestas
+consularis</i>, which, in B. C. 19, was settled on him for ever;&mdash;the
+<i>tribunicia potestas</i>, which was, 30, granted him for ever,
+rendered his person sacred (<i>sacrosancta</i>), and prepared the way
+to the <i>judicia majestatis</i> (accusations of high treason). As <i>imperator</i>,
+31, he continued commander of all the forces, and obtained
+the <i>imperium proconsulare</i> (proconsular power) in all the
+provinces. He assumed the <i>magistratura morum</i> (censorship),
+19; and became <i>pontifex maximus</i> (high priest), 13. To avoid<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_413" id="Page_413">[Pg 413]</a></span>
+all appearances of usurpation, Augustus at first accepted the
+sovereign power only for ten years, and afterwards had it renewed
+from time to time, for ten or five years, which, at a later
+period, gave rise to the <i>sacra decennalia</i>.</p></div>
+
+<div class="sidenote">The senate.</div>
+
+<p>2. The senate, indeed, remained a permanent
+council of state, and Augustus himself endeavoured
+to increase its authority by more than one
+purification (<i>lectio</i>); but the connection between
+him and that assembly seemed of a very fragile
+nature, as it was undetermined, and could not at
+this time be settled, whether Augustus was over
+the senate, or the senate over Augustus. All
+matters of state could not be brought before the
+senate, as even the most important often required
+secrecy. It naturally followed, that a prince,
+as yet without a court, and who had no proper
+minister, but only his friends and freedmen,
+should consult with those whom he thought most
+worthy his confidence, a M&aelig;cenas, or an Agrippa,
+etc. Hence afterwards was formed the secret
+council of state (<i>consilium secretum principis</i>).
+Among the republican magistrates the highest
+lost most; and as so much now depended upon
+the preservation of peace in the capital, the offices
+of pr&aelig;fect of the city (<i>pr&aelig;fectus urbis</i>) and pr&aelig;fect
+of provisions (<i>pr&aelig;fectus annon&aelig;</i>) were not only
+made permanent, but became, especially the
+former, the principal offices in the state.</p>
+
+<div class="sblockquot"><p>The spirit of monarchy shows itself in nothing more than in its
+strict distinction of ranks; hence, therefore, the magistrates,
+especially the consuls, lost nothing. Hence also the long-continued
+custom of nominating under-consuls (<i>consules suffecti</i>,)
+which in time became merely a formal assumption of the <i>ornamenta
+consularia et triumphalia</i> (consular and triumphal ornaments).
+Other offices were created for the purpose of rewarding
+friends and dependents.</p></div><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_414" id="Page_414">[Pg 414]</a></span></p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Introduction
+of
+standing
+armies.</div>
+
+<p>3.  The introduction of standing armies, already
+long prepared, naturally followed a dominion acquired
+by war; and became, indeed, necessary
+to guard the frontiers and preserve the newly-made
+conquests; the establishment of the guards
+and militia of the city (<i>cohortes pr&aelig;torian&aelig;</i> and
+<i>cohortes urban&aelig;</i>) were measures equally necessary
+for the security of the capital and the throne.
+The creation of <i>two</i> pr&aelig;torian pr&aelig;fects, however,
+instead of <i>one</i>, diminished for the present the
+great importance of that office.</p>
+
+<div class="sblockquot"><p>Distribution of the legions over the provinces in <i>castra stativa</i>
+(fixed camps), which soon grew into cities, especially along the
+Rhine, the Danube, and the Euphrates (<i>legiones Germanic&aelig;,
+Illyric&aelig;, et Syriac&aelig;</i>). Fleets also were stationed at Misenum
+and Ravenna.</p></div>
+
+<div class="sidenote">The provinces
+divided
+between
+the
+emperor
+and the
+senate.</div>
+
+<p>4.  The government, as well as the administration
+and revenue of the provinces, Augustus willingly
+divided with the senate; keeping to himself
+those on the frontiers (<i>provinci&aelig; principis</i>,) in
+which the legions were quartered, and leaving
+to that assembly the others (<i>provinci&aelig; senat&ucirc;s</i>).
+Hence his deputies (<i>legati</i>, lieutenants) exercised
+both civil and military authority in his name;
+while those of the senate, on the contrary (<i>proconsules</i>),
+only administered in civil affairs. Both
+were, in general, attended by commissioners (<i>procuratores
+et qu&aelig;stores</i>). The provinces were unquestionably
+gainers by this new arrangement,
+not only because their governors were more carefully
+looked after, but because they were paid by
+the state.</p>
+
+<div class="sblockquot"><p>The fate of the provinces naturally depended, in a great degree,
+upon the disposition of the emperor and governor; but there was
+also an essential difference between the provinces of the emperor<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_415" id="Page_415">[Pg 415]</a></span>
+and those of the senate (<i>provinci&aelig; principis et senat&ucirc;s</i>): in the
+latter there was no military oppression as there was in the former;
+and to that may be ascribed the flourishing state of Gaul,
+Spain, Africa, etc.</p></div>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Finances:<br />
+
+the private and military chest of the emperor; the state chest<br />
+
+swallowed up by the former.</div>
+
+<p>5. There is little doubt but that the finances
+of the treasury remained, upon the whole, much
+the same as before; but in its internal administration
+Augustus made many alterations, of which
+we have but a very imperfect knowledge. Of
+course there would be at first an obvious difference
+between the privy and military chest of the
+emperor (<i>fiscus</i>), which was at his immediate disposal,
+and the state chest (<i>&aelig;rarium</i>) which he
+disposed of indirectly through the senate, though
+it must afterwards follow as a natural consequence
+of increasing despotism, that the latter
+should progressively become merged in the former.</p>
+
+<div class="sblockquot"><p>The great disorder into which the treasury had been thrown
+during the civil wars, and especially by giving away the state
+lands in Italy to the soldiers, together with the heavy sums required
+for the maintenance of the standing army now established,
+must have rendered it much more difficult for Augustus to
+accomplish the reform he so happily executed; and in which it
+seems to have been his chief aim to place everything, as far as
+possible, upon a solid and lasting foundation. The principal
+changes which he made in the old system of taxation seem to
+have been: 1. That the tithes hitherto collected in the provinces
+should be changed into a fixed quota, to be paid by each individual.
+2. The customs, partly by reestablishing former ones, and
+partly by imposing new ones as well as an excise (<i>centesima
+rerum venalium</i>), were rendered more productive. The possession
+of Egypt, which was the dep&ocirc;t of nearly all the commerce of
+the east, rendered the customs at this time of great importance
+to Rome. 3. All the state lands in the provinces were, by degrees,
+changed into crown lands. Of the new taxes the most
+considerable were the <i>vigesima hereditatum</i> (the twentieth of inheritances),
+though with important restrictions; and the fines<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_416" id="Page_416">[Pg 416]</a></span>
+upon celibacy by the <i>lex Julia Popp&aelig;a</i>.&mdash;The greater part of
+these state revenues most likely flowed, from the very first, into
+the <i>fiscus</i>: that is, the whole revenues of the <i>provinci&aelig; principis</i>,
+as well as of those parts of the <i>provinci&aelig; senat&ucirc;s</i> which were appropriated
+to the maintenance of the troops; the revenues arising
+from the crown domains; the <i>vigesima</i>, etc. To the <i>&aelig;rarium</i> (now
+under three <i>pr&aelig;fecti &aelig;rarii</i>) remained a part of the revenues of
+the <i>provinci&aelig; senat&ucirc;s</i>, the customs and the fines. Thus it appears
+that Augustus was master of the finances, of the legions,
+and thereby of the empire.</p>
+
+<p>See above, p. 362, the writings of <span class="smcap">Hegewisch</span> and <span class="smcap">Bosse</span>.</p></div>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Extension
+of the empire:<br />
+
+Spain and Gaul, 25.<br />
+
+20.<br />
+
+Countries south of the Danube, 15&mdash;35.<br />
+
+29.<br />
+
+24.</div>
+
+<p>6. The extension of the Roman empire under
+Augustus was very considerable; being generally
+of such a nature as conduced to the security
+of the interior, and to the safeguard of the
+frontiers. The complete subjugation of northern
+Spain, and western Gaul, secured the frontiers
+on that side; as did the threatened but never-executed
+expedition against the Parthians, and
+the one actually undertaken against Armenia,
+A. C. 2. But the most important conquest in
+this quarter was that of the countries south of the
+Danube, viz. Rh&aelig;tia, Vindelicia, and Noricum, as
+well as Pannonia, and afterwards M&#339;sia.  To
+counterbalance these, the expedition against Arabia
+Felix completely failed; and that against
+&AElig;thiopia was of no further consequence than to
+strengthen the frontiers.</p>
+
+
+<p>7. All these conquests together, however, did
+not cost the Romans so much as their fruitless
+attempt to subjugate Germany, first, by the sons-in-law
+of Augustus, Drusus and Tiberius Nero,
+and afterwards by the son of the former, Drusus
+<span class="sidenote">Unsuccessful attempt to subdue Germany.</span>
+Germanicus. Whether or not this undertaking
+was a political fault, must always remain a problem,
+as it is now impossible to say how far<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_417" id="Page_417">[Pg 417]</a></span>
+the security of the frontiers could be preserved
+without it.</p>
+
+<div class="sblockquot"><p>Rome commenced her hostile attack upon Germany under
+the command of Drusus, B. C. 12; Lower Germany (Westphalia,
+Lower Saxony, and Hesse) being in general the theatre of the
+war: while the Lower Rhine was attacked both by sea and land
+at the mouths of the Ems, the Weser, and the Elbe, on account
+of the great assistance afforded the Romans by their alliance with
+the nations on the coasts, the Batavi, Frisii, and Chauci. The
+intrepid Drusus, in his second expedition, 10, penetrated as far
+as the Weser, and, 9, even as far as the Elbe, but died on his
+return. His successors in the command (Tiberius, 9&mdash;7, Domitius,
+&AElig;nobarbus, 7&mdash;2, M. Vinicius, 2&mdash;A. C. 2, then again Tiberius,
+A. C. 2&mdash;4, who was followed by Quintilius Varus, A. C.
+5&mdash;9,) endeavoured to build on the foundation laid by Drusus,
+and, by erecting forts and introducing the Roman language and
+laws, gradually to reduce into a province the part of Germany
+they had already subdued; but the craftily organized revolt of
+the young Arminius (Hermann,) a prince of the Cherusci, son
+of Siegmar, and son-in-law of Segestes, a friend of the Romans,
+together with the defeat of Varus and his army in the Teutoburg
+wald, or forest, near Paderborn, A. C. 9, rescued Germany
+from slavery, and its language from annihilation. It moreover
+taught the conquerors (what they never forgot) that the legions
+were not invincible. Augustus immediately despatched Tiberius,
+who had just quelled a furious insurrection in Pannonia, together
+with Germanicus, to the Rhine; but these confined themselves
+to simple incursions, till Germanicus, A. C. 14&mdash;16, again
+carried his arms further into the country, and certainly penetrated
+as far as the Weser. Yet, notwithstanding his victory
+near Idistavisus (Minden), the loss of his fleet and part of his
+army by a tempest on his return, and the jealousy of Tiberius at
+his victory, obliged him to give up his command. From this
+time the Germans were left at rest in this quarter.</p>
+
+<p>&#8224; <span class="smcap">Mannert</span>, <i>Geography of the Greeks and Romans</i>, part iii.</p></div>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Reign of
+Augustus, a
+brilliant
+period for
+Rome.</div>
+
+<p>8. The long, and for Italy itself, peaceable
+reign of Augustus, has generally been considered
+a fortunate and brilliant period of Roman history;
+and, when compared with the times which pre<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_418" id="Page_418">[Pg 418]</a></span>ceded
+and followed, it certainly was so. Security
+of person and property were reestablished;
+the arts of peace flourished under the benign patronage
+of Augustus and his favourite M&aelig;cenas;
+and we may add, that, as the formal restoration of
+the republic would only have been the signal for
+new commotions, the government of Augustus, if
+not the very best, was, at least, the best that
+Rome could then bear. Should it be said his
+private life was not blameless, it may be replied,
+that he inflexibly maintained an outward decency,
+to which, indeed, he sacrificed his only daughter;
+and if laws could have bettered the public morals,
+there was no lack of decrees for that purpose.</p>
+
+<div class="sblockquot"><p>Among his most important laws to this end are, the <i>lex Julia
+de adulteriis</i> and the <i>lex Papia Popp&aelig;a</i> against celibacy. The
+latter excited many murmurs.</p></div>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Augustus's family.<br />
+
+Livia.<br />
+
+B. C. 23.<br />
+
+Julia married to Agrippa, 17.<br />
+
+12.<br />
+
+6&mdash;A. C. 9.<br />
+
+A. C. 2.<br />
+
+2&mdash;4.<br />
+
+Tiberius adopted by Augustus 4.</div>
+
+<p>9. Nearly all that remains of the history of
+Augustus, is an account of his domestic troubles;
+the most unhappy family being that of the emperor.
+The influence of Livia, his second wife,
+was very great, but does not seem to have been
+perverted to any worse purpose than raising her
+sons, Tiberius and Drusus, to the throne. The
+naturally unsettled state of the succession, in a
+government such as that of Rome now was, became
+much increased by circumstances. After
+the untimely death of his nephew and son-in-law
+Marcellus, whom he had adopted, his widow Julia,
+the only child of Augustus by his wife Scribonia,
+was married to Agrippa. The two eldest sons of
+this marriage, C. and L. C&aelig;sar, were adopted,
+upon the death of their father, by the emperor,
+who showed so much fondness towards them as
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_419" id="Page_419">[Pg 419]</a></span>they grew up, that Tiberius, who in the mean
+time had married their mother, Julia,&mdash;afterwards
+banished by Augustus for her licentious conduct&mdash;left
+the court in disgust. The death of the two
+young princes, however, again revived the hopes
+of Tiberius, who was adopted by Augustus upon
+the condition that he should also adopt Drusus
+Germanicus, the son of his deceased brother
+Drusus; after which Augustus, with the consent
+of the senate, formally associated him with himself
+in the government, making him an equal
+partner in the imperial privileges: called by his
+successors, <i>lex regia</i>.</p>
+
+<div class="sblockquot"><p><i>Marmor Ancyranum</i>; or, inscriptions in the temple of Augustus
+at Ancyra. A copy of the account given of his government,
+which Augustus latterly caused to be set up at Rome as a
+public memorial: unfortunately much mutilated. It is to be
+found in <span class="smcap">Chishull</span>, <i>Antiq. Asiatic</i>.</p>
+
+<p><i>Memoirs of the Court of Augustus, by</i> <span class="smcap">Thomas Blackwell</span>.
+London, 1760, 3 vols. 4to. divided into fifteen books. The last
+vol. was published after the death of the author, by <span class="smcap">Mr. Mills</span>.
+The last two books of this prolix work contain a description of
+the contemporary affairs of Augustus; the others go back to
+earlier times. A just appreciation of Augustus requires a previous
+critical examination of the sources from which Suetonius
+has drawn the materials for his biography.</p>
+
+<p><i>Histoire des triumvirats augment&eacute;e de l'histoire d'Auguste,
+par</i> <span class="smcap">Larry</span>. Trevoux, 1741, 4 parts, 8vo. The last part of
+this simple narrative contains the history of Augustus from the
+death of Catiline.</p></div>
+
+<div class="sidenote">August 14, 19&mdash;March 16, 37.<br />
+
+Changes in the constitution:<br />
+
+power of the <i>comitia</i> reduced;<br />
+
+despotism introduced by the <i>judicia majestatis</i>;<br />
+
+degraded character of the senate.</div>
+
+<p>10. The reign of Tiberius Claudius Nero, or, as
+he was called after his adoption, Augustus Tiberius
+C&aelig;sar, from his fifty-sixth to his seventy-eighth
+year, changed rather the spirit than the form of
+the Roman constitution. He succeeded quietly to
+the vacant throne at Rome, although the legions
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_420" id="Page_420">[Pg 420]</a></span>in Pannonia, and still more in Germany, felt that
+they could make emperors. Under him the <i>comitia</i>,
+or assemblies of the people, were reduced
+to a mere shadow; as he transferred their duties
+to the senate, which also became the highest
+tribunal for the state crimes of its own members:
+this assembly, however, had now been so much
+accustomed to obey the will of the prince, that
+everything depended on his personal character.
+Tiberius founded his despotism upon the <i>judicia
+majestatis</i>, or accusations of high treason, now
+become an engine of terror, the senate also
+sharing his guilt with a pusillanimity and servility
+which knew no bounds. This degraded
+assembly, indeed, from the moment that it ceased
+to be the ruling authority of a free state, necessarily
+became the passive instrument of the most
+brutal tyranny.  Notwithstanding the military
+talents and many good qualities of Tiberius, his
+despotic character had been formed long before
+his fifty-sixth year, when he mounted the throne;
+although exterior circumstances prevented him
+from entirely throwing off the mask which he
+had hitherto worn.</p>
+
+<div class="sblockquot"><p>The foundation of the <i>judicia majestatis</i>, which soon became
+so terrible by the unfixed state of crime, had been laid during
+the reign of Augustus by the <i>lex Julia de majestate</i>, and the
+<i>cognitiones extraordinari&aelig;</i>, or commissioners appointed to take
+cognizance of certain crimes; it was, however, the abuse of them
+by Tiberius and his successors, which rendered them so dreadful.</p></div>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Ruin of
+Germanicus
+and his
+family.</div>
+
+
+<p>12. The principal object of Tiberius's suspicion,
+and therefore of his hate, was Germanicus, a
+man almost adored by the army and the people.
+This brave general he soon recalled from Ger<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_421" id="Page_421">[Pg 421]</a></span>many,
+and sent into Syria to quell the disorders
+of the east. After having successfully put an end
+to the commotions which called him there, he
+<span class="sidenote">A. C. 19.</span>
+was poisoned by the contrivances of Cn. Piso
+and his wife; and even that did not shelter the
+numerous family which he left behind, with his
+widow Agrippina, from persecution and ruin.</p>
+
+<div class="sblockquot"><p>The expeditions of Germanicus in the east not only gave a
+king to Armenia, but also reduced Cappadocia and Commagene
+to Roman provinces, A. C. 17.</p>
+
+<p><i>Histoire de C&aelig;sar Germanicus, par</i> M. L. D. B. [<small>EAUFORT</small>].
+&agrave; Leyden, 1741. An unpretending chronological narrative.</p></div>
+
+<div class="sidenote">L. &AElig;lius
+Sejanus, the cruel minister of Tiberius;<br />
+
+23&mdash;31.<br />
+
+Tiberius retires to Capre&aelig;, 26.<br />
+
+Fall of Sejanus attended with great carnage, 31.<br />
+
+Tiberius becomes a despotic monster.</div>
+
+<p>13. Rome, however, soon experienced to her
+cost the powerful ascendancy which L. &AElig;lius
+Sejanus, the pr&aelig;fect of the pr&aelig;torian guard, had
+acquired over the mind of Tiberius, whose unlimited
+confidence he possessed the more, as he
+enjoyed it without a rival. The eight years of his
+authority were rendered terrible not only by the
+cantonment of his troops in barracks near the
+city (<i>castra pr&aelig;toriana</i>), but (having first persuaded
+Tiberius to quit Rome for ever, that he
+might more securely play the tyrant in the isle of
+Capre&aelig;) by his endeavouring to open a way for
+himself to the throne by villanies and crimes without
+number, and by his cruel persecution of the
+family of Germanicus. The despotism he had
+introduced became still more dreadful by his
+own fall, in which not only his whole party, but
+every one that could be considered as connected
+with it, became involved. The picture of the
+atrocious despotism of Tiberius is rendered doubly
+disgusting by the horrid and unnatural lust which
+he joined to it in his old age.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_422" id="Page_422">[Pg 422]</a></span></p>
+
+<div class="sblockquot"><p>Tiberius's misfortune was, that he came too late to the throne.
+His early virtues made no compensation for his later cruelties.
+It is properly the former which Vel. Paterculus praises, whose
+flattery of Tiberius, in whose reign he flourished, is more easily
+justified than his praise of Sejanus.</p></div>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Caligula,
+March 16,
+37&mdash;Jan.
+24, 41.</div>
+
+<p>14. At the age of twenty-five Caius C&aelig;sar
+Caligula, the only remaining son of Germanicus,
+ascended the throne; but the hopes which had
+been formed of this young prince were soon
+wofully disappointed. His previous sickness and
+debaucheries had so distorted his understanding,
+that his short reign was one tissue of disorder
+and crime. Yet he did still more harm to the
+state by his besotted profusion than by his tiger-like
+cruelty. At length, after a career of nearly
+four years, he was assassinated by Cassius
+Ch&aelig;rea and Cornelius Sabinus, two officers of
+his guard.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Claudius,
+Jan. 24, 21&mdash;Oct.
+13,
+54.<br />
+
+the weak tool of his wives and freedmen.<br />
+
+Messalina;<br />
+
+Agrippina procures the throne for her son, with the
+assistance of Burrhus, and<br />
+
+50.<br />
+
+poisons Claudius, 54.</div>
+
+<p>15. His uncle Tiberius Claudius C&aelig;sar, who,
+at the age of fifty, succeeded him, was the first
+emperor raised to the throne by the guards;
+a favour which he rewarded by granting them a
+<i>donative</i>. Too weak to rule of himself, almost
+imbecile from former neglect, profligate, and cruel
+from fear, he became the tool of the licentiousness
+of his wives and freedmen. Coupled with
+the names of Messalina and Agrippina, we now
+hear, for the first time in Roman history, of a
+Pallas and a Narcissus. The dominion of Messalina
+was still more hurtful to the state by her
+rapacious cupidity, to which everything gave
+way, than by her dissolute life; and the blow
+which at last punished her unexampled wantonness,
+left a still more dangerous woman to supply
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_423" id="Page_423">[Pg 423]</a></span>her place. This was Agrippina, her neice, widow
+of L. Domitius, who joined to the vices of her
+predecessor a boundless ambition, unknown to
+the former. Her chief aim was to procure the
+succession for Domitius Nero, her son by a former
+marriage&mdash;who had been adopted by Claudius,
+and married to his daughter Octavia&mdash;by setting
+aside Britannicus, the son of Claudius; and this
+she hoped to effect, by poisoning Claudius, having
+already gained Burrhus, by making him <i>sole</i> pr&aelig;fect
+of the pr&aelig;torian guard. Notwithstanding
+the contentions with the Germans and Parthians
+(see above, p. 303) were only on the frontiers,
+the boundaries of the Roman empire were in
+many countries extended.</p>
+
+<div class="sblockquot"><p>Commencement of the Roman conquests in Britain (whither
+Claudius himself went) under A. Plautius, from the year A. C.
+43. Under the same general, Mauritania, A. C. 42, Lycia, 43,
+Jud&aelig;a, 44 (see above, p. 312), and Thrace, 47, were reduced to
+Roman provinces. He also abolished the pr&aelig;fectures which had
+hitherto existed in Italy.</p></div>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Nero, Oct.
+13, 54&mdash;June
+11,
+68.<br />
+
+His education
+and
+character.</div>
+
+
+<p>16. Nero Claudius C&aelig;sar, supported by Agrippina
+and the pr&aelig;torian guard, succeeded Claudius
+at the age of seventeen. Brought up in the
+midst of the blackest crimes, and, by a perverted
+education, formed rather for a professor of music
+and the fine arts than for an emperor, he ascended
+the throne like a youth eager for enjoyment; and
+throughout his whole reign his cruelty appears
+subordinate to his fondness for debaucheries and
+revelry. The unsettled state of the succession
+first called into action his savage disposition; and
+after the murder of Britannicus the sword fell
+<span class="sidenote">Destroys Britannicus and all the Julian family:
+his vanity also makes him cruel.</span>
+in regular order upon all those who were even
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_424" id="Page_424">[Pg 424]</a></span>remotely connected with the Julian family. His
+vanity as a performer and composer excited in an
+equal degree his cruelty; and as, among all tyrants,
+every execution gives occasion for others,
+we need not wonder at his putting to death every
+one that excelled him. His connection, however,
+in the early part of his reign, with Agrippina,
+Burrhus, and Seneca, during which he introduced
+some useful regulations into the treasury, kept him
+within the bounds of decency. But Popp&aelig;a Sabina
+having driven him on to
+<span class="sidenote">murders his wife and mother;</span>
+the murder of his mother and his wife Octavia, and Tigellinus being
+made his confident, he felt no longer restrained
+by the fear of public opinion. The executions of
+individuals, nearly all of which history has recorded,
+was not, perhaps, upon the whole, the greatest evil;
+<span class="sidenote">plunders the provinces to support his profligacy.</span>
+the plunder of the provinces, not
+only to support his own loose and effeminate
+pleasures, but also to maintain the people in a
+continual state of intoxication, had nearly caused
+the dissolution of the empire. The last years of
+Nero were marked by a striking and undoubted
+insanity, which displayed itself in his theatrical
+performances, and even in the history of his fall.
+<span class="sidenote">A. C. 68.</span>
+It appears that both around and upon a throne
+like that of Rome, heroes were formed for vice
+as well as virtue!</p>
+
+<div class="sblockquot"><p>Discovery of the conspiracy of Piso, 65, and the revolt of Julius
+Vindex in Celtic Gaul, 68, followed by that of Galba in
+Spain, who is there proclaimed emperor, and joined by Otho, in
+Lusitania. Nevertheless, after the defeat of Julius Vindex in
+Upper Germany, by the lieutenant Virginius Rufus, these insurrections
+seemed quelled, when the pr&aelig;torian guard, instigated
+thereto by Nymphidius, broke out into rebellion in Rome itself.
+Flight and death of Nero, June 11, 68. Foreign wars during<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_425" id="Page_425">[Pg 425]</a></span>
+his reign: in Britain (occasioned by the revolt of Boadicea),
+great part of which was subdued and reduced to a Roman province,
+by Suetonius Paulinus; in Armenia, under the command
+of the valiant Corbulo, against the Parthians (see above, p. 303);
+and in Palestine against the Jews, 66. Great fire in Rome,
+64, which gives rise to the first persecution against the Christians.</p>
+
+<p>The principal cause why the despotism of Nero and his predecessors
+was so tamely submitted to by the nation, may undoubtedly
+be found in the fact, that the greater part of it was
+fed by the emperors. To the monthly distributions of corn were
+now added the extraordinary <i>congiaria</i> and <i>viscerationes</i> (supplies
+of wine and meat). The periods of tyranny were very
+likely the golden days of the people.</p></div>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Extinction
+of the Julian
+family
+causes
+many troubles.</div>
+
+
+<p>17. By the death of Nero the house of C&aelig;sar
+became extinct, and this gave rise to so many
+commotions, that in somewhat less than two years,
+four emperors by violence obtained possession of
+the throne. The right of the senate to name, or
+at least to confirm, the successors to the throne,
+was still indeed acknowledged; but as the armies
+had found out that they could create emperors,
+the power of the senate dwindled into an
+empty ceremony.
+<span class="sidenote">Galba, June 11, 68&mdash;Jan. 15, 69.</span>
+Servius Sulpicius Galba, now
+seventy-two years of age, having been already
+proclaimed emperor by the legions in Spain, and
+acknowledged by the senate, gained possession
+of Rome without striking a blow, the attempt of
+Nymphidius having completely failed, and Virginius
+Rufus voluntarily submitting to him.
+Galba, however, having given offence both to the
+<span class="sidenote">killed by the pr&aelig;torian guard.</span>
+pr&aelig;torian guard and the German legions, was
+dethroned by the guards, at the instigation of his
+former friend Otho, at the very time when he
+thought he had secured his throne by adopting<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_426" id="Page_426">[Pg 426]</a></span>
+the young Licinius Piso, and had frustrated the
+hopes of Otho.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Otho, Jan.
+69&mdash;April
+16.</div>
+
+<p>18. M. Otho, aged thirty-seven, was indeed acknowledged
+emperor by the senate, but wanted
+the sanction of the German legions, who, proclaiming
+their general, A. Vitellius, emperor, invaded
+Italy. Otho marches against him, but
+after the loss of the battle of Bedriacum kills
+himself&mdash;whether from fear or patriotism, remains
+uncertain.</p>
+
+<div class="sblockquot"><p>The special sources for the history of Galba and Otho, are
+their <i>Lives</i> by <span class="smcap">Plutarch</span>.</p></div>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Vitellius,
+April 16,
+Dec. 20,
+69.</div>
+
+<p>19. Vitellius, in his thirty-seventh year, was
+acknowledged emperor not only by the senate,
+but likewise in the provinces; his debaucheries
+and cruelty, however, together with the licentiousness
+of his troops, having rendered him
+odious at Rome, the Syrian legions rebelled and
+proclaimed their general,
+<span class="sidenote">Vespasian proclaimed emperor.</span>
+T. Flavius Vespasian,
+emperor, who, at the solicitation of the powerful
+Mutianus, governor of Syria, accepted the imperial
+diadem. The troops on the Danube declaring
+for him shortly after, and marching into Italy
+under their general Antonius Primus defeated
+the army of Vitellius at Cremona. Vitellius was
+immediately hurled from the throne, though not
+till after some blood had been spilt by the commotions
+that took place at Rome, in which Flavius
+Sabinus, the brother of Vespasian, was slain, and
+the capitol burnt.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Vespasian,
+Dec. 20, 69&mdash;June
+24,
+79.</div>
+
+
+<p>20. Flavius Vespasian ascended the throne in
+his fifty-ninth year, and became thereby the
+founder of a dynasty which gave three emperors
+to Rome. The state, almost ruined by profusion,
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_427" id="Page_427">[Pg 427]</a></span>civil war, and successive revolutions, found in
+Vespasian a monarch well suited to its unhappy
+condition. He endeavoured, as far as he could,
+to determine the relations between
+<span class="sidenote">Fixes the power of the senate;</span>
+himself and the senate; while, by a decree, he restored to it
+all the rights and privileges which had been conferred
+upon it by his predecessors of the family of
+C&aelig;sar, and settled and added some others (<i>lex
+regia</i>). He made a thorough reform in the
+<span class="sidenote">improves the treasury;</span>
+completely-exhausted
+treasury, which he recruited in
+part by reducing the countries Nero had made
+free, together with some others, into provinces;
+partly by restoring the ancient customs, by increasing
+others, and by imposing new ones: without
+this it would have been impossible for him to
+have reestablished the discipline of the army.
+<span class="sidenote">founds public buildings, and promotes education; banishes the Stoics;</span>
+His liberality in the foundation of public buildings,
+as well in Rome as in other cities; and the
+care with which he promoted education, by granting
+salaries to public teachers, are sufficient to
+free him from the reproach of avarice; and although,
+on account of their dangerous opinions,
+he banished the Stoics (who since the time of
+Nero had become very numerous, and retained
+nearly all the principles of republicanism), the annulling of the
+<span class="sidenote">and annuls the <i>judicia majestatis</i>.</span>
+<i>judicia majestatis</i> and the restoration
+of the authority of the senate show how far
+he was from being a despot.</p>
+
+<div class="sblockquot"><p>Rhodes, Samos, Lycia, Achaia, Thrace, Cilicia, and Commagene,
+were brought by Vespasian into the condition of provinces.
+Foreign wars: that against the Jews, which ended with the destruction
+of Jerusalem, A. C. 70; and a much greater war
+against the Batavians and their allies under Civilis, who during
+the late civil wars, sought to shake off the Roman yoke, 69; but
+were reduced to an accommodation by Cerealis, 70. Expeditions<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_428" id="Page_428">[Pg 428]</a></span>
+of Agricola in Britain, 78&mdash;85, who not only subdued all England,
+and introduced the Roman manners and customs, but also
+attacked and sailed round Scotland.</p>
+
+<p><i>D. Vespasianus, sive de vita et legislatione T. Flavii Vespasiani
+Imp. commentarius, auctore</i> <span class="smcap">A. G. Cramer</span>. Jen&aelig;, 1785.
+An excellent enquiry, with illustrations of the fragments of the
+<i>lex regia</i>. The second part, <i>de legislatione</i>, contains a learned
+commentary upon the <i>senatus consulta</i>, during his reign.</p></div>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Titus,
+June 27,
+79&mdash;Sept.
+13, 81.</div>
+
+<p>21. His eldest son, Titus Flavius Vespasian,
+who in the year 70 had been created C&aelig;sar, and
+reigned from his thirty-ninth to his forty-second
+year, gives us the rare example of a prince becoming
+better on the throne. His short and benevolent
+reign was, indeed, only remarkable for
+its public calamities: an eruption of mount Vesuvius,
+overwhelming several cities, was followed
+by a destructive fire, and
+<span class="sidenote">Dreadful fire and plague, 79.</span>
+a dreadful plague at
+Rome. His early death secured him the reputation
+of being, if not the happiest, at least the best
+of princes.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Domitian,
+Sept. 13, 81&mdash;Sept.
+18,
+96.<br />
+
+a complete and cruel despot;<br />
+
+unsuccessful in war;<br />
+
+raises the soldiers' pay;<br />
+
+employs informers.</div>
+
+<p>22. His younger brother and successor, L.
+Flavius Domitian, who reigned from his thirtieth
+to his forty-fifth year, gives an example quite opposite
+to that of Titus: beginning with justice
+and severity, he soon degenerated into the completest
+despot that ever swayed the Roman sceptre.
+His cruelty, joined to an equal degree of pride,
+and nourished by suspicion and jealousy, made
+him the enemy of all who excelled him by their
+exploits, their riches, or their talents. The mortifications
+to which his pride must have been subjected
+in consequence of his unsuccessful wars
+against the Catti, and more particularly the Daci,
+increased his bad disposition. His despotism
+was founded upon his armies, whose pay he aug<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_429" id="Page_429">[Pg 429]</a></span>mented
+one fourth; and that he might not thereby
+diminish the treasury, as he had too much
+done at first, he multiplied the <i>judicia majestatis</i>,
+rendering it still more terrible by the employment
+of secret informers (<i>delatores</i>), in order, by
+confiscations, to augment the wealth of his private
+treasury (<i>fiscus</i>). By confining his cruelty
+chiefly to the capital, and by a strict superintendence
+over the governors of provinces, Domitian
+prevented any such general disorganization of the
+empire as took place under Nero. His fall confirmed
+the general truth, that tyrants have little
+to fear from the people, but much from individuals
+who may think their lives in danger.</p>
+
+<div class="sblockquot"><p>The foreign wars during this reign are rendered more worthy
+of remark by being the first in which the barbarians attacked the
+empire with success. Domitian's ridiculous expedition against
+the Catti, 82, gave the first proof of his boundless vanity; as did
+the recall of the victorious Agricola, 85, from Britain, of his jealousy.
+His most important war was that against the Daci, or
+Get&aelig;, who, under their brave king Dercebal, had attacked the
+Roman frontiers; this again occasioned another with their neighbours,
+the Marcomanni, Quadi, and Jazygi, 86&mdash;90, which
+turned out so unfortunate for Rome, that Domitian was obliged
+to purchase a peace of the Daci by paying them an annual
+tribute.</p></div>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Nerva,
+Jan. 24, 96&mdash;Jan.
+27, 98.<br />
+his reign
+the dawn of
+a happy
+period.</div>
+
+<p>23. M. Cocceius Nerva, aged about seventy
+years was raised to the throne by the murderers
+of Domitian; and now, at last, seemed to break
+forth the dawn of a more happy period for the
+empire.  The preceding reign of terror completely
+ceased at once; and he endeavoured to
+impart fresh vigour to industry, not only by diminishing
+the taxes, but also by distributing lands
+to the poor. The insurrection of the guards cer<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_430" id="Page_430">[Pg 430]</a></span>tainly
+cost the murderers of Domitian their lives;
+but it was at the same time the cause of Nerva's
+securing the prosperity of the empire after his
+death, by the adoption of Trajan.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Trajan,
+Jan. 24, 98&mdash;Aug. 11, 117.<br />
+
+the best of
+the Roman
+monarchs.<br />
+
+Restores the Roman constitution;<br />
+
+his frugality and liberality;<br />
+
+conquers Dacia,<br />
+
+Armenia, Mesopotamia, and part of Arabia.</div>
+
+<p>24. M. Ulpius Trajan (after his adoption, Nerva
+Trajan), a Spaniard by birth, governed the empire
+from his forty-second to his sixty-second
+year. He was the first foreigner who ascended
+the Roman throne, and at the same time the first
+of their monarchs who was equally great as a
+ruler, a general, and a man. After completely
+abolishing the <i>judicia majestatis</i>, he made the restoration
+of the <i>free Roman constitution</i>, so far as
+it was compatible with a monarchical form, his
+peculiar care. He restored the elective power to
+the <i>comitia</i>, complete liberty of speech to the senate,
+and to the magistrates their former authority;
+and yet he exercised the art of ruling to a
+degree and in a detail which few princes have
+equalled. Frugal in his expenses, he was nevertheless
+splendidly liberal to every useful institution,
+whether in Rome or the provinces, as well
+as in the foundation of military roads, public monuments,
+and schools for the instruction of poor
+children. By his wars he extended the dominion
+of Rome beyond its former boundaries; subduing,
+in his contests with the Daci, their country,
+and reducing it to a Roman province; as he likewise
+did, in his wars against the Armenians and
+Parthians, Armenia, Mesopotamia, and part of
+Arabia. Why was so great a character disfigured
+by an ambition of conquest?</p>
+
+<div class="sblockquot"><p>The first war against the Daci, in which the shameful tribute
+was withdrawn and Dercebal reduced to subjection, lasted from<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_431" id="Page_431">[Pg 431]</a></span>
+101&mdash;103. But as Dercebal again rebelled, the war was renewed
+in 105, and brought to a close in 106, when Dacia was
+reduced to a Roman province, and many Roman colonies established
+therein. The war with the Parthians arose from a dispute
+respecting the possession of the throne of Armenia (see
+above, p. 304), 114&mdash;116: but although Rome was victorious
+she gained no permanent advantage thereby.</p>
+
+<p>The especial source for the history of Trajan is the <i>Panegyricus</i>
+of <span class="smcap">Pliny the Younger</span>; the correspondence, however, of
+the same writer, while governor of Bithynia, with the emperor,
+affords us a much deeper insight into the spirit of his government:
+<span class="smcap">Plinii</span> <i>Epist.</i> lib. x. Who can read it without admiring
+the royal statesman?</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Rittershusii</span> <i>Trajanus in lucem reproductus</i>. Ambeg&aelig;,
+1608. A mere collection of passages occurring in ancient authors
+respecting Trajan.</p>
+
+<p><i>Res Trajani Imperatoris ad Danubium Gest&aelig;, auctore</i> <span class="smcap">Conrad
+Mannert</span>. Norimb. 1793: and</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Joh. Christ. Engel</span>, <i>Commentatio de Expeditionibus Trajani
+ad Danubium, et origine Valachorum</i>. Vindob. 1794.&mdash;Both
+learned dissertations, written for the prize offered by the
+Royal Society of Gottingen; the first of which obtained the
+prize, and the other the <i>accessit</i>, i. e. was declared second best.</p></div>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Adrian.</div>
+
+<p>25. By the contrivances of Plotina, his wife,
+Trajan was succeeded by his cousin and pupil,
+whom he is said also to have adopted, P. &AElig;lius
+Adrian, who reigned from his forty-second to his
+sixty-third year. He was acknowledged at once
+by the army of Asia, with which he then was,
+and the sanction of the senate followed immediately
+after. He differed from his predecessor
+in that his chief aim was the preservation of
+peace; on which account he gave up (rare moderation!),
+directly after his accession, the newly
+conquered provinces of Asia, Armenia, Assyria,
+and Mesopotamia, and so put an end to the Par<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_432" id="Page_432">[Pg 432]</a></span>thian
+war (see above, p. 304.) He retained,
+though with some unwillingness, that of Dacia,
+because otherwise the Roman colonies would
+have become exposed. He well made up for his
+pacific disposition, however, in seeking, by a general
+and vigorous reform in the internal administration,
+and by restoring the discipline of the
+army, to give greater solidity to the empire. For
+that purpose he visited successively all the provinces
+of the Roman empire; first the eastern,
+and afterwards the western; making useful regulations
+and establishing order wherever he came.
+He improved the Roman jurisprudence by the
+introduction of the <i>edictum perpetuum</i>. Passionately
+fond of and well instructed in literature and
+the fine arts, he gave them his liberal protection,
+and thus called forth another Augustan age.
+Upon the whole, his reign was certainly a salutary
+one for the empire; and for any single acts
+of injustice of which he may be accused, he fully
+compensated by his choice of a successor. After
+having first adopted L. Aurelius Verus (afterwards
+&AElig;lius Verus), who fell a sacrifice to his debaucheries,
+he next adopted T. Aurelius Antoninus
+(afterwards T. &AElig;lius Adrianus Antoninus Pius),
+upon condition that he should again adopt M.
+Aurelius Verus (afterwards M. Aurelius Antoninus),
+and L. Cesonius Commodus (afterwards L.
+Verus), the son of &AElig;lius Verus.</p>
+
+<div class="sblockquot"><p>During his reign a great revolt broke out in Jud&aelig;a, under
+Barcochab, 132&mdash;135, occasioned by the introduction of pagan
+worship into the Roman colony of <i>&AElig;lia Capitolina</i> (the ancient
+Jerusalem).</p>
+
+<p>The especial source for the history of Adrian, is his <i>Life</i> and<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_433" id="Page_433">[Pg 433]</a></span>
+that of <i>&AElig;lius Verus</i> by <span class="smcap">&AElig;lius Spartianus</span> <i>in Script. Hist.
+Aug. Minores</i>, already quoted.</p></div>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Antoninus
+Pius, July
+10, 138.&mdash;March
+7,
+161.</div>
+
+<p>26. The reign of Antoninus Pius, from his
+forty-seventh to his seventieth year, was without
+doubt the happiest period of the Roman empire.
+He found everything already in excellent order;
+and those ministers which Adrian had appointed,
+he continued in their places. His quiet activity
+furnishes but little matter for history; and yet he
+was, perhaps, the most noble character that ever
+sat upon a throne. Although a prince, his life
+was that of the most blameless individual; while
+he administered the affairs of the empire as
+though they were his own. He honoured the
+senate; and the provinces flourished under him,
+not only because he kept a watchful eye over the
+conduct of the governors, but because he made it
+a maxim of his government to continue in their
+places all those whose probity he had sufficiently
+proved. He observed rigid order in the finances,
+and yet without sparing where it could be of
+service in the foundation or improvement of useful
+institutions; as his erection of many buildings,
+establishment of public teachers with salaries in
+all the provinces, and other examples fully show.
+He carried on no war himself; on the contrary,
+several foreign nations made choice of him to
+arbitrate their differences. Some rebellions which
+broke out in Britain and Egypt, and some frontier
+wars excited by the Germans, the Daci, the
+Moors, and the Alani, were quelled by his lieutenants.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_434" id="Page_434">[Pg 434]</a></span></p><div class="sblockquot"><p>The principal and almost the only source for the history of
+Antoninus Pius, Dion Cassius's history of this period being lost,
+is his <i>Life</i> by <span class="smcap">Julius Capitolinus</span> in the <i>Script. Hist. August.</i>
+And even this refers to his private character rather than his
+public history. Compare the excellent <i>Reflections</i> of <span class="smcap">Marcus
+Aurelius</span>, i, 16. upon this prince.</p>
+
+<p><i>Vie des Empereurs Tite Antonin et Marc Aurele</i>, <i>par</i> <span class="smcap">M.
+Gautier de Sibert</span>. Paris, 1769, 8vo. A valuable essay on
+the lives of the two Antonines.</p></div>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Marcus
+Aurelius,
+March 7,
+161.&mdash;March
+17,
+180.</div>
+
+
+<p>27. He was succeeded by Marcus Aurelius
+Antoninus, the philosopher (aged 40&mdash;59 years),
+who immediately associated with himself, under
+the title of Augustus, L. Verus (aged 30&mdash;40
+years, &#8224; 169), to whom he gave his daughter in
+marriage. Notwithstanding the differences of
+their character, the most cordial union existed
+between them during the whole of their common
+reign; L. Verus, indeed, being almost always
+absent in the wars, took but a very small share in
+the government. The reign of M. Aurelius was
+marked by several great calamities: a dreadful
+pestilence, a famine, and almost continual wars.
+Nothing short of a prince like Aurelius, who exhibited
+to the world the image of wisdom seated
+on a throne, could have made so much misery tolerable. Soon after
+<span class="sidenote">161&mdash;166.</span>
+his accession, the Catti
+made an irruption upon the Rhine, and the Parthians
+in Asia. L. Verus was sent against them.
+But the wars on the Danube with the Marcomanni
+and their allies in Pannonia, and other
+<span class="sidenote">The northern nations begin to press forward.</span>
+northern nations, who now began to press forward
+with great force upon Dacia, were of much greater
+consequence. They occupied M. Aurelius from
+the year 167, with but little intermission, to the
+end of his reign. He succeeded, indeed, in main<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_435" id="Page_435">[Pg 435]</a></span>taining
+the boundaries of the empire; but then
+he was the first who settled any of the barbarians
+within it, or took them into the Roman
+service. In the internal administration of affairs
+he closely followed the steps of his predecessor,
+<span class="sidenote">Avidius Cassius's rebellion,</span>
+except that he was rather too much influenced
+by his freedmen and family. The only rebellion
+which broke out against him, was that of Avidius
+Cassius, his lieutenant in Syria, occasioned by a
+false report of his
+<span class="sidenote">and death, 175.</span>
+death; but it was quelled by
+the destruction of that general, as soon as the
+truth was made known.</p>
+
+<div class="sblockquot"><p>The war against the Parthians (see above, p. 304) was indeed
+brought to a successful issue by Verus, the principal cities of the
+Parthians falling into the hands of the Romans; Verus left
+them, however, to be carried on by his lieutenants, while he rioted
+in debaucheries at Antioch. The first war against the Marcomanni,
+carried on in the beginning and until the death of Verus,
+by the two emperors together, was highly dangerous for Rome,
+as many other nations had joined the Marcomanni, particularly
+the Quadi, Jazygi, and Vandals, and penetrated as far as Aquileia.
+M. Aurelius ended this war by a glorious peace, 174, as
+he found it necessary to stop the progress of Cassius's rebellion;
+in 178, however, the Marcomanni again commenced hostilities,
+and before their close M. Aurelius died at Sirmium. Contemporary
+with these wars, yet, as it seems, without any connection
+with them, were the attacks of other nations upon Dacia, the
+Bastarn&aelig;, Alani, etc. who poured in from the north, probably
+pressed forward by the advance of the Goths. <i>This was the first
+symptom of the great migration of nations now beginning.</i></p>
+
+<p>The especial sources for the history of M. Aurelius, are the
+Biographies of him and L. Verus, written by <span class="smcap">Julius Capitolinus</span>,
+as well as that of Avidius Cassius, by <span class="smcap">Vulcatius Gallicanus</span>
+in <i>Script. Hist. August.</i> The letters discovered in Milan,
+among and together with the writings of <span class="smcap">Fronto</span>, are of no historical
+service.&mdash;His principles are best learnt from his <i>Meditations
+on himself</i>.</p>
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_436" id="Page_436">[Pg 436]</a></span></p>
+<p><span class="smcap">Ch. Meiners</span> <i>de M. Aurel. Antonini ingenio, moribus, et
+scriptis, in Commentat. Soc. Gotting.</i> vol. vi.</p></div>
+
+<div class="sidenote">T. Commodus,
+March
+17, 180&mdash;Dec.
+31,
+192.</div>
+
+<p>28. By means of adoption the Roman empire
+had been blessed, during the last eighty years,
+with a succession of rulers such as have not often
+fell to the lot of any kingdom. But in J. Commodus
+the son of M. Aurelius (probably the offspring
+of a gladiator), who reigned from his nineteenth
+to his thirty-first year, there ascended the
+throne a monster of cruelty, insolence, and lewdness.
+At the commencement of his reign he
+bought a peace of the Marcomanni that he might
+return to Rome. Being himself unable to support
+the burden of government, the helm of state
+<span class="sidenote">Perennis, &#8224; 186.</span>
+was placed in the hands of the stern and cruel
+Perennis, pr&aelig;fect of the pr&aelig;torian guard; but
+who, being murdered by the discontented soldiers,
+was succeeded by the freedman
+<span class="sidenote">Cleander, &#8224; 189.</span>
+Cleander, who put up all for sale, till he fell a sacrifice to
+his own insatiable avarice, in a revolt of the
+people, caused by their want of provisions. The
+extravagant propensity of Commodus for the
+diversions of the amphitheatres, and the combats
+of wild beasts and gladiators, wherein he himself
+usually took a part, in the character of Hercules,
+became a chief cause of his dissipation, and
+thereby of his cruelty; till at last he was killed
+at the instigation of his concubine Marcia, L&aelig;tus
+the pr&aelig;fect of the pr&aelig;torian guard, and Electus.
+<span class="sidenote">182&mdash;184.</span>
+The wars on the frontiers during his reign, in
+Dacia, and especially in Britain, were successfully
+carried on by his lieutenants, generals who
+belonged to the school of his father.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_437" id="Page_437">[Pg 437]</a></span></p>
+
+<div class="sblockquot"><p>The especial source for the history of Commodus is his private
+life by <span class="smcap">&AElig;l. Lampridius</span>, in the <i>Script. Hist. August.</i>&mdash;The
+history of Herodian begins with his reign.</p></div>
+
+<div class="sidenote">State of the
+empire at
+this period.</div>
+
+<p>29. The disasters under M. Aurelius, and the
+extravagances of Commodus, had injured the empire,
+but not enfeebled it. Towards the close of
+the period of the Antonines it still retained its
+pristine vigour. If wise regulations, internal peace,
+moderate taxes, a certain degree of political, and
+unrestrained civil liberty, are sufficient to form
+the happiness of a commonwealth, it must have
+been found in the Roman. What a number of
+advantages did it possess over every other, simply
+from its situation! Proofs of it appear on every
+side. A vigorous population, rich provinces,
+flourishing and splendid cities, and a lively internal
+and foreign trade. But the most solid
+foundation of the happiness of a nation consists in
+its moral greatness, and this we here seek for in
+vain. Otherwise the nation would not so easily
+have suffered itself to be brought under the yoke
+of Commodus by pr&aelig;torian cohorts and the legions.
+But what best shows the strength which
+the empire still retained, is the opposition it continued
+to make, for two hundred years longer, to
+the formidable attacks from without.</p>
+
+<div class="sblockquot"><p><span class="smcap">D. H. Hegewisch</span> <i>upon the Epochs in Roman History most
+favourable to Humanity</i>. Hamburg, 1800&mdash;8.</p>
+
+<p>Foreign commerce, so flourishing in this period, could only be
+carried on, to any extent, with the east&mdash;mostly with India&mdash;as
+the Roman empire spread over all the west. This trade continued
+to be carried on through Egypt, and also through Palmyra
+and Syria. Information thereupon will be found in</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">W. Robertson's</span> <i>Disquisition concerning the Knowledge
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_438" id="Page_438">[Pg 438]</a></span>
+which the Ancients had of India</i>. London, 1791, 4to. Often
+reprinted. And particularly upon Egypt, in</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">W. Vincent</span>, <i>the Periplus of the Erythrean Sea</i>. London,
+1802, 4to. 2 vols. A very instructive work.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Heeren</span>, <i>Commentationes de Gr&aelig;corum et Romanorum de
+India notitia, et cum Indis commerciis</i>: <i>in Commentat. Soc.
+Gott.</i> vol. x. xi.</p></div>
+
+
+<hr style='width: 25%;' />
+<h2>SECOND SECTION.</h2>
+
+<p class="cblockquot"><i>From the death of Commodus to Diocletian,
+A. C. 193&mdash;284.</i></p>
+
+<div class="sblockquot"><p><span class="smcap">Sources.</span> The Extracts of Xiphilinus from <span class="smcap">Dion Cassius</span>,
+lib. lxxiii&mdash;lxxx. though often imperfect, reach down as low as
+the consulate of Dion himself under Alexander Severus, 229.&mdash;<span class="smcap">Herodiani</span>
+<i>Hist.</i> libri viii. comprise the period from Commodus
+to Gordian, 180&mdash;238.&mdash;The <i>Scriptores Histori&aelig; August&aelig; Minores</i>
+contain the private lives of the emperors down to Diocletian,
+by <span class="smcap">Julius Capitolinus, Flavius Vopiscus</span>, etc.&mdash;The
+<i>Breviaria Histori&aelig; Roman&aelig;</i> of <span class="smcap">Eutropius, Aurelius Victor</span>,
+and <span class="smcap">S. Rufus</span> are particularly important for this period.&mdash;Finally,
+the important information that may be derived from the
+study of medals and coins, not only for this section, but for the
+whole history of the emperors, may be best learnt by consulting
+the writers upon those subjects: <span class="smcap">J. Vaillant</span>, <i>Numismata Augustorum
+et C&aelig;sarum</i>, <i>cura</i> <span class="smcap">J. F. Baldino</span>. Rome, 1743, 3 vols.
+<i>The Medallic History of Imperial Rome</i>, by <span class="smcap">W. Cooke</span>. London,
+1781, 2 vols.&mdash;But above all, the volumes belonging to this
+period in <span class="smcap">Eckhel</span>, <i>Doctrina Nummorum Veterum</i>.</p>
+
+<p>With the period of the Antonines begins the great work of
+the British historian:</p>
+
+<p><i>The History of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire</i>,
+by <span class="smcap">Edward Gibbon</span>. Oxford, 1828, 8 vols. 8vo. In worth and
+extent this work is superior to all others. It embraces the whole
+period of the middle ages; but only the first part belongs to this
+period.</p></div><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_439" id="Page_439">[Pg 439]</a></span></p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Pertinax,
+Jan. 1&mdash;March 28, 193.</div>
+
+<p>1.  The extinction of the race of the Antonines
+by the death of Commodus was attended with
+convulsions similar to those which took place
+when the house of C&aelig;sar became extinct at the
+death of Nero. It is true that P. Helvius Pertinax,
+aged sixty-seven, pr&aelig;fect of the city, was
+raised to the throne by the murderers of Commodus;
+and that he was acknowledged, first by the
+guards, and afterwards by the senate. But the
+reform which he was obliged to make at the beginning
+of his reign in the finances, rendered him
+so odious to the soldiers and courtiers, that a revolt
+of the first, excited by L&aelig;tus, cost him his
+life before he had reigned quite three months.
+This was the first commencement of that dreadful
+military despotism which forms the ruling character
+of this period; and to none did it become
+so terrible as to those who wished to make it the
+main support of their absolute power.</p>
+
+<div class="sblockquot"><p>The insolence of the pr&aelig;torian guard had risen very high during
+the reign of Commodus; but it had never, even in the time
+of the Antonines, been entirely suppressed. It was only by
+large donatives that their consent could be purchased, their caprice
+satisfied, and their good humour maintained; especially at
+every new adoption. One of the greatest reproaches to the age
+of the Antonines is, that those great princes, who seem to have
+had the means so much in their power, did not free themselves
+from so annoying a dependence.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Jul. Capitolini</span> <i>Pertinax Imp. in Script. Hist. Aug.</i></p></div>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Didias Julianus.</div>
+
+<p>2. When, upon the death of Pertinax, the rich
+and profligate M. Didius Julianus, aged fifty-seven,
+had outbid, to the great scandal of the
+people, all his competitors for the empire, and
+purchased it of the pr&aelig;torian guard, an insurrection
+of the legions, who were better able to create
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_440" id="Page_440">[Pg 440]</a></span>emperors, very naturally followed. But as the
+army of Illyria proclaimed their general
+<span class="sidenote">Septimius Severus, Pescennius Niger, Albinus.</span>
+Septimius Severus, the army of Syria, Pescennius Niger,
+and the army of Britain, Albinus, nothing less
+than a series of civil wars could decide who should
+maintain himself on the throne.</p>
+
+<div class="sblockquot"><p><span class="smcap">&AElig;l. Spartiani</span> <i>Didius Julianus, in Script. Hist. Aug.</i></p></div>
+
+<p>3. Septimius Severus, however, aged 49&mdash;66,
+was the first who got possession of Rome, and,
+after the execution of Didius Julianus, he was
+acknowledged by the senate. He dismissed, it
+is true, the old pr&aelig;torian guard, but immediately
+chose, from his own army, one four times more
+numerous in its stead. And after he had provisionally
+declared Albinus emperor, he marched
+his army against Pescennius Niger, already master
+of the east, whom, after several contests near
+the Issus, he defeated and slew. Nevertheless,
+having first taken and destroyed the strong city
+of Byzantium, a war with Albinus soon followed,
+whom the perfidious Severus had already attempted
+to remove by assassination. After a
+bloody defeat near Lyons,
+<span class="sidenote">Albinus kills himself, Feb. 19, 197.</span>
+Albinus kills himself.
+These civil wars were followed by hostilities
+against the Parthians, who had taken the part of
+Pescennius, and which ended with the plundering
+of their principal cities (see above, p. 304). Severus
+possessed most of the virtues of a soldier;
+but the insatiable avarice of his minister Plautianus,
+the formidable captain of the pr&aelig;torian
+guard, robbed the empire even of those advantages
+which may be enjoyed under a military government,
+<span class="sidenote">204.</span>
+until he was put to death at the instigation
+of Caracalla. To keep his legions em<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_441" id="Page_441">[Pg 441]</a></span>ployed,
+Severus undertook an expedition into
+Britain, where, after extending the boundaries of
+the empire, he died at York (<i>Eboracum</i>), leaving
+his son the maxim, "to enrich the soldiers, and
+hold the rest for nothing."</p>
+
+<div class="sblockquot"><p>Agricola had already erected a line of fortresses, probably
+between the Firth of Clyde and the Firth of Forth. These were
+changed by Adrian into a wall along the present boundaries of
+Scotland. Severus again extended the frontiers, reestablished
+the fortresses of Agricola, and afterwards built a wall from sea
+to sea; his son, however, gave up the conquered country, and the
+wall of Adrian again became the boundary of the empire.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">&AElig;l. Spartiani</span> <i>Septimius Severus et Pescennius Niger</i>.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Jul. Capitolini</span> <i>Claudius Albinus, in Script. Hist. Aug.</i></p></div>
+
+<div class="sidenote">
+Caracalla,
+Feb. 4, 211&mdash;April
+4,
+217.</div>
+
+<p>4. The deadly hatred which reigned between
+the two sons of Severus, M. Aurelius Antoninus
+Bassianus Caracalla, aged 23&mdash;29, and his young
+step-brother Geta, aged twenty-one, led to a
+dreadful catastrophe; for at their return to Rome,
+and after a fruitless proposition had been made
+for a division of the empire,
+<span class="sidenote">Geta murdered, April 4, 212.</span>
+Geta was assassinated
+in the arms of his mother Julia Domna, together
+with all those who were considered as his
+friends. The restless spirit of Caracalla, however,
+soon drew him from Rome, and in traversing
+first the provinces along the Danube, and
+then those of the east, he ruined them all by his
+exactions and cruelty, to which he was driven for
+money to pay his soldiers, and to purchase peace
+of his enemies on the frontiers. The same necessity
+led him to grant the right of citizenship to all
+the provinces, that he might thereby gain the
+duty of the <i>vicesima hereditatum et manumissionum</i>
+(twentieth upon inheritances and enfranchisements),
+which he very soon afterwards changed
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_442" id="Page_442">[Pg 442]</a></span>into a tenth (<i>decima</i>).&mdash;With respect to his foreign
+wars, his first was against the Catti and Alemanni,
+<span class="sidenote">215.</span>
+among whom he remained a long time,
+sometimes as a friend and sometimes as an enemy.
+But his principal efforts, after having previously
+ordered a dreadful massacre of the inhabitants
+of Alexandria, to satisfy his cruel rapacity,
+were directed against
+<span class="sidenote">216.</span>
+the Parthians (see
+above, p. 304); and in his wars against them he
+was assassinated by Macrinus, the pr&aelig;fect of the
+pr&aelig;torian guard.</p>
+
+<div class="sblockquot"><p>The pr&aelig;fect, or captain, of the pr&aelig;torian guard became, from
+the time of Severus, the most important officer in the state.
+Besides the command of the guards, the finances were also under
+his control, together with an extensive criminal jurisdiction. A
+natural consequence of the continually increasing despotism.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">&AElig;l. Spartiani</span> <i>Antoninus Caracalla et Ant. Geta, in Script.
+Hist. Aug.</i></p></div>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Macrinus,
+April 11,
+217&mdash;June
+8, 218.</div>
+
+<p>5. His murderer, M. Opelius Macrinus, aged
+fifty-three, was recognized as emperor by the soldiers,
+and forthwith acknowledged by the senate.
+He immediately created his son, M. Opelius Diadumenus,
+aged nine years, C&aelig;sar, and gave him
+the name of Antoninus. He disgracefully terminated
+the war against the Parthians by purchasing
+a peace, and changed the <i>decima</i> (tenth) of
+Caracalla again into the <i>vicesima</i> (twentieth).
+However, while he still remained in Asia, Bassianus
+Heliogabalus, grand-nephew of Julia Domna,
+and high priest in the temple of the Sun at
+Emesa, whom his mother gave out for a son of
+Caracalla, was proclaimed emperor by the legions,
+and, after a combat with the guards, subsequently
+to which Macrinus and his son lost their
+lives, they raised him to the throne.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_443" id="Page_443">[Pg 443]</a></span></p>
+
+<div class="sblockquot"><p>M&aelig;sa, the sister of Julia Domna, had two daughters, both
+widows; So&aelig;mis, the eldest, was the mother of Heliogabalus,
+Mamm&aelig;a, the youngest, the mother of Alexander Severus.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Jul. Capitolini</span> <i>Opelius Macrinus, in Script. Hist. Aug.</i></p></div>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Heliogabalus,
+June 8,
+218&mdash;March
+11, 222.</div>
+
+<p>6.  Heliogabalus, aged 14&mdash;18, who assumed
+the additional name of M. Aurelius Antoninus,
+brought with him from Syria the superstitions
+and voluptuousness of that country. He introduced
+the worship of his god Heliogabal in Rome,
+and wallowed openly in such brutal and infamous
+debaucheries, that history can scarcely find a
+parallel to his dissolute, shameless, and scandalous
+conduct. How low must the morality of that
+age have been sunk, in which a boy could so early
+have ripened into a monster!&mdash;The debasement
+of the senate, and of all important offices, which
+he filled with the degraded companions of his
+own lusts and vices, was systematically planned
+by him; and he deserves no credit even for the
+adoption of his cousin, the virtuous Alexander
+Severus, as he shortly after endeavoured to take
+away his life, but was himself for that reason assassinated
+by the pr&aelig;torian guards.</p>
+
+<div class="sblockquot"><p>&#8224; <span class="smcap">&AElig;l. Lampridii</span> <i>Ant. Heliogabalus, in Script. Hist. Aug.</i></p></div>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Alexander
+Severus,
+March 11,
+222&mdash;Aug.
+235.</div>
+
+
+<p>7.  His young cousin and successor, M. Aurelius
+Alexander Severus, aged 14&mdash;27, who had been
+carefully educated under the direction of his mother
+Mamm&aelig;a, proved one of the best princes in
+an age and upon a throne where virtues were
+more dangerous than vices. Under favour of his
+youth he endeavoured to effect a reform, in which
+he was supported by the cooperation of the guards,
+who had elevated him to the throne. He restored
+the authority of the senate, from among
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_444" id="Page_444">[Pg 444]</a></span>whom he chose, with rigid justice, his privy council
+of state, banishing the creatures of Heliogabalus
+<span class="sidenote">War against Persia, 226.</span>
+from their places. The revolution in the
+Parthian empire, out of which was now formed
+the new Persian, was of so much importance to
+Rome, that it obliged Alexander to undertake a
+war against Artaxerxes, in which he was probably
+victorious. But while
+<span class="sidenote">231&mdash;233.</span>
+marching in haste to protect the frontiers against the advance of the
+Germans upon the Rhine, his soldiers, exasperated
+at the severity of his discipline, and incited
+by the Thracian Maximin,
+<span class="sidenote">235.</span>
+murdered him
+in his own tent. His pr&aelig;fect of the pr&aelig;torian
+guard, Ulpian, had already, for the same cause,
+fallen a victim to this spirit of insubordination, which was not checked
+<span class="sidenote">222.</span>
+even by the immediate
+presence of the emperor himself.</p>
+
+<div class="sblockquot"><p>The revolution in Parthia, whereby a new Persian empire was
+formed (see above, p. 304.), became a source of almost perpetual
+war to Rome; Artaxerxes I. and his successors, the Sassanides,
+claiming to be descendants of the ancient kings of Persia, formed
+pretensions to the possession of all the Asiatic provinces of the
+Roman empire.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">&AElig;lii Lampridii</span> <i>Alexander Severus</i>, <i>in Script. Hist. Aug.</i></p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Heyne</span> <i>de Alexandro Severo Judicium</i>, Comment. i. ii. in
+<i>Opuscula Academica</i>, vol. vi.</p></div>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Maximinus
+Aug.
+235&mdash;May,
+238.<br />
+
+236.<br />
+
+237.</div>
+
+<p>8. The death of A. Severus raised military
+despotism to the highest pitch, as it placed on the
+throne the half savage C. Julius Maximinus, by
+birth a Thracian peasant. At first he continued
+the war against the Germans with great success,
+repulsing them beyond the Rhine; and resolved,
+by crossing Pannonia, to carry the war even
+among the Sarmatians. But his insatiable rapacity,
+which spared neither the capital nor the
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_445" id="Page_445">[Pg 445]</a></span>provinces, made him hateful to all; and Gordian,
+proconsul of Africa, in his eightieth year,
+was, together with his son of the same name,
+proclaimed Augustus by the people, and immediately
+acknowledged by the senate. Upon
+<span class="sidenote">April, 238.</span>
+this, Maximinus, eager to take vengeance on the
+senate, marched directly from Sirmium towards
+Italy.  In the mean time, the legions of the
+almost defenceless Gordians were defeated in
+<span class="sidenote">The Gordians.</span>
+Africa, and themselves slain by Capellianus the
+governor of Numidia. Notwithstanding this, as
+the senate could expect no mercy, they chose as
+co-emperors the pr&aelig;fect of the city, Maximus
+Pupienus, and Clodius
+<span class="sidenote">Balbinus and Pupienus.</span>
+Balbinus, who, in conformity
+with the wishes of the people, created
+the young Gordian III. C&aelig;sar. In the meanwhile
+Maximinus, having besieged Aquileia, and
+the enterprise proving unsuccessful, was slain by
+his own troops. Pupienus and Balbinus now
+seemed in quiet possession of the throne; but
+the guards, who had already been engaged in a
+bloody feud with the people, and were not willing
+to receive an emperor of the senate's choosing,
+killed them both, and proclaimed as Augustus,
+Gordian, already created C&aelig;sar.</p>
+
+<div class="sblockquot"><p><span class="smcap">Jul. Capitolini</span> <i>Maximinus Gordiani tres, Pupienus et
+Balbinus</i>, <i>in Script. Hist. August.</i></p></div>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Gordian
+III. July,
+238&mdash;Feb.
+244.<br />
+
+Syrian expedition,
+241&mdash;243.</div>
+
+<p>9. The reign of the young M. Antoninus Gordianus
+lasted from his twelfth to his eighteenth
+year. He was grandson of the proconsul who had
+lost his life in Africa, and in the early part of his
+reign, acquired a degree of firmness from the
+support of his father-in-law, Misitheus, pr&aelig;fect
+of the pr&aelig;torian guard, as well as from the suc<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_446" id="Page_446">[Pg 446]</a></span>cessful
+expedition which he undertook into Syria
+against the Persians, who had invaded that province.
+But after the death of Misitheus, Philip
+the Arabian, being made pr&aelig;fect of the guards in
+his stead, found means to gain the troops over
+to himself, and, after driving Gordian from the
+throne, caused him to be assassinated.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Philippus,
+Feb. 244&mdash;Sept.
+249.</div>
+
+<p>10. The reign of M. Julius Philippus was interrupted
+by several insurrections, especially in
+Pannonia; until at length Decius, whom he himself
+had sent thither to quell the rebellion, was
+compelled by the troops to assume the diadem.
+Philip was soon after defeated by him near Verona,
+where he perished, together with his son of
+the same name. In this reign the secular games,
+<i>ludi s&aelig;culares</i>, were celebrated, one thousand
+years from the foundation of the city.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">247.<br />
+
+Sept. 249&mdash;Oct. 251.<br />
+
+250.<br />
+
+Gallus.</div>
+
+<p>11. Under the reign of his successor, Trajanus
+Decius, aged fifty, the Goths for the first time
+forced their way into the Roman empire by crossing
+the Danube; and although Decius in the beginning
+opposed them with success, he was at
+last slain by them in Thrace, together with his
+son, Cl. Herennius Decius, already created C&aelig;sar.
+Upon this the army proclaimed C. Trebonianus
+Gallus emperor, who created his son, Volusian,
+C&aelig;sar; and having invited Hostilian, the
+yet remaining son of Decius, with the ostensible
+purpose of securing his cooperation, he nevertheless
+soon contrived to get rid of him. He purchased
+a peace of the Goths; but, despised by his generals,
+he became involved in a war with his victorious lieutenant,
+<span class="sidenote">&AElig;milianus, May 253.</span>
+&AElig;milius &AElig;milianus, in M&#339;sia,
+and was slain, together with his son, by his own
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_447" id="Page_447">[Pg 447]</a></span>army. In three months, however, &AElig;milianus
+shared the same fate; Publius Licinius Valerianus,
+the friend and avenger of Gallus, advancing
+against him with the legions stationed in Gaul.
+Both the people and army hoped to see the empire
+restored under
+<span class="sidenote">Valerian.</span>
+Valerian, already sixty years
+of age; but, although his generals defended the
+frontiers against the Germans and Goths, he
+himself had the misfortune to be defeated and
+taken prisoner by the superior forces of the Persians.
+Upon this event his son and associate in
+the empire, P. Licinius
+<span class="sidenote">Gallienus, 259&mdash;968.</span>
+Gallienus, who knew
+everything except the art of governing, reigned
+alone. Under his indolent rule the Roman empire
+seemed on one hand ready to be split into
+a number of small states, while on the other it
+seemed about to fall a prey to the barbarians;
+for the lieutenants in most of the provinces declared
+themselves independent of a prince whom
+they despised, and to which, indeed, they were
+driven, like Posthumius in Gaul, for their own
+security.&mdash;There were nineteen of these; but as
+many of them named their sons C&aelig;sars, this period
+has been very improperly distinguished by
+the name of <i>the thirty tyrants</i>, although their intolerable
+oppressions might well justify the latter
+expression. The Persians at the same time were
+victorious in the east, and the Germans in the
+west.</p>
+
+<div class="sblockquot"><p>The German nations which were now become so formidable to
+the Roman empire, were: 1. The great confederation of tribes
+under the name of <i>Franks</i>, who spread over Gaul along the whole
+extent of the Lower Rhine. 2. The allied nations of the Alemanni
+on the Upper Rhine. 3. The Goths, the most powerful
+of all, who had formed a monarchy upon the banks of the Lower<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_448" id="Page_448">[Pg 448]</a></span>
+Danube and the northern coasts of the Black sea, which soon
+extended from the Boristhenes to the Don; and who became
+formidable, not only by their land forces, but also by their naval
+power, especially after they had captured the peninsula of Crim
+Tartary (<i>Chersonesus Taurica</i>); and by means of their fleets
+they not only kept the Grecian, but likewise the Asiatic provinces
+in a continual state of alarm.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Trebelli Pollionis</span> <i>Valerianus, Gallieni duo, triginta tyranni</i>,
+<i>in Script. Hist. Aug.</i></p>
+
+<p>&#8224; <i>Concerning the thirty tyrants under the Roman emperor
+Gallienus</i>, by <span class="smcap">J. C. F. Manso</span>; at the end of his <i>Life of Constantine</i>.</p></div>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Claudius,
+March, 268&mdash;Oct.
+270.</div>
+
+<p>12. Gallienus losing his life before Milan, in
+the war against Aureolus an usurper, had nevertheless
+recommended M. Aurelius Claudius (aged
+45&mdash;47) for his successor. The new Augustus
+reestablished in some degree the tottering empire;
+not only by taking Aureolus prisoner and
+defeating the Alemanni, but also by a decisive
+<span class="sidenote">269.</span>
+victory gained at Nissa over the Goths, who had
+invaded M&#339;sia. He died, however, soon after,
+at Sirmium, of a pestilential disease, naming for
+his successor Aurelian, a hero like himself, who
+mounted the throne upon the death of Quintillus
+the late emperor's brother, who had at first proclaimed
+himself Augustus, but afterwards died by
+his own hand.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Trebellii Pollionis</span> <i>divus Claudius</i>, <i>in Script. Hist. Aug.</i></p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Aurelian,
+Oct. 270&mdash;March,
+275.</div>
+
+<p>13. During the reign of L. Domitius Aurelianus,
+which lasted almost five years, those
+countries which had been partly or entirely lost
+to the empire were restored. Having first driven
+back the Goths and the Alemanni, who had advanced
+as far as Umbria, he undertook his expedition
+<span class="sidenote">271.</span>
+against the celebrated Zenobia, queen of
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_449" id="Page_449">[Pg 449]</a></span>Palmyra, who at that time possessed Syria, Egypt,
+and part of Asia Minor. These countries he again
+brought under the dominion of the empire, after having
+<span class="sidenote">Zenobia defeated and made prisoner, 271&mdash;273.</span>
+defeated Zenobia and made her prisoner.
+The western provinces of Gaul, Britain, and Spain,
+which since the time of Gallienus had
+been governed by separate rulers, and were now
+under the dominion of Tetricus, he reduced to
+their former obedience. Dacia, on the contrary,
+he willingly abandoned; and as he transported
+<span class="sidenote">274.</span>
+the Roman inhabitants across the Danube into
+M&#339;sia, the latter henceforward bore the name of
+<i>Dacia Aureliani</i>. Hated for his severity, which
+in a warrior so easily degenerates into cruelty,
+<span class="sidenote">275.</span>
+he was assassinated in Illyria at the instigation of
+his private secretary Mnestheus.</p>
+
+<div class="sblockquot"><p><span class="smcap">Flav. Vopisci</span> <i>divus Aurelianus</i>, <i>in Script. Hist. Aug.</i></p>
+
+<p>Palmyra in the Syrian desert, enriched by the Indian trade,
+and one of the most ancient cities in the world, became a Roman
+colony in the time of Trajan. Odenatus, the husband of Zenobia,
+had acquired so much celebrity by his victories over the Persians,
+that Gallienus had even named him Augustus with himself.
+He was murdered, however, by his cousin M&aelig;onius, 267.
+Zenobia now took possession of the government for her sons
+Vabalathus, Herennianus, and Timolaus, without, however, being
+acknowledged at Rome. After this, in the time of Claudius,
+she added Egypt to her dominions. Aurelian, having first
+defeated her near Antioch and Emesa, soon afterwards took
+Palmyra, which, in consequence of a revolt, he destroyed.&mdash;Even
+in its ruins Palmyra is still magnificent.</p>
+
+<p><i>The Ruins of Palmyra</i>, by <span class="smcap">R. Wood</span>. London, 1753; and
+the <i>Ruins of Balbec, otherwise Heliopolis</i>, by the same author,
+London, 1757, give us clear and certain ideas of the splendour
+and magnitude of these cities.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">A. H. L. Heeren</span>, <i>de Commercio urbis Palmyr&aelig; vicinarumque
+urbium</i>, in <i>Comment. recent. Soc. Gotting.</i> vol. vii. and the
+Appendix to Heeren's Researches.</p></div><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_450" id="Page_450">[Pg 450]</a></span></p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Tacitus,
+Sept. 25,
+275&mdash;April,
+276.</div>
+
+<p>14. An interregnum of six months followed
+upon the death of Aurelian, till at length the
+senate, at the repeated solicitations of the army,
+ventured to fill up the vacant throne. The object
+of their choice, however, M. Claudius Tacitus,
+the worthiest of the senators, was unfortunately
+seventy-five years old, and perished after a short
+reign of six months, in an expedition against the
+Goths. Upon this event the army of Syria raised
+M. Aurelius Probus to the purple; while Florianus
+the brother of Tacitus, who had already been
+acknowledged at Rome, was put to death by his
+own people.</p>
+
+<div class="sblockquot"><p><span class="smcap">Flav. Vopisci</span> <i>Tacitus; ejusd. Florianus</i>, <i>in Script. Hist.
+Aug.</i></p></div>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Probus,
+April, 276&mdash;August,
+282.<br />
+
+277.<br />
+
+278.<br />
+
+Carus, Aug. 282.<br />
+
+Aug. 283.<br />
+
+284.</div>
+
+<p>15. The six years' reign of Probus was a warlike
+one. He defeated the Germans, and forced
+them beyond the Rhine and Danube; strengthening
+the frontiers by building a strong wall from
+the Danube, near Regensburg, to the Rhine. He
+also obliged the Persians to make peace. Nevertheless,
+the number of towns which he reestablished
+and peopled with prisoners of war, and the
+vineyards which he caused his soldiers to plant
+on the Rhine, are proofs that he had taste and
+inclination for the arts of peace. This policy,
+however, would not suit the legions! After he
+had perished, therefore, by the hands of his
+soldiers, they proclaimed the pr&aelig;fect of the pr&aelig;torian
+guard, M. Aurelius Carus, emperor, who
+created his two sons C&aelig;sars&mdash;men very unlike
+each other in disposition, M. Aurelius Carinus
+being one of the greatest reprobates, while M.
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_451" id="Page_451">[Pg 451]</a></span>Aurelius Numerianus was gentle by nature, and
+had a mind well formed by study. The new emperor,
+having defeated the Goths, marched against
+the Persians, but was shortly afterwards killed, it
+is said, by a flash of lightning. Nor did his son
+Numerianus long survive him, being murdered
+by his own father-in-law, Arrius Aper, the pr&aelig;torian
+pr&aelig;fect.</p>
+
+<div class="sblockquot"><p><span class="smcap">Flav. Vopisci</span> <i>Probus imper. ejusd. Carus, Numirianus et
+Carinus</i>, <i>in Script. Hist. Aug.</i></p></div>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Review of
+the government
+during
+this period.</div>
+
+<p>16. Although this period gives us a finished
+picture of a complete military despotism, it is still
+evident that this was owing to the entire separation
+of the military order from the rest of the
+people, by the introduction of standing armies,
+and the extinction of all national spirit among
+the citizens. The legions decided because the
+people were unarmed. It was, indeed, only
+among them, situated far from the soft luxuries
+of the capital, and engaged in almost a continual
+struggle with the barbarians, that a remnant of
+the ancient Roman character was still preserved.
+The nomination of their leaders to the purple became
+a natural consequence, not only of the uncertainty
+of the succession, which could not be
+fixed by mere ordinances, but often of necessity,
+from their being in the field under the pressure of
+urgent circumstances. Thus a succession of distinguished
+generals came to the throne: what
+authority, indeed, would an emperor at that time
+have had who was not a general? All durable
+reform, however, was rendered quite impossible
+by the quick succession of rulers. Even the best<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_452" id="Page_452">[Pg 452]</a></span>
+among them could do but very little for the internal
+administration; as all their energies were
+required to protect the frontiers, and defend
+themselves against usurpers, who, with the exception
+of the formality of being acknowledged
+by the senate, had claims as well founded as
+their own.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Luxury hastens
+the decline
+of the
+empire.</div>
+
+<p>17. The decline of the empire also became so
+much the more rapid, in proportion as in these
+days of terror luxury had increased not only in
+the splendour and profligate effeminacy of private
+life, but more particularly in public, to a pitch
+almost beyond belief. The latter was especially
+shown in the exhibitions of the amphitheatre and
+circus; by which not only every new ruler, but
+even every new magistrate was obliged to purchase
+the favour of the people. Thus these remnants
+of a free constitution served only to accelerate
+the general ruin! What enjoyments, indeed,
+could be found under the rod of despotism, except
+those of the grossest sensuality; and to
+satisfy this, the intellectual amusements of the
+theatre (mimes and pantomimes), and even those
+of rhetoric and poetry, were made to contribute.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Progress
+and effects
+of the
+Christian
+religion.</div>
+
+<p>18. Yet, during this general decay, the gradual
+spread of the Christian religion was working a
+reform altogether of a different nature. Before
+the end of this period it had opened itself a way
+into every province, and, notwithstanding the
+frequent persecutions, had made converts in every
+rank of society, and was now on the eve of becoming
+the predominant form of worship. We
+shall be better able to estimate its value, if we
+consider it as the vehicle by which civilization<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_453" id="Page_453">[Pg 453]</a></span>
+made its way among the rude nations that now
+appeared on the scene, than if we merely consider
+it as the means of improving the manners and
+morals of the Roman world. In a political view
+it became of the greatest importance on account
+of the hierarchy, the frame-work of which was
+now in a great measure constructed among its
+professors. It was afterwards adopted as a state
+religion; and although the ancient creed of Rome
+had formerly been on the same footing, yet it was
+only calculated for the republic, and not at all
+for the now existing monarchy. The overthrow
+of paganism was necessarily attended with some
+violent convulsions, yet its loss was nothing to be
+compared with the support which the throne
+afterwards found in the hierarchy.</p>
+
+<div class="sblockquot"><p>The dispersion of the Jews, and especially the persecutions
+which were renewed from time to time, after the reign of Nero,
+(but which only served to kindle enthusiasm,) strongly cooperated
+in spreading the Christian religion. These persecutions were
+principally called forth against the Christians on account of their
+forming themselves into a separate society, which caused them to
+be regarded as a dangerous sect at Rome, notwithstanding the
+general toleration granted to every other system of religious
+belief. Although towards the end of this period, only a very
+small proportion of the inhabitants of the Roman empire as yet
+professed the Christian faith, it nevertheless had followers in
+every province.</p>
+
+<p>&#8224; <i>History of the Social Constitution of the Christian Church</i>,
+by <span class="smcap">D. G. J. Planck</span>, 4 parts, 1800. It is the first part of this
+excellent work which relates to this period.</p></div>
+
+
+<hr style="width: 25%;" />
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_454" id="Page_454">[Pg 454]</a></span></p>
+
+<h2>THIRD SECTION.</h2>
+
+<p class="cblockquot"><i>From Diocletian to the overthrow of the Roman empire in
+the west, A. C. 284&mdash;476.</i></p>
+
+<div class="sblockquot"><p><span class="smcap">Sources.</span> It now becomes of importance to enquire whether
+the historians were Christians or pagans. <span class="smcap">Zosimus</span>, the imitator
+of Polybius, belonged to the last. He describes the fall of the
+Roman state, as his model does the previous part. Of his <i>Histories</i>
+only five books and a half, to the time of Gratian, 410,
+have descended to us. He was certainly a violent antagonist of
+the Christians, yet, nevertheless, the best writer of this period.
+<span class="smcap">Ammiani Marcellini</span> <i>Historiarum</i>, lib. xiv&mdash;xxxi. from the
+year 353&mdash;378 (the first thirteen books are lost). Probably a
+Christian, but yet no flatterer; and, notwithstanding his tiresome
+prolixity, highly instructive. Together with the writers of
+general history already noticed at p. 437, we must here especially
+add to the abbreviators, <span class="smcap">Pauli Orosii</span> <i>Hist.</i> lib. vii. and <span class="smcap">Zonar&aelig;</span>
+<i>Annales</i>. The <i>Panegyrici Veteres</i>, from Diocletian to
+Theodosius, can only be used with circumspection.&mdash;The writers
+of church history, such as <span class="smcap">Eusebius</span>, in his <i>Hist. Eccles.</i> lib. x.
+and in his <i>Vita Constantini Magni</i>, lib. v. as well as his continuators,
+<span class="smcap">Socrates</span>, <span class="smcap">Theodoret</span>, <span class="smcap">Sozomenus</span>, and <span class="smcap">Evagrius</span>, are
+also highly important for the political history of this period,
+though, from their partiality towards the Christian emperors,
+they should rather be classed with the panegyrists than the historians.
+To these may be added another principal source, viz.
+the <i>Constitutions</i> of the emperors, which have been preserved in
+the <i>Codex Theodosianus</i> and <i>Justinianeus</i>, from the time of Constantine
+the Great.</p>
+
+<p>Besides the works quoted at pages 411, 437, the Byzantine
+historians here become of importance. We shall mention also:</p>
+
+<p><i>Histoire du Bas-Empire depuis Constantin</i>, <i>par</i> <span class="smcap">M. le Beau</span>,
+<i>continu&eacute;e par</i> <span class="smcap">M. Ameilhon</span>. Paris, 1824, 20 vols. 8vo. The
+first seven parts only belong to this period.</p>
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_455" id="Page_455">[Pg 455]</a></span>
+&#8224; The German translation of <span class="smcap">Guthrie</span> and <span class="smcap">Gray's</span> <i>Universal
+History</i>, 5 sections, 1 vol. Leipsic, 1768. Rendered very useful
+by the labours of Ritter.</p>
+
+<p><i>Histoire du Bas-Empire, depuis Constantin jusqu' &agrave; la prise
+de Constantinople en 1453</i>, <i>par</i> <span class="smcap">Carentin Royou</span>. Paris,
+1803, 4 vols. 8vo. A useful abridgement, without much
+research.</p></div>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Diocletian,
+Sept. 17,
+284&mdash;May
+1, 305.<br />
+
+Carinus,
+&#8224; 285.<br />
+
+Maximian
+associated
+in the government,
+286.<br />
+
+Carausius,
+288&mdash;293.<br />
+
+Galerius
+and Chlorus
+created
+C&aelig;sars,
+292.</div>
+
+<p>1. The reign of C. Valerius Diocletian, aged
+39&mdash;60, proclaimed emperor after the murder of
+Numerianus, by the troops in Chalcedon, begins
+a new section in Roman history. To the period
+of military despotism succeeded the period of
+partitions. After Diocletian had defeated Carinus
+the yet remaining C&aelig;sar, in Upper M&#339;sia,
+where he was assassinated, he made M. Valerius
+Maximianus Herculius, a rough warrior who had
+hitherto been his comrade in arms, the sharer of
+his throne. Herculius now contended with the
+Alemanni and Burgundians on the banks of the
+Rhine, while Diocletian himself made head
+against the Persians. Nevertheless, the two Augusti
+soon found themselves unable to withstand
+the barbarians, who were pressing forward on
+every side, more especially as Carausius had
+usurped and maintained the title of C&aelig;sar in
+Britain. Each of them, therefore, created a C&aelig;sar:
+Diocletian chose C. Galerius, and Maximianus
+Flavius Constantius Chlorus, both of whom
+had distinguished themselves as generals, at that
+time the only road to advancement. The whole
+empire was now divided between these four rulers;
+so that each had certain provinces to govern and
+defend; without detriment, however, to the unity
+of the whole, or to the dependence in which a<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_456" id="Page_456">[Pg 456]</a></span>
+C&aelig;sar stood as the subordinate assistant and
+future successor of his Augustus.</p>
+
+<div class="sblockquot"><p>In the partition, 292, Diocletian possessed the eastern provinces;
+Galerius, Thrace, and the countries on the Danube
+(Illyricum); Maximianus, Italy, Africa, and the islands; and
+Constantius, the western provinces of Gaul, Spain, Britain, and
+Mauritania.</p></div>
+
+<p>2. This new system could not but have a striking
+effect upon the spirit of the government. It
+was now not only in fact, but also in form, entirely
+in the hands of the rulers. By their continual
+absence from Rome they became freed
+from that moral restraint in which the authority of
+the senate, and the name of the republic, not yet
+entirely laid aside, had held before them. Diocletian
+formally assumed the diadem, and, with the
+ornaments of the east, introduced its luxuries into
+his court. Thus was laid the foundation of that
+structure which Constantine the Great had to
+complete.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">296.</div>
+
+
+<p>3. The consequences of this new system became
+also oppressive to the provinces, inasmuch
+as they had now to maintain four rulers, with
+their courts, and as many armies. But however
+loud might be the complaints of the oppression
+occasioned thereby, it was, perhaps, the only
+means of deferring the final overthrow of the
+whole edifice. In fact, they succeeded not only
+in defeating the usurpers, Allectus in Britain
+<span class="sidenote">293&mdash;296.</span>
+(who had murdered Carausius in 293), Julian in
+Africa, and Achilleus in Egypt; but also in defending
+the frontiers, which, indeed, by the victories
+of Galerius over the Persians, they extended
+as far as the Tigris. Did not, however,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_457" id="Page_457">[Pg 457]</a></span>
+the gloomy perspective present itself, that among
+so many rulers, and the undefined relations which
+existed between the C&aelig;sars and the emperors,
+the union could not be of long continuance?</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Constantius, 305&mdash;307.<br />
+
+Galerius, 305&mdash;313.</div>
+
+<p>4. Diocletian voluntarily abdicated the throne
+(although the growing power and encroaching
+disposition of Galerius might perhaps have had
+some influence), and obliged his colleague Maximianus
+to do the same. The two C&aelig;sars, Constantius
+and Galerius, were proclaimed Augusti,
+and altered the division of the empire, so that the
+former possessed all the western countries, of
+which, however, he freely ceded Italy and Africa
+to Galerius, who had all the remaining provinces.
+The latter, during the same year, created Flavius
+Severus, C&aelig;sar, and confided to him the government
+of Italy and Africa; as he did also C. Galerius
+Maximin, to whom he gave the Asiatic
+provinces. The administration of the two emperors,
+however, was very different; Constantius
+was as much beloved for his mild and disinterested
+government, as Galerius was hated for his
+harshness and prodigality. Constantius died very
+soon after at York, leaving his son Constantine
+heir to his dominions, who was immediately proclaimed
+Augustus by the legions, although Galerius
+would only acknowledge him as C&aelig;sar.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Constantine
+the Great,
+July 25,
+306&mdash;May
+22, 337.</div>
+
+<p>5. Thus Constantine, who afterwards obtained
+the surname of Great, began to rule, aged 33&mdash;64,
+though at first only over Britain, Spain, and
+Gaul; nevertheless, after seventeen years of violence
+and warfare, he succeeded in opening himself
+a way to the sole dominion of the empire.
+The rulers disagreed among themselves; and for<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_458" id="Page_458">[Pg 458]</a></span>midable
+usurpers started up and rendered war inevitable.</p>
+
+<div class="sblockquot"><p>The history of the first seven years of Constantine, 306&mdash;313,
+is very complicated; after that, he had only one rival to struggle
+with, 314&mdash;323. At his accession, Galerius, as Augustus, was
+in possession of all the other provinces; of which, however, he
+had given to C&aelig;sar Maximin the government of those of Asia,
+and to C&aelig;sar Severus, now created Augustus, Italy and Africa.
+The latter, however, rendering himself odious by his oppression,
+Maxentius, the son of the former emperor, Maximianus, assumed
+the title of Augustus at Rome (Oct. 28, 306), and associated
+his father with himself in the government; so that at this time
+there were six rulers: Galerius, Severus, Constantine, Maximin,
+and the usurpers Maxentius and his father Maximianus. But
+in the year 307, Severus, wishing to oppose Maxentius, was
+abandoned by his own troops, upon which he surrendered himself
+to Maximianus, who caused him to be executed. In his
+place Galerius created his friend Licinius, Augustus; and Maximin
+obtained the same dignity from his army in Asia. In the
+mean time, Maximianus, after having endeavoured to supplant
+his own son in Rome, fled to Constantine, who had crossed over
+into Gaul and there defeated the Franks, 306; but having made
+an attempt upon the life of Constantine, who had married his
+daughter Fausta, that emperor caused him to be put to death,
+310. As the excesses of Galerius soon brought him to the
+grave, 311, there only remained Constantine, Licinius, and
+Maximin, and the usurper Maxentius. The latter was soon defeated
+and slain, 312, before the gates of Rome, by Constantine,
+who thereby became master of Italy and the capital. A war
+having broken out about the same time between Maximin and
+Licinius, Maximin was defeated near Adrianople, and then
+killed himself, 313. The year 314 brought on a war between
+the two remaining emperors, Constantine and Licinius, which,
+however, ended the same year in an accommodation, by which
+Constantine obtained all the countries on the south bank of the
+Danube, as well as Thrace and M&#339;sia Inferior; it broke out
+again, however, in 322, and was finally terminated by a decisive
+victory in Bithynia, and the total overthrow of Licinius, whom
+Constantine put to death, 324.</p></div>
+
+<p>6. However opposite may be the opinions<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_459" id="Page_459">[Pg 459]</a></span>
+formed respecting the reign of Constantine the
+Great, its consequences are perfectly plain. Although
+he annihilated military despotism, he established
+in its stead, if not completely, yet in
+great measure, the despotism of the court, and
+likewise the power of the hierarchy.  He had
+already, during his expedition against Maxentius,
+decided in favour of the Christian religion; and
+since he thereby gained a vast number of partisans
+in all the provinces, and weakened at the
+same time the power of his co-emperors, or competitors,
+it was the surest way he could have
+taken to obtain sole dominion, the great object of
+his ambition.  This change must nevertheless
+have had very considerable influence on every
+part of the government, as he found in the previously
+established hierarchy a powerful support of
+the throne; and since he, in concert with it, settled
+what was, and what was not the orthodox
+doctrine, he introduced a spirit of persecution
+heretofore unknown.</p>
+
+<div class="sblockquot"><p>At a period in which religious parties must almost necessarily
+have become political parties, we can by no means venture to
+judge of the importance of the sect by the importance of their
+points of doctrine. The quarrels of the Arians, which arose at
+this time, gave Constantine, by the council of Nice, 325, the opportunity
+he wished for, of making good his authority in religious
+legislation.</p></div>
+
+<p>7. The removal of the seat of empire from
+Rome to Constantinople was connected with this
+change in the form of worship&mdash;as a Christian
+court would have been awkwardly situated in a
+city still altogether pagan&mdash;although the need
+there was of protecting the frontiers against the
+Goths and Persians had a considerable share<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_460" id="Page_460">[Pg 460]</a></span>
+therein. It did, indeed, become the principal
+means of establishing the despotism of the court;
+but those who regard it as one of the causes of
+the decline of the empire, should remember, that
+for an empire fallen so low as the Roman was at
+this time, despotism was almost the only support
+that remained.</p>
+
+<div class="sblockquot"><p>The various partitions of the empire from the time of Diocletian,
+had led the way to this change of the capital; because a
+natural result of that system was, that the emperors and C&aelig;sars,
+when not with the army as they usually were, would reside in
+different cities. The seat of Diocletian's government was at
+Nicomedia; of Maximian's, at Milan; even Constantine himself
+remained but very little at Rome. In these new residences they
+felt themselves unfettered; and therefore, although the Roman
+senate existed till after the time of Constantine, its authority
+must have fallen of itself from the time of Diocletian.</p></div>
+
+<p>8. We ought not, therefore, to wonder that the
+consequence of this removal was so complete a
+change in the whole form of government, that
+after a short time it seemed to be altogether a
+different state. A partition of the empire was
+made, which, though it might in part have been
+founded on those which had previously existed,
+was yet so different, that it not only changed the
+ancient divisions of the provinces, but completely
+altered their mode of government.&mdash;The court,
+with the exception of polygamy, assumed entirely
+the form of an eastern court.&mdash;A revolution also
+had taken place in the military system, by the
+complete separation of the civil and military authorities,
+which the pr&aelig;torian pr&aelig;fects had hitherto
+possessed, but who now became merely
+civil governors.</p>
+
+<div class="sblockquot"><p>According to the new division the whole empire was divided
+into four <i>pr&aelig;fectures</i>, each of which had its <i>dioceses</i>, and each<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_461" id="Page_461">[Pg 461]</a></span>
+diocese its <i>provinces</i>. The pr&aelig;fectures were: I. The eastern
+(<i>pr&aelig;fectura Orientis</i>); it contained five dioceses; 1. <i>Orientis</i>;
+2. <i>&AElig;gypti</i>; 3. <i>Asi&aelig;</i>; 4. <i>Ponti</i>; 5. <i>Thraci&aelig;</i>; forming altogether
+forty-eight provinces, and comprising all the countries of
+Asia and Egypt, together with the frontier countries of Libya
+and Thrace. II. <i>Pr&aelig;fectura Illyrici</i>, containing two dioceses;
+1. <i>Macedoni&aelig;</i>; 2. <i>Daci&aelig;</i>; forming eleven provinces, and comprising
+M&#339;sia, Macedon, Greece, and Crete. III. <i>Pr&aelig;fectura
+Itali&aelig;</i>, containing three dioceses; 1. <i>Itali&aelig;</i>; 2. <i>Illyric</i>i; 3.
+<i>Afric&aelig;</i>; forming twenty-nine provinces, and comprising Italy,
+the countries on the south of the Danube, as far as the boundaries
+of M&#339;sia; the islands of Sicily, Sardinia, and Corsica, and
+the African provinces of the Syrtis. IV. <i>Pr&aelig;fectura Galliarum</i>,
+containing three dioceses; 1. <i>Galli&aelig;</i>; 2. <i>Hispani&aelig;</i>; 3.
+<i>Britanni&aelig;</i>; forming altogether twenty-eight provinces, and comprising
+Spain and the Balearian islands, Gaul, Helvetia, and
+Britain.&mdash;Each of these pr&aelig;fectures was under a <i>pr&aelig;fectus pr&aelig;torio</i>
+(pr&aelig;torian pr&aelig;fect), but who was merely a civil governor,
+and had under him <i>vicarios</i>, in the dioceses, as well as the <i>rectores
+provinciarum</i>, of various ranks and titles. They were
+named <i>proconsules pr&aelig;sides</i>, etc. Besides these, Rome and Constantinople,
+not being included in any of the four pr&aelig;fectures,
+had each its pr&aelig;fect.</p>
+
+<p>As principal officers of state and the court (<i>s. cubiculi</i>), we
+now for the first time meet with the <i>pr&aelig;positus s. cubiculi</i>
+(grand-chamberlain), under whom were all the <i>comites palatii</i>
+and <i>cubicularii</i>, in four divisions; these, at a later period, were
+frequently eunuchs of great influence; the <i>magister officiorum</i>
+(chancellor, minister of the interior); the <i>comes sacrarum largitiorum</i>
+(minister of the finances); the <i>qu&aelig;stor</i> (the organ of the
+emperors in legislation; minister of justice and secretary of
+state); the <i>comes rei principis</i> (minister of the crown-treasury)
+[privy-purse]; the two <i>comites domesticorum</i> (commander of the
+household guards), each of whom had his corps (<i>scholas</i>) under
+him. The number of the state officers and courtiers was continually
+increasing. If the good of a commonwealth consisted in
+forms, ranks, and titles, the Roman empire must at this time
+have been truly happy!</p>
+
+<p>At the head of the troops were the <i>magistri peditum</i> (masters
+of the infantry) and the <i>magistri equitum</i> (masters of the horse),
+under the <i>magister utriusque milit&aelig;</i> (general in chief of the
+whole army). Their subordinate commanders were called <i>comites</i>
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_462" id="Page_462">[Pg 462]</a></span>and <i>duces</i>. Constantine considerably reduced the army. In the
+arrangement of the troops he also made great alterations; these,
+however, were but of slight consequence compared with that
+which was produced by admitting into the service a continually
+increasing number of barbarians.</p>
+
+<p><i>Notitia dignitatem utriusque Imperii cum not.</i> <span class="smcap">Pancirolli
+Gr&aelig;v.</span> <i>Thesaur. Antiquitat. Rom.</i> vol. vii.</p></div>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Taxes.</div>
+
+<p>9. It would naturally be expected that these
+great changes should lead to others in the system
+of taxation. New taxes, or old ones revived,
+were added to those already existing, and became,
+by the manner in which they were collected,
+doubly oppressive. We shall particularly notice,
+<i>a.</i> The annual land-tax (<i>indictio</i>). <i>b.</i> The tax
+upon trade (<i>aurum lustrale</i>). <i>c.</i> The free gift (<i>don.
+gratuit.</i>), now grown into an obligatory tax (<i>aurum
+coronarium</i>). To these we must add the municipal
+expenses, which fell entirely upon the citizens,
+and especially upon the civic officers (<i>decuriones</i>),
+places which must have been generally held by
+the rich, as Constantine had in great measure appropriated
+the wealth of the cities to the endowment
+of churches, and the support of the clergy.</p>
+
+<div class="sblockquot"><p><i>a.</i> The land-tax, or <i>indiction</i>, which if not first introduced by
+Constantine was entirely regulated under him, was collected after
+an exact register, or public valuation, of all the landed estates.
+Its amount was yearly fixed and prescribed by the emperor (<i>indicebatur</i>),
+and levied by the rectors of provinces and the decurions;
+an arbitrary standard (<i>caput</i>) being taken as the rate
+of assessment.</p>
+
+<p>As this register was probably reviewed every fifteen years, it
+gave rise to the <i>cycle of indictions</i> of fifteen years, which became
+the common era, beginning from September 1, 312. In this
+manner the tax included all those who were possessed of property.
+<i>b.</i> The tax on commerce; which was levied on almost
+every kind of trade. It was collected every four years, whence
+the <i>aurum lustrale</i>. <i>c.</i> The <i>aurum coronarium</i> grew out of the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_463" id="Page_463">[Pg 463]</a></span>
+custom which obtained of presenting the emperors with golden
+crowns on particular occasions; the value of which was at last
+exacted in money.  Every considerable city was obliged to
+pay it.</p></div>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Spread of
+the Christian
+religion.</div>
+
+<p>10.  The rapid spread of the Christian religion,
+the promulgation of which was enforced as a
+duty upon all its professors, was now accelerated
+by the endeavours of the court. Constantine forbade
+sacrifices, and shut up the temples; and the
+violent zeal of his successors unfortunately soon
+turned them into ruins.</p>
+
+<div class="sblockquot"><p><i>Histoire de Constantin-le-Grand</i>, <i>par le</i> <span class="smcap">R. P. Bern. de Varenne</span>.
+Paris, 1778, 4to.</p>
+
+<p><i>Vita di Constantino il Grande dell'</i> <span class="smcap">Abb. Fr. Gusta.</span> Fuligno,
+1786. Both these works, especially the first, are written
+in a tone of panegyric; the latest, and by far the best, is</p>
+
+<p>&#8224; <i>Life of Constantine the Great</i>, by <span class="smcap">J. C. F. Manso</span>. Bresl.
+1817. With several very learned appendixes, which clear up
+some particular points.</p></div>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Constantine,
+Constantius
+and Constans.</div>
+
+<p>11.  The three C&aelig;sars and sons of Constantine
+the Great, Constantine, 337&mdash;340; Constantius,
+337&mdash;361; and Constans, 337&mdash;350; had been
+carefully educated, and yet resembled one another
+as much in their vices as they did in their names.
+They indeed divided the empire again upon the
+death of their father; but were so eager after
+territory, which neither of them was qualified to
+govern, that a series of wars followed for the
+next twelve years, till at last Constantius was left
+master of the whole; and by the murder of most
+of his relations secured the throne to himself.</p>
+
+<div class="sblockquot"><p>In the partition of the empire Constantine obtained the <i>pr&aelig;fectura
+Galliarum</i>, Constans the <i>pr&aelig;fectura Itali&aelig; et Illyrici</i>,
+and Constantius the <i>pr&aelig;fectura Orientis</i>. But as Constantine
+desired to add Italy and Africa to his portion, he attacked<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_464" id="Page_464">[Pg 464]</a></span>
+Constans, and thereby lost his life, so that Constans came into
+thee possession of the western countries. In consequence, however,
+of his wretched misgovernment, Magnentius, a general,
+proclaimed himself emperor in Gaul, and Constans was slain
+in endeavouring to escape, 350. A war with Constantius, who
+was then occupied in the east, became inevitable, and broke out
+351. The usurper was defeated first at Mursa in Pannonia,
+then retreating into Gaul he was again defeated, 353; upon
+which he slew himself, together with his family.</p></div>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Constantius alone.<br />
+
+351.<br />
+
+354.</div>
+
+<p>12. As Constantius, however&mdash;sunk in effeminacy
+and debauchery, and surrounded and governed
+by eunuchs&mdash;was unable to sustain the
+weight of government alone, he took his cousin
+Constantius Gallus, hitherto a state prisoner, and
+whose father he had formerly slain, to his assistance,
+created him C&aelig;sar, and sent him into the
+east against the Parthians. But his excessive
+arrogance, which was fomented by his wife Constantina,
+rendered him so dangerous that Constantius
+recalled him, and caused him, upon his
+return, to be put to death in Istria. His younger
+brother Fl. Julian, from whom the suspicious
+Constantius believed he had nothing to fear, was
+<span class="sidenote">Nov. 6, 355.</span>
+promoted in his place, created C&aelig;sar, and sent
+to defend the frontiers on the Rhine. Although
+Julian passed suddenly from study to warfare, he
+not only fought against the Germans with success,
+but also made a deep inroad into their country.
+In the mean time Constantius, after his
+generals had been beaten by the Persians, who
+wished to reconquer the provinces they had
+ceded, was preparing an expedition against them
+in person, and with that view endeavoured gradually
+to withdraw the troops of Julian, in consequence
+of which the latter, suspecting his de<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_465" id="Page_465">[Pg 465]</a></span>sign,
+was induced to accept the diadem presented
+<span class="sidenote">361.</span>
+by his soldiers. While marching, however, along
+the Danube against Constantius, he received information
+of that prince's death in Asia.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Julian,
+March, 360&mdash;June 25,
+363.</div>
+
+<p>13.  Fl. Julian, (the apostate,) who reigned from
+his twenty-ninth to his thirty-second year, was
+the last and most highly gifted prince of the house
+of Constantine. Instructed by misfortunes and
+study, he yet had some faults, though certainly
+free from great vices. He began with reforming
+the luxury of the court. His abjuration of the
+religion now become dominant, and which he
+wished to annihilate by degrees, was an error in
+policy, which he must have discovered to his
+cost had his reign been prolonged. Wishing,
+however, to terminate the war against the Persians,
+he penetrated as far as the Tigris, where
+he lost his life in an engagement, after a reign of
+three years.</p>
+
+<div class="sblockquot"><p>&#8224; <i>The Emperor Julian and his Times</i>, by <span class="smcap">August. Neander</span>.
+Leipsic, 1812. An historical sketch.</p></div>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Jovian,
+June 25,
+363&mdash;Feb.
+24, 364.</div>
+
+
+<p>14.  Fl. Jovianus, now thirty-three years of
+age, was immediately raised to the purple by the
+army. He concluded a peace with the Persians,
+by which he restored them all the territory that
+had been conquered from them since the year
+297. After a short reign of eight months he was
+carried off by a sudden disorder; and the army
+proclaimed Fl. Valentinian at Nice in his stead,
+Valentinian almost immediately associated his
+<span class="sidenote">Valentinian and Valens.</span>
+brother Valens with himself in the government,
+and divided the empire by giving him the <i>pr&aelig;fectura
+Orientis</i>, and retaining the rest for himself.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_466" id="Page_466">[Pg 466]</a></span></p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Valentinian
+Feb. 26,
+364&mdash;Nov.
+17, 375.</div>
+
+<p>15. The reign of Valentinian I. in the east,
+who, in the year 367, created his son Gratian
+Augustus with himself, is distinguished by the
+system of toleration which he followed with regard
+to the affairs of religion, though in other
+respects a cruel prince. Nearly the whole of his
+reign was taken up in almost continual struggles
+with the German nations, who had recovered
+from the losses they had suffered under Julian.
+His first efforts were directed against the Franks,
+the Saxons, and the Alemanni on the Rhine;
+and afterwards against the Quadi and other nations
+on the Danube; where he died of apoplexy
+at Guntz in Hungary.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Valens,
+364&mdash;368.</div>
+
+<p>16. In the mean time his brother Valens (aged
+38&mdash;52 years) had to contend with a powerful
+insurrection which had broken out in the east.
+A certain Procopius had instigated the people to
+this, by taking advantage of the discontent occasioned
+by the oppression of Valens, who, having
+adopted the opinion of the Arians, was more disliked
+in the east than his brother was in the
+<span class="sidenote">373.</span>
+west. His war against the Persians ended with
+a truce. But the most important event that happened
+during his reign, was the entrance of the
+Huns into Europe, which took place towards its
+close. This in its turn gave rise to the great
+popular migration, by which the Roman empire
+in the west may properly be said to have been
+overthrown. The immediate consequence was
+the admission of the greater part of the Visigoths
+into the Roman empire, and this occasioned a
+war which cost Valens his life.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_467" id="Page_467">[Pg 467]</a></span></p><div class="sblockquot"><p>The Huns, a nomad people of Asia, belonged to the great
+Mongolian race. Having penetrated to the Don, 373, they
+subdued the Goths upon that river as far as the Theiss. The
+Goths, divided into Ostrogoths and Visigoths, were separated
+from one another by the Dnieper. The former, driven from
+their country, fell upon the Visigoths, in consequence of which
+the emperor Valens was requested by the latter to grant them
+admission into the Roman empire, and with the exception of
+the Vandals, who had been seated in Pannonia from the time
+of Constantine, they were the first barbarian nation that had
+been settled within the boundaries of the empire. The scandalous
+oppression of the Roman governor, however, drove them into
+rebellion; and as Valens marched against them, he was defeated
+near Adrianople and lost his life, 378.</p></div>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Gratian,
+375&mdash;383,
+and<br />
+
+Valentinian II. 375&mdash;392.</div>
+
+<p>17.  During these events, Gratian (aged 16&mdash;24
+years) succeeded his father Valentinian I. in
+the west, and immediately associated his brother,
+Valentinian II. (aged 5&mdash;21 years) with himself
+in the empire; giving him, though under his own
+superintendence, the <i>pr&aelig;fectura Itali&aelig; et Illyrici</i>.
+Gratian set forward to the assistance of his uncle
+Valens against the Goths, but receiving on his
+march an account of his defeat and death, and
+fearing the east might fall a prey to the Goths,
+he raised Theodosius, a Spaniard, who had already
+distinguished himself as a warrior, to the
+purple, and gave him the <i>pr&aelig;fectura Orientis et
+Illyrici</i>.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Revolt of
+Maximus,
+383.</div>
+
+<p>18.  The indolent reign of Gratian led to the
+rebellion of Maximus, a commander in Britain,
+who, crossing into Gaul, was so strongly supported
+by the defection of the Gallic legions, that
+Gratian was obliged to seek safety in flight. He
+was, however, overtaken and put to death at
+Lyons. By this event Maximus found himself
+in possession of all the <i>pr&aelig;fectura Galliarum</i>;
+and by promising Theodosius not to interfere
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_468" id="Page_468">[Pg 468]</a></span>with the young Valentinian II. in Italy, he prevailed
+upon him to acknowledge him emperor.
+But having broken his promise by the invasion of
+Italy, he was defeated and made prisoner by
+<span class="sidenote">388.</span>
+Theodosius in Pannonia, and soon after executed.
+Upon this Valentinian II. a youth of whom great
+hopes were entertained, became again master
+of all the west. But, unfortunately, he was murdered
+by the offended Arbogast, his <i>magister militum</i>;
+who, thereupon, raised to the throne his
+own friend
+<span class="sidenote">Eugenius.</span>
+Eugenius, <i>magister officiorum</i>. Theodosius,
+however, so far from acknowledging, declared
+war against him and made him prisoner.
+He himself thus became master of the whole empire,
+but died in the following year.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Theodosius
+the Great,
+Jan. 19,
+379&mdash;Jan.
+17, 395.</div>
+
+<p>19. The vigorous reign of Theodosius in the
+east, from his thirty-fourth to his fiftieth year,
+was not less devoted to politics than to religion.
+The dexterity with which he at first broke the
+power of the victorious Goths (though they still
+preserved their quarters in the provinces on the
+Danube), procured him considerable influence,
+which the strength and activity of his character
+enabled him easily to maintain. The blind zeal,
+however, with which he persecuted Arianism,
+now the prevailing creed in the east, and restored
+the orthodox belief, as well as the persecutions
+which he directed against the pagans and the
+destruction of their temples, occasioned the most
+dreadful convulsions. His efforts to preserve the
+boundaries of the empire, not a province of which
+was lost before his death, required an increase of
+taxes; and however oppressive this might be, we
+cannot impute it to the ruler as a crime. In an<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_469" id="Page_469">[Pg 469]</a></span>
+empire so enfeebled in itself, and which, nevertheless,
+had powerful foes on every side to contend
+with, it followed that every active reign
+would be oppressive. Yet never before had the
+internal depopulation of the empire made it necessary
+to take so many barbarians into Roman
+pay, as under this reign; whence naturally followed
+a change in the arms and tactics of the
+Roman armies.</p>
+
+<div class="sblockquot"><p><span class="smcap">P. Erasm. Muller</span>, <i>de genio s&aelig;culi Theodosiani</i>. Havni&aelig;,
+1798, 2 vols. A very learned and in every respect excellent description
+of the deeply-decayed Roman world as it now stood.</p></div>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Final division
+of the
+Roman empire.<br />
+
+Arcadius,
+395&mdash;408.<br />
+
+Honorius,
+385&mdash;423.</div>
+
+<p>20.  Theodosius left two sons, between whom
+the empire was divided. Both parts, however,
+were certainly considered as forming but one empire&mdash;an
+opinion which afterwards prevailed, and
+even till late in the middle ages had important
+consequences&mdash;yet never since this period have
+they been reunited under one ruler. The eastern
+empire, comprising the <i>pr&aelig;fectura Orientis et Illyrici</i>,
+was allotted to the eldest son, Arcadius (aged
+18&mdash;31) under the guardianship of Rufinus the
+Gaul. The western, or the <i>pr&aelig;fectura Galliarum
+et Itali&aelig;</i>, to the younger, Honorius, aged 11&mdash;39,
+under the guardianship of the Vandal Stilico.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Alaric king
+of the Visigoths.</div>
+
+<p>21.  The western empire, to the history of which
+we shall now confine ourselves, suffered such
+violent shocks during the reign of Honorius, as
+made its approaching fall plainly visible. The
+intrigues of Stilico to procure himself the government
+of the whole empire, opened a way for the
+Goths into its interior, just at a time when they
+were doubly formidable, fortune having given
+them a leader greatly superior to any they had
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_470" id="Page_470">[Pg 470]</a></span>hitherto had. Alaric king of the Visigoths established
+himself and his people in the Roman empire,
+became master of Rome, and mounted the
+throne: it was the mere effect of chance that he
+did not overthrow it altogether.</p>
+
+<div class="sblockquot"><p>Both Honorius and Arcadius, especially the latter, belonged
+to that class of men who never come to years of maturity; their
+favourites and ministers therefore governed according to their
+own inclination. Stilico, who made Honorius his son-in-law,
+was not deficient, indeed, in abilities for governing; and his endeavour
+to obtain the management of the whole empire, arose,
+perhaps, from the conviction that it was necessary he should have
+it. He could not, however, gain his object by intrigue; for after
+the murder of Rufinus; 395, he found a still more powerful opponent
+in the eunuch Eutropius, his successor in the east. Under
+the regency of Stilico, Gaul, in consequence of its troops
+being withdrawn to oppose Alaric, 400, was inundated by
+German tribes&mdash;by Vandals, Alani, and Suevi&mdash;who from thence
+penetrated even into Spain. Nevertheless, he preserved Italy
+from their attacks by the victory which he gained, 403, over
+Alaric at Verona; and again over Radagaisus, 405, who had advanced
+with other German hordes as far as Florence. But
+Stilico, having entered into a secret alliance with Alaric, for the
+purpose of wresting eastern Illyrica from the empire of the east,
+was overreached by the intrigues of the new favourite Olympius,
+whose cabal knew how to take advantage of the weakness of
+Honorius, and of the jealousy of the Roman and foreign soldiers.
+Stilico was accused of aspiring to the throne, and was executed
+August 23, 408. Rome lost in him the only general that was
+left to defend her. Alaric invaded Italy the same year, 408, and
+the besieged Rome was obliged to purchase peace; the conditions,
+however, not being fulfilled, he was again, 409, before
+Rome, became master of the city, and created Attalus, the pr&aelig;fect
+of the city, emperor instead of Honorius, who had shut himself
+up in Ravenna. In 410 he assumed the diadem; and,
+making himself master of the city by force, gave it up to be
+plundered by his troops. Soon afterwards, while projecting the
+capture of Sicily and Africa, he died in lower Italy. His brother-in-law
+and successor, Adolphus, together with his Goths, left
+Italy, now completely exhausted, 412, went into Gaul, and from<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_471" id="Page_471">[Pg 471]</a></span>
+thence proceeding into Spain, founded there the empire of the
+Visigoths: he carried with him, however, Placidia the sister of
+Honorius, either as prisoner or as hostage, and married her in
+Gaul. During these events an usurper arose in Britain and
+Gaul named Constantine, 407: he was vanquished, and put to
+death, 411, by Constantius, one of Honorius's generals. This
+latter prince not only gave Constantius his sister Placidia, who
+had become a widow and was restored in 417, in marriage, but
+also named him Augustus in 421. He died, however, a few
+months after, so that Placidia henceforward had a considerable
+share in the government. She went nevertheless, 423, to Constantinople,
+where she remained until the death of Honorius.</p>
+
+<p>&#8224; <i>Fl. Stilico, or the Wallenstein of Antiquity</i>, by <span class="smcap">Chr. Fr.
+Schulze</span>, 1805. Not written by way of comparison.</p></div>
+
+<div class="sidenote">423.<br />
+
+425.<br />
+
+Valentinian
+III. 425&mdash;455.</div>
+
+<p>22. In this manner was a great part of Spain,
+and part of Gaul, cut off from the Roman empire
+during the reign of Honorius. After his death
+the secretary John usurped the government, but
+was defeated by the eastern emperor Theodosius
+II. The nephew of Honorius, Valentinian III. a
+minor (aged 6&mdash;36), was then raised to the throne,
+under the guardian care of his mother Placidia
+(&#8224; 450). Under his miserable reign the western
+empire was stripped of almost all her provinces
+with the exception of Italy. Yet the government
+of his mother, and afterwards his own incapacity,
+were as much the cause as the stormy
+migration of barbarous tribes, which now convulsed
+all Europe.</p>
+
+<div class="sblockquot"><p>Britain had been voluntarily left by the Romans since 427.
+In Africa, the governor Boniface having been driven into rebellion
+by the intrigues of the Roman general &AElig;tius, who possessed
+the ear of Placidia, invited the Vandals from Spain, under the
+command of Genseric, to come to his assistance. The latter then
+obtained possession of the country, 429&mdash;439; indeed, even as
+early as 435, Valentinian was obliged to make a formal cession
+of it to them. Valentinian's wife Eudoxia, a Grecian princess,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_472" id="Page_472">[Pg 472]</a></span>
+was purchased by the cession of western Illyricum (Pannonia,
+Dalmatia, and Noricum); so that of all the countries south of
+the Danube there now only remained those which belonged to
+the pr&aelig;fecture of Italy: Rh&aelig;tia and Vindelicia. On the south-east
+of Gaul was formed, 435, the kingdom of the Burgundians,
+which, besides the south-east part of France, comprised also
+Switzerland and Savoy. The south-west was under the dominion
+of the Visigoths. There remained only the territory north
+of the Loire which still submitted to the Roman governors; the
+last of whom, Syagrius, survived the fall of the empire itself;
+holding out till the year 486, when he was defeated near Soissons
+by Clodovicus, or Clovis, king of the Franks.</p></div>
+
+<div class="sidenote">The Huns.<br />
+
+Attila.<br />
+
+450.<br />
+
+451.<br />
+
+453.<br />
+
+454.<br />
+
+455.</div>
+
+<p>23. But while the western empire seemed thus
+of itself almost to fall to pieces, another impetuous
+rush of nations took place, which threatened the
+whole of western Europe. The victorious hordes
+of Huns who now occupied the territory formerly
+the seat of the Goths, between the Don and the
+Theiss, and even as far as the Volga, had united
+themselves, since the year 444, under one common
+chief, Attila; who, by this union and his
+own superior talents as a warrior and ruler, became
+the most powerful prince of his time. The
+eastern empire having bought a peace by paying
+him a yearly tribute, he fell with a mighty army
+upon the western provinces. The united forces,
+however, of the Romans under &AElig;tius and the Visigoths,
+obliged him near Chalons (<i>in campis Catalaunicis</i>)
+to retreat. Nevertheless, the following
+year he again invaded Italy, where he had a
+secret understanding with the licentious Honoria,
+Valentinian's sister. The cause of his second retreat,
+which was soon followed by his death, is
+unknown. The miserable Valentinian soon after
+deprived the Roman empire of its best general,
+being led by his suspicions to put &AElig;tius to death.
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_473" id="Page_473">[Pg 473]</a></span>He himself, however, was soon doomed to undergo
+the punishment of his debaucheries, being
+murdered in a conspiracy formed by Petronius
+Maximus, whose wife he had dishonoured, and
+some friends of &AElig;tius, whom he had executed.</p>
+
+<p>24. The twenty years which intervened between
+the assassination of Valentinian, and the
+final destruction of the Roman empire in the
+west, was nearly one continued series of intestine
+revolutions. No less than nine sovereigns rapidly
+succeeded one another. These changes, indeed,
+were but of little importance in this troublesome
+period, compared to the terror with which Genseric
+king of the Vandals filled the Roman empire:
+he by his naval power having become master
+of the Mediterranean and Sicily, could ravage
+the coasts of the defenceless Italy at his pleasure,
+and even capture Rome itself. While in Italy,
+the German Ricimer, general of the foreign troops
+in Roman pay, permitted a series of emperors to
+reign in his name. It would have been his lot to
+put an end to this series of Augusti, but for mere
+accident, which reserved that glory for his son
+and successor, Odoacer, four years after his father's
+death.</p>
+
+<div class="sblockquot"><p>After the death of Valentinian, Maximus was proclaimed emperor;
+but as he wished to compel Eudoxia, Valentinian's
+widow, to marry him, she called over Genseric from Africa, who
+took and pillaged Rome, and Maximus perished after a reign of
+three months, 455. He was succeeded by M. Avitus, who
+ascended the throne at Arles; and he again was soon deposed
+by Ricimer, 456, who, just before, had defeated the fleet of the
+Vandals. Ricimer now placed upon the throne, first Julianus
+Majorianus, April 1, 457; but he, having distinguished himself
+in the wars against the Vandals, 461, was set aside, and Libius
+Severus put in his place, who, however, died in 465, probably of<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_474" id="Page_474">[Pg 474]</a></span>
+poison. His death was followed by an interregnum of two years,
+during which Ricimer ruled, though without the title of emperor.
+At length the patrician Anthemius, then at Constantinople
+(where they never gave up their pretensions to the right
+of naming or confirming the sovereigns of the west), was, though
+not without the consent of the powerful Ricimer, named emperor
+of the west, April 12, 467, by the emperor Leo. But differences
+having arisen between him and Ricimer, the latter retired to
+Milan, 469, and commenced a war, in which he took and pillaged
+Rome, and Anthemius was slain. Ricimer himself followed
+soon after, &#8224; Aug. 18, 472. Upon this, Anicius Olybrius,
+son-in-law of Valentinian III. was proclaimed Augustus, but
+dying in three months, Oct. 472, Glycerius assumed the purple
+at Ravenna, without, however, being acknowledged at Constantinople,
+where they in preference named Julius Nepos Augustus.
+The latter, in 474, having expelled Glycerius, became also in his
+turn expelled by his own general Orestes, 475, who gave the
+diadem to his son Romulus Momyllus, who, as the last in the
+succession of Augusti, acquired the surname of Augustulus. In
+476, however, Odoacer, the leader of the Germans in the Roman
+pay at Rome, sent him, after the execution of Orestes, into captivity,
+and allowed him a pension. Odoacer now remained master
+of Italy till the year 492, when the Ostrogoths, under their king
+Theodoric, founded there a new empire.</p></div>
+
+<p>25. Thus fell the Roman empire of the west,
+while that of the east, pressed on every side, and
+in a situation almost similar, endured a thousand
+years, notwithstanding its intestine broils, which
+would alone have sufficed to destroy any other,
+and the hosts of barbarians who attacked it
+during the middle ages. The impregnable situation
+of its capital, which usually decides the fate
+of such kingdoms, joined to its despotism, which
+is not unfrequently the main support of a kingdom
+in its decline, can alone, in some measure,
+explain a phenomenon which has no equal in the
+history of the world.</p>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 100%;" />
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_475" id="Page_475">[Pg 475]</a></span></p>
+<h2>APPENDIX.</h2>
+
+<p class="iblockquot">CHRONOLOGY  OF  HERODOTUS  TO  THE  TIME  OF  CYRUS,  EXTRACTED
+FROM  THE  RESEARCHES  OF  M.  VOLNEY.  See
+Preface.</p>
+
+
+<p>Although Herodotus did not write his work in
+chronological order, yet we cannot doubt that he
+had some general plan of computing time. By
+carefully selecting and comparing the separate
+data scattered through his work, this plan to a
+certain extent may be traced out, and early history,
+with regard to settled chronology, must necessarily
+gain a good deal. The following essay
+is founded upon a procedure of this kind; it is
+drawn entirely from Herodotus, and only from
+data which he has precisely determined, the passages
+of his work being always referred to.</p>
+
+<p>The year B. C. 561, in which the fall of Astyages
+and the Median empire took place, as may
+be proved from Herodotus himself, is a fixed point
+of time from which we may ascend into higher
+antiquity. This point of time may be determined
+by the chronological data respecting the battle of
+Marathon, four years before the death of Darius
+(Herodotus VII. 1. 4.) agreeing with the general
+data of the Greeks, who fix it in the third year of
+the 72nd Olymp. B. C. 490. By adding to this
+the thirty-two years of Darius's reign that had
+already elapsed (Herodotus, ibid.), the eight
+months of Smerdis (Herodotus, III. 68.), the
+seven years and five months of Cambyses (He<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_476" id="Page_476">[Pg 476]</a></span>rodotus
+III. 66.), and the twenty-nine years of
+Cyrus (Herodotus, I. 214.), we obtain the year
+560 as the first year of Cyrus.</p>
+
+
+<p class="cblockquot">I. CHRONOLOGY OF THE MEDIAN EMPIRE.</p>
+
+
+<div class='center'>
+<table border="0" cellpadding="2" cellspacing="0" summary="">
+<tr><td align='left'></td><td align='right'><small>B. C.</small></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>End of the Median empire</td><td align='right'>561.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Duration of the Median empire one hundred and fifty-six years (Herodotus, I, 130.) &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>The beginning of it, therefore, after their separation from the Assyrians, would be</td><td align='right'>717.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>In this period, at first, six years of anarchy<a name="FNanchor_A_5" id="FNanchor_A_5"></a><a href="#Footnote_A_5" class="fnanchor">[a]</a></td><td align='right'>716&mdash;710.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Reign of Deioces fifty-three years (Herodotus, I. 102.)</td><td align='right'>710&mdash;657.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Reign of Phraortes, twenty-two years (ibid.)</td><td align='right'>657&mdash;635.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Cyaxares, forty years (I. 106.)</td><td align='right'>635&mdash;595.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Irruption and dominion of the Scythians, twenty-eight years (I. 203. 106.)</td><td align='right'>625&mdash;598.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Conquest of Nineveh (I. 106.)</td><td align='right'>597.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Astyages reigned thirty-five years (I. 130.)</td><td align='right'>595&mdash;561.</td></tr>
+</table></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_A_5" id="Footnote_A_5"></a><a href="#FNanchor_A_5"><span class="label">[a]</span></a> These are certainly not determined from Herodotus; but they remain after
+subtracting the one hundred and fifty years' reign of the four Median kings.</p></div>
+
+<p>The succession of Median kings given by Ctesias,
+which entirely differs from this, the author
+thinks might be explained by a duplication; see
+&#8224; <i>Gott. Gel. Anz.</i> 1810, p. 4.</p>
+
+
+<p class="cblockquot">II. CHRONOLOGY OF THE ASSYRIAN EMPIRE.</p>
+
+<p>The dominion of the Assyrians over Asia, or
+their empire, ended with the revolt of the Medes
+(Herodotus, I. 95.); although the existence of
+their state did not then end, but terminated with
+the capture of Nineveh by Cyaxares, B. C. 597.</p>
+
+
+<div class='center'>
+<table border="0" cellpadding="2" cellspacing="0" summary="">
+<tr><td align='left'></td><td align='right'><small>B. C.</small></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Revolt of the Medes, as above</td><td align='right'>717.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>The dominion of the Assyrians had endured five hundred and twenty years (Herodotus, I. 95.) &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>The Assyrian empire lasted therefore from</td><td align='right'>1237&mdash;717.</td></tr>
+</table></div>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_477" id="Page_477">[Pg 477]</a></span></p>
+<p>As Herodotus intended to write the history of
+this empire in a separate work (I. 184.), he only
+casually mentions (I. 7.) its founder Ninus, who
+began to reign 1237; and afterwards Sennacherib
+and his expedition (II. 141.); and the last king,
+Sardanapalus (II. 150.).</p>
+
+<p>The mention of Sennacherib and his expedition
+furnishes a point of time for comparing the chronology
+of Herodotus with that of the Bible, or the
+Jews. According to the latter, Sennacherib's expedition
+took place B. C. 714. (see above, p. 26.);
+his death takes place immediately after, and he
+has for his successor Esar-haddon, 2 Kings, xix.
+37. Here then is certainly a contradiction, since,
+according to Herodotus, the Assyrian dominion
+had ceased three years before, namely, 717. M.
+Volney endeavours to reconcile this difficulty by
+the restoration of an ancient reading in the sacred
+text; according to which Amon, king of Jud&aelig;a,
+reigned twelve years instead of two (2 Kings,
+xxi. 10.); from which it would follow, that the
+expedition of Sennacherib took place in 724.
+As this would leave seven years after his death
+for his successor Esar-haddon, who agrees both
+in time and name with the Sardanapalus of the
+Greeks (the Greek name being formed from
+Esar-haddon-pal, i. e. Esar, the lord, son of Pal),
+the two chronologies are thus made to agree
+exactly. But even in following the ancient
+usual reading, the greatest difference between
+the two statements is only ten years; quite as
+little as can be reasonably expected under such
+circumstances.</p>
+
+<p>With regard to the Assyrian chronology of<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_478" id="Page_478">[Pg 478]</a></span>
+Ctesias, M. Volney has satisfactorily shown that
+it is full of contradictions, and unworthy of any
+credit.</p>
+
+
+<p class="cblockquot">III. CHRONOLOGY OF THE LYDIAN EMPIRE.</p>
+
+<p>The arrangement of the Lydian chronology
+rests upon the settlement of two principal facts:
+first, the great eclipse of the sun under Alyattes,
+foretold by Thales (Herodotus, I. 74.); and
+secondly, the conquest of Sardes, and overthrow
+of the empire under Cr&#339;sus, by Cyrus; both of
+which Herodotus certainly mentions, but without
+assigning any precise date. But by a careful comparison
+of all the data it has been proved, that
+the great eclipse in Asia Minor (according to the
+Tables of Pingr&eacute;) happened in the year 625; and
+the conquest of Sardes, and the end of the Lydian
+empire, B. C. 557, or in the fourth year of Cyrus.
+Therefore:</p>
+
+
+<div class='center'>
+<table border="0" cellpadding="2" cellspacing="0" summary="" width="70%">
+<tr><td align='left'></td><td align='right'><small>B. C.</small></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>End of the Lydian empire</td><td align='right'>557.</td></tr>
+</table></div>
+
+<p>It subsisted under three houses; under that of
+the Atyad&aelig; (fabulous and uncertain); under that
+of the Heraclid&aelig;, five hundred and five years
+(Herodotus, I. 7.); and under the last, that of the
+Mermnad&aelig;, one hundred and seventy years.</p>
+
+<p>The Heraclid&aelig; and Mermnad&aelig;, then, reigned
+altogether six hundred and seventy-five years.
+Therefore:</p>
+
+
+<div class='center'>
+<table border="0" cellpadding="2" cellspacing="0" summary="" width="70%">
+<tr><td align='left'></td><td align='right'><small>B. C.</small></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Commencement of the reign of the Heraclid&aelig;, with Agron the son of Ninus (I. 7.)</td><td align='right'>1232.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>End of this house with the murder of Candaules, by Gyges</td><td align='right'>727.</td></tr>
+</table></div>
+
+<p>By fixings the time of Agron, son of Ninus,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_479" id="Page_479">[Pg 479]</a></span>
+Herodotus verifies himself (I. 7.); as, by the preceding
+data, Ninus began his reign in Assyria,
+1237; consequently, it must have been in the
+fifth year of his reign that he conquered Lydia,
+and placed his son Agron upon the throne.</p>
+
+
+<div class='center'>
+<table border="0" cellpadding="2" cellspacing="0" summary="" width="70%">
+<tr><td align='left'></td><td align='right'><small>B. C.</small></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Dominion of the Mermnad&aelig;, one hundred and seventy years, under kings of that house</td><td align='right'>727&mdash;557.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Gyges, thirty-eight years (Herodotus, I. 14.)</td><td align='right'>727&mdash;689.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Ardys, forty-nine years (Herodotus, I. 16.)</td><td align='right'>689&mdash;640.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>First irruption of the Cimmerians</td><td align='right'>670.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Sadyattes, twelve years (Herodotus, I. 16.)</td><td align='right'>640&mdash;628.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Alyattes, fifty-seven years (Herodotus, I. 25.)</td><td align='right'>628&mdash;571.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>War with Cyaxares, ending with the great eclipse, and second irruption of the Cimmerians &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; </td><td align='right'>625.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Cr&#339;sus, fourteen years and fourteen days (Herodotus, I. 86.)</td><td align='right'>571&mdash;557.</td></tr>
+</table></div>
+
+<p class="cblockquot">IV. CHRONOLOGY OF THE BABYLONIANS.</p>
+
+<p>For this as well as for the Egyptians there is
+no evidence to guide us, the data being very
+scanty, and taken from Herodotus alone. The
+chronology of the Babylonians, according to the
+canon of Ptolemy, begins with Nabonassar, 747,
+who was succeeded by twelve kings (mentioned
+in the same canon), down to Nabopolassar; (see
+above, p. 28.)</p>
+
+
+<div class='center'>
+<table border="0" cellpadding="2" cellspacing="0" summary="">
+<tr><td align='left'></td><td align='right'><small>B. C.</small></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Nabopolassar</td><td align='right'>627&mdash;604.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Nebuchadnezzar</td><td align='right'>604&mdash;561.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Evil-Merodach</td><td align='right'>561&mdash;559.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Neriglissar</td><td align='right'>559&mdash;555.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Labynetus</td><td align='right'>555&mdash;538.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Conquest of Babylon by Cyrus &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; </td><td align='right'>538.</td></tr>
+</table></div>
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_480" id="Page_480">[Pg 480]</a></span></p>
+
+<p class="cblockquot">V. CHRONOLOGY OF THE EGYPTIANS.</p>
+
+<p>M. Volney very properly commences this with
+the dodecarchy&mdash;as of the earlier periods only
+the time of Sesostris, 1365, is ascertained;&mdash;and
+arranges it in the following manner.</p>
+
+<div class='center'>
+<table border="0" cellpadding="2" cellspacing="0" summary="">
+<tr><td align='left'></td><td align='right'><small>B. C.</small></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Dodecarchy</td><td align='right'>671&mdash;656.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Psammetichus's sole dominion thirty-nine years &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; </td><td align='right'>656&mdash;617.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Reign of Neco, sixteen years</td><td align='right'>617&mdash;601.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>&mdash;&mdash; Psammis, six years</td><td align='right'>601&mdash;595.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>&mdash;&mdash; Apries, twenty-five years</td><td align='right'>595&mdash;570.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>&mdash;&mdash; Amasis, forty-four years</td><td align='right'>570&mdash;526.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Psammenitus, six months</td><td align='right'>525.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Conquest of Egypt by Cambyses</td></tr>
+</table></div>
+
+
+<hr style="width: 100%;" />
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_481" id="Page_481">[Pg 481]</a></span></p>
+
+<h3>I. THE REIGNING HOUSES OF MACEDON.</h3>
+
+<p class="cblockquot">I. HOUSE OF ALEXANDER THE GREAT.</p>
+
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 90%;">
+<img src="images/i503-i.png" width="100%" alt="" title="" />
+</div>
+
+<div class='center'>
+<table border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" summary="">
+<tr>
+  <td colspan='5'><span class="smcap">Philip</span> &#8224; 336. married, 1. Olympias. 2. Cleopatra. (3. Concubines.)</td>
+</tr>
+<tr><td></td><td class="bl"></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="bt bl"></td><td class="bt"></td><td class="bt"></td><td class="bt"></td><td class="bt br"></td></tr>
+<tr>
+  <td colspan='2'>1.<br /><span class="smcap">Alexander the Great</span> &#8224; 323.<br />married, 1. Roxana. (2. Barsine.)</td>
+  <td>1.<br /> &nbsp; Cleopatra.  &nbsp; &nbsp;<br />&nbsp;</td>
+  <td>3.<br /><span class="smcap">Philip Arrhid&aelig;us</span> &#8224; 317.<br />married Eurydice.</td>
+  <td>3.<br />Thessalonice.<br />married Cassander.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr><td class="br"></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="bt bl"></td><td class="bt br"></td></tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='center'>1.<br /><span class="smcap">Alexander</span> &#8224; 311.</td>
+  <td align='center'>2.<br /><span class="smcap">Hercules</span> &#8224; 309.</td>
+</tr>
+</table></div>
+
+
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+<p class="cblockquot">II. HOUSE OF ANTIPATER.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 90%;">
+<img src="images/i503-ii.png" width="100%" alt="" title="" />
+</div>
+
+<div class='center'>
+<table border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" summary="" width="70%">
+<tr>
+  <td colspan='4'><span class="smcap">Antipater</span> &#8224; 320.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr><td></td><td class="br">&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr>
+  <td colspan='4'><span class="smcap">Cassander</span> &#8224; 298, married Thessalonice.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr><td></td><td class="br"></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="bt bl"></td><td class="bt"></td><td class="bt"></td><td class="bt br"></td></tr>
+<tr>
+  <td><span class="smcap">Philip</span> &#8224; 297.</td>
+  <td colspan='2'><span class="smcap">Antipater</span> &#8224; 294.</td>
+  <td><span class="smcap">Alexander</span> &#8224; 294.</td>
+</tr>
+</table></div>
+
+
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+<p class="cblockquot">III. HOUSE OF ANTIGONUS.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 90%;">
+<img src="images/i503-iii.png" width="100%" alt="" title="" />
+</div>
+
+<div class='center'>
+<table border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" summary="">
+<tr>
+  <td colspan='7'><span class="smcap">Antigonus</span> &#8224; 301.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr><td></td><td class="br">&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr>
+  <td colspan='7'><span class="smcap">Demetrius I. Poliorcetes</span> &#8224; 284.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr><td></td><td class="br"></td></tr>
+<tr><td colspan="6" class="bl bt br"></td><td></td></tr>
+<tr>
+  <td>Stratonice.<br />married, 1. Seleucus I. 2. Antiochus I.</td>
+  <td  colspan='6'><span class="smcap">Antigonus I. Gonatas</span> &#8224; 242.<br />&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+<tr><td  colspan='4' class='br'></td></tr>
+<tr><td></td><td colspan="5" class="bl bt br"></td><td></td></tr>
+<tr>
+  <td></td>
+  <td colspan='2'><span class="smcap">Demetrius II.</span> &#8224; 233.</td>
+  <td>&nbsp;</td>
+  <td colspan='2'>Alcyoneus.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr><td></td><td class="br"></td><td></td><td></td><td class="br"></td></tr>
+<tr><td></td><td class="bt bl"></td><td class="bt br"></td><td></td><td class="bt bl"></td><td class="bt"></td><td class="bt br"></td></tr>
+<tr>
+  <td></td>
+  <td colspan='2'><span class="smcap">Philip II.</span> &#8224; 179.</td>
+  <td>&nbsp;</td>
+  <td colspan='3'><span class="smcap">Antigonus II. Doson</span> &#8224; 221.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr><td></td><td class="br"></td></tr>
+<tr><td></td><td class="bt bl"></td><td class="bt br"></td></tr>
+<tr>
+  <td></td>
+  <td align='center'><span class="smcap">Perseus</span> &#8224; 166.</td>
+  <td align='center'>Demetrius &#8224; 180.</td>
+</tr>
+</table></div>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 100%;" />
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_482" id="Page_482">[Pg 482]</a></span></p>
+
+<h3>II. GENEALOGICAL TABLE OF THE SELEUCID&AElig;.</h3>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 90%;">
+<img src="images/i504.png" width="100%" alt="" title="" />
+</div>
+
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+<div class='center'>
+<table border="0" cellpadding="6" cellspacing="0" summary="">
+<tr>
+  <td colspan='8'><span class="smcap">Seleucus I. Nicator</span> &#8224; 281.<br />married, 1. Apame. 2. Stratonice, daughter of Demetrius Poliorcetes.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr><td colspan='5' class="br"></td></tr>
+<tr><td></td><td colspan='7' class="bt bl br"></td></tr>
+<tr>
+  <td></td>
+  <td colspan='5'>1.<br /><span class="smcap">Antiochus I. Soter</span> &#8224; 262.<br />married, 1. Stratonice, his mother-in-law. 2. Anonymous.</td>
+  <td colspan='2'>2.<br />Phila<br />married Antigonus Gonatas king of Macedon.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr><td colspan='4' class="br"></td></tr>
+<tr><td colspan='8' class="bt bl br"></td></tr>
+<tr>
+  <td colspan='6'>1.<br /><span class="smcap">Antiochus II. Theos</span> &#8224; 247.<br />married, 1. Laodice, his sister-in-law. 2. Berenice, daughter of Ptol. Philad.</td>
+  <td>1.<br />Apame<br />married Magas of Cyrene.</td>
+  <td>2.<br />Laodice.<br />&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+<tr><td></td><td></td><td class="br"></td></tr>
+<tr><td colspan='8' class="bt bl br"></td></tr>
+<tr>
+  <td colspan='5'>1.<br /><span class="smcap">Seleucus II. Callinicus</span> &#8224; 227.<br />married Laodice, daughter of Andromachus, father of Ach&aelig;us.</td>
+  <td>1.<br />Antiochus Hierax.<br />&nbsp;</td>
+  <td colspan='2'>1.<br />Stratonice<br />married Ariarathes IV. of Cappadocia.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr><td></td><td></td><td class="bl"></td></tr>
+<tr><td></td><td colspan='7' class="bt bl br"></td></tr>
+<tr>
+  <td></td>
+  <td></td>
+  <td colspan='2'><span class="smcap">Seleucus III. Ceraunus</span> &#8224; 224.<br />&nbsp;</td>
+  <td colspan='2'>Stratonice<br />married Mithridates IV. of Pontus.</td>
+  <td colspan='2'><span class="smcap">Antiochus III. the Great</span> &#8224; 187.<br />married Laodice, daughter of Mithridates IV. of Pontus.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr><td colspan='7' class="br"></td></tr>
+<tr><td colspan='8' class="bt bl br"></td></tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='center'>Antiochus<br />&#8224; 192.</td>
+  <td align='center'>Laodice.</td>
+  <td align='center' colspan='3'><span class="smcap">Seleucus IV. Philopator</span> &#8224; 176.<br />married his sister Laodice.</td>
+  <td align='center' colspan='1'><span class="smcap">Antiochus IV. Epiphanes</span><br />&#8224; 164.</td>
+  <td align='center'>Cleopatra<br />married Ptolemy V.</td>
+  <td align='center'>Antiochis<br />married Ariarathes V. of Cappad.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr><td></td><td></td><td class="br"></td></tr>
+<tr><td colspan='4' class="bt bl br"></td><td></td><td class="bt bl br"></td></tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='center' colspan='2'><span class="smcap">Demetrius I.</span><br />&#8224; 150.</td>
+  <td align='center' colspan='2'>Laodice<br />married Perseus king of Maced.</td>
+  <td></td>
+  <td align='center' colspan='1'><span class="smcap">Antiochus V. Eupator</span> &#8224; 161.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr><td></td><td class="bl"></td></tr>
+<tr><td colspan='8' class="bt bl br"></td></tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='center' colspan='5'><span class="smcap">Demetrius II. Nicator</span> &#8224; 126.<br />married, 1. Cleopatra, daughter of Ptol. Philom. 2. Rhodogyne.</td>
+  <td align='center'></td>
+  <td align='center' colspan='2'><span class="smcap">Antiochus Sidetes</span> &#8224; 131.<br />married his daughter-in-law, Cleopatra.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr><td></td><td></td><td class="bl"></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td class="br"></td></tr>
+<tr><td></td><td colspan='4' class="bt bl br"></td><td></td><td colspan='2' class="bt bl br"></td></tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='center'></td>
+  <td align='center'><span class="smcap">Seleucus V.</span> &#8224; 125.</td>
+  <td align='center' colspan='3'><span class="smcap">Antiochus Gryphus</span> &#8224; 97.<br />married Cleopatra Selene, daughter of Ptol. Phys.</td>
+  <td align='center'></td>
+  <td align='center' colspan='2'><span class="smcap">Antiochus Cyzicenus</span> &#8224; 96.<br />married Cleopatra, daughter of Ptol. Phys.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr><td></td><td></td><td class="br"></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td class="br"></td></tr>
+<tr><td colspan='5' class="bt bl br"></td><td></td><td colspan='2' class="bt bl br"></td></tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='center'>Seleucus Epiph.<br />&#8224; 94.</td>
+  <td align='center'>Antioch. Epiph.<br />&#8224; 93.</td>
+  <td align='center'>Philippus Epiph.<br />&#8224; 83.</td>
+  <td align='center'>Demetr. Eucar.<br />&#8224; c. 87.</td>
+  <td align='center'>Antioch. Dionys.<br />&#8224; 89.</td>
+  <td></td>
+  <td align='center' colspan='2'><span class="smcap">Antiochus Eusebes</span> &#8224; c. 90.<br />married Cleopatra Selene.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td class="br"></td></tr>
+<tr><td  colspan='4'></td><td colspan='4' class="bt bl br"></td></tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='center' colspan='4'></td>
+  <td align='center' colspan='2'><span class="smcap">Antiochus Asiaticus</span><br />&#8224; 58.</td>
+  <td align='center' colspan='2'><span class="smcap">Seleucus Cybiosactes</span> &#8224; 57.<br />married Berenice, daughter of Ptol. Auletes.</td>
+</tr>
+</table></div>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 100%;" />
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_483" id="Page_483">[Pg 483]</a></span></p>
+
+<h3>III. GENEALOGICAL TABLE OF THE PTOLEMIES.</h3>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 90%;">
+<img src="images/i505.png" width="100%" alt="" title="" />
+</div>
+
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+<div class='center'>
+<table border="0" cellpadding="6" cellspacing="0" summary="">
+<tr>
+  <td colspan='10'><span class="smcap">Ptolemy</span> I. son of <span class="smcap">Lagus</span>  &#8224; 284.<br />married, 1. Eurydice, daughter of Antipater. 2. Berenice. (3. Concubines.)</td>
+</tr>
+<tr><td colspan='5' class="br"></td></tr>
+<tr><td></td><td colspan='9' class="bt bl br"></td></tr>
+<tr>
+  <td></td>
+  <td colspan='2'>1.<br />Ptol. Ceraunus  &#8224;  279.<br />king of Macedonia.<br />&nbsp;</td>
+  <td colspan='4'>2.<br /><span class="smcap">Ptol. II. Philadelphus</span> &#8224;  246.<br />married, 1. Arsinoe, daughter of Lysimachus.<br />2. His sister Arsinoe.</td>
+  <td>2.<br />Arsinoe<br />&nbsp;<br />&nbsp;</td>
+  <td colspan='2' align='center'>3.<br />Magas of Cyrene.<br />&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+<tr><td colspan='5' class="br"></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td class="bl"></td></tr>
+<tr><td></td><td></td><td colspan='5' class="bt bl br"></td><td></td><td colspan='2' class="bt bl br"></td></tr>
+<tr>
+  <td></td>
+  <td></td>
+  <td colspan='3'><span class="smcap">Ptol. III. Evergetes</span>  &#8224;  221.<br />Married Berenice, daughter of Magas.</td>
+  <td colspan='2'>Berenice<br />married Antiochus Theos.</td>
+  <td></td>
+  <td colspan='2' align='center'>Berenice<br />&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+<tr><td colspan='4' class="br"></td></tr>
+<tr><td colspan='5' class="bt bl br"></td></tr>
+<tr>
+  <td colspan='3'><span class="smcap">Ptol. IV. Philopator</span>  &#8224;  204.<br />married, 1. His sister Arsinoe.<br />(2. Agathoclea.)</td>
+  <td>Magas.<br />&nbsp;<br />&nbsp;</td>
+  <td>Arsinoe.<br />&nbsp;<br />&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+<tr><td colspan='1' class="br"></td></tr>
+<tr><td colspan='4' class="bt bl br"></td></tr>
+<tr>
+  <td colspan='4'><span class="smcap">Ptol. V. Ephiphanes</span> &#8224;  181.<br />married Cleopatra, daughter of Antiochus the Great.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr><td colspan='2' class="br"></td></tr>
+<tr><td colspan='10' class="bt bl br"></td></tr>
+<tr>
+  <td colspan='2'><span class="smcap">Ptol. VI. Philometor</span> &#8224;  145.<br />married his sister Cleopatra.</td>
+  <td colspan='1'>Cleopatra.<br />&nbsp;</td>
+  <td colspan='6'><span class="smcap">Ptol. VII. Physcon</span> &#8224;  117.<br />married, 1. His sister Cleopatra. 2. Cleopatra the younger. (3. Irene.)</td>
+</tr>
+<tr><td colspan='1' class="br"></td><td colspan='5' class="br"></td></tr>
+<tr><td colspan='2' class="bt bl br"></td><td></td><td colspan='7' class="bt bl br"></td></tr>
+<tr>
+  <td colspan='2'>Cleopatra the younger.<br />&nbsp; <br />&nbsp; </td>
+  <td></td>
+  <td colspan='2'>2.<br /><span class="smcap">Ptol. VIII. Lathyrus</span> &#8224;  81.<br />married, 1, 2. his two sisters.<br />(3. Concubines.)</td>
+  <td colspan='1'>2.<br />Cleop. Selene.<br />&nbsp;<br />&nbsp;</td>
+  <td colspan='2'>2.<br /><span class="smcap">Ptol. Alexander I.</span> &#8224;  88.<br />married Cleopatra, daughter of<br />Ptol. Lathyrus.</td>
+  <td colspan='1'>2.<br />Cleopatra.<br />&nbsp;<br />&nbsp;</td>
+  <td colspan='1'>3.<br />Ptol. Apion.<br />king of Cyrene,<br />&#8224; 97.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr><td colspan='2'></td><td colspan='5' class="br"></td></tr>
+<tr><td colspan='10' class="bt bl br"></td></tr>
+<tr>
+  <td colspan='1'>2.<br />Cleopatra &#8224; 88.<br />married Alex. I.</td>
+  <td colspan='1'>2.<br />Cl. Berenice.<br />&nbsp;</td>
+  <td colspan='2'>3.<br /><span class="smcap">Ptol. Auletes</span> &#8224;  51.<br />married, 1. His sister Cleop.<br />2. Unknown.</td>
+  <td colspan='1'>3.<br />Ptol. of Cyprus.<br />&#8224;  57.</td>
+  <td colspan='1'>3.<br />Cleopatra.<br />&nbsp;<br />&nbsp;</td>
+  <td colspan='2'><span class="smcap">Ptol. Alexander II.</span> &#8224;  80.<br />married Cleop. Berenice.</td>
+  <td colspan='2'> &#8224; <br />  &#8224; &nbsp; &nbsp;  &#8224;<br /><span class="smcap">Ptol. Alex. III.</span> &#8224;  66.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr><td colspan='3' class="br"></td></tr>
+<tr><td colspan='9' class="bt bl br"></td></tr>
+<tr>
+  <td colspan='2'>1.<br /><span class="smcap">Berenice</span> &#8224;  55.<br />married, 1. Seleucus Cybios.<br />2. Archelaus.</td>
+  <td colspan='2'>1.<br /><span class="smcap">Cleopatra</span> &#8224;  30.<br />married, 1. 2. her brothers.<br />(3. Jul. C&aelig;sar.) 4. Antony</td>
+  <td colspan='2'>2.<br /><span class="smcap">Ptol. Dionysius</span> &#8224;  47.<br />married Cleopatra.</td>
+  <td colspan='2'>2.<br />Ptol. the younger &#8224;  44.<br />married Cleopatra.</td>
+  <td colspan='1'><br />Arsinoe<br /> &#8224;  43.</td>
+</tr>
+
+</table></div>
+
+
+<hr style="width: 100%;" />
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_484" id="Page_484">[Pg 484]</a></span></p>
+
+<h3>IV. THE REIGNING HOUSES OF THE JEWS.</h3>
+
+<p class="cblockquot">HOUSE OF THE MACCABEES.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 90%;">
+<img src="images/i506-i.png" width="100%" alt="" title="" />
+</div>
+
+
+<div class='center'>
+<table border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" summary="">
+<tr>
+  <td colspan='6'>Mattathias &#8224; B. C. 166.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr><td></td><td class="br"></td></tr>
+<tr><td colspan="6" class="bl bt br"></td></tr>
+<tr>
+  <td>Judas Maccab&aelig;us,<br />general of the army &#8224; 161. &nbsp; &nbsp; </td>
+  <td>Jonathan,<br />high priest &#8224; 143.</td>
+  <td colspan='4'>Simon,<br />high priest and ethnarch, &#8224; 135.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr><td></td><td></td><td></td><td class="br"></td></tr>
+<tr><td></td><td></td><td colspan="4" class="bl bt br"></td></tr>
+<tr>
+  <td></td>
+  <td></td>
+  <td colspan='4'>John Hyrcanus &#8224; 107.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td class="bl"></td></tr>
+<tr><td></td><td></td><td colspan="5" class="bl bt br"></td></tr>
+<tr>
+  <td></td>
+  <td></td>
+  <td>Aristobulus I. &#8224; 106,<br />king and high priest.</td>
+  <td colspan='5'>Alex. I. Jann&aelig;us &#8224; 79.<br />married Alexandra.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td class="br"></td></tr>
+<tr><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td colspan="4" class="bl bt br"></td></tr>
+<tr>
+  <td></td>
+  <td></td>
+  <td></td>
+  <td colspan='4'>Hyrcanus II. &#8224; 30.<br />high priest and ethnarch.</td>
+  <td>Aristobulus.<br />&#8224; 49.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td class="br"></td></tr>
+<tr><td></td><td></td><td colspan="5" class="bl bt br"></td></tr>
+<tr>
+  <td></td>
+  <td></td>
+  <td colspan='4'>Alexander II. &#8224; 49.</td>
+  <td>Antigonus &#8224; 37.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr><td></td><td></td><td></td><td class="br"></td></tr>
+<tr><td></td><td></td><td colspan="4" class="bl bt br"></td></tr>
+<tr>
+  <td></td>
+  <td></td>
+  <td colspan='2'>Aristobulus &#8224; 34.<br />&nbsp;</td>
+  <td colspan='2'>Mariamne &#8224; 28.<br />married Herod the Great.</td>
+</tr>
+</table></div>
+
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+<p class="cblockquot">II. HOUSE OF HEROD.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 90%;">
+<img src="images/i506-ii.png" width="100%" alt="" title="" />
+</div>
+
+<div class='center'>
+<table border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" summary="">
+<tr>
+  <td></td>
+  <td></td>
+  <td colspan='6'>Antipater &#8224; 43.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td class="br"></td></tr>
+<tr><td></td><td></td><td colspan="5" class="bl bt br"></td></tr>
+<tr>
+  <td></td>
+  <td></td>
+  <td colspan='2'>Salome.<br />&nbsp;</td>
+  <td colspan='3'>Herod the Great &#8224; A. C. 3.<br />married, 1. Doris. 2. Mariamne. 3. Many others.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td class="br"></td></tr>
+<tr><td colspan="8" class="bl bt br"></td></tr>
+<tr>
+  <td> &nbsp; &nbsp; Antipater &nbsp; &nbsp; <br />&#8224; A. C. 3.<br />&nbsp;</td>
+  <td> &nbsp; &nbsp; Alexander &nbsp; &nbsp; <br />&#8224; B. C. 5.<br />&nbsp;</td>
+  <td colspan='2'>Aristobulus<br />&#8224; B. C. 5.</td>
+  <td colspan='2'>Archelaus,<br />ethnarch, deposed A. C. 6. &nbsp; <br />&nbsp;</td>
+  <td>Antipas,<br />tetrarch, deposed A. C. 39. &nbsp; <br />married Herodias.</td>
+  <td>Philip,<br />tetrarch, &#8224; A. C. 34.<br />&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+<tr><td></td><td></td><td class="br"></td></tr>
+<tr><td></td><td></td><td class="bt bl"></td><td class="bt br"></td></tr>
+<tr>
+  <td></td>
+  <td></td>
+  <td colspan='2'>Herod II. Agrippa<br />&#8224; A. C. 44.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr><td></td><td></td><td class="br"></td></tr>
+<tr><td></td><td></td><td class="bt bl"></td><td class="bt br"></td></tr>
+<tr>
+  <td></td>
+  <td></td>
+  <td colspan='2'>Herod Agrippa<br />&#8224; A. C. 100.</td>
+</tr>
+</table></div>
+
+
+<hr style="width: 100%;" />
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_485" id="Page_485">[Pg 485]</a></span></p>
+
+<h3>V. GENEALOGICAL TABLE OF THE C&AElig;SARS.</h3>
+
+<p class="cblockquot">I.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 90%;">
+<img src="images/i507-i.png" width="100%" alt="" title="" />
+</div>
+
+<div class='center'>
+<table border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" summary="">
+<tr><td align='center' colspan='6'>C. Julius C&aelig;sar, pr&aelig;tor, &#8224; 84.</td></tr>
+<tr><td></td><td></td><td class="br"></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="bl bt"></td><td class="bt"></td><td class="bt"></td><td class="bt"></td><td class="bt"></td><td class="bt br"></td></tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='center' colspan='2'><span class="smcap">C. Julius C&aelig;sar</span>, dictator,<br />&#8224; 44.</td>
+  <td align='center' colspan='2'></td>
+  <td align='center' colspan='2'>Julia &#8224; 52.<br />married Accius Balbus.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr><td></td><td class="bl"></td><td></td><td></td><td class="br"></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="bl bt"></td><td class="bt br"></td><td></td><td></td><td class="bl bt"></td><td class="bt br"></td></tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='center' colspan='2'>Julia &#8224; 52. married Pompey.</td>
+  <td align='center' colspan='2'></td>
+  <td align='center' colspan='2'>Accia &#8224; 42, married C. Octavius.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td class="br"></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="bt bl"></td><td class="bt"></td><td class="bt"></td><td class="bt"></td><td class="bt"></td><td class="bt br"></td></tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='center' colspan='2'>Octavia the elder<br />married M. Marcellus.<br />&nbsp;</td>
+  <td align='center' colspan='2'>Octavia the younger<br />married, 1. C. Marcellus.<br />2. Pompey. 3. M. Antony.</td>
+  <td align='center' colspan='2'><span class="smcap">C. Octavius</span> (<span class="smcap">C&aelig;sar Augustus</span>)<br />&#8224; A. C. 14 (see No. II.)<br />&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+</table></div>
+
+
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+<p class="cblockquot">II.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 90%;">
+<img src="images/i507-ii.png" width="100%" alt="" title="" />
+</div>
+
+<div class='center'>
+<table border="0" cellpadding="6" cellspacing="0" summary="">
+<tr>
+  <td colspan='2'></td>
+  <td colspan='6' align='center'><span class="smcap">C&aelig;sar Octavianus Augustus</span> &#8224; A. C. 14.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td colspan='2'></td>
+  <td align='right' colspan='2'>married, 1. Scribonia.</td>
+  <td align='left' colspan='4'>2. Livia, widow of Tiberius Claudius Nero.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr><td colspan='3' class='br'></td><td colspan='3' class="br"></td></tr>
+<tr><td colspan='4' class="bt bl br"></td><td></td><td colspan='8' class="bt bl br"></td></tr>
+<tr>
+  <td colspan='4'>1.<br />Julia  &#8224; A. C. 17.<br />married, 1. M. Cl. Marcellus. 2. Agrippa. 3. Tiberius.</td>
+  <td></td>
+  <td colspan='3'><br /><span class="smcap">Tiberius Nero</span>  &#8224; A. C. 37.<br />married, 1. Vipsania. 2. Julia.<br /><b>|</b></td>
+  <td> &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp;  &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; </td>
+  <td colspan='4'><br />Nero Claudius Drusus  &#8224; 9.<br />married Antonia the younger.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr><td colspan='2' class='br'></td><td colspan='9' class="br"></td></tr>
+<tr><td colspan='5' class="bt bl br"></td><td colspan='3'></td><td colspan='5' class="bt bl br"></td></tr>
+<tr>
+  <td>2.<br />C. C&aelig;sar<br />&#8224; A. C. 4.</td>
+  <td>2.<br />L. C&aelig;sar<br />&#8224; A. C. 2.</td>
+  <td>2.<br />Agrippina &#8224; A. C. 35.<br />married Germanicus.</td>
+  <td>2.<br />Julia<br />&#8224; A. C. 30.</td>
+  <td>2.<br />Agrippa Posthumus<br />&#8224; A. C. 14.</td>
+  <td colspan='2'>Drusus C&aelig;sar &#8224; A. C. 25.<br />&nbsp; <br />&nbsp;</td>
+  <td> &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp;  &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; </td>
+  <td colspan='3'>Germanicus <br /> &#8224; A. C. 19.<br />married Agrippina.</td>
+  <td colspan='2'><span class="smcap">Claudius</span> A. C. 54.<br />married, 1. Messalina.<br />2. Agrippina.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr><td colspan='9' class='br'></td><td colspan='3' class="br"></td></tr>
+<tr><td colspan='3'></td><td colspan='7' class="bt bl br"></td><td></td><td colspan='2' class="bt bl br"></td></tr>
+<tr>
+  <td></td>
+  <td></td>
+  <td></td>
+  <td>Nero <br /> &#8224; A. C. 29.</td>
+  <td>Drusus <br /> &#8224; A. C. 35.</td>
+  <td><span class="smcap">Caius Caligula</span><br /> &#8224; A. C. 41.</td>
+  <td colspan='3'>Agrippina<br />married, 1. Cn.<br />Domitius. 2. Claudius.</td>
+  <td> &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp;  &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; </td>
+  <td> &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp;  &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; </td>
+  <td>1.<br />Britannicus<br />&#8224; A. C. 34.</td>
+  <td>1.<br />Octavia<br />&#8224; A. C. 59.<br />married Nero.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr><td colspan='8' class="br"></td></tr>
+<tr><td colspan='5'></td><td colspan='6' class="bt bl br"></td></tr>
+<tr>
+  <td colspan='5'></td>
+  <td colspan='6'>1.<br /><span class="smcap">Domitius Nero</span> &#8224; A. C. 68.<br />married, 1. Octavia. 2. Popp&aelig;a Sabina</td>
+  <td></td>
+</tr>
+</table></div>
+
+
+<hr style="width: 100%;" />
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_486" id="Page_486">[Pg 486]</a></span></p>
+
+<h3>VI. GENEALOGICAL TABLE OF THE HOUSE OF CONSTANTINE.</h3>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 90%;">
+<img src="images/i508.png" width="100%" alt="" title="" />
+</div>
+
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+<div class='center'>
+<table border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" summary="">
+<tr><td align='center' colspan='13'><span class="smcap">Constantius Chlorus</span> &#8224; 306.<br />married, 1. Helena. 2. Theodora.</td></tr>
+<tr><td colspan='6'></td><td class='bl'></td></tr>
+<tr><td></td><td class='bt br bl' colspan='12'></td></tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='center'></td>
+  <td align='center' colspan='2'><span class="smcap">Constantine</span> the Great &#8224; 337.<br />married, 1. Minervina. 2. Fausta.</td>
+  <td align='center'></td>
+  <td align='center' colspan='3'>Constantia<br />married C. Valer <span class="smcap">Licinius</span>, C&aelig;sar,<br />&#8224; 324.</td>
+  <td align='center'></td>
+  <td align='center' colspan='2'>Jul. Constantius &#8224; 337.<br />married, 1. Galla. 2. Basilina.</td>
+  <td align='center'></td>
+  <td align='center' colspan='2'>Annibalianus.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr><td></td><td class="br"></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td class="br"></td><td></td><td></td><td class="br"></td><td></td><td></td><td class="br"></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="bt bl"></td><td class="bt"></td><td class="bt"></td><td class="bt br"></td><td></td><td class="bt bl"></td><td class="bt br"></td><td></td><td class="bt bl"></td><td class="bt br"></td><td></td><td class="bt bl"></td><td class="bt br"></td></tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='center'>1.<br /><span class="smcap">Crispus</span><br />&#8224; 326.</td>
+  <td align='center'>2.<br /><span class="smcap">Constantine</span><br />&#8224; 340.</td>
+  <td align='center'>2.<br /><span class="smcap">Constantius</span><br />&#8224; 361.</td>
+  <td align='center'>2.<br /><span class="smcap">Constans</span><br />&#8224; 350.</td>
+  <td></td>
+  <td align='center' colspan='2'>Fl. Valer. Licinius<br />&#8224; 326.<br />&nbsp;</td>
+  <td></td>
+  <td align='center'>1.<br />Gallus<br />&#8224; 354.</td>
+  <td align='center'>2.<br /><span class="smcap">Julian</span> (the apostate)<br />&#8224; 363.</td>
+  <td></td>
+  <td align='center'>Dalmatius<br />C&aelig;sar &#8224; 339.<br />&nbsp;</td>
+  <td align='center'>Annibalianus<br />&#8224; 338.<br />&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+</table></div>
+
+
+
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+<hr style="width: 15%;" />
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+The Project Gutenberg eBook, A Manual of Ancient History, by A. H. L.
+(Arnold Hermann Ludwig) Heeren
+
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+
+
+
+Title: A Manual of Ancient History
+       Particularly with Regard to the Constitutions, the Commerce, and the Colonies, of the States of Antiquity
+
+
+Author: A. H. L. (Arnold Hermann Ludwig) Heeren
+
+
+
+Release Date: May 21, 2012  [eBook #39747]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ISO-646-US (US-ASCII)
+
+
+***START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK A MANUAL OF ANCIENT HISTORY***
+
+
+E-text prepared by Adrian Mastronardi and the Online Distributed
+Proofreading Team (http://www.pgdp.net) from page images generously made
+available by Internet Archive/American Libraries
+(http://archive.org/details/americana)
+
+
+
+Note: Images of the original pages are available through
+      Internet Archive/American Libraries. See
+      http://archive.org/details/manualofancienth00heeriala
+
+
+
+
+
+A MANUAL OF ANCIENT HISTORY,
+
+Particularly with Regard to the Constitutions, the Commerce,
+and the Colonies, of the States of Antiquity.
+
+by
+
+A. H. L. HEEREN;
+
+Knight of the North Star and Guelphic Order;  Aulic Counsellor
+and Professor of History in the University of Goettingen; and
+Member of Several Other Learned Societies.
+
+Translated from the German.
+
+THE SECOND EDITION, CORRECTED AND IMPROVED.
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+Oxford:
+Published By D. A. Talboys.
+M DCCC XXXIII.
+
+Oxford: Printed by Talboys and Browne.
+
+
+
+
+TRANSLATOR'S PREFACE
+
+TO THIS EDITION.
+
+
+It is to the patient industry of the historians of Germany, that we are
+indebted for the first production of Manuals of history, and for those
+synchronistic tables which have so much facilitated the systematic study
+of ancient history; and among the various and profound treatises of this
+class which enrich and adorn their literature, the works of Heeren are
+distinguished by their extended range of enquiry, as well as by the
+minute accuracy of their details.
+
+The work before us embodies the result of his laborious researches
+during the long period in which he has been engaged as public lecturer
+and professor of history in the university of Goettingen; and if it be
+any recommendation of a work to know that its writer has had ample time,
+ability, and opportunity to collect and elaborate his materials, it may
+be asserted, without fear of contradiction, that the author of the
+present work possessed all these advantages in an eminent degree. He has
+spent the greater portion of his life in lecturing upon the subjects of
+which it treats, and has in every case gone for his information
+immediately to the fountain head. It forms, too, an important feature of
+his work, that a list of the original sources, whence his own knowledge
+has been drawn, is placed at the head of each section; another is added
+of the principal writers who have touched upon or illustrated the
+particular portion of history under notice; both being generally
+accompanied with a few words of judicious criticism, in which the value
+of the writer's authority is estimated, and his sources, circumstances,
+and prejudices, briefly, but fairly set forth. Besides this advantage,
+the work possesses the merit of combining the convenience of the Manuals
+with the synchronistic method of instruction; as the geography,
+chronology, and biography of the countries and states of the ancient
+world are brought at once under the eye of the reader; and so lucid is
+the arrangement, that the darkest and most entangled portions of history
+are seen in a clear and perspicuous light. Professor Heeren seems,
+moreover, to possess in a more eminent degree than any other writer, the
+power of forcing, by a very few words, the attention of the reader upon
+the most important facts of history; and of conjuring up in his thoughts
+a train of reflections calculated at once to instruct and enlarge the
+mind. His work is not only admirably adapted to become a text-book in
+the study of history, but will be found equally serviceable as a book of
+reference--it will guide the student in his untried and intricate
+course, and enable the more advanced scholar to methodize his collected
+stores. Perhaps in no work has so much important information been
+condensed into so small a compass.
+
+The estimation in which this Manual is held on the continent, may be
+gathered from the fact of its having passed through six large editions
+in German, and two in French, and from its having been translated into
+almost every language of Europe.
+
+The rapidity with which the first edition, as well as the other writings
+of professor Heeren, have sold in this country, is a proof that they
+only required to be known here in order to be appreciated. The favour
+with which these translations have been received, both by the venerable
+author himself and by the British public, has been a source of the
+highest gratification to the publisher. The encouragement, so kindly
+bestowed, has urged him to new exertions, the fruits of which, he
+trusts, will be observable in the present volume. The Manual has not
+only been revised and corrected throughout, but has also been diligently
+compared with the German, and has received such ameliorations as the
+original text or the English style seemed to demand. When it is added to
+this that a very numerous body of corrections and improvements have been
+sent to the publisher by professor Heeren himself, who has patiently
+examined the translation expressly for this edition, he trusts that the
+public will be satisfied that it is as faithful a copy of the original
+work as the nature of things will allow.
+
+In the preface to the last edition of this Manual the publisher
+announced his intention, should it be favourably received, of following
+it up by the publication of another elaborate work of the same author,
+viz. A Manual of the History of the States of Modern Europe and their
+Colonies, as forming one political System. This work will now very
+shortly appear. As an apology for the delay which has taken place, he
+begs to call to their notice another equally important work by the same
+author, which he has published in the mean time; the Historical
+Researches into the Politics, Intercourse, and Trade of the
+Carthaginians, Ethiopians, and Egyptians, with a general introduction;
+the remainder of this work, containing the Historical Researches into
+the Politics, Intercourse, and Trade of the Ancient Asiatic Nations--the
+Persians, Phoenicians, Babylonians, Scythians, and Hindoos, will
+appear in a few weeks.
+
+To add to the usefulness of the work, an analysis of the contents, with
+dates, has been given in the margin. The # prefixed to some of the books
+denote that they are written in German.
+
+    OXFORD,
+  _March, 1833_.
+
+
+
+
+PROFESSOR HEEREN'S WORKS.
+
+
+The following catalogue of the historical works of Professor Heeren, has
+been sent to the Publisher by the Professor himself. They are uniformly
+printed in German, in 15 vols. 8vo. and may always be had together or
+separate of the publisher of this volume.
+
+
+  VOL. I. II. III. Vermischte historische Schriften. (Miscellaneous
+    Historical Pieces).
+
+  VOL. I. Einleitung. Biographische Nachrichten ueber den Verfasser.
+    (Biographical Sketch of Heeren's Life, by himself.)
+
+    1. Entwickelung der politischen Folgen der Reformation fuer Europa.
+    (Development of the Consequences of the Reformation to the Politics
+    of Europe).
+
+    2. * Versuch einer Entwickelung des Ursprungs und Fortganges der
+    britischen Continental-interesse. (Essay on the Rise and Progress
+    of the British Continental interests). A translation of this Essay
+    will be appended to the Manual of the History of Modern Europe,
+    see vol. viii. ix. below.
+
+    3. Ueber den Einfluss der politischen Theorien auf Europa. (Of the
+    Influence of Political Theories on Europe).
+
+  VOL. II. 1. Ueber die Erhaltung der Nationalitaet besiegter Voelker.
+    (On the Method of Preserving the Nationality of Conquered States.)
+    Written in 1810, and suppressed by the French.
+
+    2. Entwickelung der Folgen der Kreuzzuege fuer Europa. (Development of
+    the Effects of the Crusades upon Europe: An essay which obtained the
+    prize of the French Institute in 1808).
+
+    3. Ueber den Einfluss der Normannen auf die franzoesische Sprache und
+    Poesie. (On the Influence of the Normans on the French Language and
+    Poetry).
+
+    4. Ueber die Colonisation von Aegypten, und ihre Folgen fuer Europa.
+    (On the Colonisation of Egypt, and its Probable Consequences to
+    Europe).
+
+    5. Der deutsche Bund in seinen Verhaltnisse zu Europa. (The
+    Influence of the German Federation upon Europe).
+
+  VOL. III. 1. Ueber den historischen Werth der Biographien Plutarch's.
+    (On the Historical Value of Plutarch's Lives).
+
+    2. Geschichte der buergerlichen Unruhen der Gracchen. (History of the
+    Civil Commotions under the Gracchi).
+
+    3. Fuenf archaeologische und antiquarische Aufsaetze. (Five
+    Archaeological and Antiquarian Tracts).
+
+  VOL. IV. V. Geschichte der classischen Litteratur im Mittelalter.
+    (History of Classical Literature During the Middle Ages).
+
+  VOL. VI. Biographische und litterarische Denkschriften. (Biographical
+    and Literary Memoirs).
+
+    1. Christian Gottlob. Heyne, biographisch dargestellt. (Biographical
+    Memoir of Heyne), the father-in-law of Heeren.
+
+    2. Andenken an deutsche Historiker. (Memoirs of German Historians.)
+
+  VOL. VII. * Handbuch der Geschichte der Staaten des Alterthums.
+    (Manual of Ancient History, of which this volume is the second
+    edition of the English translation).
+
+  VOL. VIII. IX. * Handbuch der Geschichte der europaeische
+    Staaten-systems und seiner Colonien. (Manual of the
+    History of the European States-system and their Colonies).
+
+  VOL. X. * Ideen ueber die Politik, den Verkehr und den Handel
+    des vornehmsten Staaten der alten Welt. (Researches into the
+    Politics, Intercourse, and Trade of the Principal States of
+    Antiquity,--Asiatic Nations). 1. General Introduction;
+    2. Persians.
+
+  VOL. XI. * Ideen, etc. (Asiatic Nations). 1. Phoenicians;
+    2. Babylonians; 3. Scythians.
+
+  VOL. XII. * Ideen, etc. (Asiatic Nations). Indians.
+
+  VOL. XIII. * Ideen, etc. (African Nations). 1. Carthaginians;
+    2. Ethiopians.
+
+  VOL. XIV. * Ideen, etc. (African Nations). Egyptians.
+
+  VOL. XV. * Ideen, etc. (European Nations). Greeks.
+
+
+Those with a * prefixed are translated into English, and are either now
+published or will very shortly be so.
+
+
+
+
+PREFACE
+
+TO THE FIRST EDITION.
+
+
+In adding to the number of Manuals on Ancient History already published,
+I feel myself bound to give an account of the plan on which the present
+has been executed.
+
+It was at first designed to be used in my public lectures, and from them
+it has grown up to what it now is. In them I did not consider it
+necessary to state all we know or think we know of ancient history. Many
+facts highly interesting to the learned historian are not adapted for
+public lectures. It was therefore my great object to make choice of such
+incidents as ought to be known by my pupils in order to the effectual
+prosecution of their historical studies. Consequently I have not
+extended my labours so far as to give an historical account of every
+nation, but have limited myself to those most remarkable for their
+general civilization and political eminence.
+
+The subjects to which I have particularly directed my attention are, the
+formation of states, the changes in their constitution, the routes by
+which commerce was carried on, the share which the different nations
+respectively took in its pursuit, and, as immediately connected with
+that department, their extension severally by means of colonies.
+
+The favourable reception which my larger work, executed after a
+different plan, has met with, would lead me to hope for a like
+indulgence in this new attempt, even if the spirit of the age did not so
+loudly call upon every historian to direct his chief attention to these
+subjects. And for this reason I could not rest satisfied with a mere
+detail of isolated facts, but have made it my study to follow the course
+of events, linking them into one connected chain; so as to represent
+them in a condensed form by continually and carefully forcing together
+the main circumstances which contributed to the development of the
+whole.
+
+Without this, history in general would be but a lifeless study, more
+especially that of republics, which were so numerous in ancient times,
+and which, from their constitution being made up of political parties,
+everywhere present the most difficult problems for the historian's
+solution. Of all the larger divisions of my work, the arrangement of the
+Greek history I have found most troublesome, on account of the number of
+little states into which it is sub-divided. Historians, indeed, lighten
+this labour by confining themselves merely to Athens and Sparta; but by
+so doing they give us a very imperfect knowledge of the subject. I have
+endeavoured to surmount the difficulty by throwing the account of the
+smaller states and their colonies into the second period; by which means
+I have been able in the third and most important portion, the interest
+of which depends entirely upon the principal states, to carry on my
+history, as a whole without interruption. But in case others, who wish
+to make this Manual the groundwork of their lectures, should dislike
+this arrangement, they may very easily attach these notices to the
+introductory geographical survey; a plan I very often adopt in my own
+lectures. Upon the arrangement of the other parts, I am not aware of the
+necessity of making any observations. The sources from which I have
+drawn my materials are specified in every section. Particular references
+do not come within my plan; and if I have referred several times in the
+first two sections to my larger work, it is only on particular points,
+explanations of which may be sought for in vain elsewhere.
+
+Some knowledge of ancient geography and the use of maps[a], if it has
+not been previously acquired by the student, should, I am convinced,
+always be connected with lectures on ancient history. That this need not
+extend to detailed explanations of ancient geography, but that it should
+be restricted to what is merely useful in the study of history, I have
+observed in the body of my work. The geographical chapters which are
+interspersed having been written with this intent, will, I hope, be
+judged of accordingly. I have taken care to arrange them so as to
+include the whole of the ancient world; it depends, therefore, only upon
+the teacher to form a more or less extensive course upon them.
+
+  [a] I have made use of D'Anville.
+
+With regard to chronology, I have followed throughout the same uniform
+plan of computing time, viz. to and from the birth of Christ. By
+preferring this method, so convenient and certain, to the inconvenient
+and uncertain one of reckoning from the year of the world, I hope I have
+deserved the thanks of my readers. I relinquish, on the other hand, all
+claim to merit on the score of having more accurately defined the
+chronology of events which occur before the time of Cyrus. I have, on
+the contrary, in this part of my labour, often stated round numbers,
+where, in many modern publications, precise dates may be found. Exact
+determinations of time are only necessary, in my opinion, where a
+continuous development of circumstances takes place; not where
+unconnected facts are recorded.
+
+The transactions of our own times have thrown a light upon ancient
+history, and given it an interest which it could not formerly possess. A
+knowledge of history, if not the only, is at least the most certain
+means of obtaining a clear and unprejudiced view of the great drama now
+performing around us. All direct comparisons, notwithstanding the many
+opportunities which have tempted me, I considered as foreign to my plan;
+but if, notwithstanding in some chapters of my work, particularly in the
+history of the Roman republic, I may be thought to make a reference to
+the transactions of the ten years during which this work has been
+published, I do not consider it necessary to offer any excuse for so
+doing. Of what use is the study of history if it do not make us wiser
+and better? unless the knowledge of the past teach us to judge more
+correctly of the present? Should I have contributed in any measure to
+promote this object, and should I be so fortunate as to lead the minds
+of my young friends to a deeper study of a science which can only in
+this way reward its admirers, I shall esteem it the most delightful
+recompense my labour can receive.
+
+GOETTINGEN, Sept. 23, 1799.
+
+
+
+
+PREFACE
+
+TO THE SECOND AND FOLLOWING EDITIONS.
+
+
+The call for a second edition of my Manual imposes upon me an obligation
+to supply the deficiencies of my former work. Corrections have been
+carefully made, and many parts completely re-written. A select list of
+books which treat of the respective departments of my subject is now
+first added; the former edition containing only references to the
+sources from which my facts were derived. This, I trust, will be
+considered an essential service to the friends of historical science,
+more especially the young, for whom and not for the learned these
+additions have been made. Their use in this place is particularly
+obvious, where it is in every one's power to procure the books referred
+to[b]. The short criticisms subjoined, where it seemed necessary, will
+serve as guides for their use. In the author's department of the work
+but little has been changed, while its form and appearance have been
+improved by the use of different types, by more accurate running titles,
+and by ranging the dates in the margin. By the adoption of the latter
+method the increase in the number of pages is rendered inconsiderable,
+notwithstanding the numerous additions which have been made to the
+matter. In its arrangement, this work is the same as my Manual of the
+History of the European States and their Colonies. Beyond this, however,
+these works have no relation to each other, but have been executed upon
+quite different principles; the present as a history of the _separate_
+states of the ancient world, and the other as a general history of
+modern states and their colonies, as forming altogether one political
+system. Each, however, forms a complete work in itself, and it is by no
+means my intention to fill up the gulf which time has placed between
+them.
+
+  [b] [The author alludes to the public library at Goettingen. TR.]
+
+I regret that the acute researches of M. Volney[c], upon the chronology
+of Herodotus before the time of Cyrus, came too late into my hands to be
+made use of in its proper place in my second edition. In the third this
+has been done. I lay claim, at the same time, to the thanks of the
+reader for giving, in an Appendix, the results of these researches,
+together with references to the passages by which they are supported;
+leaving out, however, all extraneous matter, and everything that cannot
+be proved by the positive assertions of the father of history.
+
+  [c] Chronologie d'Herodote, conforme a son Texte par C. F. Volney.
+      Paris, 1809, 3 vols. See the _Goett. Gel. Anz._ for 1810 and 1816.
+
+I cannot close this preface without again recurring to the advantage of
+the mode now becoming more and more general, of computing time in
+ancient history according to the number of years before Christ. The fact
+of its being certain and convenient has often been remarked; but besides
+this it possesses the great advantage of giving us at once a clear and
+precise notion of the interval that separates us from the incidents
+recorded; which it is impossible to obtain by the use of any other era,
+whether the year of the world, the olympiads, or the year of Rome, etc.
+And yet this peculiar advantage, so great in the eyes of the teacher,
+has not, to the best of my knowledge, been hitherto made the subject of
+remark. Even for the science of history itself, this circumstance is of
+greater moment than might be at first supposed. Should an enquirer arise
+who would closely examine all ancient history according to this
+era--setting out from the generally received year of the birth of Christ
+as from a fixed point, to which the labours of M. Volney are a good
+beginning--the whole science would thereby acquire a firmer consistency.
+For by this method all dates would not appear equally certain and
+equally uncertain, as they do in the eras which are computed from the
+year of the world; but it would be shown what is chronologically
+certain, what only probable, and what completely uncertain, according as
+we should recede from the clearer into the more obscure regions of
+history. The old manner of reckoning from the year of the world, in
+which congruity was impossible, because there was no agreement upon the
+point to start from, would certainly be thrown aside; but where is the
+harm if something better and more certain be substituted in its place?
+
+In the third, fourth, fifth, and sixth editions, though the increase in
+the number of pages is small, yet all those additions and corrections
+which I deemed necessary, and which the progress of knowledge and
+discovery, as in the case of Egypt and other countries, enabled me to
+effect, have been most carefully and fully made. The importance of these
+will be best seen by comparison.
+
+_Goettingen_, 1828.
+
+
+
+
+CONTENTS.
+
+
+                                                                  Page
+  INTRODUCTION                                                       1
+
+
+  Book I. Asiatic and African states previous to Cyrus              15
+
+  General geographical outline of Asia                             ib.
+
+  Preliminary and General Observations upon the History and
+    Constitution of the great Asiatic Empires                       22
+
+  History of the ancient Asiatic kingdoms before the reign of
+    Cyrus                                                           25
+
+    I. Assyrian monarchy                                           ib.
+
+    II. Median monarchy                                             26
+
+    III. Babylonian monarchy                                        27
+
+    IV. States in Asia Minor                                        29
+      1. Trojan empire                                             ib.
+      2. Phrygian empire                                           ib.
+      3. Lydian empire                                             ib.
+
+    V. Phoenicia                                                    30
+
+    VI. Syrians                                                     33
+
+    VII. Jews                                                       34
+      1. Period of the Nomad state from Abraham till the conquest
+        of Palestine                                                35
+      2. Period of the federative republic                          36
+      3. Period of the monarchy from B. C. 1100-600                 38
+        The Jewish state as one single kingdom                     ib.
+        The Jewish state as a divided kingdom                       40
+
+  African Nations                                                   45
+
+  General geographical outline of Ancient Africa                   ib.
+
+    I. Egyptians                                                    47
+
+      1st Period. From the earliest times down to the Sesostridae,
+        about B. C. 1500                                            51
+
+      2nd Period. From the Sesostridae till the sole dominion
+        of Psammetichus, B. C. 1500-650                             62
+
+      3rd Period. From the reign of Psammetichus to the
+        Persian conquest of Egypt by Cambyses, B. C. 650-525        69
+
+    II. Carthaginians                                               73
+
+      1st Period. From the foundation of Carthage to the
+        wars with Syracuse, B. C. 880-480                           74
+
+      2nd Period. From the breaking out of the wars with
+        Syracuse to the commencement of those with Rome,
+        B. C. 480-264                                               80
+
+      3rd Period. From the beginning of the wars with
+        Rome to the downfal of Carthage, B. C. 264-146              82
+
+
+  Book II. History of the Persian empire from B. C. 560-330         90
+
+
+  Book III. History of the Grecian states                          112
+
+  Geographical outline of Greece                                   ib.
+
+    1st Period. Traditional history down to the Trojan war,
+      about B. C. 1200                                             118
+
+    2nd Period. From the Trojan war to the breaking out
+      of the Persian war, B. C. 1200-500                           127
+
+  History of the Hellenic states within Greece                     ib.
+    General history                                                ib.
+    Sparta                                                         131
+    Athens                                                         136
+
+  Principal data for the history of the smaller states:
+
+  I. Within the Peloponnesus:
+    _a._ Arcadia                                                   142
+    _b._ Argos                                                     ib.
+    _c._ Corinth                                                   143
+    _d._ Sicyon                                                    144
+    _e._ Achaia                                                    ib.
+    _f._ Elis                                                      145
+
+  II. Central Greece, or Hellas:
+    _a._ Megaris                                                   146
+    _b._ Boeotia                                                   147
+    _c._ Phocis                                                    148
+    _d._ Locris                                                    ib.
+    _e._ Aetolia                                                    ib.
+    _f._ Acarnania                                                 149
+
+  III. Northern Greece:
+    _a._ Thessaly                                                  149
+    _b._ Epirus                                                    150
+
+  IV. Grecian Islands:
+    _a._ Corcyra                                                   151
+    _b._ Aegina                                                     ib.
+    _c._ Euboea                                                    152
+    _d._ The Cyclades                                              ib.
+    _e._ Crete                                                     ib.
+    _f._ Cyprus                                                    154
+
+  History of the Grecian colonies                                  155
+
+  General observations                                             ib.
+
+  Colonies on the Western coast of Asia Minor:                     157
+    1. Aeolian colonies                                            158
+    2. Ionian colonies                                             159
+    3. Dorian colonies                                             161
+
+  Colonies on the coast of the Propontis and the Black sea         162
+
+  Colonies on the coasts of Thrace and Macedonia                   163
+
+  Colonies on the western coast of Greece                          164
+
+  Grecian settlements in Lower Italy:
+    _a._ Tarentum                                                  165
+    _b._ Croton                                                    166
+    _c._ Sybaris                                                   ib.
+    _d._ Thurii                                                    167
+    _e._ Locri Epizephyrii                                         ib.
+    _f._ Rhegium                                                   168
+    _g._ Cumae                                                     ib.
+
+  Grecian settlements in Sicily:
+    _a._ Syracuse                                                  169
+    _b._ Agrigentum                                                174
+    _c._ The smaller Sicilian cities                               175
+
+  Colonies in Sardinia and Corsica                                 ib.
+
+  Colonies in Gaul;--Massilia                                      176
+
+  Colonies in Spain;--Saguntum                                     ib.
+
+  Colonies in Africa;--Cyrene                                      ib.
+
+  Period III. From the breaking out of the Persian wars to
+    Alexander the Great, B. C. 500-336                             178
+
+
+  Book IV. History of the Macedonian Monarchy:
+
+  Period I. From its origin to the death of Alexander the
+    Great, B. C. 800-323                                           206
+
+  Period II. History of the Macedonian monarchy, from the death
+    of Alexander the Great to the battle of Ipsus, B. C. 323-301   222
+
+  Period III. History of the separate kingdoms and states
+    which arose out of the dismemberment of the Macedonian
+    monarchy, after the battle of Ipsus                            232
+
+    I. History of the Syrian empire under the Seleucidae
+      B. C. 312-64                                                 232
+
+    II. History of the Egyptian kingdom under the Ptolemies,
+      B. C. 323-30                                                 247
+
+    III. History of Macedonia itself and of Greece, from the
+      death of Alexander to the Roman conquest, B. C. 323-146      268
+
+      Achaean league                                               280
+      Aetolian league                                              279
+
+    IV. History of some smaller or more distant kingdoms
+      and states formed out of the Macedonian monarchy             290
+
+      The kingdom of Pergamus                                      291
+      Bithynia                                                     293
+      Paphlagonia                                                  294
+      Pontus                                                       295
+      Cappadocia                                                   297
+      Armenia                                                      298
+      The kingdom of Parthia                                       299
+      The kingdom of Bactria                                       305
+      The restored kingdom of the Jews                             306
+        1. Under the Persians                                      307
+        2. Under the Ptolemies and Seleucidae                      308
+        3. Under the Maccabees                                     309
+        4. Under the family of Herod                               311
+
+
+  Book V. History of the Roman state:
+
+  Introductory remarks on the Geography of Ancient Italy           314
+
+    Period I. From the foundation of Rome to the conquest of
+      Italy, and the commencement of the wars with Carthage,
+      B. C. 754-264, or A. U. C. 1-490                             321
+
+    Period II. From the commencement of the war with Carthage
+      to the rise of the civil broils under the Gracchi,
+      B. C. 264-134, or A. U. C. 490-620                           339
+
+    Period III. From the beginning of the civil broils under
+      the Gracchi to the fall of the republic, B. C. 134-30,
+      or A. U. C. 620-724                                          362
+
+    Period IV. History of the Roman state as a monarchy till the
+      overthrow of the western empire, B. C. 30-A. C. 476          402
+
+  Geographical outline. View of the Roman empire and provinces,
+    and other countries connected with it by war or commerce       ib.
+
+    1st Section. From Augustus Caesar to the death of
+      Commodus, B. C. 30-A. C. 193                                 411
+
+    2nd Section. From the death of Commodus to Diocletian,
+      A. C. 193-284                                                437
+
+    3rd Section. From Diocletian to the overthrow of the
+      Roman empire in the west, A. C. 284-476                      454
+
+
+  Appendix. Chronology of Herodotus from the time of Cyrus,
+    according to Volney                                            475
+
+
+  Genealogical Table of the reigning houses of Macedon             481
+
+  -------------------------------------------- the Seleucidae      482
+
+  -------------------------------------------- the Ptolemies       483
+
+  -------------------------------------------- the Jews            484
+
+  -------------------------------------------- the Caesars         485
+
+  -------------------------------------------- Constantine         486
+
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+OXFORD: PRINTED BY TALBOYS AND BROWNE.
+
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+MANUAL
+
+OF
+
+ANCIENT HISTORY.
+
+
+
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+INTRODUCTION.
+
+
+  I. The sources of ancient history may be ranged under two heads;
+  the ancient writers, and the monuments still extant. The various
+  writers will be mentioned in their proper places, at the different
+  divisions of this work. A general view of the ancient monuments, so
+  far as they are sources of history, will be found in:
+
+  OBERLIN, _Orbis antiqui monumentis suis illustrati primae lineae_.
+  Argentorati, 1790. Extremely defective, as many discoveries have
+  been made since it was published.
+
+  II. GENERAL TREATISES ON ANCIENT HISTORY.
+
+  1. _The more voluminous works_ on the subject. These may be divided
+  in two classes: _a._ The part appropriated to ancient history, in
+  the general treatises on universal history; _b._ Works exclusively
+  devoted to ancient history.
+
+  _a._ To the first class belong:
+
+  _The Universal History, ancient and modern; with maps and
+  additions._ Lond. 1736, 26 vols. folio. Reprinted in 8vo. in 67
+  vols. and again in 60 vols. with omissions and additions.
+
+  This work, compiled by a society of British scholars, has been
+  translated into German, and illustrated with remarks, by SIEGM.
+  JAC. BAUMGARTEN. Halle, 1746, 4to. The Germans frequently designate
+  it by the name of the Halle Universal History of the World: the
+  first eighteen vols. comprise the ancient part.
+
+  WILL. GUTHRIE, JOHN GRAY, _etc._ _General History of the World,
+  from the creation to the present time._ London, 1764-1767, 12 vols.
+  8vo. This work, of no estimation in the original, is rendered
+  valuable and useful by the labours of the German translator, C. G.
+  HEYNE, (_Leip._ 1766, 8vo.) who has corrected the errors, inserted
+  the dates, and added his own observations.
+
+  _b._ To the second class belong:
+
+  ROLLIN, _Histoire ancienne des Egyptiens, des Carthaginois, des
+  Assyriens, des Medes el des Perses, des Macedoniens, des Grecs._
+  Paris, 1824, 12 vols. 8vo.; revue par LETRONNE: the last and best
+  edition. This work, which greatly promoted the study of ancient
+  history in France, still maintains its well-earned reputation. [It
+  was translated into English, 1768: best edition, 7 vols. 8vo.:
+  frequently reprinted.] The above is generally accompanied by the
+  _Histoire Romaine_ of the same author. See below, book v. first
+  period, _Sources_.
+
+  JAC. BEN. BOSSUET, _Discours sur l'Histoire Universelle_. Paris,
+  1680, 3 vols. Frequently reprinted, being considered by the French
+  one of their classics.
+
+  [English translation, by RICH. SPENCER. London, 1730, 8vo.]
+
+  MILLOT, _Elemens de l'Histoire Generale_. Paris, 1772, sq.
+  [Translated into English, 1778, 2 vols. 8vo.: and again, an
+  improved edition, with additions.] Edinb. 1823, 6 vols. 8vo. The
+  ancient history is contained in the first two volumes.
+
+  # JOH. MATTH. SCHROECKH, _General History of the World_, for the
+  use of children. Leipzic, 1779, sq. 6 vols.
+
+  # J. G. EICHHORN, _History of the Ancient World_, 1799, third
+  edition, 1817. (First part of the History of the World.)
+
+  # DAN. G. J. HUEBLER, _Sketch of the General History of the Nations
+  of Antiquity, from the birth of states to the end of the Roman
+  commonwealth_. Freyberg, 1798-1802. Five parts; and a continuation:
+  _History of the Romans under the Emperors, and of the contemporary
+  Nations, until the great migration_, 1803; three parts. A work
+  rendered extremely useful, by the judicious advantage taken by the
+  author of the labours of other writers.
+
+  # H. LUDEN, _General History of Nations_. 1814; three parts.
+
+  # L. VON DRESCH, _General Political History_. 1815; three parts. In
+  each of the above works the first part contains the ancient
+  history, and exhibits the more modern views of the subject.
+
+  [The following is added, as well deserving the attention of the
+  English student: RALEGH (Sir WALTER) _History of the World, Part I.
+  extending to the end of the Macedonian Empire; with his Life and
+  Trial, by Mr. Oldys_. Lond. 1736, 2 vols. folio. Formerly the best
+  edition; but a new and improved one has been printed at the
+  Clarendon press. Oxford, 1829, 8 vols. 8vo.]
+
+  # F. VON RAUMER, _Lectures on Ancient History_, parts 1, 2. Berlin,
+  1821.
+
+  Works furnishing illustrations of the progressive civilization,
+  government, and commerce of early nations, although, strictly
+  speaking, not treatises on ancient history, are nevertheless very
+  closely connected with the subject. Among these may be mentioned:
+
+  GOGUET, _De l'Origine des Lois, des Arts, et des Sciences, et de
+  leurs progres chez les anciens peuples; nouv. edit_. Paris, 1778.
+  [Translated by Dr. DUNN and Mr. SPEERMAN. Edinb. 1761-1775, 3 vols.
+  8vo.]
+
+  # A. H. L. HEEREN, _Reflections on the Politics, Intercourse, and
+  Trade of the most eminent Nations in the Ancient World_. Third
+  edition, with many additions. Gottingen, 1815, 8vo.; the third
+  part, 1821. Fourth edition. Gottingen, 1824. [This edition, the
+  last, contains many improvements and additions, suggested by the
+  great discoveries of modern travellers. Part I, Asiatic Nations, in
+  3 vols. Persians, Phoenicians, Babylonians, Scythians, Indians. An
+  English translation of which is at this moment in the press. Part
+  II, African Nations, 2 vols. Carthaginians, Ethiopians, Egyptians.
+  Part III, European Nations; of which only 1 volume, Greeks, has
+  been published.]
+
+  2. _Manuals_, or epitomes.
+
+  The Germans are entitled to the merit of having first produced
+  manuals of ancient history, all of them useful, some excellent, in
+  their kind: they are a result of the progress made in this science
+  at the universities.
+
+  # J. CHR. GATTERER, _Attempt at an Universal History of the World
+  to the discovery of America_. Gottingen, 1792. He who possesses
+  this, the last and ripest fruit of Gatterer's studies, may dispense
+  with the earlier manuals published by that author.
+
+  # CHR. DAN. BECK, _A Short Introduction to the Knowledge of the
+  Universal History of the World and of Nature_. Leipzic, 1798. The
+  first part connected with our subject extends to A. D. 843. This
+  volume is enriched with such a copious and critical account of
+  books relating to ancient history, that it may supply the place of
+  a particular work on the subject.
+
+  # J. A. REMER, _Manual of the more Ancient History, from the
+  creation of the world to the great migration_. Fourth edition.
+  Brunswick, 1832.
+
+  # J. M. SCHROECKH, _Manual of Universal History_. 1774: latest
+  edition, 1795.
+
+  # G. S. BREDOW, _Manual of Ancient History, with a sketch of the
+  chronology of the ancients_. Altona, 1799, 8vo. [Translated into
+  English. Lond. 1828, 12mo. In English we have:
+
+  _The Outlines of History_, in 1 vol. (forming part of Lardner's
+  Cabinet Cyclopaedia) by Mr. KEIGHTLY, author of a learned and
+  highly useful work on Grecian Mythology, is a convenient
+  abridgement. TYTLER'S _Elements of General History_, improved and
+  continued by Dr. NARES. Lond. 1825, best edition; owes its
+  reputation and success to the want of a better work on the
+  subject.]
+
+  3. _Helps._
+
+  Among the works subservient to the study of ancient history, the
+  first rank is justly due to the synchronistic tables.
+
+  # D. G. J. HUEBLER, _Synchronistic Tables of the History of
+  Nations_; arranged principally according to GATTERER'S _History of
+  the World_. In two numbers. Second edit. 1799 and 1804.
+
+1. The object of POLITICAL HISTORY is to recount the destinies of
+nations, both in respect to their foreign relations and internal
+affairs. In regard to domestic concerns, one of its most important
+objects is the _history of governments_: in respect to external affairs,
+it comprises not only an account of the wars, but likewise of the
+friendly relations and intercourse with other states.
+
+  Observe here the difference between universal history, or general
+  history of the human race, and the history of nations; the latter
+  forms part of the former. Observe also the difference between
+  political history and that of civilization, or of man as a human
+  being: the latter is merely the history of man, as man, without
+  regard to political circumstances.
+
+2. Universal political history is usually divided into three parts:
+_ancient history_, that of the _middle ages_, and _modern history_. The
+first extends to the fall of the Roman empire in the west, which took
+place towards the close of the fifth century of the christian era; the
+second extends to the discovery of America, and of a passage by sea to
+the East Indies, about the end of the fifteenth century; the third
+extends from the commencement of the sixteenth century to the present
+time.
+
+  The propriety of the above division is evinced by the nature of the
+  events which form these epochs. The student will easily perceive that
+  the division of history, into that before and after the birth of
+  Christ, is not judicious.
+
+3. From the definition just given, it follows, that political history
+does not commence till after the first formation of states. Whatever is
+known, therefore, of the period previous to this, or may be gathered
+from traditions, respecting individuals or tribes, or their migrations,
+affinities, or discoveries, forms no part of political history, but must
+be referred to the general history of man.
+
+  It is well known that a great deal of information has been preserved
+  in the sacred writings concerning the early fortunes of the human
+  race. From these materials have been compiled what has been called
+  an _Historia Antediluviana_, sometimes considered as forming a
+  separate division of history. What has been said above will
+  satisfactorily account for the omission of this portion of history
+  in the present work; although none can deny the high importance of
+  such traditions in the investigation of the origin, dispersion, and
+  civilization of the human race.
+
+4. The sources of history may be ranged under sources of two general
+heads; _oral traditions_, and _written documents_ of various kinds. The
+history of every nation usually commences with oral tradition, which
+remains the only source, until the art of writing becomes known, and in
+some degree adopted by the people.
+
+5. Under the name of _traditional history_ or _mythology_, is
+comprehended all the general collection of oral traditions preserved by
+a nation; and some such traditional history or mythology is to be found
+among every people in the first stage of their existence as a community.
+This mythology, however, is by no means confined to events strictly
+historical, but embraces every branch of information which may appear to
+a nation in its infancy, of sufficient importance to be preserved and
+handed down to posterity.
+
+  Hence the mythology of a people is invariably composed of very
+  heterogeneous materials; it not only preserves the remembrance of
+  various kinds of historical facts, but likewise the pervading ideas
+  of the people with respect to the nature and worship of their
+  deities; as well as the notions they had formed from observations
+  and experience respecting astronomy, morals, the arts, etc. All
+  these are handed down in the form of historical narrative; because
+  man, as yet unpractised in abstract thinking, necessarily
+  represents every thing to his mind under the figure of some
+  physical object. It is just as useless, therefore, to attempt to
+  mould the mythology of any people into a consistent and connected
+  whole, or indeed into any scientific system whatsoever, as it is
+  difficult to draw a strict line between what belongs to mythology,
+  and what to pure history. It follows, therefore, that mythology
+  should be employed by the historian with great caution; and not
+  without judicious criticism, and an accurate knowledge of
+  antiquity.
+
+  These correct views of mythology,--the key to the whole of earlier
+  antiquity,--were first set forth and illustrated by Heyne, in his
+  commentaries upon Virgil and other poets, in his edition of
+  Apollodorus, and in various essays published in the Transactions of
+  the Gottingen Scientific Society. It is principally to the aid of
+  these that the Germans owe their superiority over other nations in
+  the science of antiquity.
+
+6. The place of writing among such nations, is generally supplied, in a
+great measure, by poetry; which being in its origin nothing more than
+imagery expressed in figurative language, must spontaneously arise among
+men, as yet wont to represent every thing to their minds under the form
+of images. Hence the subject matter of the poetry of every nation, while
+in a state of rudeness, is and can be nothing else but its mythology;
+and the great variety in the materials of which this is composed very
+naturally gave rise, at the same early period, to various kinds of
+poetry; as the lyric, the didactic, the epic. The last of these,
+inasmuch as it contains the historic songs and the epopee, claims in a
+more especial manner the attention of the historian.
+
+  The mythi (or fables of which this mythology was composed) were in
+  later times frequently collected from the works of the poets, and
+  committed to writing by grammarians; such as Apollodorus and
+  others. This, however, can have had no effect on their original
+  character.
+
+7. The second source of history, much more copious and important than
+the former, are the various kinds of written monuments. These may be
+arranged according to the order of time at which they were brought into
+use, into three classes; 1st. Inscriptions on public monuments, under
+which head are included the coins of later date; 2nd. Chronological
+records of events, under the form of annals and chronicles; 3rd. Real
+philosophical works on history.
+
+8. Inscriptions on public monuments erected to preserve the remembrance
+of certain events, though perhaps no more than a stone set upright, or
+even a bare rock, was used for that purpose, were undoubtedly the most
+ancient written memorials. These rude monuments became fashioned by art
+into columns, obelisks, and pyramids, as the taste of the nation became
+formed; and assumed that definite character which local circumstances
+and the natural features of the country led it to adopt, as architecture
+arose and attained to perfection among them. The very object, indeed,
+for which they were erected--the commemoration of remarkable
+events,--must have suggested the practice of inscribing upon them some
+particulars of the facts they were intended to perpetuate. Of this
+nature, no doubt, were the oldest monuments, and more particularly those
+of Egypt. Their use was much more general among nations of a later
+period, especially Greece and Rome, than among the moderns; yet of the
+great mass of inscriptions still extant, but few comparatively are of
+any importance as regards history.
+
+  The characters engraved on these monuments were either symbolical
+  (hieroglyphics; see below under Egypt,) or alphabetical. The
+  invention and transmission of alphabetical writing are commonly
+  ascribed to the Phoenicians; although, if we may judge by the shape
+  of the arrow-headed character, it was made, without communication
+  with them, in the interior of Asia.
+
+  The general collections of inscriptions are:
+
+  LUD. ANT. MURATORI, _Novus Thesaurus veterum Inscriptionum_.
+  Mediolani, 1739, sq. 4 vols. fol. Together with SEB. DONATI,
+  _Supplementa_. Luccae, 1764. JAN. GRUTERI, _Inscriptiones antiquae
+  totius orbis Romani, cura_ J. G. GRAEVII. Amstel. 1707, 2 vols. fol.
+
+  C. A. BOEKHIUS, _Corpus Inscriptionum Graecarum, auctoritate et
+  impensis Academiae literarum Borussicae_, vol. 1. 1827, folio.
+
+  Among the separate monuments, the most important for ancient
+  history is the Parian or Oxford Inscription, _Marmora Oxoniensia,
+  Arundeliana_, edited by SELDEN, 1629; by PRIDEAUX, 1677. The best
+  edition is by RICH. CHANDLER, Oxf. 1763, fol. A useful and portable
+  edition has been published by FR. CH. WAGNER, _containing the Greek
+  text, with a German translation and notes_. Gottingen, 1790, 8vo.
+
+9. Coins may likewise be regarded as a source of ancient history, as by
+the light they throw upon genealogy and chronology, the events known
+from other authorities may be better arranged and understood. The
+importance of coins, therefore, becomes most sensible in those portions
+of history where our information, in consequence of the loss of the
+works of the original historians, is reduced to a few insulated facts
+and fragments.
+
+  EZ. SPANHEMII, _Dissertatio de Usu et Praestantia Numismatum_.
+  Londini, 1707 et 1709, 2 vols. fol. The capital work, however, on
+  this subject, and which embraces the whole numismatic science of
+  antiquity is:
+
+  ECKHEL, _De Doctrina Nummorum Veterum_. Viennae, 1792-1798, 8 vols.
+  4to. And the epitome:
+
+  # ECKHEL, _Brief Elements of Ancient Numismatics_. Vienna, 1707,
+  8vo. Another very useful work is:
+
+  J. C. RASCHE, _Lexicon Universae Rei Nummariae Veterum_. 1785, sq. 5
+  vols. 8vo.
+
+10. Chronicles or annals form the second great division of written
+historical monuments. These presuppose the invention of letters, and the
+use of materials for writing upon; consequently they are of a later date
+than mere inscriptions. They occur, nevertheless, in the earlier periods
+of nations; and from such annals, indited by public authority (state
+chronicles,) subsequent historians have generally drawn materials for
+their works. In many nations, and in nearly all the eastern ones,
+history has not even yet advanced beyond the composition of such
+chronicles.
+
+11. The third great division of historical writings is formed of works
+composed on philosophical principles, which differ from mere annals by
+their containing not only a chronological narration of events, but also
+a development of their connection with one another, their causes and
+effects.
+
+  But few nations among the moderns, and we know of none among the
+  ancients, except the Greeks and Romans, that had any acquaintance
+  with this sort of history. A fact which may be attributed,--1st. To
+  the government; for the more completely the affairs of a nation are
+  under the control of arbitrary power and caprice, whether of one or
+  more individuals, so much the less apparent is a rational internal
+  connection of events. Hence philosophical history flourishes most
+  under free governments; and has not even a shadow of existence
+  under pure despotic constitutions. 2nd. To the degree of
+  civilization to which the nation may have attained: for the
+  observing and unravelling of the political connection of events
+  presupposes a considerable progress in philosophical culture.
+
+12. Since all events are considered in reference to the time and place
+in which they occur, it follows that geography and chronology are
+indispensable as auxiliary sciences in the study of history, especially
+the ancient. These sciences, however, need not, for this purpose, be
+considered in their full extent and detail, but only so far as they are
+of use in determining and arranging events according to time and place.
+A fixed mode of computing time is therefore necessary in ancient
+history, as well as a continuous geographical description of the
+countries which were the theatres of the principal events.
+
+13. No method of computing time was adopted generally in antiquity. Each
+nation, each state, had its own era: yet, in the explication of ancient
+history, there is an evident necessity that some common era should be
+fixed upon, by which a synchronistic view of the various events may be
+obtained. For this purpose, the years may be computed either from the
+creation of the world, or before and after Christ. The latter method has
+the advantage not only of greater certainty, but also of greater
+convenience.
+
+  Of the various modes of computing time, the best known are those of
+  the Greeks and the Romans; the former by olympiads, the latter by
+  years from the foundation of Rome. The era of the olympiads
+  commences at B. C. 776; that of the foundation of Rome commences at
+  B. C. 753, according to Varro; at B. C. 752, according to
+  Cato.--The era of the Seleucidae, in the Syrian empire, commences
+  with B. C. 312.--Various other eras, such as that of Nabonnassar,
+  commencing with B. C. 747, are founded on observations preserved by
+  Ptolemy, and made known by SCALIGER, in his _Doctrina Temporum_.
+
+  Chronology constitutes a distinct science: the best introduction to
+  which will be found in:
+
+  # J. C. GATTERER, _Epitome of Chronology_. Gottingen, 1777. A most
+  excellent criticism on the ancient eras has lately been
+  communicated to the public by:
+
+  # L. IDELER, _Historic Researches into the Astronomical
+  Observations of the Ancients_. Berlin, 1806.
+
+  # D. H. HEGEWISCH, _Introduction to Historical Chronology_; 1811. A
+  very useful and portable work.
+
+  [In English we have the laborious work of Dr. Hales:
+
+  HALES (WILLM.) _New Analysis of Chronology, explaining the History
+  and Antiquities of the primitive Nations of the World, etc._ Lond.
+  1809-12, 4 vols. 4to. New edition, corrected and improved, 1830, 4
+  vols. 8vo.
+
+  BLAIR'S _Chronology and History of the World, from the Creation to
+  the present Time_. Lond. 1803, folio.
+
+  And for the brilliant period of Greece and Rome the satisfactory
+  volumes:
+
+  H. F. CLYNTON'S _Fasti Hellenici. The civil and literary Chronology
+  of Greece, from the fifty-fifth to the hundred and twenty-fourth
+  Olympiad_. Second edition, with additions. Oxford, 1827, 4to. And
+  the continuation of the same work to the death of Augustus, Oxford,
+  1830, 4to. In this valuable work, much light is also thrown upon
+  the chronology of the times anterior to the period with which the
+  first volume is principally occupied.]
+
+14. In ancient geography there is much care required to distinguish the
+fabulous from the true. With regard to true geography, as an auxiliary
+science to history, all that can be expected is some general information
+respecting the nature and peculiarities of the countries, respecting
+their political divisions, and finally, respecting the principal
+cities:--Long lists of the names of places would be quite superfluous.
+
+  Fabulous geography constitutes a part of the mythology of every
+  nation, and differs in each, because the ideas formed by every
+  early nation respecting the form and nature of the earth are
+  peculiar to itself. True geography gradually comes to light as
+  civilization increases, and discovery widens its
+  horizon.--Necessity of treating it historically, on account of the
+  manifold changes to which the division and the face of the
+  countries of the ancient world have been at various periods
+  subjected.
+
+  CHRISTOPH. CELLARII _Notitia Orbis Antiqui_. Lips. 1701-1706, 2
+  vols. 4to. _cum observat._ J. C. SCHWARZII. Lips. 1771, et iterum
+  1773. This work was for a long time the only, and is still an
+  indispensable, treatise on ancient geography.
+
+  # H. MANNERT, _Geography of the Greeks and Romans_. Nuremberg,
+  1788-1802. This work, now completed in 15 volumes, may be justly
+  designated classical, from the historical and critical learning
+  which the author has everywhere displayed. Vol. I, contains Spain;
+  II, Gallia et Britain; III, Germania, Rhaetia, Noricum; IV, The
+  Northern parts of the World, from the Wessel to China; V, India and
+  the Persian Empire to the Euphrates, 2 parts; VI, Asia Minor, 3
+  parts; VII, Thrace, Illyria, Macedonia, Thessaly, Epirus; VIII,
+  Northern Greece, Peloponnesus, and the Archipelago; IX, Italy and
+  Sicily, Sardinia, etc. 2 parts; X, Africa, 2 parts.
+
+  # F. A. UKERT, _Geography of the Greeks and Romans, from the
+  earliest periods to the time of Ptolemy_: first part, first
+  division, contains the historical, the second contains the
+  mathematical sections. Weimar, 1816; with maps.
+
+  GOSSELIN, _Geographie des Grecs analysee_. Paris, 1790, 4to. A
+  development of the system of mathematical geography among the
+  Greeks. Partly continued in
+
+  GOSSELIN, _Recherches sur la Geographie des Anciens_. Paris, an.
+  vi. vol. 1-4.
+
+  J. RENNEL, _Geographical System of Herodotus_. Lond. 1800, 4to.
+
+  [Reprinted in 2 vols. 8vo. Lond. 1830, revised. Here, too, for the
+  benefit of the English reader may be mentioned:
+
+  RENNEL'S _Treatise on the Comparative Geography of Western Asia,
+  with an atlas_. London, 1831, 2 vols. 8vo.; published since the
+  author's death. And the learned and valuable volumes of Dr. CRAMER,
+  principal of New Inn Hall, and public orator of the University of
+  Oxford; they are,
+
+  _Geographical and Historical Description of Ancient Greece, with a
+  map, and plan of Athens._ Oxford, 1826, 3 vols. 8vo.
+
+  _Geographical and Historical Description of Ancient Italy, with a
+  map._ Oxford, 1826, 2 vols. 8vo.
+
+  _Geographical and Historical Description of Asia Minor, with a
+  map._ Oxford, 1832, 2 vols. 8vo.
+
+  The maps which accompany these works approach very nearly to
+  perfection.
+
+  As useful compendiums, there are:
+
+  _An Introduction to Ancient Geography, with copious indexes of
+  Ancient and Modern Names_, by PETER ED. LAURENT, teacher in the
+  Royal Naval Academy at Portsmouth. Oxford, 1813, 8vo.
+
+  _A Compendium of Ancient and Modern Geography, for the use of Eton
+  School; illustrating the most interesting points in History,
+  Poetry, and Fable; preceded by an Introduction to the study of
+  Astronomy, and containing plans of Athens, Rome, Syracuse, and
+  numerous diagrams explanatory of the motions of the heavenly
+  bodies_, by AARON ARROWSMITH, Hydrographer to the King, 1 vol.
+  8vo., with or without a copious index. London, 1830.
+
+  BUTLER'S (Dr. SAM.) _Sketch of Ancient and Modern Geography_.
+  Seventh edition, 8vo. Also his _Atlas of Ancient Geography_,
+  consisting of twenty-one coloured maps, with a complete accentuated
+  index. 8vo.]
+
+  We are indebted to d'Anville for the best charts of ancient
+  geography: _Atlas Orbis antiqui_, twelve leaves, fol.
+
+  [The Eton Comparative Atlas of Ancient and Modern Geography, with
+  the index, published in several sizes; and the Maps published by
+  the Society for the Promotion of Useful Knowledge, are very useful
+  and correct.]
+
+15. Ancient history may be treated either ethnographically, that is,
+according to separate nations and states; or synchronistically, that is,
+according to certain general epochs. Each of these methods has its
+advantages and its disadvantages. The two, however, may be combined, and
+formed into one system; and as this seems the most convenient, it has
+been adopted in the present work, which is accordingly divided as
+follows:
+
+FIRST BOOK.--History of the ancient Asiatic and African states and
+kingdoms anterior to Cyrus, or to the rise of the Persian monarchy,
+about the year B. C. 560: comprising little more than insulated
+fragments.
+
+SECOND BOOK.--History of the Persian monarchy, from B. C. 560 to 330.
+
+THIRD BOOK.--History of the Grecian states, both in Greece and other
+parts, to the time of Alexander, B. C. 336.
+
+FOURTH BOOK.--History of the Macedonian monarchy, and of the kingdoms
+which arose out of its division, until they merged into the Roman
+empire.
+
+FIFTH BOOK.--History of the Roman state, both as a commonwealth and a
+monarchy, until the fall of the western empire, A. D. 476.
+
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+MANUAL OF ANCIENT HISTORY.
+
+
+
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+THE FIRST BOOK.
+
+
+   HISTORICAL FRAGMENTS OF THE EARLIER ASIATIC AND AFRICAN KINGDOMS AND
+   STATES, PREVIOUS TO CYRUS, OR THE RISE OF THE PERSIAN MONARCHY.
+
+
+
+
+I.--ASIATIC NATIONS.
+
+
+
+
+_General Preliminary Remarks on the Geography of Asia._
+
+
+  See the Introduction to Heeren's Researches into the Politics and
+  Commerce of the Nations of Antiquity, prefixed to vol. 1 of the
+  African Nations. Oxford, 1831.
+
+1. Asia is the largest and the most favourably situated of the great
+divisions of the globe. Its superficial contents are 11,200,000 square
+geogr. miles; while those of Africa do not exceed 4,780,000; and those
+of Europe are not more than 2,560,000. As to situation, it comprises the
+greatest portion of the northern temperate zone.
+
+  Compare it, in this point of view, with the other quarters of the
+  globe, especially Africa.--Advantages over the latter, in
+  consequence of the convenience of its indented shores--of its
+  surrounding fruitful islands--of its deep gulfs and large
+  streams--the few sandy deserts in its interior.
+
+2. Natural features, and consequent division of the land, according to
+the course of the larger mountain chains and of the principal rivers.
+
+  Two great mountain chains run from west to east; in the north, the
+  Altai, (nameless in antiquity): in the south, Taurus.--Branches of
+  both: the Caucasus, between the Black and Caspian seas: Imaus
+  extending along the golden desert (desert of Cobi): the Paropamisus,
+  on the north of India: the Ural (nameless in antiquity).--Of the
+  rivers remarkable in ancient history, there are four flowing from
+  north to south, namely, the Euphrates and Tigris, which fall into the
+  Persian gulf; the Indus and Ganges, which fall into the Indian sea:
+  two which run from east to west, and discharged their waters into the
+  Caspian sea, (but now into the sea of Aral,) namely, the Oxus (or
+  Jihon) and the Jaxartes (or Sirr).
+
+3. This quarter of the globe is accordingly divided into Northern Asia,
+comprising the regions north of Altai; Central Asia, or the countries
+between the Altai and Taurus; and Southern Asia, or the lands south of
+Taurus.
+
+4. Northern Asia, between the 76th and 50th parallels of north latitude,
+(Asiatic Russia and Siberia,) was almost, though not entirely, unknown
+in antiquity.--Some obscure hints, though partly true, respecting it,
+are found in Herodotus, the father of history.
+
+5. Central Asia, the regions extending between the 50th and 40th degrees
+of north latitude, Scythia and Sarmatia Asiatica, (Great Tartary and
+Mongol;) for the most part a boundless, barren table land, devoid of
+arable fields or forests; and consequently a mere country of
+pasture.--The inhabitants pastors, (nomads,) without cities or fixed
+abodes; recognizing no other political association than patriarchal
+government.
+
+  Peculiar mode of life and character of nomad nations; powerful
+  influence which they have exercised, as conquerors, on political
+  history.--Whether we have a right to expect that the civilization of
+  the human race will for ever continue to advance, when we consider
+  that perhaps one half of it has from time immemorial remained, and
+  from its physical situation must for ever remain, in a nomad state.
+
+6. Southern Asia, or the regions from the 40th degree of N. lat. to
+about the equator.--Its natural features altogether different from those
+of central Asia. The great advantages of these regions compared with all
+other parts of the earth, in possessing a soil and climate highly
+favourable for agriculture; and an abundance of various costly
+productions. To these circumstances may be attributed, 1st. The adoption
+of fixed habitations and political associations in these countries, from
+the earliest times. 2ndly. Their becoming the principal seat of trade,
+from the infancy of civilization to the discovery of America.
+
+  Reflections upon the rise of political associations.--Whether,
+  according to the general opinion, they were produced solely by
+  agriculture and the possession of land; or, whether religion, by
+  which I mean the common worship of one divinity as the national god,
+  (communia sacra,) was not the main bond which united the earliest
+  states of antiquity?--How shall we account for the very remarkable
+  fact, that in the earliest civil societies in the world, the
+  priesthood is generally found to be a ruling caste.--Reflections on
+  early trade, particularly that of the east, before it was changed, by
+  the discovery of America and the new passage to India, from a land
+  trade to a sea trade.--Observations upon ancient commercial routes
+  across Asia.--The banks of the large rivers destined by nature to
+  become the seats of commerce for the interior; on the Oxus, Bactra
+  and Maracanda, (Samarcand;) on the Euphrates and Tigris,
+  Babylon.--The sea shores on the western coast of Asia Minor and
+  Phoenicia, pointed out also by nature as places of commerce;--line
+  of Grecian and Phoenician factories.
+
+7. Division of southern Asia. 1st. South-western Asia, from the
+Mediterranean to the Indus; 2nd. South-eastern Asia, from the Indus to
+the eastern ocean.
+
+A. South-western Asia is again subdivided into the countries--1st. on
+this side the Euphrates--2ndly. between the Euphrates and Tigris--3rdly.
+between the Tigris and the Indus.
+
+1. _Countries on this side the Euphrates._
+
+(_a_) The peninsula of Asia Minor (Natolia). Principal rivers: the Halys
+and Sangarius. Countries: three towards the west, Mysia, Lydia, Caria.
+Along the shore, the Greek seaports of Phocaea, Ephesus, Miletus, Smyrna,
+Halicarnassus, etc. Inland, the cities of Sardes in Lydia, of Pergamus
+in Mysia.
+
+Three towards the south, Lycia, Pamphylia, and Cilicia, with its capital
+Tarsus.
+
+Three towards the north, Bithynia, Paphlagonia, Pontus; with the Greek
+ports of Heraclea, Amisus, and Sinope. Two inland, Phrygia, together
+with Galatia and the capital cities of Gordium and Celaenae; Cappadocia,
+with the city of Mazaca.
+
+(_b_) Islands along the coast of Asia Minor: Lesbos, with the city of
+Mitylene; Chios, Samos, Cos, Rhodes, with cities of the same name.
+
+(_c_) Syria, together with Phoenicia and Palestine. 1st. Syria,
+properly so called. Cities: Damascus, Emessa, Heliopolis, (Baalbec). In
+the desert, Palmyra. 2nd. Phoenicia, a mountainous tract, extending
+along the shore. Mountains: Libanus and Antilibanus. Cities: Tyre, on an
+island opposite the ancient Tyre, which was situate upon the mainland;
+Sidon, Byblus, Berytus, Tripolis, Aradus. 3rd. Palestine. Mountains:
+Carmel, Tabor. River: Jordan, which discharges its waters into the Dead
+sea. Division of Palestine; first, according to the twelve tribes;
+afterwards into the provinces, of Judaea, capital Jerusalem: of Samaria;
+cities, Samaria, Sichem: and of Galilee.
+
+(_d_) Peninsula of Arabia, abounding in vast sandy deserts, and almost
+entirely occupied by nomad tribes. Its southern and eastern coasts
+render it, nevertheless, a most important seat of trade. In the north,
+Arabia Petraea, so called from the town of Petra. Inland, Arabia Deserta.
+In the south, Arabia Felix; rich, both in natural productions, being the
+native land of almost every kind of perfume, particularly frankincense;
+and also as being the ancient staple for the merchandise of India.
+Cities: Mariaba, Aden, etc. In the east, the trading town of Gerra, and
+the islands near the shore, Tylos and Aradus, (Bahrein,) both likewise
+marts for Arabian and Indian wares, particularly cinnamon from Taprobane
+(Ceylon).
+
+2. _Countries between the Euphrates and Tigris._
+
+(_a_) Mesopotamia; in the interior a sterile table land, entirely
+occupied by nomad hordes. Cities on the Euphrates: Thapsacus, Circesium,
+Cunaxa; in the north, Zoba or Nisibis.
+
+(_b_) Armenia, north of the foregoing. Very mountainous; for a long time
+without cities, but at last it had Tigranocerta. Rivers: the Cyrus and
+Araxes, falling into the Caspian; and the Phasis, falling into the Black
+sea.
+
+(_c_) Babylonia, the southern part of Mesopotamia, from which it was
+separated by the Median wall. A level plain, remarkable for the richness
+of its soil; formerly, by its high cultivation, its canals and lakes,
+and the erection of dams, the most fruitful, and, from its situation,
+the most opulent staple of inner Asia. Cities: Babylon on the Euphrates,
+Borsippa.
+
+  Whether the account given by Herodotus, as an eyewitness, of the size
+  and splendour of Babylon is not exaggerated?--Manner in which the
+  great Asiatic cities arose out of the royal encampments of the nomad
+  conquerors.
+
+3. _Countries between the Tigris and the Indus._
+
+(_a_) Assyria, or the province of Adiabene; a table land. Cities:
+Nineveh, (Ninus,) Arbela.
+
+  The name of Assyria is also frequently taken by the Greeks in a wider
+  acceptation, as comprising both Mesopotamia and Babylonia; it is
+  sometimes even confounded with Syria.
+
+(_b_) Susiana, a fruitful district, with the city Susa on the river
+Choaspes, or Eulaeus (Ulai), one of the residences of the Persian
+monarchs.
+
+(_c_) Persis, rugged and mountainous towards the north; level and
+fruitful in the centre; sandy towards the south. Rivers: the Cyrus and
+Araxes. Cities: Persepolis or Pasargada, the national palace and
+cemetery of the kings of Persia.
+
+  The name of Persis was, in ancient as well as in modern geography,
+  taken in a more extensive sense, as comprising all the countries
+  between the Tigris and Indus, with the exception of Assyria.
+  In this sense, it contains three countries towards the
+  south--Persis, properly so called; Carmania, Gedrosia: three
+  central countries--Media, Aria, Arachosia: and three countries
+  towards the north--Parthia and Hyrcania, Bactria, Sogdiana.
+
+(_d_) Carmania, an extensive country, for the most part desert, ranging
+along the Persian gulf and Indian sea. Cities: Carmana, Harmozia.
+
+(_e_) Gedrosia, tract of land running along the coast between Carmania
+and India, and washed by the Indian sea. A mere sandy desert; towards
+the north, mountainous. Town, Pura.
+
+(_f_) Media, above Persis; an extensive and very fruitful country;
+mountainous towards the north. Rivers: Araxes, Cyrus, and Mardus.
+Cities: Ecbatana, Rages. The northern district was likewise known by the
+name of Atropatene (Azerbeijan), or Lesser Media.
+
+(_g_) Aria, a smooth table land, with a lake and river, Arius: and one
+city, Aria or Artacoana.
+
+(_h_) Arachosia; a rich and fertile country on the frontiers of India;
+bounded towards the north by the Paropamisus chain. Cities: Arachotus
+and Prophthasia. The neighbouring highlands, occupied by a numerous
+population, (now Cabul and Kandahar,) are often regarded, in consequence
+of their being subject to the Persian dominion, as forming part of
+Persia. They are known by the name of Paropamisus.
+
+(_i_) Parthia and Hyrcania, rugged mountainous districts to the north of
+Media; but abounding in magnificent and fertile vales. Before and during
+the predominance of Persia, but little known and little valued; and
+without cities. It was at a considerably later period that the
+inhabitants of Parthia became a dominant nation.
+
+(_k_) Bactria, the country on the south bank of the Oxus; rich in
+natural productions, and one of the most ancient marts of Asia. River:
+Oxus. Cities: Bactra and Zariaspa.
+
+  Bactria lies on the frontier of India, Little Thibet, Bukharia, (the
+  north India of Herodotus and Ctesias,) and the desert of Cobi,
+  (Herodotus's golden desert): the road to China runs through this
+  country. Nature, by the geographical situation in which she has
+  placed Bactria, seems to have destined it to be the great emporium
+  for the wares of south-eastern Asia; and in proportion as we
+  penetrate into early history, we become convinced that Bactria, like
+  Babylon, must have been one of the earliest seats of international
+  commerce, and consequently, if not the birthplace, one of the cradles
+  of infant civilization.
+
+(_l_) Sogdiana, the territory between the upper Oxus and upper Jaxartes,
+the latter dividing it from central Asia. (A part of Great Bukharia.)
+Its peculiarities and advantages similar to those of the neighbouring
+Bactria. Capital: Maracanda (Samarcand).
+
+B. South-eastern Asia, or Asia beyond the Indus, offers nothing
+remarkable for history till a later period. See Book v, Period iv.
+
+
+
+
+_General Preliminary Observations upon the History and Constitution of
+the great Asiatic Empires._
+
+
+1. Asia contained in ancient times, as it does at present, empires of
+immense extent, differing materially both in this respect and in their
+constitution from the civilized nations of Europe. Changes were
+frequent; but the form of government continued nearly always the same.
+Some deeply rooted and active principles therefore must have been in
+constant operation, to have given so repeatedly, in these various
+revolutions, the same organization to the kingdoms of Asia.
+
+2. The great revolutions of Asia, with the exception of that caused by
+Alexander, were effected by the numerous and powerful nomad races which
+inhabited a large portion of that continent. Pressed by necessity or
+circumstances, they forsook their own seats, founded new kingdoms, and
+carried war and conquest into the fruitful and cultivated lands of
+southern Asia, until, enervated by luxury, the consequence of the change
+in their mode of life, they were in their turn, and in a similar manner,
+subjugated.
+
+3. This origin, common to all Asiatic kingdoms, accounts for their
+immense extent, their rapid establishment, and their generally brief
+duration.
+
+4. The internal organization must, for the same reasons, have been
+nearly alike in all; and the constant reappearance of despotism is
+accounted for, partly by the rights of conquest, partly by the vast
+extent of the subdued countries, which obliged the rulers to have
+recourse to satrap-government.
+
+5. To this, it must moreover be added, that among all the considerable
+nations of inner Asia, the paternal government of every household was
+corrupted by polygamy: where that custom exists, a good political
+constitution is impossible; fathers being converted into domestic
+despots, are ready to pay the same abject obedience to their sovereign
+that they exact from their family and dependants in their domestic
+economy.
+
+  To avoid confusion, it will be necessary to define the terms
+  despotism and despotic government. In theory, we must admit THREE
+  essentially different kinds of government. 1st. The _despotic_, in
+  which the members of the state are not secured in the possession of
+  their rights as men, (personal freedom and security of property,)
+  nor of their rights as citizens, (active participation in the
+  legislative power). Such a constitution exists only by force, and
+  can never be lawful. 2nd. The _autocratic_, in which the members of
+  the state are in full possession of their rights as men, but not of
+  their rights as citizens. This government, therefore, arises from
+  the union of the legislative and executive powers in the person of
+  the ruler. In form, it is either monarchical or aristocratical (a
+  pure monarchy, or a pure aristocracy). This kind of government is
+  most likely to be established by usurpation; it may, nevertheless,
+  be acquired by succession, or even adopted by common consent: it may
+  therefore be lawful. 3rd. The _republican_, in which the members of
+  the state are in possession of their rights, both as men and as
+  citizens. This government necessarily presupposes a separation of
+  the legislative and executive powers; and with regard to its form,
+  may be either monarchical or aristocratical, (a moderate monarchy,
+  or a moderate aristocracy).--How far can a pure democracy be called
+  a government, and comprised under any of the foregoing
+  heads?--Explanation of the despotism in the Asiatic kingdoms, and
+  the attempts made to limit it by religion and religious
+  institutions.
+
+6. General features in the gradual internal development of all empires
+formed by nomad conquerors. (_a_) At first the mere occupation of rich
+territories, and levying of tribute. (_b_) Hence the constitutions
+already established among the conquered or tributary nations generally
+suffered to remain. (_c_) Gradual progress towards the adoption of a
+fixed abode and the building of cities, together with the assumption of
+the customs and civilization of the conquered. (_d_) Division into
+provinces, and, as a necessary consequence, the establishment of
+satrap-government. (_e_) Insurrections of the satraps, and the internal
+ruin of the state prepared thereby. (_f_) The influence of the seraglio
+on the government has the same effect, for its unavoidable consequences
+are--effeminacy and indolence in the rulers. (_g_) Hence the dissolution
+of the empire, or its total annihilation by some violent attack from
+without.
+
+
+
+
+_Fragments of the History of the ancient Asiatic Kingdoms previous to
+Cyrus._
+
+
+  Sources, and their critical examination: 1. Jewish writings,
+  particularly the books of Kings, Chroniclers, and the Prophets;
+  together with the Mosaic records. 2. Greek writers, Herodotus,
+  Ctesias, and Diodorus: later chroniclers, Syncellus, Eusebius,
+  Ptolemy. 3. Native writer, Berosus. Futility of all endeavours to
+  arrange into one work the accounts of authors so entirely different
+  by birth and the times in which they flourished: a task attempted by
+  the French writers, SEVIN, FRERET, and DEBROSSE, in their papers
+  contained in the Mem. de l'Acad. des Inscript.
+
+  VOLNEY, _Recherches nouvelles sur l'Histoire ancienne_. 1808-1814:
+  very important and authentic, so far as regards the system of
+  Herodotus's chronology.
+
+
+
+I. _Assyrian monarchy._
+
+
+1. With the Greeks, Assyrian is generally a common name applied to the
+ruling nations about the Euphrates and Tigris before the time of Cyrus.
+With the Jews, on the contrary, it signifies a distinct nation of
+conquerors, and the founders of an empire. Hence a necessary discrepancy
+between the Grecian and Hebrew statements.
+
+2. Assyrian history, according to Grecian authorities, particularly
+Ctesias and Diodorus, is nothing more than mere traditions of
+ancient heroes and heroines, who at some early period founded a
+large kingdom in the countries about the Euphrates and Tigris;
+traditions without any chronological data, and in the style of the
+east. Ninus--Semiramis--Ninyas--Sardanapalus.
+
+  According to Herodotus, an Assyrian empire of 520 years' duration,
+  1237-717. Lists of Assyrian kings in the chronicles of Syncellus
+  and Eusebius.
+
+3. Assyrian history, according to Jewish authorities. Chronological
+history of an Assyrian empire between B. C. 800 and 700.--Seat of the
+nation in Assyria, properly so called.--Capital: Nineveh on the
+Tigris.--Extension of their dominion as far as Syria and Phoenicia.
+
+  Line of Assyrian kings: 1. Pul, about 773. Invasion of Syria.
+  2. Tiglath-Pileser, about 740. He overthrows the kingdom of Damascus.
+  3. Shalmaneser, about 720. He destroys the kingdom of Samaria.
+  Transplantation of the inhabitants into inner Asia. 4. Sennacherib,
+  about 714. Mighty expedition against Egypt, frustrated by a
+  pestilence. 5. Esarhaddon.
+
+  _Contemporary_: Jews, the divided kingdoms of Israel and
+  Judah.--Greeks, decennial archons at Athens.--Romans, rise
+  of the state and the two first kings.
+
+
+
+II. _Median monarchy._
+
+
+1. The name of Medes is undoubtedly often used by the Greeks to
+designate one nation; it is, however, frequently made use of as a common
+appellation of the ruling nations in eastern Asia, from the Tigris to
+the Indus, (or Persia, in the more extensive sense of that word,) before
+Cyrus.--With the Jews: nothing more than general hints of the Medes as a
+conquering nation.
+
+2. Although the statements of the Grecian writers, as well as of the
+Zendavesta, sufficiently prove that long before the rise of the Persian
+power mighty kingdoms existed in these regions; and particularly in the
+eastern part, or Bactria; yet we have no consistent or chronological
+history of these states: nothing but a few fragments, probably of
+dynasties which ruled in Media, properly so called, immediately previous
+to the Persians.
+
+  _a._ _Herodotus's History of the Medes._ Herodotus's Medes are
+  unquestionably the inhabitants of Media, properly so called.
+  Division into six tribes: among these, that of the Magi.--Ruling
+  nation after the overthrow of the Assyrians.--Capital of their
+  empire, Ecbatana.--Boundaries: west, the Tigris and Halys; east,
+  unknown.--Internal organization: graduated subjection of the
+  various nations to one another, according to their distance from
+  the seat of empire; rigid despotism; and imposition of tribute.
+  Line of kings between B. C. 717-560. Deioces, 53 _y._ the founder
+  of Ecbatana, _d._ 657.--Phraortes, 22 _y._ down to 635. He conquers
+  Persia. Cyaxares I. 40 _y._ down to 595. He establishes military
+  discipline among the Medes. Wages war with the Lydians, the
+  Assyrians.--Irruption of the Scythians and Cimmerians, 625.--He
+  takes Nineveh, 597. Astyages, 38 _y._ down to 560, when he was
+  dethroned by Cyrus. According to Xenophon, Astyages was followed by
+  another Median prince, Cyaxares II. _b. Ctesias's History of the
+  Medes_, deduced from Persian archives, and contained in Diodorus.
+  Probably a different dynasty in eastern Asia. Line of kings,
+  between B. C. 800 and 560. Arbaces, conqueror of the Assyrians, 18
+  _y._ Mandaucus, 50 _y._ Sosarmes, 30 _y._ Artias, 50 _y._ Arbanes,
+  22 _y._ Artaeus, 40 _y._ and Artynes, 22 _y._ Sanguinary wars with
+  the nomad races of the east, the Sacae, and Cadusii. Artibarnas, 14
+  _y._ Astyages, the last king.
+
+  _Contemporary_: Jews, kingdom of Judah alone.--Greeks, yearly
+  archons, Draco, Solon.--Romans, kings from Tullus Hostilius to
+  Servius Tullius.
+
+
+
+III. _Babylonian monarchy._
+
+
+Periods: 1st. Previous to the Chaldaean conquest, which occurred about
+630. 2nd. From the Chaldaean conquest to the Persian, 630-538.
+
+1. Babylon was not only spoken of in the most remote antiquity, but is
+mentioned in the Jewish traditions as the earliest scene of political
+treaties, and as the most ancient seat of intercourse for the nations of
+Asia. Traditions concerning Nimrod--and the erection of the tower of
+Babel.--Comparison of those traditions with the Babylonian mythology in
+Berosus.--Scanty historical notices of this period in the later Jewish
+writers; and probable subjection of Babylon to the Assyrian empire.
+
+2. In the second period, 630-538, the Babylonians were the ruling nation
+of western Asia.--The Chaldaeans take possession of Babylon, there
+establish themselves, and ultimately extend their empire, by conquest,
+to the Mediterranean.
+
+  Origin of the Chaldaeans: whether that name was applied to a
+  distinct nation, or to the northern nomads in general?--Line of
+  Chaldaean kings. In the enumeration of these rulers, as given by
+  Ptolemy, this line begins with Nabonassar, and the era bearing the
+  name of that sovereign, which commences in the year B. C. 747:
+  (probably because, under the reign of that prince, the adoption of
+  the Egyptian solar year first introduced among the Chaldaeans an
+  exact method of reckoning time). Neither Nabonassar himself, nor
+  his twelve immediate successors, are remarkable in history: the
+  six last alone deserve notice. 1. Nabopolassar, 627-604.
+  Settlement in Babylon; and complete establishment of the
+  Chaldaeo-Babylonian dominion, by his victory over Pharaoh-Nechoh,
+  near Circesium, in 604. 2. Nebuchadnezzar, 604-561. Brilliant
+  period of the Chaldaeo-Babylonian empire. He conquers Phoenicia and
+  Old Tyre about 586: Jerusalem in 587; probable irruptions into
+  Egypt. Construction of immense buildings and canals in and about
+  Babylon. Rapid decline of the empire after his death, under--3.
+  Evil-Merodach, 561-559. 4. Neriglissar, (probably the contemporary
+  of Herodotus's Nitocris;)--555. Labosoarchad murdered, after a few
+  months' reign. Nabonadius, (Herodotus's Labynetus; and probably
+  the Chaldaean Belshazzar;) 555-538. attacked and conquered by
+  Cyrus. Sack of Babylon by the Persians, 538.
+
+  See the section concerning the Babylonians in A. H. L. HEEREN'S
+  _Historical Researches_, vol. i, part. 2.
+
+  _Contemporary_: Jews, last sovereigns of the kingdom of
+  Judah.--Greeks, Solon, Pisistratus.--Romans, Tarquinius Priscus
+  and Servius Tullius.
+
+
+
+IV. _States and kingdoms in Asia Minor._
+
+
+The number and variety of the inhabitants of this peninsula, was
+probably the reason why they never became united into one empire. The
+most important nations among them, were the Carians in the west; the
+Phrygians in the centre, reaching as far as the Halys; the
+Syro-Cappadocians beyond the Halys; and the Thracians in Bithynia.
+Nevertheless we find here but three kingdoms deserving notice--the
+Trojan, the Phrygian, and the Lydian.
+
+
+1. The Trojan empire comprised western Mysia: its history consists of
+mere traditions contained in poets, with very uncertain chronological
+data.
+
+  Kings: Teucer, about 1400.--Dardanus--Erichthonius--Tros
+  (Troja)--Ilus (Ilium)--Laomedon--Priam. The destruction of Troy,
+  after a ten years' war, occurred, it is probable, B. C. 1190.
+
+  _Contemporary_: Jews, time of the Judges: before the foundation of
+  Rome, 450 years.
+
+
+2. The Phrygian empire.--Almost all the kings were named Midas and
+Gordius; their succession cannot be accurately determined. After the
+death of the last, called Midas V., Phrygia became a province of the
+Lydian empire, about 560.
+
+
+3. The Lydian empire.--The Lydians (Maeonians) were a branch of the
+Carian tribe. According to Herodotus, three dynasties ruled in Lydia;
+the Atyadae down to 1232; the Heraclidae down to 727; and the Mermnadae
+down to 557: the two first are almost wholly fabulous, and the proper
+history of Lydia may be said to commence with the last dynasty.
+
+  Kings: Gyges, down to 689. From this period followed almost
+  uninterrupted wars with the Greek settlements on the seacoast.
+  Gyges takes Colophon. Ardys down to 640. He takes Priene. Under
+  his reign, an irruption of the Cimmerians. Sadyattes down to 628.
+  Alyattes down to 571. Expulsion of the Cimmerians. Capture of
+  Smyrna. Croesus down to 557. He takes Ephesus, and subjugates Asia
+  Minor as far as the Halys. Under his reign, the first rise of a
+  Lydian empire, which however is overthrown by Cyrus. Asia Minor
+  becomes a province of the Persian empire.
+
+  _Contemporary_ with which, in Asia, were the Medic and Babylonian
+  empires.--Among the Jews, the last period of the kingdom of
+  Judah.--Among the Greeks, the yearly archons at Athens.--With the
+  Romans, the kings.
+
+
+
+V. _Phoenicia._
+
+
+The Phoenicians may be regarded as one of the most remarkable nations of
+Asia during this period; yet we have no complete, or even connected
+history of this people. But though a few scattered fragments are all we
+possess, we may from these trace out a general outline.
+
+  The peculiar sources of Phoenician history.--How far Sanchoniathon
+  deserves to be mentioned here?--Hebrew writers, particularly
+  Ezekiel; Greek writers; Josephus--Eusebius, etc. and the fragments
+  which he has preserved of Menander of Ephesus, and Dius,
+  historians of Tyre.
+
+  MIGNOT, _Memoires sur les Pheniciens_; inserted in _Mem. de
+  l'Acad. des Inscript._ t. xxxiv-xlii. A series of twenty-four
+  papers.
+
+  The section concerning the Phoenicians in A. H. L. HEEREN'S
+  _Researches on the Politics, etc._
+
+1. Observations on the internal state of Phoenicia. It did not
+constitute one state, or, at least, one single empire; but consisted of
+several, and their territories. Alliances, however, were naturally
+formed between them, and hence a kind of supremacy of the more powerful,
+particularly of Tyre.
+
+2. But though Tyre stood at the head, and claimed a certain degree of
+superiority, each separate state still possessed its own particular
+government. In all of them we meet with kings, who appear to have
+possessed but a limited authority, as we always find magistrates
+associated with them in power. Among a mercantile and colonizing people,
+it was impossible that absolute despotism should endure for any length
+of time. Of the separate states, Tyre is the only one of which we
+possess a series of kings; and even that series is not complete.
+
+  This line of kings, which we derive from Menander through
+  Josephus, commences with Abical, the contemporary of David, about
+  B. C. 1050. The most remarkable among them are: Hiram, the
+  successor of Abical;--Ethbaal I. about 920;--Pygmalion, Dido's
+  brother, about 900;--Ethbaal II. in whose reign Tyre was sacked by
+  Nebuchadnezzar, 586.--Foundation of New Tyre--republican
+  constitution under suffetes: tributary kings under the Persian
+  rule;--conquest of New Tyre by Alexander, 332. The flourishing
+  period of Phoenicia in general, and of Tyre in particular, falls
+  therefore between 1000-332.
+
+  _Contemporary_ in inner Asia: monarchies of the Assyrians, Medes,
+  and the Babylonians. Jews: period of the kings after David.
+  Greeks: from Homer to Solon. Romans: period of their kings in the
+  last two centuries.
+
+3. During this period the Phoenicians spread themselves by the
+establishment of colonies; some of which, particularly Carthage, became
+as powerful as the mother states.
+
+  General ideas concerning colonization.--1. Colonies are absolutely
+  necessary to every seafaring and commercial people, whenever
+  their trade extends to distant countries. 2. They have likewise
+  been established for the purpose of providing for the excessive
+  increase of the poor. 3. And they have sometimes arisen from
+  political commotion, when the malcontents, either from free will,
+  or force, have forsaken their country, and sought new settlements
+  in distant regions.
+
+4. Geographical sketch of the Phoenician colonies. They possessed, at a
+very early period, most of the islands of the Archipelago; from which,
+however, they were subsequently expelled by the Greeks. The principal
+countries in which they had settlements were the south of Spain
+(Tartessus, Gades, Carteia); the north coast of Africa, west of the
+Lesser Syrtis (Utica, Carthage, Adrumetum); and the north-western coast
+of Sicily (Panormus, Lilybaeum). It is likewise highly probable that they
+formed settlements towards the east in the Persian gulf, on the islands
+of Tylos and Aradus (Bahrein).
+
+5. This sketch of the Phoenician colonies will give us some idea of the
+extent of their sea trade and navigation; which, however, extended much
+farther than their colonies. Among them, as among other nations,
+commerce took its rise in piracy; even as late as the time of Homer, the
+Phoenicians appear to have been freebooters. The principal objects of
+their commerce were (_a_) the settlements in north Africa and Spain; the
+latter more particularly, on account of its rich silver mines. (_b_)
+Beyond the Pillars of Hercules, the west-coast of Africa; Britain and
+the Scilly islands, for the purpose of procuring tin, and, very
+probably, amber. (_c_) From Elath and Ezion-Gebar, ports situate at the
+northern extremity of the Arabian gulph, they undertook, in connection
+with the Jews, voyages to Ophir, that is to say, to the rich lands of
+the south, particularly Arabia Felix and Ethiopia. (_d_) From the
+Persian gulf, they extended their commerce to the western peninsula of
+India and the island of Ceylon. Finally, (_e_) they made several
+extensive voyages of discovery, among which, the most remarkable was the
+circumnavigation of Africa.
+
+6. Of no less importance was the land trade, mostly carried on by
+caravans. The principal branches of it were: (_a_) The Arabian caravan
+trade for spices and incense, imported from Arabia Felix, Gerra, and the
+Persian gulf. (_b_) The trade through Palmyra with Babylon, which opened
+them an indirect communication by way of Persia, with lesser Bukharia
+and little Thibet, probably even with China itself. (_c_) The trade with
+Armenia and the neighbouring countries in slaves, horses, copper
+utensils, etc.
+
+7. To all this must be added their own manufactures, particularly their
+stuffs and dyes; (the purple, made of the juice of a marine shellfish;)
+their manufactures of glass and toys, which, in their commerce with
+uncivilized nations, generally carried on by barter, were turned to good
+account. Many other important discoveries, among which the invention of
+letters holds the first rank, are attributed to the Phoenicians.
+
+
+
+VI. _Syrians._
+
+
+1. The inhabitants of Syria dwelt in cities as early as B. C. 2000, when
+Abraham wandered over their country. This country did not form one
+single state, but consisted of several cities, each of which had its
+separate territory, and its chief or king; of these cities, Damascus,
+Hamath, etc. are mentioned in the most remote antiquity.
+
+2. The Syrians were, however, often subjected by foreign conquerors; and
+their country was certainly, at least in the time of David, a Jewish
+province. It shook off the yoke, however, in the time of Solomon; when
+Rezon, who had formerly been a slave, obtained possession of Damascus.
+
+3. After this, there arose the kingdom of Damascus, which comprised the
+greatest portion of Syria, the kings in the other cities becoming
+tributary to Damascus. The boundaries of the empire, too, were extended,
+and particularly at the expense of the divided kingdoms of Judah and
+Israel.
+
+  The kings, whose names are taken from the books of Chronicles,
+  were: Rezon, about 980. Benhadad I. about 900. Hazael, about 850.
+  Benhadad II. about 830. Rezin. Under this last, the kingdom of
+  Damascus was overthrown by the Assyrian conqueror Tiglath-Pileser,
+  about 740.
+
+  _Contemporary_ in Inner Asia: Assyrian kingdom. Jews: kingdoms
+  of Israel and Judah. Greeks: settlement of the Asiatic
+  colonies.--Lycurgus.
+
+
+
+VII. _Jews._
+
+
+The history of the Jewish people, begins with Abraham the father of
+their race; that of the Jewish state does not commence till after the
+conquest of Palestine. It is divided into three periods. I. History of
+the Jews, as a nomad horde, from Abraham till their settlement in
+Palestine, B. C. 2000-1500. II. History of the Jewish state as a
+federative republic under the high priests and judges, from B. C.
+1500-1100. III. History of the Jewish state under a monarchical
+government, from B. C. 1100-600, first in one kingdom,--975; afterwards
+as two separate kingdoms, Israel and Judah, until the downfall of the
+latter, 588.
+
+  Sources of the Jewish history.--Their annals:--Books of Judges,
+  Samuel, Chronicles, Kings. How those books were composed, and
+  whether their authors may be considered as contemporary with the
+  events they relate? How far the Hebrew poets, the prophets in
+  particular, may be considered as historical authority?--JOSEPHUS,
+  as an antiquarian in his _Archaeologia_, and as a contemporary
+  historian in his _Historia Belli Romani_.
+
+  Unfortunately there is not at present any satisfactory treatise on
+  the Jewish history previous to the Babylonian captivity; nor one
+  written in an impartial spirit, without credulity or scepticism.
+  The work of BERRUYER, _Histoire du Peuple de Dieu, depuis son
+  origine jusqu'a la Naissance de J. C._ Paris, 1742, 10 vols. 8vo.;
+  and the continuation, _depuis la Naissance de J. C._ 10 vols.; and
+  others of the same kind do not answer this description. RELANDI
+  _Antiquit. Sacr. Heb._ The writings of J. D. MICHAELIS, particularly
+  his # Remarks on the Translation of the Old Testament, and his
+  # _Mosaic Law_; together with # HERDER, _On the Spirit of Hebrew
+  Poesy_, furnish many excellent materials.
+
+
+I. _Period of the nomad state from Abraham to the conquest of
+Palestine._--Under Abraham, Isaac, and Jacob, nothing more at first than
+a single nomad family; which, however, during its sojourn in Lower
+Egypt, where, during four hundred and thirty, or, according to others,
+two hundred and fifty years, it roved about in subjection to the
+Egyptian Pharaohs,--increased to a nomad nation, divided into twelve
+tribes. The nation, however, becoming formidable from the great increase
+of its numbers, the Pharaohs, following the usual policy of the
+Egyptians, wished to compel the Jews to build and inhabit cities.
+Unaccustomed to restraint, they fled from Egypt under the conduct of
+Moses; and conquered, under him and his successor Joshua, Palestine,
+the land of promise.
+
+  Moses and his legislation.--What he borrowed and what he did not
+  borrow from the Egyptians?--The worship of Jehovah in the national
+  sanctuary, and by national festivals, celebrated with ceremonies
+  rigidly prescribed, the point of union for the whole nation, and
+  the political bond which held the tribes together.--The caste of
+  Levites, compared with the Egyptian caste of priests.
+
+  J. D. MICHAELIS, _Mosaic Law_. Gottingen, 1778, etc. 6 vols. 8vo.;
+  translated into English by Dr. ALEXANDER SMITH. Lond. 1814, 4
+  vols. 8vo. The commentator frequently sees more than the lawgiver.
+
+
+II. _Period of the federative republic._ From the occupation of
+Palestine to the establishment of monarchy, 1500-1100.
+
+1. General character of this period as the heroic age of the nation,
+which, after the gradual adoption of fixed dwellings and agriculture,
+was engaged in constant feuds with its neighbours, the vagrant Arabs,
+the Philistines, and the Edomites. Impossibility of exterminating
+entirely the ancient inhabitants according to the intention of
+Moses.--Hence the worship of Jehovah was never the _only_ religion in
+the land.
+
+2. Political organization. In consequence of the division of land,
+according to tribes, and their separation from one another, the
+government long remained patriarchal. Each tribe preserved its patriarch
+or elder, as in the nomad state. All, however, had, in the worship of
+Jehovah, one common bond, uniting them into one federate state.
+Magistrates were likewise appointed in the cities, to whom scribes are
+conjoined out of the Levite caste.
+
+3. The permanent union of the nation, and preservation of the Mosaic
+law, were likewise promoted by the distribution of the Levite caste into
+forty-eight separate towns, situated in various parts of the country,
+and by making the high priesthood hereditary in Aaron's family.
+
+4. But when at the death of Joshua the people were left without a common
+ruler, the tie of religion became insufficient to hold them together;
+especially as the weaker tribes became jealous of the more powerful. At
+this time the high priests appear to have had but little political
+influence; and the national bond was only prevented from being dissolved
+by the dread of a foreign yoke.
+
+5. The Jews were sometimes independent, at other times tributary. In
+seasons of oppression and distress heroes arose, jealous for the worship
+of Jehovah, to deliver them from bondage. They acted as chief
+magistrates and rulers of a part, or even the whole of the nation, and
+as champions of the worship of the true God. The judges, particularly
+Othniel, Deborah, and Sampson.--Concerning the marvellous in their
+history.
+
+6. Reestablishment of the worship of Jehovah by Samuel. He becomes
+judge, and rules as Jehovah's minister.--His scheme of making the office
+of judge hereditary in his own family is defeated by the conduct of his
+sons. The nation demands a king, whom Samuel, as minister of Jehovah, is
+called upon to appoint. His crafty policy in the election, which he
+cannot impede. He chooses Saul, politically speaking, the most
+insignificant man of the nation; but the tallest and most stately. A
+formal constitutional act, according to the Mosaic command, is drawn up
+and deposited in the national sanctuary.
+
+  Causes which led the nation to demand a king.--Earlier attempts
+  made, particularly by _Abimelech_, to obtain regal power.
+
+
+III. _Period of the monarchy from 1100-600._
+
+
+I. _The Jewish state as one single kingdom from 1100(1095)-975._
+
+1. _Saul_, the new king, strengthened himself on the throne by a victory
+over the Ammonites; and a general assembly of the nation, in which
+Samuel laid down his office as judge, unanimously acknowledged his
+sovereignty. But Saul, no sooner became a conqueror than he threw off
+the tutelage of Samuel, and ventured himself to consult Jehovah. This
+was the occasion of a feud between them. Samuel, offended, privately
+anointed another young man, David the son of Jesse, as king. David
+acquires fame and popularity by his heroic conduct; but has much
+difficulty in escaping the jealousy of Saul.--Saul sustains himself amid
+constant wars with the neighbouring nations; but at last defeated, he
+and all his sons, except one, lose their lives.
+
+2. State of the nation and constitution under Saul.--The king little
+more than a military leader under the direction of Jehovah; without
+either court or fixed residence.--The people still a mere agricultural
+and pastoral race, without wealth or luxury; but gradually assuming the
+character of a warlike nation.
+
+3. Saul was succeeded by David; but not without opposition. Eleven
+tribes declare for Ish-bosheth, the remaining son of Saul; and David is
+only acknowledged by his own tribe, Judah. It is not till seven years
+later, and the murder of Ish-bosheth by his own people, that David is
+recognized as king by the whole nation.
+
+4. Complete formation of the nation, and a change of constitution during
+the reign of David over the united kingdom, which lasted thirty-three
+years. Jerusalem is made the seat of government and of the national
+sanctuary. Rigid observance of the worship of Jehovah, the exclusive
+religion of the nation, considered in respect to its political
+consequence.
+
+5. Vast aggrandizement of the Jewish state by conquest. A war with
+Hadadezer opens the way to the conquest of Syria and Idumaea. Extent of
+the kingdom from the Euphrates to the Mediterranean; from Phoenicia to
+the Red sea. Gradual decline towards despotism and seraglio government;
+the political consequences of which become apparent about the end of
+David's reign, in the rebellion of his sons.
+
+6. Reign of Solomon. The brilliant government of a despot from the
+interior of his seraglio; unwarlike, but civilized, and fond of parade.
+New organization of the kingdom for the support of the court.
+Connections formed with the neighbouring states, particularly with Tyre;
+hence a participation in the southern trade carried on from the ports of
+the Red sea, conquered by David; but only as a monopoly of the court.
+
+7. The capital enriched by the splendour of the court; but the country
+oppressed and impoverished, particularly the distant tribes. Gradual
+internal decay hastened by the admixture of the worship of foreign gods
+with that of Jehovah; although Solomon, by the erection of the temple
+according to the plan of his father, seems to have wished to make the
+worship of the true God the only religion of the country. An
+unsuccessful attempt at rebellion made by Jeroboam; and by the Edomites,
+who remain tributary under their own kings: actual secession, even
+during the reign of Solomon, of the conquered province of Syria by the
+foundation of the kingdom of Damascus.
+
+8. Solomon is succeeded by his son Rehoboam, who has scarcely ascended
+the throne, before the malcontents, increased in number by his
+imprudence, break into open rebellion. Jeroboam is recalled from Egypt,
+and ten tribes acknowledge him as their king. Only two tribes, Judah and
+Benjamin, remain faithful to Rehoboam.
+
+
+II. _The Jewish state as a divided kingdom, 975-588._
+
+1. Reciprocal relations between the two kingdoms of Judah and Israel.
+Although Israel was more extensive and populous than Judah, yet was
+Judah, in consequence of possessing the capital, richest of the two;
+thus their power was nearly balanced; and hence the struggle between
+them was the more obstinate.
+
+2. The kings of Israel seek to confirm the political division of the
+nation, by establishing a new form of worship within their dominions, in
+order to restrain their subjects from visiting the ancient seat of the
+national worship at Jerusalem; hence they were considered as the enemies
+of Jehovah. Several kings, however, even of Judah were so impolitic as
+to mingle the worship of other gods with that of Jehovah. But oppression
+itself serves to sustain the worship of Jehovah; the number and
+political influence of the prophets increase in proportion as men feel,
+amid the turbulence of the times, need of the counsels of the true God;
+the idea of some future happier period under a mighty king--the idea of
+the Messiah and of his kingdom--is more fully developed by the lively
+recollection of the splendid reign of David.--Schools of the prophets.
+
+3. The rivalry and wars between those two states not only continue with
+slight interruption, but become more and more fraught with danger, in
+consequence of the alliances entered into with foreign princes,
+particularly with the kings of Damascus and Egypt. An end is at length
+put to these feeble kingdoms by the rise of vast empires in Inner Asia.
+
+  Most important events in the history of the two kingdoms.
+
+  1. KINGDOM OF ISRAEL, 975-722; under 19 kings, from different
+  families, who succeeded to the throne amid violent revolutions. 1.
+  Jeroboam, _d._ 954. Settlement of the royal residence at Shechem;
+  of the sanctuaries at Bethel and Dan, and appointment of priests,
+  not belonging to the tribe of Levi. Constant wars with the kings of
+  Judah. 2. Nadab, Jeroboam's son, murdered in 953 by 3. Baasha, _d._
+  930. This prince, by his alliance with the kings of Damascus,
+  brought the kingdom of Judah into great danger. 4. Elah murdered in
+  929 by one of his generals. 5. Zimri, in whose place the army
+  immediately elected 6. Omri: this prince, at the beginning of his
+  reign, had a rival to the throne in Tibni, _d._ 925. Omri founded
+  the new capital, Samaria, _d._ 918. He was succeeded by his son 7.
+  Ahab: strong connections by marriage with the kings of Sidon;
+  introduction of the Phoenician worship of Baal. Wars with
+  Damascus, in which Ahab at last perishes, 897. Under Ahab a league
+  formed with the king of Judah. He is succeeded by his sons, 8.
+  Ahaziah, _d._ 896, and 9. Jehoram. The league with Judah continues.
+  Jehoram is murdered by Jehu, 883. 10. Jehu: this king destroys the
+  house of Ahab, which had given 4 kings to Israel, and does away
+  with the worship of Baal. The kings of Damascus wrest from the
+  kingdom of Israel the lands beyond Jordan. Jehu, _d._ 856. He is
+  succeeded by his son 11. Jehoahaz, _d._ 840. The wars with Damascus
+  continue unsuccessful to Israel. 12. Jehoash, _d._ 825. He defeats
+  the kings of Damascus and Judah. 13. Jeroboam II. _d._ 784. He
+  restores the kingdom of Israel to its ancient extent. After a
+  turbulent interregnum of 12 years, he is succeeded by his son 14.
+  Zechariah, 773; who was assassinated the same year, being the last
+  remnant of the house of Jehu, which had given 5 kings to Israel.
+  His murderer, 15. Shallum, after a reign of one month, is, in his
+  turn, assassinated by 16. Menahem, _d._ 761: under his reign the
+  first expedition of the Assyrians, headed by Pul, whom he buys off
+  by tribute. 17. His son Pekahiah murdered in 759 by 18. Pekah,
+  under whose reign falls the expedition of Tiglath-Pileser the
+  Assyrian, and destruction of Damascus. Pekah is assassinated in 740
+  by 19. Hoshea, who, after an anarchy of eight years, obtains
+  possession of the throne. Hoshea endeavours, by an alliance with
+  Egypt, to shake off the Assyrian yoke; but Shalmaneser, king of
+  Assyria, wages war against him, conquers Samaria, and puts an end
+  to the kingdom of Israel, whose inhabitants he transplants to Media
+  in Inner Asia, 722.
+
+  2. KINGDOM OF JUDAH under 20 kings of the house of David, 975-598.
+  The regular line of hereditary succession is generally followed
+  without dispute, and is only twice interrupted by Athaliah's
+  usurpation, and the intervention of foreign conquerors. 1.
+  Rehoboam, _d._ 958. Jerusalem is still the seat of government; but
+  even during this reign the worship of Jehovah begins to fall into
+  neglect, in consequence of the introduction of foreign gods.
+  Besides the war with Israel, Jerusalem is attacked and plundered by
+  Shishak, king of Egypt. 2. Abijah, _d._ 955. 3. Asa. This prince
+  was attacked by the combined kings of Israel and Damascus, and, no
+  doubt, would have sunk in the conflict, had he not succeeded in
+  breaking their alliance; _d._ 914. 4. Jehoshaphat, the restorer of
+  the worship of Jehovah and framer of a league with the kingdom of
+  Israel. His attempt to reestablish the trade to Ophir, on the Red
+  sea, is unsuccessful, _d._ 891. 5. Jehoram. The union with Israel
+  is confirmed by the marriage of this prince with Ahab's daughter,
+  Athaliah; but Idumaea, under his reign, secedes wholly from the
+  kingdom of Judah, _d._ 884. 6. His son Ahaziah is, in the next
+  year, 883, assassinated by Jehu, the murderer and successor of
+  Jehoram king of Israel. 7. His mother, Athaliah, takes possession
+  of the throne; murders the whole royal family; only one son of
+  Ahaziah, 8, Joash, is, in consequence of his youth, rescued from
+  the carnage, secretly educated in the temple, and after seven years
+  forcibly placed upon the throne, by means of a revolution wrought
+  by the high priest, Jehoiada; and Athaliah is slaughtered, 877.
+  Joash rules under the tutelage of the priests, which leads to the
+  reestablishment of Jehovah's worship. This prince is menaced by
+  Hazael king of Damascus, and compelled to pay him tribute. Slain
+  838. 9. Amaziah: he defeats the Edomites, and is in his turn
+  defeated by Jehoash king of Israel, by whom Jerusalem itself is
+  sacked. He is slain in 811, and succeeded 10. by his son Azariah,
+  (or Uzziah.) This prince was leprous, and _d._ 759. His son 11.
+  Jotham, _d._ 743, became regent during the life of his father. The
+  wars with Israel and Damascus recommence. 12. Ahaz, _d._ 728. The
+  league between the kings of Damascus and Israel induces Ahaz to
+  call to his assistance Tiglath-Pileser king of Assyria, who
+  overthrows the kingdom of Damascus, and subjects Israel and Judah
+  to tribute. 13. Hezekiah, _d._ 699. He shakes off the Assyrian
+  yoke: under his reign Shalmaneser destroys Samaria, 722: and
+  Shalmaneser's successor, Sennacherib, undertakes his expedition
+  against Egypt, 714. Jerusalem is again besieged, but fortunately
+  relieved by the total failure of the expedition. Isaiah prophecies
+  during the reign of this prince. 14. Manasseh, _d._ 644. During his
+  55 years' reign, the worship of the Phoenician god, Baal, becomes
+  general; that of Jehovah falls into contempt, and the Mosaic law
+  into disuse. 15. Amon, murdered as early as 642. 16. Josiah
+  restorer of the temple, and of the worship of Jehovah. The book of
+  the Law, which had been cast aside and neglected, is once more
+  found, and a complete reform instituted according to its
+  principles. Palestine however is the first country attacked by
+  Necos, king of Egypt; and Josiah falls in battle, 611. His son, 17.
+  Jehoahaz, is, after a reign of three months, dethroned by
+  Pharaoh-Nechoh, and his brother 18. Jehoiakim placed as a tributary
+  prince on the throne. But in consequence of the rise of the
+  Chaldaeo-Babylonian empire, Pharaoh-Nechoh is deprived of his
+  Asiatic conquests by the loss of the battle of Circesium, 606; and
+  Jehoiakim becomes tributary to Nebuchadnezzar, _d._ 599. The
+  prophet Jeremiah flourishes. 19. Jehoiachin, son of the former
+  king, after three months' reign, is, together with the greater part
+  of the nation, transplanted into Inner Asia by Nebuchadnezzar,
+  after a second expedition, (commencement of the Babylonian
+  captivity,) and, 20. Zedekiah, brother on the father's side to
+  Jehoiachin, is seated on the throne as a tributary prince. Forming,
+  however, a league with Egypt, in order to throw off the Babylonian
+  yoke, Nebuchadnezzar marches a third time against Jerusalem,
+  conquers it, 588, and delivers it up to pillage and destruction.
+  Zedekiah, after being deprived of his eye-sight, and losing all his
+  children by the hands of the executioner, is, together with the
+  remaining portion of the nation, led in captivity to Babylon.
+
+  S. BERNHARDI _Commentatio de causis quibus affectum sit ut regnum
+  Judae diutius persisteret quam regnum Israel; cum tabula
+  geographica_, Lovanii, 1825, 4to. A prize essay, containing also
+  several valuable enquiries into the monarchical period of the
+  Jewish state.
+
+  # BAUER, _Manual of the History of the Hebrew Nation_, vol. i-iii,
+  1800. The best introduction hitherto published, not only to the
+  history, but also to the antiquities of the nation, from the rise
+  to the fall of the state.
+
+
+
+
+II. AFRICAN NATIONS.
+
+
+
+
+_General Geographical Outline of Ancient Africa._
+
+
+  See A. H. L. HEEREN'S _Historical Researches_, etc. African Nations.
+  2 vols. 8vo. Oxford, 1831.
+
+1. Although the Phoenicians had circumnavigated Africa, the northern
+part only of that quarter of the globe was known to antiquity.
+
+With that part, however, the ancients were better acquainted than we are
+at the present day, the coast being then occupied by civilized and
+commercial nations, who pushed their excursions far inland. This was the
+case in early times with the Carthaginians and the Egyptians; still more
+so with the Macedonian Greeks, under the Ptolemies, and under the
+Romans. War, hunting, and commerce, were, generally speaking, the
+objects which gave rise to those excursions.
+
+2. Considered as a whole, Africa is very different from Asia, both in
+situation and form. Asia lies almost entirely within the temperate,
+while Africa is almost wholly under the torrid zone. Asia abounds in
+deep gulfs and large rivers; Africa constitutes a regular triangle, and
+in its northern half possesses but two large rivers, the Nile and the
+Niger. No wonder, then, that this portion of our globe should form, as
+it were, a world in itself, distinguished by its productions and its
+inhabitants.
+
+3. Physically considered, Northern Africa may be divided into three
+regions, distinguished in early antiquity by separate names. The
+maritime country along the Mediterranean, with the exception of
+Tripolis, or the Regio-Syrtica, consists principally of very fertile
+districts, and was consequently, at all times, very thickly inhabited:
+hence in Herodotus it bears the name of the _inhabited Africa_; it is
+now called Barbary. Above this, and under the 30th parallel of N. lat.,
+succeeds a mountainous tract, across which stretches the Atlas chain of
+mountains; abounding in wild beasts and dates: hence Herodotus calls it
+the _wild beast Africa_: among the Arabs it is called the land of dates,
+(_Biledulgerid_.) Beyond this, and between the 30th and 20th degrees of
+N. lat. the sandy region extends right across Africa and Arabia: this
+part of Africa is therefore known, both among the ancients and moderns,
+under the name of Africa Deserta, or the Sandy Desert, (Sahara). The
+fruitful lands beyond the desert, stretching along the banks of the
+Niger, were almost wholly unknown to the Greeks: by them these parts
+were comprehended under the common name of Ethiopia, although that name
+applied more peculiarly to the districts above Egypt. The Greeks were,
+however, acquainted with some of the fruitful spots in the desert, the
+Oases; such as Augila, Ammonium, and the Oases, properly so called, in
+Egypt.
+
+4. There exists no political division which comprises the whole of
+Africa. The north coast alone was inhabited by civilized nations:
+Egyptians, Cyrenaeans, and Carthaginians; of which the first only were
+aboriginals. The rest of the inhabitants either roved about as nomad
+hordes, or formed insignificant states, of whose existence we have
+heard some account, though we possess no history of them. Along the
+shore, reckoning from the Plinthinetic gulf, Egypt is succeeded by: 1st.
+Marmarica, a tract without cities, consisting principally of sandy
+deserts, occupied by nomad hordes: this country extends from the 40-47 deg.
+E. long. from Ferro. 2nd. The fertile territory occupied by the Greek
+colonies, called Cyrenaica, extended to the Greater Syrtis, 37-40 deg. E.
+long. Cities: Cyrene, Barca. 3rd. The territory of Carthage, extending
+from the Greater Syrtis to the Fair Promontory, 25-40 deg. E. long. This
+territory comprised (_a_) the country between the Greater and Lesser
+Syrtis, (Regio Syrtica,) which constitutes the modern kingdom of
+Tripoli; a sandy tract, almost wholly occupied by nomads. (_b_) the
+territory of Carthage, properly so called, (kingdom of Tunis). A very
+fruitful country; the southern part, called Byzacena, the northern part
+Zeugitana. Cities: Carthage, Utica, etc. 4th. Numidia and Mauritania;
+occupied during the Carthaginian age by nomad races. Along the shore
+some Carthaginian settlements.
+
+
+
+EGYPTIANS.
+
+
+Preliminary remarks. Egypt in its superficial contents is equal to about
+two-thirds of Germany, and may therefore justly be ranked among the more
+extensive countries of the globe; it greatly varies, however, in its
+physical properties. The soil is only sufficiently fertile for tillage
+on the banks of the Nile, and as far as the floods of that river extend;
+beyond that, on the west, is a sandy desert, on the east a chain of
+rocky mountains. From its entrance into Egypt at Syene, the Nile flows
+in one undivided stream to the city of Cercasorus, 60 geogr. miles above
+its mouth, directing its source from south to north through a valley
+from 8 to 16 geogr. miles broad, bounded on the west by deserts of sand,
+and on the east by mountains of granite. At Cercasorus the stream first
+divides itself into two main branches, which formerly discharged their
+waters into the Mediterranean, the eastern near the city of Pelusium,
+the western near the city of Canopus (_ostium Pelusiacum et Canopicum_;)
+from these two diverged several intermediate branches; so that in the
+time of Herodotus there existed seven mouths of the Nile, but the number
+has not always remained the same. The tract between the two extreme arms
+of the Nile bears, in consequence of its triangular form, the name of
+the Delta; it was covered with cities, and highly cultivated. The
+fertile part of Egypt, inhabited by civilized men, was therefore
+confined to the Delta and the valley of the Nile, on the two banks of
+the stream from Syene to Cercasorus; to which must be added some well
+watered spots in the centre of the western desert, known under the name
+of the Oases. In consequence of the perpetual absence of rain,
+particularly in Upper Egypt, the fertility of the Delta and the valley
+of the Nile depends on the overflowing of the river, which happens at
+stated periods. This commences at the beginning of August and continues
+to the end of October; so that during three whole months the
+above-mentioned parts of the country are under water.
+
+Egypt is divided into Upper, extending from Syene to the city of
+Chemmis, (capital, Thebes, or Diospolis); Central from Chemmis to
+Cercasorus, (capital, Memphis,) and Lower Egypt, which comprises the
+Delta, and the land on both sides: it was full of cities, among which
+the most remarkable was Sais.
+
+Next above Egypt lies Ethiopia, (_Aethiopia supra Aegyptum_); which, from
+the earliest times, principally through commerce, appears to have been
+closely connected with the former country. The regions immediately above
+Egypt, usually called Nubia, are little more than deserts of sand, still
+inhabited by roving hordes of nomad robbers. The rocky mountain chain,
+which forms the eastern boundary of Egypt, stretches along the Red sea,
+and was formerly of great importance to Nubia, from its containing, just
+above the Egyptian frontier, productive gold mines. The Nile, in this
+country, makes a wide curve to the west, and becomes so full of shallows
+as to render navigation difficult. The lands adjoining the river,
+however, are fertile and well inhabited; and contain numerous ancient
+monuments. Still higher up, reckoning from 16 deg. N. lat. the appearance
+of the country changes; the region of fertility commences, and its costly
+productions, its gold and its perfumes, gave rise to a profitable
+commerce. Among these countries, Meroe, with its capital of the same
+name, was celebrated in the days of Herodotus. By Meroe is understood a
+tract of land bounded by two rivers, the Nile on the west, and the
+Astaboras, (Tacazze,) which falls into the Nile, on the east; for this
+reason it is frequently, although improperly, called an island. This
+country extended towards the sources of the Nile, or the modern province
+of Gojam, where, under the reign of Psammetichus, the Egyptian caste of
+warriors, having for the most part deserted, established themselves.
+Meroe itself, like the Egyptian states, was sacerdotal, with a king at
+its head.--The city of Axum, or Auxume, is not indeed mentioned at so
+early a period; but if we may judge by the ruins that still remain, it
+was of equally high antiquity with the old Egyptian towns and with
+Meroe. The same observations apply to Adule, the harbour on the Arabian
+gulf.
+
+The Egyptian history is divided into three periods of unequal duration;
+the _first_ of which extends from the earliest time down to the
+Sesostridae, that is to say, to about B.C. 1500: the _second_ comprises
+the reigns of the Sesostridae, or the brilliant period of Egypt, down to
+Psammetichus, 1500-650: the _third_ brings us from Psammetichus down to
+the Persian conquest, 650-525.
+
+
+FIRST PERIOD.
+
+_From the earliest times down to the Sesostridae, about B. C. 1500._
+
+  Sources: 1. Jewish writers. _Moses._ His records contain, no doubt,
+  a faithful picture of the Egyptian state in his day; but no
+  continuous history can be deduced from them.--From Moses down to
+  Solomon (B.C. 1500-1000.) total silence, with respect to Egypt, of
+  the Hebrew writers. From Solomon down to Cyrus, (B.C. 1000-550.) a
+  few scanty fragments.--Importance and superiority of the Jewish
+  accounts, so far as they are _purely historical_. 2. Greek writers.
+  (_a_) _Herodotus._ The first who published a History of the
+  Egyptians. About seventy years after the destruction of the throne
+  of the Pharaohs by the Persian conquerors, this author collected,
+  in Egypt itself, the earliest accounts of the history of the
+  country; he received his information from the most capable persons,
+  the priests; and wrote down faithfully that information, such as he
+  heard it. If, therefore, we would estimate at their proper worth
+  the accounts given by Herodotus, it is necessary to enquire, what
+  did the priests themselves know of their earlier national history?
+  And this question cannot be answered until we have ascertained in
+  what manner the historical records of the earlier periods were
+  preserved among the Egyptians.
+
+  The earliest history of the Egyptians, like that of all other
+  nations, was traditional. They adopted, however, before any other
+  nations, a sort of writing, hieroglyphics, or allegorical picture
+  writing; in which the signs borrowed from natural objects served,
+  as modern discoveries have proved, partly to represent sounds,
+  (_hieroglyphes phonetiques_,) and partly to express ideas; in the
+  latter case they were either representative or allegorical. This
+  mode of writing, by its nature, is not so complete as the purely
+  alphabetical; since, 1. It can express only a narrow circle of
+  ideas, and these separately, without connection or grammatical
+  inflection, at least with very few exceptions. 2. As it is not so
+  well adapted to writing as to painting or engraving, it is not so
+  useful for books as for public monuments. 3. Being emblematic, it
+  is not intelligible without the help of a key, which could only be
+  preserved in some tradition connected with the monument, and which
+  was exclusively possessed by the priests; this key, therefore,
+  could hardly be preserved many centuries without falsification. 4.
+  The same image seems frequently to have been used to express very
+  different objects.--It follows, that the Egyptian history, as
+  deduced from the lips of the priests, can hardly have been any
+  thing more than records connected with, and depending upon, public
+  monuments: consisting, therefore, of mere fragments, and reducible
+  to no consistent chronology, it ultimately admitted only of
+  allegorical translation, and consequently was very liable to be
+  misinterpreted. Besides their hieroglyphics, the Egyptians
+  certainly had two other species of writing: the _hieratic_,
+  confined to the priests, and the _demotic_, used in common life.
+  Both, however, seem to have been nothing more than running hands
+  derived from the hieroglyphic system; and we have no instance of
+  the employment of either the one or the other in public monuments
+  of the time of the Pharaohs. That the use of papyrus, a material on
+  which all the above kinds of writing were employed, had its origin
+  in the highest antiquity, or at least in the more brilliant period
+  of the Pharaohs, we now know for certain, written documents
+  belonging to those times having been obtained from the tombs.
+
+  CHAMPOLLION LE JEUNE, _Precis du Systeme Hieroglyphique des anciens
+  Egyptiens_. Paris, 1824. The main work on this subject, of which
+  the _Lettre a M. Dacier_, 1822, is but the precursor, and the two
+  _Lettres a M. le duc de Blacas_ the continuation. The new method of
+  deciphering has received its principal confirmation from the work
+  of the British consul in Egypt, SALT, _Essay on the Phonetic System
+  of Hieroglyphics_, 1825, on the authority of a comparison with the
+  Egyptian monuments themselves. Hitherto, however, little more has
+  been made out than the names and titles of the kings, distinguished
+  by being always enclosed within a border.
+
+  These preliminary remarks on the earlier Egyptian history, will
+  derive abundant support from a perusal of the account given by
+  Herodotus (ii, 99-150), of the Egyptian kings previous to
+  Psammetichus. The study of that author proves beyond all doubt,
+  that: I. The whole history is throughout founded on public
+  monuments, and on monuments too, either in or near _Memphis_. We
+  may even restrict ourselves to one single monument at Memphis, to
+  the temple of Vulcan, or Phtha, the chief temple of that city. The
+  history commences with Menes, the founder of that edifice, (c.
+  99.), and we are informed, respecting each of his successors, what
+  was done towards the augmentation and embellishment of the
+  building: those who made no addition to that temple, but left other
+  monuments, (as the builders of the pyramids,) are denominated
+  oppressors of the people, and contemners of the gods: of those
+  princes who left no monuments at all, the priests could give no
+  other information than a catalogue of names. II. Hence this line of
+  kings, although the priests gave it to Herodotus as such, is not
+  without interruptions, but, as is clearly proved by a comparison
+  with Diodorus, contains many wide chasms: therefore no
+  chronological system can be erected upon such a basis. III. The
+  whole history is interwoven with narrations derived from
+  hieroglyphic representations, and for that very reason allegorical,
+  the meaning of which it is no longer possible to unravel, the
+  priests themselves being either unable or unwilling to explain it,
+  and even inclining, it appears, to introduce false interpretations.
+  To this class of narrations belongs, for instance, that of the
+  robbery of Rhampsinitus's treasury; that of his journey into hell,
+  where he played at dice with Ceres, (c. 121, 122); that concerning
+  the daughter of Cheops, (c. 127.); concerning the blindness of
+  Pheron, and the manner in which he was cured, etc. (c. 111.) To
+  prove that this charge is not without foundation, it will suffice
+  to adduce two examples; one from c. 131, where Herodotus himself
+  observes that such was the case; the other from c. 141, the true
+  meaning of which we gather from other sources. Even in the time of
+  Herodotus, it was customary with the priests to endeavour to
+  conciliate the Greek and Egyptian authorities; a fact in proof of
+  which there are many arguments which cannot escape the critic:
+  such, for instance, as the completely _Graecised_ history of king
+  Proteus, c. 112-115.--The general result of the above observations
+  on Herodotus's Egyptian history is, that it is nothing more than a
+  narration connected with public monuments. To this inference but
+  one objection can possibly be made, namely, that the Egyptian
+  priests possessed, besides their hieroglyphics, an alphabetical
+  mode of writing; consequently, that, over and above the public
+  monuments, they might likewise refer to written annals; but this
+  objection is overthrown by Herodotus himself. All the information
+  the priests could give him beyond what has been above alluded to,
+  consisted in the names of 330 kings subsequent to Menes; these
+  they read from a papyrus roll, but knew nothing more of the kings
+  who bore them, because _those sovereigns had left no monuments
+  behind them_, (c. 100.)
+
+  (_b_) Besides Herodotus, _Diodorus_ (lib. i.) likewise furnishes us
+  with the names of some Egyptian kings. This author, who wrote 400
+  years subsequently to Herodotus, visited Egypt, and collected his
+  history, partly from the oral and written documents of the priests
+  of _Thebes_, partly from the more ancient Greek writers, and
+  particularly Hecataeus. If we consider Herodotus's line of kings as
+  not continuous or uninterrupted, all appearance of contradiction
+  between the two historians vanishes. Diodorus, like Herodotus, did
+  not intend to give a complete enumeration of the Egyptian kings;
+  but only of the most remarkable; indicating the interruptions by
+  the number of generations which they contained.
+
+  (_c_) Finally, different from both the above is the Egyptian
+  _Manetho_, high priest at _Heliopolis_, who flourished under the
+  reign of Ptolemy Philadelphus, about B. C. 260. He wrote the
+  _Aegyptiaca_, of which, besides several fragments in Josephus, the
+  enumeration of the kings has been preserved in the chronicles of
+  Eusebius and Syncellus. This catalogue is divided into three
+  sections, (tomos,) each of which contains several dynasties, in all
+  31, enumerated according to the different cities of Egypt. In each
+  dynasty the number of kings belonging to it and the years of their
+  reigns are marked. The authenticity of Manetho is now completely
+  established; since the names of the Pharaohs mentioned by him have
+  been deciphered on the Egyptian monuments. To this period belong
+  the first seventeen dynasties; in the eighteenth begins the second
+  and brilliant period, to which the yet remaining monuments of Upper
+  Egypt, bearing the names of the founders, are to be ascribed. It is
+  worthy of observation, that in Herodotus we have the documents of
+  the priests of Memphis, in Diodorus those of the priests of Thebes,
+  in Manetho those of the priests of Heliopolis--the three principal
+  seats of sacerdotal learning:--perfect consistency cannot,
+  therefore, be expected in the accounts of those historians.
+
+  The modern writers on Egyptian antiquities, from KIRCHER, _Oedipus
+  Aegyptiacus_, 1670, to DE PAUW, _Recherches sur les Egyptiens et sur
+  les Chinois_, 1772, have too often substituted their own dreams and
+  hypotheses for truth. The principal attempts at a chronological
+  arrangement of the dynasties have been made by MARSHAM, in his
+  _Canon Chronicus_; and by GATTERER, in his # _Synchronistic History
+  of the World_.--Among the principal works on this subject may be
+  reckoned:
+
+  JABLONSKI _Pantheon Mythicum Aegyptiacum_, 1750, 8vo.
+
+  GATTERER, _Commentationes de Theogonia Aegypt_. in _Commentat.
+  Societ. Gotting._ t. vii.
+
+  _De Origine et Usu Obeliscorum, auctore_ G. ZOEGA; Romae, 1797.
+
+  _L'Egypte sous les Pharaons, ou Recherches sur la Geographie, la
+  Religion, la Langue, les Ecritures, et l'Histoire de l'Egypte avant
+  l'invasion de Cambyse, par_ CHAMPOLLION LE JEUNE, t. i, ii. 1814.
+  These two volumes, dedicated to the geography, contain the
+  restoration of the ancient Egyptian names of provinces and cities
+  deduced from Coptic authorities.
+
+  _Commentationes Herodoteae, scribebat_ FRID. CREUZER. _Aegyptica et
+  Hellenica, pars 1._ Lips. 1819. A series of most acute and learned
+  illustrations of different points in Egyptian antiquity, introduced
+  by different passages of Herodotus.
+
+  The volume in HEEREN'S _Historical Researches_, etc. 1831, vol. ii,
+  concerning the Egyptians; and particularly the introduction on
+  hieroglyphic writing. For the best representations of the Egyptian
+  monuments, we are indebted to the French expedition. Those of Denon
+  in his _Voyage en Egypte_, are far superior to those of Pococke and
+  Norden; but Denon's, in their turn, have been greatly surpassed in
+  the magnificent work:
+
+  _Description de l'Egypte, Antiquites_, P. i, ii, iii. P. i,
+  contains the monuments of Upper Egypt, from the frontiers of Nubia
+  to Thebes; P. ii, iii, contain the monuments of Thebes alone.
+
+  BELZONI, _Researches in Egypt_, London, 1824, with an atlas.
+
+  # MINUTOLI, _Journey to the Temple of Jupiter Ammon, and Egypt_, 1824.
+
+  L. BURCKHARDT, _Travels in Nubia_, London, 1819.
+
+  F. C. GAU, _Antiquites de la Nubie_, Paris, 1824. A worthy
+  continuation of the great French work on Egypt.
+
+  FR. CAILLAUD, _Voyage a Meroe et au Fleuve Blanc_, Paris, 1825,
+  contains the description of the monuments of Meroe.
+
+1. Political civilization commenced in Egypt at a much earlier period
+than that to which history reaches; for even in the days of Abraham,
+and still more so in those of Moses, the government seems to have been
+so well organized, that a long period must necessarily have elapsed in
+order to raise the nation to that degree of civilization which we see it
+had then attained. It may, therefore, be safely asserted, that Egypt
+ranks among the most ancient countries of our globe in which political
+associations existed; although we cannot determine with equal certainty
+whether they did not exist still earlier in India.
+
+2. The causes which contributed to render Egypt thus early a civilized
+state, may be found in the natural features of the country, and its
+favourable situation, when compared with the rest of Africa. It is the
+only tract in all northern Africa situated on a large uninterrupted
+navigable stream: had it not been for this, it would, like the other
+parts of Africa under the same parallel, have been a mere desert. To
+this must be added two extraordinary circumstances: on the one hand, the
+overflowing of the river so perfectly prepares the soil, that to scatter
+the seed is almost the only labour of the husbandman; and yet, on the
+other hand, so many obstacles impede the progress of agriculture, (by
+the necessity of canals, dams, etc.) that the invention of man must
+necessarily have been awakened. When agriculture, and the kind of
+knowledge requisite for its ulterior development had introduced a
+certain degree of civilization into Egypt, the situation of that
+country, between Asia and Africa, and in the neighbourhood of the rich
+land of gold and spices, must have been highly favourable to the
+purposes of international commerce; hence Egypt appears in all ages to
+have been one of the chief seats of the inland or caravan trade.
+
+3. It is obvious, therefore, that in the fertile valley of the Nile, the
+course of things must have been very different from what it was in the
+desert of Libya. Several small states appear to have been formed in this
+valley long before the existence of any great Egyptian kingdom. Their
+origin, as might naturally be supposed, is enveloped in an obscurity,
+which history can no longer entirely penetrate. It may still, however,
+be gathered from monuments and records, that Upper Egypt was first the
+seat of civilization; which, originating in the south, spread by the
+settlement of colonies towards the north. It is probable that this took
+place in consequence of the migration of some tribe, differing from the
+negroes, as is proved by the representations, both in sculpture and in
+painting, found on the yet remaining monuments of Egypt.
+
+4. The records of the high antiquity of political civilization, not only
+in India, but likewise in Arabia Felix and Ethiopia, particularly in
+Meroe, and the evident vestiges of ancient intercourse between the
+southern nations of our globe, prove with sufficient evidence the truth
+of such migrations, although they cannot be chronologically determined.
+It is certain, however, that religion had no small share in producing
+them. The national bond of union in Egypt not only continued in later
+times, entirely dependent upon religion, but was originally grounded
+upon it. Thus every step in political civilization must have depended,
+if not solely, at least principally, on the caste of priests and on
+their extension.
+
+  General development of the idea of division into castes. Originating
+  at first in the variety of tribes settled in one and the same
+  country, and their different modes of life.--Its further progress
+  in despotic and in theocratic kingdoms.--Application to Egypt and
+  to the Egyptian caste of priests, as an original, civilized tribe.
+
+5. The peculiarity of this caste was the worship of certain deities, the
+principal of which were Ammon, Osiris, and Phtha, confounded by the
+Greeks with their Jupiter, Bacchus, and Vulcan. The spread of this
+worship, which was always connected with temples, affords, therefore,
+the most evident vestiges of the spread of the caste itself; and those
+vestiges combined with the records of the Egyptians, lead us to conclude
+that this caste was a tribe which migrated from the south, from beyond
+Meroe in Ethiopia, and by the establishment of inland colonies around
+the temples founded by them, gradually extended and made the worship of
+their gods the dominant religion in Egypt.
+
+  Proof of the accuracy of the above theory deduced from monuments and
+  express testimonies concerning the origin of Thebes and Ammon from
+  Meroe; it might have been inferred from the preservation of the
+  worship of Ammon in the latter place. Memphis, again, and other
+  cities in the valley of the Nile, are commonly supposed to have been
+  founded by detachments from Thebes.
+
+6. This conjecture, which agrees with the usual progress of population,
+is corroborated by the very ancient division of the country into
+districts, or nomes. This division was intimately connected with the
+chief temples, each of which represented a separate colony of the caste
+of priests; so that the inhabitants of every home belonged to the chief
+temple, and joined in the religious worship there performed.
+
+7. To the gradual extension of this civilized tribe, which comprised,
+not only the caste of the priests, but certainly also that of the
+warriors, and perhaps some others, may be attributed the formation of
+several small states along the banks of the Nile; the central point of
+each being always such a colony as we have just now described; although
+each state consisted both of the aboriginal tribes of the neighbourhood,
+and of those that had migrated into the country. The bond which united
+every separate state was, therefore, as in most of those formed in the
+infancy of mankind, a common worship, in which all the members
+participated. But what, by reason of the peculiarities of soil and
+climate, could not take place in southern Africa, took place in Egypt:
+agriculture, and its progressive improvement, became the great support
+of civilization; and, as being the true foundation of states, formed the
+principal political object of the ruling caste.
+
+  Refutation of the idea, that the Egyptian priests were in possession
+  of great speculative knowledge; since their knowledge rather had
+  constant reference to practical life, and, therefore, was in their
+  hands the _instrumentum dominationis_ over the people, by which they
+  rendered themselves indispensable, and kept the former in a state of
+  dependence.--Explanation of the close reference which their gods,
+  their astronomical and mathematical sciences bore to agriculture.
+
+8. According to Manetho's catalogues, these separate Egyptian states
+existed first in Upper and Middle Egypt; in the former were Thebes,
+Elephantine, This, and Heraclea; in the latter, Memphis. It is only in
+the last division of his work that we meet with states in Lower Egypt,
+such as Tanis, Mendes, Bubastis, and Sebennytus.
+
+  To these states, therefore, no doubt, belong the 330 kings after
+  Menes, whose names the priests read to Herodotus; as also those whom
+  Diodorus mentions as reigning previous to Sesostris, among whom are
+  remarked Busiris II. founder of Thebes, and Uchoreus, the founder of
+  Memphis. Eusebius and Syncellus have preserved from Manetho the names
+  of several of those kings, which Marsham has endeavoured to compare
+  and arrange.
+
+9. In the absence of a certain and continuous chronology, it is
+impossible to determine accurately which of these states were
+contemporary, and which succeeded the others. There can be no question
+that Thebes was one of the earliest, if not indeed the most ancient of
+them all; certainly prior to Memphis, which was founded by it. According
+to the natural order of things, some of these states became wealthy and
+mighty, and swallowed up the others. Even at this early period, Thebes
+and Memphis had obtained a superiority over the rest.
+
+  This and Elephantine appear to have been united to Thebes; as were the
+  states of Lower Egypt to Memphis.
+
+10. The Mosaic records prove, that even in Joseph's time the state of
+Memphis (the real place, it appears, of his residence, not On, or
+Heliopolis,) comprised Middle and Lower Egypt. It possessed a numerous
+and brilliant court; castes of priests and warriors. Its agriculture
+flourished, and several of its institutions indicated a deeply-rooted
+civilization. But after the establishment of vassalage in this state by
+Joseph, when the class of free proprietors was destroyed, by making the
+king the only landholder except the priests, the troubles which already
+threatened the kingdom must have assumed a more dangerous and alarming
+aspect.
+
+11. These troubles came from abroad. Egypt, surrounded on all sides by
+nomad tribes, had often suffered from their irruptions, which sometimes
+poured in from the south, sometimes from the east. But never were these
+invasions so frequent and durable as in the period which immediately
+followed the administration of Joseph. Lower Egypt was overrun by the
+Bedouin Arabs, whose chieftains, called by the Egyptians _Hyksos_,
+settled in the country, fortified Avaris, or Pelusium, and extended
+their dominion to Memphis, which they made probably the seat of their
+government. They are depicted as the oppressors of religion, and of the
+caste of priests; but when we consider that Moses flourished in their
+time, we are led to infer that, like the Mongols in China, they must
+have gradually adopted Egyptian manners and civilization. They do not
+appear to have gained possession of Thebes in Upper Egypt; and it seems
+highly probable, that the long struggle against them was never, or at
+least but for a short time, suspended.
+
+  The dominion of the Arabian Hyksos falls between B. C. 1800-1600; and
+  consequently was contemporary with Moses and the exodus of the Jews.
+  Josephus gives 500 years to their dominion, in which he probably
+  comprises the long periods of earlier wars.
+
+12. Defeat, and final expulsion of the Hyksos from Upper Egypt by
+Thutmosis king of Thebes. The consequence of this event was not only
+the restoration of freedom and independence to Egypt, but also the
+union of the different states into one kingdom; as the rulers of Thebes
+now became monarchs over all Egypt. This expulsion of the Hyksos, which
+in itself cannot be considered otherwise than as a vast national effort,
+must have been the more deeply impressed on the memory of the people, as
+it laid the foundation of the splendid period which immediately
+followed.
+
+  The expulsion of the Hyksos appears to have been one of the chief
+  subjects on which the Egyptian artists exercised their talents: it
+  is supposed to have been represented upon one of the large temples
+  in Thebes. Denon, plate cxxxiii.
+
+
+SECOND PERIOD.
+
+_From the Sesostridae until the sole dominion of Psammetichus.
+B. C. 1500-650._
+
+  The sources for this period are the same as for the foregoing; and
+  the history still preserves the character of records handed down by
+  hieroglyphics. To this period belongs the line of kings subsequent
+  to Sesostris, given both by Herodotus and Diodorus. Those two
+  historians nearly agree, if we regard Herodotus's line of kings,
+  not as uninterrupted, but as the fragments of a series deduced
+  solely from public monuments: this will be demonstrated by the
+  following table, in which the predecessors of Sesostris have
+  likewise been indicated.
+
+  HERODOTUS.                          DIODORUS.
+
+  _Menes._                            _Menes._
+
+  He was followed by three            Followed by fifty-two successors,
+    hundred and thirty kings            ranging over a period of more
+    belonging to the previous           than 1400 years.
+    period, concerning which our
+    information is very incomplete:   _Busiris I._ and eight successors;
+    among those sovereigns were         the last of whom was
+    eighteen Ethiopians, and one
+    queen named Nitocris.             _Busiris II._ the founder of
+                                        Thebes.
+
+                                      _Osymandyas_ and eight successors;
+                                        the last of whom was
+
+                                      _Uchoreus_, founder of Memphis.
+
+                                      _Aegyptus_, grandson of the
+                                        foregoing. After the lapse
+                                        of twelve generations,
+
+  _Moeris._                           _Moeris._
+
+                                      Seven generations.
+
+  _Sesostris._                        _Sesostris_ or _Sesoosis_.
+
+  _Pheron_, son of Sesostris.         _Sesostris II._ son of the
+                                        foregoing: he assumed his
+                                        father's name.
+
+                                      Interval comprising several
+                                        generations.
+
+                                      _Amasis_, and the Ethiopian,
+
+                                      _Actisanus._
+
+                                      _Mendes_ or _Manes_, builder
+                                        of the labyrinth.
+
+                                      Anarchy which lasted five
+                                        generations.
+
+  _Proteus_, in the time of the       _Proteus_ or _Cetes_, in the time
+    Trojan war.                         of the Trojan war.
+
+  _Rhampsinitus._                     _Remphis_, son of the foregoing.
+
+                                      Seven generations, in the course
+                                        of which flourished _Nileus_,
+                                        from whom the Nile derives
+                                        its name.
+
+  _Cheops_, builder of the great      _Chemmis_ or _Chembes_, from
+    pyramid.                            Memphis, builder of the great
+                                        pyramid.
+
+  _Chephres_, brother to the          _Cephren_, brother to the
+    foregoing, builder of a pyramid.    foregoing, builder of a pyramid.
+
+  _Mycerinus_, son of Cheops,         _Mycerinus_, son of Chemmis,
+    builder of a pyramid.               builder of a pyramid.
+
+  _Asychis_ the legislator.           _Bochoris_ the legislator.
+
+  _Anysis_, who was blind.            Interval of several generations.
+
+  _Sabaco_, the Ethiopian.            _Sabaco_, the Ethiopian
+
+  _Anysis_, king for the second
+    time.
+
+  _Sethos_, a priest of Vulcan.
+
+  Dodecarchy.                         Dodecarchy.
+
+  _Psammetichus_ of Sais, sole        _Psammetichus_ of Sais, sole
+    ruler.                              ruler.
+
+  This comparative table demonstrates evidently, not only that
+  Herodotus's line is often interrupted, but likewise that it is
+  impossible to establish any continuous chronology, since Diodorus,
+  more than once leaves the number of generations undetermined. Great
+  importance, nevertheless, attaches to the date fixed by Herodotus,
+  ii, 13, where he declares that king Moeris flourished 900 years
+  before his own visit to Egypt: consequently between B.C. 1500 and
+  1450. And if, as seems highly probable, the age of Sesostris was
+  the 15th century B.C. (see ZOEGA, _de Obeliscis_), it cannot be
+  denied but that we have some general epochs; and with these we must
+  remain content until more satisfactory information can be
+  discovered on the monuments. It should likewise be observed, that
+  the discrepancy between the names of the kings mentioned by
+  Herodotus and Diodorus, and those furnished by Manetho, may be
+  accounted for by the fact, that the sovereigns were distinguished
+  by different names on the monuments and in common life.
+
+  Of the dynasties of Manetho, the 18th, 19th, 20th, and 22nd, belong
+  to this period; more especially the two first, which contain the
+  most important of the Pharaohs.
+
+1. The following period, nearly to its termination, was the brilliant
+age of Egypt, during which it formed but one empire; the kings being
+represented as sovereign lords of the whole country. And, indeed, it was
+natural that the expulsion of the invaders should be followed by a
+period in which the military force and ardour of the nation would be
+developed, and directed to external conquest. The capital of the empire
+was, no doubt, Thebes, the great monuments of which were erected in this
+period; that honour, however, seems to have alternately belonged to
+Memphis, Herodotus's line of kings being deduced from the monuments of
+that city, and more especially from the temple of Phtha.
+
+  The more powerful of the Pharaohs of this period, and the founders
+  of the most important monuments of Upper Egypt, on which their
+  names are found, are the following: belonging to the 18th dynasty,
+  somewhere about 1600-1500.
+
+  _Amenophis I._ His name is likewise found beyond Egypt on the
+  temple of Amada, in Nubia.
+
+  _Thutmosis I._ Commencement of the expulsion of the Hyksos.
+
+  _Amenophis II._ The Memnon of the Greeks. Complete expulsion of the
+  Hyksos, and commencement of several of the great edifices. His name
+  is also found on the monuments of Thebes, Elephantine, and even in
+  Nubia, on the distant temple of Soleb. Builder of the palace of
+  Luxor.
+
+  _Thutmosis II._ His name found in Carnac, and on the obelisk at the
+  Lateran.
+
+  _Ramesses I._ Supposed to be the Danaus of the Greeks. Expelled by
+  his brother:
+
+  _Ramesses II._ Miamun. Builder of the palace of Medinet-Abu in
+  Thebes. One of the royal graves that have been opened belongs to
+  this king.
+
+  _Amenophis III._ Renewed invasion of the Hyksos; he flees before
+  them into Ethiopia; but returns victorious with his son Ramesses.
+
+  Belonging to the 19th dynasty, between 1500 and 1400.
+
+  _Ramesses III._, called the Great, and sometimes _Sesostris_;
+  founder of the dynasty, liberator of Egypt, and a great conqueror.
+  His name and titles, his wars and triumphs, are found on the
+  temples and palaces of Luxor and Carnac, in Thebes and Nubia. His
+  son and follower:
+
+  _Ramesses IV._ Pheron, rules long in peace. His name is found in
+  the great pillared hall of the palace of Carnac, and on many other
+  buildings.
+
+  Among his successors but few names have been preserved until we
+  come to Scheschonk or Sisac, of the 22nd dynasty, between 970 and
+  950; he took Jerusalem under the reign of Rehoboam, and therefore
+  furnishes a fixed date.
+
+  # R. V. L. (RUEHLE VON LILIENSTERN), _Graphic Illustrations of the
+  most ancient History and Geography of Egypt and Ethiopia, with an
+  atlas, 1827_. A work containing every thing necessary for
+  understanding the discoveries hitherto made in this department of
+  history.
+
+2. For this splendour, the empire was principally indebted to Sesostris,
+son of Amenophis. This prince is justly entitled to the surname of
+Great, which was given him by the Egyptians. No one will, to the letter,
+credit the narrative of his deeds, exaggerated as they were by the
+traditions of the priests, or represented, as they still appear, on the
+buildings of Thebes; but who can doubt the existence of a monarch of
+whom so many and such various monuments within and without Egypt bear
+witness?
+
+  Critical examination of the accounts of the nine years' campaign, and
+  conquests of Sesostris. His arms were principally directed against
+  wealthy commercial countries; probably by land against Ethiopia, Asia
+  Minor, and part of Thrace; by sea against Arabia Felix, perhaps even
+  the Indian peninsula. Can the performance of these exploits be deemed
+  improbable, in an age when western Asia did not contain a single
+  great empire? The vast undertakings attributed to Sesostris in the
+  interior of his dominions; extensive buildings, canals, division of
+  the land, and imposition of taxes, according to a regular survey,
+  prove that he must have been the sovereign of all Egypt.
+
+3. Notwithstanding the great changes that were made, the constitution
+still bore the same general character, that of a sacerdotal aristocracy
+combined with a monarchy. Although the Egyptian kings, like the Indian
+princes, were distinct from the priests, yet their power was limited in
+various ways by that caste. The high priest shared the royal authority;
+the king was shackled by religious ceremonies, both in public and
+private life; he was obliged to evince his veneration for the
+established worship by the erection of public monuments; and all the
+high offices of state were in the hands of the priests. It cannot be
+denied that on the personal character of the king depended much of his
+power; but how strong must have been this aristocracy, when even
+successful conquerors were obliged to conciliate its approbation!
+
+4. It was probably about this time that the domestic relations of the
+people, the division into castes, was completed. The sacerdotal caste
+being in exclusive possession of all scientific knowledge, remained for
+that reason in possession of the offices of state. The caste of warriors
+could hardly have assumed its complete form before the country was
+united into one empire: in like manner that of the navigators could not
+have been completely established before the canals were excavated;
+although the origin of all may have been of a much earlier date.
+
+  Comparison of the accounts given by Herodotus and Diodorus of the
+  division into castes. Not only precedence in time, but likewise the
+  discrepancies between the two, declare in favour of Herodotus.
+
+5. It appears, therefore, that the most prosperous period of the kingdom
+of the Pharaohs must be placed somewhere between B. C. 1500-900:
+although, according to Diodorus, even this period was interrupted by a
+long anarchy. The splendour of the empire was obscured towards the end.
+Sabaco, a foreign conqueror from Ethiopia, (probably from Meroe,)
+subjugated Egypt; after his departure from the country, Sethos, a
+priest of Phtha, contrary to all precedent, seated himself upon the
+throne. He was, consequently, considered an usurper; he offended the
+caste of warriors, and could not have escaped the dangers of an
+irruption threatened by the Assyrian, Sennacherib, had not a pestilence
+compelled the invader and his host to retreat.
+
+  The dynasty of Sabaco, Seuechus, and Tarhaco in Meroe, who as
+  conquerors subjected Upper Egypt, is comprised between B. C. 800-700.
+  Their names likewise have been already discovered on monuments; some
+  at Abydos in Egypt, others in Nubia.
+
+6. The Egyptian monarchy, however, at length fell, and was replaced by
+an oligarchy; (or perhaps a return was only made to the division of the
+earlier kingdoms;) twelve princes sharing among themselves the sovereign
+power. A certain degree of unity seems to have existed at first in this
+government; but quarrels soon sprung up among the princes, and they
+compelled one of their number, Psammetichus of Sais, to take flight. The
+exiled prince, supported by Greek and Carian mercenaries, contrived to
+avenge his wrongs; he drove away his rivals, and became the sole ruler.
+
+
+THIRD PERIOD.
+
+_From the reign of Psammetichus as sole monarch to the Persian conquest
+of Egypt by Cambyses. B. C. 650-525._
+
+  Herodotus, (l. ii, c. 125, etc.) is still the principal authority
+  for this portion of history. His statements, however, are no longer
+  derived from hieroglyphics: they are purely historical. During the
+  reign of Psammetichus, the Greeks who had migrated into Egypt gave
+  rise to the caste of interpreters, [Greek: hermeneis], who acted
+  both as ciceroni for strangers, and as brokers between the
+  Egyptians and Greeks: these people were enabled to give information
+  respecting the history of the country. It is not, therefore,
+  surprising that Herodotus should assure us, that from this time the
+  history was authentic.--The names of the succeeding Pharaohs are
+  likewise found on the monuments; in the erection of which they
+  rivaled their predecessors.
+
+  _Contemporary_: Asia: rise and fall of the Chaldaeo-Babylonian
+  empire; rise of the Persian monarchy.--Rome: kings from Numa
+  Pompilius to Servius Tullius.--Athens: Draco; Solon;
+  Pisistratus.--Jews: the last period and fall of the kingdom of
+  Judah; Babylonish captivity.
+
+1. From this epoch Egypt remained uninterruptedly one kingdom, the
+capital of which was Memphis, although Sais, in Lower Egypt, was the
+general residence of the royal family. Strangers, and more particularly
+Greeks, admitted into Egypt; partly as mercenaries, partly as merchants.
+Influence of this innovation upon the national character, and upon the
+political system in particular. A spirit of conquest gradually inherited
+by the Egyptian kings, is directed principally against Asia: hence the
+formation of a navy, and wars with the great rising monarchies of Asia.
+Continued, but declining influence of the sacerdotal caste, and proofs
+of the veneration of the kings for the priesthood deduced from the
+erection and embellishment of temples, particularly of that consecrated
+to Phtha in Memphis.
+
+2. _Psammetichus._ He obtains sole power through the assistance of Greek
+and Carian mercenaries, who are continued as a standing army in the
+country. The caste of Egyptian warriors, taking umbrage in consequence,
+emigrate for the most part to Ethiopia, where they settle. The southern
+portico of the temple of Phtha is erected, and projects of conquest are
+formed against Asia.
+
+3. _Neco_, son and successor of Psammetichus. His extensive plans of
+conquest. First formation of a naval power; and unsuccessful attempt to
+unite by a canal the Mediterranean with the Red sea. Conquests in Asia
+as far as the Euphrates; but quick secession of the conquered, in
+consequence of the loss of the battle of Circesium. Circumnavigation of
+Africa undertaken at his command by the Phoenicians, and successfully
+performed.
+
+4. _Psammis his son and successor._ Expedition against Ethiopia, and
+conquests in the interior of Africa.
+
+5. Reign of _Apries_, (the Pharaoh-hophra of the Hebrews). Plans of
+conquest against Asia;--siege of Sidon, and naval battle with the
+Tyrians;--expedition against Cyrene in Africa; its fatal result. A
+revolution caused thereby in Egypt, the inhabitants of which were averse
+to foreign wars, carried on mostly by mercenary aliens: the revolution
+headed by Amasis. In the civil war which Apries now wages with his
+mercenaries against the Egyptians commanded by Amasis, he loses both his
+throne and life; and with him ends the family of Psammetichus, which had
+reigned to this time.
+
+6. The usurper _Amasis_ took possession of the sovereign power; and
+although he had to contend with a strong party, who despised him on
+account of his low origin, he contrived by popular measures, and by the
+respect he showed to the sacerdotal caste, to establish himself upon the
+throne.--His monuments, both at Sais and Memphis.--The Egyptians and
+Greeks become better acquainted and more closely connected with each
+other, partly in consequence of the marriage of the king with a Greek
+woman; but principally owing to the mouths of the Nile being opened to
+the Greek merchants, and the cession of Naucratis as a factory for their
+merchandise. Great and beneficial consequences to Egypt, which, under
+the long reign of Amasis, reaches its highest pitch of prosperity. This
+prince had already been engaged in disputes with the Persian conqueror,
+Cyrus, whose son and successor, Cambyses, led an expedition against
+Egypt, which Amasis, however, luckily for himself, escaped by a
+seasonable death.
+
+7. His son Psammenitus, the last of the Egyptian Pharaohs, is attacked
+by Cambyses in the very first year of his reign. After a single battle,
+fought at Pelusium, and a short siege of Memphis, the empire of the
+Pharaohs is overthrown, and Egypt merges into a Persian province. The
+powerful caste of the priests suffered most from the hatred of the
+conqueror; but the persecution to which they were subjected must be
+attributed rather to policy than fanaticism.
+
+8. Condition and fate of Egypt as a Persian province. After the death of
+Cambyses, the country received a Persian governor, and consequently
+became a satrapy. Immediately after the first tempest of war had blown
+over, Egypt was treated with mildness by the Persians. The country paid
+a moderate tribute, together with some royal gifts, among others the
+produce of the fisheries in lake Moeris; nevertheless, repeated revolts
+occurred, which may be principally attributed to the hatred and
+influence of the sacerdotal caste. The first took place under Darius
+Hystaspes, and was quelled by Xerxes. An increase of tribute was the
+consequence. The second, under king Inarus, fomented and supported by
+the Athenians, happened during the reign of Artaxerxes I.; it was
+quelled by Megabyzus. The third occurred under Darius II. and in
+consequence of the support which the Egyptians received from the Greeks,
+was of longer duration than either of the former, the throne of the
+Pharaoh's being in some measure restored.
+
+  This third secession of the Egyptians lasted till 354. During
+  this period various kings were appointed; Amyrtaeus, _d._ 408;
+  Psammetichus, about 400; Nephreus, about 397; Pausiris, _d._ 375;
+  Nectanebus I. _d._ 365; Tachos, _d._ 363; Nectanebus II. conquered
+  by Artaxerxes III. 354.
+
+
+
+CARTHAGINIANS.
+
+
+  Sources. The first great republic which ancient records mention as
+  applying both to trade and war, is undoubtedly a phenomenon well
+  deserving the attention of the historical enquirer. Our knowledge,
+  however, of Carthaginian history is unfortunately very deficient,
+  as we possess no author who has made it the principal object of his
+  attention. The immediate subject of the Greek and Roman writers was
+  the history of their own country, and they only allude to that of
+  Carthage in so far as it is connected with their main topic. This
+  observation applies as well to Polybius and Diodorus, as to Livy
+  and Appian. Even the information given by Justin, the only author
+  who says any thing concerning the early state of Carthage, is
+  miserably defective, although taken from Theopompus. (Cf. _Comment.
+  de fontibus_ JUSTINI _in Commentat. Soc. Gotting._ vol. xv.)
+  Moreover, as Herodotus here fails us, we have not the writings of
+  any author whatever who witnessed Carthage in the days of her
+  prosperity: Polybius did not see that country till after the
+  decline of its power; the other historians, wrote long afterwards.
+  But although an uninterrupted history of Carthage does not exist,
+  we are yet able to trace the main outlines of the picture of that
+  state.--The modern writers on Carthage are:
+
+  HENDRICH, _de Republica Carthaginiensium_, 1664. A useful
+  compilation.
+
+  # _History of the Republic of Carthage_, 2 vols. Franckfort, 1781.
+  A mere history of the wars.
+
+  DAMPMARTIN, _Histoire de la Rivalite de Carthage et de Rome_, tom.
+  i, ii. Very superficial.
+
+  # W. BOETTICHER, _History of Carthage_, part i. Berlin, 1827.
+  The best work on the subject; in which use has been made of modern
+  researches.
+
+  Concerning the Carthaginians, see HEEREN'S _African Nations_,
+  2 vols. 8vo. Oxford, 1831.
+
+The history of Carthage is most conveniently divided into three periods:
+I. From the foundation of the city to the commencement of the wars with
+Syracuse, B. C. 880-480. II. From the commencement of the wars with
+Syracuse to those with Rome, 480-264. III. From the commencement of the
+wars with Rome to the destruction of Carthage, 264-146.
+
+
+FIRST PERIOD.
+
+_From the foundation of Carthage to the wars with Syracuse, B. C.
+880-480._
+
+  _Contemporary_: Inner Asia: kingdoms of the Assyrians, Babylonians,
+  and first half of the Persian monarchy. Greeks: period from
+  Lycurgus to Themistocles. Romans: period of the kings, and of the
+  commonwealth until the establishment of the tribunes of the people.
+
+1. The foundation and primitive history of Carthage, like all very early
+and important events in national history, have, by long tradition, been
+wrapt in the veil of romance. The account given of Dido, the supposed
+founder of the city, cannot be reduced to the standard of pure
+historical truth, though it appears to justify the inference that some
+political commotions in the mother city, Tyre, induced a party of
+emigrants to proceed to the northern shores of Africa; where other
+Phoenician establishments had already taken place: here, by engaging to
+pay a yearly tribute, they purchased from the natives permission to
+found a city, the site of which was so happily chosen, that it only
+depended upon the inhabitants to raise it to that greatness which it
+afterwards attained.
+
+2. It is probable that Carthage advanced at first by slow steps; yet
+even at the end of this first period she had reached to such a height of
+power, that she was mistress of a large territory in Africa, and of
+foreign possessions still more extensive. Establishment of the
+Carthaginian dominion in Africa by the subjection of the neighbouring
+aboriginal tribes, and the foundation of Carthaginian settlements within
+their territories; the natives, Liby-Phoenicians, gradually mingled with
+the inhabitants of those colonies, and imbibed from them a love of
+agriculture and fixed abodes. The inhabitants of the fertile territory
+extending southward as far as the lake Triton, were, without exception,
+Carthaginian subjects.
+
+3. Her connection, however, with the ancient Phoenician towns along the
+coast, particularly Utica, was of a different nature. For although
+possessed a certain authority over them, she did not claim absolute
+dominion, but rather stood at the head of a federation; thus affording a
+protection which must frequently have degenerated into oppression.
+
+4. In consequence of a treaty with the neighbouring republic of Cyrene,
+the whole territory extending between the two Syrtes was also ceded to
+the Carthaginians. The Lotophagi and Nasamones, inhabitants of this
+district, preserved their nomad mode of life; they must, however, from
+their trade with the interior parts of Africa, have been of the highest
+importance to Carthage.
+
+5. System of colonization, and, as a necessary result, that of conquest
+without Africa. It was evidently the aim of the Carthaginians to settle
+on islands, and to subject them to their dominion. Those lying in the
+western part of the Mediterranean occupied the first place in their plan
+of conquest, which was completely executed in Sardinia, the Baleares,
+and other small islands; perhaps in Corsica; in Sicily, however, they
+could never succeed to the full extent of their wishes. There is also
+every probability that the Canary islands and Madeira were entirely in
+their possession. On the other hand, the Carthaginians, previous to
+their wars with Rome, were in the practice of establishing separate
+settlements on the main land, partly in Spain, and partly on the western
+shore of Africa. In the latter, they adopted the policy of their
+ancestors, the Phoenicians, making the settlements so small, and
+confining them within such narrow bounds, that the mother country might
+always ensure their dependence.
+
+6. The glory of extending the territory of Carthage, by important
+conquests, belongs principally to the family of Mago, who, together with
+his two sons and six grandsons, established the dominion of the republic
+in Sicily, Sardinia, and Africa. This occurred about the same time that
+Cyrus, Cambyses, and Darius were laying the foundation of the Persian
+monarchy, with which Carthage even then entered into connection. The
+Carthaginians, therefore, made their first appearance, as extensive
+conquerors, in the fourth century from the foundation of their
+commonwealth; and it is at this period that mention is made of their
+first naval engagement, in which the Phocaeans were their adversaries. In
+the same period may be dated the establishment of their colonies beyond
+the Pillars of Hercules by Hanno and Himilco--both probably sons of
+Mago;--by the former on the coast of Africa, by the latter on that of
+Spain. To the same period likewise is referred the first commercial
+treaty between the Carthaginians and Romans, in which the former appear
+as already masters of Sardinia, Africa, and a portion of Sicily.
+
+7. To complete these conquests, and to preserve them when completed, the
+formation and support of vast fleets and armies were indispensably
+necessary. According to the usual practice of those nations who apply
+both to trade and to war, the Carthaginian armies were composed for the
+most part of mercenaries. No nation, however, followed this plan so
+extensively as the Carthaginians, for to them half Africa and Europe
+furnished warriors.--Description of a Carthaginian army; development of
+the advantages and disadvantages of its organization.--Organization of
+their navy. The state supported very numerous fleets of war-ships, with
+a multitude of slaves who laboured at the oar, and were it seems public
+property.
+
+8. The political constitution of Carthage, like that of all wealthy
+trading states, was an aristocracy composed of the noble and the
+opulent, though at all times combined with a certain admixture of
+democracy. The affairs of the state were confided to the hands of the
+two suffetes or kings,--who, in all probability, held their office for
+life--and to those of the senate ([Greek: Boule]) which contained within
+itself a more select council (the [Greek: gerousia]). The privilege of
+electing the magistrates resided with the people at large, who also
+shared the legislative power with the suffetes. Civil and military power
+was usually divided: the offices of general and magistrate not being
+always, as at Rome, united in the same individual,--although such an
+instance might not be of impossible occurrence:--to each military chief,
+on the contrary, was appointed a committee from the senate, on which he
+was more or less dependent.
+
+9. The high state tribunal of the HUNDRED was instituted as a barrier to
+the constitution against the attempts of the more powerful aristocrats,
+particularly the military leaders; indeed the brilliancy of Mago's
+conquests seemed to threaten the republic with a military government;
+and immediately previous to his time one of the generals, Malchus, had
+actually made an attempt to enslave Carthage. The object of the
+institution was no doubt attained; but in later times the council
+assumed to itself a power which increased to absolute despotism. It is
+not improbable that this court likewise constituted the select committee
+(the [Greek: gerousia]) of the senate.
+
+10. Our information respecting the financial system of the Carthaginians
+is extremely meagre. The following seem to have been the principal
+sources of the public revenue. 1. The tribute drawn from the federate
+cities, and their African subjects. The former paid in money, the latter
+for the most part in kind; this tribute was imposed at the will of the
+government, so that in pressing cases the taxed nations were obliged to
+give one half of their income. 2. The case was the same with their
+external provinces, particularly with Sardinia. 3. The tribute
+furnished by the nomad hordes, partly by those in the Regio-Syrtica, and
+occasionally also by those on the western side. 4. The customs, which
+were levied with extreme rigour, not only in Carthage, but likewise in
+all the colonies. 5. The products of their rich mines, particularly
+those of Spain. In considering the financial system of the
+Carthaginians, it should not be forgotten that many of the nations with
+whom they traded, or who served in their armies, were unacquainted with
+the use of money.
+
+11. System and extent of their commerce. Their object was to secure a
+monopoly of the western trade; hence the practice of restricting the
+growth of their colonies, and of removing as much as possible all
+strangers from their commercial marts. Their trade was carried on partly
+by sea, and partly by land. Their sea trade, arising from the colonies,
+extended beyond the Mediterranean, certainly as far as the coasts of
+Britain and Guinea. Their land trade was carried on by caravans,
+consisting principally of the nomad tribes resident between the Syrtes:
+the caravans travelled eastward to Ammonium and Upper Egypt, southward
+to the land of the Garamantes, (Fezzan,) and even still further into the
+interior of Africa.
+
+
+SECOND PERIOD.
+
+_From the breaking out of the wars with Syracuse, to the commencement of
+those with Rome, B. C. 480-264._
+
+1. The great object of Carthaginian policy during the whole of the above
+period, was to subdue Sicily; this object the nation pursued with
+extraordinary pertinacity, often approximating to, but never obtaining,
+complete success. The growing power of Syracuse, which likewise aimed at
+the sole possession of the island, laid the foundation of that national
+hatred which now arose between the Sicilian Greeks and the
+Carthaginians.
+
+2. First attempt, arising out of the league formed with Xerxes I. upon
+his irruption into Greece. Gelon of Syracuse, in a victory more decisive
+even than that gained by Themistocles over the Persians at Salamis,
+routs the Carthaginians near Himera, and compels them to accede to a
+disgraceful peace.
+
+3. This defeat was followed by a period of tranquillity lasting seventy
+years, during which we know little about Carthage. All that we can say
+with any probability is, that in the mean time the struggle for
+territory between Cyrene and Carthage commenced and terminated to the
+advantage of the latter state, whose dominion was generally extended and
+confirmed in Africa by wars with the aboriginal tribes.
+
+4. But the accession of Dionysius I. to the throne of Syracuse, and the
+ambitious project formed by him and his successors, of subjecting to
+their rule all Sicily and Magna-Grecia, rekindled once more the embers
+of war, which had only smouldered for a short time, to burst forth with
+additional violence.
+
+  Repeated and bloody wars with Dionysius I. between the years
+  410-368. Neither party able to expel the other: terms of the last
+  peace; that each party should remain in possession of what he then
+  occupied. Second commercial treaty with Rome.
+
+  Crafty advantage taken by the Carthaginians of the internal
+  commotions at Syracuse during and subsequent to the reign of
+  Dionysius II: they endeavour to obtain their end; but are thwarted
+  by the heroism of Timoleon, 345-340.
+
+  A new and frightful war with Agathocles, the seat of which is
+  transferred from Sicily into Africa itself; it at last terminates
+  in favour of Carthage, 311-307.
+
+  The war with Pyrrhus, 277-275, whose ambition gave rise to an
+  alliance between Carthage and Rome, contributed likewise to
+  increase the preponderance of the Carthaginians in Sicily; and
+  probably the perseverance of that people, and their skill in
+  profiting by circumstances, would at last have enabled them to
+  attain their object, had not the seeds of war been thereby
+  scattered between Carthage and Rome.
+
+5. What effect these Sicilian wars had upon the state we are not
+informed. They were probably regarded in Carthage as a beneficial
+channel for carrying off the popular fermentation;--nevertheless, two
+attempts, both unsuccessful, were made by some of the aristocratical
+party, to overthrow the constitution; first by Hanno, 340, and
+afterwards by Bomilcar, 308.--At the breaking out, however, of the war
+with Rome, the commonwealth was so formidable and mighty, that even the
+finances of the state do not appear to have been at all affected; a
+circumstance of the highest importance. What consequence was it to
+Carthage whether 100,000 barbarians more or less existed in the world,
+so long as there remained plenty of men willing to suffer themselves to
+be sold, and she possessed money to purchase them?
+
+
+THIRD PERIOD.
+
+_From the beginning of the wars with Rome, to the downfal of Carthage,
+B. C. 264-146._
+
+1. The wars between Carthage and Rome were the necessary consequences of
+a desire of aggrandizement in two conquering nations; any one might have
+foreseen the struggle between the two rivals as soon as their conquests
+should once begin to clash. It is, therefore, a question of little
+importance, to enquire which was the aggressor; and although Rome may
+not be entirely cleared of that charge, we cannot help observing that,
+according to the principles of sound policy, the security of Italy was
+hardly compatible with the sole dominion of the Carthaginians over the
+island of Sicily.
+
+  First war with Rome, 264-241, (twenty-three years,) waged for the
+  possession of Sicily, and decided almost at its commencement by
+  Hiero's passing over to the Roman side. (For the history of it,
+  see below, in the Roman history, Book V. Period ii, parag. 2 sq.)
+
+2. This war cost the republic, Sicily and the sovereignty of the
+Mediterranean, by which the fate of its other external possessions was
+already predetermined. But that which appeared at the first view to
+threaten the greatest danger, was the total exhaustion of its finances;
+a circumstance which will no longer surprise us, when we consider how
+many fleets had been destroyed and replaced, how many armies had been
+annihilated and renewed. Carthage had never before been engaged in such
+an obstinate struggle as this; and the immediate consequences were more
+terrific even than the war itself.
+
+3. The impossibility of paying the mercenaries produced a mutiny among
+the troops, which rapidly grew into a rebellion of the subject nations,
+who had been most cruelly oppressed during the war. The consequence was
+a civil war of three years and a half, which probably would have spared
+the Romans the trouble of destroying Carthage, had not the state been
+snatched from ruin by the heroism of Hamilcar.
+
+  This war, which lasted from 240 to 237, produced lasting consequences
+  to the state; it gave rise to the feud between Hamilcar and Hanno the
+  Great, which compelled Hamilcar to seek for support against the senate
+  by becoming the leader of a democratic faction.
+
+4. The revolt spread abroad; it reached Sardinia and caused the loss of
+that most important island, of which the Romans, flushed with power,
+took possession, in spite of the terms of the peace.
+
+5. The influence of the family of the Barcas, supported in their
+disputes with the senate by the popular party, now got the upper hand
+in Carthage; and the first fruit of their power was the new and gigantic
+project of repairing the loss of Sicily and Sardinia by the conquest of
+Spain; a country where the Carthaginians already had some possessions
+and commercial connections. The immediate object of the Barcas was the
+support of their family and party; but the Spanish silver mines soon
+furnished the republic with the means of renewing the contest with Rome
+also.
+
+6. During the nine years in which Hamilcar commanded, and in the
+following eight in which Hasdrubal, his son-in-law and successor, was at
+the head of the army, the whole of the south of Spain, as far as the
+Iberus, was brought under subjection to Carthage, either by negotiation
+or force of arms. The further progress of the Carthaginians was only
+arrested by a treaty with the Romans, in which the Iberus was fixed upon
+as a frontier line, and the freedom of Saguntum acknowledged by both
+powers. Hasdrubal crowned his victories as a general and as a statesman
+by the foundation of New Carthage, (Carthagena,) which was to be the
+future seat of Carthaginian power in the newly-conquered country.
+Hasdrubal having fallen by the hand of an assassin in the year 221, the
+party of the Barcas succeeded in appointing Hamilcar's son, Hannibal, a
+young man of one-and-twenty, for his successor. Hannibal found every
+thing already prepared in Spain for the furtherance of the hereditary
+project of his family, which was a renewal of the contest with Rome; and
+the vigour with which this project was pursued, clearly proves how great
+must have been the preponderance of the Barcine influence, at that
+time, in Carthage. Had the commonwealth attended to the marine with the
+same ardour as their great general did to the land service, the fate of
+Rome would perhaps have been very different.
+
+  Second war with Rome, 218-201, (seventeen years,) first in Italy
+  and Spain, afterwards, from 203, in Africa itself. (See the
+  history of this war below, in the Roman history, Book V, Period
+  ii, parag. 6 sqq.)
+
+7. Until Africa became the scene of action, the second war cost the
+republic much less than the first; the expenses being principally
+defrayed by Spain and Italy. Hanno, however, was at the head of a
+powerful party at home, who were clamorous for peace, and who can say
+they were wrong? As might be expected, the family of the Barcas were for
+war, and their influence carried the day. That general who, with hardly
+any support from Carthage, was yet able to maintain a footing in the
+country of his powerful foes for no less than fifteen years, and that,
+too, as much by policy as by force of arms, must extort our admiration.
+It cannot, however, be denied, that during the struggle one favourable
+opportunity, at least, was let slip of making peace; a fatal omission,
+for which the hero of Cannae paid dearly enough, by the failure of his
+darling project.
+
+8. By the second peace with Rome, Carthage was deprived of all her
+possessions out of Africa, and her fleet was delivered into the hands of
+the Romans. She was now to be a mere trading city under the tutelage of
+Rome. But Carthage found by this peace her most formidable enemy on the
+soil of Africa itself. Massinissa had been elevated to the dignity of
+king of Numidia; and his endeavours to form his nomads into an
+agricultural people, and to collect them into cities, must have changed
+the military system that Carthage had hitherto followed. Roman policy,
+moreover, had taken care that the article inserted in his favour in the
+last treaty of peace, should be so ambiguously worded, as to leave
+abundant openings for dispute.
+
+9. Even after this disgraceful peace, the family of the Barcas still
+preserved their influence, and Hannibal was placed as supreme magistrate
+at the head of the republic. He attempts to reform the constitution and
+the finances, by destroying the oligarchy of the hundred, by whom the
+finances had been thrown into confusion. Complete as was the success of
+the first blow, it soon became apparent that aristocratic factions are
+not so readily annihilated as armies.
+
+  The democratic faction to which even the Barcas owed their first
+  elevation, was the cause of the degeneracy of the Carthaginian
+  constitution. By that faction the legislative authority of the
+  senate and magistrates was withdrawn and transferred to the _ordo
+  judicum_--probably the same as the high state tribunal of the
+  hundred--which now assumed the character of an omnipotent national
+  inquisition; and the members being chosen for life exercised
+  oppressive despotism. This tribunal was formed of those who had
+  served the office of ministers of finance, with whom it shared
+  unblushingly the revenues of the state. Hannibal destroyed this
+  oligarchy by a law, enacting that the members should hold their
+  office but for one year; whereas before they held it for life. In
+  the reform wrought by this law in the finances it was seen, that
+  after all wars and losses, the revenues of the republic were still
+  sufficient, not only for the usual expenditure and the payment of
+  tribute to Rome, but also for leaving a surplus in the public
+  treasury. Ten years had hardly elapsed before Carthage was enabled
+  to pay down at once the whole of the tribute which she had engaged
+  to furnish by instalments.
+
+10. The defeated party, whose interests were now the same with those of
+Rome, joined the Romans, to whom they discovered Hannibal's plan of
+renewing the war in conjunction with Antiochus the Great, king of Syria.
+A Roman embassy was sent over to Africa, under some other pretext, to
+demand that Hannibal should be given up. The Carthaginian general
+secretly fled to king Antiochus, at whose court he became the chief
+fomenter of the war against Rome; although unsuccessful in his endeavour
+to implicate the Carthaginian republic in the struggle.
+
+  See hereafter the history of Syria, Book IV, Period iii, separate
+  kingdoms. I. Seleucidae, parag. 18; and Book V, Period ii, parag.
+  10 sq.
+
+11. In consequence of the absence of Hannibal, Carthage fell once more
+under the dominion of the Romans, who contrived, by taking a crafty
+advantage of the state of parties, to give a show of generosity to the
+exercise of their power. Even the patriotic faction, if we may judge by
+the violent steps which they took more than once against Massinissa and
+his partisans, seem to have been but a tool in the hands of Rome.
+
+12. Disputes with Massinissa, which led to the gradual partition of the
+Carthaginian territory in Africa. The manner in which this territory had
+been acquired, facilitated the discovery of claims upon each of the
+component parts; and the interference of Rome, sometimes disinterested,
+but oftener swayed by party feeling, ensured the possession of the
+territory to the Numidian.
+
+  Even in 199, a disadvantageous treaty framed with Massinissa for
+  fifty years: nevertheless the rich province of Emporia is lost in
+  193.--Loss of another province unnamed, to which Massinissa
+  inherited some claims from his father.--Seizure of the province of
+  Tysca, with fifty cities, about 174. Probable date of Cato's
+  embassy, who returned in disgust, because his decision had been
+  rejected, and became the fomenter of a project to destroy
+  Carthage.--New disputes about 152.--Massinissa's party is expelled
+  Carthage.--War breaks out in consequence, during which the king in
+  his ninetieth year personally defeats the Carthaginians; and what
+  with famine and the sword, Hasdrubal's army, which had been
+  surrounded by the enemy, was nearly exterminated; in the mean while
+  the Roman ambassadors, who had come to act as mediators, obeying
+  their private instructions, looked on with quiet indifference.
+
+13. Though it is evident that the party spirit raging between Cato and
+Scipio Nasica had a considerable influence in hastening the destruction
+of Carthage; and though it is equally clear that Massinissa's late
+victory paved the way for the immediate execution of that project; yet
+it is difficult to unravel the web, by which, long before the
+declaration of war now about to follow, treachery prepared the final
+scene of this great tragedy. Was the account that Cato at his return
+gave of the resuscitated power of Carthage consonant to truth? Was not
+the sudden secession of Ariobarzanes, the grandson of Syphax, who was to
+have led a Numidian army to defend Carthage against Massinissa,
+previously arranged with Rome? Was not the turbulent Gisgo, who first
+incited the populace to insult the Roman ambassadors, and then
+opportunely rescued them from the fury of the mob, in the pay of Rome?
+These questions give rise to suspicions, although they cannot
+satisfactorily be answered. At any rate, it may be said, that the
+conduct of Rome, after war had broken out, corroborates the suspicion.
+The whole history of the last period sufficiently proves, that it was
+not so much the debased character of the nation, as party spirit, and
+the avarice of the great, which produced the fall of Carthage. Advantage
+was taken of that party spirit and avarice by Roman policy, which,
+although acting according to the dictates of blind passion, knew how to
+profit by dark and base intrigue.
+
+  Third war with Rome and destruction of Carthage, 150-146. See
+  hereafter the Roman history, Book V, Period ii, parag. 19 sq.
+
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+SECOND BOOK.
+
+
+
+
+_History of the Persian Empire, from B. C. 560-330._
+
+
+  Sources. Preservation of historic records among the Persians
+  themselves under the form of royal annals; origin and nature of
+  those annals. As these have been destroyed, we are obliged to
+  deduce the history from foreign writers, some of whom, however,
+  availed themselves of the Persian annals. 1. _Greeks_: their
+  authority as writers, contemporary, but not always sufficiently
+  acquainted with the east. (_a_) CTESIAS. His court history compiled
+  from Persian annals, would be the principal work did we possess the
+  whole; we have, however, only an extract from it preserved by
+  Photius. (_b_) HERODOTUS: who probably availed himself of similar
+  sources in some portion of his work. (_c_) XENOPHON. To this period
+  of history belong, not only his Anabasis and Hellenica, but also
+  his Cyropaedia, or portraiture of a happy empire and an accomplished
+  ruler, according to eastern ideas, exhibited in the example of
+  Cyrus: of use so far as pure historic records are interwoven with
+  the narrative. (_d_) DIODORUS, etc. 2. _Jewish writers._ The books
+  of ESDRAS and NEHEMIAH; and more particularly that of ESTHER, as
+  containing a faithful representation of the Persian court and its
+  manners. 3. The accounts of the later _Persian chroniclers_,
+  MIRKHOND in particular, who flourished in the thirteenth century of
+  the christian era, can have no weight in the scale of criticism;
+  they are nevertheless interesting, inasmuch as they make us
+  acquainted with the ideas that the inhabitants of the east form of
+  their early history.
+
+  The modern authors on Persian history are principally those who
+  have written on ancient history in general: see p. 2. A treatise on
+  Persian history, deduced from eastern sources, will be found in the
+  _Ancient Universal History_, vol. iv.
+
+  BRISSONIUS, _de Regno Persarum_, 1591, 8vo. A very laborious
+  compilation.
+
+  The section concerning the Persians in # HEEREN, _Ideas_, etc.
+  vol. i, part 1.
+
+  [MALCOLM, SIR JOHN, _History of Persia_, from the earliest ages to
+  the present times. Lond. 1816, 4to. 2 vols. "A valuable work."]
+
+1. State of the Persian nation previous to Cyrus; a highland people,
+subject to the Medes, dwelling in the mountainous parts of the province
+of Persis, and leading wholly, or for the most part, a nomad life.
+Division into ten clans, among which that of the _Pasargadae_, the
+noblest and ruling horde, is particularly remarkable on account of the
+figure it makes in subsequent history.--The result of this division was
+a patriarchal government, the vestiges of which remain visible in the
+whole of the following history of the Persians. Permanent distinction
+between the tribes in reference to their mode of life, observable even
+during the most flourishing period of the Persian state: three of the
+nobles or warriors, three of the husbandmen, and four of the shepherds.
+Argument thence deduced, that the history of the Persians as a dominant
+nation, _is that of the nobler clans alone, and of the_ PASARGADAE _more
+especially_.
+
+2. The personal history of Cyrus, the founder of the Persian monarchy,
+was, even in the time of Herodotus, so obscured under the veil of
+romance, that it was no longer possible to detect the real truth. It is,
+however, evident, that the course of the revolution wrought by him was,
+on the whole, the same as was followed in all similar empires founded in
+Asia. Gengis-khan, in a later age, was placed at the head of all the
+Mogol hordes; in the same manner was Cyrus elected chief of all the
+Persian tribes, by whose assistance he became a mighty conqueror, at the
+time that the Babylonian and Median kingdoms of Inner Asia were on the
+decline, and before the Lydian empire, under Croesus, had been firmly
+established.
+
+  Descent of Cyrus from the family of Achaemenes, (Jamshid?). That
+  family belonged to the Pasargadae tribe, and therefore remained the
+  ruling house.
+
+3. Rise of the Persian dominion, in consequence of the overthrow of the
+Medo-Bactrian empire, after the defeat of Astyages at Pasargada. Rapid
+extension by further conquest. Subjection of Asia Minor after the
+victory won by Cyrus in person over Croesus, and capture of the Greek
+colonies by the generals of the Persian monarch. Conquest of Babylon and
+all the Babylonian provinces. The Phoenician cities submit themselves of
+their own accord. Even in Cyrus's time, therefore, the frontiers of the
+Persian empire had been extended in southern Asia to the Mediterranean,
+to the Oxus, and to the Indus; but the campaign against the nomad races,
+inhabiting the steppes of Central Asia, was unsuccessful; and Cyrus
+himself fell in the contest.
+
+  It cannot be denied but that in the narration of the separate wars
+  waged by Cyrus, discrepancies are found in Herodotus and Ctesias;
+  those two authors, however, agree in the main facts: and, indeed,
+  the differences which exist between them cannot be considered always
+  as direct contradictions.
+
+4. Immediate consequences of this great revolution in respect both of
+the conquerors and the conquered. Among the former, even in the time of
+Cyrus, the civilization and luxury of the Medes, their legislation and
+national religion, and the sacerdotal caste of the magi, who were
+guardians of that religion, had been introduced, and the whole system of
+the Persian court had been remodelled upon that of the Medes.
+
+  Description of Zoroaster's legislation, and of the magian national
+  religion, according to the Zend-avesta. How far the dogmas of
+  Zoroaster can be considered as dominant among the Persians?--Proof
+  that they were adopted only by the nobler tribes, more particularly
+  the Pasargadae. Their great and beneficial influence on agriculture.
+
+  ANQUETIL DU PERRON, _Zend-avesta, ouvrage de_ ZOROASTRE, _traduit
+  en Francois sur l'original Zend_. Paris, 1771. 4to. This work has
+  been much improved by the critical discussions added to the German
+  translation by J. L. KLEUKER. Compare the dissertations on
+  Zoroaster by MEINERS and TYCHSEN, in _Comment. Soc. Gotting._ and
+  HEEREN, _Ideas_, etc. vol. i.
+
+  HYDE, _De Religione veterum Persarum_; Oxon. 1700, 4to. Replete
+  with learned research, and the first work that excited enquiry on
+  the subject.
+
+  # J. S. RHODE, _Sacred Traditions of the East_; Breslau, 1821. An
+  excellent work for the study of the Zend-avesta, the magian religion,
+  and the antiquities of the Medes and Persians.
+
+5. First political constitution of the Persian empire under Cyrus. No
+general new organization; but for the most part the original
+institutions are preserved among the conquered, who are compelled to pay
+tribute. Royal officers, appointed to collect the tribute, are
+associated with the generals, who with numerous armies keep in
+subjection the inhabitants of the conquered countries. For the support
+of the empire large standing armies are kept in pay, besides which,
+recourse is frequently had to the transplanting of whole nations; while,
+as was the case with the Jews, some who had been formerly transplanted
+are restored to their country. With the same view injunctions are
+issued, as in the case of the Lydians, to effect the enervation of
+warlike races by a luxurious and effeminate system of education.
+
+6. Cyrus leaves two sons, the elder of whom, Cambyses, succeeds as
+king; the younger, Smerdis, (the _Tanyoxarces_ of Ctesias,) becomes
+independent lord of Bactria and the eastern territories; but is soon
+after murdered by the command of his elder brother.
+
+7. Under Cambyses the conquering arms of the Persians are directed
+against Africa. Egypt becomes a Persian province, and the neighbouring
+Libya, together with Cyrene, assume the yoke of their own accord. But
+the twofold expedition against the opulent commercial establishments,
+Ammonium in the west, and Meroe in the south, is wholly unsuccessful;
+that against Carthage is arrested in its commencement by the refusal of
+the Tyrians to join the naval armament. A colony of six thousand
+Egyptians is transplanted into Susiana.
+
+8. The cruelty with which Cambyses is accused of treating the Egyptians
+was directed rather against the powerful caste of the priests, than
+against the whole nation; and originated more in political than in
+religious motives. It must be observed, however, that we ought to be
+particularly on our guard against all the evil that is related of
+Cambyses, inasmuch as our information respecting that prince is derived
+entirely from his enemies, the Egyptian priests.
+
+9. The usurpation of the Pseudo-Smerdis, (or _Tanyoxarces_,) was an
+attempt of the magi to replace a Median dynasty on the throne, by means
+of a plot hatched within the seraglio. It was the occasion of an
+accident which cost Cambyses his life, after a reign of seven years and
+a half: (or, according to Ctesias, of eighteen.)
+
+10. The Pseudo-Smerdis kept his seat on the throne eight months, during
+which he attempted to bring over the conquered nations to his interest
+by a remission of all tribute for three years; but the discovery of his
+cheat gave rise to a conspiracy of seven of the chief Persians, who
+could not brook the rule of a Mede, and the usurper lost his life.
+
+11. It could not be expected that the political organization of the
+kingdom should advance to completion during the reign of Cambyses, who
+was almost always absent in the prosecution of war; or during the brief
+rule of the Pseudo-Smerdis. It remained, therefore, in the same state as
+under Cyrus. But the introduction of the Median court-ceremonial among
+the ruling tribe of the Persians, and the adoption of fixed dwellings by
+that tribe, rendered it necessary that royal residences should be
+erected for the reception of the king's court; among these Persepolis,
+(see above, p. 20,) probably commenced by Cyrus, was completed under
+Darius and Xerxes.
+
+  The best drawings of the monuments of Persepolis, remarkable alike
+  for their architecture, their sculpture, and their inscriptions in
+  the arrow-headed character, are to be found in the Travels of
+  CHARDIN and NIEBUHR. Illustrations:
+
+  # HERDER'S _Persepolis_, in the collection of his works, vol. i.
+
+  # HEEREN, _Ideas_, etc. Part I. vol. i. Great assistance in
+  studying the inscriptions, is furnished by
+
+  DE SACY, _Memoires sur diverses Antiquites de la Perse_; Paris,
+  1793, 4to. It must be observed, however, that this work is confined
+  to the illustration of the later monuments, belonging to the
+  _Sassanidae_. The most successful attempt at deciphering the
+  arrow-headed inscriptions of the old Persic, since TYCHSEN,
+  MUENTER, and LICHTENSTEIN, will be found in
+
+  # GROTEFEND, _On the Interpretation of the Arrow-headed Characters,
+  particularly of the Inscriptions at Persepolis_, contained in the
+  appendix to HEEREN, _Ideas_, etc. vol. ii. with an accompanying Zend
+  alphabet.
+
+12. After a very remarkable debate held by the seven conspirators,
+concerning the form of of government which should be established,
+Darius, the son of Hystaspes, one of the family of the Achaemenides, was
+raised to the throne by an oracle; this king endeavoured to strengthen
+his right to the sceptre by marrying two of Cyrus's daughters.
+
+13. The reign of Darius I. which lasted thirty-six years, (according to
+Ctesias 31,) is remarkable for the improvements made both in the
+external and internal administration of the Persian empire. In the
+former, by the great expeditions and conquests, which extended the
+Persian realm to its utmost limits; in the latter, by several important
+institutions, established for the internal organization of the state.
+
+14. The expeditions of the Persians under Cyrus were directed against
+the countries of Asia; those of Cambyses against Africa. But those
+undertaken by Darius I. were directed against Europe, though the Persian
+territory was at the same time extended in the two other quarters of the
+world. In the reign of this king likewise commenced those wars with the
+Greeks, so fatal to the Persians; constantly fomented and supported by
+emigrant or exile Greeks, who found an asylum in the Persian court, and
+there contrived to raise a party.--First example of the kind exhibited
+shortly after the accession of Darius, in the case of Syloson, brother
+to Polycrates, who had been tyrant of Samos: at his request the island
+was taken possession of by the Persians, and delivered up to him after
+the almost total destruction of the male population.
+
+15. Great revolt in Babylon, which would not submit tamely to a foreign
+yoke. After a siege of twenty-one months, Darius by stratagem regains
+possession of the city. The power of Babylon and the importance of its
+situation increased the jealousy with which it was guarded by the
+Persian kings; so much so, that they were wont to reside there a certain
+portion of the year.
+
+16. First great expedition of Darius undertaken against the Scythians
+inhabiting the lands north of the Black sea: the former irruption of the
+Scythians into Asia afforded a pretext for the war, which, therefore,
+was considered as a general national undertaking. Unsuccessful as the
+Persian arms were in this vast expedition against the Scythians, and
+disgraceful as was the retreat from the barren steppes of the Ukrain,
+yet the power of Darius was established in Thrace and Macedonia, and the
+Persians obtained firm footing in Europe.
+
+  Concerning the peculiar character of the Persian national wars,
+  or great campaigns, in which all the conquered nations were
+  obliged to participate, contrasted with the other wars waged by
+  Persian troops alone.
+
+17. The next expedition made by Darius was more successful. It was
+carried on along the banks of the Indus, down which river Scylax, a
+Greek, had previously sailed on a voyage of discovery. The highlands
+north of the Indus were then subjected to the Persian dominion, and the
+Indus became the boundary of the kingdom. About the same time that
+Darius was engaged on the Danube and the Indus, Aryandes, his viceroy in
+Egypt, led an expedition against Barca, to avenge the murder of king
+Arcesilaus; a war which terminated in the destruction of the city, and
+the transplantation of its inhabitants into Asia.
+
+18. However trifling the first occurrence which gave rise to the revolt
+of the Asiatic Greeks, it was much more important in its consequences.
+It was set on foot by Aristagoras, lieutenant-governor of Miletus, who
+was secretly supported by his relation, the offended Histiaeus, then
+resident at the Persian court. The share taken by the Athenians in this
+rebellion, which led to the burning of Sardes, was the origin of the
+national hatred between Persia and European Greece, and of the long
+series of wars that ensued. The confederates were this time defeated;
+but the naval battle off the island of Lada, could hardly have had such
+a fatal result, had not the league been previously corrupted by the
+craft and gold of Persia. Be that as it may, this war ended in the
+reduction of the Ionians, and the destruction of Miletus, their
+flourishing capital; a city which in those days, together with Tyre and
+Carthage, engrossed the trade of the world.
+
+19. First attack upon Greece, particularly Athens. Darius, already
+enraged against the Athenians by the firing of Sardes, is still further
+instigated by the suggestions of the banished tyrant of Athens, Hippias,
+the son of Pisistratus. This prince, who had fled to the Persian court,
+was evidently the animating spirit of the whole undertaking. Although
+the first attempt, made under the command of Mardonius, was thwarted by
+a tempest, yet the mighty expedition which afterwards followed, was
+undertaken with so much more prudence, and conducted with so much
+knowledge of the country, that no one can fail to recognize the guiding
+hand of Hippias. Even the battle of Marathon, which seems to have been
+but a diversion on the side of the Persians, would not have decided the
+war, had not the activity of Miltiades defeated the principal design of
+the enemy upon Athens.
+
+20. It may be said that Darius, by these foreign wars, debilitated the
+kingdom which he endeavoured to extend; this circumstance, however, it
+cannot be denied, increases the merit which he has of perfecting the
+internal organization of the empire. His reign constitutes precisely
+that period which must enter into the history of every nomad race that
+has attained to power, and is advancing towards political civilization;
+a period at which it becomes visible that the nation is endeavouring to
+obtain a constitution, however gradual the progress towards it.
+
+21. Division of the empire into twenty _satrapies_, and the imposition
+of a regular tribute on each. This division at first depended solely on
+that of the various tributary races, but from it gradually arose a
+geographic division, in which the ancient distinction of countries was
+for the most part preserved.
+
+  Proofs that the division into satrapies was originally a mere
+  arrangement for the civil government and collection of taxes,
+  distinct from military power. Duties of the satraps. The attention
+  they were to pay to the cultivation and improvement of the land; to
+  the collection of the imposts; to the execution of the royal
+  commands relating to provincial affairs. An abuse of this
+  institution, at a later period, placed in the hands of these
+  satraps the command also of the troops.--Various means of keeping
+  the satraps in a state of dependence: royal secretaries appointed
+  for each, who were to be the first to receive the king's
+  commands.--Periodical visits paid to the provinces by commissioners
+  under the direct appointment of the king, or by the king himself
+  accompanied with an army.--Establishment of couriers in every part
+  of the empire, for the purpose of securing a safe and rapid
+  communication with the provinces, as was the case also in the
+  Mongol countries; (not a regular post, however, the institution
+  here alluded to being intended only for the court.)
+
+22. The Persian finance continues to preserve those peculiarities which
+naturally result from the formation of an empire by a nomad race of
+conquerors, desirous of living at the expense of the conquered, and
+under a despotic form of government.
+
+  Collection of tribute, mostly in kind, for the support of the court
+  and the armies; and in precious metals, not coined, but in their
+  raw state. Application of the treasure thus collected towards
+  constituting a private chest for the king. Various other royal
+  imposts.--Mode of providing for the public expenditure by
+  assignments on the revenues of one or several places.
+
+23. Organization of the military system, conformably to the primitive
+state of the nation, and the necessity now felt of keeping the conquered
+countries in subjection by means of standing armies.
+
+  Military organization of the Persian nations, by means of a decimal
+  division pervading the whole.--Royal troops cantoned in the open
+  field, according to a certain division of the empire, or stationed
+  as garrisons in the cities, and distinct from the
+  encampments.--Manner in which the troops were supported at the cost
+  and by the taxes of the provinces.--Introduction of mercenaries
+  and Greeks, more particularly among the Persians, and fatal
+  consequences of that measure. Military household of the satraps and
+  grandees.--Institution of a general conscription in national wars.
+  Formation of the Persian navy, consisting of the Phoenician, and
+  not unfrequently of the Asiatic Greek fleets.
+
+24. From the time of Darius, the court of the kings of Persia attained
+its complete form, and the government soon after was wholly concentrated
+in the seraglio. Yet the mode of life which the kings led, surrounded by
+a court, taken principally if not wholly from the tribe of the
+Pasargadae, and changing their residence according to the revolutions of
+the seasons, still preserved the traces of nomad origin.
+
+  Babylon, Susa, and Ecbatana, the usual residences; Persepolis now
+  used as a royal cemetery. The court supported by the most costly
+  productions of each province; hence arose the rigid ceremonial
+  observed at the royal table.--Internal organization of the
+  seraglio.--Influence of the eunuchs and queen-mothers on the
+  government.
+
+25. Already had Darius commenced preparations to wreak his vengeance on
+Athens, when a revolution broke out in Egypt, and hindered him from
+prosecuting his design. He died after nominating for his successor
+Xerxes I. grandson of Cyrus, and his eldest son by a second wife,
+Atossa, whose influence over her husband was boundless.
+
+26. Xerxes I. A prince educated in the seraglio, who knew nothing beyond
+the art of representing the pomp of royalty. Subjection of Egypt, and
+severe treatment of that country under the satrap Achaemenes, brother to
+Xerxes.
+
+27. Xerxes' famous expedition against Greece was again the result of
+the cabals and intrigues of the Greek exiles, the Pisistratidae, the
+soothsayer Onomacritus, the Thessalian princes or Aleuadae, who
+contrived to exert their influence on the king's mind, and to raise a
+party in their favour among the grandees. But the progress of the
+campaign showed that no Hippias was at the head of the invading army,
+although the Persian king did certainly succeed in his avowed object,
+the capture and destruction of Athens.
+
+  Critique on the detailed account given by Herodotus of this
+  expedition, as a national undertaking in which all the subjugated
+  nations were obliged to take a share.--Preparations which last for
+  three years in the Persian empire; league framed with Carthage for
+  the subjection of the Sicilian Greeks, 483-481. The expedition
+  itself in 480; over Asia Minor and the Hellespont, through Thrace
+  and Macedonia.--Muster of the army and division of the troops
+  according to nations at Doriscus; the detailed description of which
+  found in Herodotus, was most probably borrowed from some Persian
+  document.--The pass of Thermopylae taken by treachery; on the same
+  day a naval engagement off Artemisium.--Athens captured and burnt.
+  Battle of Salamis, Sept. 23, 480. Retreat of Xerxes; an army of
+  picked men left behind, under the command of Mardonius.--Fruitless
+  negotiations with the Athenians.--Second campaign of Mardonius: he
+  is routed at Plataeae, Sept. 25, 479; and that event puts an end for
+  ever to the Persian irruptions into Greece: on the same day the
+  Persian army is defeated, and their fleet burnt at Mycale in Asia
+  Minor.
+
+28. The consequences of these repeated and unsuccessful expeditions, in
+which almost the whole population was engaged, must be self-evident. The
+empire was weakened and depopulated. The defensive war which the
+Persians for thirty years were obliged to maintain against the Greeks,
+who aimed at establishing the independence of their Asiatic countrymen,
+completely destroyed the balance of their power, by compelling them to
+transfer their forces to Asia Minor, the most distant western province
+of the empire.
+
+29. Little as the Greeks had to fear from the Persian arms, the danger
+with which they were now threatened was much more formidable, when the
+enemy began to adopt the system of bribing the chieftains of Greece; a
+system which succeeded beyond expectation in the first trial made of it
+with Pausanias, and perhaps was not wholly unsuccessful with
+Themistocles himself.--But the Persians soon found in Cimon an adversary
+who deprived them of the sovereignty of the sea; who in one day
+destroyed both their fleet and their army on the Eurymedon; and by the
+conquest of the Thracian Chersonese, wrested from them the key of
+Europe.
+
+30. What little we know further concerning the reign of Xerxes, consists
+in the intrigues of the seraglio, which now, through the machinations of
+queen Amestris, became the theatre of all those horrors which are wont
+to be exhibited in such places, and to which Xerxes himself at last fell
+a victim, in consequence of the conspiracy of Artabanes and the eunuch
+Spamitres.
+
+  Was Xerxes the Ahasuerus of the Jews?--On the difference between the
+  names of the Persian kings in Persian and Chaldee; not to be
+  wondered at when we consider that they were mere titles or surnames,
+  assumed by the sovereigns after their accession.
+
+31. Artaxerxes I. surnamed Longimanus. In consequence of the murder of
+his father and his elder brother, in the conspiracy of Artabanes, this
+prince ascended the throne, but was unable to keep possession of the
+sceptre without assassinating, in his turn, Artabanes. His reign, which
+lasted forty years, exhibits the first symptoms of the decline of the
+empire, which this king, although possessed of many good qualities, had
+not the talent or spirit to arrest.
+
+32. At the very commencement of his reign rebellions are excited in the
+provinces; in the mean while the war with Athens continues. Two battles
+are required to repress the insurrection of his brother Hystaspes in
+Bactria.
+
+33. Second revolt of Egypt, excited by the Libyan king, Inarus of Marea,
+in conjunction with the Egyptian, Amyrtaeus, and supported by an Athenian
+fleet. Although the confederates did not make themselves masters of
+Memphis, they defeated the Persian army, commanded by the king's
+brother, Achaemenes, who lost his life in the battle; they were at last
+overpowered by Megabyzus, satrap of Syria, and shut up together with
+Inarus in the town of Byblus. Inarus and his party were admitted to
+capitulation; but Amyrtaeus, having taken refuge in the morasses,
+continued to make head against the Persians.
+
+34. The Grecian war takes, once more, an unfavourable turn for the
+Persians: Cimon defeats the enemy's fleet and army near Cyprus. The fear
+of losing the whole of the island accordingly compels Artaxerxes I. to
+sign a treaty of peace with Athens, in which he recognizes the
+independence of the Asiatic Greeks, and agrees that his fleet shall not
+navigate the Aegaean sea, nor his troops approach within three days' march
+of the coast.
+
+35. But the haughty and powerful Megabyzus, enraged at the execution of
+Inarus, in violation of the promise made by him to that prince, excites
+a rebellion in Syria; repeatedly defeats the royal armies, and
+prescribes himself the conditions upon which he will be reconciled to
+his sovereign. This was the first great example of a successful
+insurrection excited by one of the Persian satraps; and chequered as
+were the subsequent fortunes of Megabyzus, his party continued to
+subsist after his death in the persons of his sons. He possessed in the
+centre of the court a support in the dowager queen Amestris, and the
+reigning queen Amytis; (both notorious for their excesses;) who kept
+Artaxerxes I. in a constant state of tutelage to the hour of his death.
+
+36. Revolutions in the government now succeed each other with rapidity
+and violence. Xerxes II. the only legitimate son and successor of
+Artaxerxes, is slain, after forty-five days' reign, by his bastard
+brother Sogdianus; the latter, in his turn, after a reign of six months,
+is deposed by another bastard brother, Ochus, who ascends the throne,
+and assumes the name of Darius II.
+
+37. Darius II. surnamed the Bastard, or Nothus. He reigns nineteen years
+under the tutelage of his wife, Parysatis, and of three eunuchs, one of
+whom, Artoxares, even attempts to open a way to the throne, but is put
+to death. In this period the decline of the state advances with hurried
+steps; partly by reason of the extinction of the legitimate royal line,
+partly by the increased practice of placing more than one province,
+together with the military command, in the hands of the same satrap.
+Although the repeated insurrections of the satraps are repressed, the
+court, by the breach of faith to which it is obliged to have recourse,
+in order to succeed in its measures, exhibits to the world a convincing
+proof of its infirmity. The revolt of Arsites, one of the king's
+brothers, who was supported by a son of Megabyzus, and that of
+Pisuthnes, satrap of Lydia, are quelled only by obtaining treacherous
+possession of their persons.
+
+38. In consequence of the weak state of the empire, the fire, which had
+hitherto been smouldering under the ashes, burst forth in Egypt.
+Amyrtaeus, who had remained till now in the morasses, issued forth,
+supported by the Egyptians; and the Persians were again expelled the
+land. Obscure as the subsequent history may be, we see that the Persians
+were obliged to acknowledge, not only Amyrtaeus, but his successors. [See
+page 72].
+
+39. The Persians must have regarded it as a happy event, that the
+Peloponnesian war, kindled in Greece during the reign of Artaxerxes, and
+protracted through the whole of that of Darius II. had prevented the
+Greeks from unitedly falling upon Persia. It now became, and
+henceforward continued to be, the chief policy of the Persians to foment
+quarrels and wars between the Grecian republics, by siding at various
+times with various parties; and the mutual hatred of the Greeks rendered
+this game so easy, that Greece could hardly have escaped total
+destruction, had the Persian plans been always as wisely laid as they
+were by Tissaphernes; and had not the caprice and jealousy of the
+satraps in Asia Minor generally had more effect than the commands of
+the court.
+
+  Alliance of the Persians with Sparta, framed by Tissaphernes, 441;
+  but in consequence of the policy of Alcibiades, and the artful
+  principles of Tissaphernes, followed by no important results, until
+  the younger Cyrus, satrap of all Asia Minor, was by Lysander, 407,
+  brought over to the Spartan interest. (See below, the Grecian
+  history, III. Period, parag. 23.)
+
+40. Artaxerxes II. surnamed Mnemon. Although this prince was the eldest
+son of Darius, his right to the throne might, according to the Persian
+ideas of succession, have appeared dubious, since his younger brother,
+Cyrus, had the advantage over him of being the first born subsequent to
+the accession of his father. Relying on the support of his mother
+Parysatis, Cyrus, even without this claim to the throne, would, no
+doubt, have asserted his pretence to the sovereign power. It would have
+been, in all probability, a fortunate event for the Persian empire, had
+the fate of battle, in the ensuing war between the two brothers,
+assigned the throne to him whom nature seems to have pointed out as the
+fittest person.
+
+  History of this war according to Xenophon. Battle of Cunaxa,
+  in which Cyrus falls, 401. Retreat of the ten thousand Greek
+  mercenaries in the service of Cyrus, under the guidance of Xenophon.
+
+41. During the whole of this reign, Artaxerxes, now firmly seated on the
+throne, remained under the tutelage of his mother, Parysatis, whose
+inveterate hatred against his wife, Statira, and against all who had any
+share in the death of her darling son, Cyrus, converted the seraglio
+into a theatre of bloody deeds, such as can be conceived and committed
+only in similar places.
+
+42. The insurrection and rout of Cyrus produced a corresponding change
+in the political relations between the Persian court and Sparta: which,
+however, were now determined, not so much by the will of the monarch
+himself, as by the satraps of Asia Minor, Tissaphernes and Pharnabazus,
+of whose jealousy Sparta knew how to take advantage. The former, by his
+severity towards the Asiatic Greeks, who had supported the cause of
+Cyrus, excited a war with Sparta, in which he himself fell a victim. The
+death of the satrap is not, however, succeeded by tranquillity; for
+Agesilaus commands in Asia, and threatens to overthrow the Persian
+throne itself. The policy of the Persians is shown by the war which they
+foment in Greece against Sparta: Conon is placed at the head of their
+fleet, and extricates Persia from her difficulties better than could
+have been done by her own generals; in the peace of Antalcidas she
+herself dictates the terms, by which the Grecian colonies of Asia Minor,
+together with Cyprus and Clazomenae, are again delivered into her
+possession. The rising power of Thebes under Epaminondas and Pelopidas,
+with whom Persia keeps up a friendly connection, ensures her from any
+future blow at the hands of the Spartans.--War for the possession of
+Cyprus with Evagoras, who, however, by the subsequent peace retains the
+sovereignty of Salamis.
+
+43. The war against the Cadusii in the mountains of Caucasus, proves
+that Artaxerxes II. was not fitted for military command; and his attempt
+to recover Egypt from king Nectanebus I. which was defeated by the feud
+between Iphicrates and Artabazus, evinces that the most numerous
+Persian host could achieve nothing without the assistance of Grecian
+troops and Grecian generals.--It could hardly be expected that an empire
+should endure much longer, when in the court all was ruled by the desire
+of revenge in the women; when the political organization was already so
+corrupt, that the satraps waged war against each other; and when those
+generals who gave any proof of talent received no better reward than
+that of Datames.
+
+44. In fact, it seemed not unlikely that the Persian empire would fall
+asunder a little before the death of Artaxerxes Mnemon. A quarrel about
+the succession arose in the court between the three legitimate sons of
+the king, the eldest of whom, Darius, was put to death: the standard of
+rebellion was erected in the western half of the empire, and joined by
+all the governors of Asia Minor and Syria, supported by Tachos, king of
+Egypt, to whose assistance the Spartans had sent Agesilaus. The
+insurrection, however, was quelled in consequence of the treachery of
+the chief leader, Orontes, who was bribed over to the court.
+
+45. In the midst of these commotions died Artaxerxes II.: his youngest
+son, Ochus, took possession of the throne, and assumed the name of
+Artaxerxes III. This king conceived that he could not establish his
+power but by the total destruction of the royal family, numerous as it
+was. He was contemporary with Philip of Macedon, in whom he soon found a
+more formidable rival than any he could have met with in his own family.
+
+46. The new insurrection fomented by Artabazus in Asia Minor, was
+accompanied with success so long as it was backed by the Thebans; but
+the reception which Artabazus met with at the hands of Philip soon
+betrayed the secret intentions of the Macedonian king.
+
+47. But the extensive rebellion of the Phoenicians and Cyprians, in
+conjunction with Egypt, compelled the king to undertake another
+expedition, which succeeded almost beyond expectation; although in this
+case the object was again attained principally by treachery and by
+Grecian auxiliaries.
+
+  Treachery of Mentor, the leader of the confederates: the consequent
+  capture and destruction of Sidon, followed by the subjection of
+  Phoenicia, 356. Capture of Cyprus by Grecian troops, under the
+  command of Phocion and the younger Evagoras, 354. Expedition of the
+  king in person against Egypt: victory of Pelusium, won over king
+  Nectanebus II. with the help of Grecian mercenaries. Egypt becomes,
+  once more, a Persian province.
+
+48. This restoration of the empire to its former limits was followed by
+a period of tranquillity, the result of force, as Mentor and the eunuch
+Bagoas, holding the king in complete dependence, divided the kingdom, as
+it were, between themselves; until Bagoas was pleased, by poison, to
+remove Artaxerxes out of his way.
+
+49. After the assassination of the royal family, Bagoas placed on the
+throne the king's youngest and only surviving son, Arces. Bagoas was
+desirous of reigning in the name of that prince; but after the lapse of
+two years, he found it necessary to depose him, and to substitute in his
+place a distant relation of the reigning family, Darius Codomannus, who
+commenced his reign by putting to death the wretch himself.
+
+50. Darius III. Codomannus, not having been educated, like his
+predecessors, in the seraglio, gave proof of virtues which entitled
+him to a better fate. Attacked in the second year of his reign by
+Macedon, against which Persia had hitherto made no preparation for
+resistance,--unless, perhaps, the dagger which pierced Philip was
+pointed by Persian hands,--Darius was unable at once to reestablish a
+kingdom which of itself was mouldering away. And yet, had not death
+defeated the invasion of Macedonia by his general, Memnon, it might have
+been matter of doubt, whether Alexander would ever have shone as the
+conqueror of Asia.--After the loss of two battles, in which he fought in
+person, Darius III. fell a victim to the treachery of Bessus, and the
+burning of Persepolis made known to Asia that the realm of Persia was
+destroyed, and that the east must acknowledge a new lord and master.
+
+  For the history of the war, see below: the history of Macedon.
+
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+THIRD BOOK.
+
+HISTORY OF THE GRECIAN STATES.
+
+
+
+
+_Geographical Outline._
+
+
+_Greece_ is bounded on the north by the Cambunian mountains, which
+separate it from Macedonia; on the south and east by the Aegaean, on the
+west by the Ionian sea. Greatest length from south to north = 220 geog.
+miles, greatest breadth from west to east, = 140 geog. miles.
+Superficial contents, = 29,600 square miles.--Principal rivers: the
+Peneus, which discharges its waters into the Aegaean, and the Achelous,
+which flows into the Ionian sea. Advantages in respect to fertility,
+resulting from the mildness of the climate, between 37-40 deg. N. lat.;
+from the number of small streams; from the qualities and variety of the
+soil, in which this country has been so much more blessed by nature than
+any other of similar extent, that every branch of cultivation may be
+prosecuted equally and in conjunction.--Advantages in reference to
+navigation and commerce: situated in the vicinity of the three quarters
+of the world, on three sides washed by the sea, and by reason of its
+irregular, indented coast, abounding with commodious ports and havens.
+
+It may be divided into Northern Greece, from the north boundary to the
+chain of Oeta and Pindus, between the Ambracian gulf west, and the
+Maliac east. Central Greece, or Hellas, down to the isthmus of Corinth:
+and the southern peninsula, or Peloponnesus.
+
+Northern Greece comprises two countries; Thessaly east, Epirus west.
+
+1. Thessaly, the largest and one of the most fruitful of the Grecian
+countries. Length from north to south 60 geog. miles; breadth from west
+to east 64 geog. miles. Rivers: the Peneus, Apidanus, and several
+smaller streams. Mountains: Olympus, residence of the fabulous gods, and
+Ossa in the north; the chain of Oeta, Othrys, and Pindus in the south.
+Division into five provinces: 1. Estiaeotis; cities: Gomphi, Azorus: 2.
+Pelasgiotis; cities: Larissa, Gonni, the vale of Tempe: 3. Thessaliotis;
+cities: Pharsalus, etc. 4. Phthiotis; cities: Pherae, etc. 5. The
+foreland of Magnesia, with a city of the same name. Other territories,
+such as Perrhaebia, etc. for instance, derived their names from the
+non-Greek races who inhabited them.
+
+2. Epirus. Next to Thessaly, the largest, although one of the least
+cultivated countries of Greece: 48-60 geog. miles long, and the same in
+breadth. Divisions: Molossis; city, Ambracia: Thesprotia; city,
+Buthrotum; in the interior, Dodona.
+
+Central Greece, or Hellas, comprises nine countries.
+
+1. Attica, a foreland, extending towards the south-east, and gradually
+diminishing. Length, 60 geog. miles; greatest breadth, 24 geog. miles.
+Rivers: Ilissus, Cephissus. Mountains: Hymettus, Pentelicus, and the
+headland of Sunium. City: Athens, with the harbours Piraeus, Phalereus,
+and Munychius; in the other parts no towns, but hamlets, [Greek: demoi],
+such as Marathon, Eleusis, Decelea, etc.
+
+2. Megaris, close to the isthmus of Corinth. The smallest of the Grecian
+countries; 16 geog. miles long, and from 4-8 broad. City, Megara.
+
+3. Boeotia, a mountainous and marshy country, 52 geog. miles long, and
+from 28-32 broad. Rivers: Asopus, Ismenus, and several smaller streams.
+Mountains: Helicon, Cythaeron, etc. Lake: Copais.--Boeotia was, of all
+the Grecian countries, that which contained the greatest number of
+cities, each having its own separate territory. Among these, the first
+in importance, and frequently mistress of the rest, was Thebes on the
+Ismenus. The others, Plataeae, Tanagra, Thespiae, Chaeronea, Lebadea,
+Leuctra, and Orchomenus, are all celebrated in Grecian history.
+
+4. Phocis, smaller than Attica; 48 geog. miles long, from 4-20 broad.
+River: Cephissus. Mountain: Parnassus. Cities: Delphi, on Parnassus,
+with the celebrated oracle of Apollo. Crissa, with the harbour of
+Cirrha, and up the country Elatea. The other cities are insignificant.
+
+5, 6. The two countries called Locris. The eastern on the Euripus,
+territory of the Locri Opuntii and Epicnemidii is the lesser of the two;
+being but little larger than Megaris. City: Opus; pass, Thermopylae. The
+western Locris on the Corinthian gulf, station of the Locri Ozolae, is
+from 20-24 geog. miles long, and from 16-20 broad. Cities: Naupactus on
+the sea, Amphissa up the country.
+
+7. The small country of Doris, or the Tetrapolis Dorica, on the south
+side of mount Oeta, from 8-12 geog. miles long, and the same in breadth.
+
+8. Aetolia, somewhat larger than Boeotia; from 40-52 geog. miles long,
+and from 28-32 broad; but the least cultivated country of all. Rivers:
+Achelous, which skirts Acarnania, and the Evenus. Cities: Calydon,
+Thermus.
+
+9. Acarnania, the most western country of Hellas, 32 geog. miles long,
+from 16-24 broad. River: Achelous. Cities: Argos Amphilochicum, and
+Stratus.
+
+The peninsula of Peloponnesus contains eight countries.
+
+1. Arcadia, a mountainous country, abounding in pastures, and situate in
+the centre of the peninsula; greatest length, 48 geog. miles; greatest
+breadth, 36 geog. miles. Mountains: Cyllene, Erymanthus, etc. Rivers:
+Alpheus, Erymanthus, and several smaller streams. Lake: Styx. Cities:
+Mantinea, Tegea, Orchomenus, Heraea, Psophis; subsequently Megalopolis,
+as a common capital.
+
+2. Laconia, likewise mountainous. Greatest length, 66 geog. miles;
+greatest breadth, 36 geog. miles. River: Eurotas. Mountains: Taygetus,
+and the headlands Malea and Tenarium. Cities: Sparta on the Eurotas;
+other places: Amyclae, Sellasia, and others of little importance.
+
+3. Messenia, west of Laconia; a more level and extremely fertile
+country, subject to the Spartans from B. C. 668. Greatest length, 28
+geog. miles: greatest breadth, 36 geog. miles. City: Messene. Frontier
+places, Ithome and Ira: of the other places, Pylus (Navarino) and
+Methone are the most celebrated.
+
+4. Elis, with the small territory of Triphylia, on the west of the
+Peloponnesus. Length, 60 geog. miles: greatest breadth, 28 geog. miles.
+Rivers: Alpheus, Peneus, Sellis, and several smaller streams. Cities: in
+the north, Elis, Cyllene, and Pylus. On the Alpheus, Pisa and the
+neighbouring town of Olympia. In Triphylia, a third Pylus.
+
+5. Argolis, on the east side of the peninsula; a foreland opposite to
+Attica, with which it forms the Sinus Saronicus. Length, 64 geog. miles:
+breadth, from 8-28 geog. miles. Cities: Argos, Mycenae, Epidaurus.
+Smaller but remarkable places; Nemea, Cynuria, Troezen.
+
+6. Achaia, originally Ionia, called likewise Aegialus, comprises the
+north coast. Length, 56 geog. miles: breadth, from 12-24. It contains
+twelve cities, of which Dyme, Patrae, and Pellene are the most important.
+
+7. The little country of Sicyonia, 16 geog. miles long, 8 broad, with
+the cities of Sicyon and Phlius.
+
+8. The small territory of Corinth, of the same extent as the foregoing,
+adjoining the isthmus which connects Peloponnesus with the main land.
+City: Corinth, originally Ephyra, with the ports of Lechaeum and
+Cenchreae; the former on the Corinthian, the latter on the Saronic gulf.
+
+The Greek islands may be divided into three classes; those which lie
+immediately off the coasts, those which are collected in groups, and
+those which lie separate in the open sea.
+
+1. Islands off the coasts. Off the west coast in the Ionian sea:
+Corcyra, opposite Epirus, 32 geog. miles long, from 8-16 broad. City:
+Corcyra. A Corinthian colony. Opposite Acarnania; Leucadia, with the
+city and headland of Leucas.--Cephalonia or Same, originally Scheria,
+with the cities of Same and Cephalonia. In the neighbourhood lies the
+small island of Ithaca.--Opposite Elis: Zacynthus. Off the south coast:
+Cythera, with a town of the same name. Off the east coast, in the
+Saronic gulf: Aegina and Salamis. Opposite Boeotia, from which it is
+separated by the strait named Euripus, Euboea, the most extensive of
+all; 76 geog. miles long, from 12-16 geog. miles broad. Cities: Oreus,
+with the headland of Artemisium on the north, in the centre Chalcis,
+Eretria. Off Thessaly, Scyathus and Halonesus. Farther north, Thasus,
+Imbrus, Samothrace, and Lemnos.
+
+2. Clusters of islands in the Aegaean sea: the Cyclades and Sporades; the
+former of which comprise the western, the latter the eastern islands of
+the Archipelago. The most important among them are, Andros, Delos,
+Paros, Naxos, Melos, all with cities of the same names.
+
+3. The more extensive separate islands: 1. Crete, 140 geog. miles long,
+from 24-40 broad. Mountain: Ida. Cities: Cydonia, Gortyna, Cnossus. 2.
+Cyprus, 120 geog. miles long, from 20-80 broad. Cities: Salamis, Paphos,
+Citium, and several smaller places.
+
+  Concerning the principal Greek islands off the coast of Asia
+  Minor, see above, p. 18.
+
+  # FR. CARL. HERM. KRUSE, _Geographico-Antiquarian delineation
+  of ancient Greece and its colonies, with reference to modern
+  discoveries_. Illustrated with maps and plates: first part, 1825.
+  General Geography: second part, first division, 1826. Second
+  division, 1827. Special Geography of Central Greece. A most minute
+  and careful description of Greece, founded on modern discoveries.
+
+
+
+
+FIRST PERIOD.
+
+_The most ancient traditional history, down to the Trojan war,
+about B. C. 1200._
+
+
+  Sources: On the formation and progress of history among the Greeks.
+  Preliminary enquiry into the peculiarities of Grecian mythology in
+  a historical point of view, as comprising the most ancient history
+  of the national tribes and heroes. A history rich in itself, on
+  account of the number of tribes and their leaders; but embellished
+  and altered in various ways by the poets, particularly the great
+  early epic writers, and afterwards by the tragedians.--First
+  advance of history from tradition, wrought by the logographi,
+  especially those of the Ionian cities, Hecataeus, Pherecydes, etc.
+  until HERODOTUS, so justly called the Father of History, raised it
+  at once to such a lofty pitch of eminence. (Compare # _The
+  historical Art of the Greeks considered in its Rise and Progress,
+  by_ G. F. CREUZER; 1803.) Nevertheless, in Herodotus, and even
+  later writers, history continued to savour of its origin; and so
+  far as the realm of tradition extended, even Theopompus and Ephorus
+  felt no disinclination to borrow their materials from mythologists
+  or poets. It need scarcely be observed, that in this first period
+  the history is merely traditional.
+
+  Among the moderns, the English have most successfully treated the
+  subject of Grecian history: the principal works are:
+
+  JOHN GILLIES, _The History of Ancient Greece, its colonies and
+  conquests, from the earliest accounts till the division of the
+  Macedonian empire in the east, including the history of literature,
+  philosophy, and the fine arts_. London, 1786, 2 vols. 4to. and
+
+  WILLIAM MITFORD, _The History of Greece_. London, 1784, 4 vols.
+  4to. Several new editions have since appeared. Translated into
+  German, Jena, 1800, sqq. by _H. L. Eichstaedt_. Mitford is perhaps
+  superior in learning, copiousness, and solidity, but he certainly
+  is greatly surpassed by Gillies in genius and taste, and more
+  especially in a proper conception of the spirit of antiquity. [Few
+  English critics will here coincide with our author.]
+
+  DE PAUW, _Recherches sur les Grecs_, 1701, 2 vols. 8vo. Replete
+  with partial views and hypotheses.
+
+  # HEEREN, _Researches into the politics, intercourse, and trade of
+  the most celebrated nations of antiquity_: 3 vols. 1st part, 4th
+  edit. 1826. [Translated into English, Oxford, 1830, 8vo.]
+
+  Many important enquiries on various portions of Grecian history and
+  antiquities will be found in the great collection:
+
+  GRONOVII, _Thesaurus Antiquitatum Graecarum_, 12 vols. folio.
+
+  Others are contained in the transactions of different learned
+  societies; particularly in
+
+  _Memoires de l'Academie des Inscriptions et des Belles Lettres_,
+  Paris, 1709, sqq. 49 vols. 4to.
+
+  _Commentarii_, (4 vols.) _Commentarii novi_, (8 vols.)
+  _Commentationes_, (16 vols.) and _Commentationes recentiores
+  Societatis Scientiarum Gotting._ (5 vols.)
+
+1. Although Greece was originally inhabited by several insignificant
+races, two principal tribes claim our attention, the _Pelasgi_ and the
+_Hellenes_. Both probably were of Asiatic origin; but the difference of
+their language characterized them as different tribes. The Pelasgi were
+the first that extended their dominion in Greece.
+
+  First seat of the Pelasgians in the Peloponnesus, under Inachus,
+  about B. C. 1800. According to their own traditions, they made
+  their first appearance in this quarter as uncultivated savages;
+  they must, however, at an early period, have made some progress
+  towards civilization, since the most ancient states, Argos and
+  Sicyon, owed their origin to them; and to them, perhaps, with
+  great probability, are attributed the remains of those most
+  ancient monuments generally termed _cyclopian_.--Extension of this
+  tribe towards the north, particularly over Attica; settlement in
+  Thessaly under their leaders Achaeus, Phthius, and Pelasgus; here
+  they learned to apply themselves to agriculture, and remained for
+  a hundred and fifty successive years; about 1700-1500.
+
+2. The Hellenes,--subsequently so called from Hellen, one of their
+chieftains,--originally the weaker of the two tribes, make their first
+appearance in Phocis, near Parnassus, under king Deucalion; from whence
+they are driven by a flood. They migrate into Thessaly, and drive out
+the Pelasgi from that territory.--The Hellenes soon after this become
+the most powerful race; and spreading over Greece, expel the Pelasgi
+from almost every part. The latter tribe maintain their ground only in
+Arcadia, and the land of Dodona; some of them migrate to Italy, others
+to Crete, and various islands.
+
+3. The Hellenic tribe is subdivided into four principal branches, the
+_Aeolians_, _Ionians_, _Dorians_, and _Achaeans_, which continue
+afterwards to be distinguished and separated by many peculiarities of
+speech, customs, and political government. These four tribes, although
+they must not be considered as comprising all the slender ramifications
+of the nation, are derived by tradition from Deucalion's immediate
+posterity; with whose personal history, therefore, the history of the
+tribes themselves and their migrations is interwoven.
+
+  This derivation of the tribes will be better understood by an
+  inspection of the following genealogical table:
+
+                      DEUCALION.
+                          |
+                       HELLEN.
+     |--------------------|--------------------|
+   DORUS.              XUTHUS.               AEOLUS.
+     |          |---------|-------------|      |
+  DORIANS.      |                       |   AEOLIANS.
+              ACHAEUS.                 ION.
+                |                       |
+              ACHAEANS.              IONIANS.
+
+4. The gradual spread of the various branches of the Hellenic tribe over
+Greece was effected by several migrations, between B. C. 1500-1300;
+after which they preserved the settlements they had already obtained
+until the later migration of the Dorians and Heraclidae, about 1100.
+
+  _Principal data for the history of the separate tribes in this
+  period._
+
+  1. AEOLUS follows his father Hellen into Phthiotis, which
+  consequently remains the seat of the Aeolians; they spread from
+  thence over western Greece, Acarnania, Aetolia, Phocis, Locris, Elis
+  in the Peloponnesus, and likewise over the western islands.
+
+  2. DORUS follows his father into Estiaeotis, the most ancient seat
+  of the Dorians. They are driven from thence after the death of
+  Dorus by the Perrhaebi; spread over Macedonia and Crete; part of the
+  tribe return, cross mount Oeta, and settle in the Tetrapolis
+  Dorica, afterwards called Doris, where they remain until they
+  migrate into Peloponnesus, under the guidance of the Heraclidae;
+  about 1100. (See below, p. 127).
+
+  3. XUTHUS, expelled by his brothers, migrates to Athens, where he
+  marries Creusa, daughter of Erectheus, by whom he has sons, Ion and
+  Achaeus. Ion and his tribe, driven out of Athens, settle in that
+  part of Peloponnesus called Aegialus, a name which by them was
+  converted into Ionia, and in later times exchanged for Achaia. The
+  Achaeans preserve their footing in Laconia and Argos, until the time
+  of the Dorian migration.
+
+  # L. D. HUELLMAN, _Early Grecian History_, 1814. Rich in original
+  views and conjectures, beyond which the early history of nations
+  seldom extends.
+
+  # D. C. OTFRIED MUELLER, _History of the Hellenic Tribes and
+  Cities_, 1820, vol. 1. containing, _Orchomenus and the Minyae_;
+  vols. 2, 3, containing the _Dorians_, 1825.
+
+5. Besides these original inhabitants, colonies at the same early period
+came into Greece from civilized countries, from Egypt, Phoenicia, and
+Mysia. The settlements of these strangers occurred probably between B.
+C. 1600-1400.
+
+  Establishment in Attica of the colony of Cecrops, from Sais in Egypt,
+  about 1550; in Argos, of the colony of Danaus, likewise from Egypt,
+  about 1500.--The colony of Cadmus, from Phoenicia, settles in Boeotia
+  about 1550.--The colony of Pelops, from Mysia, settles in Argos about
+  1400.
+
+6. The mythology of the Hellenes proves beyond a doubt, that they were
+at first savages, like the Pelasgi since they had to learn even the use
+of fire from Prometheus; yet it is equally clear that they must, even in
+the earliest period, particularly from 1300-1200, when they had ceased
+to migrate, have made the first important steps towards the attainment
+of a certain degree of civilization. About the time of the Trojan war
+they appear to have been still barbarians, though no longer savages.
+
+7. The origin and progress of this national organization, and the
+influence wrought upon it by settlers from foreign countries, are
+difficult subjects to determine. If we allow that Cecrops was the first
+who introduced marriage in Attica, and that agriculture and the
+cultivation of the olive were discovered in that country, it
+unquestionably follows, that the Hellenes were indebted to strangers for
+the foundation of domestic civilization. And when we consider that the
+families which subsequently held sway were descended directly from the
+most powerful of these strangers, their lasting influence can hardly be
+a matter of doubt. It must, however, be observed, that what the Greeks
+borrowed from foreigners they previously stamped with their own peculiar
+character, so that it became, as it were, the original property of the
+nation. The question, therefore, is deprived of much of the importance
+which it assumes at the first glance.
+
+8. The case was the same with regard to all branches of intellectual
+civilization, particularly religion. That many deities and religious
+rites were introduced into Greece from Egypt, Asia, and Thrace, and
+generally through Crete, hardly admits of a doubt; but they did not
+therefore remain Egyptian, Asiatic, or Thracian; they became Grecian
+gods. Hence it appears that the investigation of those relations can
+hardly lead to any important conclusion. It is a fact, however, of the
+highest importance, that whatever gods the Greeks adopted, no separate
+order of priesthood was established among them, still less any caste
+laying claim to the exclusive possession of knowledge. Several traces,
+nevertheless, make it probable, that many of the most ancient
+sanctuaries were settlements of Egyptian, Phoenician, or Cretan priests,
+who imported with them their own peculiar forms of worship. And
+notwithstanding this worship consisted merely of outward ceremonies,
+many ideas and institutions which were attached to it, became, in this
+manner, the common property of the nation.
+
+9. It was principally, therefore, by religion, that the rude mind became
+in some degree polished. But it was the ancient minstrels, ([Greek:
+aoidoi],) Orpheus, Linus, etc., who, by disseminating religious
+principles, contributed so much towards abolishing revenge, and with it
+the perpetual state of warfare which had hitherto distracted the
+country. These it was who in their mysteries contrived in some measure
+to impress the narrow circle of the initiated with the advantages
+resulting from a civilized life.
+
+  SAINTE-CROIX, _Recherches sur les Mysteres du Paganisme_, Paris, 1765.
+  Translated into German, with valuable observations, by C. G. LENZ;
+  Gotha, 1790.
+
+10. The influence of religion, through the medium of oracles, especially
+those of Dodona and Delphi, was not less powerful. The two latter, with
+that of Olympia, were perhaps, originally ancient settlements of
+priests, such as have been already alluded to. The necessity of
+consulting these sanctuaries naturally led men to regard the oracles as
+the common property of the nation, to which every one should have
+access; it followed therefore as an inevitable consequence, that the
+direction of affairs in which all were engaged, depended principally on
+those oracles.
+
+  A. VAN DALEN, _De Oraculis veterum Ethnicorum Dissertationes_ 6.
+  Amstel. 1700. A very valuable work. A comprehensive dissertation on
+  the subject, however, is still wanting: a portion of it is treated
+  of in
+
+  J. GRODDEK, _De Oraculorum veterum, quae in Herodoti libris
+  continentur, natura, commentatio_; Gotting. 1786.
+
+11. It happened with Greece as with other countries; the tender plant
+of civilization grew up under the shelter of the sanctuary. There the
+festivals were celebrated, and there the people assembled; and there
+various tribes, who had hitherto been strangers to one another, met
+in peace, and conversed on their common interests. Hence arose
+spontaneously the first idea of a law of nations, and those connections
+which led to its development. Among these connections, that of the
+Amphictyons at Delphi was the most important, and continued the longest:
+it is probable that it did not assume its complete form till a later
+period; yet it appears in early times to have adopted the principle,
+that none of the cities belonging to the league should be destroyed by
+the others.
+
+  # FR. WILH. TITTMANN, _Upon the Amphictyonic League_; 1812. A
+  dissertation which gained the prize of the Academy of Sciences at
+  Berlin.
+
+12. To religion must likewise be added navigation, and the consequent
+intercourse which brought the nation into contact with strangers, and
+prepared it to receive civilization. It cannot be denied that the
+navigators continued long to be mere pirates; but as Minos of Crete
+cleared the sea of freebooters, the want of another state of things must
+have been felt long before.
+
+13. In the mean time the chivalrous spirit of the nation was gradually
+aroused; and developed the first bloom of its youthful vigour in the
+heroic ages. An affection for extraordinary undertakings was excited;
+and conducted the chieftains, not only individually, but also in
+confederate bodies, beyond the limits of their father-land. These
+undertakings were not only important in themselves, but their advantages
+were increased by their being preserved in the songs of their bards by
+means of a national poesy, such as no other people possessed, and such
+as contributed to the further development of the national genius.
+
+  Expedition of the Argonauts to Colchis, somewhere about B. C. 1250;
+  war of the seven confederate princes against Thebes about 1225; the
+  town, however, was not taken until the second attempt made by the sons
+  of the chiefs (Epigoni) in 1215.
+
+14. Thus every thing was now ripe for some great national undertaking of
+all the combined Hellenic nations; and that object was attained in the
+war against Troy. The most important result of that expedition was the
+kindling of one common national spirit,--a spirit which in spite of
+dissensions and feuds, was never wholly extinguished, and which must
+almost necessarily have arisen from an expedition carried on in so
+distant a field, which lasted ten years, in which all were joined, and
+which was crowned with such signal success. From the time of the Trojan
+war downwards the Hellenes always looked upon themselves as but one
+people.
+
+  General view of the political state of Greece about the time of the
+  Trojan war.--Division into several small states, the most powerful
+  of which were Argos and Mycenae.--All those states were governed by
+  hereditary chieftains or princes from a certain _family_ (kings,
+  [Greek: basileis],) who combined the offices of leaders in war and
+  judges in peace. Their authority being more or less extended in
+  proportion to the qualities they possessed, and particularly to
+  their valour in battle.--Manner of life among the people: a nation
+  dwelling in cities, but at the same time cultivating the land and
+  tending cattle; applying also to war, and already somewhat advanced
+  in the art of navigation.
+
+  A. W. SCHLEGEL, _De Geographia Homeri Commentatio_. Hannov. 1788. A
+  review of the political geography of Greece at this period.--On the
+  topography of Troy:
+
+  LECHEVALIER, _Description de la Plaine de Troie_. Translated and
+  accompanied with notes by HEYNE, Leipzig, 1794. Compare CLARKE,
+  _Travels_, vol. i, c. 4-6, who has thrown doubts on the system of
+  Lechevalier, which has, however, been again confirmed by LEAKE,
+  _Travels in Asia Minor_.
+
+
+
+
+SECOND PERIOD.
+
+_From the Trojan war to the breaking out of the Persian war, B. C.
+1200-500._
+
+  Sources. On no portion of the Grecian history is our information
+  so scanty as upon this long period, in which we can be hardly said
+  to have more than a general knowledge of many of the most
+  important events. As in the foregoing period, its commencement is
+  but a traditional and poetical history. It was not till towards
+  the end of it that the use of writing became common among the
+  Greeks; add to which the period itself was not rife in great
+  national undertakings, such as might afford appropriate materials
+  for the poet or historian. Besides the scattered information which
+  may be gathered from Herodotus, Plutarch, Strabo, and above all
+  from the introduction to Thucydides's history, Pausanias must not
+  be forgotten; who, in his description of Greece, has preserved an
+  abundance of most valuable documents relating to the separate
+  histories of the minor states. The Books of Diodorus belonging to
+  this period are lost.
+
+  # FR. WILHELM TITTMANN, _Delineation of the Grecian Forms of
+  Government_, 1822. An industrious collection of all the
+  information we possess respecting this subject.
+
+  # W. WACHSMUTH, _Grecian Antiquities with regard to Politics_, 4
+  vols. An excellent work.
+
+
+1. _History of the Hellenic states within Greece._
+
+1. The Trojan war was followed by a very stormy period, in consequence
+of the many disorders prevalent in the ruling families, especially in
+that of Pelops. But more violent commotions soon arose, caused by the
+attempts of the rude tribes of the north, particularly of the Dorians
+combined with the Aetolians, who, under the guidance of the descendants
+of Hercules, exiled from Argos, strove to obtain possession of
+Peloponnesus. Those commotions shook Greece during a whole century, and
+as the seats of most of the Hellenic tribes were then changed, the
+consequences were lasting and important.
+
+  First unsuccessful attempt under Hyllus, son of Hercules, about
+  1180.--Repeated attempts, until at last the claims of the Heraclidae
+  are made good by the grandsons of Hyllus, viz. Telephus and
+  Cresphontes, together with Eurysthenes and Procles, sons of their
+  brother Aristodemus, 1100.
+
+2. Consequences resulting to the Peloponnesus from this migration. The
+territories of Argos, Sparta, Messene, and Corinth, wrested from the
+Achaeans who had hitherto inhabited them, become the property of the
+Dorians; Elis falls to the share of the Aetolians, who had accompanied
+the former. The Achaeans expelled, in their turn expel the Ionians and
+settle in the country since called Achaia; the fugitive Ionians are
+received by their ancient kinsmen the Athenians.--But among the
+consequences of this migration of the Hellenic races must be reckoned
+likewise the establishment of Greek colonies in Asia Minor; an
+occurrence of the highest importance to the ulterior development of the
+nation. This colonization was commenced by the Aeolian Hellenes, whose
+example was soon after followed by the Ionians, and even by the Dorians.
+
+  For the history of these colonies, see the following section.
+
+3. Although the effect of these migrations and wars, in which the ruder
+tribes oppressed the more civilized, must inevitably have been, not only
+to interrupt the progress of civilization, but even almost entirely to
+annihilate it, yet in this universal movement the foundation was laid
+of that constitution of things which afterwards existed in Greece. The
+tribes which had migrated, as well as those which had been expelled,
+remained at first under the dominion of their hereditary princes, some
+for a longer, others for a shorter time. In the two centuries, however,
+immediately subsequent to the migrations, B. C. 1100-900, republican
+constitutions took the place of hereditary clanship in all the Grecian
+countries, the distant Epirus excepted. These republics continued to
+exist amid the various revolutions which happened; and the love of
+political freedom, deeply impressed on the minds of the people,
+constituted from this time the principal feature in the national
+character.
+
+4. The sequel proves, that the principal cause of this change so
+important for Greece,--this change, by which her future internal policy
+was for ever determined, originated in the progress made by the newly
+come tribes towards civic life, and consequently at the same time
+towards national civilization. In this newly constituted order of
+things, each city, with the territory around it, formed a separate
+state, and framed its own constitution; hence there arose as many free
+states as cities.
+
+  The notion that Greece contained the same number of states as
+  countries is completely false, although it cannot be denied that
+  the mode of expression in most writings upon Greek history seems to
+  authorize the assertion. It is true that some of those countries,
+  such as Attica, Megaris, Laconia, may be each regarded as a
+  separate state, because each constituted the territory of one city.
+  The others, however, such as Arcadia, Boeotia, etc. did not each
+  form one state, but comprised as many separate states as there were
+  free and independent cities, each of which, with its territory,
+  formed one. Still, however, it must be observed, (_a_) that the
+  natural ties of kindred subsisted; Arcadians, Boeotians, etc. spoke
+  of one another as countrymen. (_b_) Voluntary connections were
+  entered into between different cities, and sometimes all the cities
+  of a country, as, for instance, in Achaia, so that the whole formed
+  one confederation; each individual city nevertheless still
+  preserved its own system of laws and government. Again, (_c_) in
+  consequence of a greater share of power, one city assumed a sort of
+  dominion over the other; as, for instance, that of Thebes over the
+  Boeotian cities. This dominion, however, was always precarious, and
+  depended upon the state of affairs. (_d_) It must likewise be
+  observed, that the constitution of each separate city underwent
+  many changes, wrought generally by influential citizens, (tyrants,)
+  who not only possessed themselves of the supreme power, but also
+  contrived frequently to make it for some time hereditary in their
+  families. Every one will easily discern that the above are the
+  fundamental principles of Greek history, which cannot be too
+  clearly conceived, or too correctly defined; since it is
+  self-evident what a wide field was by such a constitution of things
+  thrown open to practical politics. The more improbable the
+  attainment of fixed constitutions in the separate cities was, the
+  more frequent must have been the political attempts; (attempts
+  facilitated by the narrow extent of the state;) and the more
+  frequently those attempts failed, the more extensive in this
+  intellectual people became the mass of political ideas; the results
+  of which in later times were the legislative codes of Solon and
+  others.
+
+5. Although Greece was thus parcelled out into a number of small states,
+united by no common political bond, yet there existed a certain unity of
+the Hellenic race, a certain national spirit: this was produced in part
+by national festivals and games, occurring at stated periods, among
+which those in honour of Jupiter at Olympia were the chief. The nation
+at these appeared in all its splendour; and all Hellenes, but no others,
+were allowed to join in them. This union, too, was promoted by the
+extension of the Amphictyonic council: and the reason why this last
+institution was not followed by all the consequences which might have
+been expected from it, may perhaps be found in what naturally takes
+place in every great confederation whenever any of the component states
+become too powerful.
+
+  The Amphictyonic council was certainly not a states-general, in
+  which all national affairs were discussed. Its immediate office was
+  to attend to the temples and the oracles of Delphi. But then it
+  must be observed, 1st, that from this council originated the
+  Grecian ideas of the law of nations; over the preservation of which
+  the Amphictyons watched. 2. In consequence of its political
+  influence on the oracle, this council, in certain cases, was
+  enabled to take a share in the affairs of different states. 3. The
+  Amphictyons always formed a national institution, since none but
+  Hellenes were admitted.
+
+  ST. CROIX, _Des anciens gouvernemens federatifs, et de la
+  legislation de Crete_, Paris, 1796. One of the most invaluable
+  inquiries, not only into the institutions of the Amphictyons, but
+  also into other matters of Grecian history connected with them.
+
+6. Among the different states of Greece, Sparta and Athens, even at this
+period, became celebrated, not only for their greater power, but also
+for their superior constitutions and their laws: and though it may not
+perhaps be strictly true, that the history of the rest of Greece is
+connected with that of these two cities, yet they certainly possess the
+highest claim to our attention.
+
+7. History of Sparta. The Achaeans at first were governed by princes of
+the house of Perseus, but after Menelaus's accession to the throne in
+virtue of his wife, by princes of the house of Pelops. When the latter
+had been expelled by the Dorians, Laconia fell by lot to the sons of
+Aristodemus, Procles and Eurysthenes, between whose families the royal
+power was divided, so that two kings constantly reigned in common, one
+from each family.
+
+  Families of the Proclidae and Aegidae; the latter so called from Agis,
+  the son and successor of Eurysthenes.
+
+  # J. C. F. MANSO, _An Essay on the History and Constitution of
+  Sparta_, Leipzig, 1800 sqq. 3 vols. The most important work upon
+  this subject, and which likewise contains much information upon
+  various points of Grecian history connected with it.
+
+  CRAGIUS, _De Republica Lacedaemoniorum_, 1642.
+
+  MEURSIUS, _De regno Laconico_; and _Miscellanea Laconica_. Both
+  laborious compilations.
+
+8. The Dorians now gradually conquered, and established themselves in
+many cities of the peninsula; forming, if not the whole population, at
+least the only part of it that enjoyed any power, as the Achaeans that
+remained were reduced to slavery. No long time, however, elapsed ere the
+city of Sparta usurped an authority over the whole country, which it
+ever afterwards preserved; the other towns, formerly considerable,
+becoming unfortified, defenceless, and insignificant.
+
+  Relation between the Spartan citizens of the capital as a ruling
+  body, and the Lacedaemonians, or [Greek: perioikoi], inhabitants of
+  the country, as subjects who paid tribute and military service. Even
+  in the time of Agis, the successor of Eurysthenes, this subjection
+  was effected by force; the inhabitants of Helos were made slaves, as
+  a punishment for their opposition; while the others, by the
+  sacrifice of their political freedom, preserved their personal
+  liberty, however confined it might be.
+
+9. The history of the two following centuries, to the time of Lycurgus,
+exhibits nothing but the repeated wars of the Spartans with their
+neighbours the Argives; their domestic broils, occasioned by the too
+unequal division of property, by the feuds, and the diminished power of
+the kings, and which lasted until Lycurgus, the uncle and guardian of
+the minor king, Charilaus, about the year 880, gave to Sparta that
+constitution to which she was principally indebted for her subsequent
+splendour.
+
+  _Illustration of the principal features in the Spartan constitution._
+  Some preliminary observations are necessary. (_a_) As the legislation
+  of Lycurgus occurred at so early a period, and as his laws were not
+  written, but conveyed in apophthegms, ([Greek: rhetrai],) which
+  were confirmed by the oracle of Delphi, many things of later origin
+  have been attributed to Lycurgus. (_b_) Much that is rightly
+  attributed to him was not original, but deduced from ancient Dorian
+  institutions, which being now upon the decline, were reestablished
+  by force of law. Hence it follows, that the legislation of Lycurgus
+  must naturally have had many points of resemblance with that of the
+  Cretans, likewise of Dorian origin, although much, as we are told,
+  was directly borrowed from them. (_c_) The principal object of the
+  laws of Lycurgus was to ensure the existence of Sparta by creating
+  and supporting a vigorous and uncorrupted race of men. Hence those
+  laws had a more peculiar reference to private life and physical
+  education, than to the constitution of the state, in which the
+  legislator appears to have introduced but few alterations.
+
+  In reference to the constitution: 1. The relation which had
+  hitherto existed between the Spartans as a dominant people, and the
+  Lacedaemonians as subjects, was preserved. 2. The two kings, from
+  the two ruling families, were likewise continued, as leaders in war
+  and first magistrates in peace. On the other hand, 3. to Lycurgus
+  is attributed the institution of a senate, ([Greek: gerousia],)
+  consisting of twenty-eight members, none of whom could be less than
+  sixty years old, who were to be chosen by the people for life, and
+  were to constitute the king's council in public affairs. 4. Whether
+  the college of the five Ephori annually chosen, was originally
+  instituted by Lycurgus, or at some later period, is a question
+  impossible to decide, but of little importance, since the great
+  power of this college, to which every thing was finally referred as
+  the highest tribunal of the state, was certainly assumed after the
+  time of Lycurgus. 5. Besides the above, there were likewise the
+  popular assemblies, convened according to the division into
+  [Greek: phylas] and [Greek: obas], at which none but Spartans could
+  assist: their privileges extended no further than to approve or
+  reject the measures proposed to them by the kings and the senate.
+
+  In the laws relating to private life, Lycurgus aimed at making the
+  Spartans a society of citizens, equal as far as possible with
+  respect to their property and mode of life, and each deeply
+  impressed with the conviction that he was the property of his
+  country, to which he was bound to yield an unconditional obedience.
+  Hence, 1. The new division of land, 9000 portions to the Spartans,
+  and 30,000 to the Lacedaemonians; permission being given to dispose
+  of those portions by entail or gift, but not by sale. 2. The
+  removal as far as possible of every species of luxury, particularly
+  by means of the daily public tables ([Greek: syssitia]) of all the
+  citizens, according to their divisions, in which the commons were
+  settled by law. 3. The complete organization of domestic society in
+  relation both to husband and wife, parents and children, which was
+  so framed as to further, even at the cost of morality, the grand
+  political object, the production of vigorous and healthy citizens.
+  4. Hence, finally, the condition of the slaves, comprehended under
+  the general name of helots, who, although they may be regarded
+  nearly as serfs, were likewise the property of the state, which had
+  the right of claiming their services in war.--Easy, however, as it
+  is to enumerate thus generally the principal heads of the Spartan
+  constitution, the want of sufficient documents renders it difficult
+  and oftentimes impossible to answer a crowd of questions, which
+  present themselves on our penetrating more deeply into the subject.
+  Still, however, its long duration, (nearly four hundred years,)
+  without any observable change, is more remarkable even than the
+  constitution itself. More remarkable, inasmuch as the Spartans soon
+  after this time appear as conquerors. Indeed, it could no longer be
+  expected that any durable peace should exist in Greece, while the
+  centre of the country was occupied by a military commonwealth,
+  whose citizens must have been, by the restlessness common to man,
+  impelled to war, since all the occupations of household life and of
+  agriculture were left to the care of slaves.
+
+  Besides the works mentioned above, p. 119.
+
+  HEYNE, _De Spartanorum republica Judicium_; inserted in _Commentat.
+  Soc. Gotting._ vol. ix. Intended to correct the partial opinions of
+  DE PAUW.
+
+10. Soon after the time of Lycurgus commenced the war of the Spartans
+with their neighbours, the Argives, the Arcadians, but more particularly
+the Messenians. The wars with these last appear to have originated in an
+old grudge on the part of the Dorian tribe, proceeding from the unequal
+division of lands at the occupation of Peloponnesus: it is nevertheless
+evident, that the quarrel between the two nations was mainly fostered by
+the ambition of the Spartan kings, who wrought upon a superstitious
+multitude by oracular responses and interpretations.
+
+  Unimportant wars with Tegea and Argos; and disputes with Messene,
+  783-745.
+
+  First Messenian war, 742-722, terminated by the capture of the
+  frontier fortress Ithome, after the voluntary death of the
+  Messenian king, Aristodemus.--The Messenians become tributary to
+  the Spartans, and are obliged to give up one half of the revenues
+  of their lands.--Occurrences during this war: 1. Institution,
+  according to some authorities, of the college of Ephori as
+  vicegerents of the kings in their absence, and arbitrators in the
+  quarrels which might arise between the kings and the senate. 2. The
+  power of the people so far limited as to restrain the popular
+  assemblies from making alterations in the resolutions proposed to
+  them by the senate or the kings, and confining them merely to a
+  vote of approval or rejection. 3. Insurrection of the Parthenii and
+  Helots becomes the motive for sending out colonies; a measure to
+  which Sparta had more than once resorted for the purpose of
+  maintaining domestic tranquillity.
+
+  Second Messenian war, 682-668, waged by the Messenians under the
+  command of their hero Aristomenes, by the Spartans under that of
+  Tyrtaeus, who fanned the flame of war until the contest was
+  terminated by the capture of the strong town Ira. The Messenian
+  territory is divided among the conquerors, and the conquered
+  inhabitants become, like the helots, agricultural slaves.
+
+11. Although the territory of the Spartans was greatly increased by
+these Messenian wars, the nation seems to have been a long time before
+it recovered from the struggle, and to have raised itself by slow steps
+to the first rank among the Dorian states, extending its boundaries at
+the expense of the Argives and Arcadians.
+
+  Wars with Tegea for the most part unsuccessful; and with Argos, for
+  the possession of Thyrea and the island of Cythera; by the accession
+  of which the Spartan territory received an important augmentation,
+  about 550.
+
+12. These wars within Peloponnesus were not of such a nature as to give
+rise to any remarkable changes in the Spartan constitution, and for a
+long time the nation refused to take any share in foreign affairs. But
+no sooner did king Cleomenes, who in the end procured the deposition of
+his colleague, Demaratus, interfere in the affairs of the Athenians,
+than the seeds of strife were sown between these two republics. The
+Persian war next ensued, in which Sparta was obliged to bear a part,
+although Cleomenes had refused to participate in the insurrection of
+Aristagoras: that struggle, together with the idea of supremacy in
+Greece which now took its rise, introduced a series of political
+relations before unknown.
+
+13. The history of Athens during this period is rendered important
+rather by domestic revolutions, which gradually tended to convert the
+state into a republic, than by external aggrandizement. The situation
+and peculiarities of Attica, which rendered it less exposed than other
+parts of Greece to the attacks and forays of wandering hordes, favoured
+the gradual and tranquil growth of national prosperity; the traces of
+which are incontestable, though it would be difficult for the most
+profound research to point out the whole course of its progress so
+perspicuously as the historian might wish.
+
+  The history of Athens, of course, constitutes a main part of the
+  works mentioned above, p. 119. Besides which:
+
+  W. YOUNG, _The history of Athens politically and philosophically
+  considered_. London, 1796. 4to. Argumentation rather than history.
+
+  CORSINI, _Fasti Attici_. Florent. 1747. 4 vols. 4to. A most careful
+  chronological essay.
+
+  1. Period of kingly government down to 1068. The history of Athens
+  as a state begins properly with Theseus, who succeeded his father
+  Aegeus, about B. C. 1300. Although certain institutions, such as
+  that of the areopagus, the division of the people into nobles,
+  ([Greek: eupatridai],) husbandmen, ([Greek: georgoi],) and
+  mechanics: ([Greek: demiourgoi;]) a division which recals to our
+  memory the Egyptian institution of castes, are perhaps of an
+  earlier date, and may be ascribed to the colony of Cecrops. Theseus
+  was, however, in some measure the founder of the state, since,
+  instead of the four districts, ([Greek: demoi],) hitherto
+  independent of one another, he constituted the city of Athens as
+  the only seat of government. Among his successors the attention of
+  the student is directed to Mnestheus, who fell before Troy; and the
+  last king, Codrus, who by a voluntary sacrifice of his life rescued
+  Attica from the inroads of the Dorians, 1068.
+
+  2. Period of archons for life, taken from the family of Codrus,
+  thirteen of whom ruled; 1068-752. The first was Medon, the last,
+  Alcmaeon. These archons succeeded, like the kings, by inheritance,
+  but were accountable for their administration, ([Greek:
+  hypeuthynoi].)--At the commencement of this period occur the
+  migrations of the Ionians from Attica to Asia Minor, 1044. See
+  below.
+
+  3. Period of the decennial archons, seven of whom succeeded between
+  752-682. These likewise were taken from the family of Codrus. This
+  period is devoid of any remarkable occurrences.
+
+  4. Period extending to Solon, 682-594. that of nine archons yearly
+  chosen, but so arranged that the prerogatives of the former kings,
+  and the preceding archons, were divided among the three first of
+  the nine. With respect to this, as well as to the other changes
+  above mentioned, we know little of the causes which produced them,
+  or of the manner in which they were brought about. Rise of an
+  oppressive aristocracy, (like that of the patricians at Rome,
+  immediately after the expulsion of the kings,) both the archons and
+  the members of the areopagus being elected only from noble
+  families. First attempt at legislation by Draco, 622, which appears
+  only to have consisted in a criminal code, rendered unavailing by
+  its severity.--The insurrection of Cylon, 598, in consequence of
+  the manner in which it was quelled, turned out most injurious to
+  the aristocratical party, inasmuch as the nobles drew upon
+  themselves the pollution of blood, which, even after the
+  purification of Epimenides, 593, was long used as a pretext for
+  commotion. The political factions of the Pediaei, of the Diacrii,
+  and of the Parhali, produced an anarchy at Athens, during which the
+  neighbouring Megarians took possession of the island of Salamis; a
+  conquest which, however, was subsequently wrested from them by
+  Solon.
+
+14. From this state of anarchy Athens was rescued by Solon; a man to
+whom not only Athens, but the whole human race, are deeply indebted. He
+was chosen archon, and at the same time commissioned to remodel the
+constitution of Athens: and the successful manner in which he executed
+this task, laid the foundation of the happiness of his native country.
+
+  _Review of the prominent features in Solon's legislation._ Its main
+  object was to abolish the oppressive aristocracy, without however
+  introducing a pure democracy. 1. Provisional laws: abolition of the
+  statutes of Draco, those against murder excepted: law enacted for
+  the relief of debtors, ([Greek: seisachtheia], novae tabulae,) not so
+  much by cancelling the debts as by diminishing their amount by a
+  rise in the value of money; and likewise by ensuring the personal
+  liberty of the debtor. 2. Fundamental laws, both in reference to
+  the constitution and in reference to private life and private
+  rights.--Constitution of the state. (_a_) Organization of the
+  people by means of divisions: according to property into four
+  classes; the Pentacosimedimni, or those who had a yearly income of
+  500 medimni; the Equites, ([Greek: hippeis],) who had 400; the
+  Zeugitae, who had 300; and the Thetes, (capite censi,) whose yearly
+  revenue did not amount to so much.--The ancient divisions according
+  to heads, into wards, ([Greek: phylai],) of which there were four,
+  and according to residence into demi, (hundreds,) of which a
+  hundred and seventy are enumerated, were preserved. (_b_) None but
+  citizens of the three first classes could fill all the offices of
+  state; but all were admitted to the popular assemblies, and had a
+  right of voting in the courts of judicature. (_c_) The nine archons
+  annually chosen, who acted as supreme magistrates, although not
+  permitted to assume military office at the same time, remained at
+  the head of the state; the first bearing the name of [Greek:
+  eponumos], the second of [Greek: basileus], the third of [Greek:
+  polemarchos], the remaining six that of [Greek: thesmothetai].
+  Combined with the archons was (_d_) The council, ([Greek: boule],)
+  which consisted of a body of four hundred persons annually taken
+  from the three first classes of citizens; (a hundred from each
+  ward;) these were chosen by lot, but were obliged to submit to a
+  rigid examination ([Greek: dokimasia]) before they entered upon
+  office. The archons were obliged to consult the four hundred on
+  every occurrence; and nothing could be carried down to the commons
+  until it had been previously debated in this council. (_e_) To the
+  people, consisting of the whole four classes, was reserved the
+  right in its assemblies ([Greek: ekklesiai]) of confirming the
+  laws, of electing the magistrates, of debating all public affairs
+  referred to them by the council, and likewise the public
+  distribution of justice. (_f_) The areopagus was, according to
+  Solon's plan, to be the main buttress of the constitution; that
+  tribunal had hitherto been a mere tool in the hands of the
+  aristocracy. It was composed of retired archons, and remained not
+  only the supreme tribunal in capital cases, but likewise was
+  charged with the superintendence of morals, with the censorship
+  upon the conduct of the archons who went out of office, and had the
+  prerogative of amending or rescinding the measures that had been
+  approved of by the commons. The power of this court, which might
+  easily have become equal to the college of Ephori at Sparta, might
+  at first have been supposed too extensive, had not experience shown
+  the fatal consequences of the reduction of that power by Pericles.
+  This alloy of aristocracy and democracy certainly gives proof of a
+  deep insight into the nature of republican constitutions; but Solon
+  is not less entitled to praise for his endeavours to place the helm
+  of government in the hands only of the most enlightened and prudent
+  citizens. It must likewise be observed, that the code for private
+  life given by Solon exhibits the genius of a man who regarded
+  polity as subordinate to morals, and not, like Lycurgus, morals as
+  subordinate to polity.
+
+  SAM. PETITUS, _De Legibus Atticis_, 1635. fol. The best compilation
+  and illustration of the fragments remaining of the Attic law.
+
+  CHR. BUNSEN, _De jure Atheniensium hereditario, ex Isaeo caeterisque
+  oratoribus Graecis ducto_, Goett. 1812. The law of inheritance was a
+  principal feature in Solon's legislation; the explanation of it
+  requires a profound acquaintance with the constitution, so far as
+  it was connected with government by clans or families.
+
+  An explanation of the Athenian constitution will be likewise found
+  in the above-mentioned works of Tittmann, Kruse, and Wachsmuth.
+
+15. The legislation of Solon, like all other state reforms, was not
+followed by the total extinction of party spirit. It was natural that
+the commons, now free, should wish to try their strength with the
+aristocratical party, and that, after the defeat of the latter,
+Pisistratus, who headed the commons, should grasp the rudder of the
+state without, therefore, necessarily abrogating the constitution of
+Solon. Modern history has proved with sufficient evidence, that the
+frame-work of a republic may easily subsist under the rule of an
+usurper. And would that no republics might fall into the hands of a
+worse tyrant than Pisistratus!
+
+  First exaltation of Pisistratus, 561, procured by his obtaining a
+  body guard; flight of the Alcmaeonidae under Megacles. Pisistratus
+  expelled, 560. Second exaltation of Pisistratus procured by his
+  matrimonial connection with the family of Megacles, 556-552.--His
+  second expulsion by Megacles, 552-538.--His third exaltation;
+  obtains the power by force of arms, and preserves it to the day of
+  his death, 538-528. Flight of the Alcmaeonidae into Macedonia, where
+  they attach the malcontents to their party. Pisistratus is
+  succeeded by his sons Hipparchus and Hippias, who rule conjointly
+  until 514, when the elder is murdered by Harmodius and Aristogiton.
+  The exiled Alcmaeonidae, having bribed the Delphian oracle, gain over
+  the Spartans to their interest: backed by a Spartan army, they
+  take possession of Athens in 510; Hippias is deposed, and flies
+  over to the Persians.
+
+16. This return of the Alcmaeonidae was followed by a change in the
+constitution of Solon. Clisthenes, the son of Megacles, with a view of
+quenching party spirit by a new combination of the citizens, increased
+the number of wards to ten, and that of the members of the council to
+five hundred.--But the Athenians had to purchase the continuance of
+their freedom by a struggle with Sparta, who, united with the Boeotians
+and Chalcidians, and aided by Aegina, sought to reestablish monarchy in
+Attica; first in the person of Isagoras, the rival of Clisthenes, and
+afterwards in that of the exiled Hippias. But the glorious success of
+the republic in this first struggle in the cause of liberty, gave an
+additional impulse to the national spirit. Impelled by that spirit,
+Athens suffered herself to be induced to share in the war of freedom
+carried on by the Asiatic Greeks under Aristagoras; and the audacity
+which led to the firing of Sardis, drew upon Attica the vengeance of the
+Persians, without which, doubtless, neither Athens or Greece would ever
+have risen to that degree of eminence which they ultimately attained.
+
+17. Of the history of the other states of Greece we have at best but few
+data, and even these in most instances are very scanty. Towards the end
+of this period Sparta and Athens had, undoubtedly, exalted themselves
+above the rest, and were recognized, one as the first among the Dorian,
+the latter as the first among the Ionian states; yet did Sparta more
+than once meet with rivals in Messene, Argos, and Tegea: while Athens
+had to contend with Megara and Aegina. Sparta and Athens had,
+nevertheless, not only the best constitutions, but possessed also a more
+extended territory than any other of the great cities.
+
+
+_Principal data for the history of the smaller states._
+
+I. _Within the Peloponnesus._
+
+  _a._ Arcadia. The Arcadian traditions enumerate a line of kings or
+  hereditary princes, said to have ruled over the whole of Arcadia;
+  the line commences with Arcas and his son Lycaon, whose successors
+  kept possession of the supreme power, and shared more or less in
+  the ancient feuds of the Hellenic princes. Upon the conquest of
+  Peloponnesus by the Dorians, Arcadia was the only land that did not
+  suffer by the irruption: an advantage for which it was probably
+  indebted more to its mountains, than to the skill of Cypselus its
+  king. The successors of that prince took a part in the wars between
+  the Messenians and Spartans, siding with the former: but in the
+  second Messenian war, the last Arcadian king, Aristocrates II.
+  having betrayed his allies, was in consequence stoned to death by
+  his subjects, and the regal dignity was abolished in 668. Arcadia
+  now became divided into as many small states as it contained cities
+  with their respective districts; among these Tegea and Mantinea
+  were the chief, and probably held the others in a certain state of
+  control, without, however, depriving them wholly of their
+  independence. As might have been expected in a pastoral nation, the
+  constitution was democratical. In Mantinea there were wardens of
+  the people, ([Greek: demiourgoi],) and a senate, ([Greek: boule].)
+  The wars of separate cities are frequently mentioned, but no
+  general confederation united them.
+
+  # See A. VON BREITENBAUCH, _History of Arcadia_, 1791.
+
+  _b._ Argos. Even previously to the Dorian migration, the country of
+  Argolis was parcelled out into several small kingdoms, such as
+  those of Argos, Mycenae, and Tiryns. In Argos, the oldest Grecian
+  state next to Sicyon, ruled the forefathers of Perseus, who
+  exchanged the kingdom of his ancestors for Tiryns: here his
+  successors continued to reign till the time of Hercules, whose
+  sons, expelled by Eurystheus, sought an asylum among the
+  Dorians.--In Mycenae, said to have been built by Perseus, the throne
+  was occupied by the family of Pelops: and at the period of the
+  Trojan war, this little state, to which Corinth and Sicyon then
+  belonged, was the most powerful in Greece, and governed by
+  Agamemnon. The migration into this country by Pelops from Asia
+  Minor, must have been attended with important consequences, since
+  it has given a name to the whole peninsula: the object of Pelops,
+  as we may infer from the riches he brought with him, was probably
+  to establish a trading settlement.--At the Dorian conquest Argos
+  fell to the share of Temenus, the Achaeans were expelled, and the
+  country was peopled by Dorians. As early as the reign of Cisus, son
+  of Temenus, the royal power was so limited, that the successors of
+  that prince hardly preserved any thing but the mere name: about 984
+  the regal dignity was wholly abrogated, and its place supplied by a
+  republican constitution, concerning the domestic organization of
+  which we know nothing more than that at Argos the government was in
+  the hands of a senate, ([Greek: boule],) of a college of eighty
+  citizens, ([Greek: hoi ogdoekonta],) and of magistrates, who bore
+  the name of [Greek: artynoi]: in Epidaurus, however, there was a
+  body of one hundred and eighty citizens who chose from among
+  themselves the senate, the members of which were called [Greek:
+  artynoi]. As in the other states of Greece so in Argolis, there
+  were as many independent states as there were cities; in the north
+  Argos, Mycenae, and Tiryns; in the south Epidaurus and Troezen. The
+  two last preserved their independence; but Mycenae was destroyed by
+  the Argives in 425, and the inhabitants of Tiryns were forcibly
+  transplanted to Argos. The district of Argos, therefore, comprised
+  the northern portion of the country called Argolis; but not the
+  southern portion, which belonged to the towns situated therein.
+
+  _c._ Corinth. In this place, previous to the time of the Dorian
+  migration, the house of Sisyphus held the royal power; and even at
+  that early period Corinth is extolled by Homer for its wealth. The
+  Dorians drove out the original inhabitants; and Aletes, belonging
+  to the race of Hercules, became king about 1089; the posterity of
+  that prince held the sceptre down to the fifth generation. After
+  the death of the last king, Telessus, 777, the family of the
+  Bacchiadae, likewise a branch of the family of Hercules, took
+  possession of the government and introduced an oligarchy, electing
+  annually from among themselves a Prytane. At last, in 657, Cypselus
+  got the upper hand; he was succeeded, 627, by his son Periander;
+  both father and son were equally conspicuous for their avarice and
+  cruelty. Periander (_d._ 587) was succeeded by his nephew
+  Psammetichus, who reigned till 584, when the Corinthians asserted
+  their freedom. With regard to the internal organization of the
+  republic, little more is known than that there were at Corinth
+  assemblies of the commons and a senate, ([Greek: gerousia]): the
+  government appears to have been the aristocracy of a trading state;
+  for even the Bacchiadae, at least some of them, were merchants.--The
+  Corinthian commerce consisted chiefly in the exchange of Asiatic
+  and Italian goods, and therefore was mostly carried on by sea: for
+  such a trade the city of Corinth offered many advantages,
+  particularly if we consider the state of navigation in those times;
+  but the sea trade of Corinth, however profitable to the citizens,
+  and even to the state, in consequence of the customs, cannot be
+  considered as very extensive.--The colonies of Corinth in the west
+  were principally Corcyra, Epidamnus, Leucas, Syracuse; in the east
+  Potidaea: these colonies would fain have asserted a sort of
+  independence, but never succeeded for any length of time in so
+  doing.
+
+  From the possession of these colonies, and from the necessity of
+  protecting the trader from pirates, Corinth grew to be a naval
+  power; she invented triremes, and at the early date of 664 gave
+  battle to the Corcyraeans at sea. On the other hand, her wars by
+  land were generally waged with the assistance of foreign
+  subsidiaries; and from the facility with which she was enabled to
+  pay her mercenary troops, she was the more ready to interfere in
+  the domestic wars of Greece.
+
+  _d._ Sicyon. Tradition represents this state, together with Argos,
+  as the most ancient in Greece; the catalogues of early kings and
+  princes, who are said to have reigned at this place, make it
+  probable that in early antiquity some settlements of priests were
+  made in this quarter. In the times previous to the migration of the
+  Dorians, Sicyon was first inhabited by the Ionians; at the Trojan
+  war, however, it made part of Agamemnon's kingdom. At the Dorian
+  irruption, Phalces, son of Temenus, took possession of Sicyon,
+  which then became a Dorian city. After the abrogation of the
+  kingship, the date of which is not precisely known, the
+  constitution assumed the form of an uncurbed democracy, which, as
+  usual, paved the way for the usurpation of one individual.
+  Orthagoras and his posterity, the last and most celebrated of whom
+  was Clisthenes, ruled over Sicyon during a whole century; 700-600.
+  After the restoration of her freedom, Sicyon frequently suffered
+  from revolutions; and the period of her highest splendour was
+  during the latter days of Greece, when she became a member of the
+  Achaean league.
+
+  _e._ Achaia. During the spread of the Hellenes, this country, which
+  till then had borne the name of Aegialus, was taken possession of by
+  Ion, who had been expelled from Athens, and his tribe, who from
+  their leader took the name of Ionians: the country remained in the
+  hands of the Ionians until the Dorian migration, when the Achaeans,
+  driven out of Argos and Laconia, pressed into the northern parts of
+  Peloponnesus under Tisamenus, son of Orestes: they settled in the
+  land of the Ionians, and the power of the chieftain descended to
+  his posterity, until the tyranny of the last sovereign of that
+  race, Gyges, (of date undetermined,) produced the abolition of
+  monarchy. Achaia thereupon was parcelled into twelve small
+  republics, or so many cities with their respective districts, each
+  of which comprised seven or eight cantons. All these republics had
+  democratic constitutions, and were mutually united by a league,
+  founded on the most perfect equality, and which nothing but the
+  policy of the Macedonian kings could dissolve; and even this
+  dissolution gave rise to the _Achaean_ league, of such high
+  importance in subsequent times. The Achaeans lived in peace and
+  happiness, inasmuch as they had not the vanity, before the
+  Peloponnesian war, to interfere in the affairs of foreign states:
+  their constitutions were so renowned, that they were adopted by
+  several other Grecian cities.
+
+  _f._ Elis. The inhabitants in earlier times bore the name of
+  Epeans, which, like that of Eleans, was traced to one of their
+  ancient kings. The names of their most ancient hereditary princes,
+  Endymion, Epeus, Eleus, Augias, are celebrated by the poets. It
+  appears that this country was divided into several small kingdoms,
+  since, at the period of the Trojan war it contained four, to which
+  however must be added Pylus in Triphylia, a territory usually
+  reckoned as belonging to Elis. At the epoch of the Dorian migration
+  the Aetolians, who had accompanied the Dorians, headed by their
+  chieftain Oxylus, settled in Elis; but permitted the ancient
+  inhabitants to remain in the country. Among the successors of
+  Oxylus was Iphitus the contemporary of Lycurgus, and celebrated as
+  the restorer of the Olympian games, to the celebration of which
+  Elis was indebted for the tranquil splendour that distinguished her
+  from this time: her territory being regarded as sacred, although
+  she had occasional disputes with her neighbours, the Arcadians, for
+  precedence at the games. After the abolition of the royal power
+  supreme magistrates were chosen, to whose office was added the
+  charge of superintending the games: (Hellanodicae). These
+  magistrates were at first two; they were afterwards increased to
+  ten, one from each tribe, although their number frequently changed
+  with that of the tribes themselves. There must likewise have been a
+  senate, consisting of ninety persons, who held their places for
+  life, since Aristotle makes mention of that branch of the Elean
+  constitution. The city of Elis was first built in 477, before which
+  time the Eleans resided in several small hamlets.
+
+II. _Central Greece, or Hellas._
+
+  _a._ Megaris. Until the epoch of the Dorian migration, this state
+  generally formed part of the domain of the Attic kings; or at
+  least was governed by princes of that house. Immediately previous
+  to that event, the Megarians, after the assassination of their
+  last sovereign, Hyperion, placed the government in the hands of
+  magistrates elected for stated periods. At the time of the Dorian
+  irruption, under the reign of Codrus, Megara was occupied by
+  Dorians, more especially those of Corinth, who consequently
+  reckoned the city among their colonies, and during the sway of the
+  Bacchiadae endeavoured to keep it in a state of dependency; a
+  circumstance which gave rise to several wars. Nevertheless Megara
+  supported her rank as a separate state, both in those and many
+  subsequent wars among the Greeks, in which she took a share both
+  by sea and land. About the year 600, Theagenes, step-father of the
+  Athenian Cylon, had possessed himself of the supreme power: after
+  the expulsion of that tyrant, the republican constitution was once
+  more restored, but soon after merged into the lowest species of
+  democracy. Megara, however, even at the period of the Persian war,
+  in which it took a glorious share, appears to have recovered the
+  character of a well-ordered state, although we have no information
+  respecting its internal organization.
+
+  _b._ Boeotia. History mentions several very early races in
+  Boeotia, such as the Aones, Hyantes, etc.; with these were mingled
+  Phoenician emigrants, who had come into the country under the
+  guidance of Cadmus. The stock of Cadmus became the ruling family,
+  and remained so for a long time: the history of his descendants,
+  who were kings of Thebes, and comprised under their dominion the
+  greatest part of Boeotia, constitutes a main branch of Grecian
+  mythology: among them were Oedipus, Laius, Eteocles, and
+  Polynices. After the capture of Thebes by the Epigoni, 1215, the
+  Boeotians were expelled by Thracian hordes, and settled at Arne in
+  Thessaly; at the time of the Dorian migration they returned to the
+  land of their forefathers, and mingled with the Aeolians of those
+  quarters. Not long after, upon the death of Xuthus, royalty was
+  abolished, 1126. Boeotia was now divided into as many small states
+  as it contained cities; of these, next to Thebes, the most eminent
+  were the towns of Plataeae, Thespiae, Tanagra, and Chaeronea, each
+  of which had its own separate district and peculiar form of
+  government; but all those constitutions appear to have been
+  commuted into oligarchies about the time of the Persian war. Such
+  had been the case even with Thebes, although she had received as a
+  legislator, Philolaus from Corinth; but the code given by this
+  individual cannot have been attended with the desired effect, as
+  the government was continually fluctuating between a licentious
+  democracy and an overbearing oligarchy. The Boeotian cities were,
+  however, mutually united by a league, at the head of which stood
+  Thebes, who gradually converted her right of precedence into a
+  right of power, although her ambitious attempts were resisted to
+  the last extremity by the separate cities, and by Plataeae in
+  particular: hence sprung many wars. The general affairs were
+  decided upon in four assemblies, ([Greek: boulai],) held in the
+  four districts into which Boeotia was divided; these assemblies in
+  conjunction elected eleven Boeotarchs, who stood at the head of
+  the federation as supreme magistrates and field marshals. The
+  great extent and population of their territory might have enabled
+  the Boeotians to act the first part on the theatre of Greece, had
+  they not been impeded by their pernicious form of government, by
+  the envy felt against Thebes, and by the want of union which
+  naturally ensued. Yet in subsequent times the example of
+  Epaminondas and Pelopidas gave proof that the genius of two men
+  was sufficient to surmount all these obstacles.
+
+  _c._ Phocis was originally ruled by kings descended, it is said,
+  from Phocus, the leader of a colony from Corinth. The sovereign
+  power was abolished about the time of the Dorian migration; but
+  the form of the republican constitution which succeeded remains
+  undetermined; and of the undertakings of the Phocians previous to
+  the Persian invasion, we know nothing more than that they waged
+  war with the Thessalians, and were successful. As history never
+  mentions the Phocians but in the aggregate, the whole territory
+  must have formed but one independent state. To that state,
+  however, the city of Delphi, which had its own constitution, did
+  not belong: the city of Crissa with its fertile district, and the
+  harbour of Cirrha, constituted a separate state, which became
+  opulent by practising extortions upon the pilgrims to Delphi: this
+  state lasted till 600, when, in consequence of the insults of the
+  Crissaeans to the Delphian oracle, a war was proclaimed against
+  them by the Amphictyons, which ended in 590 with the rasing of
+  Crissa; the land of which was thenceforward added to the sacred
+  glebe of Delphi.
+
+  _d._ Locris. Although we learn from early history that the
+  Locrians also had their kings,--among whom Ajax, the son of
+  Oileus, is renowned in the Trojan war,--and that they likewise in
+  subsequent times adopted a republican form of government; yet the
+  date of that revolution, and the manner in which it was brought
+  about, are not known. The three tribes of Locrians remained
+  politically distinct. The Locri Ozolae, west of Phocis, possessed
+  the most extensive territory; each city of which stood
+  independent, though Amphissa is mentioned as the capital. The
+  country of the Locri Opuntii, eastward, consisted of the district
+  appertaining to the city of Opus; of their domestic organization,
+  as well as that of their neighbours, the Locri Epicnemidii, we
+  know nothing.
+
+  _e._ Aetolia. The Aetolians remained the most rude and uncivilized
+  of all the Hellenic races; they were little more than a band of
+  freebooters, and carried on their predatory excursions both by sea
+  and land. Renowned as are the names of their earliest heroes,
+  Aetolus, Peneus, Meleager, Diomede, the nation has no place in the
+  history of the flourishing times of Greece. Nor did they acquire
+  any celebrity until the Macedo-Roman period, when the various
+  insignificant tribes of which they were composed gathered
+  themselves together and chose one common leader, for the purpose
+  of carrying on a war with the Achaeans. The earlier period of
+  their history seems, however, to afford no previous example of
+  such an union; their political constitution in those times is
+  wholly unknown.
+
+  _f._ Acarnania. This country derived its name from Acarnan, son of
+  Alcmaeon, both of whom are adduced as its earliest kings. In the
+  Trojan age it appears beyond a doubt, that some part at least of
+  this country was subject to the governors of the island of Ithaca.
+  When and how a republican government was introduced among the
+  Acarnanians, and what were the peculiarities of that government we
+  know not. All that can be distinguished through the veil of time
+  is, that here likewise the different cities, the most important of
+  which was Stratus, had each its own form of government. Those
+  cities upon particular emergencies were wont to combine; and out
+  of that practice in later times, during the Macedonian period,
+  grew up a permanent confederation. The city and district of Argos
+  Amphilochicum constituted a separate state, which endured a long
+  time, and flourished greatly; it derived its name from
+  Amphilochus, the founder. The inhabitants, however, being driven
+  out by the Ambracians, whom they had themselves called in, sought
+  assistance at the hands of the Acarnanians, who with the help of
+  Athens, replaced the exiles in possession of their city, which
+  thenceforward was inhabited in common by Amphilochians and
+  Acarnanians, and was almost constantly engaged in war with
+  Ambracia.
+
+III. _Northern Greece._
+
+  _a._ The importance of Thessaly in the earliest history of Greece,
+  may be gathered from the principal data enumerated above for the
+  history of the Pelasgi and the Hellenes. From this country it was
+  that the Hellenes proceeded and spread over Greece; and here
+  likewise they maintained their original seat. In the Trojan age
+  Thessaly contained ten small kingdoms, governed by hereditary
+  princes, several of whom, such as Achilles and Philoctetes, were
+  among the most renowned heroes of the time. In the period
+  subsequent to the Trojan war and the Dorian migration, Thessaly
+  must have experienced political revolutions similar to those of
+  the other Grecian countries; but neither the time nor the manner
+  in which those revolutions occurred can be ascertained. All that
+  can be deduced from the subsequent history is, that if the
+  Thessalian cities ever did recover their political freedom, they
+  were unable to maintain it; for in the two most eminent cities,
+  Pherae and Larissa, with whose history that of the whole country is
+  closely connected, the supreme power had fallen into the hands of
+  arbitrary individuals, who appear to have kept possession of it
+  almost without interruption. Even before the breaking out of the
+  Persian war, Larissa was under the rule of the Aleuadae; a family
+  who claimed descent from Hercules, and are specially denominated
+  by Herodotus kings of the Thessalians. They preserved their power
+  until the Macedonian period.--In Pherae there arose about the year
+  380, a tyrant, by the name of Jason, who extended his dominion not
+  only over Thessaly, but likewise over several of the neighbouring
+  barbarous tribes. The sceptre of Jason passed rapidly and
+  successively into the hands of his three brothers, Polydorus,
+  Polyphron, and Alexander. The last was first driven out of Larissa
+  by the Aleuadae, assisted by the Macedonians; was afterwards
+  worsted in war by Pelopidas; and finally, at the instigation of
+  his wife Thebe, was murdered, 356, by her brothers, Lycophron and
+  Tisiphonus. The two murderers then assumed the supreme power, but
+  were, in compliance with the request of the Aleuadae, deposed by
+  Philip of Macedon.--Some other such tyrants are met with at
+  intervals in the rest of the Thessalian cities, such as
+  _Pharsalus_, etc.
+
+  _b._ Epirus. This country was occupied by several tribes, partly
+  Greek and partly barbarian. The most powerful of these was that of
+  the Molossi, who were governed by kings of the house of the
+  Aeacidae, descendants of Pyrrhus, the son of Achilles. This Greek
+  family was the only one that held the kingly power for a
+  permanency; it must be observed, however, that previous to the
+  Macedonian period, those sovereigns were by no means lords of the
+  whole of Epirus; for the other non-Hellenic races, such as the
+  Thesprotii, Orestii, etc. had their own separate kings. Moreover
+  the Corinthian colony of Ambracia constituted a distinct state,
+  generally governed as a republic, although sometimes subject to
+  the rule of tyrants. But, in consequence of an alliance framed
+  with the Macedonian kings, the whole of Epirus, and even Ambracia
+  itself, was placed under the sceptre of the Molossian kings; and
+  some of those princes, Pyrrhus II. more especially, rose to be
+  mighty conquerors. See below.
+
+IV. _Grecian Islands._
+
+  Both the islands off the coast of Greece, and those of the
+  Archipelago, all underwent the same political revolutions as
+  occurred in the states on the main land. But those events did not
+  take place till after the more ancient non-Hellenic inhabitants,
+  such as the Phoenicians, Carians, etc. had been driven out, and
+  the land had been taken possession of by the Hellenes. In the more
+  extensive islands, which contained several cities, there generally
+  arose as many small republics as there were towns, and those
+  little states were wont to enter into mutual alliances. The
+  smaller islands, containing but one city, formed each one small
+  independent state, the territory of which comprised the whole
+  island. The respective independence of these islands ceased to
+  exist at the period of the Trojan war; for after the Athenians had
+  by their success placed themselves at the head of confederate
+  Greece, and possessed themselves of the sovereignty of the sea,
+  these smaller states, although called confederates, were treated
+  little better than subjects, except that their political
+  constitutions were not changed.--Among the islands of the Grecian
+  coast, the most remarkable in history are the following:
+
+  _a._ Corcyra, a colony of Corinth, important for its naval power
+  and trade, in which it rivalled the mother state itself: a rivalry
+  which occasioned many feuds and wars, and was even one of the
+  principal motives that led to the Peloponnesian war. About the
+  time this struggle began Corcyra had attained the height of her
+  power, being able, without foreign aid, to man a fleet of 120
+  galleys. The constitution appears, as at Corinth, to have been
+  aristocratic, or oligarchical: but after the Persian war a
+  democratic faction arose, which produced the most violent internal
+  commotions, and ended in the total ruin of Corcyra.
+
+  _b._ Aegina. This small island was, after the Dorian migration,
+  occupied by colonists from Epidaurus; it however soon shook off
+  the yoke of the mother city, and rapidly grew by commerce and
+  navigation, to be one of the first Grecian states. Aegina was for a
+  long time the rival of Athens; over whom her naval power enabled
+  her to maintain a superiority until the time of the Persian war.
+  Humbled, however, by Themistocles, 485, she could no longer
+  support herself against the preponderating influence of Athens;
+  and although subsequently she made another stand for independence,
+  458, the consequences were but an increase of oppression. Neither
+  must it be forgotten, that Aegina suffered much, even before the
+  Persian war, from internal broils, caused by the bitterness of
+  party spirit engendered between the aristocratic and democratic
+  factions.
+
+  C. O. MUELLER, _Aegineticorum liber_, 1817. This treatise contains
+  not only the political history, but likewise that of trade and
+  arts.
+
+  _c._ Euboea. The different cities of this island, Chalcis and
+  Eretria in particular, had each its separate domestic
+  constitution: in the two towns above mentioned the constitution
+  was aristocratic, since the government was in the hands of the
+  opulent, (Hippobatae;) nevertheless we hear of tyrants in Chalcis.
+  After the Persian war Euboea became dependent upon Athens, which
+  drew from that island a portion of her supplies and provisions.
+  The oppression of the Athenians stirred up the minds of the
+  Euboeans to rebellion, and the islanders were in the sequel ever
+  ready to throw up their allegiance when a suitable opportunity
+  presented itself; such an opportunity was seized in 446, when the
+  island was recovered by Pericles; and the attempt was renewed in
+  the Peloponnesian war.
+
+  _d._ The Cyclades were first colonized by Crete, during the reign
+  of Minos. The Carian race had in earlier times spread over these
+  islands, but were gradually driven out by Hellenic invaders,
+  belonging principally to the Ionian and Dorian families. The most
+  important was Delos, chief seat of the Ionians. Sheltered under
+  the protection of Apollo, this place became the centre of an
+  extensive trade, and during the Persian war, 479, was selected for
+  the treasury of Greece. Next was Paros, famed for its marble, and
+  for the stand it made against Miltiades, 489, although it
+  afterwards shared the fate of the other islands, and passed under
+  the dominion of the Athenians. We know little of the constitution
+  of the other smaller islands; each of them contained one city of
+  the same name as the island which constituted its territory.
+
+  _e._ Crete. The inhabitants of Crete were not pure Hellenes, but
+  of alloyed origin, such as Curetes, Pelasgi, etc. mingled with
+  whom were Hellenes, of the Dorian and Aeolian stock. In the earlier
+  periods, Crete had her kings, the most celebrated of whom were
+  Minos, about 1300, probably first sovereign of the whole island;
+  his brother Rhadamanthus, Idomeneus, Meriones, who followed
+  Idomeneus to the Trojan war, and succeeded him upon the throne:
+  the last king Etearchus, about 800, after whose death a republican
+  form of government was introduced. Under these kings Crete was
+  powerful on sea: to Minos is ascribed the honour of having by his
+  fleets purged the Aegaean of pirates, occupied the islands, and
+  ensured security to the mariner. To him likewise is attributed the
+  Cretan legislation, the model, it is said, of that given to Sparta
+  by Lycurgus. But the uncertainty as to what does and what does not
+  belong to Minos, is in this case even greater than in that of
+  Lycurgus; many of the laws referred to Minos are probably nothing
+  more than ancient Dorian institutions. The insular situation which
+  in some measure ensured Crete from foreign inroads, and the
+  proximity of Egypt and Phoenicia must indubitably have contributed
+  to expand the germ of political civilization. The abolition of the
+  kingly office seems to have been the effect of internal
+  commotions, to which Crete continued to be frequently exposed,
+  even under a republican form of government. Those commotions
+  originated in the jealousy between the two largest cities, Gortina
+  and Cnossus, which, when united, ruled the rest; but when at war,
+  shook the whole island, until the city of Cydonia, passing over to
+  one of the sides, gave a turn to the balance. The laws instituted
+  by Minos respecting private life were enforced in all the cities
+  of the island; but declined at an earlier period than in the
+  country. Each city had its own constitution; each possessed it
+  senate, ([Greek: gerousia],) at the head of which were ten
+  censors, ([Greek: kosmoi],) chosen from certain families: these
+  cosmi were not only prime magistrates, but likewise invested with
+  the command in war, not often, it is true, waged by the Cretans
+  against other nations, but, for that reason, more frequently with
+  one another; a circumstance which must have necessarily
+  contributed to corrupt, not only their constitution, but likewise
+  their national character.
+
+  MEURSII _Creta, Rhodus, Cyprus_, 1675, 4to. Very laborious
+  compilations. New light, however, has been thrown upon the subject
+  by the inscriptions published in
+
+  CHISHULL'S _Antiq. Asiaticae_; 1728, folio. A work which has been
+  made use of by
+
+  ST. CROIX, _Des anciens gouvernemens_, etc. (See above, p. 131.)
+  The principal work upon Crete.
+
+  # C. HOECK, Crete. An attempt to explain the mythology, history,
+  etc. of this island, 1823.
+
+  _f._ Cyprus. This island, like Crete, was inhabited by a race of
+  mixed origin, who, even in the time of Herodotus, traced their
+  descent from Phoenicians, Africans, (Ethiopians,) from Greeks out
+  of Arcadia, Attica, and the island of Salamis; of which last the
+  city of Salamis, founded by Teucer about 1160, was a colony. There
+  can be no doubt, that in earlier times the Phoenicians were for a
+  long period the dominant race in the island; since in the
+  flourishing days of Tyre the Cyprians rebelled against their
+  oppressors, at the same time that Psalmanezer led an expedition
+  against the former city, about 720: moreover, even in the present
+  day, Phoenician monuments are still found in the island. From that
+  time to the Persian period, there appears to have been a close
+  connection between this island and the Phoenicians, although the
+  Cyprians preserved their independence. Several smaller kingdoms
+  afterwards arose in various cities of the island; the number of
+  which in subsequent times amounted to nine, and under Amasis,
+  about 550, were tributary to the Egyptians; and under Cambyses,
+  525, to the Persians: notwithstanding this species of subjection,
+  the various states preserved their own kings. During the Persian
+  dominion, the Cyprians more than once joined in the insurrections
+  against the Persians; more particularly the kings of Salamis, now
+  become the most powerful. So early as the year 500, Onesilus
+  joined the Ionian rebels, but was defeated. In the wars which
+  afterwards ensued between the Persians and Greeks, Cyprus was
+  frequently attacked by the combined Grecian fleets; as in 470 by
+  Pausanias, and during the reign of Evagoras I. 449, by Cimon, who
+  died at the siege of Citium; yet the Persians were not driven out,
+  but appear to have kept their footing even after the peace of 449.
+  Among the subsequent kings of Salamis was Evagoras II. (400-390,)
+  who was master of the greatest portion of the island; but as in
+  the peace of Antalcidas Cyprus was ceded to the Persians, he was
+  obliged to wage a hot war against them, in which he lost every
+  thing but Salamis. Finally, the Cyprians, in 356, took a part in
+  the insurrection of the Phoenicians and Egyptians: thereupon the
+  Persians sent an army against them, under the command of a younger
+  Evagoras, (who had been banished by his uncle Protagoras,) and
+  under that of the Athenian Phocion Salamis was besieged, but
+  matters were made up by a negotiation. The nine small kingdoms of
+  the island continued to exist till the time of Alexander, whom
+  they voluntarily joined during the siege of Tyre, 332, and
+  thenceforward Cyprus constituted a part of the Macedonian
+  monarchy.
+
+
+2. _History of the Grecian Colonies._
+
+  To assist the student in obtaining a general view of the events
+  connected with the Greek colonies, the history of them will be
+  here carried on through the subsequent period.
+
+  RAOUL ROCHETTE, _Histoire critique de l'etablissement des Colonies
+  Grecques_, Paris, 1815, 4 vols. The most comprehensive treatise on
+  the subject: it comprises the earlier Pelasgian and the later
+  Macedonian colonies, as well as those of the Hellenes. There is
+  much erudition displayed in this work, but sufficient attention is
+  not paid to the value of the authorities made use of.
+
+  # D. H. HEGEWISCH, _Geographic and Historic Documents relative to
+  the Colonies of the Greeks_, Altona, 1808, 8vo. A brief review of
+  the subject.
+
+  ST. CROIX, _De l'etat et du sort des Colonies des anciens
+  peuples_, Paris, 1786. A series of valuable and important
+  enquiries.
+
+1. No nation of antiquity ever founded so many colonies as the Greeks:
+these colonies became so important in various respects, that an
+acquaintance with them is indispensably requisite towards understanding
+the more early history of the world. Not only is the history of the
+civilization of the mother country and that of early trade intimately
+connected with these settlements, but some of them grew to such power as
+to have the greatest influence on political history.
+
+2. The Grecian colonies, to which the following observations apply, are
+those founded by the Hellenes in the time which elapsed between the
+Dorian migration and the Macedonian period. It appears certain that
+before the date of that migration some Pelasgian, and perhaps even some
+Hellenic settlers passed over into Italy. The history of these colonies
+however is not only involved in obscurity, but it is besides known that
+they ceased after a time to be Greek. The later settlements of the
+Macedonians were of a quite different nature from those of the Hellenes,
+to which we now allude.
+
+3. The Hellenic race spread alike to the east and to the west of Greece,
+their settlements, however, were confined to the shores of the
+Mediterranean and Black sea. The countries in which their principal
+colonies were established, were Asia Minor and Thrace in the east; the
+coasts of Lower Italy and Sicily in the west. Nevertheless particular
+settlements were to be found scattered here and there on the shores of
+most other countries.
+
+4. The Grecian colonies had their origin either in political motives,
+being generally made in accordance with the express command or advice of
+an oracle, (for the propagation of the religion of the parent state was
+always connected therewith,) or, in commercial speculations; the former
+was the case, almost without exception, with the settlements made by the
+mother country herself; the latter, with those which had branched out of
+such colonies as had already exalted themselves by their commerce. In
+fact, almost all the Grecian colonies applied more or less to trade,
+even when that was not the sole object of their foundation.
+
+5. The connection existing between the colonies and the mother cities
+was generally determined by the same causes that led to their
+foundation. In those cases where a city had been founded by malcontent
+or banished emigrants, all dependence on the mother country was
+naturally out of the question; and even in the colonies established for
+the purposes of trade, that dependence was but feeble and brief; the
+mother cities failing in power, if not in will, to enforce it. The very
+independence of so many colonies, made (almost without exception) in
+countries preeminently favoured by nature in productions and climate,
+and so situated as to oblige the inhabitants to navigation and commerce,
+must have given a great impulse to the civilization of the Hellenic
+race, and may be regarded as the main cause of its rapid progress and
+wide extension; wider indeed than that of any other nation of the
+ancient world. What a variety of political ideas must have been formed
+among a people whose settlements, more than a hundred in number, had
+each its own peculiar form of government.
+
+6. Of the Greek colonies, the most ancient, and in many respects the
+most important, were those along the western coast of Asia Minor,
+extending from the Hellespont to the boundary of Cilicia. Here, ever
+since the Trojan war, which first made these countries generally known,
+Hellenes of the three great families, Aeolians, Ionians, and Dorians had
+planted settlements. These were the most important for trade; and here
+likewise in the native country of Homer, the father of Grecian
+civilization, of Alcaeus, and of Sappho, poesy, both epic and lyric,
+expanded her first and fairest blossoms; and hence too, the mother
+country herself received the first impulse of moral and cultivated
+taste.
+
+  1. The Aeolian colonies. Their original foundation dates about 1124:
+  they appear to have been a consequence of the Dorian migration,
+  having been established during that great movement in Greece. The
+  Pelopidae, who had been driven out of Peloponnesus, Orestes, his son
+  Penthilus, his grandson Archelaus, and his great grandson Grais,
+  successively headed the emigrants, who proceeded slowly by land,
+  divided, it appears, into several companies, with which some
+  Boeotians and others gradually coalesced. In Asia they occupied the
+  coasts of Mysia and Caria; a strip of land which from thence
+  derived the appellation of Aeolis. They moreover possessed the
+  islands of Lesbos, Tenedos, and the Hecatonnesi. On the main land,
+  in the quarter named from them Aeolis, they erected twelve cities,
+  the most eminent of which were Cyme and Smyrna; the latter,
+  however, afterwards fell into the hands of the Ionians. But their
+  chief settlements were on the island of Lesbos; here they inhabited
+  five cities, at the head of which, and likewise of all their other
+  colonies, stood Mitylene. They had likewise spread inland as far as
+  mount Ida. All these towns were independent of one another, and
+  possessed their own peculiar forms of government: our information,
+  however, respecting these constitutions extends no further than to
+  enable us to ascertain that they were subject to many disorders,
+  which it was often attempted to quell by nominating rulers of
+  unlimited power, under the title of Aesymnetae. These were elected
+  sometimes for a stipulated period, at others for life; the most
+  celebrated of the number was Pittacus of Mitylene, who flourished
+  about 600, and was the contemporary of Sappho and Alcaeus. The
+  Aeolians maintained their independence till the time of Cyrus, with
+  the exception of Smyrna, which as early as 600, was captured and
+  destroyed by the Lydians, and not rebuilt till four hundred years
+  afterwards, when it was restored by Antigonus, and entered upon its
+  flourishing period. The cities of the main land were compelled to
+  acknowledge the supremacy of the Persian conqueror; but not the
+  islands. The Aeolian cities were not leagued together by any
+  permanent bond; it was only in peculiar cases that they debated in
+  common. Mitylene, which they all regarded as their capital, was
+  the only one of their colonies that became rich by trade, and
+  formidable by its naval power. Yet in 470 it was tributary to
+  Athens; having seceded in 428, at the time of the Peloponnesian
+  war, it was recaptured and almost levelled to the earth by the
+  Athenians.
+
+  2. The Ionian colonies. These were, no doubt, founded at a later
+  period than those of the Aeolians; like them, however, they were a
+  consequence of the Dorian migration. The Ionians, driven out of
+  Peloponnesus by the Achaeans, had withdrawn to Athens, from whence,
+  sixty years afterwards, that is to say about 1044, they proceeded
+  by sea to Asia, headed by Neleus and others of the sons of Codrus.
+  They were joined, however, by some Thebans, Phocians, Euboean
+  Abantes, and various other Greeks. In Asia they settled on the
+  southern coast of Lydia and the northern shore of Caria; which,
+  together with the islands of Samos and Chios, took from them the
+  name of Ionia. Here they built twelve cities on the main land;
+  namely, reckoning from north to south, Phocaea, Erythrae, Clazomene,
+  Teos, Lebedus, Colophon, Ephesus, Priene, Myus, Miletus, and in the
+  islands, Samos and Chios. They possessed in common one sanctuary,
+  the Panionium temple of Neptune, built on the headland of Mycale.
+  Here they celebrated their festivals, and assembled to deliberate
+  upon matters affecting the general interest, although it must still
+  be remembered that each city was in itself independent. This
+  independence was maintained until the time of the Lydian dynasty of
+  the Mermnadae, and that of Cyrus, under whose reign they were
+  compelled to submit to the Persian yoke. Still, under the Persian
+  rule, they for the most part preserved their own form of
+  government, and were subject only so much as they had to pay
+  tribute. Nevertheless they seized every opportunity of delivering
+  themselves from this species of thraldom; and hence their history
+  in the following period is closely interwoven with that of Greece.
+  The political constitution was, no doubt, at an early period
+  republican in all; but these colonies likewise were oppressed by
+  continual factions, and frequently by tyrants. Among the towns
+  situate on the continent, the most remarkable were Miletus,
+  Ephesus, and Phocaea. Miletus was the principal seat of trade. It
+  had been founded by the Carians before the arrival of the Ionians;
+  but was by the latter raised to opulence and power. The most
+  flourishing period of its existence was between 700-500: in the
+  latter year it was implicated in the insurrection of Aristagoras
+  against the Persians, in consequence of which it was destroyed in
+  496. From that time Miletus never recovered its ancient splendour.
+  Nevertheless, in the days of her prosperity Miletus was, next to
+  Tyre and Carthage, the first emporium of the world. Her sea trade
+  was chiefly carried on in the Euxine, and the Palus Maeotis, whose
+  shores, on all sides, were occupied by her colonies, amounting,
+  according to some authorities, to more than a hundred. By means of
+  these settlements she monopolized the whole of the northern trade
+  in pulse, dry fish, slaves, and furs. Her land trade was carried on
+  by the great _military_ road, constructed by the Persians, far into
+  the interior of Asia. Four harbours admitted her vessels; and her
+  naval power was so great, that she had been known, more than once,
+  to fit out, unaided, fleets of from eighty to a hundred
+  sail.--Phocaea. The flourishing period of this establishment was
+  contemporary with that of Miletus; but ended at the rise of the
+  Persian dominion, 540, when the Phocaeans, rather than submit to the
+  Persian yoke, chose to forsake the city of their fathers and
+  migrate to Corsica, although one half of the inhabitants repented
+  of their resolution and returned. Phocaea had the most extensive
+  trade by sea of all the Grecian cities; they were to the west what
+  the Milesians were to the north. Their navigation extended as far
+  as Gades; and they not only visited the coasts of Italy, Gaul, and
+  Corsica, but even founded colonies in these countries; as for
+  instance, Aleria in Corsica, Elea in Italy, and, above all,
+  Massilea, (Marseilles,) on the coast of Gaul.--Ephesus. This city
+  was likewise originally founded by the Carians, but subsequently
+  occupied by the Ionians. Its independence was maintained until the
+  time of Croesus, who annexed it to his other conquests about 560.
+  The constitution was aristocratic; the government being in the
+  hands of a senate, ([Greek: gerousia],) combined with the
+  magistrates, ([Greek: epikletoi]): and the family which had once
+  possessed the throne preserved certain prerogatives. Ephesus was
+  not so important in a commercial point of view as Phocaea and
+  Miletus; but was much celebrated for its temple of Diana, which in
+  355 was fired by Erostratus, and afterwards rebuilt with more
+  sumptuous splendour. The flourishing period of Ephesus appears to
+  have commenced at this time, long after that of Miletus and Phocaea
+  had terminated; for both in the Macedonian and Roman ages Ephesus
+  was regarded as the first city of Asia Minor.--Of the cities on
+  the islands, Samos was the most important, for its trade, and for
+  its naval power. The period of its splendour was under the reign of
+  the tyrant Polycrates, 540-523, whose sway extended over the sea
+  and islets of the neighbourhood. Syloson, brother to the tyrant,
+  having by the assistance of the Persians, 517, obtained possession
+  of Samos, the island was almost depopulated. Soon afterwards Samos
+  became dependent upon the Athenians, who in 440 introduced a
+  democratic form of government, and made it the rendezvous for her
+  troops and fleets during the war with Sparta.--Chios was scarcely
+  inferior to Samos, either in power or wealth. It submitted to the
+  Persian yoke with the rest of the Ionian colonies; but was so
+  powerful, that in 500, at the insurrection of Aristagoras,
+  ninety-eight sail of the combined fleet belonged to Chios. After
+  the defeat of Xerxes, 469, it entered into the Athenian league,
+  from which it endeavoured to secede in the Peloponnesian war, 412.
+  The naval power of the Chians was still considerable; and those
+  islanders had the high honour of not suffering prosperity to
+  inflate them with overweening ambition.
+
+  F. G. RAMBACH, _De Mileto ejusque coloniis_, 1790, 4to.
+
+  3. The Dorian colonies. These were situated in Asia Minor, upon the
+  southern coast of Caria, and in the islands of Cos and Rhodes, but
+  were all planted at a later period than the Ionian colonies, and,
+  no doubt, were the result of successive migrations. The Dorians
+  appear to have gradually spread beyond Peloponnesus, over the
+  islands of the Archipelago to the Asiatic coast: in Rhodes they
+  erected the cities of Ialyssus, Camirus, and Lindus; in Cos a city
+  of the same name; on the main land two cities, Halicarnassus and
+  Cnidus. These six ancient colonies had, like the Ionians, one
+  common sanctuary, the temple of Apollo Triopius, where they
+  celebrated their festivals and held their deliberative assemblies.
+  Halicarnassus, however, was afterwards excluded from the
+  confederation. They remained independent until the Persian period,
+  although the constitutions of the separate cities were subject to
+  violent revolutions; thus at Cnidus the oligarchy was converted
+  into a democracy; Halicarnassus was likewise generally subject to
+  the Carian sovereigns, among whom Mausolus and Artemisia are names
+  familiar to all.--The three cities in Rhodes appear never to have
+  grown to any importance; that of Rhodes, not built till after the
+  irruption of Xerxes into Greece, 480, soon eclipsed the others: its
+  flourishing period began after the death of Alexander. At no
+  period of early history could the Dorian colonies, or those of the
+  Aeolians, compete in wealth and commerce with the Ionians.
+
+7. The shores of the Propontis, the Black sea, and the Palus Maeotis,
+were likewise covered with Grecian settlements. Nearly all these were
+colonies of the city of Miletus alone, and were, without exception, all
+of them the marts of a prosperous trade. Although the date of each
+cannot be precisely defined, they must have arisen between the eighth
+and sixth centuries before the Christian era. They were not only
+sovereigns of the Black sea, but likewise extended their trade over the
+whole of southern Russia, and eastward to the regions beyond the Caspian
+sea; that is, to great Bukharia.
+
+  On the Propontis stood Lampsacus (adjoining the Hellespont) and
+  Cyzicus, on an island connected with the continent by means of
+  bridges. The latter town certainly was one of the most beautiful
+  and flourishing cities of Asia; but this did not occur until the
+  Roman age, and was in consequence of the fostering protection of
+  the Romans.--Opposite to Cyzicus, on the Thracian coast, was
+  Perinthus, subsequently called Heraclea; at the mouth of the
+  Thracian Bosporus stood Byzantium, over against which was
+  Chalcedon. The prosperity of all these towns affords sufficient
+  proof of the skill with which sites were chosen for the
+  establishment of colonies.
+
+  HEYNE, _Antiquities Byzantina: Commentationes duae_, 1809. The first
+  of which contains the fragments of the earlier history of
+  Byzantium.
+
+  The colonies of the Black sea were: on the southern coast of
+  Bithynia, Heraclea, in the territory of the Maryandini. This place
+  preserved its republican constitution amid frequent broils and
+  revolutions, brought about by the oligarchic and democratic
+  factions, until about B. C. 370, when the democrats having gained
+  the upper hand, a path was opened to Clearchus, who became tyrant,
+  and abrogated the senate, ([Greek: boule?]) the family of the
+  tyrant continued for a long time in possession of power, after he
+  himself had been murdered by two disciples of Plato.--In
+  Paphlagonia was Sinope, the most powerful of all the Grecian
+  settlements on the Black sea, of which it long held the
+  sovereignty. The freedom and independence of this place lasted to
+  about 100, when it fell under the dominion of the kings of Pontus,
+  and afterwards under that of the Romans. The principal source from
+  which it derived its wealth were the shoals of migratory fish
+  ([Greek: pelamydes],) which, issuing from the Palus Maeotis, spread
+  along the shore of the Black sea down to the Thracian Bosporus.--In
+  Pontus was Amisus, the mother city of Trapezus, and which shared
+  the fate of Sinope.--On the eastern coast stood the cities of
+  Phasis, Dioscurias, and Phanagoria: this last was the principal
+  mart of the slave trade, and, during the Macedonian period, the
+  staple for Indian commodities imported across the Oxus and the
+  Caspian sea.--In the Chersonesus Taurica stood Panticapaeum, capital
+  city of the little Grecian kingdom of Bosporus, whose kings (among
+  whom Spartacus, about 439, and more especially Leucon, about 350,
+  are celebrated) remained in alliance with Athens till Mithridates
+  the Great laid there the foundation of his dominion.--On the
+  northern coast was the city of Tanais, on the mouth of a river of
+  the same name at the bottom of the Palus Maeotis. Olbia was situated
+  at the mouth of the Borysthenes. These two places, and Olbia in
+  particular, were of the highest importance for the inland trade,
+  which issuing from thence in a northern and easterly direction, was
+  extended to the very centre of Asia.--The colonies of the western
+  coast, such as Apollonia, Tomi, and Salmidessus, were of less
+  notoriety.
+
+8. The coast of Thrace and Macedonia, washed by the Aegaean sea, was
+likewise covered with Grecian colonies, from various cities, and
+especially from Corinth and Athens. The Athenians having obtained in the
+Persian war the sovereignty of the sea, endeavoured to establish their
+dominion in this part of the world; hence the cities in that quarter
+were closely implicated in the quarrels and wars excited, first by the
+jealousy between Sparta and Athens, and afterwards by that which sprang
+up between Athens and Macedonia, in the reign of Philip.
+
+  On the Thracian coast of the Chersonesus, regarded as the key of
+  Europe, and ranging along the Hellespont, were the towns of Sestos,
+  Cardia, and Aegospotamos; farther to the west stood Maronea and
+  Abdera, the latter a colony of Teos. Of far greater importance,
+  however, were the towns on the Macedonian coast, Amphipolis,
+  Chalcis, Olynthus, Potidaea. The first of these towns, founded about
+  B. C. 464, was a colony from Athens, which endeavoured to keep it
+  in a state of dependence. Chalcis was a colony from a city of the
+  same name in Euboea. In 470 it was dependent on Athens; but in 432,
+  the inhabitants having raised the standard of rebellion, forsook
+  their houses and voluntarily withdrew to Olynthus.--Olynthus
+  derived its name from the founder, one of the sons of Hercules: in
+  the course of time it ranked among the most powerful cities of
+  Thrace, although it was tributary to the Athenians. It took a share
+  in the war between Athens and Sparta, and continued to be a
+  flourishing city until 348, when it was taken by Philip of Macedon,
+  and destroyed.--Potidaea was a colony of Corinth, from which it
+  received annual magistrates, ([Greek: epidemiourgoi],) having
+  become tributary to Athens after the Persian war, it revolted in
+  431: obliged to yield to the Athenian arms, its inhabitants were
+  expelled, and their place supplied by an Athenian colony. It now
+  became a possession of Athens, and remained so till it was taken by
+  Philip in 358.
+
+9. The Grecian settlements westward of the mother country were, almost
+without exception, made at a later period than those in the Aegean and
+Black seas: they reached nevertheless to an equal degree of splendour;
+and though their trade was not so extensive, it was equally profitable:
+these colonies not only rivalled those we have above described, in
+wealth, but surpassed them in power, being generally characterized by
+the wisdom and prudence displayed in their respective constitutions. The
+foundation of most of them may be dated between B. C. 750 and 650;
+consequently at a period when all the cities in the mother country had
+already been republicanized: and at a time when there could be no lack
+of domestic troubles, which would furnish sufficient motives for
+emigration.
+
+  1. Grecian settlements in Lower Italy. The most numerous and
+  important of these were scattered around the bay of Tarentum; they
+  extended likewise along the western coast of Italy up to Naples.
+  These colonies were variously traced to the Dorian, Achaean, and
+  Ionian families: they were likewise distinguished by political
+  characteristics, the government in the Dorian settlements being
+  generally more aristocratic, in the rest more democratic: it must
+  be observed, however, that, with respect to the various revolutions
+  which the respective constitutions underwent, it is hardly possible
+  to give any general information, excepting so far as regards the
+  earliest times. Of Dorian origin were Tarentum, and its colonies
+  Heraclea and Brundusium. Of Achaean origin were Sybaris and Croton,
+  together with the colonies of the latter, Laus, Metapontum,
+  Posidonia; which last founded in its turn, Terina, Caulonia, and
+  Pandosia. Of Ionian origin were Thurii, (built on the site where
+  Sybaris had formerly stood,) Rhegium, Elea, Cumae, and its branch
+  settlement of Neapolis. Locri Epizephyrii, a colony of the Locri
+  Ozolae, may be regarded as an Aeolian city. The most remarkable of
+  these cities in respect of general history are:
+
+  _a._ Tarentum, founded by the Parthenii, from Sparta, about 707. It
+  waged several wars with the aboriginal tribes in the vicinity, the
+  Messapians, Lucanians, etc. and grew to be one of the richest and
+  most powerful of the maritime towns. The brilliant period of
+  Tarentum appears to have fallen between 500 and 400. Excess of
+  wealth subsequently introduced luxury, which extinguished the
+  national spirit. Nevertheless Tarentum preserved its independence
+  until 273, when, after the war with Pyrrhus, it fell under the
+  Roman dominion. The constitution was originally a moderate
+  aristocracy; but was commuted soon after the Persian war into a
+  democracy, which was, however, curbed by prudent restrictions.
+  Tarentum had its senate, ([Greek: boule],) without whose consent
+  war could not be undertaken; its magistrates elected half by lot,
+  half by majority of votes given in the assemblies of the commons.
+  Among its most celebrated citizens is reckoned the Pythagoraean
+  Archytas, who, after the year B. C. 390, was frequently at the head
+  of the state, filling the offices of general and supreme
+  magistrate. The constitution appears to have preserved its form
+  until the Roman period, although the national spirit was greatly
+  corrupted by a luxury almost exceeding the limits of credibility.
+
+  _b._ Croton, founded 710 by the Achaeans, under the guidance of
+  Myscellus from Rhype in Achaia. This city must have attained to
+  very great power during the very first century of its existence;
+  since in the battle of Sagra against the Locrians, which may with
+  probability be dated about 600, the Crotoniates were able to set on
+  foot an army of 120,000 men. Neither does the defeat which they
+  there suffered appear to have debilitated the settlement for any
+  length of time; for in 510, with nearly the same number of forces,
+  they attacked the Sybarites, and destroyed their city. The original
+  constitution was, no doubt, a moderate democracy; but we are
+  unacquainted with the details of its organization. Pythagoras was
+  the reformer of customs, moral and political, not only at Croton,
+  but in several other of the Italico-Greek cities. This philosopher
+  arrived at Croton about 540, and there laid the foundation of the
+  league or secret association named after him; the object of which
+  was, not to change the form of government in the Italian cities,
+  but to create men capable of managing the helm of state. This
+  reform and influence of the Pythagoraeans lasted about thirty years,
+  when their order underwent the same fate as generally befalls a
+  secret association founded with a political view. Probably about
+  510 the Pythagoraeean league was broken asunder by the democratic
+  faction under Cylon. The consequence was universal anarchy, not
+  only in Croton, where, about 494, a certain Clinias usurped the
+  supreme power, but likewise in the other cities: these disorders,
+  however, were quelled by the intervention of the Achaeans; and the
+  Achaean colonies not only adopted the laws of their mother cities,
+  but likewise soon afterwards signed a league in the temple of
+  Jupiter Homorius, about 460: it appears that Croton, having already
+  recovered from the blow it had received, was at the head of this
+  league. In this happy posture affairs remained till about 400.
+  After the kings of Syracuse had commenced their attacks on Magna
+  Graecia, Croton was repeatedly captured; as in B. C. 389 by
+  Dionysius I. and about 321; and again, in 299, by Agathocles.
+  Finally, after the war with Pyrrhus, 277, it became dependent on
+  Rome.
+
+  _c._ Sybaris was founded about 720, like the foregoing, by the
+  Achaeans, who were mingled with Troezenians: this settlement existed
+  till 510, when it was destroyed by Croton. Soon after its
+  foundation it became one of the most extensive, populous, and
+  luxurious cities, so much so, that the effeminacy of the Sybarites
+  became proverbial. Sybaris appears to have been at the height of
+  her prosperity from about 600-550; she then possessed a respectable
+  territory, comprising four of the neighbouring tribes, and
+  twenty-five cities or places. The extraordinary fertility of the
+  soil, and the admission of all strangers to the rights of
+  citizenship, tended to increase the population so much, that
+  Sybaris, in the war against Croton, is said to have brought into
+  the field 300,000 men. The vast wealth possessed, not only by
+  Sybaris, but by the other cities in this quarter, was probably
+  derived from the great trade in oil and wine carried on with Africa
+  and Gaul: that such was the case at Agrigentum we know with
+  certainty. The constitution of Sybaris was likewise, it appears, a
+  moderate democracy: towards the year 510 one Telys took possession
+  of the supreme power, and drove out five hundred of the optimates,
+  who fled to Croton. The Crotoniates received the exiles, and the
+  Sybarites having put to death their ambassadors, a war was kindled
+  between the two cities, and ended in 510 by the defeat of the
+  Sybarites and the destruction of their city.
+
+  _d._ Thurii, founded near the site of ancient Sybaris in 446 by
+  Athens, although the inhabitants were of mixed origin; a
+  circumstance which gave rise at first to many domestic broils, the
+  citizens disputing as to who was the real founder; at last, 433,
+  the Delphian oracle declared the city to be a colony of Apollo. The
+  constitution was at first a moderate democracy; but this was soon
+  converted into an oligarchy, all the power and the best lands
+  having been taken possession of by the Sybarite families who had
+  joined the settlement. The Sybarites were, however, again expelled,
+  and Thurii grew into importance by the confluence of several new
+  colonies out of Greece; its constitution was meliorated by the
+  adoption of the laws of Charondas of Catana. The principal enemies
+  of the Thurians were the Lucanians, by whom they were beaten, 390.
+  The desultory attacks of that tribe obliged them, 286, to crave the
+  assistance of the Romans, which soon after afforded the Tarentines
+  an excuse for attacking them. Thurii now formed a part of the Roman
+  dependencies, and after suffering much in the Carthaginian wars,
+  was at last, B. C. 190, occupied by a Roman colony.
+
+  _e._ Locri Epizephyrii. The question of their origin is subject to
+  dispute: the causes of this uncertainty are, that here, as in most
+  other of the cities, various bands of colonists arrived at various
+  times, and those bands themselves were composed of a mixture of
+  several Grecian stocks. The chief colony was sent out, B. C. 683,
+  by the Locri Ozolae. After suffering much from violent internal
+  commotions, Locri found, about 660, a lawgiver in Zaleucus, whose
+  institutions remained more than two centuries inviolate. The
+  constitution was aristocratic, the administration being in the
+  hands of a hundred families. The supreme magistrate was called
+  cosmopolis. The senate consisted of a thousand members, probably
+  elected from the commons, with whom resided, either wholly or
+  partially, the legislative power. The maintenance of the laws was,
+  as in other Grecian cities, committed to the nomophylaces. Locri
+  was certainly neither so wealthy nor so luxurious as the cities
+  above mentioned; but she was honourably distinguished by the good
+  manners and quiet conduct of her citizens, who were contented with
+  their government. The flourishing period of this city lasted till
+  the time of Dionysius II. who having been driven out of Syracuse,
+  fled with his dependents to Locri, the native country of his
+  mother: by his insolence and licentiousness of manners the city was
+  brought to the verge of ruin; after his return to Syracuse, 347,
+  the Locrians avenged their wrongs upon his family. Locri afterward
+  maintained its recovered independence until the time of Pyrrhus,
+  who, 277, placed a garrison in the town; the Locrians, however, put
+  the troops to the sword, and passed over to the Roman side: the
+  city was in consequence sacked by Pyrrhus in 275. From that time
+  Locri remained a confederate town dependent on Rome, and suffered
+  much in the second Punic war.
+
+  _f._ Rhegium, a colony from Chalcis in Euboea, 668: here also the
+  government was aristocratic, the supreme power being in the hands
+  of a council of a thousand men, selected only from Messenian
+  families, which had joined the original settlers. Hence arose an
+  oligarchy, of which Anaxilaus took advantage to assume the sole
+  dominion, 494, in which he was succeeded by his sons. These having
+  been driven out, 464, commotions ensued, which, after a time, were
+  quelled by adopting the laws of Charondas. Rhegium now enjoyed a
+  period of happiness, which lasted till B. C. 392, when it was
+  captured and destroyed by Dionysius I. Dionysius II. restored it in
+  some measure; but in 281 the city was taken possession of by a
+  Roman legion, who being sent for the purpose of garrisoning the
+  place, murdered the inhabitants. The soldiers were punished with
+  death, 271; but Rhegium thenceforth remained in a state of
+  dependence upon Rome.
+
+  _g._ Cumae, founded as early as 1030, from Chalcis in Euboea. This
+  city attained at an early period to a high degree of power and
+  prosperity; its territory being of considerable extent, its navy
+  respectable, and Neapolis and Zancle (or Messana) among its
+  colonies. The government was a moderate aristocracy: this
+  constitution was subverted about 544, by the tyrant Aristodemus;
+  but restored after his assassination. Cumae was subject to repeated
+  annoyances from the petty Italian nations; and in 564 she was
+  invaded and defeated by the Etruscans and Daunians combined; in 474
+  she beat the Etruscans at sea: but in 420 was captured by the
+  Campanians; together with whom she became a dependent of Rome in
+  345. Cumae, nevertheless, in consequence of its harbour of Puteoli,
+  preserved a share of importance, even under the Roman dominion.
+
+  HEYNE, _Prolusiones 16 de civitatum Graecarum per magnam Graeciam et
+  Siciliam institutis et legibus_. Collected in his _Opuscula_, vol.
+  vii.
+
+  2. Grecian settlements in Sicily. These occupied the eastern and
+  southern shores of the island: they were founded in the same period
+  as those of Magna Graecia, and belonged partly to the Dorian, partly
+  to the Ionian stocks. Of Dorian origin were Messana and Tyndaris,
+  from Messene; Syracuse, who in her turn founded Acrae, Casmenae, and
+  Camarina, from Corinth; Hybla and Thapsus from Megara; Segesta from
+  Thessaly; Heraclea Minoa from Crete; Gela, which founded
+  Agrigentum, from Rhodes; and Lipara, on the small island of that
+  name, from Cnidus. Of Ionian origin were Naxus, the founder of
+  Leontini; Catana and Tauromenium, from Chalcis; Zancle, (after its
+  occupation by Messenian colonists, called Messana,) founded by
+  Cumae, and in its turn founder of Himera and Mylae. The most
+  remarkable of these towns in ancient history are:
+
+  _a._ Syracuse, the most powerful of all the Greek colonies, and
+  consequently that concerning which our information is the most
+  copious. The history of Syracuse, on which, as that town was for a
+  long time mistress of the greatest part of the island, depends
+  nearly the whole history of Sicily, comprises four periods. 1. From
+  the foundation, B. C. 735, to Gelon, 484; a space of two hundred
+  and fifty-one years. During this period Syracuse was a republic,
+  but does not appear to have risen to any very great height of
+  power: yet she founded the colonies of Acrae, 665, Casmenae, 645, and
+  Camarina, 600. The assistance of her parent city, Corinth, and
+  Corcyra, alone prevented her falling a prey to Hippocrates,
+  sovereign of Gela; and even then she was obliged to cede Camarina,
+  497. The constitution was aristocratic; but not free from domestic
+  troubles. The administration was in the hands of the opulent,
+  ([Greek: gamoroi?]) but these were, about 485, expelled by the
+  democratic faction and their own mutinous slaves. They fled to
+  Casmenae, and by the help of Gelon, sovereign of Gela, were restored
+  to their homes; Gelon retaining the power in his own hands. 2. From
+  Gelon to the expulsion of Thrasybulus, 484-466. The three brothers,
+  Gelon, Hiero, and Thrasybulus, successively ruled over Syracuse.
+  Gelon, 484-477. He was at once the founder of the greatness of
+  Syracuse, and of his own power: this he effected partly by
+  increasing the population, bringing in new inhabitants from other
+  Greek cities, and partly by the great victory he won over the
+  Carthaginians, in alliance with the Persians, 480. At this early
+  period Syracuse was so powerful, both by sea and by land, as to
+  justify Gelon in claiming the office of generalissimo of Greece,
+  when Sparta and Athens came to solicit his aid. His beneficent
+  reign not only gained him the love of the Syracusans during his
+  life, but likewise procured him heroic honours after death at the
+  hands of a grateful people. He died in 477, and was succeeded by
+  his brother Hiero I. who had till then ruled over Gela. The reign
+  of this prince was splendid, his court was brilliant, and a
+  fostering protection was extended to arts and sciences. Hiero's
+  power strengthened by the establishment of new citizens, both in
+  Syracuse and its subordinate towns of Catana and Naxus, whose
+  original inhabitants are translated to Leontini.--Wars waged
+  against Thero, 476, and his son Thrasidaeus, tyrants of Agrigentum:
+  after the expulsion of Thrasidaeus, that town forms an alliance with
+  Syracuse; the Syracusan fleet sent to the assistance of Cumae, wins
+  a victory over the Etruscans. Hiero, dying in 467, was succeeded by
+  his brother Thrasybulus, who, after a short reign of eight months,
+  was expelled for his cruelty by the Syracusans and the confederate
+  cities. 3. From the expulsion of Thrasybulus to the elevation of
+  Dionysius I.; Syracuse a free democratic state: from 466-405.
+  Reestablishment of republican forms of government in Syracuse and
+  the other Grecian cities; accompanied, however, with many
+  commotions and civil wars, proceeding from the expulsion of the new
+  citizens and the restoration of the ancient inhabitants to their
+  property.--Increasing power and prosperity of Syracuse, who is now
+  at the head of the confederate Grecian cities in the island, and
+  soon endeavours to convert her precedence into supremacy. The new
+  democratic constitution quickly suffers from the diseases incident
+  to that form of government; a vain attempt is made to apply a
+  remedy by the introduction of the petalismus, B. C. 454; in the
+  mean time the Siculi, aboriginal inhabitants of Sicily, unite in
+  closer league under their leader Ducetius; attempting to expel the
+  Greeks, 451, they engage the Syracusans in reiterated wars; the
+  arms of Syracuse are successful, her authority is confirmed by the
+  subjection of the ambitious Agrigentum, 446, and by her naval
+  victory over the Etruscans. First but unsuccessful attempt of the
+  Athenians to interpose in the domestic affairs of Sicily, by siding
+  with Leontini against Syracuse, 427; eleven years afterward occurs
+  the great expedition against Syracuse, 415-413, caused by the
+  disputes between Segesta and Selinus; the expedition ends in the
+  total rout of the Athenian fleet and army, (see below,) and the
+  power of Syracuse reaches its zenith. A constitutional reform takes
+  place, 412, brought about by Diocles, whose laws were subsequently
+  adopted by several other of the Sicilian cities. The magistrates
+  were chosen by lot. The rest of the laws, which appear to have had
+  reference to the criminal code, were the production of a committee
+  over which Diocles presided; these enactments were so beneficial to
+  Syracuse, that the author of them was honoured with a temple after
+  his death. Yet as early as 410, a renewal of the differences
+  between Segesta and Selinus afforded a pretext for war with
+  Carthage, from whom the Segestani had besought assistance; by this
+  war the whole state of affairs in Sicily was subverted. The rapid
+  strides made by the Carthaginians, who, under the command of
+  Hannibal the son of Gisgo, took, 409, Selinus and Himera, and even
+  Agrigentum, 406, engendered domestic factions and commotions within
+  Syracuse; and amid those disorders the crafty Dionysius succeeded
+  first in obtaining the office of general, and then, after
+  supplanting his colleagues, the sovereign power of Syracuse, 405.
+  4. From Dionysius I. to the Roman occupation, 405-212. Dionysius
+  I. 405-368. Ominous commencement of his reign, by a defeat at Gela
+  and the mutiny of his troops.--A plague wasting the Carthaginian
+  army, he is enabled to patch up a peace, B. C. 405, by which it is
+  agreed, that Carthage, besides her territory in the island, shall
+  retain all the conquests made during the war, together with Gela
+  and Camarina. But the project of expelling the Carthaginians out of
+  Sicily, in order to subject the whole island, and to fall upon
+  Magna Grecia, kindles a long series of wars both with Carthage and
+  the cities of Magna Grecia. Second war with Carthage against
+  Hannibal and Himilco, 398-392. Dionysius loses all that he before
+  had conquered, and is himself besieged in Syracuse; but a plague
+  once more attacking the Carthaginians, rescues him from his
+  predicament, 396; deeds of hostility continued notwithstanding till
+  392, when a peace was signed, by which Carthage ceded the town of
+  Tauromenium.--From 394, desultory attacks on the confederate
+  Grecian cities in Lower Italy, particularly on Rhegium, the chief
+  seat of the Syracusan emigrants, which, after repeated invasions,
+  is at last compelled to yield, 387. Third war with Carthage, 383,
+  against Mago; Dionysius wins a victory, which is however followed
+  by a greater defeat; and the war ends the same year by the adoption
+  of a peace, according to which each party is to retain what he then
+  had; the Halycus is fixed as the boundary line; so that Selinus and
+  a portion of the territory of Agrigentum remain in the hands of the
+  Carthaginians. Fourth war: inroad upon the Carthaginian states; it
+  ends, however, in the signing of a treaty. The decision of these
+  wars generally depended on the side taken by the Siculi, the most
+  powerful aboriginal race in Sicily. Dionysius I. having died by
+  poison, 368, was succeeded by Dionysius II. his eldest son by one
+  of his two wives, Doris of Locri, but under the guardianship of his
+  step-uncle Dio, the brother of Dionysius's other wife Aristomache.
+  Neither Dio or his friend Plato, who was three times invited to
+  Syracuse, were able to improve the character of a prince whose mind
+  had been corrupted by bad education.--Dio is banished, 360. He
+  returns, 357, and, in the absence of Dionysius, takes possession of
+  Syracuse, all but the citadel. Dionysius now has recourse to
+  stratagem; he excites in the city distrust of Dio, and foments
+  dissension between him and his general Heraclidas; meanwhile he
+  himself withdraws to Italy, taking with him his treasures. Dio is
+  compelled to retire from the city, which is sacked by the troops
+  garrisoned in the citadel; hereupon the Syracusans themselves fetch
+  back Dio; he possesses himself of the citadel and wishes to restore
+  the republican government, but soon falls a victim to party spirit,
+  being murdered by Callipus, B. C. 354, who usurped the government
+  till 353, when he is driven out by Hipparinus, a brother of
+  Dionysius, who keeps possession till 350. After ten years' absence,
+  Dionysius II. by a sudden attack, becomes once more master of the
+  city, 346. The tyranny of this prince, and the treachery of Icetas
+  of Gela, whom the Syracusans called in to their assistance, but who
+  leagues himself with the Carthaginians, and the formidable
+  attempts of the latter, compel the citizens to apply to the mother
+  city Corinth: Corinth sends to their assistance Timoleon with a
+  small force, 345. Rapid change of affairs wrought by Timoleon: he
+  beats Icetas and the Carthaginians: in 343 Dionysius is forced to
+  deliver up the citadel and evacuate the country; he retires to
+  Corinth, where he leads a private life. Restoration of the
+  republican government, not only in Syracuse, where the laws of
+  Diocles are reinstituted, but also in the rest of the Grecian
+  cities: the revolution confirmed by a great victory over the
+  Carthaginians, 340. In the midst of the execution of his plans
+  Timoleon dies, 337, the most splendid example of a republican that
+  history affords! From 337-317; almost a chasm in the history of
+  Syracuse. Wars with Agrigentum; the usurpation of Sosistratus,
+  disturbs the peace, both external and internal. The character of
+  the Syracusans was already too foully corrupted for one to expect
+  that liberty could again be established among them, without the
+  personal superintendence of a Timoleon. They deserved the fate that
+  befell them, when, in 317, that daring adventurer Agathocles
+  assumed the sovereign power, which he maintained till 289. Renewal
+  of the plan for expelling the Carthaginians from the island, and
+  subjecting Magna Graecia. Hence arises a new war with Carthage, in
+  which Agathocles is defeated, 311, and besieged in Syracuse: by a
+  bold stroke he passes over into Africa, accompanied by part of his
+  fleet and army, and there with general success prosecutes the war
+  until 307: the insurrection of most of the Grecian cities in Sicily
+  recalls him from the theatre of war; his views in Africa are
+  consequently defeated. In the peace of 306 both parties retain what
+  they had at the beginning of the war. The wars in Italy are
+  confined to the sacking of Croton, and a victory won over the
+  Bruttii; and are rather predatory expeditions than regular wars. In
+  the year 289, Agathocles died by poison, and his murderer, Maenon,
+  seized the power; he is expelled by the general Icetas, and flies
+  over to the Carthaginians. Icetas rules as pretor till 278, when,
+  in his absence, the government is usurped by Thynion, who meets
+  with a rival in the person of Sosistratus; in the mean while the
+  mercenaries of Agathocles (the Mamertini) possess themselves of
+  Messana, and the Carthaginians press forward to the very gates of
+  Syracuse. The Syracusans invite Pyrrhus of Epirus over from Italy;
+  that prince takes possession of the whole of Sicily as far as
+  Lilybaeum; but having by his haughtiness incurred general hatred and
+  disgust, he is obliged to evacuate the island, B. C. 275. The
+  Syracusans now appoint Hiero, a descendant of the ancient royal
+  family, to the office of general: after defeating the Mamertini he
+  is called to the throne, 269. At the breaking out of the war
+  between Carthage and Rome, the new king forsakes his alliance with
+  Carthage, and, passing over to the Roman side, thereby purchases a
+  long and tranquil reign until 215, when he dies of old age. Under
+  this wise prince Syracuse enjoyed a degree of happiness and
+  prosperity which none of her demagogues had been able to effect.
+  After his death the Carthaginian party became predominant;
+  Hieronymus the grandson of Hiero is murdered, 214, and Hannibal's
+  intrigues enable the Carthaginian party to keep the upper hand, by
+  contriving to place at the head of affairs his friends Hippocrates
+  and Epicydes, who entangle Syracuse in a war with Rome; and the
+  city, after a long siege, celebrated by the inventions of
+  Archimedes, is brought to ruin, 212.--The history of Syracuse is a
+  practical compendium of politics: what other state ever underwent
+  so many and such various revolutions?
+
+  The history of Syracuse was at an early period disfigured by
+  partiality. For the topography, see # BARTEL'S _Letters from
+  Calabria and Sicily_, vol. iii. with a plan.
+
+  # A. ARNOLD, _History of Syracuse, from its foundation to the
+  overthrow of liberty by Dionysius_. Gotha, 1816.
+
+  MITFORD, _History of Greece_: the fourth volume contains the
+  history of Syracuse, and a defence of the elder Dionysius. It would
+  seem that even now it is difficult to write this history in an
+  impartial spirit.
+
+  _b._ Agrigentum, a colony of Gela, founded 582. The first city of
+  Sicily next to Syracuse, of which it was frequently the rival. Its
+  first constitution was that of the mother city; that is to say,
+  Dorian or aristocratic. It fell, however, soon after its
+  foundation, under the dominion of tyrants; the first of whom
+  noticed in history is Phalaris, who flourished probably 566-534.
+  He was succeeded by Alcmanes, 534-488, who was followed by
+  Alcander, an indulgent ruler, in whose reign the wealth of
+  Agrigentum seems to have already been considerable. More renowned
+  than the foregoing was Theron, the contemporary and stepfather of
+  Gelon; he ruled from B. C. 488-472: in conjunction with Gelon he
+  routed the Carthaginian army, 480, and subjected Himera. His son
+  and successor, Thrasydaeus, was beaten by Hiero and expelled, 470;
+  whereupon the Agrigentines, as allies of Syracuse, introduced a
+  democracy. The period following, 470-405, is that in which
+  Agrigentum, blessed with political freedom, attained the highest
+  degree of public prosperity. She was one of the most opulent and
+  luxurious cities in the world, and in the display of public
+  monuments one of the most magnificent. For her wealth she was
+  indebted to the vast trade in oil and wine that she carried on with
+  Africa and Gaul, in neither of which were those productions
+  hitherto naturalized. In the year 446 the Agrigentines, excited by
+  envy, fell upon the Syracusans, but were defeated. In the war with
+  Athens they took no share; but in the Carthaginian invasion of
+  Sicily, 405, Agrigentum was taken and destroyed; from this blow she
+  recovered but slowly, and never effectually. By Timoleon she was,
+  in some measure, restored, 340; and under Agathocles, 307, was able
+  to head the cities combined against him, but was beaten. After the
+  death of Agathocles, a tyrant, by the name of Phintias, took
+  possession of the sovereign power; and was attacked, 278, by Icetas
+  of Syracuse. At the breaking out of the first Punic war, Agrigentum
+  was used by the Carthaginians as a military depot; but was taken by
+  the Romans as early as 262.
+
+  _c._ The fate of the other Sicilian cities was more or less
+  dependent on that of Agrigentum and Syracuse: they all had
+  originally republican forms of government; but though the Ionian
+  colonies had a celebrated legislator in the person of Charondas,
+  (probably about 660,) they had the same fortune with the rest, of
+  being frequently oppressed by tyrants, either from among their own
+  citizens, or by those of Syracuse, who often used to drive out the
+  old inhabitants, and introduce a new population more devoted to
+  their interest: hence must have sprung manifold wars. The foregoing
+  history shows how grievously they likewise suffered in the wars
+  between Syracuse and Carthage. Following the dates of their
+  respective foundations, they may be thus arranged: Zancle, (after
+  664, known by the name of Messana,) the earliest, though of
+  uncertain date; Naxus, 736; Syracuse, Hybla, 735; Leontini, Catana,
+  730; Gela, 690; Acrae, B. C. 665; Casmenae, 645; Himera, 639;
+  Selinus, 630; Agrigentum, 582. The dates of the rest cannot be
+  ascertained with any degree of accuracy.
+
+  3. On the other islands and coasts of the Mediterranean we meet
+  with various insulated Grecian settlements; in Sardinia, the cities
+  Garalis and Olbia: the date of their foundation unknown; in
+  Corsica, Alaria, (or Alalia,) a colony of Phocaeans founded, 561;
+  hither the inhabitants of the mother city betook themselves in
+  541; and subsequently, after the naval engagement with the
+  Etruscans and Carthaginians, withdrew, some to Rhegium, others to
+  Massilia, 536.
+
+  4. On the coast of Gaul stood Massilia, founded by the Phocaeans,
+  who had been driven out of Corsica after the above mentioned naval
+  engagement, 536; or rather, there was on the same site an old
+  settlement which was now increased. Massilia rapidly grew in wealth
+  and power. Our information respecting the wars she waged on the sea
+  against Carthage and the Etruscans is but of a general kind. Her
+  territory on the main land, although rich in wine and oil, was
+  limited in extent; she established, nevertheless, several colonies
+  along the shores of Spain and Gaul, among which Antipolis, Nicaea,
+  and Olbia are the best known. The trade of Massilia was carried on
+  partly by sea, and partly by land, through the interior of Gaul.
+  The constitution was a moderate aristocracy. The chief power was in
+  the hands of six hundred individuals; the members of this council
+  were called timuchi, they held their places for life, were obliged
+  to be married men with families, and descended at least to the
+  third generation from citizens. At the head of this council stood
+  fifteen men, three of whom were chief magistrates. As early as 218
+  Massilia was in alliance with Rome, under whose fostering
+  protection she grew in prosperity; her freedom was preserved to her
+  until the war between Pompey and Caesar; having sided with the
+  former, she was stormed, 49, by Caesar's army. She soon retrieved
+  herself, and, under the reign of Augustus, Massilia was the seat of
+  literature and philosophy, in which public lectures were there
+  given as at Athens.
+
+  AUG. BRUEKNER, _Historia Reipublicae Massiliensium_. Gotting. 1826.
+  A prize essay.
+
+  5. On the Spanish coast stood Saguntum, ([Greek: Zakunthos],) a
+  colony from the island of Zacynthus; the date of its foundation is
+  undetermined. It became opulent by its commerce; but at the opening
+  of the second Punic war, B.C. 219, was destroyed by Hannibal, as
+  being an ally of Rome.
+
+  6. On the coast of Africa lay Cyrene, founded at the suggestion of
+  the Delphic oracle in 631, by the island of Thera. The constitution
+  was at first monarchical. Kings: Battus I. the founder, 631-591.
+  In whose family the sceptre remained. Arcesilaus I. _d._ 575. Under
+  the reign of his successor, Battus II. surnamed the happy, (_d._
+  554,) the colony was much strengthened by new comers from Greece.
+  The Libyans, bereaved of their lands, seek for help at the hands
+  of Apries, who is defeated by the Cyrenaeans, 570, and in
+  consequence loses his crown.--Arcesilaus II. _d._ 550. Rebellion of
+  his brothers, and foundation of Barca, an independent town ruled by
+  its own separate kings. Secession of the Libyan subjects. He is put
+  to death by his brother or friend Learchus, who in his turn is
+  poisoned by Eryxo the widow of Arcesilaus. Her son, Battus III.
+  surnamed the lame, (_d._ about 529,) succeeds to the throne. The
+  royal power confined within narrow limits by the laws of Demonax of
+  Mantinea: the king retains nothing more than the revenue and
+  priestly office. His son Arcesilaus III. becomes of his own accord
+  tributary to the Persians; in conjunction with his mother,
+  Pheretime, he seeks to reestablish the regal supremacy, but is
+  expelled; nevertheless he regains possession of Cyrene. In
+  consequence of his cruelty he is assassinated in Barca, about 516.
+  Pheretime seeks for help from the Persian satrap of Egypt,
+  Aryandes, who by craft gets possession of Barca; the inhabitants
+  are carried away and translated into Bactria, 512. Soon after
+  Pheretime dies. It seems probable that another Battus IV. and
+  Arcesilaus IV. must have reigned at Cyrene, to whom Pindar's fourth
+  and fifth Pythian Odes are addressed: their history, however, is
+  veiled in obscurity. Cyrene then received a republican
+  constitution, probably somewhere about 450; but we are unacquainted
+  with the internal details of the government. Yet though Plato was
+  invited by the Cyrenaeans to give them laws, and though they had for
+  their legislator Democles of Arcadia, they appear never to have
+  been blessed with a good and stable constitution. Not only is
+  mention often made of domestic troubles, as in 400, when amid the
+  uproar excited by Ariston most of the aristocratic party were cut
+  off; but we likewise frequently meet with tyrants. Concerning the
+  external affairs of this state we know nothing but a few general
+  facts relative to the border wars with Carthage. Subsequently to
+  Alexander, Cyrene became a part of the Egyptian kingdom; so early
+  as the reign of Ptolemy I. it was added to that realm by his
+  general Ophellas, about B.C. 331. It now continued to receive
+  various rulers from the family of the Ptolemies (see below) until
+  the reign of Ptolemy Physcon, when it became a separate state, the
+  bastard son of that prince, Apion by name, having made it over to
+  the Romans, 97. Cyrene possessed a considerable share of trade,
+  consisting partly in the exportation of country produce, more
+  especially the Silphium, (Laser,) partly in a varied intercourse
+  with Carthage, Ammonium, and thence with the interior of Africa.
+  The former splendour and importance of this city and the
+  neighbouring country are testified by an abundance of most noble
+  ruins; a more accurate research into which every friend of
+  antiquity must desire.
+
+  HARDION, _Histoire de Cyrene_, in _Mem. de l'Academie des
+  Inscriptions_, t. iii.
+
+  J. P. THRIGE, _Historia Cyrenes, inde a tempore quo condita urbs
+  est, usque ad aetatem, qua in provinciae formam a Romanis redacta
+  est: particula prior, de initiis coloniae Cyrenen deductae, et
+  Cyrenes Battiadis regnantibus historia_. Havniae, 1819. The best
+  work on Cyrene. It is hoped that the author will not disapppoint
+  our expectations of the second part, which is to contain the period
+  of republican government. [The whole was completed in 1828. The
+  learned and ingenious author has neglected no authority whether
+  ancient or modern, and is particularly cautious and judicious in
+  his researches.]
+
+  A ray of light has lately, for the first time, been thrown on the
+  remains still found in Cyrenaica by DELLA CELLA, _Viaggio di
+  Tripoli_; translated by Spieker, in the # _Journal of the latest
+  travels by sea and by land_, Sept. 1820.
+
+  W. BEECHEY, _Proceedings to explore the northern coast of Africa
+  from Tripoli eastward_, 1827.
+
+  F. R. PACHO, _Relation d'un voyage a Marmarique et Cyrenaique_,
+  1828. A most accurate description.
+
+  T. EHRENBERG, _Travels through North Africa_, in the years
+  1820-1825, by Dr. W. F. Hemprich and Dr. C. G. Ehrenberg. Berlin,
+  1828.
+
+
+
+
+THIRD PERIOD.
+
+_From the commencement of the Persian wars to the time of Alexander
+the Great, B. C. 500-336._
+
+
+  Sources. The chief writers in this period are: For the history of
+  the Persian wars to the battle of Plataeae, 479, Herodotus. For the
+  period between 479 and the breaking out of the Peloponnesian war,
+  we must, in the absence of contemporary authors, consider Diodorus
+  Siculus as the principal authority.--The beginning of the 11th
+  book, which commences with the year 480, (the 6th, 7th, 8th, 9th,
+  and 10th books being lost,) to the middle of the 12th; the
+  chronology of this author, however, must in several cases be
+  rectified after Thucydides's summary in lib. i. For the period of
+  the Peloponnesian war, 431-410, the history of Thucydides is the
+  capital work; but it must be accompanied by Diodorus, from the
+  middle of the 12th book to the middle of the 13th.--From the year
+  410 to the battle of Mantinea, 362, the principal sources are the
+  Hellenics of Xenophon, and occasionally his Anabasis and Agesilaus;
+  together with Diodorus, from the middle of the 13th book to the end
+  of the 15th. For the years intervening from 362-336, no
+  contemporary historian has been preserved; Diodorus's 16th book
+  must therefore here be considered as the chief source: for the
+  times of Philip, however, recourse may likewise be had to the
+  speeches of Demosthenes and Aeschines. The Lives of Plutarch and
+  Nepos often touch upon this period, but cannot be regarded as
+  authentic sources; of still less authority are the abridged
+  documents given by Justin and some others.
+
+  The modern authors on this, the brilliant period of Greece, are, of
+  course, the same as have been enumerated above: (see p. 118.) To
+  whom must here be added:
+
+  POTTER, _Archaeologia Graeca; or the Antiquities of Greece:_ 2 vols.
+  8vo. Lond. 1722. Translated into German by J. J. Rambach, 3 vols.
+  1775.
+
+  BARTHELEMY, _Voyage du Jeune Anacharsis en Grece_. (Between the
+  years B. C. 362 and 338.) Paris, 1788, 5 vols. Accompanied with
+  charts and plans, illustrating the topography of Athens, etc. This
+  work is conspicuous for a rare union of good taste and erudition;
+  unattended, however, with an equal share of critical acumen and a
+  correct appreciation of antiquity.
+
+  # _History of the Origin, Progress, and Fall of Science in Greece
+  and Rome_, by C. MEINERS. Gottingen, 1781. It contains also a
+  delineation of the political state of affairs; but does not extend
+  beyond the age of Philip.
+
+  The principal works on the monuments of ancient Greece are:
+
+  LE ROY, _Les Ruines des plus beaux Monumens de la Grece_. Paris,
+  1758, 2nd edit. 1770, fol. The first in point of time; but far
+  surpassed by:
+
+  J. STUART, _The Antiquities of Athens measured and delineated_; 3
+  vols. Lond. 1762: the 4th vol. published in 1816. In beauty and
+  accuracy of execution superior to all.
+
+  R. DALTON, _Antiquities and Views of Greece and Egypt_, 1691, fol.
+  The Egyptian monuments are confined to those of Lower Egypt.
+
+  R. CHANDLER, _Ionian Antiquities_. London, 1796, 1797, 2 vols. fol.
+  A worthy companion to Stuart.
+
+  CHOISEUL GOUFFIER, _Voyage pittoresque dans la Grece_, vol. i,
+  1779: vol. ii, 1809. Confined principally to the islands and Asia
+  Minor.
+
+1. From a multitude of small states, never united but continually
+distracted by civil broils--and such at the beginning of this period
+were the states of Greece--any thing important could hardly be expected
+without the occurrence of some external event, which, by rallying the
+divided forces round one point, and directing them toward one object,
+should hinder them from mutually exhausting one another. It was the
+hostile attempt of Persia that first laid the foundation of the future
+splendour of Greece; certain states then grew so rapidly in power, that
+upon their particular history hinges the general history of all the
+rest.
+
+  Causes which led to the Persian war. Share taken by Athens in the
+  Ionian insurrection and firing of Sardes, B. C. 500. (see above,
+  p. 98.) Intrigues of Hippias, first with the satraps, and afterwards
+  at the Persian court itself.--First expedition, that of Mardonius,
+  thwarted by a storm, 493.
+
+2. Not even the summons to acknowledge the Persian authority was
+sufficient to rouse the national energy of the Greeks. All the islands,
+and most of the states on the main land, submitted to the yoke; Sparta
+and Athens alone boldly rejected it. The Athenians, unassisted, under
+their leader Miltiades, acquainted from his youth with the Persians and
+their mode of warfare, and with the superiority of the arms of his
+countrymen, became the saviours of Greece.
+
+  Quarrel of Athens and Sparta with Aegina, which sides with the
+  Persians, 491; and consequent deposition of Demaratus, king of
+  Sparta, by his colleague Cleomenes.
+
+  Persian expedition of Datis and Artaphernes under the guidance of
+  Hippias: frustrated by the battle of Marathon, B. C. Sept. 29,
+  490, and the failure of an attempt upon Athens.
+
+3. The immediate consequence of this victory was a naval expedition
+against the islands, more particularly Paros, to which Miltiades, out of
+a private grudge, persuaded the Athenians. It was undertaken for the
+purpose of levying contributions; and seems to have given the Athenians
+the first idea of their subsequent dominion of the sea. The Athenians
+punished Miltiades for the failure of this expedition, although the
+effect of their own folly; yet was this act of injustice a source of
+happiness to Athens; as the fall of Miltiades made room for the men who
+laid the solid foundation of her glory and greatness.
+
+4. As usual in every democratic state rising to power, the history of
+Athens now becomes that of eminent individuals, standing at the head of
+affairs, as generals or demagogues. Themistocles, who united to an
+astonishing degree in his own person the most splendid talents of
+statesman and general, with a spirit of intrigue, and even of egotism;
+and Aristides, whose disinterestedness, even in those days, was singular
+at Athens, were the real founders of the power of this commonwealth.
+Athens, however, was more indebted to the first than to the latter.
+
+  Rivalry of these two men, 490-486. While Themistocles at the head
+  of the Athenian fleet prosecutes the design of Miltiades against
+  the islands, the management of state affairs is confided to
+  Aristides. On the return, however, of Themistocles as conqueror,
+  Aristides is by ostracism banished Athens, 486. Themistocles
+  alone, at the head of affairs, pursues his plan for making Athens
+  a maritime power. In consequence of a war against the object of
+  popular hatred, Aegina, B. C. 484, he prevails on the Athenians to
+  devote the income from the mines to the formation of a navy. While
+  Athens is thus rising to power, Sparta suffers from the insanity
+  of one of her kings, Cleomenes, (succeeded in 482 by his half
+  brother Leonidas,) and the arrogance of the other, Leotychides.
+
+5. The glory of frustrating the second mighty Persian invasion of Greece
+under Xerxes I. belongs to Themistocles alone. Not only his great naval
+victory off Salamis, but still more the manner in which he contrived to
+work upon his countrymen, proves him to have been the greatest man of
+the age, and the deliverer of Greece, now united by one common bond of
+interest.--All national leagues are weak in themselves: yet how strong
+may even the weakest be made when held together by one great man, who
+knows how to animate it with his own spirit!
+
+  Themistocles' plan for the conduct of the war; first, a common
+  union of all the Hellenic states; a measure which succeeds to a
+  certain degree, the honour of the command being left to the
+  Spartans; secondly, the sea made the theatre of war.--Gallant
+  death of Leonidas with his three hundred Spartans and seven
+  hundred Thespians, July 6, 480. An example of heroism which
+  contributes as much to the greatness of Greece as the victory of
+  Salamis. About the same time naval engagements off Artemisium in
+  Euboea, with two hundred and seventy-one sail. The leaders of the
+  Greeks are kept to their posts merely by bribery; the means of
+  purchasing their services being for the most part furnished by
+  Themistocles himself.--Athens, deserted by its inhabitants, is
+  taken and burnt by Xerxes, July 20. Retreat of the Grecian fleet
+  into the bay of Salamis: revocation of all exiles, Aristides among
+  the rest.--Politic measures adopted by Themistocles to hinder the
+  dispirited Greeks from taking flight, and at the same time to
+  secure to himself, in case of need, an asylum with the Persian
+  monarch.--Naval engagement and victory off Salamis, Sept. 23, 480,
+  with three hundred and eighty sail, (one hundred and eighty of
+  which were Athenian,) against the Persian fleet, already much
+  weakened: retreat of Xerxes.--Poets and historians have disfigured
+  these events by fanciful exaggerations: still, however, they may
+  show us how commonly human weakness is attended with human
+  greatness!
+
+6. The victory of Salamis did not conclude the war; but the negotiations
+entered into during the winter months with the Persian general,
+Mardonius, left in Thessaly, and with the Asiatic Greeks, to excite them
+to throw off the yoke, show how far the confidence of the nation in its
+own strength had increased. But by the battle fought on land at Plataeae,
+under the command of the Spartan, Pausanias, (guardian to Plistarchus,
+son of Leonidas,) and the Athenian, Aristides; together with the naval
+battle at Mycale on the same day, and the destruction of the Persian
+fleet, the Persians are for ever driven from the territory of Greece,
+though the war continues for some time longer.
+
+7. The expulsion of the Persians wrought an entire change in the
+internal and external relations of Greece. From being the aggressed the
+Greeks became the aggressors; to free their Asiatic countrymen is now
+the chief object or pretext for the continuation of a war so profitable;
+the chief command of which abides with Sparta until B. C. 470.
+
+  Athens rebuilt and fortified by Themistocles despite of Spartan
+  jealousy, 478: formation of the Piraeus, an event of still greater
+  importance, 477.--Naval expedition under Pausanias, accompanied by
+  Aristides and Cimon, undertaken against Cyprus and Byzantium, for
+  the purpose of expelling the Persians, 470. Treachery and fall of
+  Pausanias, 469. In consequence of the Spartans' haughtiness, the
+  supreme command devolves upon the Athenians.
+
+8. This transfer of the command to Athens had a decided effect on all
+the subsequent relations of Greece, not only because it augmented the
+jealousy between Sparta and Athens, but because Athens exercised her
+predominance for a purpose entirely different from that of
+Sparta.--Establishment of a permanent confederacy, comprising most of
+the Grecian states without Peloponnesus, especially the islands, and an
+adjustment of the contributions to be annually furnished by each, with
+the view of prosecuting the Persian war, and liberating the Asiatic
+Greeks from the Persian yoke. Although the common treasury was first
+established at Delos, the superintendence of it was confided to Athens;
+and such a manager as Aristides was not always to be found.--Natural
+consequence of this new establishment: 1. What had hitherto been mere
+military precedence, becomes in the hands of Athens a right of
+political prescription, and that, as usual, is soon converted
+into a sovereignty. Hence her idea of the supremacy of Greece,
+([Greek: arche tes Hellados],) as connected with that of the sea,
+([Greek: thalassokratia].) 2. The oppression of the Athenians,
+sometimes real, at other times presumed, after a short time, rouses the
+spirit of discontent and contumacy among several of the confederates:
+hence, 3. The gradual formation of a counter league, headed by Sparta,
+who maintains her supremacy over the greatest part of the Peloponnesus.
+
+9. The changes introduced into the internal organization are not to be
+determined solely by the palpable alterations made in any of Lycurgus's
+or Solon's institutions. In Sparta, the general frame-work of Lycurgus's
+constitution subsisted; nevertheless the power was virtually in the
+hands of the ephori, whose dictatorial sway placed Sparta in the
+formidable posture she now assumed.--At Athens, in proportion as the
+importance of foreign relations increased, and amid the protracted
+struggles between the heads of the democratic and aristocratic parties,
+the real power, under the outward appearance of a democracy, gradually
+centered in the hands of the ten annually elected generals, ([Greek:
+strategoi],) who with more or less effect played the parts of
+demagogues.
+
+  Abrogation of the law that excluded the poorer citizens from
+  official situations, B. C. 478.
+
+  Expulsion of Themistocles, implicated in the fall of Pausanias,
+  principally through the intrigues of Sparta: he is first banished
+  by ostracism, 469, but in consequence of further persecution he
+  flies over to the Persians, 466.
+
+10. The following forty years, from 470-430, constitute the flourishing
+period of Athens. A concurrence of fortunate circumstances happening
+among a people of the highest abilities and promoted by great men,
+produced here phenomena, such as have never since been witnessed.
+Political greatness was the fundamental principle of the commonwealth;
+Athens had been the guardian, and the champion of Greece, and she wished
+to appear worthy of herself. Hence in Athens alone were men acquainted
+with public splendour, exhibited in buildings, in spectacles, and
+festivals, the acquisition of which was facilitated by private
+frugality. This public spirit animating every citizen, expanded the
+blossoms of genius; no broad line of distinction was anxiously drawn
+between private and public life; whatever great, whatever noble was
+produced by Athens, sprung up verdant and robust out of this harmony,
+this buxom vigour of the state. Far different was the case with Sparta;
+there rude customs and laws arrested the development of genius: there
+men were taught to die for the land of their forefathers: while at
+Athens they learnt to live for it.
+
+11. Agriculture continued the principal occupation of the citizens of
+Attica; other employments were left to the care of slaves. Commerce and
+navigation were mainly directed towards the Thracian coast and the Black
+sea; the spirit of trade, however, was never the prevailing one. As
+affairs of state became more attractive, and men desired to participate
+in them, the want of intellectual education began to be felt, and
+sophists and rhetoricians soon offered their instruction. Mental
+expertness was more coveted than mental knowledge; men wished to learn
+how to think and to speak. A poetical education had long preceded the
+rise of this national desire; poesy now lost nothing of its value: as
+heretofore Homer remained the cornerstone of intellectual improvement.
+Could it be that such blossoms would produce other fruits than those
+which ripened in the school of Socrates, in the masterpieces of the
+tragedians and orators, and in the immortal works of Plato?
+
+12. These flowers of national genius burst forth in spite of many evils,
+inseparable from such a constitution established among such a people.
+Great men were pushed aside; others took their places. The loss of
+Themistocles was supplied by Miltiades's son Cimon; who to purer
+politics united equal talents. He protracted the war against the
+Persians in order to maintain the union of the Greeks; and favoured the
+aristocratic party at the same time that he affected popularity. Even
+his enemies learnt by experience, that the state could not dispense with
+a leader who seemed to have entered into a compact for life with
+victory.
+
+  Another expedition under Cimon; and victory by sea and land near
+  the Eurymedon, B. C. 469. He takes possession of the Hellespontine
+  Chersonesus, 468. Some of the Athenian confederates already
+  endeavour to secede. Hence, 467, the conquest of Caristus in
+  Euboea; subjection of Naxos, 466, and from 465-463, siege and
+  capture of Thasos, under Cimon. The Athenians endeavour to obtain
+  a firmer footing on the shore of Macedonia; and for that purpose
+  send out a colony to Amphipolis, 465.
+
+  Great earthquake at Sparta; gives rise to a ten years' war, viz.
+  the third Messenian war or revolt of the Helots, who fortify
+  themselves in Ithome, 465-455: in this war the Athenians, at the
+  instigation of Cimon, send assistance to the Spartans, 461, who
+  refuse the proffered aid. The democratic party seize the
+  opportunity of casting on Cimon the suspicion of being in the
+  interest of Sparta; he is banished by ostracism, 461.
+
+13. The death of Aristides, and the banishment of Cimon, concur in
+elevating Pericles to the head of affairs; a statesman whose influence
+had begun to operate as early as 469. Less a general than a demagogue,
+he supported himself in authority during forty years, until the day of
+his death, and swayed Athens without being either archon or member of
+the areopagus. That under him the constitution must have assumed a more
+democratic character, is demonstrated by the fact of his exaltation as
+leader of the democratic party. The aristocrats, however, contrive until
+444 to set up rivals against him in the persons of the military leaders,
+Myronides, Tolmidas, and more particularly the elder Thucydides.
+
+  Change in the spirit of administration under Pericles, both in
+  reference to internal and external relations. A brilliant
+  management succeeds to the parsimonious economy of Aristides; and
+  yet, after the lapse of thirty years, the state treasury was
+  full.--Limitation of the power of the areopagus by Ephialtes, B.
+  C. 461. The withdrawal of various causes which formerly came under
+  the jurisdiction of that tribunal must have diminished its right
+  of moral censorship.--Introduction of the practice of paying
+  persons who attended the courts of justice.
+
+  With regard to external relations, the precedence of the Athenians
+  gradually advanced toward supremacy; although their relations with
+  all the confederates were not precisely the same. Some were mere
+  confederates; others were subjects.--Augmentation in the imposts
+  on the confederates, and transfer of the treasury from Delos to
+  Athens, 461. The jealousy of Sparta and the discontent of the
+  confederates keep pace with the greatness of Athens.
+
+  Unsuccessful attempt to support by the help of an Athenian fleet
+  and troops, Inarus of Egypt in his insurrection against the
+  Persians, 462-458.
+
+  Wars in Greece: the Spartans instigate Corinth and Epidaurus
+  against Athens. The Athenians, at first defeated near Haliae, in
+  their turn rout the enemy, 458, and then carry the war against
+  Aegina, which is subdued, 457. In the new quarrel between Corinth
+  and Megara respecting their boundaries, the Athenians side with
+  Megara; Myronides conquers at Cimolia, 457. Expedition of the
+  Spartans to the support of the Dorians against Phocis; and hence
+  arises the first rupture between Athens, Sparta, and Boeotia.
+  First battle of Tanagra, in which the Spartans are victorious in
+  the same year, 457. The Boeotians, incited by the Spartans, are
+  in the second battle of Tanagra worsted by Myronides, 456. The
+  recall of Cimon, at the suggestion of Pericles himself, in
+  consequence of the first defeat.
+
+14. Cimon recalled from exile, endeavours to reestablish the domestic
+tranquillity of Greece, and at the same time to renew the war against
+the Persians. He succeeds in his attempt after the lapse of five years;
+and the consequence is a victorious expedition against the Persians. He
+defeats their fleet off Cyprus, and routs their army on the Asiatic
+coast. The fruit of this victory is the celebrated peace with Artaxerxes
+I. (see above, p. 104.) Ere that peace is concluded Cimon dies, too soon
+for his country, while occupied with the siege of Citium.
+
+  Termination of the third Messenian war in favour of Sparta, by the
+  cession of Ithome, B. C. 455. Meantime Athens continues the war
+  with Peloponnesus; Tolmidas and Pericles making an incursion by
+  sea on the enemy's territory, 455-454. At the same time Pericles,
+  by sending out colonies to the Hellespont, endeavours to secure
+  more firmly the Athenian power in that quarter: a colony is
+  likewise sent out to Naxos, 453.--Cimon negotiates a truce, which
+  is adopted first (451) tacitly, afterwards formally, (450,) for
+  five years. The result of this truce is his victorious expedition
+  against the Persians, and the consequent peace with that nation.
+  Although the conditions of the peace prescribed by Cimon were
+  sometimes infringed, they appear to have been ratified by all
+  parties.
+
+15. The conclusion of peace with Persia, glorious as it was, and the
+death of the man whose grand political object was to preserve union
+among the Greeks, again aroused the spirit of internal strife. For
+notwithstanding nearly twenty years intervened before the tempest burst
+with all its fury, this period was so turbulent during its course, that
+Greece seldom enjoyed universal peace. While Athens by her naval
+strength was maintaining her ascendancy over the confederates, and while
+some of those confederates were raising the standard of rebellion and
+passing over to Sparta, every thing was gradually combining towards the
+formation of a counter league, the necessary consequence of which must
+have been a war, such as the Peloponnesian. Up to this time Athens was
+at the height of her power; she was governed by Pericles, who, in every
+thing but the name, was sole ruler during this period, and for that
+reason she experienced few of the evils resulting from a democratic
+constitution. Who, indeed, could overthrow a demagogue whose presence of
+mind, even in the greatest good fortune, never once deserted him; who
+knew how to keep alive among his fellow-citizens the conviction that,
+however exalted they might be, it was to him alone they were indebted
+for it?
+
+  During the five years' truce the sacred war for the possession of
+  the Delphian oracle took place, and it is given by the Spartans to
+  the city of Delphi; but after their return is given back again by
+  the Athenians to the Phocians, B. C. 448. The Athenians commanded
+  by Tolmidas, are defeated by the Boeotians, 447. This expedition,
+  undertaken in opposition to the advice of Pericles, contributes to
+  increase his influence; particularly as he reduces to obedience
+  the revolted Euboea and Megara, 446. End of the five years' truce
+  with Sparta; and renewal of hostilities, 445; further warlike
+  proceedings are repressed by a new thirty years' peace, which
+  lasts, however, only fourteen years.--Complete suppression of the
+  aristocratic party, by the banishment of the elder Thucydides,
+  444; the whole administration of the state consequently centres in
+  the hands of Pericles.--Democracy in the confederate states
+  favoured; forcibly introduced in Samos, which, after a nine
+  months' siege, is obliged to submit to Pericles, 440.--Commencement
+  of the war between Corinth and Corcyra, on the subject of Epidamnus,
+  436, which the Corcyraeans take possession of after winning a naval
+  victory, 435. The Athenians take part in the quarrel, and side with
+  the Corcyraeans, 432. The rupture with Corinth, and the policy of
+  Perdiccas II. king of Macedonia, lead to the secession of the
+  Corinthian colony of Potidaea, which previously belonged to the
+  Athenian confederacy: the war thereby is extended to the Macedonian
+  coast. Engagement near Potidaea, and siege of that town, 432. The
+  Corinthians direct their steps to Sparta, and excite the Spartans
+  to war; which is further accelerated by the attack of the Thebans
+  upon Plataeae, the confederate of Athens, 431.
+
+16. The history of the twenty-seven years' war, known by the name of the
+Peloponnesian, or great Grecian war, which swept away the fairest
+flowers of Greece, is the more deserving attention from its being not
+merely a struggle between nations, but likewise against certain forms of
+government. The policy of Athens, which to establish or preserve her
+influence in foreign states, excited the multitude against the higher
+orders, had on all sides given rise to two factions, the democrat or
+Athenian, and the aristocrat or Spartan; and the mutual bitterness of
+party spirit produced the most violent disorders.
+
+17. The respective relations of the two head states of Greece to their
+confederates, were at this time of a very opposite nature. Athens, as a
+naval power, was mistress of most of the islands and maritime cities,
+which, as tributary confederates, rendered for the most part a forced
+obedience. Sparta, as a land power, was allied with most of the states
+on the continent, which had joined her side of their own accord, and
+were not subject to tribute. Sparta therefore presented herself as the
+deliverer of Greece from the Athenian yoke.
+
+  Confederates of the Athenians: the islands Chios, Samos, Lesbos, all
+  those of the Archipelago, (Thera and Melos excepted, which stood
+  neutral,) Corcyra, Zacynthus; the Grecian colonies in Asia Minor, and
+  on the coast of Thrace and Macedonia; in Greece itself, the cities
+  of Naupactus, Plataeae, and those of Acarnania.--Confederates of the
+  Spartans: all the Peloponnesians, (Argos and Achaia excepted, which
+  stood neutral,) Megara, Locris, Phocis, Boeotia, the cities of
+  Ambracia and Anactorium, and the island of Leucas.
+
+18. Sketch of the internal state of Athens and Sparta at this period.
+The power of Athens depended mainly on the state of her finances;
+without which she could not support a fleet, and without a fleet her
+ascendancy over the confederates would of course fall to ground. And
+although Pericles, notwithstanding his lavish public expenditure, was
+able to enter upon the war with 6,000 talents in the treasury,
+experience could not fail to show that, in such a democratic state as
+Athens was now become under Pericles, the squandering of the public
+money was an unavoidable evil. This evil was produced, however, at
+Athens much less by the peculations of individual state officers than by
+the demands of the multitude, who for the most part lived at the expense
+of the state treasury. On the other hand, Sparta as yet had no finance;
+and only began to feel the want of it as she began to acquire a naval
+power, and entered upon undertakings more vast than mere incursions.
+
+  Financial system of the Athenians. Revenue: 1. The tribute paid by
+  the confederates ([Greek: phoroi]) increased by Pericles from four
+  hundred and sixty to six hundred talents. 2. Income from the
+  customs, (which were farmed,) and from the mines at Laurium. 3.
+  The caution money of the non-citizens: ([Greek: metoikoi].) 4. The
+  taxes on the citizens, ([Greek: eisphorai],) which fell almost
+  entirely on the rich, more particularly on the first class, the
+  members of which were not only to bear the burthen of fitting out
+  the fleet, ([Greek: trierarchiai],) but were likewise to furnish
+  means for the public festivals and spectacles, ([Greek:
+  choregiai].) The whole income of the republic at this time was
+  estimated at 2,000 talents. But the disbursements made to the
+  numerous assistants at the courts of justice (the principal means
+  of existence with the poorer citizens, and which, more than any
+  thing else, contributed to the licentiousness of the democracy and
+  the oppression of the confederates, whose causes were all brought
+  to Athens for adjudication,) together with the expenditure for
+  festivals and spectacles, even at this time, absorbed the greatest
+  part of the revenue.
+
+  # F. BOEKH, _Public Economy of the Athenians_, 2 parts, Berlin,
+  1816. The chief work on the subject. [Ably translated by J. C.
+  LEWIS, esq. of Christ Church in this university.]
+
+  _Athenian Letters, or the Epistolary Correspondence of an Agent of
+  the King of Persia, residing at Athens during the Peloponnesian
+  war._ London, 1798, 2 vols. 4to. The production of several young
+  authors; first printed, but not published, in 1741. This sketch
+  comprises, not only Greece, but likewise Persia and Egypt.
+
+19. First period of the war until the fifty years' peace. Beginning of
+the war unsuccessful to Athens during the first three years, under the
+conduct of Pericles, in whose defensive plan we may perhaps discern the
+infirmities of age. The Athenians, however, suffered less from the
+annual inroads of the Spartans than from the plague, to which Pericles
+himself at last fell a victim. The alliance of the Athenians with the
+kings of Thrace and Macedonia extended the theatre of war; on the other
+hand, Sparta had already conceived the idea of an alliance with Persia.
+
+20. The death of Pericles was, for the next seven years, during which
+the place of that great man was supplied by Cleon a currier, followed by
+all the evils of an uncurbed democracy. The atrocious decrees with
+respect to Mitylene, which after seceding, had been recaptured, and the
+insurrection of the Corcyraean populace against the rich, characterized
+the party spirit then dominant in Greece better than the few
+insignificant events of a war conducted without any plan. Sparta,
+however, found in young Brasidas a general, such as are wont to arise in
+revolutionary times. His prosecution of the war on the Macedonian coast
+might have brought great danger to Athens, had he so early not fallen a
+victim to his own gallantry.
+
+  Capture of Amphipolis by Brasidas, and exile of Thucydides, 424.
+  Engagement near Amphipolis between Brasidas and Cleon; and death
+  of those two generals, 422.
+
+21. The peace now concluded for fifty years could not be of long
+duration, as many of the confederates on either side were discontented
+with its terms. All hope of tranquillity must have been at an end when
+the management of Athenian affairs fell into the hands of a youth like
+Alcibiades, in whom vanity and artifice held the place of patriotism and
+talent, and who thought war the only field in which he could gain
+credit. Against him what availed the prudence of Nicias?--Happy was it
+for Athens that during the whole of this period Sparta never produced
+one man who could match even with Alcibiades!
+
+  Attempt of some states, Corinth especially, to set Argos at the
+  head of a new confederacy; this measure Athens likewise favours,
+  421.--Violation of the peace, 419; the war indirect until 415, and
+  limited to assisting the confederates on either side.--Alcibiades's
+  plan of giving Athens the preponderance in Peloponnesus, by an
+  alliance with Argos, is defeated by the battle of Mantinea,
+  417.--Exterminating war of the Athenians waged against the Melians,
+  who wish to preserve their neutrality, whereas neutrality in the
+  weaker party now becomes a crime, 416.
+
+22. Alcibiades's party brings forward at Athens the project of
+conquering Sicily, under the pretence of succouring the Segestani
+against the Syracusans. This rash expedition, in which the hopes both of
+the Athenians and of its instigator Alcibiades were blighted, gave to
+Athens the first great blow, from which she never after, even with the
+utmost exertion of her strength, recovered; especially as Sparta also
+was now become a naval power.
+
+  Early interference of the Athenians with the concerns of the
+  Sicilian Greeks.--A fleet and army under the command of Nicias,
+  Lamachus, and Alcibiades, sent against Sicily, 415.--Accusation,
+  recall, and flight of Alcibiades to Sparta: formal rupture of the
+  peace by an inroad of the Spartans into Attica, where they fortify
+  Decelea, 414. Unsuccessful siege of Syracuse, 414; and total
+  annihilation of the Athenian fleet and army by the assistance of
+  the Spartans under Gylippus, 413.
+
+23. Fatal as in the present circumstances the blow struck in Sicily must
+appear to have been to Athens, yet the calamity was surmounted by
+Athenian enthusiasm, never greater than in times of misfortune. They
+maintained their supremacy over the confederates; but the part which
+Alcibiades, in consequence of the new posture his own personal interest
+had assumed at Sparta, took in their affairs, brought about a twofold
+domestic revolution, which checked the licentious democracy.
+
+  Alliance of the Spartans with the Persians, and indecisive
+  engagement off Miletus--Flight of Alcibiades from Sparta to
+  Tissaphernes; his negotiations to gain the satrap over to the
+  interests of Athens, 411.--Equivocal policy of
+  Tissaphernes.--Negotiations of Alcibiades with the chiefs of the
+  Athenian army at Samos, and the consequent revolution at Athens,
+  and overthrow of the democracy by the appointment of the supreme
+  council of four hundred in place of the [Greek: boule], and of a
+  committee of five thousand citizens in place of the popular
+  assembly, 411.--The army assumes the right of debate; names
+  Alcibiades to be its leader; but declares again for
+  democracy.--Great commotions at Athens in consequence of the
+  discomfiture of the fleet at Eretria, and the secession of Euboea.
+  Deposition of the college of four hundred, after a despotic rule
+  of four months;--Reformation of the government;--Transfer of the
+  highest power to the hands of the five thousand;--Recall of
+  Alcibiades, and reconciliation with the army.
+
+24. Brilliant period of Alcibiades's command. The reiterated naval
+victories won by the Athenians over the Spartans under Mindarus, who,
+mistrusting Tissaphernes, now forms an alliance with Pharnabazus, satrap
+of the north of Asia Minor, oblige the Spartans to propose peace, which
+haughty Athens, unluckily for herself, rejects.
+
+  Two naval engagements on the Hellespont, 411.--Great victory by
+  sea and land won near Cyzicus, 410.--Confirmation of the Athenian
+  dominion over Ionia and Thrace by the capture of Byzantium, 480.
+  Alcibiades returns covered with glory; but in the same year is
+  deposed, and submits to a voluntary exile, 407.
+
+25. Arrival of the younger Cyrus in Asia Minor; the shrewdness of
+Lysander wins him over to the Spartan interest. The republican
+haughtiness of Lysander's successor, Callicratidas, shown to Cyrus, was
+a serious error in policy; for, unassisted by Persian money, Sparta was
+not in a condition to pay her mariners, nor consequently to support her
+naval establishment. After the defeat and death of Callicratidas, the
+command is restored to Lysander, who terminates the twenty seven years'
+war triumphantly for Sparta.
+
+  Naval victory of Lysander over the Athenians at Notium, 407; in
+  consequence of which Alcibiades is deprived of the
+  command.--Appointment of ten new leaders at Athens; Conon among
+  the number.--Naval victory of Callicratidas at Mitylene; Conon is
+  shut up in the harbour of that place, 406.--Great naval victory of
+  the Athenians; defeat and death of Callicratidas at the Aeginussae
+  islands, near Lesbos, 406.--Unjust condemnation of the Athenian
+  generals.--Second command of Lysander, and last _decisive_ victory
+  by sea over the Athenians at Aegospotamos on the Hellespont, Dec.
+  406.--The loss of the sovereignty of the sea is accompanied by the
+  defection of the confederates, who are successively subjected by
+  Lysander, 406.--Athens is besieged by Lysander in the same year,
+  405; the city surrenders in May, 404.--Athens is deprived of her
+  walls; her navy is reduced to twelve sail; and, in obedience to
+  Lysander's commands, the constitution is commuted into an
+  oligarchy, under thirty rulers, (tyrants.)
+
+26. Thus ended a war destructive in its moral, still more than in its
+political, consequences. Party spirit had usurped the place of patriotic
+feeling; as national prejudice had that of national energy. Athens being
+subdued, Sparta stood at the head of confederate Greece; but Greece very
+soon experienced the yoke of her deliverers to be infinitely more
+galling than that of the people hitherto called her oppressors. What
+evils must not have ensued from the revolutions Lysander now found it
+necessary to effect in most of the Grecian states, in order to place the
+helm of government in the hands of his own party under the
+superintendence of a Spartan harmost?--How oppressive must not have been
+the military rule of the numerous Spartan garrisons?--Nor could any
+alleviation of tribute be hoped for, now that in Sparta it was
+acknowledged that the "state must possess an exchequer."--The arrogance
+and rapacity of the new masters were rendered more grievous by their
+being more uncivilized and destitute.
+
+  History of the reign of terror at Athens under the thirty tyrants,
+  403.--What happened here must likewise have happened more or less
+  in the other Grecian cities, which Lysander found it necessary to
+  revolutionize. In all quarters his party consisted of men similar
+  to Critias and his colleagues, who appear to have been long before
+  united in clubs ([Greek: hetaireiai]) intimately connected with
+  each other; from which were now taken the most daring
+  revolutionists, in order to place them everywhere at the head of
+  affairs.
+
+27. Happy revolution in Athens, and expulsion of the thirty tyrants
+by Thrasybulus, favoured by the party at Sparta opposed to Lysander,
+and headed by king Pausanias. Restoration and reform of Solon's
+constitution; general amnesty. It was easy to reestablish forms;--to
+recall the departed spirit of the nation was impossible!
+
+  ED. PH. HINRICHS, _De Theramenis, Critiae et Thrasybuli, virorum
+  tempore belli Peloponnesiaci inter Graecos illustrium, rebus et
+  ingenio, Commentatio_, Hamburgi, 1820. An inquiry which exhibits
+  much research and impartiality.
+
+28. The defeat of the younger Cyrus entangles the Spartans in a war with
+the Persians, the same year that, after the death of king Agis,
+Agesilaus takes possession of the regal dignity. We willingly forget his
+usurpation as we follow him in his heroic career. None but a man of
+genius could have instructed Sparta how to support for so long a time
+the extravagant character which she had now undertaken to play.
+
+  Opening of the war with Persia by Tissaphernes's attack on the
+  Aeolian cities of Asia Minor, 400.--Command of Thimbron, who, 398,
+  is succeeded by the more successful and fortunate
+  Dercyllidas.--Availing himself of the jealousy between
+  Tissaphernes and Artabazus, he persuades the latter to a separate
+  truce, 397.--Command of Agesilaus; his expedition into Asia, from
+  the spring of 396 until 394. The conviction which he obtained of
+  the domestic weakness of the Persian empire in the successful
+  invasion of Phrygia, 395, seems to have matured in the mind of
+  Agesilaus the idea of overturning the Persian throne: this design
+  he would have accomplished had not the Persians been politic
+  enough to kindle a war against Sparta in Greece itself.
+
+29. The Corinthian war, waged against Sparta by Corinth, Thebes, and
+Argos, to which Athens and the Thessalians unite, terminated by the
+peace of Antalcidas. The tyranny of Sparta, and more particularly the
+recent devastation of Elis, a sacred territory, were the alleged
+pretexts; but the bribes of Timocrates, the Persian envoy, were the real
+causes of this war.
+
+  Irruption of the Spartans into Boeotia; they engage and are routed
+  at Haliartus, 394. Lysander falls on the field of battle; and
+  Agesilaus is recalled out of Asia.--His victory at Coronea ensures
+  to the Spartans the preponderance by land; but the discomfiture of
+  their navy near Cnidus at the same time, gives to their enemies
+  the sovereignty of the sea: Conon, who commanded the combined
+  Persian and Athenian fleets, avails himself, with consummate
+  skill, of this success to reestablish the independence of Athens,
+  393.--Sparta endeavours by apparently great sacrifices to bring
+  over the Persians to her interests: the peace at last concluded by
+  the efforts of the skilful Antalcidas, (see above, book ii, parag.
+  42), was readily agreed to by the Spartans, as they gave up only
+  what otherwise they could not have retained. The preponderance of
+  Sparta on the continent of Greece was established by the article
+  which invested them with the power of seeing the conditions of the
+  treaty fulfilled: the stipulated freedom of the Grecian cities was
+  but an apparent disadvantage; and now that the Asiatic colonies
+  were given up, the contest for power in Greece itself must be
+  decided by land, and not by sea.
+
+30. The quarrels which, after the peace of Antalcidas, Sparta began to
+have with Mantinea and Phlius, and still more so her participation in
+those between the Macedo-Greek cities and the over-powerful Olynthus,
+prove too plainly the arrogance with which Sparta behaved to the weaker
+states. But the arbitrary appropriation of the citadel of Thebes by
+Phoebidas,--an act not indeed commanded, yet approved by Sparta,--was
+attended with more serious consequences than were at first expected.
+Would that all authors of similar breaches of good faith and the law of
+nations were visited with the same vengeance!
+
+31. Period of the rivalry of Sparta and Thebes, Thebes, from the year
+378. The greatness of Thebes was the work of two men, who knew how to
+inspire their fellow-citizens and confederates with their own heroic
+spirit: with them Thebes rose, with them she fell. Rarely does history
+exhibit such a _duumvirate_ as that of Epaminondas and Pelopidas. How
+high must our estimation of Pythagoras be, even had his philosophy
+formed but one such man as Epaminondas!
+
+  Liberation of Thebes from Spartan rule by the successful attempt
+  of Pelopidas and his fellow-conspirators, 378. Vain attempts
+  against Thebes, by the Spartans under Cleombrotus, 378, and
+  Agesilaus, 377 and 376. The defensive war conducted by Pelopidas,
+  during which he established the Theban supremacy in Boeotia, and
+  brought over the Athenians, (whose fleet, 376, beat that of the
+  Spartans,) deserves our admiration more than the winning of a
+  battle.--The vast plans of Thebes were not unfolded, however, till
+  Epaminondas was at the head of affairs.
+
+  SERAN DE LA TOUR, _Histoire d'Epaminondas_. Paris, 1752.
+
+  # MEISSNER, _Life of Epaminondas_. Prague, 1801, 2 parts. In which
+  the authorities are duly considered.
+
+  # J. G. SCHEIBEL, _Essays towards a better understanding of the
+  Ancient World_, 1809. The second part contains an essay upon the
+  history of Thebes, as the first does on that of Corinth.
+
+32. A general peace is concluded in Greece through the mediation of the
+Persians, (who wish to obtain auxiliaries against the Egyptians,) under
+the condition that all the Grecian cities shall be free: it is acceded
+to by Sparta and Athens, but rejected by Thebes, because she cannot
+admit the condition without again falling under the Spartan yoke. In
+fact, the lofty language used by Epaminondas, as envoy to Sparta, shows
+that it was problematic whether Sparta or Thebes should now be at the
+head of Greece. Could the idea, therefore, of a perfect equality between
+the states of Greece be other than chimerical?
+
+33. The long struggle maintained so gloriously by Epaminondas against
+Sparta is remarkable both in a political and military point of view. The
+power of Sparta was abased; Epaminondas invented a new system of
+tactics, (out of which soon after sprang the Macedonian art of war;) and
+as soon as he found confederates in Peloponnesus itself, he made his way
+to the very gates of Sparta.
+
+  Victory won by the Thebans at Leuctra, July 8, 371, and
+  annihilation of what hitherto had been called the supremacy of
+  Sparta.--First irruption into Peloponnesus preceded by alliances
+  with Arcadia, Elis, and Argos.--The attack upon Sparta itself is
+  unsuccessful; but the freedom of Messene is restored, 369.
+
+34. Sparta in distress forms an alliance with Athens, under the
+stipulation that the command shall alternately be in the hands of the
+two confederates; conditions, no doubt, humiliating to Spartan pride! It
+however affords them the means of frustrating Epaminondas's new attempt
+on Corinth and the Peloponnesus. Even Dionysius I. of Syracuse, thinks
+himself bound to assist the Spartans as being Dorians.
+
+35. Thebes played a no less brilliant part in the north than she did in
+the south. And had the attempts to liberate Thessaly from the rule of
+the tyrant, Alexander of Pherae, been attended with success, Thebes would
+have received a vast increase of power. Even in Macedonia she acted as
+arbitress.
+
+  First and successful expedition of Pelopidas into Thessaly,
+  368.--After the decision of the disputed succession to the
+  Macedonian throne, young Philip is brought as hostage to Thebes,
+  and educated in the house of Epaminondas.--Pelopidas is sent as
+  ambassador, and taken prisoner by Alexander; hence the second
+  expedition of the Thebans, in which Epaminondas rescues the army
+  and delivers his friend, 367.
+
+36. Alliance of Thebes with Persia successfully brought about by
+Pelopidas. In the intrigues of the opponents at the Persian court, the
+object of each was to bring that court over to his own interest. Yet the
+domineering tone in which the Persians wished to dictate peace, had not
+the consequences that might have been expected; and although Sparta
+consented to her confederates remaining neutral, she would not forego
+her claims on Messene. The establishment of a navy would have been of
+more important consequences to Thebes than this alliance, had not all
+these plans, together with the greatness of Thebes, been swept away by
+the premature death of her two leading men.
+
+  Last expedition of Pelopidas against Alexander of Pherae, in which
+  he himself falls, 364.--New irruption into Peloponnesus caused by
+  the commotions in Arcadia.--Battle of Mantinea, and death of
+  Epaminondas, June 27, 362.--General peace in Greece mediated by
+  the Persians; Sparta does not assent to it on account of Messene,
+  but sends Agesilaus to Egypt, there to support the insurrection of
+  Tachos.
+
+37. The result of this bloody struggle for the supremacy of Greece was,
+that neither Sparta nor Thebes obtained it; the former of these states
+being weakened by the loss of Messene, the latter by the loss of its
+leaders, and both strained by their violent exertions. The situation of
+Greece after this war seems to have been thus far changed, that no state
+had the predominance; an independence proceeding from enervation. Even
+Athens, who by means of her naval power still preserved her influence
+over the cities on the coast and in the islands, lost the greater part
+in the war of the allies, together with three of her most celebrated
+leaders, Chabrias, Timotheus, and Iphicrates, whose places were ill
+supplied by Chares.
+
+  Confederacy of the islands Cos, Rhodes, and Chios, and the city of
+  Byzantium; their secession from Athens, 358.--Unsuccessful siege
+  of Chios, before which Chabrias falls, 358; of Byzantium, 357.
+  Athens suffers a still greater injury from the cabals of Chares
+  against his colleagues Timotheus and Iphicrates, and from her
+  imprudent participation in the insurrection of Artabazus, 356. The
+  threats of Artaxerxes III. force Athens to make a peace, in which
+  she is obliged to acknowledge the freedom of her confederates.
+
+38. At the very time when the growing power of Macedonia under Philip
+ought to have united all the Grecian states, had such an union been
+within the range of possibility, Greece plunged into another civil war
+of ten years' duration, which is known by the name of the sacred or
+Phocian war. The Amphictyonic assembly, whose duty it was to maintain
+peace, and whose influence had been in the present circumstances
+reinstated, abused its authority by kindling discord. The hatred of the
+Thebans, who sought for new opportunities of quarrel with Sparta, and
+the ambition of the Phocian Philomelus, were the real causes which led
+to the war, which the policy of Philip knew how to prolong till the
+precise moment favourable to his own particular views arrived. The
+treasures of Delphi circulating in Greece, were as injurious to the
+country as the ravages which it underwent. A war springing out of
+private passions, fostered by bribes and subsidiary troops, and
+terminated by the interference of foreign powers, was exactly what was
+requisite for annihilating the scanty remains of morality and patriotism
+still existing in Greece.
+
+  Sentence of the Amphictyons against Sparta on account of the
+  former surprise of the citadel of Thebes by Phoebidas; and against
+  Phocis on account of the tillage of the sacred lands of Delphi,
+  357.--Philomelus is elected general of the Phocians; the rifling
+  of the treasury of Delphi enables him to take into his pay
+  Athenian and other auxiliaries, and to carry war against the
+  Thebans and their confederates, the Locrians, etc. under pretence
+  of their being the executors of the Amphictyonic decrees.
+  Philomelus having fallen, 353, is succeeded by his brother
+  Onomarchus, more skilful than himself in intrigue and war: but
+  Onomarchus having fallen, 352, in the battle with Philip in
+  Thessaly, is followed by Phayllus. Philip even thus early
+  endeavours to push through Thermopylae into Greece, but is repelled
+  by the Athenians. He executes this plan after his peace with
+  Athens, 347, and having procured the expulsion of the Phocians
+  from the Amphictyonic council, gets their place and right of vote
+  to be transferred to himself.
+
+39. From the very first advance of Philip, the fate of Greece could
+scarcely afford matter for doubt; although the eloquence of Demosthenes
+warded it off until the second invasion, caused by the Amphictyonic
+sentence passed on the Locrians. (See below, book iv. parag. 15.) The
+battle of Chaeronea laid the foundation of Macedonia's complete
+ascendancy over the Grecian republics: by the appointment of Philip to
+be generalissimo of Greece in the Persian war, that ascendancy was, as
+it were, formally acknowledged; nor did it end with the assassination of
+that prince.
+
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+FOURTH BOOK.
+
+HISTORY OF THE MACEDONIAN MONARCHY.
+
+
+
+
+FIRST PERIOD.
+
+_From its origin to the death of Alexander the Great. B. C. 800-323._
+
+
+  Sources. We have no historian who wrote, particularly, on
+  Macedonia, before the time of Alexander. The facts relative to the
+  earlier history previous to Philip are collected from Diodorus,
+  Justin, Thucydides, and Arrian; from Diodorus more especially. In
+  consequence of the loss of the other historians, Diodorus is the
+  chief authority for the history of Philip; the speeches of
+  Demosthenes and Aeschines must likewise be consulted, but not made
+  use of without caution and judicious historical criticism. With
+  respect to Alexander the Great, as so many writers on his reign
+  have been destroyed by time, Arrian must now be considered as the
+  chief authority, on account of the care he has shown in the
+  selection of his authorities, conjointly with the seventeenth book
+  of Diodorus. Plutarch's biography contains several valuable
+  additional facts; and even the superficial Curtius might furnish us
+  with abundance of information, did his accounts offer higher claims
+  to our credit.
+
+1. An Hellenic colony from Argos, headed by the Temenidae, a branch of
+the Heraclidae, settled in Emathia, and laid the feeble foundation of the
+Macedonian empire, which was in time to rise to such power. Not only did
+the settlers keep their footing in the country, in spite of the
+aboriginal inhabitants; but their princes gradually extended their
+territory, by subjecting or expelling several of the neighbouring
+tribes. Their earlier history, not excepting even the names of their
+kings, is buried in obscurity till the time of the Persian invasions.
+
+  The three first Macedonian kings, Caranus said to have ruled
+  twenty-eight years, Coenus twenty-three, Tyrmas forty-five, were
+  unknown to Herodotus, who names as founder of the Macedonian
+  monarchy, Perdiccas, 729-678. Of this prince and his successors
+  Argaeus, _d._ 640, Philip I. _d._ 602, Aeropus, _d._ 576, and
+  Alcetas, _d._ 547, nothing more is known than that they waged war,
+  with various success against the neighbouring Pierians and
+  Illyrians, who had their own kings.
+
+2. When the Persians commenced their incursions into Europe, Macedonia,
+by its situation, must have been one of the first countries they
+ravaged. Accordingly, as early as the reign of Darius Hystaspis, the
+Macedonian kings were tributary to the Persians; and were indebted for
+their deliverance from that yoke, not to their own valour, but to the
+victories of the Greeks. The battle of Plataeae restored independence to
+the Macedonian kingdom, although that independence was not formally
+acknowledged by the Persians.
+
+  Immediately after the Scythian campaign, 513, Amyntas (_d._ 498,)
+  became tributary to the Persians; his son and successor, Alexander,
+  (_d._ 454,) was in the same state of subjection, and was even
+  compelled to join the expedition of Xerxes.
+
+3. But the expulsion of the Persians still left Macedonia exposed to the
+attacks of other formidable neighbours; on one side there was the
+Thracians, among whom, under Sitalces, and his successor, Seuthes, arose
+the powerful kingdom of the Odrysae; on the other, the Athenians, who,
+availing themselves of their extensive navy, reduced to subjection the
+Grecian settlements on the Macedonian shores. Harassing as these
+neighbours were to the Macedonian kings, they proved to be the very
+instruments by which Macedonia became so early and so deeply involved in
+the affairs of Greece.
+
+  Commencement of the differences with Athens, under the reign of
+  Perdiccas II, 454-413; Athens having supported his brother Philip
+  against him.--Defection of Potidaea, and fortification of Olynthus,
+  into which the Greeks from Chalcis and other cities are
+  transplanted, 432. Potidaea being forced to surrender to Athens,
+  431, Perdiccas contrives to play so skilful a part in the
+  Peloponnesian war just now commencing, that he outwits the
+  Athenians, parrying the attack of Sitalces by a marriage of his
+  sister with Seuthes, the heir to that prince, 429. His alliance
+  with Sparta, 424, is very detrimental to the Athenians, Brasidas
+  wresting Amphipolis from their hands; nevertheless Perdiccas
+  chooses rather to conclude a peace with Athens, 423, than to throw
+  himself entirely into the arms of his new allies.
+
+4. Archelaus, the successor of Perdiccas, introduced agriculture and
+civilization among the Macedonians, who were never, however, recognized
+by the Hellenes as their legitimate brethren: highways and military
+roads were constructed; forts were erected; and the court became the
+seat of literature. In these days the Macedonian kingdom seems to have
+comprised Emathia, Mygdonia, and Pelagonia, to which may be added some
+of the neighbouring tribes, who, although governed by their own kings,
+were tributary. The power of the kings was insignificant when unaided by
+the nobles, among whom, as was the case with all the hereditary princes
+of Greece, they merely held the right of precedence. How difficult was
+it, even in Alexander's time, to erase from the minds of the Macedonian
+nobility the recollection of their former importance!
+
+5. The murder of Archelaus was followed by a stormy period, wrapped in
+obscurity: the unsettled state of the succession raised up many
+pretenders to the throne, each of whom easily found the means of
+supporting his claims, either in some of the neighbouring tribes, or in
+one of the Grecian republics.
+
+  Aeropus, as guardian to the young king Orestes, usurps the supreme
+  power, B. C. 400-394. After his death, and the murder of his son
+  Pausanias, 393, the throne was seized by Amyntas II. son of
+  Philip, and brother to Perdiccas II. who was nevertheless unable
+  to maintain his power until he had gained a victory over Argaeus,
+  the brother of Pausanias, who was backed by the Illyrians,
+  390-369. The war with Olynthus, 383-380, could not be brought to a
+  successful conclusion until he had formed an alliance with Sparta.
+
+6. The three sons of Amyntas II, Alexander, Perdiccas, and Philip,
+successively ascended the throne after the death of their father; but so
+violent were the commotions during the reigns of the two former, that
+the future existence of Macedonia as a kingdom might have been regarded
+as problematical: it is certain that they were obliged to submit to the
+payment of tribute to the Illyrians.
+
+  Alexander, in opposition to his rival, Ptolemy of Alorus, placed
+  on the throne by Pelopidas, sends his youngest brother Philip as
+  hostage to Thebes: in the same year he is deposed by Ptolemy, 368.
+  Reign of Ptolemy, 388-365, with the stipulation imposed, 367, by
+  Pelopidas, that he shall only hold the sceptre in reserve for the
+  two younger brothers. Murder of Ptolemy, 365, by Perdiccas III.
+  who is nearly overwhelmed by Pausanias, another and earlier
+  pretender to the crown; he is at last firmly seated on the throne
+  by the Athenians, under Iphicrates, 364. But as early as 360 he
+  falls in the war against the Illyrians, leaving behind him a son,
+  Amyntas, still a minor, and a younger brother Philip, who escapes
+  from Thebes in order to gain possession of the throne.
+
+7. The reign of Philip, which lasted twenty-four years, is one of the
+most instructive and interesting in the whole range of history, as well
+on account of the prudence he displayed, as for the manner in which his
+plans were arranged and executed. Though it may be difficult to trace in
+his morals the pupil of Epaminondas, yet it is impossible to view
+without feelings of astonishment the brilliant career of a man, who,
+under the almost hopeless circumstances in which he commenced his
+course, never lost his firmness of mind, and who in the highest
+prosperity preserved his coolness of reflection.
+
+  The history of Philip, even in his own days, was distorted to his
+  disadvantage by orators and historians. Demosthenes could not,
+  Theopompus would not, be impartial; and the information contained
+  in Diodorus and Justin is mostly derived from the work of the
+  latter.
+
+  OLIVIER, _Histoire de Philippe, roi de Macedoine_. Paris, 1740, 2
+  vols. 8vo. A defence of Philip.
+
+  DE BURY, _Histoire de Philippe, et d'Alexandre le grand_. Paris,
+  1760, 4to. A very mean performance.
+
+  TH. LELAND, _The History of the Life and Reign of Philip king of
+  Macedon_. London, 1761, 4to. Dry, but exhibiting much reading and
+  strict impartiality.
+
+  In MITFORD, _History of Greece_, vol. iv, Philip has found his
+  most zealous panegyrist and defender. It would seem that, even in
+  the present day, it is impossible to write an impartial history of
+  this monarch.
+
+8. Melancholy posture of the Macedonian affairs at the beginning of
+Philip's reign. Besides victorious foes abroad, there were at home two
+pretenders to the throne, Argaeus, backed by Athens, Pausanias, supported
+by Thrace; and Philip himself, at first, was merely regent, and not
+king. In the two first years, however, every thing was changed, and
+Macedonia recovered her independence. The newly-created phalanx ensured
+victory over the barbarians; recourse was had to other means than force
+for success against the suspiciousness of Athens and the neighbouring
+Greek settlements, particularly against the powerful Olynthus. It is in
+the conduct of these affairs that the peculiar sagacity of Philip is
+displayed.
+
+  After the defeat of Argaeus, peace is purchased from Athens by a
+  momentary recognition of the freedom of Amphipolis, 360.--Removal
+  of Pausanias by means of an accommodation with Thrace.--By the
+  conquest of the Paeonians and Illyrians, 359, the boundaries of
+  Macedonia are extended to Thrace, and westward to the lake
+  Lychnitis.--As early as 360 Philip was proclaimed king.
+
+9. Development of Philip's further plans of aggrandizement.--By the
+gradual subjection of the Macedo-Greek cities, he proposed, not only to
+make himself sole master in Macedonia, but also to remove the Athenians
+from his domain.--The first object of his policy against Greece was to
+get himself acknowledged as a Hellen, and Macedonia as a member of the
+Hellenic league. Hence the subsequent tutelage in which Macedonia held
+Greece was not converted into a formal subjection, a proceeding which
+would have savoured too much of barbarian origin.--The execution of all
+these plans was facilitated by the possession of the Thracian gold
+mines, which enabled Philip to create finances as well as the phalanx.
+
+  Capture of Amphipolis, 358; in the mean while Athens is amused
+  with promises, and Olynthus with the momentary cession of Potidaea,
+  which had likewise been captured: this event is followed by the
+  conquest of the mountainous districts, abounding in gold, which
+  extend from the Nestus to the Strymon, and furnished an annual
+  income of nearly 1,000 talents.
+
+10. The interference of Philip in the affairs of Thessaly dates from the
+year 357; the possession of that country was an object equally important
+for the furtherance of his views upon Greece, as for the improvement of
+his finances. He first stepped forth as the deliverer of Thessaly, and
+ended in making it a province of Macedonia.
+
+  Expulsion of the tyrants from Pherae, at the request of the
+  Aleuadae, 356; the tyrants, however, receive support in the sacred
+  war from the Phocians under Onomarchus. The final defeat of
+  Onomarchus, 352, makes Philip master of Thessaly; he places
+  Macedonian garrisons in the three chief places, and thus supports
+  his authority in the country until he is pleased to make it
+  entirely a Macedonian province, 344.
+
+11. The protraction of the sacred war in Greece furnished Philip with an
+excellent opportunity of promoting his views upon that country; although
+his first attempt at an irruption, too precipitately undertaken, was
+frustrated by the Athenians. The capture of Olynthus, notwithstanding
+the assistance afforded it by the Athenians, after a season of apparent
+inaction, insured the safety of the frontiers in his rear; and by a
+master stroke of policy, almost at the very moment in which he was
+driving the Athenians out of Euboea, he found means to enter with them
+into negotiations, which, after repeated embassies, were closed by a
+peace, opening to him the way through Thermopylae, and enabling him to
+raise a party favourable to himself within the very walls of Athens.
+
+12. First descent of Philip into Greece, and termination of the sacred
+war by reducing the Phocians. The place which he now obtained in the
+Amphictyonic council, had been the height of his wishes; and the
+humility of Sparta proved how firmly his ascendancy over Greece was
+already established.
+
+13. Brief view of the state of Greece, and more particularly of Athens,
+after the sacred war; description of the means by which Philip succeeded
+in creating and supporting parties favourable to his own interests in
+the Grecian states. Bribery was not his only instrument; what he gave he
+borrowed from others; the main feature of his policy was, that he seldom
+or ever recurred to the same means. Scheming and consistent even in his
+drunken revels, he hardly ever appears under the same form.
+
+  Dreadful consequences to the morals of the Greeks, resulting from
+  the spirit of party, the decline of religion, and the vast
+  increase in the circulating medium, produced by the treasures of
+  Delphi and Macedonia.--Estimate of the power of Athens during the
+  period of Demosthenes and Phocion. It seems that, unfortunately,
+  the eloquence and political acuteness of the former was not
+  accompanied with sufficient talents for negotiation; the latter,
+  perhaps, did not place confidence enough in his country, while
+  Demosthenes placed too much. In spite of public indolence and
+  effeminacy, Athens was still enabled to support her rank as a
+  maritime power, the navy of Philip not being equal to hers.
+
+  # A. G. BECKER, _Demosthenes as a Statesman and an Orator_. An
+  historico-critical introduction to his works: 1815. A very useful
+  work, both as a history and as an introduction to the political
+  orations of Demosthenes.
+
+14. New conquests of Philip in Illyria and Thrace. The Adriatic sea and
+the Danube appear to have been the boundaries of his empire on this
+side. But the views of the Macedonian king were directed less against
+the Thracians, than against the Grecian settlements on the Hellespont;
+and the attack of the Athenian Diopithes furnished him a pretext for
+making war against them. The siege, however, of Perinthus and Byzantium,
+was frustrated by Phocion, to the great vexation of Philip; an event
+which aroused the Athenians, and even the Persians, from their lethargy.
+
+15. Policy of Philip after this check.--At the very time that, engaged
+in a war against the barbarians on the Danube, he appears to have wholly
+lost sight of the affairs of Greece, his agents redouble their activity.
+Aeschines, richly paid for his services, proposes in the Amphictyonic
+council, that, to punish the sacrilegious insults of the Locrians to the
+Delphian oracle, he should be elected leader of the Greeks in this new
+sacred war. Following his usual maxim, Philip suffers himself to be
+entreated.
+
+16. Second expedition of Philip into Greece. His appropriation of the
+important frontier town of Elatea soon showed that, for this time at
+least, he was not contending merely for the honour of Apollo.--Alliance
+between Athens and Thebes brought about by Demosthenes.--But the defeat
+of Chaeronea in the same year decided the dependence of Greece. Philip
+now found it easy to play the magnanimous character towards Athens.
+
+17. Preparations for the execution of his plan against Persia, not as
+his own undertaking, but as a national war of the Hellenes against the
+barbarians. Thus, while Philip, by obtaining from the Amphictyons the
+appointment of generalissimo of Greece against the Persians, secured in
+an _honourable_ manner the dependence of the country, the splendour of
+the expedition flattered the nation at whose expense it was to be
+conducted. It is a question, indeed, whether Philip's own private views
+extended much further!
+
+18. The internal government of Macedonia, under so skilful and
+successful a conqueror, must necessarily have been absolute. No
+pretender would dare to rise up against such a ruler, and the body guard
+([Greek: doryphoroi]) established by him at the beginning of his reign,
+and taken from the Macedonian nobility, contributed much to keep up a
+proper understanding between the prince and the nobles. The court became
+a military staff, while the people, from a nation of herdsmen, was
+converted into a nation of warriors.--Philip was unfortunate only in his
+own family; but the blame is not to be attributed to him if he could not
+agree with Olympias.
+
+19. Philip murdered by Pausanias at Aegae, probably at the instigation of
+the Persians, while celebrating the marriage of his daughter.
+
+20. The reign of ALEXANDER the GREAT, in the eyes of the historical
+inquirer, derives its great interest, not only from the extent, but from
+the permanence, of the revolution which he effected in the world. To
+appreciate properly the character of this prince, who died just as he
+was about to carry his mighty projects into execution, is no easy task;
+but it is totally repugnant to common sense to suppose that the pupil of
+Aristotle was nothing more than a wild and reckless conqueror, unguided
+by any plan.
+
+  ST. CROIX, _Examen critique des anciens historiens
+  d'Alexandre-le-grand_, 2nd. edition, _considerablement augmentee_.
+  Paris, 1804, 4to. The new edition of this, which is the principal
+  work on the history of Alexander, and important in more respects
+  than one, contains more than the title implies, though by no means
+  a strictly impartial estimate of that prince's character.
+
+21. Violent commotions at court, in the conquered countries, and in
+Greece, after the death of Philip. Great as his power appeared to be,
+the preservation of it depended entirely on the first display of
+character in his successor. Alexander showed himself worthy to inherit
+the sceptre by his victorious expedition against the Thracians; (to
+whom, and more especially to his alliance with the Agrians, he was
+afterwards indebted for his light horse;) and by the example which he
+exhibited to Greece in his treatment of Thebes.
+
+22. Appointment of Alexander in the assembly at Corinth to be
+generalissimo of the Greeks. Yet what his father would probably have
+turned to a very different account, he allowed to remain a mere nominal
+office.--Development of his plan of attack upon Persia.--The want of a
+navy, soon experienced by Alexander, would probably have frustrated his
+whole project, had not Memnon's counterplan of an inroad into Macedonia
+been thwarted by the celerity of the Macedonian king.
+
+23. Passage over the Hellespont, and commencement of the war. The
+tranquillity of his kingdom and of Greece appeared to be secured,
+Antipater being left at the head of affairs.--The victory on the
+Granicus opens to Alexander a path into Asia Minor; but the death of
+Memnon, which soon after followed, was perhaps a greater advantage than
+a victory.
+
+24. The victory of Issus, gained over Darius in person, appears to have
+given Alexander the first idea of completely overturning the Persian
+throne, as was proved by the rejection of Darius's offers of peace. When
+indeed have not the plans of conquerors been dependent on the course of
+events? Yet Alexander must have been pretty certain of his future
+victory, since he permitted Darius to escape, while he sat down seven
+months before Tyre, in order to make himself master of the sea; and,
+after the conquest of Egypt without a battle, to which the possession of
+Tyre opened the way, to build Alexandria, and erect to himself a
+monument more lasting than all his victories.
+
+  Although Alexandria perhaps in the end may have surpassed the
+  expectations of the founder, yet the selection of the site,
+  favourable only for navigation and commerce, shows that an eye was
+  originally had to those objects.
+
+25. Invasion of Inner Asia, facilitated by the tacit submission of the
+ruling tribes, and by the state of cultivation in which the country was
+found. On the plains of Arbela the Macedonian tactics were completely
+triumphant. It might now be said that the throne of Persia was
+overturned; and the unexpectedly easy capture of Babylon, Susa, and
+Persepolis, was surely of more importance for the moment than the
+pursuit of a flying king.
+
+  Insurrection of the Greeks quelled by Antipater; Alexander himself
+  falls in with the malcontent envoys to Darius in the interior of
+  Asia.
+
+26. The subjection of the north-eastern provinces of the Persian empire
+would perhaps have been attended with the greatest difficulties, had
+not the astonishing activity of the conqueror crushed in their birth
+the schemes of the treacherous Bessus, who, after the assassination of
+Darius, wished to erect a separate kingdom in Bactria. The Jaxartes was
+now the northern boundary of the Macedonian monarchy, as it had hitherto
+been that of the Persian. Besides, the possession of the rich trading
+countries, Bactria and Sogdiana, was in itself an object of vast
+importance.
+
+  During this expedition, the execution of Philotas and his father
+  Parmenio took place, though both were, probably, guiltless of the
+  conspiracy laid to their charge, 330. After the death of Darius,
+  Alexander met with almost constant opposition in his own army: the
+  majority of the troops fancying that that event precluded the
+  necessity of any further exertions. Cautious as Alexander was in
+  his treatment of the Macedonian nobles, we may discern, not
+  however by the mere example of Clitus, how difficult they found it
+  to banish from their memory the relations in which they had
+  formerly stood to their kings.
+
+27. Alexander's expedition against India had, no doubt, its origin in
+that propensity to romantic enterprise which constituted a main feature
+in his character. Yet what could be more natural than that a close view
+of Persian splendour, the conquest of such wealthy countries, and the
+desire of prosecuting his vast commercial designs, should gradually
+mature in the mind of the Macedonian king the plan of subjecting a
+country which was represented as the golden land of Asia. To this
+likewise the scantiness of geographic information must have greatly
+contributed; if he pressed forward to the eastern seas, the circle of
+his dominion would, it was supposed, be complete.--It appears very
+certain that Alexander was destitute of a sufficient knowledge of the
+country when he entered upon this expedition.
+
+  Alexander's invasion was directed against Northern India, or the
+  Panjab; in those days a populous and highly cultivated country;
+  now the seat of the Seiks and Mahrattas; and then, as now,
+  inhabited by warlike races. He crossed the Indus at Taxila
+  (Attock,) passed the Hydaspes (Behut or Chelum,) and, availing
+  himself of the quarrels between the Indian princes, defeated the
+  king, Porus. He then proceeded across the Acesines (Jenaub) and
+  Hydraotes (Rauvee). The eastern verge reached in this expedition
+  was the river Hyphasis (Beyah;) here, having already proceeded
+  half way to the Ganges, the conqueror was, by a mutiny in his
+  army, compelled to retreat. His return was through the country of
+  the Malli (Multan) as far as the Hydaspes, when the majority of
+  his troops took ship, and were floated along that stream into the
+  Acesines, and from thence into the Indus, which they followed down
+  to its mouth.
+
+  RENNEL, _Memoir of a Map of Hindostan_. London, 1793, (3d. edit.)
+  and
+
+  ST. CROIX, _Examen_, etc. (see p. 216.) furnish all the necessary
+  historical and geographical explanations relative to the Persian
+  and Indian campaigns of Alexander.
+
+28. Although Alexander was obliged to give up the project of conquering
+India, yet the connection between Europe and the east, which has
+continued from that time, was the work of his hands. While the
+communication on land was secured by the establishment of various
+settlements, the communication by sea was opened by the voyage of his
+admiral, Nearchus, from the Indus to the Euphrates. In the mean time
+Alexander himself proceeded to Persis and Babylon, across the desert,
+and the unexplored provinces of Gedrosia and Carmania.
+
+  Nearchus's voyage (our knowledge of which is derived from his own
+  journal, preserved in Arrian's _Indica_) lasted from the
+  beginning of October, 326, to the end of February, 325: nearly
+  the same time was occupied in the almost incredible land march of
+  the king.
+
+  VINCENT, _The Voyage of Nearchus from the Indus to the Euphrates_.
+  London, 1797, 4to. Exhibiting the most learned researches, and
+  illustrated with excellent charts.
+
+29. After the abandonment of India, the whole circuit of Alexander's
+conquests was precisely that of the former Persian empire; his later
+projects were probably directed against Arabia alone. However easy it
+had been to make these conquests, it was a more difficult task to retain
+them; for Macedonia, exhausted by continual levies of men, could not
+furnish efficient garrisons. Alexander removed this difficulty, by
+protecting the conquered from oppression; by showing proper respect to
+their religion; by leaving the civil government in the hands of the
+native rulers who had hitherto possessed it; and by confiding to
+Macedonians the command only of the garrisons left in the chief places,
+and in the newly established colonies. To alter as little as possible in
+the internal organization of countries was his fundamental principle.
+
+30. Simple as Alexander's plans were in the outset, their simplicity was
+more than compensated by the magnitude and importance of their results.
+Babylon was to be the capital of his empire, and consequently of the
+world. The union of the east and the west was to be brought about by the
+amalgamation of the dominant races by intermarriage, by education, and,
+more than all, by the ties of commerce, the importance of which much
+ruder conquerors, in Asia itself, soon learnt to appreciate. In nothing
+probably is the superiority of his genius more brilliantly displayed,
+than in his exemption from all national prejudice, particularly when we
+consider that none of his countrymen were in this respect to be compared
+with him. To refuse him this merit is impossible, whatever judgment we
+may form of his general character.
+
+31. Sudden death of Alexander at Babylon by fever; under the peculiar
+circumstances of the time, the greatest loss mankind could experience.
+From the Indus to the Nile the world lay in ruins; and where was now the
+architect to be found, that could gather up the scattered fragments and
+restore the edifice?
+
+  Alexander's disorder may be easily accounted for by the hardships
+  he had undergone, and the impure air to which he exposed himself
+  in cleaning out the canals about Babylon. He certainly was not
+  poisoned; and in the charge of immoderate drunkenness brought
+  against him, we must take into account the manners of the
+  Macedonian and Persian courts. Was it not the same with Peter the
+  Great? In estimating his moral character we must bear in mind the
+  natural vehemence of his passions, ever inclined to the most rapid
+  transitions; nor should we forget the unavoidable influence of
+  constant success upon mankind.
+
+
+
+
+SECOND PERIOD.
+
+_History of the Macedonian monarchy, from the death of Alexander
+the Great to the battle of Ipsus, B. C. 323-301._
+
+
+  To enable the reader to take a general view, the history of the
+  European events is resumed below, under the head of the history
+  of Macedonia Proper.
+
+  SOURCES. Diodorus, lib. xviii-xx. is the great authority for this
+  portion of history. He compiled mostly, for this period, from a
+  contemporary historian, Hieronymus of Cardia. He is followed by
+  Plutarch in the Lives of Eumenes, Demetrius, and Phocion; and by
+  Justin, lib. xiii, etc. Of Arrian's history of Alexander's
+  successors, nothing unfortunately remains but a few fragments in
+  Photius.
+
+  # MANNERT, _History of Alexander's successors_. Nuremberg, 1787.
+  Composed with the usual judgment and learning of that author.
+
+1. The very first measure adopted after the death of Alexander contained
+within itself the seeds of all the dire revolutions that afterwards
+ensued. Not only were the jealousy and ambition of the nobles aroused,
+but even the interference of the army was exhibited in the most terrific
+manner. Although the idea of the supremacy of the royal family was cast
+off only by degrees, yet the dreadfully disturbed state in which that
+family stood, rendered its fall unavoidable.
+
+  State of the royal family at the death of Alexander. He left his
+  wife Roxana pregnant, who at the end of three months brought into
+  the world the rightful heir to the sceptre, Alexander; he left
+  likewise an illegitimate son, Hercules; a bastard half-brother,
+  Arrhidaeus; his mother, the haughty and cruel Olympias, and a
+  sister, Cleopatra, both widows; the artful Eurydice, (daughter to
+  Cyane, one of Philip's sisters,) subsequently married to the king,
+  Arrhidaeus; and Thessalonica, Philip's daughter, afterwards united
+  to Cassander of Macedonia.
+
+2. The weak Arrhidaeus, under the name of Philip, and the infant
+Alexander were at last proclaimed kings, the _regency_ being placed in
+the hands of Perdiccas, Leonnatus, and Meleager; the last of whom was
+quickly cut off at the instigation of Perdiccas. Meanwhile Antipater,
+with whom Craterus had been joined as civil ruler, had the management of
+affairs in Europe.
+
+3. The sequel of the history becomes naturally that of satraps, who fell
+out among themselves, all being ambitious to rule, and none willing to
+obey. Twenty-two years elapsed ere any massy edifice arose out of the
+ruins of the Macedonian monarchy. In few periods of history are the
+revolutions of affairs so violent, in few periods, therefore, is it so
+difficult to unravel the maze of events. For this purpose the most
+convenient division of the history is into _three_ periods: the first
+extending to the death of Perdiccas, 321: the second to the death of
+Eumenes, 315: the third to the defeat and death of Antigonus at the
+battle of Ipsus, 301.
+
+4. First grant of the provinces made by Perdiccas. The vanity of this
+man seems to have induced him to select the office of regent, in order
+that no separate province might fall to his share; he placed his whole
+reliance on having the command of the royal army, although it had
+already given so many proofs of its determination to command rather than
+to obey.
+
+  In this division Ptolemy son of Lagus received Egypt; Leonnatus,
+  Mysia; Antigonus, Phrygia, Lycia, and Pamphylia; Lysymachus,
+  Macedonian Thrace; Antipater and Craterus remained in possession
+  of Macedonia.--The foreigner, Eumenes, would hardly have received
+  Cappadocia, although yet to be conquered, had Perdiccas been able
+  to dispense with his services. The remaining provinces either did
+  not come under the new division, or else their governors are
+  unworthy of notice.
+
+5. The first acts of Perdiccas's government showed how little dependence
+he could place on the obedience of men who hitherto had been his
+colleagues. The general insurrection among the mercenaries who had been
+settled by Alexander in Upper Asia, and now wished to return to their
+homes, was, no doubt, quelled by Python's destruction of the rebels; but
+it was not Python's fault that he did not make himself independent
+master of the scene of mutiny.
+
+6. Still more refractory was the behaviour of Leonnatus and Antigonus,
+when they received orders to put Eumenes in possession of his province.
+Antigonus was too haughty to obey; and Leonnatus preferred going over
+into Europe to marry Cleopatra; there, however, he almost immediately
+met with his death in the Lamian war. (See below, book iv. period iii.
+parag. 2.) Perdiccas, therefore, was himself obliged to undertake the
+expedition with the royal army; he succeeded by the defeat of
+Ariarathes.
+
+7. Ambitious views of Perdiccas, who, in order to ascend the throne by a
+marriage with Cleopatra, repudiates Nicaea, the daughter of Antipater.
+Cleopatra actually came over to Asia; but Perdiccas, being obliged, at
+the request of the army, to marry Eurydice, Philip's niece, after the
+murder of her mother Cyane, to the king Arrhidaeus, found her a
+troublesome rival and opponent in the government.
+
+8. Attempts of Perdiccas to overthrow Antigonus and Ptolemy, by accusing
+them before the army. Antigonus passes over to Antipater in Macedonia;
+and gives rise to the league between Antipater, Craterus, and Ptolemy,
+against Perdiccas and Eumenes.
+
+9. Commencement and termination of the first war. Perdiccas himself
+marches against Egypt, leaving his friend Eumenes to command in Asia
+Minor: meanwhile Antipater and Craterus fall upon Asia; the former
+advances towards Syria against Perdiccas; the latter is defeated and
+slain by Eumenes. Before the arrival, however, of Antipater, Perdiccas,
+after repeated and vain attempts to cross the Nile, falls a victim to
+the insurrection of his own troops.--Thus three of the principal
+personages, Perdiccas, Craterus, Leonnatus, were already removed from
+the theatre of action; and the victorious Eumenes, now master of Asia
+Minor, had to maintain, unaided, the struggle against the confederates.
+
+10. Second period, from the death of Perdiccas to that of
+Eumenes.--Python and Arrhidaeus quickly resigning the regency, it is
+assumed by Antipater.--New division of the provinces at Trisparadisus in
+Syria. Seleucus receives Babylon; Antigonus is promised, besides his
+former possessions, all those of the outlawed Eumenes.
+
+11. War of Antigonus with Eumenes. The latter, defeated by treachery,
+shuts himself up in the mountain fastness of Nora, there to await more
+favourable times; and Antigonus remains master of all Asia Minor: in the
+mean time Ptolemy ventures to take possession of Syria and Phoenicia.
+
+12. Death of the regent Antipater, in the same year, (320;) he bequeaths
+the regency to his friend, the aged Polysperchon, to the exclusion of
+his own son Cassander. Antigonus now begins to unfold his ambitious
+plans; he endeavours vainly to win over Eumenes, who deceives him in the
+negotiations, and seizes the opportunity of leaving his mountain
+fastness.
+
+13. Eumenes's plan to strengthen himself in Upper Asia; as he is on the
+way he receives tidings of his being appointed generalissimo of the
+royal troops. What better man could Polysperchon have selected for the
+office than he who in his conduct towards Antigonus exhibited so
+striking an example of attachment to the royal house?
+
+14. Exertions of Eumenes to maintain himself in Lower Asia, ineffectual,
+the naval victory won by Antigonus over the royal fleet, commanded by
+Clitus, depriving him of the empire of the sea. He bursts into Upper
+Asia; where, in the spring, he unites with the satraps, who had taken
+arms against the powerful Seleucus of Babylon.
+
+15. Antigonus following up the royal general, Upper Asia becomes the
+theatre of war. Victorious as was at first the stand made by Eumenes,
+neither valour nor talent were of any avail against the insubordination
+of the royal troops, and the jealousy of the other commanders. Attacked
+in winter quarters by Antigonus, he was, after the battle, delivered
+into the hands of his enemy by the mutinous Argyraspidae, who had lost
+their baggage: he was put to death, and in him the king's family lost
+its only loyal supporter.
+
+16. Great changes had also taken place in the royal family. Her enemy
+Antipater having deceased, Olympias, invited by Polysperchon, who wished
+to strengthen himself against Cassander, had returned from Epirus, and
+put to death Arrhidaeus together with his wife, Eurydice: in the year
+following she was besieged in Pydna by Cassander, and being obliged to
+surrender, was in her turn executed; meanwhile Cassander held Roxana and
+the young king in his own power.
+
+17. Third period, from the death of Eumenes to that of Antigonus.--The
+rout of Eumenes seemed to have established for ever the power of
+Antigonus in Asia; still animated with the fire of youth, though full of
+years, he saw himself revived in his son Demetrius, fond of boisterous
+revelry, but gallant and talented.--Even Seleucus thought it time to
+consult his safety by flying from Babylon into Egypt.
+
+18. Changes introduced by Antigonus into the upper provinces; return to
+Asia Minor, where his presence seemed indispensable, by reason of the
+aggrandizement of Ptolemy in Syria and Phoenicia, of the Macedonian
+Cassander in Europe, of Lysimachus in Mysia, and the Carian Cassander in
+Asia Minor.--He repossesses himself of Phoenicia, a country of the first
+importance for the construction of a fleet.
+
+  Siege of Tyre, 314-313: it lasts fourteen months; a proof that the
+  city was certainly not razed by Alexander.
+
+19. The fugitive Seleucus forms a league against Antigonus and
+Demetrius, between Ptolemy, the two Cassanders, and Lysimachus. But
+Antigonus frustrates their combination, himself driving out the Carian
+Cassander, and his son marching against Ptolemy.
+
+  Victory won by Ptolemy over Demetrius at Gaza, 312; after which
+  Seleucus marches back to Babylon, and, although subsequently
+  followed up by Demetrius, permanently maintains his footing in
+  Upper Asia.--On the other hand, Ptolemy, at the first approach of
+  Antigonus with the main body, surrenders back Syria and Phoenicia,
+  312.
+
+20. A general peace concluded between Antigonus and his enemies,
+Seleucus only excepted, from whom Upper Asia is to be again wrested. The
+first article, that each should retain what he had, demonstrates pretty
+evidently that the treaty was dictated solely by Antigonus; the second,
+that the Greek cities should be free, was pregnant with the seeds of a
+new war, ready to burst forth at every favourable opportunity; the
+third, that the young Alexander should be raised to the throne upon
+attaining his majority, was probably the death warrant of the hapless
+prince, who, that same year, together with his mother, was murdered by
+Cassander.--Shortly after, at the instigation of Antigonus, Cleopatra
+was put to death, in order that Ptolemy might be thwarted in his object,
+which depended on a matrimonial connection with that princess.
+
+21. Even the execution of the articles must have given rise to
+hostilities; Ptolemy wishing to force Antigonus, and he, on his side, to
+compel Cassander, to withdraw the garrisons from the Grecian towns; a
+condition which neither party felt inclined to fulfil. Grecian freedom
+was now but a name; this, however, is not the only example history
+furnishes of political ideas making the greatest stir long after they
+have survived their own existence; for then they become excellent tools
+in the hands of artful designers.
+
+  Expedition of Demetrius to liberate Athens, 308. The day when he
+  announced freedom to the Athenians, must have been the happiest of
+  his life! Few portions of history present such a scope for the
+  contemplation of human nature as the twofold sojourn of Demetrius
+  at Athens.
+
+22. The growing power of Ptolemy on the sea, and the capture of Cyprus,
+determines Antigonus to an open rupture: he commands his son to drive
+Ptolemy out of the island.
+
+  Naval victory of Demetrius off Cyprus, 307, perhaps the greatest
+  and most bloody in history; nevertheless, as little decisive to
+  the general question as are most naval battles. The assumption of
+  the royal title, first by the conqueror, afterwards by the
+  conquered, and ultimately by all the rest, was but a mere form now
+  that the royal family was extirpated.
+
+23. The conquerors having failed in their project of subduing Egypt,
+made the wealthy republic of the Rhodians, as an ally of that country,
+the victim of their fury. But though in the renowned siege of their
+capital, Demetrius earned his title of Poliorcetes, the noble defence of
+the Rhodians afforded an illustrious example of the power of discipline
+in conjunction with well-guided patriotism. The invitation of the
+Athenians came seasonably to Demetrius; he raised the blockade and
+proceeded to complete the liberation of Greece, the necessity of which
+became every day more pressing.
+
+24. Second sojourn of Demetrius in Greece. The expulsion of Cassander's
+garrisons from the Grecian cities, and more particularly from those in
+Peloponnesus; the appointment of Demetrius as generalissimo of Greece,
+for the conquest of Macedonia and Thrace; proved not only to Cassander,
+but also to the other princes, that their common interest loudly called
+upon them to resist the over-powerful Antigonus.
+
+25. Third grand league of Cassander, Ptolemy, and Seleucus, against
+Antigonus and his son; brought about by Cassander. How easily, even
+after the violent irruption of Lysimachus into Asia Minor, might
+Antigonus have dispersed the gathering storms, had not his presumption
+led him to place an overweening reliance on his own good fortune!
+
+26. Junction of Seleucus of Babylon and Lysimachus, in Phrygia.
+Antigonus, to concentrate his forces, recalls his son, who had pushed on
+to the borders of Macedonia. The cautious Ptolemy, on the other hand, is
+afraid to invade Syria; and, in consequence of a false report, that
+Lysimachus had been defeated, retires full of alarm, into Egypt.
+
+27. Great and decisive battle fought at Ipsus in Phrygia, in the spring
+of 301, which costs Antigonus his life, and annihilates his empire, as
+the two conquerors divide it between themselves, without taking any
+account of the absent confederates. Asia Minor, as far as mount Taurus,
+falls to the share of Lysimachus; and all the rest, with the exception
+of Cilicia, which is given to Plisthenes, Cassander's brother, is left
+to Seleucus.--Demetrius, by the help of his navy, escapes into Greece.
+
+28. The almost unbroken series of wars which had raged from the time of
+Alexander, must have precluded the possibility of much being effected
+with respect to domestic organization. It appears to have been nearly,
+if not wholly, military. Yet were the numerous devastations in some
+measure compensated by the erection of new cities, in which these
+princes vied with one another, impelled partly by vanity to immortalize
+their names, partly by policy to support their dominion, most of the new
+settlements being military colonies. Nevertheless this was but a sorry
+reparation for the manifold oppressions to which the natives were
+exposed by the practice of quartering the army upon them. The spread of
+the language and civilization of the Greeks deprived them of all
+national distinction; their own languages sinking into mere provincial
+dialects. Alexander's monarchy affords a striking example of the little
+that can be expected from a forced amalgamation of races, when the price
+of that amalgamation is the obliteration of national character in the
+individuals.
+
+  HEYNE, _Opum regni Macedonici auctarum, attritarum et eversarum,
+  causae probabiles; in Opusc._ t. iv. This collection contains
+  several other treatises on Grecian and Macedonian history, which
+  cannot be all separately enumerated.
+
+
+
+
+THIRD PERIOD.
+
+_History of the kingdoms and states which arose upon the dismemberment
+of the Macedonian Monarchy after the battle of Ipsus._
+
+
+I. HISTORY OF THE SYRIAN EMPIRE UNDER THE SELEUCIDAE, B. C. 312-64.
+
+  SOURCES. Neither for the history of the Syrian, nor for that of
+  the Egyptian and Macedonian kingdoms, has any eminent writer been
+  preserved. The fragments of the lost books of Diodorus, and, from
+  the time that these kingdoms became allies of Rome, those of
+  Polybius, several narratives of Livy, the Syriaca of Appian, and a
+  few of Plutarch's Lives, are the principal authorities; too
+  frequently we are obliged to rely upon the extracts of Justin. For
+  the history of the Seleucidae, in consequence of the political
+  connection between these princes and the Jews, the Antiquities of
+  Josephus and the book of Maccabees become of importance. Besides
+  these authorities, the many coins that have been preserved of
+  these kings, afford much information respecting their genealogy
+  and chronology.
+
+  Of modern publications on the subject, the principal work is
+
+  VAILLANT, _Imperium Seleucidarum sive historia regum Syriae_, 1681,
+  4to. The enquiry is principally grounded on coins, as is the case
+  with
+
+  FROELICH, _Annales rerum et regum Syriae_. Viennae, 1754.
+
+1. The kingdom of the Seleucidae was founded in Upper Asia by Seleucus
+Nicator. It was an extensive empire; but, being composed of various
+countries united only by conquest, it could possess but little internal
+stability except what it derived from the power of its rulers. That
+power fell with the founder; and the transfer of the seat of empire
+from the banks of the Tigris to Syria, entangled the Seleucidae in all
+the political disputes of the western world, and facilitated the
+insurrection of the upper provinces. The history of this kingdom divides
+itself into the periods before and after the war with Rome; although at
+the breaking out of this war the seeds of its decline and fall had
+already been sown.
+
+  Seleucus received, 321, Babylon as his province; but after the
+  defeat of Eumenes was obliged to take to flight, 315, in order to
+  avoid subjection to the conqueror Antigonus. But his moderate
+  government had rendered him so popular, that after the victory won
+  by Ptolemy over Demetrius at Gaza, 312, he could safely venture to
+  return with only a few adherents to Babylon. In this year
+  commences the kingdom of the Seleucidae.
+
+2. In the ten following years, and while Antigonus was busied in Asia
+Minor, Seleucus laid the foundation of his power over all Upper Asia,
+with a facility to which the detestation excited by the rigid government
+of Antigonus mainly contributed. After his victory over Nicanor of
+Media, all in that quarter declared spontaneously for him; and the
+unsuccessful expedition of Demetrius taught Antigonus himself, that it
+would no longer be prudent to assert his claims. As early as 307,
+Seleucus was in possession of all the countries between the Euphrates,
+Indus, and Oxus.
+
+3. Great campaign in India undertaken by Seleucus against king
+Sandracottus. He penetrated as far as the Ganges, and the close alliance
+he formed with the Indian sovereign lasted a long time after, and was
+kept up by embassies. The great number of elephants which he brought
+back with him was not the only advantage accruing from this expedition;
+the intercourse with the east seems to have been permanently
+reestablished.
+
+4. By the battle of Ipsus Seleucus added to his dominions the greater
+part of the territories of Antigonus;--Syria, Cappadocia, Mesopotamia,
+and Armenia. Unfortunately Syria now became the head province,
+notwithstanding Coele-Syria and Phoenicia were left in the hands of
+Ptolemy. How widely different would have been the course of historic
+events, had the seat of empire remained at Seleucia on the Tigris, and
+the Euphrates continued to be the western boundary of the Seleucidae!
+
+5. Reciprocal relations between the several kings, who now combine in
+forming a kind of political system, in which continued exertions to
+maintain a balance of power by alliance and marriage are plainly
+discernible.
+
+  Connection between Seleucus and Demetrius Poliorcetes, by the
+  marriage of the former with the beautiful Stratonice, daughter of
+  the latter; made with the view of counterbalancing a similar
+  connection between Ptolemy and Lysimachus; Lysimachus and his son
+  Agathocles having united themselves with two daughters of Ptolemy.
+
+6. The eighteen years of tranquillity enjoyed by Asia after the battle
+of Ipsus, prove that Seleucus was one of the few followers of Alexander
+who had any genius for the arts of peace. He either founded or
+embellished a vast number of cities, the most important of which were
+the capital, Antiochia in Syria, and the two Seleucias, one on the
+Tigris, the other on the Orontes: the flourishing prosperity of several
+of these places was the result of the restoration of eastern trade; new
+channels for which appear to have been opened at this period on the main
+streams of Asia, and more particularly on the Oxus.
+
+7. The home department of his empire was organized into satrapies, of
+which there were seventy-two. But Alexander's maxim, "to give the
+satrapies to natives," was wholly forgotten by his followers; and the
+Seleucidae were not long before they experienced the evil consequences of
+swerving from that practice. Under such a prince as Seleucus scarce any
+kingdom could of itself fall to pieces; but the king himself paved the
+way for the dismemberment of his empire, by ceding Upper Asia, together
+with his consort Stratonice, to his son Antiochus; not, however, without
+the previous approbation of the army.
+
+8. War with Lysimachus, kindled by ancient jealousy, and now fomented by
+family feuds. The battle of Curopedion cost Lysimachus his throne and
+his life; and Asia Minor became a part of the Syrian realm. But as
+Seleucus was crossing over to Europe, to add Macedonia to his dominions,
+he fell by the hand of an assassin, Ptolemy Ceraunus, and with him the
+splendour of his kingdom was extinguished.
+
+9. The reign of his son, Antiochus I. surnamed Soter, seemed not
+unprosperous, inasmuch as the empire preserved its former extension; but
+in any state founded upon conquest, the failure of new attempts at an
+increase of territory is a sure token of approaching ruin; and this was
+the case here.--In such a state, the more immediately all depends on
+the person of the ruler, the more rapid and sensible are the effects of
+degeneration in a family like that of the Seleucidae.
+
+  The late conquests of his father in Asia Minor entangled Antiochus
+  in new wars; although, by the marriage of his stepdaughter Phila
+  with Antigonus Gonatas, he ceded his claims on Macedonia,
+  277.--Fruitless attempt at subjecting Bithynia, 279; the king of
+  that country, Nicomedes, calls in the Gauls, who had invaded
+  Macedonia, and gives them a settlement in Galatia, 277, where they
+  keep their footing, even after the victory won over them by
+  Antiochus, 275, and by their participation in the wars, as
+  mercenaries, become of importance.--The newly risen state of
+  Pergamus likewise thrives, at the expense of the Syrian empire, in
+  spite of Antiochus's attack, 263; and the inroad into Egypt, for
+  the purpose of supporting the rebel Magas, is anticipated by
+  Ptolemy II. 264.
+
+10. Antiochus II. surnamed [Greek: Theos]. During his reign the sway was
+in the hands of women; and the diseased state of the interior of the
+empire became palpable by the secession of various eastern provinces,
+out of which arose the Parthian and Bactrian kingdoms. The boundless
+luxury of the court hurried on the decline of the ruling family; having
+once begun to sink, it could not without difficulty have retrieved its
+virtue independently of the matrimonial connections now constantly
+formed from within itself.
+
+  Ascendancy of his stepsister and wife Laodice, and of his sister
+  Apame, relict of Magas; the latter involves him in war with
+  Ptolemy II. to vindicate her claims upon Cyrene; it ends by
+  Antiochus's marriage with Berenice, daughter of Ptolemy, and his
+  repudiation of Laodice, 260-252. Having, after the death of
+  Ptolemy, 247, put away Berenice and taken back Laodice; the
+  latter, distrusting his motives, cuts him off by poison.--The
+  secession of Parthia happened in consequence of the expulsion of
+  the Macedonian governor by Arsaces, founder of the house of the
+  Arsacidae: that of Bactria, on the other hand, was brought about by
+  the Macedonian governor himself, Theodotus, who asserted his
+  independence. (Concerning these two kingdoms, see below, book iv.
+  period iii. Dist. Kingdoms iv. parag. 4, 5.) At first, the former
+  of these kingdoms comprised but a part of Parthia; the latter only
+  Bactria, and, perhaps, Sogdiana; both, however, were soon enlarged
+  at the expense of the Seleucidae.
+
+11. Seleucus II. surnamed Callinicus. His reign, twenty years in
+duration, is one unbroken series of wars; in which the kingdom, already
+enfeebled, was subverted, partly by the struggle with Egypt, caused by
+the hatred between Laodice and Berenice; partly by the jealousy of his
+brother Antiochus Hierax; and partly by vain attempts at recovering the
+upper provinces.
+
+  Assassination of Berenice, and most unfortunate war thereby
+  kindled with Ptolemy Evergetes of Egypt, 247-244. The assistance
+  which Seleucus obtains from his junior brother, Antiochus,
+  governor of Asia Minor, induces Ptolemy to a truce, 243; but
+  another war ensues between the two brothers, in which Antiochus,
+  at first conqueror, is himself soon afterwards conquered in his
+  turn, 243-240; and during this contest, Eumenes of Pergamus
+  greatly increases his territory at the expense of Syria, 242.--His
+  first campaign against Arsaces, who had formed an alliance with
+  the Bactrian king, ended in a defeat, 238, regarded by the
+  Parthians as the real epoch of the foundation of their kingdom. In
+  the second campaign, 236, he himself fell into the hands of the
+  Parthians, and remained a prisoner till the day of his death, 227.
+
+12. His elder son Seleucus III. surnamed Ceraunus, on the point of
+taking the field against Attalus king of Pergamus, was removed by
+poison. But the dominion of the Seleucidae was reestablished in Asia
+Minor by his mother's fraternal nephew, Achaeus; and the crown ensured to
+the younger brother Antiochus, governor of Babylon.
+
+13. The long reign of Antiochus III. surnamed the Great, is not only the
+most eventful in Syrian history, but likewise marks an epoch, by the
+relations now commencing between Syria and Rome.--To earn the title of
+_great_ was a task of no extreme difficulty in such a line of princes.
+
+14. Great power of Hermias the Carian, who soon became so formidable to
+the young monarch, that he was obliged to rid himself of him by murder.
+The great stand made by the brothers, Molo and Alexander, satraps of
+Media and Persia, who probably had an understanding with Hermias,
+threatened the king with the loss of all the upper provinces: it ended
+in the defeat of Molo, Hermias being at last no longer able to hinder
+the king from marching against him in person.
+
+15. The intrigues of Hermias excited Achaeus to rebellion in Asia Minor:
+but Antiochus held more important, first to execute the plan he had
+previously traced, of ejecting the Ptolemies from their possessions in
+Syria; great as the success which at first attended this expedition, it
+was completely traversed by the battle of Raphia.--Combining with
+Attalus of Pergamus, Antiochus then defeated Achaeus, who, being shut up
+in the citadel of Sardes, was treacherously delivered into his hands.
+
+16. Great campaign of Antiochus in the upper provinces, in consequence
+of the seizure of Media by Arsaces III.--Hostilities ended in a compact,
+by which Antiochus agreed formerly to cede Parthia and Hyrcania;
+Arsaces, on his side, pledging himself to furnish assistance against
+Bactria.--But the war with Bactria was also followed by a peace,
+leaving the king, Euthydemus, in possession of his crown and
+dominions.--The expedition now undertaken by Antiochus, in company with
+Demetrius of Bactriana, against India, extended, probably far up the
+country, and was attended with important consequences to Bactriana. (See
+below, history of Bactria, book iv. per. iii. Dist. Kingdoms iv. parag.
+5.)
+
+The result of these great expeditions was the establishment of the
+supremacy of the Seleucidae in Upper Asia; those countries excepted which
+had been formally resigned.
+
+  On his return through Arachotus and Carmania, where he wintered,
+  he likewise undertook a naval expedition on the Persian gulf: here
+  Gerrha, in possession of its freedom, appears a flourishing place
+  of trade.
+
+17. Resumption of the plan against Egypt, after the death of Ptolemy
+Philopator; and alliance with Philip of Macedonia, then carrying on war
+in Asia. Antiochus, it is true, attained his end in the expulsion of the
+Ptolemies from their possessions in Syria, Coele-Syria, and Phoenicia;
+but then, his success brought him in contact with Rome, an event of
+decisive importance to himself and his successors.
+
+18. Growth of the disputes between the king and Rome, proceeding from
+the conquest of the major part of Asia Minor and the Thracian
+Chersonesus; meanwhile Hannibal had taken refuge at the Syrian court,
+and the probability daily increased of a great league being formed
+against Rome, although that power, after conquering Carthage, 201, and
+Macedonia, 197, had succeeded in winning over Greece even, by the magic
+spell of _freedom_. But Antiochus ruined all: instead of following
+Hannibal's advice, and attacking the Romans on their own ground, he
+stood on the defensive, and suffered himself to be invaded by them in
+Asia. His defeat at Magnesia near Mount Sipylus compelled him to accede
+to such conditions as Rome chose to dictate, and the power of the Syrian
+empire was for ever broken.
+
+  For the history of this war, see below in the Roman history. Book
+  v. per. ii. parag. 10, 11.
+
+19. The conditions of the peace were: 1st. That Antiochus should
+evacuate Asia Minor; (Asia cis Taurum.) 2nd. That he should pay down
+15,000 talents; and to Eumenes of Pergamus four hundred. 3rd. That
+Hannibal and some others should be delivered up, and the king's younger
+son Antiochus, be given as an hostage.--The loss of the surrendered
+countries was a consequence of this peace, less disadvantageous to the
+Syrian kings, than the use made of it by the conquerors. By adding the
+greatest part of the ceded territories to those of the kings of
+Pergamus, the Romans raised up alongside of their enemy a rival, whom
+they might at their own will use as a political engine against
+him.--Rome took care likewise that the stipulated sum should be paid by
+instalments in twelve years, to the end that Syria might be kept in a
+permanent state of dependence.
+
+20. Murder of the king, 187. The reign of his elder son, Seleucus IV.
+surnamed Philopator, was a period of tranquillity; peace arising from
+weakness.--Though once he unsheathed his sword in defence of Pharnaces
+king of Pontus, against Eumenes, his fear of Rome soon compelled him to
+restore it to the scabbard. He exchanged his son for his brother at
+Rome; but fell a victim to the ambition of his minister Heliodorus.
+
+21. Antiochus IV. surnamed Epiphanes. Educated at Rome, he sought to
+combine the popular manners of a Roman with the ostentatious luxury of a
+Syrian; and thereby became an object of universal hatred and contempt.
+Our information respecting his history is too meagre to allow of our
+deciding whether most of the evil reported of him, in the Jewish
+accounts especially, may not be exaggerated. At any rate, among all his
+faults, we may still discern in him the germs of good qualities.
+
+22. War with Egypt, springing out of Ptolemy Philometor's claims upon
+Coele-Syria and Palestine. Obscure as many parts are in the history of
+this war yet it is evident that success attended the arms of Antiochus,
+and that he would have become master of Egypt had not Rome interfered.
+
+  The pretext for war, on the Egyptian side, was, that those
+  provinces had by Antiochus III. been promised as a dowry to
+  Cleopatra, sister of Antiochus and the mother of Philometor:
+  Antiochus Epiphanes, on his side, laid claim to the regency of
+  Egypt, as uncle to the young king, who, however, was soon declared
+  of age.--Opening of the war, and victory won by Antiochus at
+  Pelusium, 171; in consequence of which Cyprus is betrayed into his
+  hands.--Pelusium is fortified with a view of insuring the
+  possession of Coele-Syria, and of facilitating an irruption into
+  Egypt.--Another victory, 170, and Egypt subdued as far as
+  Alexandria. Philometor driven by a sedition out of Alexandria,
+  where his brother Physcon is seated on the throne, falls into the
+  hands of Antiochus, who concludes with him a most advantageous
+  peace, and takes his part against Physcon. Hence siege is laid to
+  Alexandria, 169; attended with no success. Upon the retreat of
+  Antiochus, Philometor, concluding a separate peace with his
+  brother, according to which both are to rule in conjunction, is
+  admitted into Alexandria. Antiochus, bitterly enraged, now
+  declares war against both brothers, who crave assistance from
+  Rome: he once more penetrates into Egypt, 168; where the Roman
+  ambassador, Popillius, assumes so lofty a tone, that the Syrian
+  king is glad to purchase peace by the surrender of Cyprus and
+  Pelusium.
+
+23. The religious intolerance of Epiphanes, exhibited in his wish to
+introduce the Grecian worship everywhere among the subjects of his
+empire, is the more remarkable, as such instances were less frequent in
+those times. This intolerance seems to have taken its rise, not only in
+the love of pomp, but in the cupidity of the king, who by that means was
+enabled to appropriate to himself the treasures of the temples, no
+longer inviolate, since the defeat of his father by Rome. The consequent
+sedition of the Jews, under the Maccabees, laid the foundation of the
+future independence of that people, and contributed not a little to
+weaken the Syrian kingdom.
+
+  See below; History of the Jews, book iv. per. iv; Small states
+  Jews, parag. 6. The deep decay of the finances of the Seleucidae,
+  palpable from the latter days of Antiochus the Great, may be
+  accounted for well enough, by the falling off of the revenue,
+  accompanied with increased luxury in the kings, (an instance of
+  which is furnished in the festivals celebrated by Antiochus
+  Epiphanes at Daphne, 166,) and in the vast presents constantly
+  sent to Rome, in addition to the tribute, for the purpose of
+  keeping up a party there.
+
+24. His expedition also into Upper Asia, Persis especially, where great
+disorders were likewise excited by the introduction of the Grecian
+religion, had for its object not only the recovery of Armenia, but the
+rifling of the temples. He died, however, on his way to Babylon.
+
+25. The real heir to the throne, Demetrius, being detained at Rome as an
+hostage, Epiphanes was first succeeded by his son Antiochus V. surnamed
+Eupator, a child nine years old. During his short reign, the quarrels of
+his guardians, the despotism of the Romans, the protracted war with the
+Jews, and the commencing conquests of the Parthians, reduced the kingdom
+of the Seleucidae to a powerless state.
+
+  Contest between Lysias, regent in the absence of Epiphanes, and
+  Philip, appointed by the king, previously to his death, as
+  guardian of the young prince, terminated by the defeat of Philip,
+  162.--Eupator's right acknowledged at Rome, in order that the
+  guardianship might fall into the hands of the senate, who
+  administer the government by means of a commission sent over into
+  Syria, and completely deprive the king of all power of resistance.
+  Octavius, head of the commission, put to death, probably at the
+  instigation of Lysias.--While the Parthian king, Mithridates I. is
+  prosecuting his conquests at the expense of the Syrian kingdom in
+  Upper Asia, Demetrius secretly escapes out of Rome, takes
+  possession of the throne, and causes Eupator and Lysias to be put
+  to death, 161.
+
+26. Demetrius I. surnamed Soter. He succeeded in getting himself
+acknowledged at Rome, on which all now depended. The attempts to extend
+his power, by supporting Orofernes, the pretender to the crown of
+Cappadocia, against the king Ariarathes, had their origin partly in
+family relations, but still more, as was the case with almost all
+political transactions of those times, in bribery. By this act he only
+drew upon himself the enmity of the kings of Egypt and Pergamus; as,
+moreover, he was hated by his subjects on account of his intemperance,
+the chances of success were greatly in favour of the shameful usurpation
+of Alexander Balas, brought about by Heraclidas the expelled governor of
+Babylon, and backed by the yet more shameful conduct of the Roman
+senate, who acknowledged his title to the throne. The Syrian kingdom was
+now fallen so low, that both king and usurper were obliged to court the
+favour of the Jews under Jonathan, hitherto regarded as rebels. In the
+second battle Demetrius lost his life.
+
+27. The usurper Alexander Balas endeavoured to confirm his power by a
+marriage with Cleopatra, daughter of Ptolemy Philometor: but he soon
+evinced himself more unworthy even than his predecessor of wielding the
+sceptre. While he abandoned the government to his favourite, the
+detested Ammonius, the eldest remaining son of Demetrius succeeds not
+only in raising a party against the usurper, but even in prevailing on
+Philometor to side with himself, and give him in marriage Cleopatra,
+whom he takes away from Balas. The consequence of this alliance with
+Egypt was the defeat and downfal of Balas, although it cost Philometor
+his life.
+
+  The account, that Philometor wished to conquer Syria for himself,
+  must probably be understood as meaning that he had formed the
+  design of recovering the ancient Egyptian possessions, Coele-Syria
+  and Phoenicia. Otherwise, why should he have given his daughter to
+  a second pretender to the throne?
+
+28. Demetrius II. surnamed Nicator, 145-141, and for the second time,
+130-126. The disbanding of his father's mercenaries having roused the
+indignation of the army, the cruelty of his favourite Lasthenes kindled
+a sedition in the capital, which could not be quenched without the
+assistance of the Jews, under their high priest and military chieftain,
+Jonathan.--While affairs were in this posture, Diodotus, subsequently
+called Tryphon, a dependent of Balas, excited an insurrection, by
+bringing forward Antiochus, the latter's son, and even, with the help of
+Jonathan, seating him on the throne of Antioch: soon after, Tryphon,
+having by treachery got Jonathan into his power, removed Antiochus by
+murder, and assumed the diadem himself.--Notwithstanding Demetrius
+kept his footing only in a part of Syria, he was enabled to obey
+the call of the Grecian colonists in Upper Asia, and support them
+against the Parthians, who had overrun the country as far as the
+Euphrates.--Although victorious in the commencement of the contest, he
+was soon after taken by the Parthians, and remained ten years a
+prisoner, though treated meanwhile as a king.
+
+29. In order to maintain herself against Tryphon, Cleopatra marries the
+younger, and better brother, Antiochus of Sida, (Sidetes); he being at
+first in alliance with the Jews,--who, however, were soon after
+subdued--defeats and overthrows Tryphon. Being now lord and master of
+Syria, he undertakes a campaign against the Parthians; at the
+commencement, befriended by the subjects of the Parthians, he is
+successful, but soon afterwards is attacked in winter quarters by those
+very friends, and cut to pieces, together with all his army.
+
+  If the accounts of the wanton licentiousness of his army are not
+  exaggerations, they furnish the clearest proof of the military
+  despotism of those times. By continued pillage and extortion, the
+  wealth of the country had been collected in the hands of the
+  soldiers; and the condition of Syria must have been pretty nearly
+  the same as that of Egypt under the Mamluk sultans.
+
+30. Meanwhile Demetrius II. having escaped from prison, again seated
+himself on the throne. But being now still more overbearing than before,
+and meddling in the Egyptian affairs, Ptolemy Physcon set up against him
+a rival in the person of Alexander Zebinas a pretended son of Alexander
+Balas; by him he was defeated and slain.
+
+  The Parthian king Phraates II. had, at first, liberated Demetrius,
+  to whom his sister Rhodogune was united by marriage, in order
+  that, by appearing in Syria, he might oblige Antiochus to retreat.
+  Antiochus having fallen, Phraates would fain have recaptured
+  Demetrius, but he escaped.
+
+31. The ensuing history of the Seleucidae is a picture of civil wars,
+family feuds, and deeds of horror, such as are scarcely to be
+paralleled. The utmost verge of the empire was now the Euphrates; all
+Upper Asia acknowledging the dominion of the Parthians. The Jews,
+moreover, having completely vindicated their independence, the kingdom
+was consequently confined to Syria and Phoenicia. So thoroughly decayed
+was the state, that even the Romans--whether because there was no longer
+anything to plunder, or because they conceived it more prudent to suffer
+the Seleucidae to wear themselves out in mutual quarrels--do not seem to
+have taken any account of it, until, at the conclusion of the last war
+with Mithridates, they thought proper formally to annex it to their
+empire as a province.
+
+  War between Alexander Zebinas and the ambitious relict of
+  Demetrius, Cleopatra, who with her own hand murders her eldest son
+  Seleucus, B.C. 125, for pretending to the crown, which she now
+  gives to her younger son, Antiochus Gryphus; the new king,
+  however, soon saw himself compelled to secure his own life by the
+  murder of his mother, 122; Alexander Zebinas having been the year
+  before, 123, defeated and put to death. After a peaceful rule of
+  eight years, 122-114, Antiochus Gryphus is involved in war with
+  his half-brother Antiochus Cyzicenus, son of Cleopatra by
+  Antiochus Sidetes: it ends, 111, in a partition of territory. But
+  the war between the brothers soon burst out anew, and just as this
+  hapless kingdom seemed about to crumble into pieces, Gryphus was
+  murdered, 97.--Seleucus, the eldest of his five sons, having
+  beaten and slain Cyzicenus, 96; the eldest son of the latter,
+  Antiochus Eusebes, prosecuted the war against the sons of Gryphus;
+  Eusebes being at last defeated, 90, the surviving sons of Gryphus
+  fell to war among themselves, and the struggle continued until the
+  Syrians, weary of bloodshed, did what they ought to have done long
+  before, viz. made over the sovereign power to Tigranes the king of
+  Armenia, 85. Yet Eusebes's widow, Selene, retained Ptolemais till
+  70; and her elder son Antiochus Asiaticus, at the time that
+  Tigranes was beaten by Lucullus, in the Mithridatic war, took
+  possession of some provinces in Syria, 68; these were wrested from
+  him after the total defeat of Mithridates by Pompey, when Tigranes
+  was obliged to give up his claim, and Syria became a province of
+  the Roman empire, 64. Antiochus Asiaticus died 58; his brother
+  Seleucus Cybiosactes, having married Berenice, was raised to the
+  Egyptian throne, but murdered at her command, 57; and thus the
+  family of the Seleucidae was completely swept away.
+
+
+II. _History of the Egyptian kingdom under the Ptolemies, 323-30._
+
+  The sources of this history are for the most part the same as in
+  the foregoing section; see above, p. 232; but unfortunately still
+  more scanty; for in the first place, less information can here be
+  derived from the Jewish writers; secondly, as on the coins struck
+  under the Ptolemies no continuous series of time is marked, but
+  only the year of the king's reign, they are by no means such
+  safeguards to the chronology as those of the Seleucidae. With
+  respect to some few events, important illustrations are supplied by
+  inscriptions.
+
+  By modern writers, the history of the Ptolemies has been composed
+  under a form almost entirely chronological, and by no means treated
+  of in the spirit which it deserves.
+
+  VAILLANT, _Historia Ptolemaeorum_, fol. Amstelodam. 1701.
+  Illustration by the aid of coins.
+
+  CHAMPOLION FIGEAC, _Annales des Lagides, ou Chronologie des Rois
+  d'Egypte, successeurs d'Alexandre le Grand_. Paris, 1819, 2 vols.
+  This treatise, which was honoured with a prize by the Academie des
+  Inscriptions, has by no means exhausted the whole of the subject.
+  See
+
+  J. SAINT-MARTIN, _Examen Critique de l'ouvrage de_ M. CH. F.
+  _intitule Annales des Lagides_. Paris, 1820.
+
+  LETRONNE, _Recherches pour servir a l'histoire de l'Egypte pendant
+  la domination des Grecs et des Romains, tirees des inscriptions
+  Grecques et Latines, relatives a la chronologie, a l'etat des arts
+  aux usages civils et religieux de ce pays_. Paris, 1828. It cannot
+  be denied that the author has thrown a much clearer light on the
+  subjects mentioned in his title.
+
+1. Egypt, under the Ptolemies, fulfilled, and perhaps more than
+fulfilled, the designs projected by Alexander; it became not only a
+mighty kingdom, but likewise the centre of trade, and of science. The
+history of Egypt, however, confines itself, almost solely, to that of
+the new capital, Alexandria; the foundation of that city produced,
+imperceptibly, a change in the national character, which never could
+have been wrought by main force. In the enjoyment of civil welfare and
+religious freedom, the nation sunk into a state of political drowsiness,
+such as could scarce have been expected in a people who so often rose up
+against the Persians.
+
+  Alexandria, originally, was no doubt a military colony; it was not
+  long, however, before it became a general place of resort for all
+  nations, such as was scarcely to be met with in any other town of
+  that day. The inhabitants were divided into three classes;
+  _Alexandrines_, (that is to say, foreigners of all nations, who had
+  settled in the place; next to the Greeks, the Jews were, it
+  appears, the most numerous,) _Egyptians_, and _Mercenaries_ in the
+  king's service. The Greeks and Macedonians divided into wards
+  ([Greek: phylas]), constituted the citizens; they were under
+  municipal government; the others, such as the Jews, formed bodies
+  corporate according to their respective nations. The more
+  important, in so many respects, that Alexandria is for history, the
+  more it is to be regretted that the accounts respecting it, which
+  have reached us, are so far from satisfactory!--Concerning the
+  topography of ancient Alexandria:
+
+  BONAMY, _Description de la ville d'Alexandrie_ in the _Mem. de
+  l'Academie des Inscript._ vol. ix. Compare:
+
+  # J. L. F. MANSO, _Letters upon ancient Alexandria_, in his
+  _Vermischte Schriften_, vol. i.
+
+2. Ptolemy I. surnamed Soter, the son of Lagus, received Egypt for his
+share, at the first division after the death of Alexander. Aware of the
+value of his lot, he was the only one of Alexander's successors that had
+the moderation not to aim at grasping all. No doubt he was, by the
+ambition of the other princes, entangled in their quarrels, but his
+conduct was so cautious, that Egypt itself was never endangered. Twice
+attacked in that country, first by Perdiccas, afterwards by Antigonus
+and Demetrius, he availed himself successfully of his advantageous
+position, and moreover, in this period, added to his dominion several
+countries without Africa, such as Phoenicia, Judaea, Coele-Syria, and
+Cyprus.
+
+  The possession of Phoenicia and Coele-Syria, by reason of their
+  forests, was of indispensable necessity to Egypt as a naval power.
+  They frequently changed masters. The first occupation of those
+  provinces by the Egyptian government, occurred in 320, soon after
+  the rout of Perdiccas by Ptolemy's general Nicanor, who took the
+  Syrian satrap Laomedon prisoner, established his footing in the
+  whole of Syria, and placed garrisons in the Phoenician cities. In
+  314 it was again lost to Antigonus, after his return out of Upper
+  Asia, and the siege of Tyre. Ptolemy having defeated Demetrius at
+  Gaza, 312, repossessed himself of those countries, but soon after
+  evacuated them on the appearance of Antigonus, to whom they were
+  ceded by the peace of 311. At the conclusion of the last grand
+  league against Antigonus, 303, Ptolemy once more occupied them: but
+  alarmed at a false report, that Antigonus had gained a victory, he
+  retreated into Egypt, leaving nevertheless troops in the cities.
+  After the battle of Ipsus, 301, those countries were made over to
+  him, and continued in the hands of the Ptolemies until they were
+  lost at the second invasion of Antiochus the Great, 203.
+
+  Cyprus, (see p. 154) like most other islands, acknowledged
+  submission to those who possessed the sovereignty of the sea, and
+  therefore could not escape the dominion of the Ptolemies. It was
+  taken possession of by Ptolemy as early as 313. Still the separate
+  cities of the islands preserved their kings, among whom Nicocles of
+  Paphos, having entered into a secret league with Antigonus, was put
+  to death, 310. After the great seafight, 307, Cyprus fell into the
+  hands of Antigonus and Demetrius. Subsequently to the battle of
+  Ipsus, 301, it remained indeed at first in the power of Demetrius;
+  but that prince being gone over to Macedonia, Ptolemy, 294, seized
+  an opportunity of recovering it, and the island from that time
+  remained under the dominion of Egypt. Availing themselves of their
+  naval strength, the Egyptian kings frequently exerted sovereign
+  power over the coasts of Asia Minor, especially Cilicia, Caria, and
+  Pamphylia, which appear to have absolutely formed a part of their
+  territory under the second Ptolemy. It is, however, hardly possible
+  to define with accuracy what were their real possessions in those
+  quarters.
+
+3. Ptolemy likewise extends his territory within Africa, by the capture
+of Cyrene; in consequence of which Libya, or the neighbouring countries
+betwixt Cyrene and Egypt, fell under his dominion. It is probable, also,
+that even in his reign the frontier of the Egyptian empire was advanced
+into Aethiopia; but for this assertion we have no positive authority.
+
+  The fall of Cyrene was brought about by domestic broils: at the
+  time the place was besieged by Thimbron, a portion of the exiled
+  nobles fled to Ptolemy; the Egyptian prince commanded that they
+  should be reinstated by his general Ophellas, who took possession
+  of the town itself, 321. An insurrection in 312 was quelled by
+  Agis, Ptolemy's general: nevertheless it would appear that
+  Ophellas had almost established his independence, when, by the
+  treachery of Agathocles, with whom he had entered into a league
+  against Carthage, he perished, about 308. Cyrene was now seized by
+  Ptolemy, and given to his son Magas, who ruled over it fifty
+  years.
+
+4. With respect to the internal government of Egypt, our information is
+far from complete. The division into districts or nomes was continued;
+subject perhaps, in some cases, to alterations. The power of the king
+appears to have been unlimited; the extreme provinces were administered
+by governors, appointed by the sovereign; similar officers were probably
+placed at the head of the various districts of Egypt itself; but hardly
+any document relative to the home department of that country has reached
+our time. High public situations, at least in the capital, appear
+exclusively reserved to Macedonians or Greeks; no Egyptian is ever
+mentioned as holding office.
+
+  There were four magistrates at Alexandria: the Exegetes, whose
+  office was to provide for the wants of the city; the Chief Judge;
+  the Hypomnematographus--(Registrar of the archives?)--and the
+  [Greek: Strategos nykterinos], no doubt, the supervisor of the
+  police, whose duty it was to watch over the peace of the city at
+  night. We have the express testimony of Strabo, that these
+  offices, which continued under the Romans, had already existed
+  under the kings; whether their establishment can be dated as far
+  back as the time of Ptolemy I. is a question that does not admit
+  of a solution.--The number of the districts or nomes appears to
+  have been augmented; probably with a political view, in order that
+  no governor or monarch should be invested with too great a share
+  of power.
+
+5. Be that as it may, it is an undoubted fact, that the ancient national
+constitution and administration were not entirely obliterated. The caste
+of priests, together with the national religion, continued to exist; and
+though the influence of the former was considerably diminished, it did
+not entirely cease. A certain sort of worship was, by appointed priests,
+paid to the kings, both in their lifetime and after their death.
+Memphis, though not the usual residence of the court, remained the
+capital of the kingdom; there the ceremony of coronation was performed;
+and its temple of Phtha was still the head sanctuary. What influence had
+not the religion of the Egyptians upon that of the Greeks! It were
+difficult to say which nation borrowed most from the other.
+
+6. The regeneration of Egypt from the state of general ruin into which
+she had been plunged, and the permanent tranquillity she enjoyed during
+nearly thirty years, the duration of the reign of Ptolemy I.--at a time
+when the rest of the world was harassed by continual wars,--must have
+heightened her prosperity under so mild and beneficent a ruler. But
+Ptolemy was certainly the only prince who could have taken advantage of
+these favourable circumstances. Though a soldier by profession he was
+highly accomplished, was himself a writer, and had a genius for all the
+arts of peace, which he fostered with the open-handed liberality of a
+king: while amidst all the brilliant splendour of his court, he led
+himself the life of a private individual.
+
+  Increase of Alexandria by the importation of vast numbers of
+  colonists; especially Jews.--Erection of several superb buildings,
+  more particularly the Serapeum.--Measures taken for the extension
+  of trade and navigation.--The twofold harbour on the sea, and on
+  the lake Mareotis.--The Pharus built.
+
+7. But what more than any thing else distinguished Ptolemy from his
+contemporaries was his regard for the interests of science. The idea of
+founding the Museum sprung out of the necessities of the age, and was
+suited to the monarchical form of government now prevalent. Where in
+those days of destruction and revolution could the sciences have found a
+shelter, if not under the protection of a prince? But under Ptolemy they
+found more than a shelter, they found a rallying point. Here accordingly
+the exact sciences were perfected: and although the critic's art which
+now grew up could not form a Homer or a Sophocles, should _we_, had it
+not been for the Alexandrines, be at present able to read either Homer
+or Sophocles?
+
+  Foundation of the Museum, (Society of the learned,) and of the
+  first library in Bruchium, (afterwards removed to the Serapeum;)
+  probably under the direction of Demetrius Phalereus. A proper
+  estimation of the services rendered by the Museum is yet wanting:
+  what academy in modern Europe, however, has done so much?
+
+  HEYNE, _De genio Saeculi Ptolemaeorum_. _In Opuscul._ t. i.
+
+  MATTER, _Essai historique sur l'ecole d'Alexandrie_, 1820.
+
+8. Ptolemy II. surnamed Philadelphus, son of Berenice, the second wife
+of his father, had ascended the throne in 286 as joint king. His reign,
+which lasted thirty-eight years, was more peaceful even than that of his
+predecessor, whose spirit seemed to inspire him in every thing, save
+that he was not a warrior: but, by that very reason, the arts of peace,
+trade, and science were promoted with the greater energy. In his reign
+Egypt was the first power by sea, and one of the first by land, in the
+world; and even though the account given by Theocritus of its
+thirty-three thousand cities may be regarded as the exaggeration of a
+poet, it is very certain that Egypt was in those days the most
+flourishing country in existence.
+
+  The commerce of Alexandria was divided into three main branches:
+  1. The land-trade over Asia and Africa. 2. The sea-trade on the
+  Mediterranean. 3. The sea-trade on the Arabian gulf, and Indian
+  ocean.--With regard to the land-trade of Asia, especially that of
+  India carried on by caravans, Alexandria was obliged to share it
+  with various cities and countries: since one of its chief routes
+  traversed the Oxus, and Caspian, to the Black sea; while the
+  caravans, travelling through Syria and Mesopotamia, spread for the
+  most part among the seaports of Phoenicia and Asia Minor.--The
+  trade over Africa extended far west, and still farther south.
+  Westward it was secured by the close connection between Cyrene and
+  Alexandria; and no doubt followed the same roads as in earlier
+  times: of far greater importance was that carried on with the
+  southern countries, or Aethiopia, into the interior of which they
+  now penetrated, principally for the purpose of procuring
+  elephants. The navigation on the Arabian and Indian seas had
+  likewise for its immediate object the Aethiopian trade, rather than
+  the Indian.--The measures taken by Ptolemy with this view,
+  consisted partly in the building of harbours (Berenice, Myos
+  Hormos) on the Arabian gulf; partly in establishing a caravan from
+  Berenice to Coptos on the Nile, down which latter the goods were
+  further transmitted to their destination; for the canal connecting
+  the Red sea with the Nile, although, perhaps, completed at this
+  time, was nevertheless but little used. The grand deposit for
+  these wares was the lesser harbour of Alexandria, united by a
+  canal with the lake Mareotis, which in its turn communicated by
+  another canal with the Nile; so that the account we receive of the
+  lesser harbour being more thronged and full of bustle than the
+  larger one, need not excite our surprise. With regard to the trade
+  on the Mediterranean, it was shared between Alexandria, Rhodes,
+  Corinth, and Carthage. The chief manufactories appear to have been
+  those of cotton stuffs, established in or near the temples.
+
+  The best inquiry into the trade of Alexandria will be found in J.
+  C. D. DE SCHMIDT, _Opuscula, res maxime Aegyptiorum illustrantia_,
+  1765, 8vo.
+
+9. It would be important to know what, in a state like Egypt, was the
+system of imposts, which under Philadelphus produced 14,800 silver
+talents, (four millions sterling,) without taking into account the toll
+paid in grain. In the extreme provinces, such as Palestine, the taxes
+were annually farmed to the highest bidder, a mode of levy attended with
+great oppression to the people. The case appears to have been very
+different with regard to Egypt itself; the customs, however, constituted
+the main branch of the revenue.
+
+10. The wars waged by Ptolemy II. were limited to those against
+Antiochus II. of Syria, and Magas of Cyrene, half-brother to the
+Egyptian king; the former sprung out of the latter. Luckily for Egypt,
+Ptolemy II. was of a weak constitution, and by his state of health was
+incapacitated from commanding his armies in person.--Under his reign the
+first foundation was laid, by means of reciprocal embassies, of that
+connection with Rome which afterwards decided the fate of Egypt.
+
+  Magas had, after the defeat of Ophellas, received Cyrene, 308. He
+  had married Apame, daughter of Antiochus I., and in 266 had raised
+  the standard of rebellion with the intention of invading Egypt
+  itself, when an insurrection in Marmarica compelled him to
+  retreat; he contrived, notwithstanding, to prevail upon his
+  father-in-law to undertake an expedition against Egypt, which,
+  however, was frustrated by Philadelphus, 264. To terminate this
+  contest, Magas was about to unite his daughter Berenice with the
+  eldest son of Philadelphus; Apame, wishing to thwart the
+  negotiation, fled over to her brother, Antiochus II. whom, after
+  her husband's death, 258, she excited to a war against Egypt,
+  which closed in 252.--The embassy to Rome originated in the
+  victory won by the Romans over Pyrrhus, 273; it was answered by
+  another from the Romans, 272.
+
+11. The son inherited from his father all but the simplicity of domestic
+life: under the reign of Philadelphus, the court was first thrown open
+to that effeminate luxury, which soon wrought the destruction of the
+Ptolemies as it had previously done that of the Seleucidae; at the same
+time was introduced the pernicious practice of intermarriages in the
+same family, by which the royal blood was more foully contaminated here
+even than in Syria. Philadelphus set the first example, by repudiating
+Arsinoe the daughter of Lysimachus, and then marrying his own sister,
+likewise named Arsinoe; this princess preserved her influence over the
+king as long as she lived, although she did not bring him an heir, but
+adopted the children of her predecessor.
+
+12. Ptolemy III. surnamed Evergetes. Under him, Egypt, from being merely
+mercantile, assumed the character of a conquering state; notwithstanding
+his warlike spirit, he was not uninspired with that genius for the arts
+of peace peculiar to his family. His conquests were directed partly
+against Asia in the war with Seleucus II. and extended as far as the
+borders of Bactria; and partly, it is probable, against the interior of
+Ethiopia, and the western coast of Arabia. Countries so wealthy, and
+with which commerce had made men so well acquainted, could hardly escape
+the arms of such a formidable power as Egypt; yet she seems to have made
+scarcely any other use of this extension of territory, than to insure
+the safety of her commercial routes.
+
+  The main source of the history of Ptolemy Evergetes, is the
+  inscription on the monument erected by that prince at Adule in
+  Ethiopia: it contains a chronological list of his conquests, a
+  copy of which has been preserved to us by Cosmas Indicopleustes;
+  modern researches, however, have shown the probability of its
+  having consisted of two inscriptions, one referring to Evergetes,
+  the other to a later king of Abyssinia.--According to this
+  monument, Ptolemy inherited from his father, besides Egypt itself,
+  Libya, that is to say, western Africa as far as Cyrene,
+  Coele-Syria, Phoenicia, Lycia, Caria, Cyprus, and the
+  Cyclades.--War with Seleucus Callinicus caused by the murder of
+  Berenice (see above, p. 237.); lasted until the ten years' truce,
+  246-240. During this war, he conquered the whole of Syria as far
+  as the Euphrates, and most of the maritime countries in Asia
+  Minor, from Cilicia to the Hellespont: an easy prey to a naval
+  power. Whether the conquest of the countries beyond the Euphrates,
+  Mesopotamia, Babylonia, Persis, Susiana, and Media as far as
+  Bactria, was effected in these four years, or not till between 240
+  and 230, is a question which cannot be determined with certainty.
+  If we may judge by the booty brought back, this campaign was
+  rather a foray than a regular expedition for conquest, though
+  Ptolemy, indeed, appointed governors in Cilicia and Babylonia; yet
+  the peculiar situation of affairs in Asia at the time, Seleucus
+  being at war with his brother Antiochus Hierax, and the Parthian
+  and Bactrian kingdoms being also in a state of infant feebleness,
+  afforded unusual opportunities for an expedition of this sort.
+
+  The southern conquests, so far as they may be referred to
+  Evergetes, were effected during the last period of his reign, in a
+  separate war. They comprised: 1st. The greatest part of modern
+  Abyssinia,--for as the catalogue of nations commences with that of
+  Abyssinia, it necessarily follows that Nubia had already been
+  subjected to Egypt.--The mountain range along the Arabian gulf,
+  the plain of Sennaar as far as modern Darfur, the lofty chain of
+  mountains to the south, beyond the fountains of the Nile. All
+  these conquests were made by the king in person; and from those
+  distant lands to Egypt, commercial roads were opened. 2nd. The
+  western coast of Arabia, from Leuke Kome to the southern point of
+  Arabia Felix, was conquered by his generals and admirals: here,
+  likewise, the security of the commercial roads was established.
+
+  _Monumentum Adulitanum_, published in FABRICIUS, _B. Graec._ t. ii.
+
+  MONTFAUCON, _Coll. Patr._ t. i. and in CHISHULL, _Antiquit.
+  Asiaticae_.
+
+  The assertion that the monument bears two different inscriptions
+  is made by SALT, in the narrative of his travels contained in the
+  _Travels of Lord Valentia_.
+
+13. Egypt was singularly blessed in having three great kings, whose
+reigns filled one whole century. A change now ensued; but that change
+was brought about by the natural course of events; in fact, it could
+scarcely be expected that the court should remain untainted by such
+luxury as must have prevailed in a city, which was the main seat of
+trade, and the deposit of the treasures of the richest countries.
+
+14. Ptolemy IV. surnamed Philopator. A debauchee and a tyrant, who,
+during the greater portion of his reign, remained under the tutelage of
+the crafty Sosibius, and, after the decease of that individual, fell
+into the yet more infamous hands of Agathocles and his sister
+Agathoclea. Philopator being contemporary with Antiochus the Great, the
+dangers that threatened Egypt under such a reign seemed to be doubled;
+they were, however, averted by the ill-deserved victory of Raphia (see
+above, p. 238).
+
+15. Agathocles and his sister would fain have taken into their own hands
+the guardianship of his son Ptolemy V. surnamed Epiphanes, a child only
+five years old; but the people having risen up and made a terrible
+example of them, the office of guardian was confided to the younger
+Sosibius and to Tlepolemus. The reckless prodigality of the former soon
+gave rise to a feud between him and his colleague, who was at least
+cunning enough to keep up appearances. Meanwhile the critical posture in
+which the kingdom was placed, by the attack of the enleagued kings of
+Syria and Macedonia, compelled the nation to defer the regency to Rome
+and the senate, who had hitherto carefully cherished an amicable
+connection with Egypt.
+
+  The regency confided to M. Lepidus, 201, who hands over the
+  administration to Aristomenes of Acarnania. The sequel will show
+  how decidedly important this step was for the ulterior destinies
+  of Egypt. By the war of the Romans against Philip, and their
+  differences with Antiochus, Egypt was, no doubt, for the present
+  extricated from her embarrassment; but nevertheless in 198 she
+  lost her Syrian possessions, notwithstanding Antiochus III. had
+  promised to give them as a dowry to Cleopatra, the affianced
+  bride, and subsequently the consort of the young king of Egypt.
+
+  To this time, or about 197, belongs the celebrated inscription on
+  the Rosetta stone, erected by the caste of priests as a tribute of
+  gratitude for past benefits, after the consecration of the king at
+  Memphis upon his coming of age: a monument important alike for
+  palaeography, and for the knowledge of Egyptian administration.
+
+  AMEILHON, _Eclaircissemens sur l'inscription Grecque du monument
+  trouve a Rosette_. Paris, 1803.
+
+  HEYNE, _Commentatio de inscriptione Graeca ex Aegypto Londinum
+  apportata_, in the _Commentat. Societ. Gotting._ vol. xv.
+
+16. The hopes conceived of Epiphanes, were grievously disappointed as he
+grew up to manhood. His guardian Aristomenes fell a victim to his
+tyranny; nay, his cruelty drove even the patient Egyptians to rebel,
+although the insurrections were stilled by his counsellor and general
+Polycrates. His reign happened during the period in which Rome crushed
+the power of Macedonia and Syria; and notwithstanding the close alliance
+between Epiphanes and Antiochus III. the Romans succeeded in holding the
+Egyptian king in dependence; he was, however, in the twenty-eighth year
+of his age, brought to an early grave by intemperance and debauchery.
+
+17. Of his two sons, the elder, a child five years old, was his
+immediate successor; this prince, by the title of Ptolemy VI. surnamed
+Philometor, ascended the throne under the guardianship of his mother
+Cleopatra, who fulfilled the duties of her office to the satisfaction of
+all, until 173. But, after her death, the regency having fallen into the
+hands of Eulaeus an eunuch, and Lenaeus, these individuals, asserting
+their claims to Coele-Syria and Phoenicia, engaged with Antiochus
+Epiphanes in a war exceedingly detrimental to Egypt, until Rome
+commanded peace to be made.
+
+  Antiochus, after the victory of Pelusium, B. C. 171, and the
+  treacherous surrender of Cyprus, having possessed himself of Egypt
+  as far as Alexandria, a faction arose in the city; Philometor was
+  expelled, and his younger brother Physcon seated on the throne,
+  170.--The exile Philometor fell into the power of Antiochus, who
+  compelled the fugitive to sign a separate peace, highly injurious
+  to the interests of Egypt. The articles were not, however,
+  ratified; Philometor secretly entering into an agreement with his
+  brother that they should both rule in common, 169. Antiochus
+  having in consequence again made an inroad into Egypt, the two
+  kings addressed themselves for assistance to the Achaeans and to
+  the Romans: the latter forthwith despatched an embassy to
+  Antiochus, commanding him to evacuate the territory of their
+  allies, which happened accordingly, 168.
+
+18. In the contest, which soon afterwards ensued between the two
+brothers, the younger was driven out and sought a refuge at Rome; when a
+partition of the kingdom between the princes was determined upon: the
+senate, however, after due consideration, refused to confirm the
+decision, so that the disputes between the two kings were rekindled and
+protracted, until the younger fell into the power of the elder.
+
+  In the first division, 164, Philometor received Egypt and Cyprus;
+  and the infamous Physcon had for his share Cyrene and Libya. But,
+  during his stay at Rome, Physcon, contrary to all justice,
+  obtained the promise of Cyprus; Philometor refusing to give up
+  that portion of his share, and Cyrene having risen up against its
+  king, Physcon ran the risk of losing the whole of his dominions.
+  In the war which, supported by Rome, he waged against his brother,
+  Physcon fell, 159, into the hands of Philometor, who not only
+  forgave him, but, leaving him in possession of Cyrene and Libya,
+  added some cities in the place of Cyprus, and promised him his
+  daughter in marriage.
+
+19. During the last period of his reign, Philometor was almost
+exclusively busied with Syrian affairs. He supported Alexander Balas
+against Demetrius, and even gave him his daughter Cleopatra.
+Nevertheless, he afterwards passed over to the side of Demetrius, seated
+him on the throne, gave him in marriage this same Cleopatra, who had
+been taken away from Balas. But in the battle in which Balas was
+overthrown, the Egyptian king also received his death wound. He may be
+regarded as one of the good princes of the Ptolemaic dynasty, especially
+if compared with his brother.
+
+20. His younger brother Ptolemy VIII. surnamed Physcon, and likewise
+Evergetes II. a monster both in a moral and a physical sense, who had
+hitherto been king of Cyrene, now possessed himself of the throne of
+Egypt by marrying his predecessor's widow and sister, Cleopatra, whom,
+however, after having murdered her son, he repudiated for her daughter
+of the same name. This prince accordingly, once more united the divided
+kingdom; but at the same time that he was purchasing the sanction of
+Rome by vile adulation, he maintained himself at Alexandria by means of
+military law, which soon converted the city into a desert, and obliged
+him to attract foreign colonists by large promises. Another bloody
+massacre, however, produced an insurrection in the town, which compelled
+the king to flee to Cyprus, the Alexandrines, meanwhile, raising to the
+throne his repudiated wife Cleopatra. Physcon, nevertheless, with the
+assistance of his mercenaries, recovered the sceptre, and wielded it to
+the day of his death.
+
+  That a prince of such a character should nevertheless be a friend
+  to science, and himself an author, must ever be regarded as a
+  singular phenomenon; yet his exaction of manuscripts, and his
+  treatment of the learned, whole crowds of whom he expelled, betray
+  the despot.
+
+21. His widow, the younger Cleopatra, to gratify the Alexandrines, was
+obliged to place on the throne the elder of her two sons, Ptolemy IX.
+surnamed Lathyrus, who was living in a sort of banishment at Cyprus: to
+the younger, Ptolemy Alexander I. who was her favourite, she accordingly
+gave the island of Cyprus. But Lathyrus not choosing to obey her in
+everything, she compelled him to exchange Egypt for Cyprus, and gave the
+former to her younger son. But neither was the new king able to brook
+the tyranny of his mother: as she threatened even his life, he saw no
+other means of escape than to anticipate her design; but failing in his
+project, he was obliged to take to flight, and, after a vain attempt to
+recover the throne, perished. The Alexandrines then reinstated in the
+government his elder brother Lathyrus, who ruled till the year 81,
+possessing both Egypt and Cyprus.
+
+  Revolt and three years' siege of Thebes in Upper Egypt, still one
+  of the most wealthy cities even in those days, but after its
+  capture almost levelled to the earth; about 86.--Complete
+  separation of Cyrenaica from Egypt: this province had been
+  bequeathed by Physcon as a separate branch-state to his
+  illegitimate son, Apion, 117; that prince, after a tranquil reign,
+  bequeathed it, in his turn, to the Romans, 96, who at first
+  allowed it to retain its independence.
+
+22. Lathyrus left one daughter born in wedlock, Berenice, and two
+illegitimate sons, Ptolemy of Cyprus and Ptolemy Auletes. Besides the
+above, there was a lawful son of Alexander I. of the same name as his
+father, and at that time residing at Rome with the dictator Sylla. The
+following history is obscured by clouds, which, amid the contradiction
+of accounts, cannot be entirely dispelled. Generally speaking, Egypt was
+now a tool in the hands of powerful individuals at Rome, who regarded it
+but as a financial speculation whether they actually supported a
+pretender to the Egyptian crown, or fed him with vain hopes. All now saw
+that Egypt presented a ripe harvest; but they could not yet agree by
+whom that harvest should be reaped.
+
+  The first successor of Lathyrus in Egypt was his legitimate
+  daughter Cleopatra Berenice, 81: at the end of six months,
+  however, Sylla, then dictator at Rome, sent his client Alexander
+  II. to Egypt, 80; that prince married Berenice, and with her
+  ascended the throne. Nineteen days after Alexander murdered his
+  consort, and, according to Appian, was himself about the same time
+  cut off by the Alexandrines, on account of his tyranny. We
+  afterwards hear, notwithstanding, of a king Alexander, who reigned
+  until 73, or, according to others, until 66; when, being driven
+  out of Egypt, he fled to Tyre, and called upon the Romans for that
+  aid, which probably through Caesar's intercession, would have been
+  granted, had not the supplicant soon after died at the place of
+  his refuge. He is said to have bequeathed by will his kingdom to
+  Rome; and although the senate did not accept the legacy, it does
+  not appear to have formally rejected the offer; in consequence of
+  which, frequent attempts were made at Rome for effecting the
+  occupation.--Either, therefore, Appian's account must be false,
+  and this person was the same Alexander II. or he was some other
+  person bearing that name, and belonging to the royal house.--Be
+  this as it may, after the death of Lathyrus the kingdom was
+  dismembered: and one of his illegitimate sons, Ptolemy, had
+  received Cyprus, but that island was taken from him, 57, and
+  converted into a Roman province: the other, Ptolemy Auletes, seems
+  to have kept his footing either in a part of Egypt, or in Cyrene,
+  and was probably the cause of Alexander's expulsion, at whose
+  decease he ascended the throne; although the Syrian queen Selene,
+  sister to Lathyrus, asserted her son's claims at Rome, as
+  legitimate heir to the throne of Egypt. With Caesar's assistance,
+  Auletes, however, succeeded in obtaining the formal acknowledgment
+  of his right at Rome, 59. But the measures taken by the Romans
+  with regard to Cyprus, gave rise to a sedition at Alexandria, 57,
+  in consequence of which Auletes, being compelled to flee, passed
+  over into Italy: or, perhaps, he was ordered to take this step by
+  the intrigues of some Roman grandees, anxious of an opportunity to
+  reinstate him. Pompey's attempts, with this view, are thwarted by
+  Cato, 56. Meanwhile the Alexandrines placed Berenice, the eldest
+  daughter of Auletes, on the throne; she married first Seleucus
+  Cybiosactes, as being the lawful heir; and after putting that
+  prince to death, united herself to Archelaus, 57.--Actual
+  restoration of Auletes by the purchased assistance of Gabinius,
+  the Roman governor of Syria; and execution of Berenice, whose
+  husband had fallen in the war, 54. Not long after, this miserable
+  prince, no less effeminate than tyrannical, died, 51.
+
+  J. R. FORSTER, _Commentatio de successoribus Ptolemaei VII._
+  Inserted in _Comment. Soc. Gotting._ vol. iii.
+
+23. Auletes endeavoured by his last testament to insure the kingdom to
+his posterity, nominating as his successor, under the superintendence of
+the Roman nation, his two elder children. Ptolemy Dionysos, then
+thirteen years old, and Cleopatra, seventeen, who were to be united in
+wedlock: his two younger children, Ptolemy Neoteros and Arsinoe, he
+recommended to the Roman senate. Notwithstanding these measures, Egypt
+would not have escaped her fate upwards of twenty years longer, had not
+the impending calamities been diverted by the internal posture of
+affairs at Rome, and still more by the charms and policy of Cleopatra,
+who through her alliance with Caesar and Antony not only preserved but
+even aggrandized her kingdom. From this time, however, the history of
+Egypt is most closely implicated with that of Rome.
+
+  Feuds between Cleopatra and her brother, excited and fomented by
+  the eunuch Pothinus, in whose hands the administration was: they
+  lead to open war: Cleopatra, driven out, flees to Syria, where she
+  levies troops: Caesar in pursuit of the conquered Pompey arrives at
+  Alexandria, and in the name of Rome, assumes the part of
+  arbitrator between the king and queen, but suffers himself to be
+  guided by the artifices of Cleopatra, 48. Violent sedition in
+  Alexandria, and Caesar besieged in Bruchium, the malcontent
+  Pothinus having brought Achillas, the commander of the royal
+  troops into the city. The hard struggle in which Caesar was now
+  engaged, demonstrates not only the bitterness of the long
+  rankling grudge of the Alexandrines against Rome, but shows also
+  how decisive, to the whole of Egypt, were the revolutions of the
+  capital. Ptolemy Dionysos having fallen in the war, and Caesar
+  being victorious, the crown fell to Cleopatra, 47, upon condition
+  of marrying her brother, when he should be of age: but as soon as
+  the prince grew to manhood, and had been crowned at Memphis, she
+  removed him by poison, 44.
+
+24. During the life of Caesar, Cleopatra remained under his protection,
+and consequently in a state of dependence. Not only was a Roman garrison
+stationed in the capital city, but the queen herself, together with her
+brother, were obliged to visit him at Rome. After the assassination of
+Caesar, she took the side of the triumviri, not without endangering
+Egypt, threatened by Cassius who commanded in Syria; and after the death
+of her brother, succeeded in getting them to acknowledge as king,
+Ptolemy Caesarion, a son whom she pretended to have had by Caesar.--But
+the ardent passion conceived by Antony for her person, soon after the
+discomfiture of the republican party, now attached her inseparably to
+his fortunes; which, after vainly attempting to win over the victorious
+Octavius, she at last shared.
+
+  The chronology of the ten years in which Cleopatra lived, for the
+  most part, with Antony, is not without difficulty, but, according
+  to the most probable authorities, may be arranged in the following
+  manner. Summoned before his tribunal, on account of the pretended
+  support afforded by some of her generals to Cassius, she appears
+  in his presence at Tarsus, in the attire, and with the parade, of
+  Venus, 41; he follows her into Egypt. In the year 40, Antony,
+  called back to Italy by the breaking out of the Perusine war, is
+  there induced, by political motives, to espouse Octavia; meanwhile
+  Cleopatra abides in Egypt. In the autumn of 37, she goes to meet
+  him in Syria, where he was making ready for the war against the
+  Parthians, until then prosecuted by his lieutenants; here she
+  obtained at his hands Phoenicia--Tyre and Sidon
+  excepted,--together with Cyrene and Cyprus; and in 36 went back to
+  Alexandria, where she remained during the campaign. The expedition
+  ended, Antony returned into Egypt and resided at Alexandria. From
+  thence it was his intention to attack Armenia in 35; this design,
+  however, he did not effect until 34, when, after taking the king
+  prisoner, he returned in triumph to Alexandria, and presented to
+  Cleopatra, or to his three children by her, all the countries of
+  Asia from the Mediterranean to the Indus, already conquered or to
+  be conquered. Preparing then to renew, in conjunction with the
+  king of Media, his attack on the Parthians, he is prevailed upon
+  by Cleopatra to break with Octavia, who was to bring over troops
+  to him, 38. A war between him and Octavius being now unavoidable,
+  the Parthian campaign already opened is suspended, and Cleopatra
+  accompanies Antony to Samos, 32, where he formally repudiated
+  Octavia. From hence she followed him in his expedition against
+  Octavius, which was decided by the battle of Actium, fought
+  September 2, 31.--Octavius having pursued his enemy into Egypt,
+  Alexandria was besieged, 30, and after Antony had laid violent
+  hands on himself, the place surrendered; and Cleopatra, not
+  brooking to be dragged a prisoner to Rome, followed the example of
+  her lover, and procured her own death.
+
+25. Even in this last period, Egypt appears to have been the seat of
+unbounded wealth and effeminacy. The line of infamous princes who had
+succeeded to the third Ptolemy were unable to destroy her prosperity.
+Strange, however, as this seems, it may be easily accounted for when we
+consider that the political revolutions scarcely ever overstepped the
+walls of the capital, and that an almost perpetual peace ruled in the
+country: that Egypt was the only great theatre of trade; and that that
+trade must have increased in the same proportion as the spirit of luxury
+increased in Rome, and in the Roman empire. The powerful effects
+wrought on Egypt by the growth of Roman luxury, are most convincingly
+demonstrated by the state of that country when it had become a Roman
+province; so far from the trade of Alexandria decreasing in that
+period,--though the city suffered in the first days after the
+conquest--it subsequently attained an extraordinary and gigantic bulk.
+
+
+III. _History of Macedonia and of Greece in general, from the death of
+Alexander to the Roman conquest, B. C. 323-146._
+
+  The sources for this history are the same as have been quoted
+  above: see p. 232. Until the battle of Ipsus, 301, Diodorus is
+  still our grand authority. But in the period extending from 301 to
+  224, we meet with some chasms: here almost our only sources are
+  the fragments of Diodorus, a few of Plutarch's lives, and the
+  inaccurate accounts of Justin. From the year 224, our main
+  historian is Polybius; and even in those parts where we do not
+  possess his work in its complete form, the fragments that have
+  been preserved must always be the first authorities consulted.
+  Livy, and other writers on Roman history, should accompany
+  Polybius.
+
+  Among modern books, besides the general works mentioned above
+  p. 1. we may here in particular quote:
+
+  JOHN GAST, D. D. _The History of Greece, from the accession of
+  Alexander of Macedon, till the final subjection to the Roman
+  power, in eight books._ London, 1782, 4to. Although not a
+  master-piece of composition, yet too important to be passed over
+  in silence.
+
+1. Of the three main kingdoms that arose out of Alexander's monarchy,
+Macedonia was the most insignificant, not only in extent,--particularly
+as till B. C. 286 Thrace remained a separate and independent
+province,--but likewise in population and wealth. Yet, being, as it
+were, the head country of the monarchy, it was considered to hold the
+first rank; and here at first resided the power which, nominally at
+least, extended over the whole. As early, however, as the year 311, upon
+the total extermination of Alexander's family, it became a completely
+separate kingdom. From that time its sphere of external operation was
+for the most part confined to Greece, the history of which,
+consequently, is closely interwoven with that of Macedonia.
+
+  Posture of affairs in Greece at Alexander's decease: Thebes in
+  ruins: Corinth occupied by a Macedonian garrison: Sparta
+  humiliated by the defeat she had suffered at the hands of
+  Antipater in her attempt at a revolt against Macedonia, under Agis
+  II. 333-331: Athens on the other hand flourishing, and although
+  confined to her own boundaries, still by her fame, and her naval
+  power, the first state in Greece.
+
+2. Although at the first division of the provinces, Craterus, as civil
+governor, was united with Antipater, the latter had the management of
+affairs. And the termination, as arduous as it was successful, of the
+Lamian war,--kindled immediately after the death of Alexander, by the
+Greeks, enthusiastic in the cause of freedom,--enabled him to rivet the
+chains of Greece more firmly than they had ever been before.
+
+  The Lamian war--the sparks of which had been kindled by
+  Alexander's edict, granting leave to all the Grecian emigrants,
+  twenty thousand in number, nearly the whole of whom were in the
+  Macedonian interest, to return to their native countries,--was
+  fanned to a flame by the democratic party at Athens. Urged by
+  Demosthenes and Hyperides, almost all the states of central and
+  northern Greece, Boeotia excepted, took up arms in the cause; and
+  their example was quickly followed by most of those in
+  Peloponnesus, with the exception of Sparta, Argos, Corinth, and
+  the Achaeans. Not even the Persian war produced such general
+  unanimity! The gallant Leosthenes headed the league.--Defeat of
+  Antipater, who is shut up in Lamia; Leosthenes, however, falls in
+  the siege of that place, B. C. 323, and although Leonatus--who
+  with the view of ascending the throne by his marriage with
+  Cleopatra, had come to the assistance of the Macedonians--was
+  beaten and slain, 322, the Greeks were finally overwhelmed by the
+  reinforcements, brought to Antipater out of Asia, by Craterus. And
+  Antipater having fully succeeded in breaking the league, and
+  negotiating with each separate nation, was enabled to dictate the
+  terms. Most of the cities opened their gates to Macedonian troops;
+  besides this, Athens was obliged to purchase peace through the
+  mediation of Phocion and Demades, by an alteration in her
+  constitution,--the poorer citizens being excluded from all share
+  in the government, and for the most part translated into
+  Thrace--and by a pledge to deliver up Demosthenes and Hyperides;
+  whose place Phocion occupied at the head of the state.--The
+  Aetolians, the last against whom the Macedonian wars were directed,
+  obtained better terms than they had ventured to expect, Antipater
+  and Craterus being obliged to hurry over to Asia in order to
+  oppose Perdiccas.
+
+3. That hatred which, even in the lifetime of Alexander, had sprung up
+between Antipater and Olympias, in consequence of his not permitting the
+dowager queen to rule, induced her to withdraw to Epirus; her rankling
+envy being still more embittered by the influence of the young queen
+Eurydice. See above, p. 224. Antipater, dying shortly after his
+expedition against Perdiccas, in which his colleague Craterus had
+fallen, and he himself had been appointed regent, nominates his friend,
+the aged Polysperchon, to succeed him as regent and head guardian, to
+the exclusion of his own son Cassander. Hence arose a series of quarrels
+between the two, in which, unfortunately for themselves, the royal
+family were implicated and finally exterminated, Cassander obtaining the
+sovereignty of Macedonia.
+
+  Cassander having secured the interest of Antigonus and Ptolemy,
+  makes his escape to the former, 319: he had previously
+  endeavoured also to raise a party in Macedonia and Greece,
+  particularly by getting his friend Nicanor to be commander at
+  Athens.--Measures taken by Polysperchon to oppose him; in the
+  first place, he recalls Olympias out of Epirus, but the princess
+  dares not come without an army; in the next place, he nominates
+  Eumenes commander of the royal troops in Asia (see above, p. 225);
+  he likewise endeavours to gain the Grecian cities, by recalling
+  the Macedonian garrisons, and changing the governors set over them
+  by Antipater. These latter, however, were in most of the cities
+  too firmly established to suffer themselves thus to be deposed;
+  and even the expedition into Peloponnesus, undertaken by
+  Polysperchon to enforce his injunctions was attended but with
+  partial success.--In the same year occurs a twofold revolution in
+  Athens, whither Polysperchon had sent his son Alexander, nominally
+  for the purpose of driving out Nicanor, but virtually to get
+  possession of that important city. In the first place, Alexander
+  and Nicanor appearing to unite both for the attainment of one and
+  the same object, the democratic party rise up, and overthrow the
+  rulers, hitherto taken from Antipater's party, and headed by
+  Phocion, who is compelled to swallow poison: soon after, however,
+  Cassander occupies the city, excludes from the administration all
+  that possess less than ten mines, and places at the head of
+  affairs Demetrius Phalereus, who, from 318 to 307, ruled with
+  great prudence.--Not long after, Olympias returns with an army
+  from Epirus; the Macedonian troops of Philip and Eurydice having
+  passed over to her side, she wreaks her revenge on the royal
+  couple, and on the brother of Cassander, all of whom she puts to
+  death, 317. Cassander, nevertheless, having obtained
+  reinforcements in Peloponnesus, takes the field against her; she
+  is besieged in Pydna, where, disappointed in the hope of being
+  relieved either by Polysperchon or by Aeacidas of Epirus, both of
+  whom were forsaken by their men, she is obliged to surrender, 316.
+  Cassander, having caused her to be condemned by the Macedonian
+  people, has her put to death.
+
+4. Cassander being now master, and, from 302, king of Macedonia,
+confirmed his dominion by a marriage with Thessalonice, half-sister to
+Alexander, and at the same time endeavoured to corroborate as far as
+possible his authority in Greece. Polysperchon and his son Alexander,
+it is true, still made head in Peloponnesus; but the states without the
+peninsula, Aetolia excepted, were all either allies of Cassander, or
+occupied by Macedonian troops. After the defeat of the league against
+Antigonus, in which Cassander had borne a part, general peace was
+concluded, with the proviso, that the Grecian cities should be free, and
+that the young Alexander, when of age, should be raised to the throne of
+Macedonia: this induced Cassander to rid himself both of the young
+prince and his mother Roxana by murder: but he thereby exposed himself
+to an attack from Polysperchon, who, availing himself of the discontent
+of the Macedonians, brought back Hercules, the only remaining
+illegitimate son of Alexander. Cassander diverted the storm by a new
+crime, instigating Polysperchon to murder the young Hercules, under
+promise of sharing the government: Polysperchon, however, unable to
+possess himself of the Peloponnesus which had been promised him, appears
+to have preserved but little influence. Cassander met likewise with
+formidable opponents in the persons of Antigonus and his son; and
+although delivered by the breaking out of the war with Ptolemy from the
+danger of the first invasion of Greece by Demetrius, his situation was
+more embarrassing at the second irruption; from which, however, he was
+extricated by the circumstance of Antigonus being obliged to recall his
+son, on account of the newly formed league (see above, p. 230).
+
+  Antigonus, on his return from Upper Asia, declares loudly against
+  Cassander, B. C. 314; despatches his general Aristodemus to
+  Peloponnesus, and frames a league with Polysperchon and his son
+  Alexander; the latter, however, Cassander succeeds in winning over
+  by a promise of the command in Peloponnesus. Alexander was soon
+  after murdered, but his wife Cratesipolis succeeded him, and
+  commanded with the spirit of a man. Meanwhile, Cassander carried
+  war against the Aetolians, who sided with Antigonus, 313; but
+  Antigonus, 312, having sent his general Ptolemy into Greece with a
+  fleet and army, Cassander lost his supremacy. In the peace of 311,
+  the freedom of all the Grecian cities was stipulated; but this
+  very condition became the pretext of various and permanent feuds;
+  and Cassander having murdered the young king, together with his
+  mother, drew upon himself the arms of Polysperchon, who wished to
+  place Hercules on the throne, 310; but the pretender was removed
+  in the manner above described, 309.--Cassander now endeavouring to
+  reestablish his power over Greece, Demetrius Poliorcetes was by
+  his father sent into that country in order to anticipate Ptolemy
+  of Egypt, in the enforcement of the decree for the freedom of the
+  Greeks, 308; the result at Athens was the restoration of
+  democracy, and the expulsion of Demetrius Phalereus.--From any
+  further attack of Demetrius, Cassander was delivered by the war
+  which broke out between Antigonus and Ptolemy, (see above, p.
+  229.) and had the leisure, once more, to strengthen his power in
+  Greece, until 302, when Demetrius arrived a second time, and, as
+  generalissimo of liberated Greece, pressed forward to the borders
+  of Macedonia; Demetrius was, however, recalled by his father into
+  Asia, and at the battle of Ipsus, 301, lost all his dominions in
+  that quarter of the world. Yet although Athens closed her harbours
+  against him, he still maintained his possessions in Peloponnesus,
+  and even endeavoured to extend them; from thence, in 297, he
+  sallied forth, and once more took possession of his beloved
+  Athens, and after driving out the usurper Lachares, forgave her
+  ingratitude.
+
+5. Cassander survived the establishment of his throne by the battle of
+Ipsus only three years: and bequeathed Macedonia as an inheritance to
+his three sons, the eldest of whom, Philip, shortly after followed his
+father to the grave.
+
+6. The two remaining sons, Antipater and Alexander, soon worked their
+own destruction. Antipater having murdered his own mother Thessalonice,
+on account of the favour she showed his brother, was obliged to flee; he
+applied for help to his father-in-law Lysimachus of Thrace, where he
+soon after died. Meanwhile Alexander, fancying that he likewise stood in
+need of foreign assistance, addressed himself to Pyrrhus, king of
+Macedonia, and to Demetrius Poliorcetes, both of whom obeyed the call
+only with the expectation of being paid. After various snares
+reciprocally laid for each other, the king of Macedonia was murdered by
+Demetrius, and with him the race of Antipater became extinct.
+
+7. The army proclaimed Demetrius king; and in his person the house of
+Antigonus ascended the throne of Macedonia, and, after many
+vicissitudes, established their power. His seven years' reign, in which
+one project succeeded the other, was a constant series of wars; and as
+he never could learn how to bear with good fortune, his ambition was at
+last his ruin.
+
+  The kingdom of Demetrius comprised Macedonia, Thessaly, and the
+  greatest part of the Peloponnesus; he was also master of Megara
+  and Athens.--Twofold capture of Thebes, which had been rebuilt by
+  Cassander, 293, and 291; unsuccessful attempt upon Thrace, 292.
+  His war with Pyrrhus, 290, in whom men fancied they beheld another
+  Alexander, had already alienated the affections of the
+  Macedonians; but his grand project for the recovery of Asia
+  induced his enemies to get the start of him; and the hatred of his
+  subjects compelled him secretly to escape to Peloponnesus, to his
+  son Antigonus, 287. Athens, taking advantage of his misfortunes,
+  drove out the Macedonian garrison, and, by the election of
+  archons, reestablished her ancient constitution; although
+  Demetrius laid siege to the town, he allowed himself to be
+  pacified by Crates. Having once more attempted to prosecute his
+  plans against Asia, he was obliged, 286, to surrender to Seleucus
+  his father-in-law, who, out of charity, kept him till the day of
+  his death, 284.
+
+8. Two claimants to the vacant throne now arose, viz. Pyrrhus of Epirus
+and Lysimachus of Thrace; but although Pyrrhus was first proclaimed
+king, with the cession of half the dominions, he could not, being a
+foreigner, support his power any longer than the year 286, when he was
+deposed by Lysimachus.
+
+  The sovereigns of Epirus, belonging to the family of the Aeacidae,
+  were properly kings of the Molossi. See above, p. 150. They did
+  not become lords of all Epirus, nor consequently of any historical
+  importance, until the time of the Peloponnesian war. After that
+  period Epirus was governed by Alcetas I. about 384, who pretended
+  to be the sixteenth descendant from Pyrrhus, the son of Achilles;
+  Neoptolemus, father to Olympias, by whose marriage with Philip,
+  358, the kings of Epirus became intimately connected with
+  Macedonia, _d._ 352; Arymbas, his brother, _d._ 342; Alexander I.
+  son of Neoptolemus, and brother-in-law to Alexander the Great; he
+  was ambitious to be as great a conqueror in the west as his
+  kinsman was in the east, but he fell in Lucania, 332. Aeacides, son
+  of Arymbas, _d._ 312. Pyrrhus II. his son, the Ajax of his time,
+  and, we might almost say, rather an adventurer than a king. After
+  uninterrupted wars waged in Macedonia, Greece, Italy, and Sicily,
+  he fell at last at the storming of Argos, 272. He was followed by
+  his son Alexander II. in the person of whose successor, Pyrrhus
+  III. 219, the male line became extinct. Although the daughter of
+  this last prince, Deidamia, succeeded to the throne, the Epirots
+  were not long before they established a democratic government,
+  which endured till such time as they were, together with Macedonia
+  and the rest of Greece, brought under the Roman yoke, 146.
+
+9. In consequence of the accession of Lysimachus, Thrace, and for a
+short time even Asia Minor, were annexed to the Macedonian kingdom. But
+rankling hatred and family relations soon afterwards involved Lysimachus
+in a war with Seleucus Nicator, in which, at battle of Curopedion, he
+lost both his throne and his life.
+
+  Execution of the gallant Agathocles, eldest son of Lysimachus, at
+  the instigation of his step-mother Arsinoe: his widow Lysandra and
+  her brother Ptolemy Ceraunus, who had already been driven out of
+  Egypt by his step-mother Berenice, go over, followed by a large
+  party, to Seleucus, whom they excite to war.
+
+10. The victorious Seleucus, already lord of Asia, now causing himself
+to be proclaimed likewise king of Macedonia, it seemed as if that
+country was again about to become the head seat of the whole monarchy.
+But shortly after he had crossed over into Europe, Seleucus fell by the
+murderous hand of Ptolemy Ceraunus, who, availing himself of the
+treasures of his victim, and of the yet remaining troops of Lysimachus,
+took possession of the throne; by another act of treachery he avenged
+himself of Arsinoe, his half-sister; but just as he conceived himself
+securely established, he lost both his crown and his life by the
+irruption of the Gauls into Macedonia.
+
+  The irruption of the Gauls, threatening desolation not only to
+  Macedonia but to the whole of Greece, took place in three
+  successive expeditions. The first under Cambaules, (probably 280,)
+  advanced no further than Thrace, the invaders not being
+  sufficiently numerous. The second in three bodies; against Thrace
+  under Ceretrius; against Paeonia under Brennus and Acichorius;
+  against Macedonia and Illyria under Belgius, 279. By the
+  last-mentioned chieftain Ptolemy was defeated; he fell in the
+  contest. In consequence, Meleager first, and Antipater
+  subsequently, were appointed kings of Macedonia; but both, on
+  account of incapacity, being soon afterwards deposed, a Macedonian
+  noble, Sosthenes, assumed the command, and this time liberated his
+  country. But the year 278 brought with it the main storm, which
+  spent its fury principally on Greece: Sosthenes was defeated and
+  slain: and although the Greeks brought all their united forces
+  into the field, Brennus and Acichorius burst into Greece on two
+  different sides, and pushed on to Delphi, the object of their
+  expedition; from hence, however, they were compelled to retreat;
+  and most of them were cut off by hunger, cold, or the sword.
+  Nevertheless a portion of those barbarians stood their ground in
+  the interior of Thrace, which, consequently, was for the most part
+  lost to Macedonia: another portion, consisting of various hordes,
+  the Tectosagae, Tolistobii, and Trocmi, crossed over to Asia Minor,
+  where they established themselves in the country called after them
+  Galatia (see above, p. 236). Although there can be no doubt that
+  the Tectosagae must have come from the innermost parts of Gaul, the
+  mode of attack demonstrates that the main tide of invaders
+  consisted of the neighbouring races; and, in fact, in those days
+  the countries from the Danube to the Mediterranean and Adriatic
+  were mostly occupied by Gauls.--Greece, though she strained every
+  nerve, and with the exception of Peloponnesus, was united in one
+  league, could scarcely bring forward more than 20,000 men to stem
+  the torrent.
+
+11. Antigonus of Gonni, son to Demetrius, now seated himself on the
+vacant throne of desolated Macedon; he bought off his competitor,
+Antiochus I. named Soter, by treaty and marriage. Successfully as he
+opposed the new irruption of the Gauls, he was dethroned by Pyrrhus,
+who, on his return from Italy, was a second time proclaimed king of
+Macedonia. That prince, however, having formed the design of conquering
+the Peloponnesus, and, after an ineffectual attack on Sparta, which was
+repelled with heroic gallantry, wishing to take possession of Argos,
+fell at the storming of the latter place.
+
+  Extraordinary as these frequent revolutions appear, they may be
+  easily accounted for by the mode of warfare in those days. Every
+  thing depended on the armies; and these were composed of
+  mercenaries, ever willing to fight against him they had defended
+  the day before, if they fancied his rival to be a more valiant or
+  fortunate leader. Since the death of Alexander, the Macedonian
+  phalanx was no longer dependent on its captains, but they on their
+  men. The impoverishment of the countries, in consequence of war,
+  was such, that the soldier's was almost the only profitable trade;
+  and none prosecuted that trade more ardently than the Gauls, whose
+  services were ever ready for any one who chose to pay for them.
+
+12. After the death of Pyrrhus, Antigonus Gonnatas recovered the
+Macedonian throne, of which he and his descendants kept uninterrupted
+possession, yet not till after a violent contest with Alexander, the son
+and successor of Pyrrhus. But no sooner were they secure from foreign
+rivals, than the Macedonian policy was again directed against Greece,
+and the capture of Corinth seemed to insure the dependence of the whole
+country, when the formation of the Aetolian, and the yet more important
+Achaean, league, gave rise to relations entirely new, and of the highest
+interest, even for the universal history of the world. After so many
+storms, the sun of Greece was about to set in all his splendour!
+
+  The ancient confederacy of the twelve Achaean cities (see above, p.
+  145.) had subsisted until the death of Alexander, but was
+  dissolved in the subsequent commotions; particularly when, after
+  the battle of Ipsus, 301, Demetrius and his son made Peloponnesus
+  the principal seat of their power. Some of these cities were now
+  garrisoned by those princes, while in others arose tyrants,
+  generally favourable to their interests. In 281, four asserted
+  their freedom and renewed the ancient federation; which, five
+  years afterwards, was gradually joined by the rest, Antigonus
+  being busied elsewhere, in consequence of his occupation of the
+  Macedonian throne. But the league did not become formidable till
+  the accession of foreign states. This took place, in the first
+  instance, with Sicyon, through the exertions of the liberator of
+  that town, Aratus, who now became the animating spirit of the
+  federation; and in 243 brought over Corinth, after the expulsion
+  of the Macedonian garrison, and Megara. Afterwards the league
+  gradually acquired strength, by the junction of several Grecian
+  cities, Athens among others, 229; and thereby excited the jealousy
+  of the rest. And as Aratus, who was more of a statesman than a
+  general, and possessed but little independence, had in the very
+  outset joined the party of Ptolemy II. the league soon became
+  involved in the disputes of the great powers, and was too often
+  but a mere tool in their hands. The main principles on which it
+  was founded were the following: 1. Complete political equality of
+  all the federate cities; in this respect it essentially differed
+  from all the earlier federations in Greece. 2. Unconditional
+  preservation of the domestic government in every one of the
+  cities. 3. The meeting twice a year of deputies from all the
+  cities, at Aegium, and afterwards at Corinth; for transacting all
+  business of common interest, particularly foreign affairs, and
+  also for the purpose of electing the strategus, or military leader
+  and head of the union, and the ten demiurgi, or supreme
+  magistrates.--But what more than all contributed to exalt this
+  league, founded on pure liberty, was the virtue of Aratus, 213,
+  Philopoemen, 183, and Lycortas, 170; men who breathed into it the
+  spirit of union, until, enfeebled by Roman policy, it was
+  overthrown.
+
+  # BREITENBAUCH, _History of the Achaeans and their league_, 1782.
+
+  The Aetolian league was formed about 284, in consequence of the
+  oppressions of the Macedonian kings. The Aetolians had likewise a
+  yearly congress, panaetolium, at Thermus; where they chose a
+  strategus and the apocleti, who constituted the state council.
+  They had, besides, their secretary, [Greek: grammateus]; and
+  supervisors, [Greek: ephoroi], whose particular functions are,
+  however, matter of doubt. This federation did not increase like
+  the Achaean, none but Aetolians being admitted. The more unpolished
+  this piratical nation remained, the more frequently it was used as
+  the tool of foreign, and particularly of Roman, policy.
+
+13. Antigonus, in the latter part of his reign, had recourse to various
+means, and more especially to an alliance with the Aetolians, for the
+purpose of counterpoising the Achaeans. He died in his eightieth year,
+and was succeeded by his son, Demetrius II. who waged war upon the
+Aetolians, now, however, supported by the Achaeans; and endeavoured to
+repress the growth of the latter, by favouring the tyrants of particular
+cities. The remainder of the reign of this prince is little more than a
+chasm in history.
+
+  The vulgar assertion that this prince conquered Cyrene and Libya,
+  originates in a confusion of names; his uncle Demetrius, son of
+  Poliorcetes of Ptolemais, being mentioned by Plutarch as king of
+  Cyrene. The history of that town, from 258 to 142, is enveloped in
+  almost total darkness: cf. Prolog. Trogi, l. xxvi. ad calcem
+  Justini.
+
+14. Demetrius's son Philip was passed over; his brother's son, Antigonus
+II. surnamed Doson, being raised to the throne. This king was occupied
+the most of his time by the events in Greece, where a very remarkable
+revolution at Sparta, as we learn from Plutarch, had raised up a
+formidable enemy against the Achaeans; and so completely altered the
+relative position of affairs, that the Macedonians, from having been
+opponents, became allies of the Achaeans.
+
+  Sketch of the situation of Spartan affairs at this period: the
+  ancient constitution still continued to exist in form; but the
+  plunder of foreign countries, and particularly the permission to
+  transfer landed estates, obtained by Epitadeus, had produced great
+  inequality of property. The restoration of Lycurgus's constitution
+  had, therefore, a twofold object; to favour the poor by a new
+  agrarian law and release from debts, and to increase the power of
+  the kings by repressing that of the ephori.--First attempt at
+  reform 244, by king Agis III; attended in the beginning with
+  partial success, but eventually frustrated by the other king,
+  Leonidas, and terminating in the extinction of Agis and his
+  family, 241. Leonidas, however, was succeeded, 236, by his son
+  Cleomenes, who victoriously defeated the plans of Aratus to force
+  Sparta to accede to the Achaean league, 227; this king, by a
+  forcible revolution, overthrew the ephori, and accomplished the
+  project of Agis, at the same time increasing the Spartans by the
+  admission of a number of periaeci; and enforcing the laws of
+  Lycurgus referring to private life; but as in a small republic a
+  revolution cannot be confirmed without some external war, he
+  attacked the Achaeans as early as 224; these being defeated,
+  implored, through Aratus, the help of Antigonus; Cleomenes in
+  consequence was, at the battle of Sellasia, 222, obliged to yield
+  to superior force, and with difficulty escaped over to Egypt;
+  while Sparta was compelled to acknowledge her independence as a
+  gift at the hands of Antigonus. Such was the miserable success of
+  this attempt made by a few great men on a nation already
+  degenerate. The quarrels between the ephori and king Lycurgus and
+  his successor Machanidas, placed Sparta in a state of anarchy,
+  which ended, 207, in the usurpation of the sovereign power by one
+  Nabis, who destroyed the ancient form of government. Let him who
+  would study great revolutions commence with that just described;
+  insignificant as it is, none perhaps furnishes more instructive
+  lessons.
+
+  PLUTARCHI _Agis et Cleomenes_. The information in which is
+  principally drawn from the Commentaries of Aratus.
+
+15. Philip II. son of Demetrius. He ascended the throne at the early age
+of sixteen, endowed with many qualities, such as might, under favourable
+circumstances, have formed a great prince. Macedonia had recruited her
+strength during a long peace; and her grand political aim, the supremacy
+of Greece, secured by the connection of Antigonus with the Achaeans, and
+by the victory of Sellasia, seemed to be already within her grasp. But
+Philip lived in a time when Rome was pursuing her formidable plans of
+aggrandizement: the more vigorous and prompt his efforts were to
+withstand that power, the more deeply was he entangled in the new maze
+of events, which embittered the rest of his life, and at last brought
+him to the grave with a broken heart, converted by misfortune into a
+despot.
+
+16. The first five years of Philip were occupied by his participation
+in the war between the Achaeans and Aetolians, called the war of the two
+leagues; notwithstanding the treachery of his minister Apellas and his
+dependents, the prince was enabled to dictate the conditions of peace,
+according to which both parties were to remain in possession of what
+they then had. The conclusion of this peace was hastened by the news of
+Hannibal's victory at Thrasymenus, Philip being then instigated to form
+more extensive projects by Demetrius of Pharus, who had fled before the
+Romans, and soon acquired unlimited influence with the Macedonian king.
+
+  The war of the two leagues arose out of the piracies of the
+  Aetolians on the Messenians, the latter of whom the Achaeans
+  undertook to protect, 221. The errors committed by Aratus
+  compelled the Achaeans to have recourse to Philip, 220; whose
+  progress, however, was for a long time impeded by the artifices of
+  Apellas's faction, who wished to overthrow Aratus. The
+  Acarnanians, Epirots, Messenians, and Scerdilaidas of Illyria,
+  (who, however, soon after declared against Macedonia,) combined
+  with Philip and the Achaeans; the Aetolians, on the other hand,
+  commanded by their own general, Scopas, had for their allies the
+  Spartans and Eleans.--The most important consequence of this war
+  for Macedonia was, that she began again to be a naval
+  power.--About the same time a war broke out between the two
+  trading republics of Byzantium and Rhodes (the latter supported by
+  Prusias I. of Bithynia) insignificant in itself, but which, as a
+  commercial war, originating in the duties imposed by the
+  Byzantines, was the only one of its kind in this age, 222. The
+  Rhodians, so powerful in those days by sea, compelled their
+  adversaries to submit.
+
+17. The negotiations between Philip and Hannibal concluded with an
+alliance, in which reciprocal help was promised towards annihilating
+Rome. But Rome contrived to excite so many foes against Philip on the
+borders of his own kingdom, and availed herself so skilfully of her
+naval power, that the execution of this plan was prevented until it
+became possible to attack the Macedonian king in Greece; where he had
+made himself many enemies, by the domineering tone he had assumed
+towards his allies at the time that, sensible of his power, he was about
+to enter upon a wider sphere of action.
+
+  Commencement of hostilities by Rome, against Philip: immediately
+  that the alliance of Philip and Hannibal was known, a squadron
+  with troops on board was stationed off the coast of Macedonia, by
+  which the king himself was defeated at Apollonia, 214.--Alliance
+  of Rome with the Aetolians, joined likewise by Sparta and Elis,
+  Attalus king of Pergamus, and Scerdilaidas and Pleuratus, kings of
+  Illyria, 211. On Philip's side were the Achaeans, with whom
+  Philopoemen more than supplied the loss of Aratus, occasioned,
+  213, by the Macedonian king; to them were joined the Acarnanians
+  and Baeotians.--Attacked on every side, Philip successfully
+  extricated himself from his difficulties; in the first place, he
+  compelled the Aetolians, who had been abandoned by Attalus and
+  Rome, to accept separate terms, which, shortly after, Rome,
+  consulting her own convenience, converted into a general peace,
+  inclusive of the allies on either side, 204.
+
+18. New war of Philip against Attalus and the Rhodians, carried on for
+the most part in Asia Minor; and his impolitic alliance with Antiochus
+III. to attack Egypt. But can Philip be blamed for his endeavours to
+disarm the military servants of the Romans? Rome, however, did not grant
+him time to effect his designs; the Macedonian king was taught at Chios,
+by woeful experience, that his navy had not increased proportionably
+with that of the Rhodians.
+
+19. The war with Rome suddenly hurled the Macedonian power from its
+lofty pitch; and by laying the foundation of Roman dominion in the
+east, wrought a change in almost all the political relations of that
+quarter. The first two years of the war showed pretty evidently, that
+mere force could scarcely overturn the Macedonian throne. But T.
+Quintius Flaminius stepped forward; with the magic spell of freedom he
+intoxicated the Greeks; Philip was stripped of his allies; and the
+battle of Cynoscephalae decided everything. The articles of the peace
+were: 1. That all Grecian cities in Europe and Asia should be
+independent, and Philip should withdraw his garrisons. 2. That he should
+surrender the whole of his navy, and never afterwards keep more than 500
+armed men on foot. 3. That he should not, without previously informing
+Rome, undertake any war out of Macedonia. 4. That he should pay 1,000
+talents by instalments, and deliver up his younger son Demetrius as an
+hostage.
+
+  The Roman allies in this war were: the Aetolians, Athenians,
+  Rhodians, the kings of the Athamanes, Dardanians, and
+  Pergamus.--The Achaeans at the beginning sided with Philip, but
+  were subsequently gained over by Flaminius. See below, in the
+  Roman History.
+
+20. Soon after, the freedom of Greece was solemnly proclaimed at the
+Isthmian games by Flaminius: but loud as the Greeks were in their
+exultations, this measure served merely to transfer the supremacy of
+their country from Macedonia to Rome: and Grecian history, as well as
+the Macedonian, is now interwoven with that of the Romans. To foster
+quarrels between the Greek states, with the especial view of hindering
+the Achaeans from growing too formidable, now became a fundamental
+principle at Rome; and Roman and anti-Roman parties having quickly
+arisen in every city, this political game was easily played.
+
+  Flaminius even took care that the Achaeans should have an opponent
+  in the person of Nabis, although under the necessity of waging war
+  against him previous to his return into Italy, 194.--In 192, war
+  between Nabis and the Achaeans; followed after the murder of Nabis,
+  at the hands of the Aetolians, by the accession of Sparta to the
+  Achaean league.--But about the same time Greece once more became
+  the theatre of foreign war; Antiochus having firmly seated himself
+  in the country, and enleagued himself with several tribes, but
+  more particularly the Aetolians, inspired with bitter and
+  long-standing hatred against the Romans. These last, however,
+  after the expulsion of Antiochus from Greece, 191, paid dearly for
+  their secession; nor was peace granted them by Rome till after
+  long and unsuccessful supplications, 189.
+
+21. While war was pending between the Romans and Antiochus, Philip, in
+the character of one of the numerous allies of Rome, ventured to
+increase his territory at the expense of the Athamanes, Thracians, and
+Thessalians. To keep him in good humour he was permitted to effect those
+conquests; but after the termination of the war the oppression of Rome
+became so galling, that it could not be otherwise than that all his
+thoughts should centre in revenge, and all his exertions be directed
+towards the recovery of power. Meanwhile the violent measures adopted
+for repeopling his exhausted kingdom--such is the punishment of ambition
+which usually awaits even the victorious!--the transplantation of the
+inhabitants of whole cities and countries, and the consequent and
+unavoidable oppression of several of his neighbours, excited universal
+complaints; and where was the accuser of Philip to whom Rome would not
+now lend a ready ear?--His younger son, Demetrius, the pupil of Rome,
+and by her intended, it is probable, to succeed to the crown, alone
+diverted the impending fate of Macedonia. But after the return of that
+prince from his embassy, the envy of his elder and bastard brother,
+Perseus, grew into an inveterate rancour, such as could not be quenched
+but by the death of the younger. The lot of Philip was indeed hard,
+compelled as a father to judge between his two sons; but the measure of
+human woe was filled, when after the death of his favourite child he
+discovered that he was innocent; are we to wonder that sorrow should
+soon have hurried him to a premature grave!
+
+22. The same policy which was observed by the Romans towards Philip,
+they pursued towards the Achaeans, with whom, since the termination of
+the war with Antiochus, they had assumed a loftier tone; and this artful
+game was facilitated by the continual quarrels among the Greeks
+themselves. Yet the great Philopoemen, worthy of a better age,
+maintained the dignity of the league at the very time that the Romans
+presumed to speak as arbitrators. After his decease they found it easy
+to raise a party among the Achaeans themselves, the venal Callicrates
+offering his services for that purpose.
+
+  The Achaeans was continually embroiled either with Sparta or with
+  Messene: the grounds of difference were, that in both of those
+  states there were factions headed by persons who, out of personal
+  motives, and for the most part hatred to Philopoemen, wished to
+  secede from the league; on the other hand, the prevailing idea
+  among the Achaeans was, that this league ought to comprise the
+  whole of the Peloponnesus. In the war against the Messenians,
+  183, Philopoemen, at the age of seventy, was taken prisoner by the
+  enemy and put to death.
+
+  PLUTARCHI, _Philopoemen_. Nearly the whole of which is compiled
+  from the lost biography of Polybius.
+
+23. The last Macedonian king, Perseus, had inherited his father's
+perfect hatred of the Romans, together with talents, if not equal, at
+least but little inferior. He entered into the speculations of his
+predecessor, and the first seven years of his reign was occupied in
+constant exertions to muster forces against Rome; with this view he
+called the Bastarnae out of the north, in order to settle them in the
+territories of his enemies the Dardanians; he endeavoured to form
+alliances with the kings of Illyria, Thrace, Syria, and Bithynia; above
+all, he strove by negotiations and promises to reestablish the ancient
+influence of Macedonia in Greece.
+
+  The settlement of the Bastarnae (probably a German race, resident
+  beyond the Danube) in Thrace and Dardania, in order with them to
+  carry war against the Romans, was one of the plans traced out by
+  Philip, and now partially executed by Perseus.--In Greece the
+  Macedonian party, which Perseus formed chiefly out of the great
+  number of impoverished citizens in the country, would probably
+  have gained the upper hand, had not the fear inspired by Rome, and
+  the active vigilance of that power, interposed an effectual bar.
+  Hence the Achaeans, apparently at least, remained on the Roman
+  side; the Aetolians, by domestic factions, had worked their own
+  destruction; the case was the same with the Acarnanians; and the
+  federation of the Boeotians had been completely dissolved by the
+  Romans, 171. On the other hand, in Epirus the Macedonian party was
+  superior; Thessaly was occupied by Perseus; several of the
+  Thracian tribes were friendly to him; and in king Gentius he found
+  an ally who might have been highly useful, had not the Macedonian
+  prince, by an ill-timed avarice, deprived himself of his
+  assistance.
+
+24. The commencement of open hostilities was hastened by the bitter
+hatred existing between Perseus and Eumenes, and by the intrigues of the
+latter at Rome. Neglect of the favourable moment for taking the field,
+and the defensive system, skilfully in other respects as it was planned,
+caused the ruin of Perseus, as it had done that of Antiochus.
+Nevertheless he protracted the war to the fourth year, when the battle
+of Pidna decided the fate both of himself and his kingdom.
+
+  Miserable condition of Perseus until his capture at Samothrace;
+  and afterwards until his death at Rome, 166.
+
+25. According to the system at that period followed by Rome, the
+conquered kingdom of Macedonia was not immediately converted into a
+province; it was first deprived of all offensive power, by being
+republicanized and divided into four districts, wholly distinct from one
+another, and bound to pay Rome half the tribute they were before wont to
+furnish to their kings.
+
+26. It was in the natural order of things that the independence of
+Greece, and more especially that of the Achaean league, should fall with
+Perseus. The political _inquisition_ of the Roman commissaries not only
+visited with punishment the declared partizans of Macedonia; but even to
+have stood neutral was a crime that incurred suspicion. Rome, however,
+amid the rising hatred, did not deem herself secure until by one blow
+she had rid herself of all opponents of any importance. Above a thousand
+of the most eminent of the Achaeans were summoned to Rome to justify
+themselves, and there detained seventeen years in prison without a
+hearing. While at the head of the league, stood the man who had
+delivered them up, Callicrates, (_d._ 150.) a wretch who could, unmoved,
+hear "the very boys in the streets taunt him with treachery."--A more
+tranquil period, it is true, now ensued for Greece, but it was the
+result of very obvious causes.
+
+27. The ultimate lot both of Macedon and was decided by the system now
+adopted at Rome, that of converting the previous dependence of nations
+into formal subjection. The insurrection of Andriscus in Macedonia, an
+individual who pretended to be the son of Perseus, was quelled by
+Metellus, the country being constituted a Roman province; two years
+afterwards, at the sack of Corinth, vanished the last glimmer of Grecian
+freedom.
+
+  The last war of the Achaeans arose out of certain quarrels with
+  Sparta, 150, fomented by Diaeus, Critolaus, and Damocritus, who had
+  returned bitterly enraged from the Roman prison; in these disputes
+  Rome interfered, with the design of wholly dissolving the Achaean
+  league. The first pretext that offered for executing this scheme
+  was the ill-treatment of the Roman ambassadors at Corinth, 148;
+  war, however, still raging with Carthage and Andriscus, the Romans
+  preserved for the present a peaceful tone. But the party of Diaeus
+  and Critolaus would have war; the plenipotentiaries of Metellus
+  were again insulted, and the Achaeans declared war against Sparta
+  and Rome. In the very same year they were routed by Metellus, and
+  their leader Critolaus fell in the engagement; Metellus was
+  replaced in the command by Mummius, who defeated Diaeus the
+  successor of Critolaus, took Corinth and razed it to the ground,
+  146. The consequence was, that Greece, under the name of Achaia,
+  became a Roman province, although to a few cities, such as Athens,
+  for instance, some shadow of freedom was still left.
+
+
+IV. _History of some smaller or more distant Kingdoms and States erected
+out of the Macedonian monarchy._
+
+  SOURCES. Besides the writers enumerated above, (see p. 232.)
+  Memnon, an historian of Heraclea in Pontus, deserves particular
+  mention in this place, (see p. 162): some extracts from his work
+  have been preserved to us by Photius, Cod. 224. In some individual
+  portions, as, for instance, in the Parthian history, Justin[a] is
+  our main authority; as are likewise Ammianus Marcellinus, and the
+  extracts from Arrian's _Parthica_, found in Photius. The coins of
+  the kings are also of great importance; but unfortunately
+  Vaillant's Essay shows, that even with their assistance the
+  chronology still remains in a very unsettled state. For the Jewish
+  history, Josephus (see p. 35.) is the grand writer: of the Books
+  of the Old Testament, those of Ezra and Nehemiah, together with
+  the Maccabees, although the last are not always to be depended
+  upon.
+
+  The modern writers are enumerated below, under the heads of the
+  different kingdoms. Much information is likewise scattered about
+  in the works on ancient numismatics.
+
+  [a] As Justin did no more than extract from Trogus Pompeius, a
+      question presents itself of great consequence to various
+      portions of ancient history; what authorities did Trogus
+      Pompeius follow? The answer will be found in two treatises
+      by A. L. L. HEEREN: _De fontibus et auctoritate Trogi Pompeii,
+      ejusque epitomatoris Justini_, inserted in _Comment. Soc.
+      Gott._ vol. 15.
+
+1. Besides the three main empires into which the monarchy of Alexander
+was divided, there likewise arose in those extensive regions several
+branch kingdoms, one of which even grew in time to be among the most
+powerful in the world. To these belong the kingdoms of, 1. Pergamus. 2.
+Bithynia. 3. Paphlagonia. 4. Pontus. 5. Cappadocia. 6. Great Armenia. 7.
+Little Armenia. 8. Parthia. 9. Bactria. 10. Jewish state subsequent to
+the Maccabees.
+
+  We are acquainted with the history of these kingdoms, the Jewish
+  state alone excepted, only so far forth as they were implicated in
+  the concerns of the greater empires; of their internal history we
+  know little, often nothing. With respect to many of them,
+  therefore, little more can be produced than a series of
+  chronological data, indispensable, notwithstanding, to the general
+  historian.
+
+2. The kingdom of Pergamus, in Mysia, arose during the war between
+Seleucus and Lysimachus. It owed its origin on the one hand to the
+prudence of its rulers, the wisest of whom luckily reigned the longest;
+and, on the other, to the weakness of the Seleucidae: for its progressive
+increase it was indebted to the Romans, who in aggrandizing the power of
+Pergamus acted with a view to their own interest. History exhibits
+scarcely one subordinate kingdom whose princes took such skilful
+advantage of the political circumstances of the times; and yet they
+earned still greater renown by the anxiety they showed, in rivalling the
+Ptolemies, to foster the arts of peace, industry, science, architecture,
+sculpture, and painting. How dazzling the splendour with which the small
+state of Pergamus outshines many a mighty empire!
+
+  Philetaerus, lieutenant of Lysimachus, in Pergamus, asserts his
+  independence; and maintains possession of the citadel and town,
+  283-263. His nephew, Eumenes I. 263-241, defeats Antiochus I. at
+  Sardes, 263, and becomes master of Aeolis and the circumjacent
+  country. His nephew, Attalus I. 241-197, after his victory over
+  the Galatians, 239, becomes king of Pergamus: a noble prince, and
+  one whose genius and activity embraced everything. His wars
+  against Achaeus brought him in alliance with Antiochus III. 216.
+  Commencement of an alliance with Rome, arising out of his
+  participation in the Aetolian league against Macedon, 211, in order
+  to thwart Philip's project of conquest. Hence, after Philip's
+  irruption into Asia, 203, participation on the side of Rome, in
+  the Macedonian war. His son Eumenes II. the inheritor of all his
+  father's great qualities succeeds him, 197-158. As a reward for
+  his assistance against Antiochus the Great, the Romans presented
+  him with almost all the territories possessed by the vanquished
+  king in Asia Minor, (Phrygia, Mysia, Lycaonia, Lydia, Ionia, and a
+  part of Caria,) which thereafter constituted the kingdom of
+  Pergamus; this prince extended his frontiers, but lost his
+  independence. In the war with Perseus he was scarce able to
+  preserve the good will of the senate, and therewith his kingdom.
+  His brother, Attalus II. 158-138, a more faithful dependent of
+  Rome, took part in nearly all the concerns of Asia Minor, more
+  especially Bithynia. His nephew, Attalus III. 138-133, a prince of
+  unsound mind, bequeathed his kingdom to the Romans, who, after
+  vanquishing the lawful heir, Aristonicus, 130, took possession of
+  it, annexing it to their empire, under the shape of a province
+  called Asia.--Great discoveries and vast establishments made at
+  Pergamus. Rich library; subsequently transferred by Antony to
+  Alexandria, as a present for Cleopatra. Museum. Discovery of
+  parchment, an invaluable auxiliary to the preservation of works of
+  literature.
+
+  CHOISEUIL GOUFFIER, _Voyage pittoresque de la Grece_, vol. ii.
+  1809. Containing excellent observations, both on the monuments and
+  history of Pergamus, as well as on those of all the neighbouring
+  coasts and islands.
+
+  SEVIN, _Recherches sur les rois de Pergame_, inserted in the _Mem.
+  de l'Acad. des Inscript._ vol. xii.
+
+  From the fall of Tyre and the unsuccessful attempt of Demetrius,
+  B. C. 307, to the establishment of Roman dominion in the east,
+  300-200, was the brilliant period of Rhodes; alike important for
+  political wisdom, naval power, and extensive trade. At the head of
+  the senate ([Greek: boule]) were presidents, ([Greek: prytaneis,])
+  who went out of office every half year, and were honoured with
+  precedence in the meetings of the commons. Friendship with all,
+  alliance with none, was the fundamental maxim of Rhodian policy,
+  until subverted by Rome. Thus was preserved the dignity of the
+  state, together with its independence and political
+  activity--where do we not meet with Rhodian embassies?--and
+  permanent splendour, resulting from the cultivation of arts and
+  sciences. What proofs of general commiseration did not Rhodes
+  enjoy after that dreadful earthquake, which threw down even the
+  famous colossus, 227! Long did her squadrons command the Aegaean;
+  over that sea, the Euxine, and the western parts of the
+  Mediterranean as far as Sicily, her commerce extended, consisting
+  in the rich exchange of commodities between three quarters of the
+  globe. Her revenue proceeded from the customs, and was abundant;
+  until, blinded by avarice, she sought to obtain at Peraea a
+  territory on the mainland; an ambition of which the Romans availed
+  themselves to her detriment, by presenting her with Lycia and
+  Caria, 190. And yet did this republic outlive that of Rome! Great,
+  indeed, is the chasm left in general history by the loss of the
+  internal history of this island!
+
+  P. D. CH. PAULSEN, _Commentatio exhibens Rhodi descriptionem
+  Macedonica aetate, Gottingae_, 1818. A prize essay.
+
+3. The other small kingdoms of Asia Minor are fragments rather of the
+Persian than of the Macedonian monarchy; for Alexander's march following
+another direction, they were not formally subjugated by that conqueror.
+The lines of their kings are generally traced back to an early period of
+the Persian age; but, properly speaking, their rulers in those days were
+nothing more than viceroys: selected indeed, for the most part, from the
+royal family, they bore the title of princes, and, in the gradual
+decline of the empire, not unfrequently threw up their allegiance.
+Nevertheless these kingdoms do not appear as really independent until
+after the time of Alexander. Connected with the Grecian republics
+Heraclea, Sinope, Byzantium, etc. they formed, both in the Macedonian
+and Roman ages, a system of small states, often distracted by internal
+wars, and still oftener mere tools in the hands of the more powerful.
+
+  1. _Bithynia._ As early as the Persian period, mention is made of
+  two kings in Bithynia, Dydalsus and Botyras. The son of the
+  latter, Bias, B. C. 378-328, made head against Caranus, one of
+  Alexander's generals; as did also his son Zipoetas, _d._ 281,
+  against Lysimachus.--Lycomedes I. _d._ 248. He called the Gauls
+  over from Thrace, 278, and with their assistance deposed his
+  brother Zipoetas; the Gauls in consequence kept their footing in
+  Galatia, and were for a long time an object of terror to Asia
+  Minor. Zelas, _d._ about 232; established his dominion after a war
+  with his half-brothers. Prusias I. son-in-law and ally of Philip
+  II. of Macedon, _d._ 192. He sided with the Rhodians in the
+  commercial war against Byzantium, 222, (see above, p. 282.) and
+  directed his arms, 196, against Heraclea, a Grecian city in
+  Bithynia, with a respectable territory along shore. Prusias II.
+  waged war against Eumenes II. at the instigation of Hannibal, who
+  had fled to his court, 184; he was subsequently about to deliver
+  up the fugitive to the Romans; had not Hannibal put a period to
+  his existence, 183: this king likewise waged war against Attalus
+  II. 153; in both these contests Rome acted as mediator. Prusias,
+  who had the meanness to style himself a freedman of the Romans,
+  was dethroned by his own son, Nicomedes II. _d._ 92; a confederate
+  of Mithridates the Great, with whom, nevertheless, he afterwards
+  fell out concerning the appropriation of Paphlagonia and
+  Cappadocia. Nicomedes was murdered by his son Socrates, who was,
+  however, compelled to flee; in consequence of which Nicomedes III.
+  succeeded to the crown. Deposed by Mithridates, who supported his
+  half-brother Socrates, he was reinstated by Rome, 90. Having,
+  however, at the instigation of the Romans, 89, attacked
+  Mithridates, he was defeated and expelled in the first Mithridatic
+  war, now kindled; but in the peace of 85, he was again reinstated
+  by Sulla. At his death, 75, he bequeathed Bithynia to the Romans;
+  and this legacy gave rise to the third Mithridatic war.
+
+  VAILLANT, _Imperium Arsacidarum_, vol. ii. See below.
+
+  SEVIN, _Recherches sur les rois de Bithynie_; inserted in the
+  _Mem. de l'Academie des Inscript._ vol. xii.
+
+  2. _Paphlagonia._ Even in the Persian age, the rulers of this
+  country were but nominally subject. After Alexander's death, B. C.
+  323, it fell into the hands of the kings of Pontus; it was,
+  however, subsequently, again ruled by its own monarchs; among whom
+  we hear of Morzes, about 179; Pylaemenes I. about 131: who assisted
+  the Romans in the war against Aristonicus of Pergamus.--Pylaemenes
+  II. _d._ before 121; who is said to have bequeathed his kingdom to
+  Mithridates V. of Pontus. Hence Paphlagonia came to be implicated
+  in the fortunes of Pontus, (see just below,) until after the fall
+  of Mithridates the Great, 63, that kingdom was converted into a
+  province, with the exception of one of the southern districts, to
+  which the Romans left some shadow of freedom.
+
+  3. _Pontus._ The later kings of this country derived their origin
+  from the family of the Achaemenidae, or house of Persia. In the
+  Persian age they remained dependent or tributary princes: and as
+  such we must consider Artabazes, son of Hystaspes, _d._ 480,
+  Mithridates I. _d._ 368, and Ariobarzanes, _d._ 337, mentioned as
+  the earliest kings of Pontus. Mithridates II. surnamed Ctistes,
+  _d._ 302, was one of the first to acknowledge subjection to
+  Alexander; after the death of the conqueror he sided with
+  Antigonus, who treacherously caused him to be murdered. His son,
+  Mithridates III. _d._ 266, (the Ariobarzanes of Memnon,) not only
+  maintained himself after the battle of Ipsus against Lysimachus,
+  but likewise possessed himself of Cappadocia and Paphlagonia.
+  Mithridates IV. father-in-law to Antiochus the Great, waged an
+  unsuccessful war against Sinope. The year of his death is
+  undetermined, Pharnaces, _d._ about 156. He conquered Sinope 183;
+  and that town then became the royal residence. War with Eumenes
+  II. whom Rome had made so powerful, and with his allies;
+  terminated by a treaty, according to which Pharnaces ceded
+  Paphlagonia, B. C. 179. Mithridates V. _d._ about 121. He was an
+  ally of the Romans, from whom, after the defeat of Aristonicus of
+  Phrygia, he contrived to obtain Great Phrygia. Mithridates VI.
+  surnamed Eupator, about 121-64. He bore the title of Great, an
+  epithet to which he was as fully entitled as Peter I. in modern
+  history; indeed he resembled the Russian prince in almost
+  everything except in good fortune. His reign, although of the
+  highest importance to general history, is, particularly in the
+  portion previous to the wars with Rome, replete with chronological
+  difficulties.--At the age of twelve years he inherits from his
+  father not only Pontus, but likewise Phrygia, and a reversionary
+  title to the throne of Paphlagonia, vacated by the death of
+  Pylaemenes II.--During his nonage, 121-112, while by voluntarily
+  inuring himself to hardships, he contrived to elude the
+  treacherous hostility of his guardians, Rome deprived him of
+  Phrygia. His conquests in Colchis and on the eastern side of the
+  Black sea, 112-110.--Commencement of the Scythian wars. Called by
+  the Greeks of Crimea to their assistance, he expelled the
+  Scythians; subjected several insignificant Scythian princes on the
+  mainland; and entered into alliances with the Sarmatic and even
+  Germanic races as far as the Danube, 108-105, having already a
+  view to the invasion of Italy from the north.--This war ended, he
+  travels over Asia, (Asia Minor?) about 104-103.--At his return,
+  after punishing with death his faithless sister and wife, Laodice,
+  he makes good his pretensions to Paphlagonia, which he divides
+  with Nicomedes II. 102. The Roman senate demanding the restoration
+  of that province, Mithridates not only refuses to accede, but
+  likewise takes possession of Galatia; meanwhile Nicomedes places
+  on the throne of Paphlagonia one of his own sons, whom he gives
+  out to be a son of Pylaemenes II. and denominates Pylaemenes
+  III.--Rupture with Nicomedes II. 101; the subject of dispute,
+  Cappadocia, which, after removing the king, Ariarathes VII. his
+  brother-in-law, with the assistance of Gordius, Mithridates
+  himself now wished to possess; he is anticipated, however, by
+  Nicomedes II. who marries Laodice, Ariarathes's
+  widow.--Mithridates, notwithstanding, expels his rival, under
+  pretence of holding the kingdom for his sister's son, Ariarathes
+  VIII. whom at the end of a few months he puts to death at a
+  private conference, 94; he defeats the brother of the murdered
+  prince, Ariarathes IX. and then places on the throne, under the
+  name of Ariarathes X. his own son, who is given out to be a third
+  son of Ariarathes VII; in opposition to whom Nicomedes sets up
+  another pretended Ariarathes. The Roman senate, meanwhile, declare
+  both Paphlagonia and Cappadocia free, B. C. 92; attending,
+  however, to the desires of the Cappadocians, they sanction the
+  election of Ariobarzanes to the crown; and he is put in possession
+  of the kingdom by Sylla, as propraetor of Cilicia, likewise in
+  92.--Mithridates, on the other hand, forms an alliance with the
+  king of Armenia, Tigranes, to whom he gives his daughter in
+  marriage; and employs him in expelling Ariobarzanes.--He himself,
+  after the death of Nicomedes II. 92, supports the claims of the
+  deceased king's exiled son, Socrates Chrestus, against the bastard
+  Nicomedes III. and in the mean time takes possession of
+  Paphlagonia. Nicomedes and Ariobarzanes are reinstated by a Roman
+  embassy, 90, Mithridates, in order to gain time against Rome,
+  causing Socrates to be put to death. The hostilities of Nicomedes,
+  instituted by Rome, gave rise to the first Roman war, 89-85,
+  carried on in Asia and Greece, and brought to a conclusion by
+  Sylla. By the peace of 85, Mithridates restores Bithynia,
+  Cappadocia, and Paphlagonia.--War with the revolted Colchians and
+  Bosporans, 84.--Second war with Rome brought about by the Roman
+  governor, Murena, 83-81. Mithridates hereupon appoints his son,
+  Machares, king of Bosporus, (Crimea,) whom he afterwards himself
+  causes to be put to death, 66; he was likewise, in all
+  probability, the instigator of the migration of the Sarmatae out of
+  Asia into Europe, in order to maintain his conquests in that
+  quarter, about 80. Fresh disputes with Rome about Cappadocia, of
+  which Tigranes takes possession, and third war with Rome, 75-64.
+  The contest ended in the downfal of Mithridates, caused by the
+  treachery of his son Pharnaces; Pontus became a Roman province;
+  although the Romans, in the sequel, appointed over a portion of
+  the country princes from the royal house, Darius, Polemo I. Polemo
+  II. until Nero reduced it again wholly to the state of a province.
+
+  VAILLANT, _Imperium Achaemenidarum_ in his _Imperium Arsacidarum_,
+  tom. ii. With the assistance of the coins.
+
+  For the history of Mithridates the Great, previously treated
+  without sufficient chronological accuracy, see DE BROSSES,
+  _Histoire de la Rep. Romaine_, and more especially
+
+  JOAN. ERNST. WOLTERSDORF, _Commentatio vitam Mithridatis Magni,
+  per annos digestam, sistens; praemio ornata ab A. Phil. Ord.
+  Gottingae:, A_. 1812.
+
+  4. _Cappadocia._ Until the time of Alexander this country remained
+  a province of the Persian empire, although the governors
+  occasionally made attempts at insurrection. The ruling family was
+  here likewise a branch of the royal house; Ariarathes I. was
+  particularly distinguished about B. C. 354. The prince
+  contemporary with Alexander was Ariarathes II. who, being attacked
+  by Perdiccas and Eumenes, fell in the contest, 322. Nevertheless,
+  his son, Ariarathes III. supported by the Armenians, recovered the
+  sceptre about 312. The son of this king, Ariaramnes, formed a
+  matrimonial connection with the Seleucidae, uniting his son
+  Ariarathes IV. with the daughter of Antiochus [Greek: Theos].
+  Ariarathes IV. during his lifetime, associated in the government
+  his son Ariarathes V. _d._ 162. who married Antiochis, daughter to
+  Antiochus the Great: this princess, finding herself at first
+  barren, procured two supposititious sons, one of whom, Orophernes,
+  subsequently wrested the sceptre from the legitimate and later
+  born son, Ariarathes VI. but was afterwards expelled by the
+  rightful heir, 157. In the war against Aristonicus of Pergamus,
+  131, he fell, as an ally of the Romans, leaving behind him six
+  sons; five of whom were cut off by his ambitious relict Laodice;
+  the sixth however, Ariarathes VII. ascended the throne, and was
+  married to Laodice, sister of Mithridates the Great, at whose
+  instigation he was murdered by Gordius, under pretence of placing
+  on the throne his sister's son, Ariarathes VIII; this last prince
+  was soon after treacherously put to death by Mithridates, 94, and
+  his brother Ariarathes IX. defeated 93, died of a broken heart;
+  Mithridates then placed on the throne his own son, Ariarathes X. a
+  lad eight years old. The independence of Cappadocia having
+  meanwhile been proclaimed at Rome, the inhabitants of the country,
+  in order to preclude domestic broils, themselves elect a king,
+  appointing to that dignity Ariobarzanes I. who was installed by
+  Sylla, 92, and, backed by the Romans, kept his footing in the
+  Mithridatic wars. In 63 he made the crown over to his son,
+  Ariobarzanes II. who was slain by the army of Brutus and Cassius,
+  43, as was his brother, Ariobarzanes III. 34, by Mark Antony;
+  Antony then appointed Archelaus to be king, who enticed to Rome by
+  Tiberius, A. D. 17, was there assassinated; and Cappadocia then
+  became a Roman province.
+
+  5. _Armenia_ was a province of the Syrian empire until the defeat
+  of Antiochus the Great by Rome, 190. That defeat was followed by
+  the accession of Antiochus's lieutenants, Artaxias and Zariadras;
+  and now arose the two kingdoms of Armenia Major and Armenia Minor
+  (the latter on the west bank of the Upper Euphrates). In Armenia
+  Major the family of Artaxias kept possession of the throne, under
+  eight (according to others _ten_) consecutive kings, until B. C.
+  5.--The only remarkable prince of this line was Tigranes I. 95-60,
+  son-in-law and ally of Mithridates the Great, and lord of Asia
+  Minor, Cappadocia, and Syria. He was, however, at the peace of 63,
+  obliged to give up all, so that Armenia was dependent on the
+  Romans, and remained so until B. C. 5, when it became the object
+  of contention between the Romans and Parthians, being ruled at
+  intervals by kings appointed by both parties, who endeavoured
+  thereby to protect their own provinces. Finally, in A. D. 412,
+  Armenia became a province of the new Persian empire.--In Asia
+  Minor the descendants of Zariadras ruled dependently on Rome;
+  after its defection under Mithridates the Great it usually formed
+  part of some one of the neighbouring kingdoms, until in the reign
+  of Vespasian it was converted into a province of the Roman empire.
+
+  VAILLANT, _Elenchus regum Armeniae Majoris_, in his _Hist. Imp.
+  Arsacidarum_.
+
+4. Besides the above small kingdoms, two mighty empires arose in Inner
+Asia, both out of Alexander's monarchy, and at the same time: these were
+the Parthian and the Bactrian; each having previously constituted a part
+of the empire of the Seleucidae, from which they seceded under Antiochus
+II. The Parthian kingdom, or that of the Arsacidae, B. C. 256-A. D. 226,
+at the maximum of its extension, comprised the countries between the
+Euphrates and Indus. Its history, so far as we are acquainted with it,
+is divided into four periods (see below); but unfortunately our
+information is so imperfect respecting all that relates to the
+Parthians, except their wars, that even the most important particulars
+are beyond the reach of conjecture.
+
+  Main facts in the history and constitution of the Parthian
+  kingdom. _a._ Like the ancient Persian empire, the Parthian arose
+  out of the conquests made by a rude mountain race of Central Asia,
+  whose Scythian (probably Tatarian) origin, betrayed itself even in
+  later times by their speech and mode of life: their conquests,
+  however, were not effected with the same rapidity as those of the
+  Persians. _b._ This empire increased at the expense of the Syrian
+  in the west, and of the Bactrian in the east; but its dominion was
+  never permanently established beyond the Euphrates, Indus, and
+  Oxus. _c._ The wars with Rome, commencing in B. C. 53, and
+  springing out of disputes for the possession of the Armenian
+  throne, were for a long time unfortunate for the Romans. Success
+  did not accompany the arms of Rome until she had discovered the
+  art of raising her own parties within the kingdom itself, by
+  lending her support to pretenders, an art rendered comparatively
+  easy, by the unfavourable situation of the Parthian capital
+  Seleucia and the neighbouring town of Ctesiphon, the real head
+  quarters of the court. _d._ The empire was indeed divided into
+  satrapies, eighteen of which are enumerated; nevertheless it
+  comprised likewise several small kingdoms, which preserved their
+  own rulers, only that they were tributary, such, for instance, as
+  Persis, etc. The Graeco-Macedonian settlements were also in
+  possession of great privileges, and of their own civic
+  governments; Seleucia more especially, where the coins of the
+  Parthian sovereigns were struck. _e._ The constitution was
+  monarchal-aristocratic, something like that of the Poles, in the
+  period of the Jagellons. At the king's side sat a supreme state
+  council, (_senatus_, in all probability what was called the
+  _megistanes_,) who had the power of deposing the king, and the
+  privilege, it is supposed, of confirming his accession previous to
+  the ceremony of coronation, performed by the field-marshals
+  (_surenas_). The right of succession was only so far determined as
+  belonging to the house of the Arsacidae; the many pretenders to
+  which this uncertainty gave rise, produced factions and domestic
+  wars, doubly injurious to the empire when fomented and shared by
+  foreigners. _f._ With regard to Asiatic commerce, the Parthian
+  supremacy was of importance, inasmuch as it interrupted the direct
+  intercourse between the western and eastern countries: it being a
+  maxim of the Parthians not to grant a passage through their
+  country to any stranger. This destruction of the trade occurs in
+  the third period of the empire, being a natural result of the many
+  wars with Rome, and the distrust thence ensuing. The East India
+  trade, in consequence, took another road through Palmyra and
+  Alexandria, which were indebted to it for their splendour and
+  prosperity. _g._ It is probable that this was the reason why
+  excessive luxury took a less hold on the Parthians than on the
+  other ruling nations of Asia, notwithstanding their predilection
+  for Grecian manners and literature, at that time generally
+  prevalent throughout the east.
+
+  _Line of the kings._ I. Syrian period; that of reiterated wars
+  with the Seleucidae, until 130. Arsaces I. 256-253, founder of the
+  Parthian independence, by procuring the death of the Syrian
+  viceroy, Agathocles, to which he was instigated by the insult
+  offered to his brother Tiridates. Arsaces II. (Tiridates I.)
+  brother of the foregoing, _d._ 216. He possessed himself of
+  Hyrcania, about 244, confirmed the Parthian power by a victory on
+  Seleucus Callinicus, 238, whom he took prisoner, 236. Arsaces III.
+  (Artabanus I.) _d._ 196. In his reign occurred the unsuccessful
+  attempt of Antiochus III. who, in the treaty of 210, was obliged
+  to renounce all claims on Parthia and Hyrcania, in return for
+  which Arsaces lent his assistance to Antiochus in the war against
+  Bactria. Arsaces IV. (Priapatius,) _d._ about 181. Arsaces V.
+  (Phraates I.) _d._ about 144; he conquered the Mardians on the
+  Caspian. His brother, Arsaces VI. (Mithridates I.) _d._ 136. He
+  raised the hitherto confined kingdom of Parthia to the rank of a
+  mighty empire, having, after the decease of Antiochus Epiphanes,
+  164, by the capture of Media, Persis, Babylonia, and other
+  countries, extended the frontiers westward to the Euphrates, and
+  eastward to the Hydaspes, beyond the Indus. The invasion of
+  Demetrius II. of Syria, supported by an insurrection of the
+  conquered races, ended, 140, in the capture of the aggressor.
+  Arsaces VII. (Phraates II.) _d._ about 127. Invasion of Antiochus
+  Sidetes, 132, who was at first successful, but being soon
+  afterwards cut off together with his whole army, 131, the Parthian
+  empire was for ever freed from the attacks of the Syrian kings.
+
+  II. Period of the eastern nomad wars; from 130-53. After the fall
+  of the Bactrian empire, which had hitherto formed the eastern
+  rampart of the Parthians, violent wars took place with the nomad
+  tribes of Central Asia (Scythae, Dahae, Tochari, etc.) in which
+  Arsaces VII. was slain. Arsaces VIII. (Artabanus II.) shared the
+  same fate about 124. Arsaces IX. (Mithridates II.) _d._ 87. This
+  prince appears to have restored tranquillity to the east after
+  bloody wars; he met, however, with a powerful rival in Tigranes I.
+  of Armenia. In his reign occurred the first transactions between
+  the Parthians and Romans, 92, Sylla being propraetor of Cilicia.
+  Arsaces X. (Mnasciras,) _d._ about 76, waged a long war for the
+  succession with his follower on the throne, the septuagenarian,
+  Arsaces XI. (Sinatroces,) _d._ about 68. Unsuccessful war with
+  Tigranes I. In consequence of civil wars, and of that with
+  Tigranes, together with the formidable power of Mithridates the
+  Great, the Parthian empire was now greatly weakened. Arsaces XII.
+  (Phraates III.) _d._ 60, contemporary with the third Mithridatic
+  war. Although both parties eagerly courted his alliance, and he
+  himself was engaged in the contest with Tigranes, he,
+  notwithstanding, observed an armed neutrality, and made the
+  Parthian empire continue to be respected as far as the Euphrates.
+  Neither Lucullus nor Pompey durst attack him. The fall of
+  Mithridates and of his empire, 64, constitutes, however, an epoch
+  in the Parthian history, the Romans and Parthians having now
+  become immediate neighbours.--Arsaces XIII. (Mithridates II.) _d._
+  54, deposed after several wars, by his younger brother Orodes,
+  and at last put to death, after the capture of Babylonia, where he
+  had taken refuge.
+
+  III. Roman period; from B. C. 53, to A. D. 226; comprising the
+  wars with Rome. Arsaces XIV. (Orodes I.) _d._ 36. In his reign the
+  first war with Rome, caused by the invasion of Crassus; it ends in
+  the annihilation of the invading army and general, 53. In
+  consequence of this victory the Parthians acquired such
+  preponderance, that during the civil wars they were frequently
+  masters on this side of the Euphrates, and in 52-51 proceeded to
+  attack Syria.--In the war between Pompey and Caesar they sided with
+  the former, and thus furnished the latter with a pretext for his
+  Parthian expedition, which, however, was prevented by his murder
+  in 44; again in the war between the triumviri and Brutus and
+  Cassius, 42, they took the republican side. After the defeat of
+  Brutus and Cassius, the Parthians, at the instigation of the Roman
+  general and ambassador Labienus, and commanded by him and Pacorus,
+  (eldest son to Arsaces,) spread over the whole of Syria and Asia
+  Minor, 40; but, after violent exertions, were driven back by
+  Ventidius, Antony's general, 39, 38; Pacorus lost his life, and
+  his father died of grief. Arsaces XV. (Phraates IV.) _d._ A. D. 4,
+  contemporary of Augustus. He confirmed his power by murdering his
+  brothers and their dependents; his views were likewise furthered
+  by the failure of Antony's expedition, B. C. 36, which ended
+  pretty nearly in the same manner as that of Crassus. The remainder
+  of his reign was disturbed by a pretender to the throne,
+  Tiridates, who, after his defeat, 25, found an asylum at the court
+  of Augustus. The threatened attack of Augustus was diverted by
+  Phraates's restoration of the standards taken from Crassus, 20; a
+  dispute, however, subsequently arose respecting the possession of
+  the Armenian throne, A. D. 2, on which account Caius Caesar was
+  despatched into Asia, and accommodated matters by a treaty. The
+  ultimate fate both of the king and the empire was principally
+  decided by a female slave, Thermusa, sent as a present from
+  Augustus; this woman, wishing to ensure the succession to her own
+  son, prevailed upon the king to send his four sons to Rome as
+  hostages, under the pretext of anticipating domestic troubles,
+  18.--A practice which from that time became frequent, the Parthian
+  kings thinking it a convenient mode of ridding themselves of
+  dangerous competitors, while the Romans knew how to make the
+  proper use of them.--Thermusa's son having grown up, she removed
+  the king, and seated Phraataces on the throne, under the name of
+  Arsaces XVI; he was, however, put to death by the Parthians, A. D.
+  4; and the crown given to one of the Arsacidae, Orodes II, (Arsaces
+  XVII.) who was, however, immediately afterwards slain by reason of
+  his cruelty. In consequence, Vonones I. the eldest of the sons of
+  Phraates sent to Rome, was called back and placed on the throne
+  (Arsaces XVIII.); but that prince having brought with him Roman
+  customs and luxury, was expelled, A. D. 14, with the assistance of
+  the northern nomads, by Artabanes III. (Arsaces XIX.) _d._ 44, a
+  distant relation: the fugitive took possession of the vacant
+  throne of Armenia, but was soon after driven from thence likewise
+  by his rival. Tiberius took advantage of the consequent disorders
+  to send Germanicus into the east, A. D. 17, from whence he was
+  never to return. The remainder of the reign of Artabanus was very
+  stormy, Tiberius on the one hand taking advantage of the factions
+  between the nobles to support pretenders to the crown; the revolts
+  of the satraps, on the other hand, giving proof of the declension
+  of the Parthian power. After his death war raged between his sons;
+  the second, Vardanes, (Arsaces XX.) _d._ 47, made good his
+  pretensions to the crown, and took North Media, (Atropatene;) he
+  was succeeded by his elder brother Gotarzes, (Arsaces XXI.) _d._
+  50, to whom Claudius unsuccessfully opposed Meherdates, educated
+  as an hostage at Rome. Arsaces XXII. (Vonones II.) succeeded,
+  after a reign of a few months, by Arsaces XXIII. (Vologeses I.)
+  _d._ 90. The possession of the Armenian throne, given by this
+  prince to his brother Tiridates, by the Romans to Tigranes,
+  grandson of Herod the Great, excited a series of disputes, which
+  began so early as the reign of Claudius, A. D. 52, and under Nero
+  broke out into open war, waged with some success on the Roman side
+  by Corbulo, 56-64, and closed by Tiridates going, after the death
+  of Tigranes, to Rome, and there accepting the crown of Armenia as
+  a gift at the hands of Nero, 65. Arsaces XXIV. (Pacorus,) _d._
+  107, contemporary with Domitian. All that we know of him is, that
+  he embellished the city of Ctesiphon. Arsaces XXV. (Cosroes,) _d._
+  about 121. The claims to the throne of Armenia implicated him in a
+  war with Trajan, 114, during which Armenia, together with
+  Mesopotamia and Assyria, were converted into Roman provinces.
+  Trajan's consequent and successful inroad into the interior parts
+  of the Parthian dominions, 115-116, followed by the capture of
+  Ctesiphon, and the appointment of Parthamaspates as king, appears
+  to have been facilitated by the domestic commotions and civil wars
+  which had for a long time harassed the empire. Nevertheless, in
+  the following year, 117, Hadrian was compelled to give up all the
+  conquered country; the Euphrates was again acknowledged as the
+  boundary; Parthamaspates was appointed king of Armenia; and
+  Cosroes, who had taken refuge in the upper satrapies, was
+  reinstated on the throne, of which he seems ever after to have
+  kept quiet possession. Arsaces XXVI. (Vologeses II.) _d._ 149.
+  Parthia under his reign, and Rome under that of Antoninus Pius,
+  remained on good terms. Arsaces XXVII. (Vologeses III.) _d._ 191.
+  Under the reign of this king, the contemporary of Marcus Aurelius
+  and L. Verus, the war with Rome was again kindled, 161, by Verus,
+  and carried on in Armenia and Syria; Cassius, the legate of Verus,
+  at last got possession of Seleucia, and demolished that city,
+  165.--Arsaces XXVIII. (Ardawan or Vologeses IV.) _d._ 207. This
+  king having taken the part of Pescenninus Niger, in the war
+  between him and Septimius Severus, was, after the defeat of his
+  friend, 194, routed in a war with Septimius Severus, 197, and the
+  chief towns of Parthia were sacked by the invaders. He is, without
+  authority, represented as succeeded by a Pacorus, who took the
+  name of Arsaces XXIX.: his real successor, however, appears to
+  have been Arsaces XXIX. (Vologeses V.) _d._ 216. Domestic wars
+  among his sons, fomented by Caracalla. Arsaces XXX. (Artabanus
+  IV.) At the beginning of his reign, this prince likewise was
+  contemporary with Caracalla, who, in order to pick a quarrel,
+  demanded his daughter in marriage; according to some, Arsaces
+  refused her, in consequence of which the Roman emperor undertook a
+  campaign into Armenia; according to others, Arsaces having
+  assented, and escorted his daughter to Caracalla, was, by an
+  abominable stroke of treachery, cut off, together with all his
+  train, A. D. 216. Caracalla having been murdered, 217, his
+  successor, Macrinus, signed a peace with the Parthians. But
+  Arsaces subsequently raised his brother Tiridates to the throne of
+  Armenia; this act spurred the Persian Artaxerxes, son of Sassan,
+  to rebellion; the Parthian king, defeated in three battles, fell
+  in the last, thus putting a period to the family and dominion of
+  the Arsacidae, 226, and Artaxerxes became the founder of the New
+  Persian kingdom, or that of the Sassanidae. The revolution was
+  accompanied not only with a change of dynasty, but with a total
+  subversion of the constitution.
+
+  VAILLANT, _Imperium Arsacidarum et Achaemenidarum_, Paris, 1725, 2
+  vols. 4to. The first part comprises the Arsacidae; the second the
+  kings of Bithynia, Pontus, and Bosporus. It is an attempt, not
+  altogether faultless, to arrange the series of kings, by the
+  assistance of coins.
+
+  # C. F. RICHTER, _Historico-critical essay upon the dynasties of
+  the Arsacidae and Sassanidae, according to the Persian, Grecian, and
+  Roman authorities_. A prize essay. Leipzic, 1804. A comparative
+  research into the eastern and western sources. The chronology in
+  the above sketch has been corrected by this work, in conjunction
+  with
+
+  TH. CHR. TYCHSEN, _Commentationes de Nummis Persarum et
+  Arsacidarum_; inserted in _Commentat. Nov. Soc. Sc. Gotting._ vol.
+  i. iii.
+
+5. The Bactrian kingdom arose nearly at the same time as the Parthian,
+254; its origin, however, was of a different nature,--the independence
+of this state being asserted by the Grecian governor, who was
+consequently succeeded by Greeks;--its duration likewise was much
+shorter, extending only from B. C. 254 to B. C. 126. Scarce any
+fragments have been preserved of the history of this empire, the borders
+of which appear at one time to have extended to the banks of the Ganges,
+and the frontiers of China.
+
+  Founder of the empire, Diodatus or Theodotus I. B. C. 254; he
+  threw off his allegiance to the Syrian king, under Antiochus II.
+  He appears to have been master not only of Bactria, but also of
+  Sogdiana. He likewise threatened the Parthians; after his decease,
+  243, his son and successor, Theodotus II. signed a treaty and
+  alliance with Arsaces II. but was nevertheless deprived of his
+  crown by Euthydemus of Magnesia, about 221. Antiochus the Great,
+  at the conclusion of the Parthian war, directed his arms against
+  Euthydemus, 209-206; the contest ended in a peace, by which
+  Euthydemus, after delivering up his elephants, was not only left
+  in possession of the crown, but was allied to the Syrian family by
+  the marriage of his son Demetrius with a daughter of Antiochus.
+  Demetrius, though a great conqueror, does not seem to have been
+  king of Bactria; his dominions comprised, it is probable, North
+  India and Malabar, whose history now becomes closely connected
+  with that of Bactria, although consisting only of mere fragments.
+  The throne of Bactria fell to Apollodotus, and after him to
+  Menander, who extended his conquests as far as Serica, while
+  Demetrius was establishing his dominion in India, [as sovereign of
+  which country he is represented in a medal lately discovered,] and
+  where, about this time, several Greek states appear to have
+  existed, perhaps ever since the expedition of Antiochus III. 205.
+  Menander was succeeded, about 181, by Eucratidas, under whose
+  reign the Bactrian empire attained its greatest extension; after
+  defeating the Indian king, Demetrius, who had been the aggressor,
+  he, with the assistance of the Parthian conqueror, Mithridates,
+  (Arsaces VI.) annexed India to his own empire, 148. On his return,
+  he was murdered by his son; the same, probably, that is mentioned
+  afterwards by the name of Eucratidas II. He was the ally of
+  Demetrius II. of Syria, and the main instigator of his expedition
+  against the Parthians, 142; Demetrius being defeated by Arsaces
+  VI. Eucratidas was, in consequence, deprived of a portion of his
+  territory; overpowered soon after by the nomad races of Central
+  Asia, the Bactrian empire fell to the ground, and Bactria itself,
+  together with the other countries on this side of the Oxus, became
+  a prey to the Parthians.
+
+  TH. SIEG. BAYER, _Historia regni Graecorum Bactriani_. Petropol.
+  1738, 4to. The few remaining fragments are in this work collected
+  with industry and arranged with skill.
+
+  [TOD, _Account of Greek, Parthian, and Hindu Medals_, in
+  _Transactions of the R. Asiatic Society_, vol. i. part ii, p. 316.
+
+  TYCHSEN, _De Nummis Graecis et Barbaris in Bochara nuper retectis_,
+  in _Comment. Nov. Soc. Sc. Gotting._ vol. vi.]
+
+6. The restored kingdom of the Jews was likewise a fragment of the
+Macedonian monarchy; and although it ranked only with the smaller
+states, its history in various respects deserves our attention, few
+nations having had so powerful an influence on the progress of human
+civilization. The foundation of the independence of the Jews was not, it
+is true, laid before the year 167; yet their domestic constitution had
+previously assumed its main features, and their history, reckoning from
+the return of the Babylonian captivity, accordingly divides itself into
+four periods: 1. Under the Persian supremacy, 536-323. 2. Under the
+Ptolemies and Seleucidae, 323-167. 3. Under the Maccabees, 167-39. 4.
+Under the Herodians and Romans, B. C. 39. to A. D. 70.
+
+  First period under the Persians. By permission from Cyrus, a
+  colony of Jews belonging to the tribes of Benjamin, Judah, and
+  Levi, returned to the land of their forefathers, 536: this colony,
+  headed by Zorobabel, of the ancient royal family, and the high
+  priest Joshua, consisted of about 42,000 souls; the far more
+  important and wealthy portion of the nation preferred to remain on
+  the other side of the Euphrates, where they had been settled for
+  seventy years, and continued to be a numerous people. The new
+  settlers found it difficult to keep their footing, principally in
+  consequence of differences, produced by the intolerance they
+  themselves evinced at the building of the temple, with their
+  neighbours and kinsmen the Samaritans, to whom the colony was only
+  a cause of expense. The Samaritans, subsequently, having erected a
+  separate temple at Garizim, near Sichem, about 336, not only
+  separated completely, but laid the foundation of an inveterate
+  hatred between the two nations. Hence the prohibition to rebuild
+  the city and temple, brought about by their means, under Cambyses,
+  529, and Smerdis, 522, and not taken off until 520, in the reign
+  of Darius Hystaspes. The new colony did not receive a permanent
+  internal constitution till the time of Ezra and Nehemiah; both
+  brought in fresh colonists, the former in 478, the latter in 445.
+  The country was under the dominion of the satraps of Syria; but in
+  the increasing domestic declension of the Persian empire, the high
+  priests gradually became the virtual rulers of the nation.
+  Nevertheless, even at the time of Alexander's conquest, 332, the
+  Jews seem to have manifested proofs of fidelity to the Persians.
+
+  Second period under the Ptolemies and Seleucidae, 323-167. After
+  the death of Alexander, Palestine, in consequence of its
+  situation, generally shared the fate of Phoenicia and Coele-Syria,
+  (see above, p. 249.) being annexed to Syria.--Capture of
+  Jerusalem, and transplantation of a vast colony of Jews to
+  Alexandria by Ptolemy I. 312; from thence they spread to Cyrene,
+  and gradually over the whole of North Africa, and even into
+  Aethiopia. From 311-301 the Jews remained, however, subject to
+  Antigonus. After the overthrow of his empire, they remained,
+  301-203, under the dominion of the Ptolemies; the most conspicuous
+  of their high priests during this interval were Simon the Just,
+  _d._ 291, and afterwards his son, Onias I. _d._ 218, who, by
+  withholding the tribute due to Ptolemy III. exposed Judaea to
+  imminent danger.--In the second war of Antiochus the Great against
+  Egypt, 203, the Jews, of their own free will, acknowledged
+  themselves his subjects, and assisted in driving out the Egyptian
+  troops, who, under their general, Scopas, had again possessed
+  themselves of the country, and the citadel of Jerusalem, 198.
+  Antiochus confirmed the Jews in the possession of all their
+  privileges; and although he promised their country, together with
+  Coele-Syria and Phoenicia, to Ptolemy Epiphanes, as the future
+  dowry of his daughter, Judaea still remained under the Syrian
+  supremacy; except that the revenue was for a time divided between
+  the Syrian and Egyptian kings.--The high priests and self-chosen
+  ethnarchs or alabarchs were at the head of the people; and we now
+  find mention made for the first time of a senate, or the
+  sanhedrim. But the rout of Antiochus the Great by the Romans was
+  also the remote cause of the subsequent misfortunes of the Jews.
+  The consequent dearth of money in which the Syrian kings found
+  themselves, and the riches of the temple treasures, the
+  accumulation of the sacred income and gifts, made the office of
+  high priest an object of purchase under Antiochus Epiphanes: hence
+  arose quarrels between the pontifical families, and out of those
+  sprung factions, which Antiochus Epiphanes was desirous to turn to
+  his own account, by the introduction of Grecian institutions among
+  the Jews, in order thereby to promote the subjection of that
+  people, now raised by its privileges almost to the rank of a state
+  within that of Syria. Deposition of the high priest, Onias III.
+  175; his brother Jason having obtained the mitre by purchase, and
+  the introduction of Grecian customs: Jason, however, was in his
+  turn supplanted by his brother Menelaus, 172. During the civil
+  war arising out of these events, Antiochus Epiphanes, at that time
+  conqueror in Egypt, (see above, p. 241.) takes possession of
+  Jerusalem, 170, being provoked by the behaviour of the Jews to
+  Menelaus, the high priest of his own appointment: the consequent
+  oppression of the Jews, who now were to be Hellenized by main
+  force, soon occasioned the rise under the Maccabees.
+
+  Third period under the Maccabees, 167-39. Commencement of the
+  rebellion against Antiochus IV. brought about by the priest
+  Mattathias, 167, who was almost immediately succeeded, 166-161, by
+  his son Judas Maccabaeus. Supported by the fanaticism of his party,
+  Judas defeats in several battles the generals of Antiochus, who
+  was absent in Upper Asia, where he died, 164; the Jewish leader is
+  even said to have been favoured by Rome. The primary object of the
+  insurrection was not, however, political independence; they fought
+  only for religious freedom. Under Antiochus V. the sedition
+  continued successful, both against the Syrian king and the high
+  priest Alcimus, his creature, 163; Judas having died soon after
+  his defeat by Demetrius I. was succeeded by his brother Jonathan,
+  161-143. The death of the high priest, Alcimus, 160, opened the
+  path of Jonathan to that office, which he received in the ensuing
+  war between Demetrius I. and Alexander Balas, 143, (see above, p.
+  244, 245.) both rivals courting his alliance: Jonathan sided with
+  Balas, and consequently, from being merely the leader of a party,
+  came to be head of the nation, which still, nevertheless,
+  continued to pay tribute to the kings. Notwithstanding the favour
+  he had shown to Balas, after the overthrow of that pretender, he
+  was confirmed in his dignity by Demetrius I. 145; to whose
+  assistance he marched at the subsequent great revolt in Antioch.
+  Jonathan however, in 144, passed over to the side of the usurper,
+  Antiochus, the son of Balas, (see above, p. 245.) and was by
+  embassy presented with the friendship of the Romans in the same
+  year, but by the treachery of Tryphon was taken and put to death,
+  143. His brother and successor, Simon, 143-135, having declared
+  against Tryphon, was by Demetrius II. not only confirmed in his
+  dignity, but excused from paying tribute; he likewise received the
+  title of prince, (ethnarch;) and appears to have struck coins.
+  After the capture of Demetrius, Antiochus Sidetes allowed Simon to
+  remain in possession of those privileges so long as he stood in
+  need of his assistance against Tryphon; but after the death of
+  that usurper, he caused him, 130, to be attacked by Cendebaeus, who
+  was defeated by the sons of Simon. Simon having been murdered by
+  his son-in-law, Ptolemaeus, who aspired to the government, 135, was
+  succeeded by his son, John Hyrcanus, 135-107, who was compelled
+  again to acknowledge submission to Antiochus Sidetes; but after
+  the defeat and death of that prince by the Parthians, 130, he
+  asserted his entire independence. The deep decline of the Syrian
+  kingdom, the constant civil wars by which it was distracted, and
+  the renewed league with the Romans, not only enabled Hyrcanus
+  easily to maintain his independence, but likewise to increase his
+  territory, by the conquest of the Samaritans and Idumaeans. But
+  with him ended the heroic line. Scarcely was he delivered from
+  foreign oppression, when domestic broils arose; the Pharisees and
+  Sadducees had hitherto been mere religious sects, but were
+  converted into political factions by Hyrcanus, who, offended with
+  the Pharisees, probably in consequence of their wish to separate
+  the pontifical and princely offices, went over to the Sadducees;
+  the former sect, the orthodox, were as usual supported by the
+  many; the latter, the innovators, in consequence of the laxity of
+  their principles, were favoured by the wealthy. Hyrcanus's eldest
+  son, the cruel Aristobulus, 107, assumed the royal title, but soon
+  after dying, 106, was succeeded by his younger brother, Alexander
+  Jannaeus, 106-79. His reign was an almost unbroken series of
+  insignificant wars with his neighbours, this prince wishing to
+  play the conqueror; and having likewise had the imprudence to
+  irritate the powerful party of the Pharisees, these made him the
+  object of public insult, and excited a tumult, 92, which was
+  followed by a bloody civil war which lasted six years. Jannaeus, it
+  is true, maintained himself during the struggle; but the opposite
+  party was so far from being annihilated, that, at his death, when
+  passing over his sons, the feeble Hyrcanus (who possessed the
+  pontifical dignity) and the ambitious Aristobulus, he bequeathed
+  the crown to his widow Alexandra, it was with the understanding
+  that she should join the party of the Pharisees: during her reign,
+  therefore, 79-71, the Pharisees held the reins of government, and
+  left her only the name. Provoked at this, Aristobulus, shortly
+  before the death of the queen, endeavoured to obtain possession of
+  the throne, and ultimately obtained his ends, notwithstanding
+  Alexandra nominated Hyrcanus to be her successor. Hyrcanus, at the
+  instigation of his confidant, the Idumaean Antipater, who was the
+  progenitor of the Herodians, and assisted by the Arabian prince
+  Aretas, waged war against his brother, 65, and shut him up in
+  Jerusalem: but the Romans were arbitrators, and Pompey, then
+  all-powerful in Asia, decided for Hyrcanus, 64; the party of
+  Aristobulus, however, refusing to accede, the Roman general took
+  possession of Jerusalem; made Hyrcanus high priest and prince,
+  under condition that he should pay tribute; and took as prisoners
+  to Rome Aristobulus and his sons, who, however, subsequently
+  escaped and caused great disturbances. The Jewish state being now
+  dependent on Rome, remained so, and the yoke was confirmed by the
+  policy of Antipater and his sons, who followed the general maxim
+  of entire devotion to Rome, in order thereby to succeed in wholly
+  removing the reigning family. As early as 48, Antipater was
+  appointed procurator of Judea by Caesar, whom he had supported at
+  Alexandria, and his second son Herod, governor in Galilee, soon
+  became sufficiently powerful to threaten Hyrcanus and the
+  sanhedrim, 45. He gained the favour of Antony, and thus maintained
+  himself amid the tempests which, after the assassination of Caesar,
+  44, shook the Roman world, powerful as the party opposed to him
+  were: that party, however, at last, in lieu of the ill-fated
+  Hyrcanus, the only surviving son of Aristobulus, placed Antigonus
+  at their head, and, assisted by the Parthians, then flourishing in
+  power, seated him on the throne, 39. Herod having fled to Rome,
+  not only met with a gracious reception at the hands of the
+  triumviri, but was by them appointed king.
+
+  Fourth period under the Herodians, B. C. 39 to A. D. 70. Herod the
+  Great, B. C. 39 to A. D. 1. put himself in possession of Jerusalem
+  and all Judaea, B. C. 37, and confirmed his power by marrying
+  Mariamne of the house of the Maccabees. Notwithstanding his
+  severity shown to the party of Antigonus, and the house of the
+  Maccabees, the total extinction of which Herod deemed necessary
+  for his own safety; yet so greatly did the wasted country stand in
+  need of peace, that for that very reason his reign may be said to
+  have been a happy one. Availing himself of the liberality of
+  Augustus, whose favour he contrived to obtain after the defeat of
+  Anthony, B.C. 31, Herod gradually increased the extent of his
+  kingdom, which at last comprised Judaea, Samaria, Galilee, and
+  beyond the Jordan, Peraea, Ituraea, and Trachonitis, (that is to
+  say, the whole of Palestine,) together with Idumaea; from these
+  countries he derived his income without being obliged to pay any
+  tribute. The deference consequently shown by Herod to Rome, was
+  but the effect of a natural policy, and his conduct in that
+  respect could be objected to him only by bigoted Jews. To his
+  whole family, rather than to himself individually, are to be
+  attributed the executions which took place among its members;
+  happy had it been if the sword had smitten none but the guilty and
+  spared the innocent. In the last year but one of his reign is
+  placed the birth of Christ (according to the usually adopted
+  computation, made in the sixth century by Dionysius Exiguus. But
+  the more accurate calculations of modern chronologists show that
+  the real date of the Saviour's birth was probably four years
+  earlier).--According to his will, with some few alterations made
+  by Augustus, his kingdom was divided among his three surviving
+  sons; Archelaus, as ethnarch, receiving the greater moiety, Judaea,
+  Samaria, and Idumaea; the two others, as tetrarchs, Philip a part
+  of Galilee and Trachonitis, Antipas the other part of Galilee, and
+  Peraea, together with Ituraea; subsequently to which division, the
+  various parts did not, in consequence, all share the same
+  fate.--Archelaus, by misgovernment, soon lost his portion, A. D.
+  6; Judaea and Samaria were consequently annexed as a Roman province
+  to Syria, and placed under procurators subordinate to the Syrian
+  governors: among these procurators, the most famous is Pontius
+  Pilate, about A.D. 27-36, under whom the founder of our religion
+  appeared and suffered, not as a political--although accused of
+  being so--but as a moral reformer. On the other hand, Philip
+  retained his tetrarchy until the day of his death, A. D. 34, when
+  his country had the same lot with Judaea and Samaria. Soon after,
+  that is to say, in A. D. 37, it was, however, given by Caligula,
+  with the title of king, to Agrippa, (grandson of Herod by
+  Aristobulus,) as a recompense for his attachment to the family of
+  Germanicus; and when Antipas, who wished to procure a similar
+  favour for himself but instead of it, was deposed, 39, Agrippa
+  received his tetrarchy also, 40, and soon afterwards, by the
+  possession of the territory which had belonged to Archelaus,
+  became master of the whole of Palestine. Agrippa having died in A.
+  D. 44, the whole country being appended to Syria, became a Roman
+  province, and received procurators, although Chalcis, 49, and
+  subsequently also, 53, Philip's tetrarchy, were restored as a
+  kingdom to his son Agrippa II. _d._ 90. The oppression of the
+  procurators, and of Gessius Florus in particular, who obtained the
+  office, A. D. 64, excited the Jews to rebellion, which, 70, ended
+  in the capture and destruction of their city and temple by Titus.
+  The spread of the Jews over the whole civilized world of that
+  time, although previously commenced, was by this event still
+  further increased; and at the same time the extension of
+  Christianity was prepared and facilitated. Even after the
+  conquest, Jerusalem not only continued to exist as a city, but was
+  also still considered by the nation as a point of union; and the
+  attempt, under Adrian, to establish a Roman colony there, produced
+  a fearful sedition.
+
+  BASNAGE, _Histoire des Juifs depuis J. C. jusqu' a present_. La
+  Haye, 1716, 15 vols. 12mo. The first two parts only, properly
+  speaking, belong to this period; but the others likewise contain
+  several very valuable historical researches.
+
+  PRIDEAUX, _The Old and New Testament connected in the history of
+  the Jews and their neighbouring nations_. Lond. 1714, 2 vols. This
+  work, together with that above quoted, have always been esteemed
+  the grand books on the subject. The French translation of
+  Prideaux's Connection is, by its arrangement, more convenient for
+  use than the original: this translation was published at
+  Amsterdam, 1722, 5 vols. 8vo. under the title of PRIDEAUX,
+  _Histoire des Juifs et des peuples voisins depuis la decadence des
+  Royaumes d'Israel et de Juda, jusqu' a la mort de J. C._
+
+  # J. D. MICHAELIS, _Translation of the Books of Esdras, Nehemiah,
+  and Maccabees_, contains in the observations several historic
+  discussions of high importance.
+
+  # J. REMOND, _Essay towards a history of the spread of Judaism,
+  from Cyrus to the total decline of the Jewish state_. Leipzig,
+  1789. The industrious work of a young scholar.
+
+  To the works enumerated p. 34, 35, must be added, for the more
+  ancient history of the Jews:
+
+  J. L. BAUER, _Manual of the history of the Hebrew nation, from its
+  rise to the destruction of its state_. Nuremberg, 1800, 2 parts,
+  8vo. As yet the best critical introduction, not only to the
+  history, but also to the antiquities of the nation.
+
+  # In the works of J. J. HESS, belonging to this subject, namely,
+  _History of Moses_; _History of Joshua_; _History of the Rulers of
+  Judah_, 2 parts; _History of the Kings of Judah and Israel_: the
+  history is throughout considered in a theocratic point of view.
+
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+FIFTH BOOK.
+
+HISTORY OF THE ROMAN STATE.
+
+
+
+
+_Introductory remarks on the Geography of Ancient Italy._
+
+
+Italy constitutes a peninsula, bounded on the north by the Alps, on the
+west and south by the Mediterranean, and on the east by the Adriatic
+sea. Its greatest length from north to south is 600 geogr. miles; its
+greatest breadth, taken at the foot of the Alps, is 320 geogr. miles;
+but that of the peninsula, properly so called, is not more than 120
+geogr. miles. Superficial contents, 81,920 sq. geogr. miles. The
+principal mountain range is that of the Apennines, which, diverging
+occasionally to the west, or east, stretch from north to south through
+Central and Lower Italy. In the earlier times of Rome, these mountains
+were covered with thick forests. Main streams: the Padus (Po) and the
+Athesis, (Adige,) both of which discharge their waters in the Adriatic;
+and the Tiberis, (Tiber,) which falls into the Mediterranean. The soil,
+particularly in the plains, is one of the most fertile in Europe; on the
+other hand, many of the mountain tracts admit but of little cultivation.
+In that period when the Mediterranean was the grand theatre of trade,
+Italy, by her situation, seemed destined to become the principal mart of
+Europe; but she never in ancient times availed herself sufficiently of
+this advantage.
+
+It is divided into _Upper_ Italy, from the Alps to the small rivers of
+Rubicon and Macra; (this part, however, of Italy, until presented with
+the right of citizenship under Caesar, was, according to the Roman
+political geography, considered as a province;) into _Central_ Italy,
+from the Rubicon and the Macra down to the Silarus and Frento; and into
+_Lower_ Italy from those rivers to the southern land's end.
+
+
+I. _Upper Italy comprises the two countries, Gallia Cisalpina and
+Liguria._
+
+1. Gallia Cisalpina, or Togata, in contradistinction to Gallia
+Transalpina. It bears the name of Gallia, in consequence of being for
+the most part occupied by Gallic races. This country is one continuous
+plain, divided by the Padus into two parts, the northernmost of which is
+therefore denominated Gallia Transpadana, (inhabited by the Taurini,
+Insubres, and Cenomani,) while the southern part (inhabited by the Boii,
+Senones, and Lingones) is known by the name of Gallia Cispadana. Various
+streams contribute to swell the Padus; from the north the Duria,
+(Durance,) the Ticinus, (Tessino,) the Addua, (Adda,) the Ollius,
+(Oglio,) the Mintius, (Minzio,) and several less important rivers; from
+the south, the Tanarus, (Tanaro,) the Trebia, etc. The Athesis, (Adige,)
+the Plavis, (Piave,) and a number of smaller mountain streams, roll
+their waters directly into the Adriatic.
+
+The cities in Gallia Cisalpina were, generally speaking, Roman colonies;
+and most of them have preserved to this day their ancient names. Among
+these are reckoned in Gallia Transpadana, principally, Tergeste,
+Aquileia, Patavium, (Padua,) Vincentia, Verona, all east of the Athesis;
+Mantua, Cremona, Brixia, (Brescia,) Mediolanum, (Milan,) Ticinum,
+(Pavia,) and Augusta Taurinorum, (Turin,) all west of the Athesis. In
+Gallia Cispadana we meet with Ravenna, Bononia, (Bologna,) Mutina,
+(Modena,) Parma, Placentia, (Piacenza). Several of the above places
+received municipal rights from the Romans.
+
+2. Liguria. This country deduced its name from the Ligures, one of the
+old Italic tribes: it extended from the river Varus, by which it was
+divided from Gallia Transalpina, down to the river Macra; northward it
+extended to the Padus, and comprised the modern territory of
+Genoa.--Cities: Genua, an extremely ancient place; Nicaea, (Nice,) a
+colony of Massilia; and Asta, (Asti.)
+
+
+II. _Central Italy comprises six countries; Etruria, Latium, and
+Campania on the west; Umbria, Picenum, and Samnium on the east._
+
+1. Etruria, Tuscia, or Tyrrhenia, was bounded north by the Macra, which
+divided it from Liguria; south and east by the Tiberis, which separated
+it from Latium and Umbria. Main river, the Arnus, (Arno). It is for the
+most part a mountainous country; the seashore only is level. This
+country derives its name from the Etrusci, a very ancient people,
+composed, it is probable, of an amalgamation of several races, and even
+some early Grecian colonies, to which latter they were indebted, not
+indeed for all their arts, but for that of writing; to commerce and
+navigation the Etrusci were indebted for their opulence and consequent
+splendour. Cities: between the Macra and Arnus, Pisae, (Pisa,) Florentia,
+Faesulae; between the Arnus and Tiberis, Volaterrae, (Volterra,) Volsinii,
+(Bolsena,) on the Lacus Volsiniensis, (Lago di Bolsena,) Clusium,
+(Chiusi,) Arretium, (Arrezzo,) Cortona, Perusia, (Perugia,) in the
+neighbourhood of which is the Lacus Thrasimenus, (Lago di Perugia,)
+Falerii, (Falari,) and the wealthy city of Veii. Each of the above
+twelve cities had its own individual ruler, _lucumo_; although frequent
+associations were formed among them, yet no firm and lasting bond seems
+to have united the nation into one.
+
+2. Latium, properly the residence of the Latini, from the Tiberis north,
+to the promontory of Circeii, south; hence that country was likewise
+denominated Latium Vetus. Subsequently, under the name of Latium was
+likewise reckoned the country from Circeii, down to the river Liris,
+(Latium Novum;) so that the boundaries came to be, north, the Tiberis,
+south, the Liris: the seat of the Latins, properly speaking, was in the
+fruitful plain extending from the Tiber to Circeii; around them,
+however, dwelt various small tribes, some eastward, in the Apennines,
+such as the Hernici, Sabini, Aequi, and Marsi; others southward, such as
+the Volsci, Rutuli, and Aurunci.--Rivers: the Anio (Teverone) and Allia,
+which fall into the Tiber, and the Liris, (Garigliano,) which empties
+itself into the Mediterranean. Cities in Latium Vetus: Rome, Tibur,
+Tusculum, Alba Longa, Ostia, Lavinium, Antium, Gabii, Velitrae, the
+capital of the Volsci, and several smaller places. In Latium Novum:
+Fundi, Terracina, or Anxur, Arpinum, Minturnae, Formiae.
+
+3. Campania. The country lying between the Liris, north, and the
+Silarus, south. One of the most fruitful plains in the world, but at the
+same time greatly exposed to volcanic eruptions. Rivers: the Liris, the
+Vulturnus, (Voltorno,) the Silarus, (Selo). Mountain: Vesuvius. Campania
+derived its name from the race of the Campani. Cities: Capua the
+principal one; and also Linternum, Cumae, Neapolis, Herculaneum, Pompeii,
+Stabiae, Nola, Surrentum, Salernum, etc.
+
+_The three eastern countries of Central Italy are as follows_:
+
+1. Umbria. It is bounded, north, by the river Rubico, south, by the
+river Aesis, (Gesano,) dividing it from Picenum, and by the Nar, (Nera,)
+dividing it from the Sabine territory. It is for the most part plain.
+The Umbrian race had in early times spread over a much larger portion of
+Italy. Cities: Ariminium, (Rimini,) Spoletium, (Spoleto,) Narnia,
+(Narni,) and Ocriculum, (Otriculi.)
+
+2. Picenum. Bounded, north, by the Aesis, south, by the Atarnus,
+(Pescara.) The people are called Picentes. This country consists in a
+fertile plain. Cities: Ancona and Asculum Picenum, (Ascoli.)
+
+3. Samnium, the name of a mountain tract extending from the Atarnus,
+north, to the Frento, south; although that country reckoned among its
+inhabitants, not only the rude and powerful Samnites, but also several
+less numerous races; for instance, the Marrucini and Peligni in the
+north, the Frentani in the east, and the Hirpini in the south. Rivers:
+the Sagrus and the Tifernus. Cities: Allifae, Beneventum, and Caudium.
+
+
+III. _Lower Italy, or Magna Grecia, comprised four countries; Lucania
+and Bruttium on the western side, Apulia and Calabria on the eastern._
+
+1. Lucania. Boundaries: north, the Silarus, south, the Laus. For the
+most part a mountain tract. It derived its name from the race of the
+Lucani, a branch of the Ausones, or chief nation of Lower Italy. Cities:
+Paestum, or Posidonia, still renowned for its ruins, and Helia, or Velia.
+
+2. Bruttium, (the modern Calabria,) or the western tongue of land from
+the river Laus to the southern land's end at Rhegium. The river
+Brandanus constitutes the eastern frontier. A mountainous country,
+deriving its name from the Bruttii, (a half savage branch of the
+Ausones,) who dwelt in the mountains, while the seashores were occupied
+by Grecian settlements. Cities: Consentia, (Cosenza,) Pandosia,
+Mamertum, and Petilia. (Concerning the Greek colonies see above p. 155.)
+
+3. Apulia. The country ranging along the eastern coast, from the river
+Frento to the commencement of the eastern tongue of land; an extremely
+fertile plain, and particularly adapted to grazing cattle. Rivers: the
+Aufidus (Ofanto) and the Cerbalus. This country is divided into two
+parts by the Aufidus, the northern called Apulia Daunia, the southern
+called Apulia Peucetia. Cities: in Apulia Daunia; Sipontum and Luceria:
+in Apulia Peucetia; Barium, Cannae, and Venusia.
+
+4. Calabria or Messapia, the smaller eastern tongue of land, which
+terminates in the promontory of Iapygium. Cities: Brundusium (Brindisi)
+and Callipolis (Gallipoli). Concerning Tarentum and other Grecian
+colonies, see above, p. 155.
+
+Three large islands are likewise reckoned as appertaining to Italy: they
+are Sicily, Sardinia, and Corsica. According to the political geography
+of the Romans they were, however, considered as provinces. Although the
+above islands were, along the coast, occupied by aliens, the
+aboriginals, under their own kings, maintained a footing in the inland
+parts; among these the Siculi, said to have migrated from Italy, were
+the most celebrated; they remained in Sicily, and gave their name to the
+whole island. Concerning the cities, the more important of which were,
+some of Phoenician, but the most part of Grecian, origin, see above, p.
+30, and p. 155, sqq.
+
+
+
+
+FIRST PERIOD.
+
+_From the foundation of Rome to the conquest of Italy and the
+commencement of the wars with Carthage, B. C. 754-264, or A. U. C.
+1-490._
+
+
+  SOURCES. The most copious author, and, if we except his system of
+  deducing everything connected with Rome from Greece, the most
+  critical of all those who have written on the earlier history of
+  Rome and Italy, is Dionysius Halicarnassensis, in his
+  _Archaeologia_: of this work only the first eleven books, reaching
+  down to the year 443, have been preserved; to these, however, must
+  be added the fragments of the nine following books, xii-xx.
+  discovered in 1816, and published by the Abbate Mai of Milan. Next
+  to Dionysius is Livy, who as far as lib. iv, c. 18, is our main
+  authority, till B. C. 292. Of the Lives of Plutarch the following
+  belong to this period, Romulus, Numa, Coriolanus, Poplicola and
+  Camillus; which for the knowledge and criticism they display, are
+  perhaps more important even than Livy and Dionysius, see A. H. L.
+  HEEREN, _De fontibus et auctoritate vitarum Plutarchi_, inserted in
+  _Comment Recentiores Soc. Scient. Gott. Comment. I. II. Graeci, III.
+  IV. Romani_; reprinted also as an appendix to the editions of
+  Plutarch by Reiske and Hutten, _Gottingen_, 1821, _ap. Dieterich_.
+  The sources of the most ancient Roman history were extremely
+  various in kind. The traditions of the Fathers were preserved in
+  historical ballads; (no mention is ever made of any grand epic
+  poem;) and in this sense there existed a bardic history; by no
+  means, however, wholly poetic, for even the traditions of Numa's
+  Institutes are without the characteristics of poetry. The art of
+  writing was in Italy of earlier origin than the city of Rome; how
+  far, consequently, the public annals, such as the _Libri
+  Pontificum_, extended back in early time remains undetermined.
+  Several of the memorials are, beyond a doubt, mere family records,
+  whether preserved by vocal tradition or in written documents. To
+  the above must be added monuments, not only buildings and works of
+  arts, but also treaties engraved on tables; of which, nevertheless,
+  too little use seems to have been made. The Romans having learnt
+  the art of writing from the Greeks, their history was as
+  frequently written in Greek as in Latin; and that not only by
+  Greeks, such as, in the first place, Diocles of Peparethus, but
+  likewise by Romans, such as Fabius Pictor, at an early period. From
+  these last sources Dionysius and Livy compiled. The more ancient
+  Roman history given by these authorities rests, therefore, in part,
+  but by no means entirely, on tradition and poetry; still further
+  amplified by the rhetoric style, that of the Greeks more
+  especially. At what epoch the Roman history lays aside the poetic
+  character can hardly be determined with certainty; it may be traced
+  even in some parts of the period extending from the expulsion of
+  the kings to the conquest by the Gauls.--For the purposes of
+  chronology, great importance attaches to the _fasti Romani_,
+  contained partly in inscriptions, (_fasti Capitolini_,) partly in
+  manuscripts. They have been collected and restored by Pighius,
+  Noris Sigonius, etc. in GRAEVII, _Thes. A. R._ vol. xi.; likewise in
+  ALMELOVEEN, _Fast. Rom._ I. II. Amstel. 1705, etc.
+
+  PIGHII _Annales Romanorum_. Antwerp, 1615, fol. 2 vols. An essay
+  towards a chronological arrangement; it reaches down to Vitellius.
+
+  The Roman history has been copiously treated of by the moderns in
+  many works besides those on universal ancient history before
+  enumerated, (p. 2.). We shall mention only the more important.
+
+  ROLLIN, _Histoire Romaine, Depuis la foundation de Rome jusqu' a la
+  bataille d'Actium_. 13 vols. 8vo. Paris, 1823, edit. revue par
+  Letronne. This history, which extends to B. C. 89, has been
+  continued and terminated by CREVIER. Although the critical
+  historian might suggest much that is wanting in this work, it
+  nevertheless contributed to advance the study.
+
+  ED. FERGUSON, _The History of the Progress and Termination of the
+  Roman Republic_. London, 1783, 4to. On the whole, the best work on
+  the history of the Roman republic; it has superceded the earlier
+  work of GOLDSMITH.
+
+  P. CH. LEVESQUE, _Histoire de la Republique Romaine_, 3 vols.
+  Paris, 1807. He who would still wish to admire with blind
+  enthusiasm the glory of ancient Rome, had better not read this
+  work.
+
+  B. G. NIEBUHR, _Roman History_.
+
+  Rather criticism than history; the author seems to be perpetually
+  endeavouring to overthrow all that has hitherto been admitted. The
+  spirit of acuteness is not always that of truth; and men do not so
+  lightly assent to the existence of a constitution which not only
+  is contrary to the broad view of antiquity--inferences drawn from
+  some insulated passages not being sufficient to overturn what is
+  corroborated by all the others--but likewise, according to the
+  author's own avowal, stands opposed to all analogy in history. But
+  truth gains even where criticism is wrong; and the value of some
+  deep researches will not for that reason be overlooked.--Consult
+  on this subject:
+
+  # W. WACHSMUTH, _Researches into the more Ancient History of
+  Rome_. Halle, 1819.
+
+  C. F. TH. LACHMANN, _Commentatio de fontibus T. Livii in prima
+  Historiarum Decade_. Gottingae, 1821. A prize essay.
+
+  For the works upon the Roman constitution see below, at the end of
+  this and at the beginning of the third period.
+
+  Abundance of most important writings upon Roman antiquities will
+  be found in the great collections:
+
+  GRAEVII _Thesaurus Antiquitatum Romanarum_. Lugd. Batav. 1694, sq.
+  12 vols. fol. and likewise in
+
+  SALENGRE, _Thesaurus Antiquitatum Romanarum_. Venet. 1732, 3 vols.
+  fol.
+
+  Many excellent papers, particularly in
+
+  _Memoires de l'Academie des Inscriptions_.
+
+  With the exception of NARDINI, _Roma Vetus_, inserted in GRAEVII
+  THES. A. R. t. iv. the best work on the topography of ancient Rome
+  is
+
+  VENUTI, _Descrizione Topografica delle Antichita di Roma_. P. I.
+  II. Roma, 1763; and especially the new edition of that work by
+  VISCONTI, 1803. There is also:
+
+  # S. H. L. ADLER, _Description of the city of Rome_. Altona, 1781,
+  4to.
+
+  The best representation of the monuments of ancient Rome will be
+  found in
+
+  PIRANESI, _Antichita di Roma_, 3 vols. fol.
+
+1. In certain respects, the history of Rome is always that of one town,
+inasmuch as until the period of the Caesars, the city continued mistress
+of her extensive territory. The main parts of the internal constitution
+of Rome were formed during this first period; which, considered in an
+historical point of view, can hardly be said to be void of interest.
+Whether every fundamental institution had its origin precisely at the
+epoch to which it is attributed, is a question of little importance; it
+is sufficient to observe, that they certainly arose in this period; and
+that the steps by which the constitution was developed are, upon the
+whole, determined beyond the possibility of a doubt.
+
+2. Exaggerated and embellished as the most ancient traditions of the
+Romans respecting their origin may be, they all agree in this, that the
+Romans belonged to the race of the Latini, and that their city was a
+colony of the neighbouring Alba Longa. Long before this the custom seems
+to have obtained with the Latini, of extending the cultivation of their
+country by colonies.
+
+  The primitive history of Rome is as difficult to reduce to pure
+  historic truth as that of Athens, or any other city of antiquity; this
+  proceeds from its being principally founded on traditions, handled by
+  poets and rhetoricians, and likewise differing from one another; as
+  may be seen in Plutarch's Romulus. As the knowledge of those
+  traditions, such as they are found in Dionysius and Livy, attaches to
+  so many other subjects, it would be improper to pass them over in
+  silence; and that they contained truths as well as poetic fictions is
+  proved most evidently by the political institutions of which they
+  narrate the origin, and which certainly reached back to those times.
+  To attempt to draw a line of demarcation between mythical and historic
+  times would be to mistake the real nature of mythology.
+
+  L. DE BEAUFORT, _Sur l'incertitude des cinq premiers siecles de
+  l'histoire Romaine_, nouv. ed. a la Haye, 1750, 2 vols. 8vo. Every
+  thing that can be said against the credibility of the primitive Roman
+  history has been developed by Beaufort with abundant, and often with
+  laboured, acuteness.
+
+3. During the first two hundred and forty-five years subsequent to its
+foundation this city was under the rule of governors, denominated kings;
+these, however, were not hereditary, still less were they invested with
+unlimited power, although they exerted themselves to become both
+perpetual and absolute. On the contrary, in this period was framed a
+municipal constitution, demonstrative of the existence, even at this
+early date, of a considerable degree of political civilization; in its
+principal parts this constitution was, no doubt,--as in every
+colony,--copied from that of the mother city. Its principal features
+were: _a._ Establishment and internal organization of the senate. _b._
+Establishment and progress of the patrician or hereditary nobility,
+which, supported by the privilege of administering the sacred affairs,
+and by the introduction of family names, quickly formed, in opposition
+to the plebeians, a political party ever growing in power, although not,
+therefore, a mere sacerdotal caste. _c._ Organization of the people
+(_populus_), and modes of popular assembly (_comitia_), founded
+thereupon; besides the original division according to heads into
+_tribus_ and _curiae_, another was subsequently introduced according to
+property into _classes_ and _centuriae_, out of which, besides the more
+ancient _comitia curiata_, arose the very artificially constructed
+_comitia centuriata_. _d._ Religious institutions, (_religiones_,) which
+being most closely connected with the political constitution, formed a
+state religion, by means of which everything in the state was attached
+to determined forms, and received a higher sanction. Nor must we omit
+_e._ the relations in private life established by law, the clientship,
+marriage, and especially paternal authority. In consequence of those
+domestic relations, a spirit of subordination and discipline, from the
+earliest times, pervaded the people; and to that spirit the Romans were
+indebted for the glory to which they attained.
+
+4. Notwithstanding many little wars with their immediate neighbours the
+Sabines, Aequi, and Volsci, together with various cities of the Etrusci,
+and even with the Latins themselves, Rome added but little to her
+territory: nevertheless she took the first step towards her
+aggrandizement; from the time of the destruction of Alba Longa, she
+aimed at being the head of the collected cities of the Latins, and
+finally attained the object of her ambition.
+
+  Line of kings. Romulus, 754-717. First establishment of the colony;
+  augmentation in the number of the citizens, produced by the
+  establishment of an asylum, and an union with part of the Sabines.
+  Numa Pompilius, _d._ 679. By representing this prince as the founder
+  of the religion of the Roman state, that religion received the high
+  sanction of antiquity. Tullus Hostilius, _d._ 640. The conquest and
+  destruction of Alba lays the foundation of Roman supremacy in Latium.
+  Ancus Martius, _d._ 618. He extends the territory of Rome to the sea;
+  the foundation of the port of Ostia proves that Rome already applied
+  to navigation, the object of which was perhaps as yet rather piracy
+  than trade. Tarquinius Priscus, _d._ 578. A Grecian by descent. Under
+  his conduct Rome was already able to enter the field against the
+  confederate Etrusci. Servius Tullius, _d._ 534. The most remarkable in
+  the line of Roman kings. He placed Rome at the head of the confederacy
+  of the Latins, which he confirmed by _communia sacra_. On his new
+  division of the people according to property were raised the highly
+  important institutions of the _census_ and _comitia centuriata_. The
+  necessity of this measure is demonstrative of the great and increasing
+  prosperity of the Roman citizens; there can be no doubt, however,
+  that by its adoption the frame of the republic was already completed.
+  Tarquinius Superbus, (the tyrant,)--509. This individual, having taken
+  forcible possession of the throne as nephew to Priscus, endeavoured to
+  confirm his power by a close connection with the Latins and Volsci; by
+  this, as well as by his tyranny, he offended both the patrician and
+  plebeian parties. His deposition, and the consequent reformation of
+  the government, were however, properly speaking, brought about by the
+  ambition of the patricians.
+
+  ALGAROTTI, _Saggio sopra la durata de' regni de' re di Roma_. (Op. t.
+  iii.) Chronological doubts. Can the raising of difficulties deserve
+  the name of criticism?
+
+5. The only direct consequence to the internal constitution of Rome,
+proceeding from the abolition of royalty was, that that power,
+undetermined as it had been while in the hands of the kings, was
+transferred to two consuls, annually elected. Meanwhile the struggle for
+liberty, in which the new republic was engaged with the Etrusci and
+Latins, contributed much to arouse the republican spirit which
+henceforward was the main feature of the Roman character--the evils of
+popular rule being in times of need remedied by the establishment of the
+dictatorship. The party, however, which had deposed the ruling family,
+took wholly into their own hands the helm of state; and the oppression
+of these aristocrats, shown principally towards their debtors, who had
+become their slaves, (_nexi_,)--notwithstanding the _lex de
+provocatione_ established by Valerius Poplicola, ensuring to the people
+the highest judicial power--was so galling, that after the lapse of a
+few years it gave rise to a sedition of the commons, (_plebis_,) the
+consequence of which was the establishment of annually elected
+presidents of the people (_tribuni plebis_).
+
+  First commercial treaty with Carthage, 508, in which Rome appears
+  certainly as a free state, but not yet as sovereign of all Latium; the
+  most important monument of the authenticity of the earlier Roman
+  history.
+
+  HEYNE, _Foedera Carthaginiensium cum Romanis super navigatione et
+  mercatura facta_: contained in his Opusc. t. iii. Cf. # A. H. L.
+  HEEREN, _Ideas_, etc. Appendix to the second vol.
+
+6. The further development of the Roman constitution in this period,
+hinges almost wholly on the struggle between the new presidents of the
+commons and the hereditary nobility; the tribunes, instead of confining
+themselves to defend the people from the oppression of the nobles, soon
+began to act as aggressors, and in a short time so widely overstepped
+their power, that there remained no chance of putting an end to the
+struggle but by a complete equalization of rights. A long time elapsed
+ere this took place; the aristocracy finding a very powerful support
+both in the clientship and in the religion of the state, operating under
+the shape of auspices.
+
+  Main facts of the contest: 1. In the trial of Coriolanus the tribunes
+  usurp the right of summoning some patricians before the tribunal of
+  the people.--Hence arise the _comitia tributa_; that is to say, either
+  mere assemblies of the commons, or assemblies so organized that the
+  commons had the preponderance. This institution gave the tribunes a
+  share in the legislation, subsequently of such high importance, those
+  officers being allowed to lay proposals before the commons. 2. More
+  equitable distribution among the poorer classes of the lands conquered
+  from the neighbouring nations, (the most ancient _leges agrariae_,)
+  suggested by the ambitious attempts of Cassius, 486. 3. Extension of
+  the prerogatives of the _comitia tributa_, more especially in the
+  election of the tribunes, brought about by Volero, 472. 4. Attempts at
+  a legal limitation of the consular power by Terentillus, (_lex
+  Terentilla_,) 460, which, after a long struggle, at last leads to the
+  idea of one common written code, 452, which is likewise realized in
+  spite of the opposition at first made by the patricians.
+
+  # CHR. F. SCHULZE, _Struggle between the Democracy and Aristocracy
+  of Rome, or History of the Romans from the Expulsion of Tarquin to
+  the Election of the first Plebeian Consul_. Altenburgh, 1802, 8vo.
+  A most satisfactory development of this portion of Roman history.
+
+7. The code of the twelve tables confirmed the ancient institutions, and
+was in part completed by the adoption of the laws of the Greek
+republics, among which Athens in particular is mentioned, whose counsels
+were requested by a special deputation. In this, however, two faults
+were committed; not only were the commissioners charged with drawing up
+the laws elected from the patricians _alone_, but they were likewise
+constituted sole magistrates, with _dictatorial_ power, (_sine
+provocatione_;) whereby a path was opened to them for an usurpation,
+which could be frustrated only by a sedition of the people.
+
+  Duration of the power of the Decemviri, 451-447. The doubts raised as
+  to the deputation sent to Athens are not sufficient to invalidate the
+  authenticity of an event so circumstantially detailed. Athens, under
+  Pericles, was then at the head of Greece; and, admitting the proposed
+  design of consulting the Greek laws, it was impossible that Athens
+  should have been passed over. And indeed, why should it be supposed,
+  that a state which fifty years before had signed a commercial treaty
+  with Carthage, and could not be unacquainted with the Grecian colonies
+  in Lower Italy, might not have sent an embassy into Greece?
+
+  The yet remaining fragments of the code of the twelve tables are
+  collected and illustrated in BACHII _Hist. Jurisprudentiae Romanae_; and
+  in several other works.
+
+8. By the laws of the twelve tables the legal relations of the citizens
+were the same for all; but as that code seems to have contained very
+little in reference to any peculiar constitution of the state, the
+government not only remained in the hands of the aristocrats, who were
+in possession of all offices, but the prohibition, according to the new
+laws of marriage between patricians and plebeians, appeared to have
+raised an insurmountable barrier between the two classes. No wonder,
+then, that the tribunes of the people should have immediately renewed
+their attacks on the patricians; particularly as the power of those
+popular leaders was not only renewed, but even augmented, as the only
+limit to their authority was the necessity of their being unanimous in
+their acts, while each had the right of a negative.
+
+  Besides the other laws made in favour of the people at the renewal of
+  the _tribunicia potestas_, 446, that which imported _ut quod tributim
+  plebes jussisset, populum teneret_, frequently renewed in subsequent
+  times, and meaning, in modern language, that the citizens constituted
+  themselves, must, it would appear, have thrown the supreme power into
+  the hands of the people; did not the Roman history, like that of other
+  free states, afford examples enough of the little authority there is
+  to infer from the enactment of a law that it will be practically
+  enforced.
+
+9. The main subjects of the new dissensions between patricians and
+plebeians, excited by the tribune Canuleius, were now the _connubia
+patrum cum plebe_, and the exclusive participation of the patricians in
+the consulship, of which the tribunes demanded the abolition. The repeal
+of the former law was obtained as early as 445, (_lex Canuleia_;) the
+right of admission to the consulship was not extended to the Plebeians,
+till after a struggle annually renewed for eighty years; during which,
+when, as usually was the case, the tribunes forbade the military
+enrolment, recourse was had to a transfer of the consular power
+to the yearly elected commanders of the legions; a place to which
+plebeians were entitled to aspire, (_tribuni militum consulari
+potestate._)--Establishment of the office of CENSORS, designed at first
+for nothing more than to regulate the taking of the census, and invested
+with no higher authority than what that required, but who soon after, by
+assuming to themselves the _censura morum_, took rank among the most
+important dignitaries of the state.
+
+10. Meanwhile Rome was engaged in wars, insignificant but almost
+uninterrupted, arising out of the oppression, either real or imaginary,
+which she exercised as head of the neighbouring federate cities,
+(_socii_,) comprising not only those of the Latins, but likewise, after
+the victory of lake Regillus, those of the other nations: the cities
+embraced every opportunity of asserting their independence, and the
+consequent struggles must have depopulated Rome, had not that evil been
+diverted by the maxim of increasing the complement of citizens by
+admitting the freedmen, and not unfrequently even the conquered, to the
+enjoyment of civic privileges. Little as these feuds, abstractedly
+considered, deserve our attention, they become of high interest,
+inasmuch as they were not only the means by which the nation was trained
+to war, but also led to the foundation of that senatorial power, whose
+important consequences will be exhibited hereafter.
+
+  Among these wars attention must be directed to the last, that against
+  Veii, the richest city in Etruria; the siege of that place, which
+  lasted very nearly ten years, 404-395, gave rise to the introduction
+  among the Roman military of winter campaigning, and of pay; thus, on
+  the one hand, the prosecution of wars more distant and protracted
+  became possible, while on the other the consequences must have been
+  the levy of higher taxes, (_tributa_).
+
+11. Not long after, however, a tempest from the north had nearly
+destroyed Rome. The Sennonian Gauls, pressed out of northern Italy
+through Etruria, possessed themselves of the city, the capitol excepted,
+and reduced it to ashes; an event which made so deep an impression on
+the minds of the Romans, that few other occurrences in their history
+have been more frequently the object of traditional detail. Camillus,
+then the deliverer of Rome, and in every respect one of the chief heroes
+of that period, laid a double claim to the gratitude of his native city,
+by overruling, after his victory, the proposal of a general migration to
+Veii.
+
+12. Scarcely was Rome rebuilt ere the ancient feuds revived, springing
+out of the poverty of the citizens, produced by an increase of taxation
+consequent on the establishment of military pay, and by the introduction
+of gross usury. The tribunes, Sextius and Licinius, by prolonging their
+term of office to five years, had established their power; while
+Licinius, by an agrarian law, decreeing that no individual should hold
+more than five hundred _jugera_ of the national lands, had ensured the
+popular favour; so that at last they succeeded in obtaining, that one of
+the consuls should be chosen from the commons; and although the
+nobility, by the nomination of a praetor from their own body, and of
+_aediles curules_, endeavoured to compensate for the sacrifice they were
+obliged to make, yet the plebeians having once made good a claim to the
+consulship, their participation in the other magisterial offices, (the
+dictatorship, 353, the censorship, 348, the praetorship, 334,) and even
+the priesthood, (300,) quickly followed as a matter of course. Thus at
+Rome the object of political equality between commons and nobles was
+attained; and although the difference between the patrician and plebeian
+families still subsisted, they soon ceased to form political parties.
+
+  A second commercial treaty entered into with Carthage, 345,
+  demonstrates that even at this time the navy of the Romans was
+  anything but contemptible; although its principal object as yet was
+  mere piracy. Roman squadrons of war however appear more than once
+  within the next forty years.
+
+13. Far more important than any wars in which Rome had hitherto been
+engaged, were those soon about to commence with the Samnites. In former
+contests the object of Rome had been to establish her supremacy over her
+immediate neighbours; but in these, during a protracted contest of fifty
+years, she opened a way to the subjugation of Italy, and laid the
+foundation of her future greatness.
+
+  Commencement of the wars against the Samnites, the Campanians having
+  called the Romans to their assistance against that nation, 343. These
+  wars, carried on with vigorous exertion and various success, lasted,
+  with but short intermissions, till 290. This is the true heroic age of
+  Rome, ennobled by the patriotic valour of Decius Mus, (father and son,
+  both voluntary victims,) Papirius Cursor, Q. Fabius Maximus, etc. The
+  consequences of this struggle were: _a._ The Romans learnt the art of
+  mountain warfare, and thereby for the first time acquired a peculiar
+  system of military tactics; not, however, till they had been, 321,
+  obliged to pass under the _furcas Caudinas_. _b._ Their relations
+  were more firmly established with their neighbours the Latins and
+  Etrurians, by the complete conquest of the former, 340, and by
+  repeated victories over the latter, more especially in 308. _c._ Great
+  national federations having arisen in Italy, particularly during the
+  last period of the Samnite wars, the Romans entered into connection
+  with the more distant nations of the country; with the Lucanians and
+  Apulians, by the first league, 323, with the Umbri, from the year 308;
+  and although the nature of this connection frequently varied, the
+  different nations were perpetually struggling for independence, and
+  were consequently at enmity with Rome. In this period, moreover,
+  commenced the practical illustration of the leading ideas of Rome upon
+  the political relations in which she placed the conquered with regard
+  to herself.
+
+14. After the subjection of the Samnites, Rome, wishing to confirm her
+dominion in Lower Italy, was thereby, for the first time, entangled in
+war with a foreign prince; the Tarentines, too feeble to maintain alone
+their footing against the Romans, called Pyrrhus of Epirus to their
+assistance. He came, indeed, but not so much to further the views of the
+Tarentines as to advance his own; but even in victory, he learnt by
+experience that the Macedonian tactics gave him but a slight
+preponderance, which the Romans soon transferred to their own side,
+exhibiting the truth of the principle, that a good civic militia, sooner
+or later, will always get the upper hand of mercenary troops.
+
+  The idea of calling upon Pyrrhus for assistance was the more natural,
+  as the predecessor of that prince, Alexander I. (see above p. 275.)
+  had endeavoured, but without success, to effect conquests in Lower
+  Italy. In the first war with Pyrrhus, 280-278, two battles were
+  fought, the first at Pandosia, 280, the other at Asculum, 279; in both
+  of which Rome was unsuccessful. But Pyrrhus, after crossing over into
+  Sicily, 278, (see above, p. 173, 174.) once more returned into Italy,
+  275, when he was defeated by the Romans at Beneventum, and compelled
+  to evacuate Italy, leaving a garrison at Tarentum. That city, however,
+  soon afterwards, 272, fell into the hands of the Romans, whose
+  dominion was consequently extended to the extremity of Lower Italy.
+
+15. The chief means to which, even from the earliest times, the Romans
+had recourse for the foundation of their dominion over the conquered,
+and at the same time for the prevention of the too great increase of the
+needy classes at Rome, was the establishment of colonies of their own
+citizens, which, being settled in the captured cities, served likewise
+as garrisons. Each colony had its own distinct internal constitution,
+modelled, for the most part, upon that of the mother city itself; hence
+to keep the colonies in perfect dependence naturally became an object of
+Roman policy. This colonial system of the Romans, necessarily and
+spontaneously arising out of the rude custom of bereaving the conquered
+of their lands and liberty, assumed its main features in the Samnite
+war, and gradually embraced the whole of Italy. Closely connected with
+this system was the construction of military highways, (_viae
+militares_,) one of which, the Appian Way, was constructed so early as
+312, and to this day remains a lasting monument of the greatness of Rome
+at that period.
+
+  Even at the time of Hannibal's invasion, the number of Roman colonies
+  amounted to 53: but several which had been settled returned to the
+  mother city.
+
+  HEYNE, _De Romanorum prudentia in coloniis regendis_: inserted in
+  _Opusc._ vol. iii. Cf. _Prolusiones de veterum coloniarum jure ejusque
+  causis_, in his _Opusc._ vol. i.
+
+16. But the relations existing between Rome and the Italian nations
+were extremely various in kind. 1. A few cities and nations enjoyed the
+full privileges of Roman citizenship; in some instances, however,
+without the right of voting in the _comitia_ (_municipia_). 2. The
+privileges of the colonies (_jus coloniarum_) were of a more restricted
+nature; the colonists were indeed in possession of their own civic
+government, but had no further share whatever either in the _comitia_ or
+magistracies of Rome. The other inhabitants of Italy were either
+federates (_socii, foedere juncti_) or subjects (_dedititii_). The first
+(_a_) preserved their internal form of government; but on the other hand
+(_b_) were obliged to furnish tribute and auxiliary troops (_tributis et
+armis juvare rempublicam_). Their further relation with Rome depended
+upon the terms of the league. The most advantageous of these terms were
+3. in favour of the Latins, although each of their cities had its own
+separate league (_jus Latii_;) as 4. the rest of the Italian nations had
+their _jus Italicum_. On the other hand, 5. the subjects, _dedititii_,
+were deprived of their internal constitutions, and were governed by
+Roman magistrates, (_praefecti_,) annually renewed.
+
+  C. SIGONIUS, _De antiquo jure civium Romanorum_; and his treatise _De
+  antiquo jure Italiae_, inserted both in his _Opera_ and in GRAEVII
+  _Thes. Ant. Rom._ t. ii. contain the most learned researches on the
+  details of these relations.
+
+17. The internal constitution of Rome itself, now completed, bore the
+character of a democracy, inasmuch as equality of rights existed both
+for nobles and commons. Yet this democracy was modified by expedients so
+various and wonderful--the rights of the people, of the senate, of the
+magistrates, fitted so nicely into each other, and were so firmly
+supported by the national religion, connecting every thing with
+determinate forms--that there was no reason, at that time, to fear the
+evils either of anarchy, or, what is much more astonishing when we
+consider the warlike character of the people, those of military
+despotism.
+
+  The rights of the people consisted in the legislative power, so far as
+  fundamental national principles were concerned, and in the election of
+  the magistrates. The distinction between the _comitia tributa_ (as
+  independent of the senate) and the _comitia centuriata_ (as dependent
+  on the senate) still existed as to form, but had lost all its
+  importance, the difference between patricians and plebeians being now
+  merely nominal, and the establishment of the _tribus urbanae_, 303,
+  excluding the too great influence of the people (_forensis factio_)
+  upon the _comitia tributa_. The rights of the senate consisted in
+  administering and debating all transitory national affairs, whether
+  foreign relations, (war and peace only excepted, in which the consent
+  of the people was requisite,) financial concerns, or matters regarding
+  domestic peace and security. But the manner in which the senate was
+  supplied must have made it the first political body at that time in
+  the world. The rights and rank of magistrates were founded on their
+  greater or lesser _auspicia_, no public affair being entered upon
+  except _auspicato_. Consequently he only who was in possession of the
+  former could hold the highest civic and military power; (_imperium
+  civile et militare; suis auspiciis rem gerere_;) as dictator, consul,
+  praetor; such was not the case with those who had only the lesser
+  _auspicia_. The union of civil and military power in the person of the
+  same individual was not without its inconveniences, but military
+  despotism was in some measure guarded against by the prohibition of
+  any magistrate possessing military command within Rome itself. We must
+  not dismiss this subject without observing, that as the Roman
+  constitution arose merely out of practice, there never having been any
+  completely written charter, we cannot expect that all the details
+  should be clearly ascertained; to attempt, therefore, in default of
+  such authority, to describe all the minutiae would be the surest way to
+  fall into error.
+
+  Of the numerous works on the Roman constitution and on Roman
+  antiquities, we shall mention:
+
+  DE BEAUFORT, _La Republique Romaine, ou plan general de l'ancien
+  gouvernement de Rome_. La Haye, 1766, 2 vols. 4to. A most copious
+  work, and one of the most solid in regard to the matters discussed;
+  although it does not embrace the whole of the subject.
+
+  _Histoire critique du gouvernement Romain_; Paris, 1765. Containing
+  some acute observations.
+
+  _Du Gouvernement de la republique Romaine_, _par_ A. AD. DE TEXIER, 3
+  vols. 8vo. Hamburg, 1796. This contains many enquiries peculiar to the
+  writer.
+
+  Some learned researches respecting the principal points of the Roman
+  constitution, as SIGONIUS and GRUCHIUS _de comitiis Romanorum_,
+  ZAMOCIUS _de Senatu Romano_, etc. will be found collected in the first
+  two vols, of GRAEVIUS, _Antiq. Roman._
+
+  For the popular assemblies of the Romans, an antiquarian essay by Chr.
+  Ferd. Schulze, Gotha, 1815, chiefly according to Niebuhr, may be
+  consulted.
+
+  Among the numerous manuals of Roman antiquities, NIEUPORT, _explicatio
+  rituum Romanorum, ed. Gesner_. Berol. 1743, promises at least as much
+  as it performs. Of those which profess to treat of Roman antiquities
+  in general, none have yet risen above mediocrity. Jurisprudence,
+  however, has been much more successfully handled. We cite the two
+  following excellent compendiums:
+
+  BACHII, _Historia Jurisprudentiae Romanae_. Lips. 1754. 1796.
+
+  # C. HUGO, _Elements of the Roman Law_; 7th edit. Berlin, 1820.
+
+
+
+
+SECOND PERIOD.
+
+_From the commencement of the war with Carthage to the rise of the
+civil broils under the Gracchi, B. C. 264-134. Year of Rome, 490-620._
+
+
+  SOURCES. The principal writer for this highly interesting period,
+  in which was laid the foundation of the universal dominion of Rome,
+  is Polybius as far as the year 146, not only in the complete books
+  preserved to us, which come down to 216, but also in the fragments.
+  He is frequently followed by Livy, lib. xxi-xlv. 218-166. Appian,
+  who comes next, does not confine himself merely to the history of
+  the war; Florus gives us only an abridgement. The lives of Plutarch
+  which relate to this portion of history, are FABIUS MAXIMUS, P.
+  AEMILIUS, MARCELLUS, M. CATO, and FLAMINIUS.
+
+  Of modern writers we dare only mention one:--and who is worthy to
+  be ranked beside him?
+
+  MONTESQUIEU, _Considerations sur les causes de la grandeur et de la
+  decadence des Romains_.
+
+1. The political division of Italy laid the foundation for the dominion
+of Rome in that country; the want of union and political relations in
+the world paved the way to her universal empire. The first step cost her
+much, the succeeding followed easily and rapidly; and the history of the
+struggle between Rome and Carthage only shows on a larger scale what the
+history of Greece exhibits on a smaller. The whole of the following
+history confirms the fact, that two republics cannot exist near each
+other, without one being destroyed or subjected: but the vast extent of
+this struggle, the important consequences which followed, together with
+the wonderful exertions made, and the great men engaged on both sides,
+gave it an interest which cannot be found in that of any other nations.
+Though the power and resources of both states were nearly equal in
+appearance, they were widely different in quality and circumstances.
+Carthage, besides her dominion over the seas, had also a better
+furnished treasury, by which she was enabled to enlist into her service
+as many _mercenaries_ as she pleased: Rome, on the contrary, _strong in
+herself_, had all the advantages possessed by a nation of warriors over
+one partly commercial, partly military.
+
+2. The first war of twenty-three years between the two republics, arose
+from very slight causes: it soon, however, became a struggle for the
+possession of Sicily, which in the end naturally extended itself to the
+dominion of the sea. Rome, by the aid of her newly-built fleet, having
+obtained for some time this power, was enabled to attack Africa, and
+succeeded in driving the Carthaginians from Sicily.
+
+  The occupation of Messina by the Romans, 264, gave rise to this
+  war. The defection of Hiero king of Syracuse from the side of
+  Carthage, and his joining the Romans, first gave the latter the
+  idea of expelling the Carthaginians from the island. The victory
+  near Agrigentum, and capture of that city in 262, seemed to
+  facilitate the execution of this project: it also convinced the
+  Romans of the necessity of their having a naval power. We shall the
+  less wonder at their forming a fleet in Italy, where wood was then
+  plentiful, if we remember their previous experience in naval
+  affairs; these were not the first vessels of war which they
+  constructed, but only the first large ones which they built upon a
+  Carthaginian model. The first naval victory of the Romans under
+  Duilius, by the aid of grappling machines, 260. The project then
+  conceived of carrying the war into Africa was one of the great
+  ideas of the Romans, and from that time it became a ruling maxim of
+  the state, to attack the enemy in his own territory. The second and
+  very remarkable naval victory of the Romans, 257, opened the way
+  for them to Africa, and shows their naval tactics in a very
+  brilliant light: but the unfortunate issue of their expedition to
+  Africa, restored the equilibrium; and the struggle for the dominion
+  of the sea became the more obstinate, as success did not altogether
+  favour one party. The result of the contest appears to have turned
+  upon the possession of the eastern promontories of Sicily,
+  Drepanum, and Lilybaeum, which were in a manner the bulwarks of the
+  Carthaginians, and seemed impregnable since Hamilcar Barca had
+  taken the command of them, 247. The last naval victory of the
+  Romans, however, under the consul Lutatius, 241, having cut off the
+  communication between Sicily and Carthage, and the finances of both
+  parties being completely exhausted, a peace was concluded upon the
+  conditions: 1. That the Carthaginians should evacuate Sicily and
+  the small islands adjacent. 2. That they should pay to Rome, by
+  instalments in ten years, for the expenses she had been at in
+  carrying on the war, the sum of 2,200 talents. 3. That they should
+  not make war against Hiero king of Syracuse.
+
+3. The issue of this war placed the political connections of Rome in a
+new situation, and necessarily extended her influence abroad. The length
+of the war and the manner of its conclusion had, moreover, inspired a
+national hatred, such as is only found in republics; the conviction also
+that they could not remain independent of one another, must have become
+much more striking, as the points of contact had greatly increased since
+the beginning of the war. Who does not know the arrogance of a republic
+after the first essay of her power has been crowned with success! Rome
+gave a striking example of this by her invasion of Sardinia in the midst
+of peace. These successes had also a sensible effect on the Roman
+constitution. For although in appearance its form was not in the least
+changed, yet the power of the senate now acquired that preponderance
+which the ruling authority of a republic never fails to do after long
+and successful wars.
+
+  Origin and nature of the governments of the first Roman provinces,
+  in part of Sicily and in Sardinia.
+
+4. An opportunity was soon afforded the Romans, in the Adriatic sea, of
+making use of their superior naval power, in chastising the pirates of
+Illyria under their queen Teuta. By effecting this, they not only
+secured their authority over that sea, but at the same time formed their
+first political relations with the Grecian states; relations which soon
+afterwards became of great importance.
+
+  Commencement of the first Illyrian war, 230, which ended with the
+  subjugation of Teuta, 226. The war, however, again broke out, 222,
+  against Demetrius of Pharus, who conceived himself inadequately
+  rewarded by Rome for the services he had rendered her in the
+  preceding war. The Romans found him a much more dangerous
+  adversary than had been expected, even after his expulsion and
+  flight to Philip, 220, (see above, p. 282.) Throughout this war,
+  Rome appeared as the deliverer of the Grecian states, which had
+  suffered extremely from the plunder of these freebooters; Corcyra,
+  Apollonia, and other cities placed themselves formally under her
+  protection, while the Achaeans, Aetolians, and Athenians vied with
+  each other in showing their gratitude.
+
+5. In the mean time, while Carthage endeavoured to make up for the loss
+of Sicily and Sardinia by extending her Spanish dominions, which the
+jealousy of Rome restrained her from carrying beyond the Ebro (p. 84.),
+Rome herself had a new war to maintain against her northern neighbours
+the Gauls, which ended after a violent contest with the establishment of
+her authority over the north of Italy.
+
+  From the first Gallic war to the burning of Rome, 390, the Gauls
+  had repeated their attacks in 360 and 348, even to the conclusion
+  of the peace in 336. But in the latter part of the Samnite war, a
+  formidable confederacy having taken place among the Italian
+  tribes, some of the Gauls enlisted as mercenaries in the service
+  of the Etruscans, while others allied themselves to the Samnites.
+  This led them to take part in these wars in 306, 302, and 292,
+  until they were obliged, together with the Etruscans, to sue for
+  peace in 284, before which time the Romans had sent a colony into
+  their country, near Sena. This peace lasted till 238, when it was
+  disturbed by the incursion of the transalpine Gauls; without,
+  however, their coming to any war with Rome. But in 232, the
+  proposition of Flaminius the tribune, (_lex Flaminia_), to divide
+  the lands conquered from the Senones, became the cause of new
+  disturbances. Upon this occasion, the Gauls entered into an
+  alliance with their transalpine countrymen, the Gaesates on the
+  Rhone, who had been accustomed to engage as mercenaries. These
+  having crossed the Alps, the dreadful war of six years (226-220)
+  began, in which, after defeating the Gauls near Clusium, 225, the
+  Romans pursued them into their own territory, and encamped upon
+  the Po, 223. The Gauls having been again completely overthrown by
+  Marcellus, were obliged to sue for peace; when the Roman colonies
+  of Placentia and Cremona were established. The number of men
+  capable of bearing arms in all Italy subject to the Romans during
+  this war amounted to 800,000.
+
+6. Before this storm was totally appeased, in which it is probable that
+Carthaginian policy was not altogether inactive, Hannibal had obtained
+the chief command in Spain. From the reproach of having first begun the
+war, he and his party cannot be cleared; Rome, in the situation she then
+was, could hardly desire it; he however who strikes the first blow is
+not always the real aggressor. The plan of Hannibal was the destruction
+of Rome; and by making Italy the principal seat of the war, he
+necessarily turned the scale in his favour; because Rome, obliged to
+defend herself, left to him all the advantages of attack. The
+preparations she made for defence, show that it was not believed
+possible he could execute his enterprise by the route which he took.
+
+  The history of this war, 218-201, of which no later transaction
+  has been able to destroy the interest, is divided into three
+  parts: the history of the war in Italy; the contemporary war in
+  Spain; and from 203, the war in Africa. Hannibal's invasion of
+  Italy in the autumn, 218--engagement near the river Ticinus and
+  the battle of Trebia, in the same year. Battle near the lake
+  Thrasymenus in the spring, 217. Seat of the war transferred to
+  Lower Italy, and the defensive system of the dictator Fabius until
+  the end of the year. Battle of Cannae, 216, followed by the
+  conquest of Capua and the subjection of the greater part of Lower
+  Italy. The defensive mode of warfare afterwards adopted by the
+  Carthaginian, arose partly from his desire to form a junction with
+  his brother Asdrubal and the Spanish army, and partly from his
+  expectation of foreign support by means of alliances, with
+  Syracuse, after the death of Hiero, 215, and with Philip of
+  Macedon, 216. These hopes, however, were frustrated by the
+  Romans.--Syracuse was besieged and taken, 214-212, (see above, p.
+  174.) and Philip kept employed in Greece, (see above, p. 282.) In
+  addition to this, the Romans retook Capua, notwithstanding the
+  audacious march of Hannibal towards Rome, 211, and he had now no
+  succour left except the reinforcement which Asdrubal was bringing
+  from Spain. The latter, however, was attacked immediately upon his
+  arrival in Italy, near Sena, by the consuls Nero and Livius, and
+  left dead on the field, 207. From this time the war in Italy
+  became only of secondary importance, as Hannibal was obliged to
+  act on the defensive in Bruttium.
+
+  _The Course of Hannibal over the Alps ascertained_, by J.
+  WHITTAKER. London, 1794, 2 vols. 8vo. The author endeavours to
+  prove that the passage of Hannibal was over the great St. Bernard,
+  and criticises the opinions of other writers.
+
+  [We may likewise mention the learned treatise:--
+
+  _A Dissertation on the Passage of Hannibal over the Alps._ By H.
+  L. WICKHAM, M. A. and the Rev. J. A. CRAMER, M. A. second edition,
+  Oxon.]
+
+  The war in Spain began nearly about the same time between Asdrubal
+  and the two brothers, Cn. and P. Cornelius Scipio, and was
+  continued, with various success, till the year 216, the issue
+  depending much upon the disposition of the Spaniards themselves.
+  The plan of Carthage after the year 216, was to send Asdrubal with
+  the Spanish army into Italy, and to supply its place by an army
+  from Africa; two victories, however, gained by the Scipios near
+  the Ebro, 216, and the Illiberis, 215, prevented this from being
+  effected, till at last both fell under the superior power and
+  cunning of the Carthaginians, 212. But the arrival of the youthful
+  P. Cornelius Scipio, who did not appear merely to his own nation
+  as an extraordinary genius, entirely changed the face of affairs,
+  and the fortunes of Rome soon became attached to his name, which
+  alone seemed to promise victory. During his command in Spain,
+  210-206, he won over the inhabitants while he defeated the
+  Carthaginians, and for the furtherance of his great design,
+  contracted an alliance with Syphax in Africa, 206. He was unable,
+  however, to prevent the march of Asdrubal into Italy, 208, which
+  nevertheless rendered it an easy task for him to subdue all
+  Carthaginian Spain as far as Gades, 206, and thus procured him the
+  consular dignity at his return, 205.
+
+  The carrying of the war into Africa by Scipio, notwithstanding the
+  opposition of the old Roman generals, and the desertion of Syphax,
+  who at the persuasion of Sophonisba again went over to the
+  Carthaginians (whose loss however was well repaid by Masinissa,
+  whom Scipio had won over to his side in Spain), was followed by an
+  important consequence; for after he had gained two victories over
+  Asdrubal and Syphax, 203, and taken the latter prisoner, the
+  Carthaginians found it necessary to recall Hannibal from Italy,
+  202; and the battle of Zama terminated the war, 201. The following
+  were the conditions of peace: 1. That the Carthaginians should
+  only retain the territory in Africa annexed to their government.
+  2. That they should give up all their ships of war, except ten
+  triremes, and all their elephants. 3. That they should pay, at
+  times specified, 10,000 talents. 4. That they should commence no
+  war without the consent of Rome. 5. That they should restore to
+  Masinissa all the houses, cities, and lands that had ever been
+  possessed by himself or his ancestors.--The reproach usually cast
+  upon the Carthaginians, of having left Hannibal unsupported in
+  Italy, in a great measure vanishes, if we remember the plan formed
+  in 216, to send the Spanish army into Italy, and to replace it by
+  an African one: a plan formed with much ability, and followed with
+  as much constancy. We may add to this, that the Barcine faction
+  maintained its influence in the government even to the end of the
+  war. But why they, who by the treaty of peace gave up five hundred
+  vessels of war, suffered Scipio to cross over from Sicily, without
+  sending one to oppose him, is difficult to explain.
+
+7. Notwithstanding her great loss of men, and the devastation of Italy,
+Rome felt herself much more powerful at the end of this war than at the
+beginning. Her dominion was not only established over Italy, but
+extensive foreign countries had been brought under it; her authority
+over the seas was rendered secure by the destruction of the naval power
+of the Carthaginians. The Roman _form_ of government, it is true,
+underwent no change, but its _spirit_ much, as the power of the senate
+became almost unlimited; and although the dawn of civilization had
+broken over Rome, since her intercourse with more civilized foreigners,
+the state still remained altogether a nation of warriors. And now, for
+the first time, appears in the page of history the fearful phenomenon of
+a great military republic; and the history of the next ten years, in
+which Rome overthrew so many thrones and free states, gives a striking
+proof, that such a power is the natural enemy to the independence of all
+the states within the reach of her arms. The causes which led Rome from
+this time to aspire after the dominion of the world are to be found
+neither in her geographical situation, which for a conquering power by
+land seemed rather unfavourable; nor in the inclination of the people,
+who were opposed to the first war against Philip; but singly and
+entirely in the spirit of her government. The means, however, whereby
+she obtained her end, must not be sought for merely in the excellence of
+her armies and generals, but rather in that uniform, sharp-sighted, and
+dexterous policy, by which she was enabled to frustrate the powerful
+alliances formed against her, notwithstanding the many adversaries who
+at that time sought to form new ones. But where could be found such
+another council of state, embodying such a mass of practical political
+wisdom, as the Roman senate must have been from the very nature of its
+organization? All this, however, would not have been sufficient to have
+subjugated the world, if the want of good government, the degeneracy of
+the military art, and an extremely corrupt state of morals among both
+rulers and people, in foreign states, had not seconded the efforts of
+Rome.
+
+  View of the political state of the world at this period. In the
+  west, Sicily (the whole island after 212), Sardinia, and Corsica,
+  from the year 237, and Spain, divided into citerior and ulterior
+  (the latter rather in name than in fact), had become Roman
+  provinces 206; the independence of Carthage had been destroyed by
+  the last peace, and her subordination secured by the alliance of
+  Rome with Masinissa; Cisalpine Gaul, formed into a province,
+  served as a barrier against the inroads of the more northern
+  barbarians. On the other side, in the east, the kingdom of
+  Macedonia, and the free states of Greece, forming together a very
+  complicated system, had opened a connection with Rome since the
+  Illyrian war, 230, and Philip's alliance with Hannibal, 214. Of
+  the three powers of the first rank, Macedonia, Syria, and Egypt,
+  the two former were allied against the latter, who, on her part,
+  maintained a good understanding with Rome. The states of secondary
+  rank were, those of the Aetolian league, the kings of Pergamus, and
+  the republic of Rhodes, with some smaller, such as Athens: these
+  had allied themselves to Rome since the confederacy against
+  Philip, 211. The Achaean league, on the contrary, was in the
+  interests of Macedonia, which Rome always endeavoured to attach to
+  herself, in order to make head against those of the first rank.
+
+8. A declaration of war against Philip, notwithstanding the opposition
+of the tribunes of the people, and an attack upon Macedonia itself,
+according to the constant maxim of carrying the war into the enemy's
+country, immediately followed. They could not, however, drive Philip so
+soon from the fastnesses of Epirus and Thessaly, which were his
+bulwarks. But Rome possessed in T. Quintius Flaminius, who marched
+against Philip as the deliverer of Greece, a statesman and general
+exactly fitted for a period of great revolutions. By the permanency of
+his political influence he became indeed the true founder of the Roman
+power in the east. Who could better cajole men and nations, while they
+were erecting altars to him, than T. Quintius? So artfully indeed did he
+assume the character of a great genius, such as had been given by nature
+to Scipio, that he has almost deceived history itself. The struggle
+between him and Philip consisted rather in a display of talents in
+political stratagem and finesse than in feats of arms: even before the
+battle of Cynoscephalae had given the finishing stroke, the Romans had
+already turned the balance in their favour, by gaining over the Achaean
+league.
+
+  The negotiations between Rome and Macedonia, from the year 214,
+  give the first striking examples of the ability and address of the
+  Romans in foreign policy; and they are the more remarkable, as the
+  treaty with the Aetolians and others, 211 (see above, p. 283), was
+  the remote cause of the transactions which afterwards took place
+  in the east. The peculiar system adopted by the Romans, of taking
+  the lesser states under their protection as allies, must always
+  have given them an opportunity of making war on the more powerful
+  whenever they chose. This in fact happened in the present case,
+  notwithstanding the peace concluded with Philip, 204. The chief
+  object of the Romans in this war, both by sea and land, was to
+  drive Philip completely out of Greece. The allies on both sides,
+  and the conditions of peace, were similar to those concluded with
+  Carthage (see above, p. 284). The destruction of the naval power
+  of her conquered enemies became now a maxim of Roman policy in
+  making peace; and she thus maintained the dominion of the seas
+  without any great fleet, and without losing the essential
+  character of a dominant power by land.
+
+9. The expulsion of Philip from Greece brought that country into a state
+of dependence upon Rome; an event which could not have been better
+secured than by the present of liberty which T. Quintius conferred upon
+its inhabitants at the Isthmian games. The system of surveillance, which
+the Romans had already established in the west over Carthage and
+Numidia, was now adopted in the east over Greece and Macedonia. Roman
+commissioners, under the name of ambassadors, were sent into the country
+of the nations in alliance, and were the principal means by which this
+system of espionage was carried on. These however did not fail to give
+umbrage to the Greeks, particularly to the turbulent Aetolians; more
+especially as the Romans seemed in no hurry to withdraw their troops
+from a country which they had declared to be free.
+
+  Liberty was expressly granted to the state which had taken the
+  part of Philip, namely, to the Achaeans; to the others it was
+  naturally understood to belong. It was nevertheless three years,
+  194, before the Roman army evacuated Greece and withdrew from the
+  fortified places. The conduct of T. Quintius during this period
+  fully shows what he was. The Greeks indeed had much want of such a
+  guardian if they wished to remain quiet: his conduct, however, in
+  the war against Nabis, 195, shows that he had not really at heart
+  the tranquillity of Greece.
+
+10. The treaty of peace with Philip contained the seeds of a new and
+greater war with Syria; but though this seemed inevitable at that time,
+it did not break out till six years afterwards; and in but few periods
+of the history of the world is so great a political crisis to be found,
+as in this short interval. The fall of Carthage and Macedonia had shown
+the rest of the world what it had to expect from Rome; and there was no
+lack of great men sufficiently endowed with courage and talents to
+resist her. The danger of a formidable league between Carthage, Syria,
+and perhaps Macedonia, was never so much to be feared, as when Hannibal,
+now at the head of affairs, laboured to effect it with all the zeal
+which his hatred of Rome could inspire; and they might calculate with
+certainty beforehand on the accession of many smaller states. Rome,
+however, by her equally decided and artful policy procured Hannibal's
+banishment from Carthage, amused Philip by granting him some trifling
+advantages, and gained over the smaller states by her ambassadors. By
+these means, and by taking advantage of the intrigues in the court of
+Syria, she prevented this coalition from being formed. Antiochus was
+therefore left without assistance in Greece, except from the Aetolians,
+and a few other unimportant allies; while Rome drew from hers,
+especially the Rhodians and Eumenes, advantages of the greatest
+consequence.
+
+  The first cause of contention between Rome and Antiochus was the
+  liberty of Greece, which the former wished to extend to the
+  Grecian cities of Asia, and to those in particular which had
+  belonged to Philip, and afterwards to Antiochus; while the latter
+  contended, that Rome had no right to intermeddle with the affairs
+  of Asia. The second cause of dispute was the occupation of the
+  Thracian Chersonesus by Antiochus, 196, in right of some ancient
+  pretensions; and Rome, on her part, would not tolerate him in
+  Europe. This quarrel therefore commenced as early as 196, but did
+  not become serious till the year 105, when in consequence of
+  Hannibal's flight to Antiochus, together with the turbulence and
+  excitement of the Aetolians, whose object it was to embroil the
+  rival powers, the political horizon was completely overcast. What
+  a fortunate thing it was for Rome that such men as Hannibal and
+  Antiochus could not understand each other!
+
+  HEYNE, _de foederum ad Romanorum opes imminuendas initorum eventis
+  eorumque causis; in Opusc._ vol. iii.
+
+11. This war was much sooner brought to a termination than the
+Macedonian, owing to the half-measures adopted by Antiochus. After
+having been driven from Greece by Glabrio, and after two naval victories
+had opened to the Romans the way to Asia, he felt inclined to act on the
+defensive; but in the battle near Magnesia at the foot of Mount Sipylus,
+L. Scipio gathered the laurels which more properly belonged to Glabrio.
+The total expulsion of Antiochus from Asia Minor, even before this
+victory, had been the chief object of the war. The conditions of peace
+(see above, p. 284.) were such, as not only weakened Antiochus, but
+reduced him to a state of dependence.
+
+  During this contest in the east, a sanguinary war was going on in
+  the west; from the year 201 in Spain, where the elder Cato
+  commanded; and from 193 in Italy itself, against the Ligurians.
+  Whatever may be said upon the means made use of by Rome to
+  increase the number of her citizens, it will always be difficult
+  to comprehend, not only how she could support all these wars
+  without being thereby weakened, but how at the same time she could
+  found so many colonies!
+
+12. Even after the termination of this war, Rome refrained with
+astonishing moderation from appearing in the light of a conqueror: it
+was only for the liberty of Greece, and for her allies, that she had
+contended! Without keeping a foot of land for herself, she divided, with
+the exception of the free Grecian cities, the conquered Asia Minor
+between Eumenes and the Rhodians; the manner, however, in which she
+dealt with the Aetolians, who after a long supplication for peace were
+obliged to buy it dearly, shows that she also knew how to treat
+unfaithful allies. The war against the Gauls in Asia Minor was not less
+necessary for the preservation of tranquillity in that country, than it
+was injurious to the morals and military discipline of the Roman army.
+They here learned to levy contributions.
+
+13. Thus, within the short space of ten years, was laid the foundation
+of the Roman authority in the east, and the general state of affairs
+entirely changed. If Rome was not yet the ruler, she was at least the
+arbitress of the world from the Atlantic to the Euphrates. The power of
+the three principal states was so completely humbled, that they durst
+not, without the permission of Rome, begin any new war; the fourth,
+Egypt, had already, in the year 201, placed herself under the
+guardianship of Rome; and the lesser powers followed of themselves:
+esteeming it an honour to be called the _allies of Rome_. With this name
+the nations were lulled into security, and brought under the Roman yoke;
+the new political system of Rome was founded and strengthened, partly by
+exciting and supporting the weaker states against the stronger, however
+unjust the cause of the former might be, and partly by factions which
+she found means to raise in every state, even the smallest.
+
+  Although the policy of Rome extended itself everywhere by means of
+  her commissioners, or ambassadors, yet she kept a more particular
+  guard against Carthage by favouring Masinissa at her expense,
+  against the Achaean league by favouring the Spartans, and against
+  Philip of Macedon by favouring every one who brought any complaint
+  against him (see above, p. 285).
+
+14. Although these new connections and this intercourse with foreign
+nations greatly aided the diffusion of knowledge and science, and was
+followed by a gradual improvement in her civilization, yet was it
+nevertheless, in many respects, detrimental to the internal state of
+Rome. The introduction of the scandalous Bacchanalia, which were
+immediately discovered and forbidden, shows how easily great vices may
+creep in among a people who are only indebted for their morality to
+their ignorance. Among the higher classes also the spirit of intrigue
+manifested itself to an astonishing degree; particularly by the attacks
+directed against the Scipios by the elder Cato, whose restless activity
+became the instrument of his malignant passions. The severity of his
+censorship did not repair the evils caused by his immorality and
+pernicious politics.
+
+  Voluntary exile of Scipio Africanus to Linternum, 187. He dies
+  there, 183, the same year in which Hannibal falls under the
+  continued persecution of Rome. His brother Scipio Asiaticus is
+  also unable to escape a trial and condemnation, 185. One would
+  have expected a sensible effect from the exile of these two great
+  men; but, in a state where the ruling power is in the hands of a
+  body like what the Roman senate was, the change of individuals is
+  but of little consequence.
+
+15. Fresh disputes arose, as early as 185, with Philip of Macedon, who
+soon found that they had spared him no longer than it suited their own
+convenience. Although the intervention of Philip's youngest son, upon
+whom the Romans had formed some design, prevented the powers from coming
+to an immediate rupture, and war was still further delayed by Philip's
+death, yet the national hatred descended to his successor, and continued
+to increase, notwithstanding an alliance concluded with him, until the
+war openly broke out (see above, p. 287).
+
+  The first circumstance which gave umbrage to Philip was the small
+  portion they permitted him to conquer in Athamania and Thessaly
+  during the war against Antiochus. But what sharpened his
+  animosity, much more than the object in dispute, was the conduct
+  of the Roman commissioners, before whom he, the king, was called
+  upon to defend himself as an accused party, 184. The exclamation
+  of Philip, that "the sun of every day had not yet set," showed his
+  indignation, and at the same time betrayed his intention. The
+  interval previous to the breaking out of the war was anything
+  rather than a time of peace for Rome; for besides that the Spanish
+  and Ligurian wars continued almost without intermission, the
+  revolts which broke out in Istria, 178, and in Sardinia and
+  Corsica, 176, produced much bloodshed.
+
+16. In the second Macedonian war, which ended with the destruction of
+Perseus and his kingdom (see above, p. 288), it required the active
+efforts of Roman policy to prevent a powerful confederacy from being
+formed against her; as Perseus used all his endeavours to stimulate, not
+only the Grecian states, and Thrace and Illyria, but also Carthage and
+Asia, to enter into alliance with him. Where was it that Rome did not at
+this crisis send her ambassadors? She did not, indeed, succeed so far as
+to leave her enemy quite alone, but prepared new triumphs for herself
+over the few allies she left him. The devastated Epirus, and Gentius
+king of Illyria, suffered dearly for the assistance they had lent him;
+the states also which had remained neuter, the Rhodians and Eumenes,
+were made to feel severely that they were the mere creatures of Rome.
+
+  Beginning of the Macedonian war, 171, before Rome was prepared; a
+  deceitful truce, which raised the indignation even of the elder
+  senators, was the means resorted to for gaining time.
+  Notwithstanding this, the war at first, 170 and 169, was
+  favourable to Perseus; but he wanted resolution and judgment to
+  enable him to turn his advantages to account. In 168, Paulus
+  Aemilius, an old general, against the usual custom of the Romans,
+  took the command. Bloody and decisive battle near Pydna, June 22,
+  168. So completely may one day overturn a kingdom which has only
+  an army for its support! Contemporary with this war, and highly
+  fortunate for Rome, was the war of Antiochus Epiphanes with Egypt.
+  No wonder that Rome did not, till 168, through Popilius, command
+  peace between them! (See above, p. 261.)
+
+17. The destruction of the Macedonian monarchy was attended with
+consequences equally disastrous to the conquerors and the conquered. To
+the first it soon gave the notion of becoming the masters of the world,
+instead of its arbiters; and it exposed the latter, for the next twenty
+years, to all the evils inseparable from such a catastrophe. The system
+of politics hitherto pursued by Rome could not last much longer; for if
+nations suffered themselves to be brought under the yoke by force, it
+was not to be expected that they would long be held in dependence under
+the specious name of liberty. But the state of things after this war was
+such as contributed to hasten a change in the form of the relations
+which existed between Rome and her allies.
+
+  The republican constitution given to the already ruined and
+  devastated Macedonians (see above, p. 288.) and Illyrians, and
+  which, according to the decree of the senate, "showed to all
+  people that Rome was ready to bestow liberty upon them," was
+  granted upon such hard conditions, that the enfranchised nation
+  soon used every endeavour to procure themselves a king. Greece
+  however suffered still more than Macedonia. Here, during the war,
+  the spirit of faction had risen to the highest pitch; and the
+  arrogant insolence of the Roman party, composed for the most part
+  of venal wretches, was so great, that they persecuted not only
+  those who had espoused an opposite faction, but even those who had
+  joined no faction at all. Rome nevertheless could not believe
+  herself secure, until she had destroyed, by a cruel artifice, all
+  her adversaries (see above, p. 288).
+
+18. Entirely in the same spirit did Rome proceed against the other
+states from whom she had anything to fear. These must be rendered
+defenceless; and every means of effecting that purpose was considered
+justifiable by the senate. The quarrels between the successors to the
+throne of Egypt were taken advantage of to cause dissensions in that
+kingdom (see above, p. 260); while Syria was retained in a state of
+tutelage, by keeping the rightful heir to the throne at Rome; and its
+military power neutralized by means of their ambassadors (see above, p.
+243).
+
+19. From these facts we may also conclude, that the injuries now
+meditated against Carthage were not separate projects, but rather formed
+part of the general system of Roman policy at this period, although
+particular events at one time retarded their execution, and at another
+hastened it. History, in recounting the incredibly bad treatment which
+Carthage had to endure before her fall, seems to have given a warning to
+those nations who can take it, of what they may expect from the
+domination of a powerful republic.
+
+  Cato was chief of the party which sought the destruction of
+  Carthage, both from a spirit of envy against Scipio Nasica, whom
+  he hated for his great influence in the senate; and because, when
+  ambassador to Carthage, he thought they did not treat him with
+  sufficient respect. But Masinissa's victory, 152 (see above, p.
+  88), and the defection of Utica, brought this project into
+  immediate play. Beginning of the war, 150, the Carthaginians
+  having been previously inveigled out of their arms. The city,
+  however, was not captured and destroyed till 146, by P. Scipio
+  Aemilianus. The Carthaginian territory, under the name of Africa,
+  was then made a Roman province.
+
+20. During this third war with Carthage, hostilities again broke out in
+Macedonia, which brought on a new war with Greece, and entirely changed
+the state of both these countries. In Macedonia, an impostor named
+Andriscus, who pretended to be the son of Philip, placed himself at the
+head of that highly disaffected people, assumed the name of Philip, and
+became, particularly by an alliance with the Thracians, very formidable
+to the Romans, until overcome by Metellus. Rome wishing to take
+advantage of this crisis to dissolve the Achaean league, the Achaean war
+broke out (see above, p. 289). This war was begun by Metellus, and
+terminated by Mummius with the destruction of Corinth. By reducing both
+Macedonia and Greece to the form of provinces, Rome now gave evident
+proof that no existing relations, nor any form of government, can
+prevent nations from being subjugated by a warlike republic, whenever
+circumstances render it possible.
+
+  It might have been expected, that the destruction of the two first
+  commercial cities in the world, in the same year, would have been
+  followed by important consequences to the course of trade; but the
+  trade of Carthage and Corinth had already been drawn to Alexandria
+  and Rhodes, otherwise Utica might, in some respects, have supplied
+  the place of Carthage.
+
+21. While Rome was thus destroying thrones and republics, she met in
+Spain with an antagonist--a simple Spanish countryman named
+Viriathus--whom, after six years' war, she could only rid herself of by
+assassination. The war, nevertheless, continued after his death against
+the Numantines, who would not be subjected, but were at last destroyed
+by Scipio Aemilianus.
+
+  The war against the Spaniards, who of all the nations subdued by
+  the Romans defended their liberty with the greatest obstinacy,
+  began in the year 200, six years after the total expulsion of the
+  Carthaginians from their country, 206. It was exceedingly
+  obstinate, partly from the natural state of the country, which was
+  thickly populated, and where every place became a fortress; partly
+  from the courage of the inhabitants; but above all, owing to the
+  peculiar policy of the Romans, who were wont to employ their
+  allies to subdue other nations. This war continued, almost without
+  interruption, from the year 200 to 133, and was for the most part
+  carried on at the same time in Hispania Citerior, where the
+  Celtiberi were the most formidable adversaries, and in Hispania
+  Ulterior, where the Lusitani were equally powerful. Hostilities
+  were at the highest pitch in 195, under Cato, who reduced
+  Hispania Citerior to a state of tranquillity 185-179, when the
+  Celtiberi were attacked in their native territory; and 155-150,
+  when the Romans in both provinces were so often beaten, that
+  nothing was more dreaded by the soldiers at home than to be sent
+  there. The extortions and perfidy of Servius Galba placed
+  Viriathus, in the year 146, at the head of his nation, the
+  Lusitani: the war, however, soon extended itself to Hispania
+  Citerior, where many nations, particularly the Numantines, took up
+  arms against Rome, 143. Viriathus, sometimes victorious and
+  sometimes defeated, was never more formidable than in the moment
+  of defeat; because he knew how to take advantage of his knowledge
+  of the country, and of the dispositions of his countrymen. After
+  his murder, caused by the treachery of Caepio, 140, Lusitania was
+  subdued; but the Numantine war became still more violent, and the
+  Numantines compelled the consul Mancinus to a disadvantageous
+  treaty, 137. When Scipio, in the year 133, put an end to this war,
+  Spain was certainly tranquil; the northern parts, however, were
+  still unsubdued, though the Romans penetrated as far as Galatia.
+
+22. Towards the end of this period, the Romans obtained at a much
+cheaper rate the possession of one of their most important provinces;
+for the profligate Attalus III. king of Pergamus, bequeathing them the
+whole of his kingdom (on what account is uncertain, see above, p. 292.),
+they immediately took possession of it, and kept in spite of the
+resistance of the legitimate heir Aristonicus, merely ceding, as a
+recompense, Phrygia to Mithridates V. king of Pontus. Thus, by a stroke
+of the pen, the largest and finest part of Asia Minor became the
+property of Rome. If this extraordinary legacy was the work of Roman
+policy, she paid dearly enough, in the long run, for this accession to
+her power and riches, by the destruction of her morals, and the dreadful
+wars to which this legacy gave rise under Mithridates.
+
+23. The foreign possessions of Rome, besides Italy, comprised at this
+time under the name of provinces, a name of much higher signification in
+the Latin language than in any other, Hispania Citerior and Ulterior,
+Africa (the territory of Carthage), Sicily, Sardinia and Corsica,
+Liguria, and Cisalpine Gaul, in the west; and in the east, Macedonia,
+Achaia, and Asia (territory of Pergamus). The inhabitants of these
+countries were entirely subject to Rome. The administration of them was
+carried on by those who had enjoyed the office of consul, and by
+praetors, subordinate to whom were the quaestors, or collectors of the
+revenue. The highest military and civil powers were united in these
+governors; a principal cause of that horrible oppression which was soon
+felt. Troops were always kept up in the provinces; and the Latin
+language everywhere introduced (except only where Greek was spoken),
+that the inhabitants might be made as much like Romans as possible.
+
+  Till nearly the end of this period, praetors were expressly
+  appointed to each province. It was not till after the origin of
+  the _quaestiones perpetuae_, that it became the custom for the
+  praetors who had vacated office, to succeed to the provinces
+  (_propraetores_), a principal cause of the degeneracy of the Roman
+  constitution.
+
+  C. SIGONIUS, _de Antiquo jure provinciarum in Graevii Thes. Antiq.
+  Rom._ vol. ii.
+
+24. The acquisition of these rich countries naturally had great
+influence in augmenting the revenue of the Romans. Though Rome was not
+indeed a state, like Carthage, altogether dependent upon finances, yet
+she kept these adjusted in a wonderful manner; a spirit of nice order
+being observed in this as well as in every other department of her
+administration. If in extraordinary emergencies recourse were had to
+native loans, to a change in the value of money, or a monopoly of salt,
+order was soon restored; while the booty obtained from conquered
+countries was also a great source of the public income so long indeed as
+it was reserved for the state, and did not become the prey of the
+generals.
+
+  Sources of the Roman revenue (_vectigalia_) were: 1. Tribute _a._
+  from the Roman citizens; that is to say, a property-tax imposed by
+  the senate according to the urgency of the case (which, however,
+  was remitted, for a long time, after the war with Perseus, 168,
+  being no longer necessary). _b._ Tribute of the allies (_socii_)
+  in Italy: which seems also to have been a property-tax; differing
+  in different places. _c._ Tribute of the provinces: in some a
+  heavy poll-tax, in others taxes on property; in all, however, they
+  were paid in natural productions, mostly ordinary, though
+  sometimes extraordinary, as well for the salary of the governor as
+  for the supply of the capital. 2. The revenue from the national
+  domains (_ager publicus_), both in Italy (especially Campania) and
+  in the provinces; the tythes (_decumae_) of which were paid by
+  means of leases for four years, granted by the censors. 3. The
+  revenue from the customs (_portoria_), collected in the seaports
+  and frontier towns. 4. The revenue arising from the mines
+  (_metalla_), particularly the Spanish silver mines; the
+  proprietors of which were obliged to pay a duty to the state. 5.
+  The duty upon enfranchised slaves (_aurum vicesimarium_). All
+  receipts flowed into the national treasury, the _aerarium_; all
+  outgoings were exclusively ordered by the senate; and the people
+  were consulted as little with regard to them as they were
+  respecting the imposts. The officers employed were the
+  _quaestores_, under whom were the _scribae_, divided into
+  _decurias_, who, though certainly subordinate, had nevertheless
+  great influence. Their services, as they were not yearly changed,
+  must have been indispensable to the _quaestores_ for the time
+  being; and the whole management of affairs, at least in detail,
+  must have fallen into their hands.
+
+  Upon the finances of Rome, the best work at present is:--
+
+  P. BURMANNI, _Vectigalia Populi Romani_. Leyden, 1734, 4to.
+
+  Two excellent treatises have since appeared in German upon this
+  subject:--
+
+  # D. H. HEGEWISCH, _Essay upon Roman Finances_. Antona, 1804, and
+
+  # R. BOSSE, _Sketch of the System of Finance in the Roman State_.
+  Brunswick, 1803, 2 parts. Both include the periods of the republic
+  and the monarchy.
+
+
+
+
+THIRD PERIOD.
+
+_From the beginning of the civil broils under the Gracchi, to the fall
+of the republic. B. C. 134-30. Year of Rome, 620-724._
+
+
+  SOURCES. Concerning the first half of this important period of the
+  republic, down to the time of Cicero, we are sadly in want of precise
+  information. Not one of the contemporary writers has been preserved to
+  us, nor indeed any one of the later historians who have compiled a
+  history of the whole period. APPIAN, _de Bellis Civilibus_; PLUTARCH,
+  in his _Lives of the Gracchi_; and the spirited _Compendium_ of VEL.
+  PATERCULUS, are, for this portion, our principal authorities; and even
+  the imperfect summaries of the lost books of Livy, so masterly
+  supplied by Freinshemius here become of importance. For the times
+  which follow, the _Jugurtha_ and _Cataline_ of Sallust, are two
+  excellent historical cabinet pieces, and become the more valuable for
+  the insight they at the same time give us of the internal condition of
+  Rome. His great work, however, _The Histories_, is, with the exception
+  of a few precious fragments, unfortunately lost. For the times of
+  CAESAR and CICERO, we have the _Commentaries_ of the first, and the
+  _Orations_ and _Letters_ of the latter; both fertile sources of
+  information. What is left us of DIO CASSIUS'S _History_, begins with
+  the year 69 before Christ. Of PLUTARCH'S _Lives_, besides those of
+  the Gracchi, the following are connected with this period: C. MARIUS,
+  SYLLA, LUCULLUS, CRASSUS, SERTORIUS, CATO OF UTICA, CICERO, BRUTUS,
+  and ANTONIUS. Upon the sources for these lives, see my treatises cited
+  above, p. 321.
+
+  Among the moderns, the greater part of this period is particularly
+  treated of by:--
+
+  DE BROSSES, _Histoire de la Republique Romaine dans le cours du VIIe
+  Siecle par Salluste_, a Dijou, 1777, 3 vols. 4to.
+
+  In German by J. C. SCHLEUTER, 1790, etc. with remarks, 4 vols. The
+  editor of this capital work had an idea of translating Sallust, and
+  supplying what is lost. It contains, besides a translation of Jugurtha
+  and Cataline, the period between both, of which Sallust treats in his
+  _Histories_: that is, from Sylla's abdication, B. C. 79-67; and is
+  equally important for its own merits and for the period to which it
+  belongs.
+
+  VERTOT, _Histoire des revolutions arrivees dans le gouvernement de la
+  Republique Romaine_. Paris, 1796, 6 vols. 12mo. Although this justly
+  esteemed work includes the foregoing period, it is particularly
+  valuable for the present.
+
+  MABLY, _Observations sur les Romains_. Geneve, 1751, 2 vols. 8vo. A
+  survey of the internal history; ingenious, but as superficial as the
+  _Observations sur les Grecs_ by the same author.
+
+1. The foregoing period is composed of the history of foreign wars
+alone; in this, on the contrary, Rome appears in a continual state of
+internal commotion. And if foreign hostilities interrupt this state of
+things for a short time, it is only that it may be renewed with more
+violence, till at last it ends in a furious civil war. As the almost
+boundless power of the senate had laid the foundation of an exceedingly
+hateful family aristocracy, against which the tribunes of the people
+arrayed themselves, in the character of powerful demagogues, there arose
+a new struggle between the aristocratic and democratic parties, which
+almost immediately grew into two powerful factions. This contest, from
+its extent and its consequences, soon became much more important than
+the ancient one between the patricians and the plebeians.
+
+  This family aristocracy gradually arose from the power of the
+  magistrates, who now not only enjoyed a very high political
+  importance, but, by the government of the provinces, acquired immense
+  wealth. The present aristocracy, then, consisted of the ruling
+  families (_nobiles_) concentrated in the senate. The struggle with the
+  opposite party, the people (_plebs_), became so much the more violent
+  in consequence of the great abuses which had crept into the
+  administration, particularly in the division of the lands of the
+  republic; the ruling families securing to themselves the fruits of all
+  the victories and conquests, while the power of the democracy, by the
+  vast accumulation of people (without the means of livelihood, although
+  voting in the _comitia_), especially of enfranchised slaves, who,
+  though strangers, mostly without power or property, formed,
+  nevertheless, the greater part of what was then called the Roman
+  people.
+
+  G. AL. RUPERTI, _Stemmata gentium Romanarum_. Goett. 1795, 8vo. Almost
+  indispensable for obtaining a clear insight into the history of the
+  Roman families, and of course into that of the state.
+
+2. Commencement of the disturbances under the tribunate of Tib.
+Sempronius Gracchus, whom former connections had long made the man of
+the people. His desire was to relieve the distress of the lower orders;
+and the means whereby he hoped to do this was a better division of the
+lands of the republic, now almost exclusively in the hands of the
+aristocracy. His reform, therefore, naturally led at once to a struggle
+with that party. Tib. Gracchus however soon found, by experience, that a
+demagogue cannot stop where he would, however pure his intentions may be
+at first; and no sooner had he obtained a prolongation of his term of
+office, in opposition to the usual custom, than he fell a sacrifice to
+his undertaking.
+
+  The first agrarian law of Gracchus was confirmed by the people,
+  notwithstanding the fruitless opposition of his colleague Octavius,
+  who was deposed; it decreed, that no person should possess above five
+  hundred acres of land, nor any child above half that quantity. This
+  law was, in fact, only a renewal of the ancient _lex Licinia_; in the
+  condition, however, in which Rome now was, it bore much harder upon
+  the property usurped by the great families, than it did in former
+  times. Appointment of a committee for dividing the national lands, and
+  for enquiring also at the same time which were the property of the
+  state (_ager publicus_) and which were not. New popular propositions
+  of the elder Gracchus, especially that for the division of the
+  treasures left by king Attalus of Pergamus, with the view of securing
+  his continuance in office; great insurrection of the aristocratic
+  party under Scipio Nasica, and murder of Tiberius Gracchus, on the day
+  of electing the new tribunes of the people.
+
+3. The fall of the chief of the new party, however, occasioned any thing
+rather than its destruction. Not only was there no mention of an
+abrogation of the agrarian law, but the senate was obliged to allow the
+place in the commission, which had become vacant by the death of
+Gracchus, to be filled up; and Scipio Nasica himself was sent out of the
+way, under the pretext of an embassy to Asia. The party of the senate
+did, indeed, find a powerful support for a short time in the return of
+Scipio Aemilianus (_d._ 129) from Spain; but its greatest support was
+found in the difficulties of the law itself, which prevented its
+execution.
+
+  Great revolt of the slaves in Sicily under Eunus, 134-131. This
+  contributed not a little to keep alive the dissensions, as it showed
+  the necessity of a reform.
+
+4. Evident endeavours of the tribunes of the people to increase their
+power, Gracchus having now awakened them to a sense of it. Not satisfied
+with a seat and voice in the senate, Carbo wished that the renewing of
+their dignity should be passed into a law. By the removal, however, of
+the chiefs of the lower party, upon honourable pretexts, new troubles
+were put off for some years.
+
+  First establishment of the Roman power in Transalpine Gaul by M.
+  Fulvius Flaccus, on the occasion of his being sent to the assistance
+  of Massilia, 128. Southern Gaul became a Roman province as early as
+  122, in consequence of the defeat of the Allobrogi and Averni by Q.
+  Fabius, who had been sent against them to support the Aedui, the allies
+  of Rome. Capture of the Balearian isles by Metellus, 123. Quaestorship
+  of C. Gracchus in Sicily, 128-125.
+
+5. These palliative remedies, however, availed nothing after the return
+of C. Gracchus from Sicily with a full determination to tread in the
+footsteps of his brother. Like him, it is true, he fell a victim to his
+enterprise; but the storm that he raised during the two years of his
+tribunate fell so much the more heavily, as the popular excitement was
+more general, and from his possessing more of the shining talents
+necessary to form a powerful demagogue than his brother.
+
+  First tribunate of C. Gracchus, 123. Renewal of the agrarian law, and
+  rendering its provisions more strict. Nevertheless, as he increased
+  the fermentation by his popular measures and by acting the demagogue,
+  and obtained the renewal of the tribunate for the following year, 122,
+  he so far extended his plan, as to render it not only highly dangerous
+  to the aristocracy, but even to the state itself. Establishment of
+  distributions of corn to the poor people. Plan for the formation of
+  the knights (_ordo equestris_) into a political body, as a
+  counterbalance to the senate, by conferring on it the right of
+  administering justice, (_judicia_,) which was taken from the senate.
+  Still more important project of granting to the Italian allies the
+  privileges of Roman citizenship; and also the formation of colonies,
+  not only in Campania, but also out of Italy, in Carthage. The highly
+  refined policy of the senate, however, by lessening this man of the
+  people in the eyes of his admirers, through the assistance of the
+  tribune Livius Drusius, prevented his complete triumph; and, once
+  declining, Gracchus soon experienced the fate of every demagogue,
+  whose complete fall is then irretrievable. General insurrection, and
+  assassination of C. Gracchus, 121.
+
+6. The victory of the aristocratic faction was this time not only much
+more certain and bloody, they turned the advantages it gave them to such
+good account, that they eluded the agrarian law of Gracchus, and indeed,
+at last, completely abrogated it. But the seeds of discord already
+disseminated, especially among the Italian allies, could not be so soon
+checked, when once the subjects of these states had conceived the idea
+that they were entitled to a share in the government. How soon these
+party struggles might be renewed, or indeed a civil war break out,
+depended almost entirely upon foreign circumstances, and the chance of a
+bolder leader being found.
+
+  Agrarian law evaded: at first by repealing an act which prohibited the
+  transfer of the national lands already divided, whereby the patricians
+  were enabled to buy them again;--afterwards by the _lex Thoria:_
+  complete stop put to all further divisions, a land-tax, to be
+  distributed among the people, being instituted in its stead; but even
+  this latter was very soon annulled.
+
+  # D. H. HEGEWISCH, _History of the Civil Wars of the Gracchi_.
+  Altona, 1801.
+
+  # _History of the Revolution of the Gracchi in my Miscellaneous
+  Historical Works._ Vol. iii. 1821.
+
+7. Visible effects of this party spirit upon public morals, which now
+began to decline the more rapidly, in proportion to the increase of
+foreign connections. Neither the severity of the censorship, nor the
+laws against luxury (_leges sumtuariae_), nor those which now became
+necessary against celibacy, could be of much service in this respect.
+This degeneracy was not only to be found in the cupidity of the higher
+ranks, but also in the licentiousness of the lower orders.
+
+  Luxury in Rome was first displayed in the public administration (owing
+  to the excessive accumulation of wealth in the treasury, especially
+  during the Macedonian wars) before it infected private life; and the
+  avarice of the great long preceded the latter. The sources from whence
+  they satisfied this passion were found in the extortions of the
+  governors of provinces, their great power, and the distance from Rome
+  rendering the _leges repetundarum_ of but little effect. Probably the
+  endeavours of the allied princes and kings to gain a party in the
+  senate was a still more fruitful source, as they could obtain their
+  end only by purchase, and so gave a new impulse to the cupidity and
+  intriguing disposition of the members of that council. But private
+  luxury requires everywhere some time to ripen. It attained its height
+  immediately after the Mithridatic wars.
+
+  # D. MEINER, _History of the Corruption of the Morals and Constitution
+  of the Romans_. Leips. 1782.
+
+  # MEIEROTTO, _Morals and Manners of the Romans at different periods of
+  the Republic_. Berlin, 1776. Which considers the subject in several
+  points of view.
+
+  # C. A. BOTTIGER, _Sabina, or, morning scenes at the toilette of a
+  rich Roman lady_. Leips. 1806, 2 vols. A true and lively description
+  of the luxury of the Roman ladies, but principally at its most
+  brilliant period. It has been translated into French.
+
+8. This corruption was manifested in a striking manner in the next
+great war that Rome entered into, which was in Africa, against Jugurtha
+of Numidia, the adopted grandson of Masinissa; and soon after against
+his ally Bocchus of Mauritania. This war, kindled and maintained by the
+avarice of the Roman nobles, which Jugurtha had already had an
+opportunity of knowing at the siege of Numantia, paved the way to the
+aggrandizement of C. Marius, a new demagogue, who, being also a
+formidable general, did much more harm to the state than even the
+Gracchi.
+
+  Commencement of the quarrel of Jugurtha with the two sons of Micipsa,
+  and assassination of Hiempsal, one of them, 118.--When the other,
+  Adherbal, arrived at Rome, 117, the party of Jugurtha had already
+  succeeded, and obtained a partition of the kingdom. New attack upon
+  Adherbal, who is besieged in Cirta, and, notwithstanding the repeated
+  embassies of Rome to Jugurtha, is compelled to surrender, and is put
+  to death, 112. The tribune C. Memmius constrains the senate to declare
+  war against Jugurtha; but Jugurtha purchases a peace of the consul
+  Calpurnius Piso, 111.--Nevertheless Memmius hinders the ratification
+  of the peace, and Jugurtha is required to justify himself at Rome. He
+  would probably, however, have bought his acquittal, if the murder of
+  his kinsman Massiva, 110, by the help of Bomilcar, had not rendered it
+  impossible. The war is renewed under the consul Sp. Albinus and his
+  brother Aulus, 110, but with very little success, until the
+  incorruptible Q. Metellus took the command, 109, who would have put an
+  end to it, notwithstanding the great talents now displayed as a
+  general by Jugurtha, and his alliance with Bocchus, 108, had he not
+  been supplanted by Marius, who obtains the consulship by his
+  popularity, 107. Marius is obliged to have recourse to perfidy to get
+  Jugurtha into his hands, who is betrayed by Bocchus, 106. Numidia is
+  divided between Bocchus and two grandsons of Masinissa, Hiempsal and
+  Hiarbas.
+
+9. The elevation of Marius to the consulate not only humbled the power
+of the aristocracy, but also showed, for the first time, that the way
+was open to a man of low birth (_homo novus_) to the highest offices;
+the method, however, which he had taken to form his army, entirely
+against the Roman custom, that is, of composing it of the lower orders
+(_capite censis_) must have rendered him doubly formidable.
+Nevertheless, he would scarcely have effected so great a change in the
+constitution, if a new and terrible war had not rendered his services
+indispensable:--this was the threatened invasion of the Cimbri and
+Teutones the most powerful nations of the north, during which a new and
+violent rebellion of the slaves was raging in Sicily:--for after the
+defeat of so many Roman armies, the people believed that no one but the
+conqueror of Jugurtha could save Italy; and Marius knew so well how to
+turn this to account, that he remained consul during four successive
+years.
+
+  The Cimbri, or Cimmerians, probably a nation of German origin, from
+  beyond the Black sea, originated a popular migration which extended
+  from thence as far as Spain. Their march was perhaps occasioned, or
+  accelerated, by the Scythian war of Mithridates; and their course,
+  like that of most nomad races, was from east to west along the Danube.
+  They had already, in 113, defeated the consul Papirius Carbo, near
+  Noreia in Styria. In their progress towards the west they were joined
+  by German, Celtic, and Helvetic tribes (the _Teutones_, _Ambrones_,
+  and _Tigurians_).--Attack Roman Gaul, 109, where they demand
+  settlements and defeat Junius Silanus the consul.--Defeat of L.
+  Cassius Longinus and M. Aurelius Scaurus, 107.--Great defeat of the
+  Romans in Gaul, 105, occasioned by the disagreement of their generals,
+  the consuls, Cn. Manlius and Q. Servius Caepio. Marius obtains the
+  command, and remains consul from 104-101. The migrations of the
+  Cimbri--a part of whom reach the Pyrenees, but are driven back by the
+  Celtiberians, 103--give Marius time to complete his army. In 102,
+  after dividing themselves, they first attempted to penetrate into
+  Italy: the Teutones through Provence, and the Cimbri by Tyrol.--Great
+  defeat and slaughter of the Teutones by Marius, near Aix, 102.--The
+  Cimbri, on the contrary, effect an invasion and make progress till
+  Marius comes to the help of Catulus. Great battle and defeat of the
+  Cimbri near the Po, July 30, 101.
+
+  J. MULLER, _Bellum Cimbricum_. Tigur, 1772. A youthful essay of that
+  celebrated historian. Compare
+
+  # MANNERT, _Geography,_ etc. part iii.
+
+10. Although during this war the power of the popular party had sensibly
+increased, yet the storm did not break out until Marius _bought_ his
+sixth consulate. Now, even in Rome itself, he wished to avenge himself
+upon his enemies; and what could the senate do, when it had at its head
+a demagogue in the consul himself?--His league with the tribune
+Saturnius, and the praetor Glaucias, forming already a true triumvirate,
+would have overthrown the republic after the expulsion of Metellus, if
+the unbridled licentiousness of the rabble connected with his allies had
+not obliged him to break with them, lest he should sacrifice the whole
+of his popularity.
+
+  The measures of this cabal, who wished to appear as if treading in the
+  steps of the Gracchi, were principally directed against Q. Metellus,
+  the chief of the party of the senate, and who, since the African war,
+  had been the mortal foe of Marius. After the exile of Metellus,
+  occasioned by his opposition to a new agrarian law, this faction
+  usurped the rights of the people, and lorded it in the committees;
+  until, at a new election of consuls, a general revolt, favoured by
+  Marius himself, took place of all the well-disposed citizens against
+  them; Saturnius and Glaucias were besieged in the capitol, forced to
+  surrender, and executed. The return of Metellus from his voluntary
+  exile soon followed, 92, much against the will of Marius, who was
+  obliged to retire into Asia.
+
+11. The few years of tranquillity which Rome now enjoyed, brought to
+maturity many benefits and many evils, the seeds of which had been
+already sown. On one hand the rising eloquence of Antonius, Crassus, and
+others, was employed with effect against the oppressors of the provinces
+in the state trials (_questiones_); and some generous spirits used all
+their endeavours to heal the wounds of Sicily, Asia, and other
+provinces, by a better administration; while, on the other hand, the
+power of the _ordo equestris_ became a source of much abuse: for besides
+their right to sit in the tribunals (_judiciis_), which C. Gracchus had
+conferred upon them, they had also obtained the farming of the leases,
+and thereby the collection of the revenue in the provinces; by which
+means they were enabled not only to oppose every reform that was
+attempted in the latter, but even at Rome to hold the senate in a state
+of dependence. The struggle which now arose between them and the senate
+respecting the _judicia_ (or right to preside in the tribunal), was one
+of the most fatal to the republic, as this right was abused by them for
+the purpose of satisfying their personal rancour, and oppressing the
+greatest men. The tribune M. Livius Drusus the younger, it is true,
+wrested from them half their power; but, alas! the manner in which he
+did it kindled into a flame the fire which had been smouldering from the
+time of the Gracchi.
+
+  Acquisition of Cyrene by the testament of king Apion, 97;
+  notwithstanding which it maintained its independence, although
+  probably by paying a tribute. Adjustment of the differences between
+  the kings of Asia Minor by the praetor Sylla, 92 (see above, p. 294).
+
+12. Revolt of the Italian tribes, who desire to obtain the right of
+Roman citizens; whereupon the bloody _war of the allies_ ensues.
+Although the oppression of Rome had been preparing this war for a long
+time, yet it was an immediate consequence of the intrigues of the Roman
+demagogues, who since the law of the younger Gracchus, had, with the
+view of making themselves popular, continually flattered the allies with
+the hope of sharing the privileges of Roman citizenship. It was however
+soon seen, that the allies were not at a loss among themselves for
+leaders, capable of forming great plans and executing them with vigour.
+Italy was about to become a republic, with Corfinium for its capital
+instead of Rome. Neither could Rome have saved herself from such an
+event, but by gradually permitting the allies to enjoy the complete
+freedom of the city.
+
+  After the civil wars of the Gracchi, large bands of the allies were
+  continually flocking to Rome. These were in the pay of the demagogues,
+  whom the _lex Licinia_, 95, had banished from Rome, and thereby laid
+  the foundation of the revolt. From that time the conspiracy among
+  these tribes began, and attained without interruption such a degree of
+  maturity, that the carelessness of Rome can only be accounted for from
+  the party fury which then existed, and which the _lex Varia_, 91,
+  enacted against the promoters of rebellion, served only to inflame the
+  more. The murder of the tribune Livius Drusus, 91, a very ambiguous
+  character, brought the affair to an open rupture. In this alliance
+  were the Marsi, Picentes, Peligni, Marrucini, Frentani, the Samnites,
+  who played a principal part, the Hirpini, Apuli, and the Lucani. In
+  this war, which was so much the more bloody, as it was mostly composed
+  of separate contests and sieges, especially of the Roman colonies, Cn.
+  Pompeius the elder, L. Cato, Marius, and, above all, Sylla,
+  particularly distinguished themselves on the side of the Romans; and
+  among the generals of the allies Pompadias, C. Papius,
+  etc.--Concession of the freedom of the city, first to such allies as
+  remained faithful, the Latins, Umbrians, etc. by the _lex Julia_, 91;
+  afterwards, by degrees, to the remainder by the _lex Plotia_. Some,
+  nevertheless, still continued in arms.
+
+  HEYNE, _de Belli Socialis causis et eventu, in Opusc._ t. iii.
+
+13. The war now just ended, essentially changed the constitution of
+Rome, as she no longer remained, as hitherto, the exclusive head of the
+whole state; and although the new citizens were only formed into eight
+tribes, yet their influence must soon have been felt in the committees,
+on account of the readiness with which they promoted factions. Besides
+this, the long-cherished private hatred between Marius and Sylla was
+greatly strengthened by this war, as Sylla's fame was considerably
+raised thereby, while that of Marius was proportionably diminished. An
+opportunity was only wanted, like that which the first Pontine war soon
+furnished, to stir up a new civil war, which threatened to destroy the
+liberty of Rome.
+
+14. Alliance of Marius with the tribune Sulpicius, with the view of
+wresting from Sylla the command of the forces against Mithridates,
+already conferred upon him by the senate. The ease with which Sylla, at
+the head of an army on which he could depend, expelled the chiefs of
+this party, seems to have left him ignorant of the fact, that the party
+itself was not thereby destroyed. However judicious may have been his
+other measures, the elevation of Cinna to the consulship was an error in
+policy of which Italy had still more reason to repent than himself. How
+much blood might have been spared if Sylla had not unseasonably wished
+to become popular!
+
+  Proposition of Sulpicius for an indiscriminate distribution of the new
+  citizens and freemen among all the tribes of Italy, that he might
+  thereby gain a strong party in his favour, which, by a violent
+  assembly of the people, transfers the command from Sylla to Marius.
+  March of Sylla upon Rome, and expulsion of Marius, who, by a series of
+  adventures almost surpassing belief, escapes to Africa and is
+  proscribed with his son and ten of his partisans. Reestablishment of
+  the power of the senate, whose number is made up by three hundred
+  knights. Sylla, after having caused his friend C. Octavius and his
+  enemy L. Cinna to be elected consuls, hastens back to Greece.
+
+15. First war against Mithridates the Great. Sylla gains several
+victories over that king's generals in Greece; wrests from him all his
+conquests, and restricts him to his hereditary dominions. Rome since the
+time of Hannibal had met with no such powerful opponent as the king of
+Pontus, who in a few months had become master of all Asia Minor,
+Macedonia, and Greece, and threatened even Italy itself; we must besides
+consider, that the war on the side of Rome was carried on in a manner
+altogether different from that of any previous one; as Sylla, after the
+victory of the opposite party, being himself proscribed in Rome, was
+obliged to continue it with his own army, and his own private resources.
+The unfortunate countries which were the theatre of this war, felt as
+many calamities during the struggle, as Italy was doomed to suffer after
+its close.
+
+  Commencement of the war by Mithridates before the termination of that
+  of the allies, 89, by taking possession of Cappadocia and Paphlagonia.
+  He was not less formidable by his alliance with the tribes along the
+  Danube, and his navy, than by his land forces; and the irritation of
+  the people of Asia against Rome rendered his enterprise still more
+  easy. Double victory over Nicomedes king of Bithynia and the Roman
+  general M. Aquilius, followed by the conquest of all Asia Minor except
+  the isle of Rhodes. Massacre of all the Roman citizens in the states
+  of Asia Minor. Expedition of the king's army into Greece, under the
+  command of his general Archelaus, who makes Athens the theatre of the
+  war, 88. Siege and capture of that unfortunate town by Sylla, 1st
+  March, 87. Repeated great defeats of Mithridates's army under the
+  command of Archelaus, near Chalcis, and afterwards near Orchomenus, by
+  Sylla, 86, whose general plan was formed upon the entire destruction
+  of his enemies. Negotiations for peace commenced by Archelaus, and
+  finally settled at a personal conference between Sylla and
+  Mithridates. The adverse party in Rome, however, had in the mean time
+  sent a new army into Asia Minor, to act as well against Sylla as
+  against Mithridates, under the command of L. Valerius Flaccus, who,
+  however, is assassinated by his lieutenant Fimbria. The latter gains
+  some advantages over the king, but, being shut up by Sylla, kills
+  himself. Owing to the licentiousness of his army, which Sylla dared
+  not restrain; and the heavy contributions exacted by him in Asia Minor
+  after the peace, in order to carry on the war in Italy, 84; together
+  with the bodies of pirates formed out of the fleet disbanded by
+  Mithridates, these unfortunate countries were almost ruined; the
+  opulent cities more especially.
+
+16. But during this war a new revolution took place in Rome, which not
+only overthrew the order reestablished by Sylla, but also, by the
+victory of the democratic faction under Cinna and Marius, gave rise to a
+wild anarchy of the people, and which the death of Marius, alas, too
+late for Rome! only rendered more destructive; as the leaders themselves
+could no longer restrain the savage hordes of their own party. However
+dreadful the prospect of the return of Sylla might seem, it was
+nevertheless the only hope that remained for all those who had not
+joined the popular faction, or had not some connection with its leaders.
+
+  Revolt of Cinna, brought on by the proscriptions, soon after the
+  departure of Sylla; Cinna, by distributing the new citizens into all
+  the tribes, hoped to raise himself a party; but C. Octavius, at the
+  head of the senate and ancient citizens, drove him from Rome, and
+  forced him to give up the consulship, 87. He however soon raised a
+  powerful army in Campania, and recalled Marius from exile. Capture and
+  pillage of Rome, already weakened by famine, and horrible massacre of
+  the inhabitants; after which Marius and Cinna name themselves consuls
+  and banish Sylla. Death of Marius, 13th Jan. 86. C. Papirius Carbo
+  succeeds him in the consulship. The mediation of the senate is
+  useless, as the chiefs of both parties can only hope for security by
+  the annihilation of their adversaries. The murder of Cinna by his own
+  soldiers, 84, entirely deprives the dominant faction of a competent
+  leader. Neither the cowardly Carbo, although he remained consul alone,
+  nor the stupid Norbanus, nor the youth C. Marius (the son), had
+  sufficient personal authority for that purpose; and Sertorius leaves
+  Italy in good time to kindle a new flame in Spain.
+
+17. Return of Sylla to Italy, and a terrible civil war, which ends only
+with the extermination of the democratic faction, and his own elevation
+to the perpetual dictatorship. Although his enemies had so much
+advantage over him in point of numbers, yet their party was so little
+consolidated, that he with his veterans could not fail to obtain an easy
+victory. The slaughter during this war fell for the most part upon the
+Italian tribes, who had joined the party of Marius, and this afforded
+Sylla the means of giving settlements to his own soldiers; but most of
+the horrors of this revolution which fell to the share of Rome, were
+reserved till the day of victory was past. Sylla's proscription, which
+should only have punished his personal enemies, was the signal for a
+general massacre, as every one took that opportunity to rid himself of
+his private foes; and avarice did as much as vengeance. Who in these
+days, so terrible to Italy, was sure of his life or property? And yet,
+when we consider the dreadful circumstances which attended the foregoing
+dominion of the people, deduct all that was done without Sylla's
+knowledge, and consider how much he was obliged to do in order to
+satisfy his army, we shall find it difficult to say how far he deserves
+the reproach of wanton cruelty.
+
+  Sylla's arrival; victory over Norbanus immediately after, and
+  seduction of the army of the consul Scipio, 82. After this almost
+  every person of distinction declared in his favour, and the young
+  Pompey having brought to him an army which he had himself raised, his
+  party acquired more consideration, and himself more power. Victory
+  over the younger Marius, near Sacriportum, who throws himself into
+  Praeneste, where he is besieged. But the great and decisive battle
+  gained before the gates of Rome, over the Samnites under the command
+  of Telisinus, is followed by the fall of Praeneste and the capture of
+  Rome. After the proscription which immediately ensued, Sylla is
+  created perpetual dictator, and secures his power in Rome by the
+  emancipation of ten thousand slaves, whose masters he had proscribed;
+  and in Italy by colonies of his veterans, whom he establishes at the
+  expense of his enemies.
+
+18. Great reform in the constitution during the two years' dictatorship
+of Sylla. The aristocracy of the senate, which he filled up with
+knights, was not only reestablished, but he also stopped the sources
+from which the great disorders of the democracy had hitherto proceeded.
+It seems probable that his natural indolence, which led him to prefer a
+life of luxurious ease to one of laborious activity, when he was no
+longer spurred to the latter by his passions, was the chief cause of his
+voluntary abdication. He had, however, the great advantage over Marius,
+of not being the sport of his own feelings. The conduct of Sylla,
+indeed, was so consistent throughout, that it satisfactorily shows he
+knew very well what was his ultimate aim--which Marius never did.
+
+  Internal regulations of Sylla by the _leges Corneliae_. 1. Law to
+  restrain the influence of the tribunes, by taking from them their
+  legislative power. 2. Law respecting the succession to the magistracy;
+  the number of praetors fixed to eight, and the quaestors to twenty. 3.
+  _Lex de majestate_, especially to limit the power of the governors of
+  provinces, and to abolish their exactions. 4. _Lex de judiciis_,
+  whereby the _judicia_ were again restored to the senate. 5. Several
+  police regulations, _de sicariis_, _de veneficiis_, etc. for the
+  preservation and tranquillity of Rome, upon which everything depended.
+  6. The _lex de civitate_, taking from the Latins and several Italian
+  cities and tribes the privileges of Roman citizens, upon which they
+  set so much store, although we scarcely know in what they consisted.
+  _Foreign wars_: War in Africa against the leaders of the democratic
+  faction, Cn. Domitius and king Hiarbas, which is ended by a triumph to
+  Pompey, 80. Second war against Mithridates begun by Murena, in hopes
+  of obtaining a triumph, to whom Archelaus came over; but which, under
+  the command of Sylla, terminates in an accommodation.
+
+19. Nevertheless it was impossible that the enactments of Sylla should
+be long observed; as the evil lay too deep to be eradicated by laws.
+A free state like that of Rome, with no middle class, must, from its
+nature, be exposed to continual convulsions, and these will be more or
+less violent in proportion to its greatness. Besides, as in the last
+revolution almost all property had changed hands, there was spread
+over all Italy a powerful party, who desired nothing so much as a
+counter-revolution. And to this we may add, that there were many young
+men, such as Lucullus, Crassus, and above all Pompey, who had opened to
+themselves a career during the late troubles, which they would scarcely
+yet wish to bring to a close. It will not then appear strange, that
+immediately after the death of Sylla (! 88), a consul, M. Aemilius
+Lepidus, should form the design of becoming a second Marius; a design
+which could only be frustrated by the courage and activity of such a
+patriotic citizen as Q. Lutatius Catulus, his colleague.
+
+  Attempt of Lepidus to rescind the acts of Sylla, 78. Defeated, first
+  before Rome and again in Etruria, by Catulus and Pompey, 77, after
+  which he dies in Sardinia.
+
+20. But much more dangerous for Rome might have been the civil war
+kindled by Sertorius in Spain, if the plan of that exalted republican to
+invade Italy had succeeded. Even Pompey himself, after a six years'
+struggle, would hardly have prevented it, had it not been for the
+worthlessness of the Roman vagabonds who surrounded him, and his
+assassination by Perpenna. The rapid termination of the war after the
+fall of its conductor, is a circumstance much more creditable to
+Sertorius than to the conqueror Pompey.
+
+  The forces of Sertorius in Spain, consisted not only of the party of
+  Marius which he had collected, but more essentially of the Spaniards,
+  particularly the Lusitanians, whom he had inspired with an unbounded
+  confidence in himself. Very variable success of the war against
+  Metellus and Pompey, who receive but very little support from Rome,
+  77-75. Negotiation of Sertorius with Mithridates the Great, and
+  interchange of embassies without any important result, 75. Sertorius
+  assassinated by Perpenna, 72.
+
+21. Before, however, the flame of war was totally extinguished in the
+west, Mithridates kindled a new and much fiercer one in the east; at the
+same time a war of slaves and gladiators was raging with terrible fury
+in Italy itself; and whole fleets of pirates not only ravaged the
+Italian coasts, but threatened Rome herself with a famine, and obliged
+her to have recourse to a mode of naval warfare altogether peculiar. All
+these enemies were not without intelligence with one another; and
+colossal as was the power of the republic at that time, and rich as Rome
+was in distinguished men, it seems probable that the storm which beat on
+every side between 75-71, would have razed her to the ground, if a
+stricter alliance could have been formed between Sertorius, Spartacus,
+and Mithridates. But the great difficulty of communication which at that
+time existed, and without which probably a republic such as the Roman
+never could have been formed, proved of more assistance at this crisis
+than at any other.
+
+  The third Mithridatic war, occasioned by the will of Nicomedes king of
+  Bithynia, who had bequeathed his kingdom to Rome (see above, p. 294),
+  was carried on in Asia Minor, first by Lucullus, 74-67, and afterwards
+  by Pompey, 66-64. Mithridates, being better prepared, had already
+  concluded an alliance with Sertorius in Spain, 75. But the deliverance
+  of Cyzicus by Lucullus, 73, and the defeat of the king's fleet,
+  intended to act against Italy, not only frustrated all his original
+  plans, but were followed by the occupation of his own dominions, 72
+  and 71, by the enemy, notwithstanding a new army which Mithridates
+  collected, mostly from the nomad hordes of Northern Asia. Flight of
+  Mithridates to Tigranes, 71, who positively refused to deliver him up,
+  and formed an alliance with him, 70; while the Parthian, Arsaces XII.
+  held both parties in suspense by negotiations. Victory of Lucullus
+  over the allied sovereigns, near Tigranocerta, 69, and Artaxata, 68;
+  but the mutinies which now broke out among his troops not only
+  hindered him from following up these advantages, but turned the scale
+  so much in Mithridates's favour, that in 68 and 67 he quickly regained
+  almost all his dominions, even while the Roman commissioners were on
+  their route to take possession of them. Lucullus, by his reform in the
+  finances of Asia Minor, raises a powerful party against himself in
+  Rome, and thereby loses his command.
+
+22. The war of the slaves and gladiators, which happened nearly at the
+same time, was, from the theatre of action being in its neighbourhood,
+equally dangerous to Rome; it became still more terrible from the
+violence with which these outraged beings sought to revenge their
+wrongs, and more formidable from the talents of their leader, Spartacus;
+and the conclusion of this struggle seemed, therefore, of so much
+importance to Rome, that it gave M. Crassus a much higher influence in
+the state than he could ever have obtained by his riches alone.
+
+  Commencement of this war by a number of runaway gladiators, who, being
+  strengthened by an almost general revolt of the slaves in Campania,
+  73, soon became very formidable. The defeat of four generals, one
+  after the other, throws open to Spartacus the road to the Alps, and
+  enables him to leave Italy; but the greediness of booty manifested by
+  his hordes, who wished to plunder Rome, obliged him to return. Crassus
+  takes the command and rescues Rome, 72; upon which Spartacus retires
+  into Lower Italy, hoping to form a junction with the pirates, and to
+  carry the war into Sicily, but is deceived by them, 71. His complete
+  overthrow near the Silarus, 71. Pompey, then returning from Spain,
+  finds means to seize a sprig of the laurel chaplet which by right
+  should have adorned only the brow of Crassus; hence arises a
+  misunderstanding between these two commanders, during their consulate,
+  70, which threatened to be dangerous to the state.
+
+23. The war against the pirates of Sicily and Isauria was not only very
+important in itself, but still more so in its consequences. It procured
+for Pompey a legal power such as no Roman general had ever before
+enjoyed; and the quick and glorious manner in which he brought it to a
+close, opened for him the way to the great object of his ambition--the
+conduct of the war in Asia against Mithridates.
+
+  The extraordinary power acquired by these pirates was owing partly to
+  the great negligence of the Romans in sea affairs, (see page 340),
+  partly to the war against Mithridates, who had taken the pirates into
+  his pay, and partly also to the Roman oppressions in Asia Minor. War
+  had been undertaken against them as early as 75, by P. Servilius; but
+  his victories, though they procured him the title of _Isauricus_, did
+  them but little harm. They were to be dreaded, not only for their
+  piracies, but because they also offered an easy means of communication
+  between the other enemies of Rome from Spain to Asia. The new attack
+  of the praetor M. Antonius upon Crete, proved a complete failure; but
+  it was the cause of that hitherto independent island being again
+  attacked, 68, by Metellus, and reduced to a Roman province, 67. Pompey
+  takes the command against the pirates with extraordinary privileges,
+  obtained for him by Gabinius, and finishes the war in forty days, 67.
+
+24. After these triumphs over so many enemies, Mithridates was the only
+one which now remained; and Pompey had here again the good fortune to
+conclude a struggle already near its end; for notwithstanding his late
+success, Mithridates had never been able completely to recover himself.
+His fall undoubtedly raised the power of Rome in Asia Minor to its
+highest pitch; but it brought her, at the same time, into contact with
+the Parthians.
+
+  Pompey obtains the conduct of the war against Mithridates with very
+  extensive privileges, procured for him by the tribune Manilius (_lex
+  Manilia_), notwithstanding the opposition of Catulus, 67. His victory
+  by night, near the Euphrates, 66. Subjection of Tigranes, while
+  Mithridates flies into the Crimea, 65, whence he endeavours to renew
+  the war. Campaign of Pompey in the countries about the Caucasus, 65;
+  he marches thence into Syria, 64. Mithridates kills himself in
+  consequence of the defection of his son Phraates, 63. Settlement of
+  Asiatic affairs by Pompey: besides the ancient province of Asia, the
+  maritime countries of Bithynia, nearly all Paphlagonia and Pontus, are
+  formed into a Roman province, under the name of Bithynia; while on the
+  southern coast Cilicia and Pamphylia form another under the name of
+  Cilicia; Phoenicia and Syria compose a third, under the name of Syria.
+  On the other hand, Great Armenia is left to Tigranes; Cappadocia to
+  Ariobarzanes; the Bosphorus to Pharnaces; Judaea to Hyrcanus (see page
+  310); and some other small states are also given to petty princes, all
+  of whom remain dependent on Rome. The tribes inhabiting Thrace during
+  the Mithridatic war, were first defeated by Sylla, 85, and their power
+  was afterwards nearly destroyed by the proconsuls of Macedonia: as by
+  Appius, in 77; by Curio, who drove them to the Danube, 75-73; and
+  especially by M. Lucullus, while his brother was engaged in Asia. Not
+  only the security of Macedonia, but the daring plans of Mithridates
+  rendered this necessary.
+
+25. The fall of Mithridates raised the republic to the highest pitch of
+her power: there was no longer any foreign foe of whom she could be
+afraid. But her internal administration had undergone great changes
+during these wars. Sylla's aristocratic constitution was shaken by
+Pompey, in a most essential point, by the reestablishment of the power
+of the tribunes, which was done because neither he nor any leading men
+could obtain their ends without their assistance. It was by their means
+that Pompey had procured such unlimited power in his two late
+expeditions, that the existence of the republic was thereby endangered.
+It was, however, a fortunate circumstance for Rome, that Pompey's vanity
+was sufficiently gratified by his being at the head of affairs, where he
+avoided the appearance of an oppressor.
+
+  Reiterated attempts of the tribune Sicinius to annul the constitution
+  of Sylla defeated by the senate, 76. But as early as 75 Opimius
+  obtained that the tribunes should not be excluded from honourable
+  offices, and that the judgments (_judicia_) should be restored to the
+  knights (_equites_). The attempts of Licinius Macer, 72, to restore
+  the tribunes to all their former powers, encountered but a short
+  opposition; and their complete reestablishment was effected by Pompey
+  and Crassus during their consulate, in 70.
+
+26. This victory of the democratic faction, however, in consequence of
+the use made of it by some leading men, necessarily led the way to an
+oligarchy, which after the consulate of Pompey and Crassus became very
+oppressive. Catiline's conspiracy, which was not matured till after
+several attempts, would have broken up this confined aristocracy, and
+placed the helm of state in the hands of another and still more
+dangerous faction: a faction composed in part of needy profligates and
+criminals dreading the punishment of their crimes, and partly of
+ambitious nobles. It occasioned a short civil war; but procured Cicero a
+place in the administration. With what pleasure do we forgive the little
+weaknesses and failings of one so gifted with talents and great virtues!
+of one who first taught Rome, in so many ways, what it was to be great
+in the robe of peace!
+
+  Catiline's first conspiracy, in which Caesar and Crassus seem to have
+  been implicated, 66, as well as in the second, 65: failure of the
+  former by chance--of the latter through Piso's death. The third broke
+  out in 64, as well in Rome, where the conspirators, having no armed
+  force, were soon suppressed by the vigilance and activity of Cicero,
+  63, as in Etruria, where a victory of the proconsul Antonius over
+  Catiline, who was left dead on the field, concluded it, 62.
+
+27. The suppression of this conspiracy, however, did not stay the effect
+which the recently concluded Asiatic war had upon Roman manners. The
+luxury of the east, though united with Grecian taste, which had been
+introduced among the great by Lucullus; the immense riches poured into
+the treasury by Pompey; the tempting examples of unlimited power, which
+single citizens had already exercised; the purchase of the magistracy by
+individuals, in order, like Verres, after the squandering of millions,
+to enrich themselves again in the provinces; the demands of the soldiers
+upon their generals; and the ease with which an army might be raised by
+him who had only money enough to pay it; all these circumstances must
+have foreboded new and approaching convulsions, even if the preceding
+storms in this colossal republic, in which we must now judge of virtues
+and vices, as well as of riches and power, by a very magnified standard,
+had not formed men of that gigantic character they did:--men like Cato,
+who struggled alone to stem the impetuous torrent of the revolution, and
+was sufficiently powerful to retard its progress for a time; or, like
+Pompey, who by good fortune and the art of acquiring influence, arose
+to a degree of authority and power never before attained by any citizen
+of a free state; or, like Crassus, "who only considered him as rich that
+could maintain an army by his own private means," founding their
+pretensions on wealth; or, finally, like the aspiring and now powerful
+Caesar, whose boundless ambition could only be surpassed by his talents,
+and courage, "who would rather be the first in a village than the second
+in Rome." The return of Pompey from Asia, threatening the senate with a
+new dictator, appeared an eventful moment.
+
+  Attempt of Pompey, through the tribune Metellus Nepos, to be allowed
+  to return to Rome at the head of his army, frustrated by the firmness
+  of Cato, 62.
+
+28. The arrival of Pompey in Rome renewed the struggle between the
+senate and that powerful general, although he had disbanded his army on
+landing in Italy. The ratification of his management of affairs in Asia,
+which was the chief point of contention, was opposed by the leading men
+of the senate, Cato, the two Metelli, and Lucullus, which induced Pompey
+to attach himself entirely to the popular party, by whose means he hoped
+to obtain his end; Caesar's return, however, from his province of
+Lusitania, entirely changed the face of affairs.
+
+29. Close union between Caesar, Pompey, and Crassus; that is, a secret
+alliance, formed by the interposition of Caesar. That which formed the
+height of the ambition of Pompey and Crassus was only regarded by Caesar
+as the means by which he might be able to effect his. His consulate--a
+kind of dictatorship under the mask of great popularity--necessarily
+paved the way to his future career, as by giving him the government of
+the two Gauls and Illyria for five years, it opened a wide field for
+conquest, and gave him an opportunity of forming an army devoted to his
+will.
+
+  Caesar's abode and campaign in Gaul from the spring of 58 till the end
+  of the year 50. By arresting the emigration of the Helvetians, and by
+  the expulsion of the Germans, under Ariovistus, from Gaul, 58, Caesar
+  gained an opportunity of intermeddling in the internal affairs of that
+  country, and afterwards of subduing it, which was completed by his
+  victory over the Belgae, 57, and the Aquitani, 56; so that Caesar was at
+  liberty to undertake his several expeditions, as well in Britain, 55
+  and 54, as in Germany, 54 and 53. But the repeated revolts of the
+  Gauls, 53-51, especially under Vercingetorix, 52, occasioned a war no
+  less obstinate than their first conquest. Roman policy continued the
+  same throughout. The Gauls were subdued, by the Romans appearing as
+  _their deliverers_; and in the country they found allies in the Aedui,
+  Allobroges, etc.
+
+30. The triumvirate, in order to establish their power upon a solid
+foundation, took care, by the management of the tribune Clodius, to get
+rid of the leaders of the senate, Cato and Cicero, before the departure
+of Caesar; and this they did by giving the former a kingdom to govern,
+and by procuring the banishment of the latter. They must however soon
+have discovered, that so bold a demagogue as Clodius could not be used
+as a mere machine. And, indeed, after Caesar's departure he raised
+himself so much above the triumvirs, that Pompey was soon obliged, for
+his own preservation, to permit Cicero to return from exile, which could
+only be effected by the most violent efforts of the tribune Milo. The
+power of Clodius, however, was but little injured thereby, although
+Pompey, to put a stop to the source of these disorders, and revive his
+own popularity, procured the nomination of himself as _praefectus
+annonae_, or superintendent of provisions.
+
+  Exile of Cicero, the greater part of which he spent in Macedonia, from
+  April, 58, till 4th Sept. 57. Ptolemy king of Cyprus deposed, and that
+  island reduced to a Roman province by Cato, on the proposition of
+  Clodius, 57 (see page 264). The personal dislike of Clodius and the
+  riches of the king were the causes that brought upon him this
+  misfortune.
+
+  MIDDLETON'S _Life of Cicero_, 2 vols. 8vo. This work is almost a
+  complete history of Rome during the age of Cicero; for whom the writer
+  discovers an undue partiality.
+
+  # M. TULLIUS CICERO, _all his Letters translated, in chronological
+  order, and illustrated with notes_, by C. M. WIELAND. Zurich, 1808.
+  With a preliminary view of the life of Cicero. Of all Germans the
+  writings of Wieland, whether original or translations (and to which
+  can we give the preference?) afford the most lively insight into
+  Greek and Roman antiquity at various periods. What writer has so
+  truly seized its spirit, and placed it so faithfully and elegantly
+  before his readers? His labours on the Letters of Cicero (whose
+  foibles he exposes with a rigorous and unflinching hand) serve to
+  make us much better acquainted with Rome, as it then was, than any
+  Roman history.
+
+31. A jealousy arises between the triumvirate, as Caesar, though absent,
+still found means to keep up his party at Rome in such watchful
+activity, that Pompey and Crassus considered it impossible to maintain
+their own influence, except by procuring such concessions as had been
+made to him. Harmony once more restored by an accommodation at Lucca, as
+the parties found it necessary to preserve a good understanding with
+each other.
+
+  The terms of this accommodation were; that Caesar should have his
+  government prolonged for another five years; and that Pompey and
+  Crassus should enjoy the consulship for the ensuing year, the former
+  receiving the provinces of Spain and Africa; and the latter that of
+  Syria, for the purpose of carrying on a war against the Parthians. In
+  proportion as these conditions were kept secret, there remained less
+  secrecy respecting the alliance itself.
+
+32. Second consulate of Pompey and Crassus. It was only amidst violent
+storms that they could effect their purposes; as it depended upon which
+faction should first gain or keep possession of the forum. The
+resistance they met with from the inflexible disposition of Cato, who in
+his austere virtue alone found means to secure himself a powerful party,
+shows how unfairly those judge who consider the power of the triumvirate
+as unlimited, and the nation as entirely corrupted.
+
+  Campaign of Crassus against the Parthians, undertaken at his own
+  expense, 54. Instead, however, of gathering laurels like Caesar, he and
+  his whole army were completely overthrown in Mesopotamia, 53; and the
+  Parthians from this time maintain a powerful preponderance in Asia
+  (see above, p. 302).
+
+33. As the triumvirate by this failure of Crassus was reduced to a
+duumvirate, Pompey (who remained in Rome, and governed his provinces by
+lieutenants), in the midst of continual domestic broils, which he
+cunningly took care to foment, was evidently aiming to become the
+acknowledged head of the senate and republic. The idea that a dictator
+was necessary prevailed more and more during an anarchy of eight months,
+in which no appointment of a consul could take place; and
+notwithstanding the opposition of Cato, Pompey succeeded, after a
+violent commotion, in which Clodius was murdered by Milo, in getting
+himself nominated sole consul; a power equal to that of dictator.
+
+  Consulate of Pompey, 52, in which, at the end of seven months, he took
+  as colleague his father-in-law Metellus Scipio. The government of his
+  provinces, which afterwards became the chief seat of the republicans,
+  is prolonged for five years.
+
+34. From this time civil war became inevitable; for not only the chiefs
+of the parties, but also their adherents desired it. The approach of the
+time when Caesar's command would expire, necessarily hastened the crisis.
+Could it be supposed that the conqueror of Gaul would return to a
+private life, and leave his rival at the head of the republic? The steps
+taken on both sides towards an accommodation were only made to escape
+the odium which would attach to him who struck the first blow. But
+Pompey unfortunately could never understand his opponent, who did all
+himself, all completely, and all alone. The brilliant light in which
+Pompey now appeared, as _defender of the republic_, delighted him so
+much, that it made him forget what belonged to its defence; while Caesar
+avoided, with the greatest care, every appearance of usurpation. The
+friend, the protector of the people against the usurpations of their
+enemies, was the character which he now chose to assume.
+
+  Commencement of the contest upon Caesar's demand to be allowed to hold
+  the consulship while absent, 52. Caesar, by the most lavish corruption,
+  had increased his adherents in Rome, gained the tribunes, and among
+  them especially the powerful speaker C. Curio (whom he did not think
+  too dearly purchased at the price of about half a million sterling);
+  by this man it was suggested to Caesar that he should give up his
+  command, and leave a successor to be appointed in his place, 51, if
+  Pompey would do the same: a proposition which created a prejudice much
+  in his favour. Repeated, but insincere offers of both parties for an
+  accommodation, 50, till at last a decree of the senate was passed,
+  Jan. 7, 49, by which Caesar was commanded "to disband his army under
+  the penalty of being declared an enemy to the republic," without
+  regard to the intercessions of the tribunes, whose flight to him gave
+  an appearance of popularity to his party. Caesar crosses the Rubicon,
+  the boundary of his province.
+
+35. The civil war now about to break out, seemed likely to spread over
+nearly all the countries of the Roman empire; as Pompey, finding it
+impossible to maintain himself in Italy, had chosen Greece for the
+principal theatre of the war; while his lieutenants, with the armies
+under their command, occupied Spain and Africa. Caesar, by the able
+disposition of his legions, was everywhere present, without exciting
+beforehand any suspicion of his movements. A combination of
+circumstances, however, carried the war into Alexandria, and even as far
+as Pontus; indeed it might be called rather a series of six successive
+wars than merely one, all of which Caesar, by flying with his legions
+from one quarter of the world to the other, ended, within five years,
+victoriously and in person.
+
+  Rapid occupation of Italy in sixty days (when the troops under
+  Domitius surrendered at Corfinus), which, as well as Sicily and
+  Sardinia, were subdued by Caesar almost without opposition; Pompey,
+  with his troops and adherents, having crossed over to Greece. Caesar's
+  first campaign in Spain against Pompey's generals, Afranius and
+  Petreius, whom he forces to surrender; this, however, is
+  counterbalanced by the loss of the legions under Curio in Africa. In
+  December, 49, however, Caesar is again in Italy, and named dictator,
+  which he exchanges for the consulate. Spirited expedition into Greece
+  with the ships he had been previously collecting together, Jan. 4, 49.
+  Unfortunate engagement at Dyrrachium. Removal of the war into
+  Thessaly, and decisive battle of Pharsalia, July 20, 48, after which
+  Pompey flies to Alexandria, where he is killed on his landing. Caesar
+  arrives three days after him at Alexandria.
+
+36. Caesar, after the victory of Pharsalia, again nominated dictator,
+with great privileges. The death of Pompey, however, does not destroy
+his party; and the six months' war of Alexandria, as well as the
+expedition into Pontus against Pharnaces, gave them time to rally their
+forces both in Africa under Cato, and in Spain under the sons of Pompey.
+
+  During the Alexandrine war (see above, p. 266) and the expedition
+  against Pharnaces, the son of Mithridates,--who had obtained the
+  kingdom of his father, but was slain by Caesar immediately after his
+  arrival, 47,--great disorders had broken out in Rome, caused by the
+  tribune Dolabella's flattering the people with the abolition of debts
+  (_novae tabulae_), notwithstanding the military power of M. Antony, whom
+  Caesar had sent to Rome as master of the horse (_magister equitum_), as
+  this abandoned sensualist at first actually favoured the projects of
+  the tribune. Caesar's return to Rome, December, 47, put an end, it is
+  true, to these disorders; but the increase of the opposite party in
+  Africa, and an insurrection among his soldiers, obliged him to set out
+  for Africa immediately, January, 46. Victory near Thapsus over Scipio
+  and Juba; after which Cato kills himself at Utica. Numidia, the
+  kingdom of Juba, becomes a Roman province. Caesar after his return to
+  Rome in June, is only able to stay there four months, as, before the
+  end of the year, he is obliged to set out for Spain to crush the
+  dangerous efforts of Pompey's two sons. Bloody battle at Munda, March,
+  45, after which Cneius is killed, but Sextus escapes to the
+  Celtiberians.
+
+37. Nothing seems more evident than that Caesar did not, like Sylla,
+overthrow the republic for the purpose of reestablishing it; and it is
+perhaps impossible to say what could be the final views of a childless
+usurper, who throughout his whole career, seemed only to be guided by an
+inordinate ambition, springing from a consciousness of superior powers,
+and to satisfy which, no means seemed to him difficult or unlawful. The
+period of his dictatorship was so short, and so much interrupted by
+war, that his ultimate plans had not time for their development. He
+endeavoured to establish his dominion by popular measures; and although
+his army must still have been his main support, yet no proscription was
+granted to satisfy it. The reestablishment of order in the distracted
+country of Italy, and particularly in the capital, was his first care;
+and he proposed to follow that by an expedition against the powerful
+Parthian empire. His attempts, however, to obtain the diadem, seemed to
+place it beyond a doubt that he wished to introduce a formal monarchy.
+But the destruction of the form of the republic was shown to be more
+dangerous than the overthrow of the republic itself.
+
+  The following were the honours and privileges granted to Caesar by the
+  senate. After the battle of Pharsalia, 48, he was nominated dictator
+  for one year and consul for five years; and obtained the _potestas
+  tribunicia_, as well as the right of making war and peace, the
+  exclusive right of the committees, with the exception of the tribunes,
+  and the possession of the provinces. The dictatorship was renewed to
+  him, 47, for ten years, as well as the _praefectura morum_, and was at
+  last, 145, conferred upon him for ever, with the title of _imperator_.
+  Although Caesar thus became absolute master of the republic, it appears
+  to have been done without laying aside the republican forms.
+
+38. Conspiracy against Caesar, formed by Brutus and Cassius, and
+terminating in the death of Caesar. Men so exalted as were the chiefs of
+this plot, easily understand one another; and it was quite in accordance
+with their character not to meditate upon the consequences of their
+deed. Caesar's death was a great misfortune for Rome. Experience soon
+showed that the republic could not be reestablished thereby; and his
+life might probably have spared the state some of those calamities which
+now, by its change to a monarchy, became unavoidable.
+
+  We still want a discriminating life of Caesar, who in modern times has
+  been as extravagantly praised as Alexander has been unjustly censured.
+  As generals and conquerors, both were equally great--and little; as a
+  man, however, the Macedonian, in the brilliant period of his life, to
+  which Caesar never attained, was superior; to the great political ideas
+  which developed themselves in Alexander, we know of none corresponding
+  in Caesar; who knew better than any how to attain dominion, but little
+  of preserving it.
+
+  _Histoire de la Vie de Jules Caesar_, _par_ M. DE BURY, Paris, 1758, 2
+  vols. 8vo.
+
+  # _Life of C. Julius Caesar_, _by_ A. G. MEISSNER, _continued by_
+  J. Ch. L. Haken, 1811, 4 parts. At present the best.
+
+  _Caius Julius Caesar, from original sources_, _by_ PROFESSOR SOELTL. A
+  short biography, judiciously executed.
+
+39. Notwithstanding the amnesty at first declared, the funeral obsequies
+of Caesar soon showed, that peace was of all things the least desired by
+his generals, M. Antony and M. Lepidus, now become the head of his
+party; and the arrival of Caesar's nephew, C. Octavius (afterwards Caesar
+Octavianus), whom he had adopted in his will, rendered affairs still
+more complicated, as every one strove for himself; Antony's particular
+object being to raise himself into Caesar's place. However earnestly they
+sought to gain the people, it was in fact the legions who decided, and
+the command of them depended, for the most part, upon the possession of
+the provinces. We cannot therefore wonder, that while they sought to
+revenge the murder of Caesar, this became the chief cause of the
+struggle, and in a few months led to a civil war.
+
+  At the time of Caesar's death, M. Antonius was actual consul, and
+  Dolabella consul-elect; M. Lepidus _magister equitum_ (master of the
+  horse); M. Brutus and Cassius, praetors (the first, _praetor urbanus_).
+  Caesar had given to the former the province of Macedonia, and to the
+  latter that of Syria, which had been confirmed to them by the senate.
+  M. Lepidus had been nominated to Transalpine, and D. Brutus to
+  Cisalpine Gaul. But soon after the murder of Caesar, Antony obtained,
+  by a decree of the people, Macedonia for himself, and Syria for his
+  colleague Dolabella, with whom he had formed a close connection;
+  instead of which the senate decreed to Cassius Cyrene, and to Brutus,
+  who now had the important charge of supplying Rome with provisions,
+  Crete. But soon after (June 1, 44), Antony desired, by a new change,
+  to obtain Cisalpine Gaul for himself, and Macedonia for his brother C.
+  Antony, both of which he procured from the people.
+
+40. As M. Antony sought by force to establish himself in Cisalpine Gaul,
+and D. Brutus refused to give it up to him, and retired into Mutina, a
+short, indeed, but very bloody civil war arose, (_bellum mutinense_.)
+The eloquence of Cicero had caused Antony to be declared an enemy of the
+republic; and the two new consuls, Hirtius and Pansa, together with
+Caesar Octavianus, were sent against him. The defeat of Antony compelled
+him to seek refuge beyond the Alps with Lepidus; but the two consuls
+being slain, Octavianus at the head of his legions was too importunate
+to be refused the consulship, and soon convinced the defenceless senate,
+how impossible it was to reestablish the commonwealth by their powerless
+decrees. The employment, moreover, of the _magistratus suffecti_, which
+soon after arose, was in itself a sufficient proof that it was now no
+more than the shadow of what it had formerly been.
+
+  The Mutine war begins in December, 44, and closes with the defeat of
+  Antony at Mutina, April 14, 43. Octavius obtains the consulate, Sept.
+  22.
+
+41. Octavianus, deserting the party of the senate, enters into a secret
+negotiation with Antony and Lepidus; the consequence of which is a
+meeting of the parties at Bononia, and the formation of a new
+triumvirate. They declare themselves the chiefs of the republic for five
+years, under the title of _triumviri reipublicae constituendae_; and
+dividing the provinces among themselves according to their own pleasure,
+they make the destruction of the republican party their principal
+object. A new proscription in Rome itself, and a declaration of war
+against the murderers of Caesar, were the means by which they proposed to
+effect it.
+
+  The agreement of the triumvirate was concluded Nov. 27, 43, after
+  which the march of the triumvirs upon Rome gives the signal for the
+  massacre of the proscribed, which soon extends all over Italy, and in
+  which Cicero perishes, Dec. 7. The cause of this new proscription was
+  not party hatred alone, but was as much, perhaps more, owing on the
+  one hand to the want of money for carrying on the war they had
+  undertaken, and on the other to a desire of satisfying the turbulent
+  demands of the legions. Where is to be found a time so full of terror
+  as this, when even tears were forbidden?
+
+42. The civil war, now on the eve of breaking out, may be considered
+therefore as a war between the oligarchy and the defenders of the
+republic. The Roman world was, as it were, divided between the two; and
+although the former had possession of Italy, and the western provinces,
+that advantage seemed counterbalanced to the chiefs of the opposite
+party by the possession of the eastern countries, and the naval power of
+Sextus Pompey, which seemed to assure them the dominion of the sea.
+
+  M. Brutus had taken possession of his province of Macedonia as early
+  as the autumn of 44; while Cassius, on the contrary, had to contend
+  for that of Syria with Dolabella, who by the murder of the proconsul
+  Trebonius had possessed himself of Asia. Being, however, for this
+  offence, declared an enemy by the senate, and shut up in Laodicea by
+  Cassius, he killed himself, June 5, 43. From this time Brutus and
+  Cassius were masters of all the eastern provinces, at whose expense
+  they maintained their troops, though not without much oppression. S.
+  Pompey, after the victory of Munda, 45, having secreted himself in
+  Spain, and afterwards become a chief of freebooters, had grown very
+  powerful; when the senate, after Caesar's assassination, having made
+  him commander of the sea-forces, he with them took possession of
+  Spain, and, after the conclusion of the triumvirate, of Sicily, and
+  then, very soon after, of Sardinia and Corsica. It was a great thing
+  for the triumvirate, that C. Pompey did not know how to reap half the
+  profit he might have done from his power and good fortune.
+
+43. Macedonia became the theatre of the new civil war, and together with
+the goodness of their cause, superior talents, and greater power both by
+land and sea, seemed combined to ensure the victory to Brutus and
+Cassius. But in the decisive battle at Philippi, fortune played one of
+her most capricious tricks, and with the two chiefs fell the last
+supporters of the republic.
+
+  Double battle at Philippi towards the close of the year 42; voluntary
+  death of Cassius after the first, and of Brutus after the second
+  engagement.
+
+  PLUTARCHI _Vita Bruti_; from the narratives of eyewitnesses.
+
+44. The history of the eleven years intervening between the battle of
+Philippi and that of Actium, is little more than an account of the
+quarrels of the oligarchy among themselves. The most subtle was, in the
+end, victorious; for M. Antony possessed all the sensuality of Caesar,
+without his genius: and the insignificant Lepidus soon fell a sacrifice
+to his own vanity and weakness. While Antony went into Asia to arrange
+the affairs of the eastern provinces, and from thence with Cleopatra to
+Alexandria, Octavianus returned to Rome. But the famine which then
+reigned in that city through Pompey's blockade of the seacoast; the
+misery spread throughout Italy by the wresting of patrimonial lands from
+the proprietors to distribute among the veterans; and the insatiable
+covetousness of the latter rendered his situation as dangerous now as it
+had been before the war. Besides all this, the hatred of the enraged
+consort of Antony, who had entered into an alliance with her
+brother-in-law, the consul L. Antony, brought on, towards the end of the
+year, a civil war, which ended with the surrender and burning of
+Perusium, in which L. Antony had shut himself up, and which was already
+much weakened by famine.
+
+  The _bellum Perusinum_ lasted from the end of the year 41 till April,
+  40.
+
+45. This war, however, had nearly led to one still greater; for M.
+Antony, as the enemy of Octavianus, had come to Italy in order to assist
+his brother, and with the intention of forming an alliance with S.
+Pompey against the former. But fortunately for the world, not only was
+harmony restored between the triumvirs, but on account of the great
+famine which prevailed at Rome, a peace was also concluded with Pompey,
+although it lasted but a very short time.
+
+  The principal object of the peace between the triumvirs was a new
+  division of the provinces, by which the city of Scodra in Illyria was
+  fixed upon as the boundary. Antony obtained all the eastern provinces;
+  Octavianus all the western; and Lepidus Africa. Italy remained in
+  common to them all. The marriage of Antony with Octavia, Fulvia being
+  dead, was intended to cement this agreement. In the peace concluded
+  with S. Pompey at Misenum, he obtained the islands of Sicily,
+  Sardinia, and Corsica, and the promise of Achaia.
+
+46. Pompey, however, was not long in finding that an alliance between
+him and the triumvirs would only end in his own destruction; and the war
+which he soon commenced, and which Octavianus could not bring to a close
+but with the assistance of Agrippa, was of so much the more importance,
+as it not only decided the fate of Pompey, but by leading to
+dissensions, and the expulsion of Lepidus, reduced the triumvirate to a
+duumvirate.
+
+  After a doubtful engagement at sea, 38, and the formation of a new
+  fleet, Pompey was attacked on all sides at the same time; Lepidus
+  coming from Africa, and Antony sending also some ships. Final
+  overthrow of Pompey, who flies to Asia and there perishes.--Lepidus
+  wishing to take possession of Sicily, Octavianus gains over his
+  troops, and obliges him to retire from the triumvirate.
+
+47. The foreign wars in which Octavianus as well as Antony were engaged
+in the following years, prevented for some time their mutual jealousy
+from coming to an open rupture. Octavianus, to tame his unruly legions,
+employed them with some success against the nations of Dalmatia and
+Pannonia; whilst Antony undertook an expedition against the powerful
+Parthians and their neighbours. But in offending Rome by his conduct in
+these wars, he only armed his opponent against himself; and his formal
+separation from Octavia, loosened the only tie which had hitherto held
+together the two masters of the world.
+
+  After his first stay in Alexandria, 41, Antony returned to Italy, 40,
+  and then, having made peace with Octavianus, he carried his new wife
+  Octavia with him into Greece, where he remained till the year 37.
+  Although his lieutenant Ventidius had fought with success against the
+  Parthians, who had invaded Syria (see above, p. 302.), Antony
+  determined to undertake an expedition against them himself, 36. But
+  although in alliance with Artavasdes king of Armenia (whom he soon
+  after accused of treachery), in seeking to effect an entrance into
+  Parthia, by passing through Armenia and Media, a different route from
+  that taken by Crassus, he was very nearly meeting with the same fate,
+  and the expedition completely failed. He then revenged himself upon
+  Artavasdes, who fell into his hands in a fresh expedition which he
+  made, 34, and deprived him of his kingdom. After his triumphal
+  entrance into Alexandria, he made a grant of this as well as other
+  countries to Cleopatra and her children. (See above, p. 267.) In 33,
+  he intended to renew his expedition against the Parthians, in alliance
+  with the king of Media; but having, at the instigation of Cleopatra,
+  ordered Octavia to return home, when she had already come as far as
+  Athens on her way to meet him, Octavianus and Antony reciprocally
+  accused each other before the senate, and war was declared at Rome,
+  though only against Cleopatra.
+
+48. Greece became again the theatre of war; and although the forces of
+Antony were most considerable, yet Octavianus had the advantage of
+having, at least in appearance, the better cause. The naval victory of
+Actium decided for Octavianus, who could scarcely believe it, till he
+found that Antony had forsaken his fleet and army, the latter of which
+surrendered without striking a blow. The capture of Egypt followed, (see
+above, p. 267.) and that country was reduced to a Roman province; the
+death of Antony and Cleopatra ended the war, and left Octavianus
+absolute master of the republic.
+
+  The history of the last days of Antony, principally after his decline,
+  having been written under the rule of his enemies, must be received
+  with that mistrust which all such histories require. It has furnished
+  abundant matter for the retailers of anecdote. The history of
+  Cleopatra rests partly on the accounts of her physician Olympus, of
+  which Plutarch made use.
+
+
+
+
+FOURTH PERIOD.
+
+
+  HISTORY OF THE ROMAN STATE AS A MONARCHY TO THE OVERTHROW OF THE
+  WESTERN EMPIRE. B. C. 30.-A. C. 476.
+
+
+
+
+_Geographical outline. View of the Roman empire and provinces, and other
+countries connected with it by war or commerce._
+
+
+The ordinary boundaries of the Roman empire, which, however, it
+sometimes exceeded, were in Europe the two great rivers of the Rhine and
+Danube; in Asia, the Euphrates and the sandy desert of Syria; in Africa
+likewise, the sandy regions. It thus included the fairest portions of
+the earth, surrounding the Mediterranean sea.
+
+EUROPEAN COUNTRIES: I. Spain (Hispania). Boundaries: on the east the
+Pyrenees, on the south, north, and west, the sea. Principal rivers: the
+Minius (Minho), Durius (Douro), Tagus (Tejo), Anas (Guadiana), Baetis
+(Guadalquiver), which flow into the Atlantic; and the Iberus (Ebro),
+which falls into the Mediterranean. Mountains: besides the Pyrenees, the
+Idubeda along the Iberus, Orospeda (Sierra Morena). Divided into three
+provinces. 1. Lusitania: northern boundary the Durius, southern, the
+Anas. Principal tribes: Lusitani, Turdetani. Principal town: Augusta
+Emerita. 2. Baetica: boundaries on the north and west the Anas, on the
+east the mountains of Orospeda. Principal tribes: Turduli, Bastuli.
+Principal towns: Corduba (Cordova), Hispalis (Seville), Gades (Cadiz),
+Munda. 3. Tarraconensis, all the remainder of Spain. Principal tribes:
+Callaeci, Astures, Cantabri, Vascones, in the north; Celtiberi,
+Carpetani, Ilergetes, in the interior; Indigetes, Cosetani, etc. on the
+Mediterranean. Chief towns: Tarraco (Tarragona), Cartago Nova
+(Carthagena), Toletum (Toledo), Ilerda (Lerida); Saguntum and Numantia
+(Soria) were already destroyed. The Balearic isles, Major (Majorca), and
+Minor (Minorca), were considered as belonging to Spain.
+
+II. Transalpine Gaul. Boundaries: on the west the Pyrenees; on the east
+the Rhine, and a line drawn from its source to the little river Varus,
+together with that river itself; on the north and south the sea.
+Principal rivers: the Garumna (Garonne), Liger (Loire), Sequana
+(Seine), and Scaldis (Scheldt), which empty themselves into the ocean;
+the Rhodanus (Rhone), which is increased by the Arar (Saone), and falls
+into the Mediterranean; and the Mosella (Moselle) and Mosa (Meuse),
+which flow into the Rhine. Mountains: besides the Alps, the Jura,
+Vogesus (Vosge), and Cebenna (Cevennes). Divided into four provinces. 1.
+Gallia Narbonensis, or Braccata. Boundaries: on the west the Pyrenees,
+on the east the Varus, on the north the Cevennian mountains. Principal
+tribes: Allobroges, Volcae, Calyes. Principal towns: Narbo (Narbonne),
+Tolosa (Toulouse), Nemausus (Nimes), Massilia (Marseilles), Vienna. 2.
+Gallia Lugdunensis, or Celtica. Boundaries: to the south and west the
+Liger (Loire), to the north the Sequana, to the east the Arar. Principal
+tribes: Aedui, Lingones, Parisii, Cenomani, etc. all of Celtic origin.
+Principal towns: Lugdunum (Lyons), Lutetia Parisiorum (Paris), Alesia
+(Alise). 3. Gallia Aquitanica. Boundaries: the Pyrenees on the south,
+the Liger on the north and east. Principal tribes: Aquitani (of Iberian
+origin), Pictones, Averni, etc. of Celtic descent. Principal towns:
+Climberis, Burdegala (Bourdeaux). 4. Gallia Belgica. Boundaries: on the
+north and east the Rhine, on the west the Arar, on the south the
+Rhodanus as far as Lugdunum, so that it comprised at first the countries
+bordering on the Rhine and Helvetia. The latter, however, were
+afterwards separated from it under the names of Germania Inferior and
+Superior. Principal tribes: Nervii, Bellovaci, etc. in the north, of
+Belgic origin; Treviri, Ubii, of German origin; Sequani, Helvetii, in
+the interior, of Celtic origin. Principal towns: Vesentio (Besancon),
+Verodunum (Verdun), etc. Along the Rhine in Germania Inferior: Colonia
+Agrippina (Cologne). In Germania Superior: Mogontiacum (Mayence, or
+Mentz), and Argentoratum (Strasburg).
+
+III. Gallia Cisalpina, or Togata (Lombardy, see above, p. 315). But as
+from the time of Caesar the inhabitants enjoyed all the privileges of
+Roman citizens, it may be reckoned as forming part of Italy.
+
+IV. Sicilia; divided into Syracuse and Lilybaeum.
+
+V. Sardinia and Corsica, see above, p. 320.
+
+VI. The Insulae Britannicae (British islands); but of these, only England
+and the southern part of Scotland were reduced into a Roman province in
+the time of Nero, under the name of Britannia Romana. Principal rivers:
+Tamesis (Thames) and Sabrina (Severn). Cities: Eboracum (York) in the
+north, Londinum (London) in the south. Into Scotland, Britannia
+Barbaria, or Caledonia, the Romans often penetrated, but without being
+ably completely to conquer it; and as for Hibernia, Ierne (Ireland), it
+was visited by Roman merchants, but never by Roman legions.
+
+VII. The countries south of the Danube, which were subdued under
+Augustus and formed into the following provinces: 1. Vindelicia.
+Boundaries: on the north the Danube, on the east the Aenus (Inn), on the
+west Helvetia, on the south Rhaetia. Principal tribes: Vindelici,
+Brigantii, etc. Principal towns: Augusta Vindelicorum (Augsburg),
+Brigantia (Bregenz). 2. Rhaetia. Boundaries: on the north Vindelicia, on
+the east the Inn and the Salza, on the south the chain of the Alps from
+Lacus Verbanus (Lago Maggiore) to Belinzona, on the west Helvetia.
+Principal tribe: Rhaeti. Principal towns: Curia (Chur), Veldidena
+(Wilden), Tridentum (Trent). 3. Noricum. Boundaries: on the north the
+Danube, on the west the Aenus, on the east the mountain Cetius
+(Kahlenberg), and on the south the Julian Alps and the Savus (Save).
+Principal tribes: Boii. Cities: Jovavum (Salzburg), Boiodurum (Passau).
+4. Pannonia Superior. Boundaries: on the north and east the Danube, on
+the south the Arrabo (Raab), on the west the mountain Cetius. Cities:
+Vindobona (Vienna), Caruntum. 5. Pannonia Inferior. Boundaries: on the
+north the Arrabo, on the east the Danube, on the south the Savus.
+Cities: Taurunum (Belgrade), Mursa (Esseg), and Sirmium. 6. Moesia
+Superior. Boundaries: on the north the Danube, on the south Mount
+Scardus, or Scodrus, on the west Pannonia, on the east the river Cebrus
+(Ischia). Cities: Singidunum (Semlin), and Naissus (Nissa). 7. Moesia
+Inferior. Boundaries: on the north the Danube, on the west the Cebrus,
+on the south mount Haemus (the Balkan), and on the east the Pontus
+Euxinus. Cities: Odessus (Varna), Tomi (Tomisvar).
+
+VIII. Illyricum, in its most extensive signification, comprised all the
+provinces south of the Danube, together with Rhaetia and Dalmatia: but
+Illyricum Proper comprehends only the lands along the coast of the
+Adriatic, from Rhaetia in Italy to the river Drinus, and easterly to the
+Savus. Principal towns: Salona, Epidaurus (near the present Ragusa),
+Scodra (Scutari).
+
+IX. Macedonia. Boundaries: on the north mount Scodrus, on the south the
+Cambunian mountains, on the west the Adriatic, and on the east the Aegean
+sea. Rivers: the Nestus, Strymon, and Halyacmon, which fall into the
+Aegean sea, and the Apsus and Aoeus, which fall into the Adriatic.
+Principal tribes: Paeones in the north, Pieres and Mygdones in the south.
+Principal towns: Pydna, Pella, Thessalonica, Philippi, with other Greek
+colonies (see above, p. 164). Dyrrachium and Apollonia on the western
+coast.
+
+X. Thrace had for some time kings of her own, though dependent on Rome,
+and was first reduced to a Roman province under Claudius. Boundaries: on
+the north Mount Haemus, on the west the Nestus, on the south and east the
+sea. River: Hebrus. Principal tribes: Triballi, Bessi, and Odrysae.
+Cities: Byzantium, Apollonia, Beroea.
+
+XI. Achaia (Greece), see above, p. 131.
+
+XII. To the north of the Danube the province of Dacia was brought under
+the Roman empire by Trajan. Boundaries: on the south the Danube, on the
+west the Tibiscus (Theiss), in the east the Hierasus (Pruth), in the
+north the Carpathian mountains. Principal tribe: Daci. Chief cities;
+Ulpia Trajana and Tibiscum.
+
+ASIATIC PROVINCES: I. Asia Minor contained the provinces: 1. Asia (see
+above, p. 293). 2. Bithynia, together with Paphlagonia and part of
+Pontus. 3. Cilicia, with Pisidia (see above, p. 18.) II. Syria and
+Phoenicia. III. The isle of Cyprus. Several other states, likewise
+dependent, still preserved their kings: as, Judaea (became a Roman
+province, A. D. 44.), Commagene (province A. D. 70, and, together with
+Judaea, added to Syria), Cappadocia (province A. D. 17), Pontus
+(completely a province under Nero). Free states at this time: Rhodes,
+Samos (provinces A. D. 70), and Lycia (province A. D. 43). Beyond the
+Euphrates, Armenia and Mesopotamia were reduced to provinces by Trajan,
+but, as early as the time of Adrian, were abandoned.
+
+AFRICAN PROVINCES. I. Egypt. II. Cyrenaica, with the isle of Crete. III.
+Africa, Numidia (see above, p. 47). Mauritania still had its separate
+king, but he was set aside, A. D. 41, and the country divided into two
+provinces: 1. Mauritania Caesariensis. Boundaries: on the east the river
+Ampsaga, on the west the Mulucha. Principal places: Igilgilis and
+Caesaria. 2. Mauritania Tingitana, from the river Mulucha to the Atlantic
+ocean. Capital: Tingis.
+
+Principal states on the borders of the empire: I. Germania. Boundaries:
+on the south the Danube, on the north the sea, on the west the Rhine, on
+the east undetermined, though the Vistula is generally regarded as such.
+Principal rivers: the Danubius, Rhenus (Rhine), Albis (Elbe), Visurgis
+(Weser), Viadrus (Oder), and the Vistula; the Lupias (Lippe) and Amisia
+(Ems) are likewise frequently mentioned. Mountains and forests: the
+Hercynian forest, a general name for the forest mountains, particularly
+of eastern Germany. Melibocus (the Hartz), Sudetus (the Thuringian
+forest); the forest of Teutoburg, to the south of Westphalia, etc. It
+would be useless to seek for a general political division, or for the
+cities, of ancient Germany; we can only point out the situation of the
+principal tribes. It is necessary, however, to precede this by two
+observations: 1. The same territory, in the tide of forcible emigration
+and conquest, and particularly after the second century, often changed
+its inhabitants. 2. The names of some of the principal tribes often
+became that of a confederacy. The principal tribes in the period of
+Augustus were, in northern Germany; the Batavi in Holland; the Frisii in
+Friesland; the Bructeri in Westphalia; the lesser and larger Chauci in
+Oldenburg and Bremen; the Cherusci, likewise the name of a
+confederation, in Brunswick; the Catti in Hesse. In southern (central)
+Germany: the Hermunduri in Franconia; the Marcomanni in Bohemia. The
+Alemanni, not the name of a single tribe, but of a confederation, are
+first mentioned in the third century: in the period of Augustus these
+tribes, and the principal of those of eastern Germany, which gradually
+became known, were included under the general name of Suevi.
+
+The northernmost countries of Europe were considered as isles of the
+German ocean, and therefore regarded as belonging to Germany. They were
+Scandinavia, or Scandia (southern Sweden), Nerigon (Norway), and
+Eningia, or probably Finningia (Finland). The northernmost island was
+called Thule.
+
+The north of Europe, from the Vistula to the Tanais (Don), was comprised
+under the general name of Sarmatia; but beyond the territory about the
+Danube, and especially Dacia (see above, p. 407), they were only in a
+slight degree acquainted with the coast of the Baltic, by the amber
+trade.
+
+In Asia the Roman empire was bounded by Great Armenia (see above, p. 19,
+and 299), the Parthian empire from the Euphrates to the Indus (see
+above, p. 19-22), and the peninsula of Arabia (see above, p. 19).
+
+Eastern Asia, or India, became known to the Romans by a commercial
+intercourse carried on between them, and which began soon after the
+conquest of Egypt. It was divided into India on this side the Ganges,
+that is: 1. The territory between the Indus and Ganges; 2. The peninsula
+on this side, the western coast of which in particular (Malabar), was
+very well known; and, 3. The island of Taprobana (Ceylon), and India
+beyond the Ganges, to which also the distant Serica belonged: but of all
+these countries they had but a very imperfect knowledge.
+
+The boundaries of Africa were Aethiopia above Egypt, and Gaetulia and the
+great sandy desert of Libya, above the other provinces.
+
+
+
+
+FIRST SECTION.
+
+_From Augustus Caesar to the death of Commodus, B. C. 30. A. C. 193._
+
+
+  SOURCES. For the whole of this period DION CASSIUS, lib. li-lxxx, is
+  our historian; though of his last twenty books we have only the
+  abridgment of Xiphilinus. For the history of the emperors from
+  Tiberius to the beginning of Vespasian's reign, the principal writer
+  is TACITUS, in his _Annals_, A. C. 14-63; (of which, however, part of
+  the history of Tiberius, 32-34, all of Caligula and the first six
+  years of Claudius, 37-47, as well as the last year and a half of Nero,
+  are unfortunately lost); and in his _History_, of which scarcely the
+  first three years, 69-71, are come down to us. SUETONIUS'S _Lives of
+  the Caesars_, down to Domitian, are so much the more valuable, because
+  in a state like the Roman it becomes of importance to know the
+  character and domestic life of the ruling men. For the reigns of
+  Augustus and Tiberius the _History_ of VELLEIUS PATERCULUS is not of
+  less consequence, although written in a court-like tone. The sources
+  for the history of the separate Caesars will be given as we come to
+  them.
+
+  The following are the labours of modern writers:
+
+  _Histoire des Empereurs et des autres Princes qui ont regne dans les
+  six premiers siecles de l'Eglise_, _par_ M. LENAIN DE TILLEMONT. a
+  Bruxelle, 1707, 5 vols. 8vo. (An earlier edition in 4to. 1700, 4
+  vols.) The work of Tillemont has some worth as a laborious
+  compilation, but is superseded in its execution by the following:
+
+  _Histoire des Empereurs Romains, depuis Auguste jusqu' a Constantin_,
+  _par_ M. CREVIER. Paris, 1749, 12 vols. 8vo. [Translated into
+  English.] A continuation of Rollin's Roman History (see above, p.
+  318), quite in the spirit of that writer, and by one of his school.
+
+  DR. GOLDSMITH'S _Roman History, from the foundation of the city of
+  Rome to the destruction of the western empire_. London, 1774, 2 vols.
+  8vo. Rather a sketch than a detailed history (see above, p. 321,
+  sqq.).
+
+  # _History of Rome under the Emperors, and of the contemporary
+  nations_, _by_ M. D. G. H. HUBLER. Fryburg, 1803, 3 parts.
+  Continuation of the work cited p. 2: it reaches down to Constantine.
+
+1. Octavianus Caesar, on whom the senate conferred the honourable title
+of Augustus, which they periodically renewed, and which descended to his
+successors, possessed the sole dominion of the empire during forty-four
+years. The government, notwithstanding the great revolutions by which
+the republic had been converted into a monarchy, was not yet, either in
+fact or in form, altogether a despotic one. The private interest of the
+ruler required that the republican form should be preserved to the
+utmost, as without that he could not make an entire change; and the rest
+of his history sufficiently shows, that the cruelty with which he may be
+reproached in the early part of his career, was rather owing to
+circumstances than to his natural disposition. But during a reign so
+long, so tranquil, and so fortunate, could it be otherwise than that the
+republican spirit which at the beginning existed only in a few
+individuals, should evaporate of itself!
+
+  The forms under which Augustus held the different branches of supreme
+  power (dictatorship excepted) were;--the consulate, which, till B. C.
+  21, was annually renewed; and the _potestas consularis_, which, in B.
+  C. 19, was settled on him for ever;--the _tribunicia potestas_, which
+  was, 30, granted him for ever, rendered his person sacred
+  (_sacrosancta_), and prepared the way to the _judicia majestatis_
+  (accusations of high treason). As _imperator_, 31, he continued
+  commander of all the forces, and obtained the _imperium proconsulare_
+  (proconsular power) in all the provinces. He assumed the _magistratura
+  morum_ (censorship), 19; and became _pontifex maximus_ (high priest),
+  13. To avoid all appearances of usurpation, Augustus at first
+  accepted the sovereign power only for ten years, and afterwards had it
+  renewed from time to time, for ten or five years, which, at a later
+  period, gave rise to the _sacra decennalia_.
+
+2. The senate, indeed, remained a permanent council of state, and
+Augustus himself endeavoured to increase its authority by more than one
+purification (_lectio_); but the connection between him and that
+assembly seemed of a very fragile nature, as it was undetermined, and
+could not at this time be settled, whether Augustus was over the senate,
+or the senate over Augustus. All matters of state could not be brought
+before the senate, as even the most important often required secrecy. It
+naturally followed, that a prince, as yet without a court, and who had
+no proper minister, but only his friends and freedmen, should consult
+with those whom he thought most worthy his confidence, a Maecenas, or an
+Agrippa, etc. Hence afterwards was formed the secret council of state
+(_consilium secretum principis_). Among the republican magistrates the
+highest lost most; and as so much now depended upon the preservation of
+peace in the capital, the offices of praefect of the city (_praefectus
+urbis_) and praefect of provisions (_praefectus annonae_) were not only
+made permanent, but became, especially the former, the principal offices
+in the state.
+
+  The spirit of monarchy shows itself in nothing more than in its strict
+  distinction of ranks; hence, therefore, the magistrates, especially
+  the consuls, lost nothing. Hence also the long-continued custom of
+  nominating under-consuls (_consules suffecti_,) which in time
+  became merely a formal assumption of the _ornamenta consularia et
+  triumphalia_ (consular and triumphal ornaments). Other offices were
+  created for the purpose of rewarding friends and dependents.
+
+3. The introduction of standing armies, already long prepared, naturally
+followed a dominion acquired by war; and became, indeed, necessary to
+guard the frontiers and preserve the newly-made conquests; the
+establishment of the guards and militia of the city (_cohortes
+praetorianae_ and _cohortes urbanae_) were measures equally necessary for
+the security of the capital and the throne. The creation of _two_
+praetorian praefects, however, instead of _one_, diminished for the
+present the great importance of that office.
+
+  Distribution of the legions over the provinces in _castra stativa_
+  (fixed camps), which soon grew into cities, especially along the
+  Rhine, the Danube, and the Euphrates (_legiones Germanicae, Illyricae,
+  et Syriacae_). Fleets also were stationed at Misenum and Ravenna.
+
+4. The government, as well as the administration and revenue of the
+provinces, Augustus willingly divided with the senate; keeping to
+himself those on the frontiers (_provinciae principis_,) in which the
+legions were quartered, and leaving to that assembly the others
+(_provinciae senatus_). Hence his deputies (_legati_, lieutenants)
+exercised both civil and military authority in his name; while those of
+the senate, on the contrary (_proconsules_), only administered in civil
+affairs. Both were, in general, attended by commissioners (_procuratores
+et quaestores_). The provinces were unquestionably gainers by this new
+arrangement, not only because their governors were more carefully looked
+after, but because they were paid by the state.
+
+  The fate of the provinces naturally depended, in a great degree, upon
+  the disposition of the emperor and governor; but there was also an
+  essential difference between the provinces of the emperor and those
+  of the senate (_provinciae principis et senatus_): in the latter there
+  was no military oppression as there was in the former; and to that may
+  be ascribed the flourishing state of Gaul, Spain, Africa, etc.
+
+5. There is little doubt but that the finances of the treasury remained,
+upon the whole, much the same as before; but in its internal
+administration Augustus made many alterations, of which we have but a
+very imperfect knowledge. Of course there would be at first an obvious
+difference between the privy and military chest of the emperor
+(_fiscus_), which was at his immediate disposal, and the state chest
+(_aerarium_) which he disposed of indirectly through the senate, though
+it must afterwards follow as a natural consequence of increasing
+despotism, that the latter should progressively become merged in the
+former.
+
+  The great disorder into which the treasury had been thrown during the
+  civil wars, and especially by giving away the state lands in Italy to
+  the soldiers, together with the heavy sums required for the
+  maintenance of the standing army now established, must have rendered
+  it much more difficult for Augustus to accomplish the reform he so
+  happily executed; and in which it seems to have been his chief aim to
+  place everything, as far as possible, upon a solid and lasting
+  foundation. The principal changes which he made in the old system of
+  taxation seem to have been: 1. That the tithes hitherto collected in
+  the provinces should be changed into a fixed quota, to be paid by each
+  individual. 2. The customs, partly by reestablishing former ones, and
+  partly by imposing new ones as well as an excise (_centesima rerum
+  venalium_), were rendered more productive. The possession of Egypt,
+  which was the depot of nearly all the commerce of the east, rendered
+  the customs at this time of great importance to Rome. 3. All the state
+  lands in the provinces were, by degrees, changed into crown lands. Of
+  the new taxes the most considerable were the _vigesima hereditatum_
+  (the twentieth of inheritances), though with important restrictions;
+  and the fines upon celibacy by the _lex Julia Poppaea_.--The greater
+  part of these state revenues most likely flowed, from the very first,
+  into the _fiscus_: that is, the whole revenues of the _provinciae
+  principis_, as well as of those parts of the _provinciae senatus_ which
+  were appropriated to the maintenance of the troops; the revenues
+  arising from the crown domains; the _vigesima_, etc. To the _aerarium_
+  (now under three _praefecti aerarii_) remained a part of the revenues of
+  the _provinciae senatus_, the customs and the fines. Thus it appears
+  that Augustus was master of the finances, of the legions, and thereby
+  of the empire.
+
+  See above, p. 362, the writings of HEGEWISCH and BOSSE.
+
+6. The extension of the Roman empire under Augustus was very
+considerable; being generally of such a nature as conduced to the
+security of the interior, and to the safeguard of the frontiers. The
+complete subjugation of northern Spain, and western Gaul, secured the
+frontiers on that side; as did the threatened but never-executed
+expedition against the Parthians, and the one actually undertaken
+against Armenia, A. C. 2. But the most important conquest in this
+quarter was that of the countries south of the Danube, viz. Rhaetia,
+Vindelicia, and Noricum, as well as Pannonia, and afterwards Moesia. To
+counterbalance these, the expedition against Arabia Felix completely
+failed; and that against Aethiopia was of no further consequence than to
+strengthen the frontiers.
+
+7. All these conquests together, however, did not cost the Romans so
+much as their fruitless attempt to subjugate Germany, first, by the
+sons-in-law of Augustus, Drusus and Tiberius Nero, and afterwards by the
+son of the former, Drusus Germanicus. Whether or not this undertaking
+was a political fault, must always remain a problem, as it is now
+impossible to say how far the security of the frontiers could be
+preserved without it.
+
+  Rome commenced her hostile attack upon Germany under the command of
+  Drusus, B. C. 12; Lower Germany (Westphalia, Lower Saxony, and Hesse)
+  being in general the theatre of the war: while the Lower Rhine was
+  attacked both by sea and land at the mouths of the Ems, the Weser, and
+  the Elbe, on account of the great assistance afforded the Romans by
+  their alliance with the nations on the coasts, the Batavi, Frisii, and
+  Chauci. The intrepid Drusus, in his second expedition, 10, penetrated
+  as far as the Weser, and, 9, even as far as the Elbe, but died on his
+  return. His successors in the command (Tiberius, 9-7, Domitius,
+  Aenobarbus, 7-2, M. Vinicius, 2-A. C. 2, then again Tiberius, A. C.
+  2-4, who was followed by Quintilius Varus, A. C. 5-9,) endeavoured
+  to build on the foundation laid by Drusus, and, by erecting forts and
+  introducing the Roman language and laws, gradually to reduce into a
+  province the part of Germany they had already subdued; but the
+  craftily organized revolt of the young Arminius (Hermann,) a prince of
+  the Cherusci, son of Siegmar, and son-in-law of Segestes, a friend of
+  the Romans, together with the defeat of Varus and his army in the
+  Teutoburg wald, or forest, near Paderborn, A. C. 9, rescued Germany
+  from slavery, and its language from annihilation. It moreover taught
+  the conquerors (what they never forgot) that the legions were not
+  invincible. Augustus immediately despatched Tiberius, who had just
+  quelled a furious insurrection in Pannonia, together with Germanicus,
+  to the Rhine; but these confined themselves to simple incursions, till
+  Germanicus, A. C. 14-16, again carried his arms further into the
+  country, and certainly penetrated as far as the Weser. Yet,
+  notwithstanding his victory near Idistavisus (Minden), the loss of his
+  fleet and part of his army by a tempest on his return, and the
+  jealousy of Tiberius at his victory, obliged him to give up his
+  command. From this time the Germans were left at rest in this quarter.
+
+  # MANNERT, _Geography of the Greeks and Romans_, part iii.
+
+8. The long, and for Italy itself, peaceable reign of Augustus, has
+generally been considered a fortunate and brilliant period of Roman
+history; and, when compared with the times which preceded and followed,
+it certainly was so. Security of person and property were reestablished;
+the arts of peace flourished under the benign patronage of Augustus and
+his favourite Maecenas; and we may add, that, as the formal restoration
+of the republic would only have been the signal for new commotions, the
+government of Augustus, if not the very best, was, at least, the best
+that Rome could then bear. Should it be said his private life was not
+blameless, it may be replied, that he inflexibly maintained an outward
+decency, to which, indeed, he sacrificed his only daughter; and if laws
+could have bettered the public morals, there was no lack of decrees for
+that purpose.
+
+  Among his most important laws to this end are, the _lex Julia de
+  adulteriis_ and the _lex Papia Poppaea_ against celibacy. The latter
+  excited many murmurs.
+
+9. Nearly all that remains of the history of Augustus, is an account of
+his domestic troubles; the most unhappy family being that of the
+emperor. The influence of Livia, his second wife, was very great, but
+does not seem to have been perverted to any worse purpose than raising
+her sons, Tiberius and Drusus, to the throne. The naturally unsettled
+state of the succession, in a government such as that of Rome now was,
+became much increased by circumstances. After the untimely death of his
+nephew and son-in-law Marcellus, whom he had adopted, his widow Julia,
+the only child of Augustus by his wife Scribonia, was married to
+Agrippa. The two eldest sons of this marriage, C. and L. Caesar, were
+adopted, upon the death of their father, by the emperor, who showed so
+much fondness towards them as they grew up, that Tiberius, who in the
+mean time had married their mother, Julia,--afterwards banished by
+Augustus for her licentious conduct--left the court in disgust. The
+death of the two young princes, however, again revived the hopes of
+Tiberius, who was adopted by Augustus upon the condition that he should
+also adopt Drusus Germanicus, the son of his deceased brother Drusus;
+after which Augustus, with the consent of the senate, formally
+associated him with himself in the government, making him an equal
+partner in the imperial privileges: called by his successors, _lex
+regia_.
+
+  _Marmor Ancyranum_; or, inscriptions in the temple of Augustus at
+  Ancyra. A copy of the account given of his government, which Augustus
+  latterly caused to be set up at Rome as a public memorial:
+  unfortunately much mutilated. It is to be found in CHISHULL, _Antiq.
+  Asiatic_.
+
+  _Memoirs of the Court of Augustus, by_ THOMAS BLACKWELL. London, 1760,
+  3 vols. 4to. divided into fifteen books. The last vol. was published
+  after the death of the author, by MR. MILLS. The last two books of
+  this prolix work contain a description of the contemporary affairs of
+  Augustus; the others go back to earlier times. A just appreciation of
+  Augustus requires a previous critical examination of the sources from
+  which Suetonius has drawn the materials for his biography.
+
+  _Histoire des triumvirats augmentee de l'histoire d'Auguste, par_
+  LARRY. Trevoux, 1741, 4 parts, 8vo. The last part of this simple
+  narrative contains the history of Augustus from the death of Catiline.
+
+10. The reign of Tiberius Claudius Nero, or, as he was called after his
+adoption, Augustus Tiberius Caesar, from his fifty-sixth to his
+seventy-eighth year, changed rather the spirit than the form of the
+Roman constitution. He succeeded quietly to the vacant throne at Rome,
+although the legions in Pannonia, and still more in Germany, felt that
+they could make emperors. Under him the _comitia_, or assemblies of the
+people, were reduced to a mere shadow; as he transferred their duties to
+the senate, which also became the highest tribunal for the state crimes
+of its own members: this assembly, however, had now been so much
+accustomed to obey the will of the prince, that everything depended on
+his personal character. Tiberius founded his despotism upon the _judicia
+majestatis_, or accusations of high treason, now become an engine of
+terror, the senate also sharing his guilt with a pusillanimity and
+servility which knew no bounds. This degraded assembly, indeed, from the
+moment that it ceased to be the ruling authority of a free state,
+necessarily became the passive instrument of the most brutal tyranny.
+Notwithstanding the military talents and many good qualities of
+Tiberius, his despotic character had been formed long before his
+fifty-sixth year, when he mounted the throne; although exterior
+circumstances prevented him from entirely throwing off the mask which he
+had hitherto worn.
+
+  The foundation of the _judicia majestatis_, which soon became so
+  terrible by the unfixed state of crime, had been laid during the reign
+  of Augustus by the _lex Julia de majestate_, and the _cognitiones
+  extraordinariae_, or commissioners appointed to take cognizance of
+  certain crimes; it was, however, the abuse of them by Tiberius and his
+  successors, which rendered them so dreadful.
+
+12. The principal object of Tiberius's suspicion, and therefore of his
+hate, was Germanicus, a man almost adored by the army and the people.
+This brave general he soon recalled from Germany, and sent into Syria
+to quell the disorders of the east. After having successfully put an end
+to the commotions which called him there, he was poisoned by the
+contrivances of Cn. Piso and his wife; and even that did not shelter the
+numerous family which he left behind, with his widow Agrippina, from
+persecution and ruin.
+
+  The expeditions of Germanicus in the east not only gave a king to
+  Armenia, but also reduced Cappadocia and Commagene to Roman provinces,
+  A. C. 17.
+
+  _Histoire de Caesar Germanicus, par_ M. L. D. B. [EAUFORT]. a Leyden,
+  1741. An unpretending chronological narrative.
+
+13. Rome, however, soon experienced to her cost the powerful ascendancy
+which L. Aelius Sejanus, the praefect of the praetorian guard, had acquired
+over the mind of Tiberius, whose unlimited confidence he possessed the
+more, as he enjoyed it without a rival. The eight years of his authority
+were rendered terrible not only by the cantonment of his troops in
+barracks near the city (_castra praetoriana_), but (having first
+persuaded Tiberius to quit Rome for ever, that he might more securely
+play the tyrant in the isle of Capreae) by his endeavouring to open a way
+for himself to the throne by villanies and crimes without number, and by
+his cruel persecution of the family of Germanicus. The despotism he had
+introduced became still more dreadful by his own fall, in which not only
+his whole party, but every one that could be considered as connected
+with it, became involved. The picture of the atrocious despotism of
+Tiberius is rendered doubly disgusting by the horrid and unnatural lust
+which he joined to it in his old age.
+
+  Tiberius's misfortune was, that he came too late to the throne. His
+  early virtues made no compensation for his later cruelties. It is
+  properly the former which Vel. Paterculus praises, whose flattery of
+  Tiberius, in whose reign he flourished, is more easily justified than
+  his praise of Sejanus.
+
+14. At the age of twenty-five Caius Caesar Caligula, the only remaining
+son of Germanicus, ascended the throne; but the hopes which had been
+formed of this young prince were soon wofully disappointed. His previous
+sickness and debaucheries had so distorted his understanding, that his
+short reign was one tissue of disorder and crime. Yet he did still more
+harm to the state by his besotted profusion than by his tiger-like
+cruelty. At length, after a career of nearly four years, he was
+assassinated by Cassius Chaerea and Cornelius Sabinus, two officers of
+his guard.
+
+15. His uncle Tiberius Claudius Caesar, who, at the age of fifty,
+succeeded him, was the first emperor raised to the throne by the guards;
+a favour which he rewarded by granting them a _donative_. Too weak to
+rule of himself, almost imbecile from former neglect, profligate, and
+cruel from fear, he became the tool of the licentiousness of his wives
+and freedmen. Coupled with the names of Messalina and Agrippina, we now
+hear, for the first time in Roman history, of a Pallas and a Narcissus.
+The dominion of Messalina was still more hurtful to the state by her
+rapacious cupidity, to which everything gave way, than by her dissolute
+life; and the blow which at last punished her unexampled wantonness,
+left a still more dangerous woman to supply her place. This was
+Agrippina, her neice, widow of L. Domitius, who joined to the vices of
+her predecessor a boundless ambition, unknown to the former. Her chief
+aim was to procure the succession for Domitius Nero, her son by a former
+marriage--who had been adopted by Claudius, and married to his daughter
+Octavia--by setting aside Britannicus, the son of Claudius; and this she
+hoped to effect, by poisoning Claudius, having already gained Burrhus,
+by making him _sole_ praefect of the praetorian guard. Notwithstanding the
+contentions with the Germans and Parthians (see above, p. 303) were only
+on the frontiers, the boundaries of the Roman empire were in many
+countries extended.
+
+  Commencement of the Roman conquests in Britain (whither Claudius
+  himself went) under A. Plautius, from the year A. C. 43. Under the
+  same general, Mauritania, A. C. 42, Lycia, 43, Judaea, 44 (see above,
+  p. 312), and Thrace, 47, were reduced to Roman provinces. He also
+  abolished the praefectures which had hitherto existed in Italy.
+
+16. Nero Claudius Caesar, supported by Agrippina and the praetorian guard,
+succeeded Claudius at the age of seventeen. Brought up in the midst of
+the blackest crimes, and, by a perverted education, formed rather for a
+professor of music and the fine arts than for an emperor, he ascended
+the throne like a youth eager for enjoyment; and throughout his whole
+reign his cruelty appears subordinate to his fondness for debaucheries
+and revelry. The unsettled state of the succession first called into
+action his savage disposition; and after the murder of Britannicus the
+sword fell in regular order upon all those who were even remotely
+connected with the Julian family. His vanity as a performer and composer
+excited in an equal degree his cruelty; and as, among all tyrants, every
+execution gives occasion for others, we need not wonder at his putting
+to death every one that excelled him. His connection, however, in the
+early part of his reign, with Agrippina, Burrhus, and Seneca, during
+which he introduced some useful regulations into the treasury, kept him
+within the bounds of decency. But Poppaea Sabina having driven him on to
+the murder of his mother and his wife Octavia, and Tigellinus being made
+his confident, he felt no longer restrained by the fear of public
+opinion. The executions of individuals, nearly all of which history has
+recorded, was not, perhaps, upon the whole, the greatest evil; the
+plunder of the provinces, not only to support his own loose and
+effeminate pleasures, but also to maintain the people in a continual
+state of intoxication, had nearly caused the dissolution of the empire.
+The last years of Nero were marked by a striking and undoubted insanity,
+which displayed itself in his theatrical performances, and even in the
+history of his fall. It appears that both around and upon a throne like
+that of Rome, heroes were formed for vice as well as virtue!
+
+  Discovery of the conspiracy of Piso, 65, and the revolt of Julius
+  Vindex in Celtic Gaul, 68, followed by that of Galba in Spain, who is
+  there proclaimed emperor, and joined by Otho, in Lusitania.
+  Nevertheless, after the defeat of Julius Vindex in Upper Germany, by
+  the lieutenant Virginius Rufus, these insurrections seemed quelled,
+  when the praetorian guard, instigated thereto by Nymphidius, broke out
+  into rebellion in Rome itself. Flight and death of Nero, June 11, 68.
+  Foreign wars during his reign: in Britain (occasioned by the revolt
+  of Boadicea), great part of which was subdued and reduced to a Roman
+  province, by Suetonius Paulinus; in Armenia, under the command of the
+  valiant Corbulo, against the Parthians (see above, p. 303); and in
+  Palestine against the Jews, 66. Great fire in Rome, 64, which gives
+  rise to the first persecution against the Christians.
+
+  The principal cause why the despotism of Nero and his predecessors was
+  so tamely submitted to by the nation, may undoubtedly be found in the
+  fact, that the greater part of it was fed by the emperors. To the
+  monthly distributions of corn were now added the extraordinary
+  _congiaria_ and _viscerationes_ (supplies of wine and meat). The
+  periods of tyranny were very likely the golden days of the people.
+
+17. By the death of Nero the house of Caesar became extinct, and this
+gave rise to so many commotions, that in somewhat less than two years,
+four emperors by violence obtained possession of the throne. The right
+of the senate to name, or at least to confirm, the successors to the
+throne, was still indeed acknowledged; but as the armies had found out
+that they could create emperors, the power of the senate dwindled into
+an empty ceremony. Servius Sulpicius Galba, now seventy-two years of
+age, having been already proclaimed emperor by the legions in Spain, and
+acknowledged by the senate, gained possession of Rome without striking a
+blow, the attempt of Nymphidius having completely failed, and Virginius
+Rufus voluntarily submitting to him. Galba, however, having given
+offence both to the praetorian guard and the German legions, was
+dethroned by the guards, at the instigation of his former friend Otho,
+at the very time when he thought he had secured his throne by adopting
+the young Licinius Piso, and had frustrated the hopes of Otho.
+
+18. M. Otho, aged thirty-seven, was indeed acknowledged emperor by the
+senate, but wanted the sanction of the German legions, who, proclaiming
+their general, A. Vitellius, emperor, invaded Italy. Otho marches
+against him, but after the loss of the battle of Bedriacum kills
+himself--whether from fear or patriotism, remains uncertain.
+
+  The special sources for the history of Galba and Otho, are their
+  _Lives_ by PLUTARCH.
+
+19. Vitellius, in his thirty-seventh year, was acknowledged emperor not
+only by the senate, but likewise in the provinces; his debaucheries and
+cruelty, however, together with the licentiousness of his troops, having
+rendered him odious at Rome, the Syrian legions rebelled and proclaimed
+their general, T. Flavius Vespasian, emperor, who, at the solicitation
+of the powerful Mutianus, governor of Syria, accepted the imperial
+diadem. The troops on the Danube declaring for him shortly after, and
+marching into Italy under their general Antonius Primus defeated the
+army of Vitellius at Cremona. Vitellius was immediately hurled from the
+throne, though not till after some blood had been spilt by the
+commotions that took place at Rome, in which Flavius Sabinus, the
+brother of Vespasian, was slain, and the capitol burnt.
+
+20. Flavius Vespasian ascended the throne in his fifty-ninth year, and
+became thereby the founder of a dynasty which gave three emperors to
+Rome. The state, almost ruined by profusion, civil war, and successive
+revolutions, found in Vespasian a monarch well suited to its unhappy
+condition. He endeavoured, as far as he could, to determine the
+relations between himself and the senate; while, by a decree, he
+restored to it all the rights and privileges which had been conferred
+upon it by his predecessors of the family of Caesar, and settled and
+added some others (_lex regia_). He made a thorough reform in the
+completely-exhausted treasury, which he recruited in part by reducing
+the countries Nero had made free, together with some others, into
+provinces; partly by restoring the ancient customs, by increasing
+others, and by imposing new ones: without this it would have been
+impossible for him to have reestablished the discipline of the army. His
+liberality in the foundation of public buildings, as well in Rome as in
+other cities; and the care with which he promoted education, by granting
+salaries to public teachers, are sufficient to free him from the
+reproach of avarice; and although, on account of their dangerous
+opinions, he banished the Stoics (who since the time of Nero had become
+very numerous, and retained nearly all the principles of republicanism),
+the annulling of the _judicia majestatis_ and the restoration of the
+authority of the senate show how far he was from being a despot.
+
+  Rhodes, Samos, Lycia, Achaia, Thrace, Cilicia, and Commagene, were
+  brought by Vespasian into the condition of provinces. Foreign wars:
+  that against the Jews, which ended with the destruction of Jerusalem,
+  A. C. 70; and a much greater war against the Batavians and their
+  allies under Civilis, who during the late civil wars, sought to shake
+  off the Roman yoke, 69; but were reduced to an accommodation by
+  Cerealis, 70. Expeditions of Agricola in Britain, 78-85, who not only
+  subdued all England, and introduced the Roman manners and customs, but
+  also attacked and sailed round Scotland.
+
+  _D. Vespasianus, sive de vita et legislatione T. Flavii Vespasiani
+  Imp. commentarius, auctore_ A. G. CRAMER. Jenae, 1785. An excellent
+  enquiry, with illustrations of the fragments of the _lex regia_. The
+  second part, _de legislatione_, contains a learned commentary upon the
+  _senatus consulta_, during his reign.
+
+21. His eldest son, Titus Flavius Vespasian, who in the year 70 had been
+created Caesar, and reigned from his thirty-ninth to his forty-second
+year, gives us the rare example of a prince becoming better on the
+throne. His short and benevolent reign was, indeed, only remarkable for
+its public calamities: an eruption of mount Vesuvius, overwhelming
+several cities, was followed by a destructive fire, and a dreadful
+plague at Rome. His early death secured him the reputation of being, if
+not the happiest, at least the best of princes.
+
+22. His younger brother and successor, L. Flavius Domitian, who reigned
+from his thirtieth to his forty-fifth year, gives an example quite
+opposite to that of Titus: beginning with justice and severity, he soon
+degenerated into the completest despot that ever swayed the Roman
+sceptre. His cruelty, joined to an equal degree of pride, and nourished
+by suspicion and jealousy, made him the enemy of all who excelled him by
+their exploits, their riches, or their talents. The mortifications to
+which his pride must have been subjected in consequence of his
+unsuccessful wars against the Catti, and more particularly the Daci,
+increased his bad disposition. His despotism was founded upon his
+armies, whose pay he augmented one fourth; and that he might not
+thereby diminish the treasury, as he had too much done at first, he
+multiplied the _judicia majestatis_, rendering it still more terrible by
+the employment of secret informers (_delatores_), in order, by
+confiscations, to augment the wealth of his private treasury (_fiscus_).
+By confining his cruelty chiefly to the capital, and by a strict
+superintendence over the governors of provinces, Domitian prevented any
+such general disorganization of the empire as took place under Nero. His
+fall confirmed the general truth, that tyrants have little to fear from
+the people, but much from individuals who may think their lives in
+danger.
+
+  The foreign wars during this reign are rendered more worthy of remark
+  by being the first in which the barbarians attacked the empire with
+  success. Domitian's ridiculous expedition against the Catti, 82, gave
+  the first proof of his boundless vanity; as did the recall of the
+  victorious Agricola, 85, from Britain, of his jealousy. His most
+  important war was that against the Daci, or Getae, who, under their
+  brave king Dercebal, had attacked the Roman frontiers; this again
+  occasioned another with their neighbours, the Marcomanni, Quadi, and
+  Jazygi, 86-90, which turned out so unfortunate for Rome, that Domitian
+  was obliged to purchase a peace of the Daci by paying them an annual
+  tribute.
+
+23. M. Cocceius Nerva, aged about seventy years was raised to the throne
+by the murderers of Domitian; and now, at last, seemed to break forth
+the dawn of a more happy period for the empire. The preceding reign of
+terror completely ceased at once; and he endeavoured to impart fresh
+vigour to industry, not only by diminishing the taxes, but also by
+distributing lands to the poor. The insurrection of the guards
+certainly cost the murderers of Domitian their lives; but it was at the
+same time the cause of Nerva's securing the prosperity of the empire
+after his death, by the adoption of Trajan.
+
+24. M. Ulpius Trajan (after his adoption, Nerva Trajan), a Spaniard by
+birth, governed the empire from his forty-second to his sixty-second
+year. He was the first foreigner who ascended the Roman throne, and at
+the same time the first of their monarchs who was equally great as a
+ruler, a general, and a man. After completely abolishing the _judicia
+majestatis_, he made the restoration of the _free Roman constitution_,
+so far as it was compatible with a monarchical form, his peculiar care.
+He restored the elective power to the _comitia_, complete liberty of
+speech to the senate, and to the magistrates their former authority; and
+yet he exercised the art of ruling to a degree and in a detail which few
+princes have equalled. Frugal in his expenses, he was nevertheless
+splendidly liberal to every useful institution, whether in Rome or the
+provinces, as well as in the foundation of military roads, public
+monuments, and schools for the instruction of poor children. By his wars
+he extended the dominion of Rome beyond its former boundaries; subduing,
+in his contests with the Daci, their country, and reducing it to a Roman
+province; as he likewise did, in his wars against the Armenians and
+Parthians, Armenia, Mesopotamia, and part of Arabia. Why was so great a
+character disfigured by an ambition of conquest?
+
+  The first war against the Daci, in which the shameful tribute was
+  withdrawn and Dercebal reduced to subjection, lasted from 101-103.
+  But as Dercebal again rebelled, the war was renewed in 105, and
+  brought to a close in 106, when Dacia was reduced to a Roman province,
+  and many Roman colonies established therein. The war with the
+  Parthians arose from a dispute respecting the possession of the throne
+  of Armenia (see above, p. 304), 114-116: but although Rome was
+  victorious she gained no permanent advantage thereby.
+
+  The especial source for the history of Trajan is the _Panegyricus_ of
+  PLINY THE YOUNGER; the correspondence, however, of the same writer,
+  while governor of Bithynia, with the emperor, affords us a much deeper
+  insight into the spirit of his government: PLINII _Epist._ lib. x. Who
+  can read it without admiring the royal statesman?
+
+  RITTERSHUSII _Trajanus in lucem reproductus_. Ambegae, 1608. A mere
+  collection of passages occurring in ancient authors respecting Trajan.
+
+  _Res Trajani Imperatoris ad Danubium Gestae, auctore_ CONRAD MANNERT.
+  Norimb. 1793: and
+
+  JOH. CHRIST. ENGEL, _Commentatio de Expeditionibus Trajani ad
+  Danubium, et origine Valachorum_. Vindob. 1794.--Both learned
+  dissertations, written for the prize offered by the Royal Society of
+  Gottingen; the first of which obtained the prize, and the other the
+  _accessit_, i. e. was declared second best.
+
+25. By the contrivances of Plotina, his wife, Trajan was succeeded by
+his cousin and pupil, whom he is said also to have adopted, P. Aelius
+Adrian, who reigned from his forty-second to his sixty-third year. He
+was acknowledged at once by the army of Asia, with which he then was,
+and the sanction of the senate followed immediately after. He differed
+from his predecessor in that his chief aim was the preservation of
+peace; on which account he gave up (rare moderation!), directly after
+his accession, the newly conquered provinces of Asia, Armenia, Assyria,
+and Mesopotamia, and so put an end to the Parthian war (see above, p.
+304.) He retained, though with some unwillingness, that of Dacia,
+because otherwise the Roman colonies would have become exposed. He well
+made up for his pacific disposition, however, in seeking, by a general
+and vigorous reform in the internal administration, and by restoring the
+discipline of the army, to give greater solidity to the empire. For that
+purpose he visited successively all the provinces of the Roman empire;
+first the eastern, and afterwards the western; making useful regulations
+and establishing order wherever he came. He improved the Roman
+jurisprudence by the introduction of the _edictum perpetuum_.
+Passionately fond of and well instructed in literature and the fine
+arts, he gave them his liberal protection, and thus called forth another
+Augustan age. Upon the whole, his reign was certainly a salutary one for
+the empire; and for any single acts of injustice of which he may be
+accused, he fully compensated by his choice of a successor. After having
+first adopted L. Aurelius Verus (afterwards Aelius Verus), who fell a
+sacrifice to his debaucheries, he next adopted T. Aurelius Antoninus
+(afterwards T. Aelius Adrianus Antoninus Pius), upon condition that he
+should again adopt M. Aurelius Verus (afterwards M. Aurelius Antoninus),
+and L. Cesonius Commodus (afterwards L. Verus), the son of Aelius Verus.
+
+  During his reign a great revolt broke out in Judaea, under Barcochab,
+  132-135, occasioned by the introduction of pagan worship into the
+  Roman colony of _Aelia Capitolina_ (the ancient Jerusalem).
+
+  The especial source for the history of Adrian, is his _Life_ and that
+  of _Aelius Verus_ by AeLIUS SPARTIANUS _in Script. Hist. Aug. Minores_,
+  already quoted.
+
+26. The reign of Antoninus Pius, from his forty-seventh to his
+seventieth year, was without doubt the happiest period of the Roman
+empire. He found everything already in excellent order; and those
+ministers which Adrian had appointed, he continued in their places. His
+quiet activity furnishes but little matter for history; and yet he was,
+perhaps, the most noble character that ever sat upon a throne. Although
+a prince, his life was that of the most blameless individual; while he
+administered the affairs of the empire as though they were his own. He
+honoured the senate; and the provinces flourished under him, not only
+because he kept a watchful eye over the conduct of the governors, but
+because he made it a maxim of his government to continue in their places
+all those whose probity he had sufficiently proved. He observed rigid
+order in the finances, and yet without sparing where it could be of
+service in the foundation or improvement of useful institutions; as his
+erection of many buildings, establishment of public teachers with
+salaries in all the provinces, and other examples fully show. He carried
+on no war himself; on the contrary, several foreign nations made choice
+of him to arbitrate their differences. Some rebellions which broke out
+in Britain and Egypt, and some frontier wars excited by the Germans, the
+Daci, the Moors, and the Alani, were quelled by his lieutenants.
+
+  The principal and almost the only source for the history of Antoninus
+  Pius, Dion Cassius's history of this period being lost, is his _Life_
+  by JULIUS CAPITOLINUS in the _Script. Hist. August._ And even this
+  refers to his private character rather than his public history.
+  Compare the excellent _Reflections_ of MARCUS AURELIUS, i, 16. upon
+  this prince.
+
+  _Vie des Empereurs Tite Antonin et Marc Aurele_, _par_ M. GAUTIER DE
+  SIBERT. Paris, 1769, 8vo. A valuable essay on the lives of the two
+  Antonines.
+
+27. He was succeeded by Marcus Aurelius Antoninus, the philosopher (aged
+40-59 years), who immediately associated with himself, under the title
+of Augustus, L. Verus (aged 30-40 years, ! 169), to whom he gave his
+daughter in marriage. Notwithstanding the differences of their
+character, the most cordial union existed between them during the whole
+of their common reign; L. Verus, indeed, being almost always absent in
+the wars, took but a very small share in the government. The reign of M.
+Aurelius was marked by several great calamities: a dreadful pestilence,
+a famine, and almost continual wars. Nothing short of a prince like
+Aurelius, who exhibited to the world the image of wisdom seated on a
+throne, could have made so much misery tolerable. Soon after his
+accession, the Catti made an irruption upon the Rhine, and the Parthians
+in Asia. L. Verus was sent against them. But the wars on the Danube with
+the Marcomanni and their allies in Pannonia, and other northern nations,
+who now began to press forward with great force upon Dacia, were of much
+greater consequence. They occupied M. Aurelius from the year 167, with
+but little intermission, to the end of his reign. He succeeded, indeed,
+in maintaining the boundaries of the empire; but then he was the first
+who settled any of the barbarians within it, or took them into the Roman
+service. In the internal administration of affairs he closely followed
+the steps of his predecessor, except that he was rather too much
+influenced by his freedmen and family. The only rebellion which broke
+out against him, was that of Avidius Cassius, his lieutenant in Syria,
+occasioned by a false report of his death; but it was quelled by the
+destruction of that general, as soon as the truth was made known.
+
+  The war against the Parthians (see above, p. 304) was indeed brought
+  to a successful issue by Verus, the principal cities of the Parthians
+  falling into the hands of the Romans; Verus left them, however, to be
+  carried on by his lieutenants, while he rioted in debaucheries at
+  Antioch. The first war against the Marcomanni, carried on in the
+  beginning and until the death of Verus, by the two emperors together,
+  was highly dangerous for Rome, as many other nations had joined the
+  Marcomanni, particularly the Quadi, Jazygi, and Vandals, and
+  penetrated as far as Aquileia. M. Aurelius ended this war by a
+  glorious peace, 174, as he found it necessary to stop the progress of
+  Cassius's rebellion; in 178, however, the Marcomanni again commenced
+  hostilities, and before their close M. Aurelius died at Sirmium.
+  Contemporary with these wars, yet, as it seems, without any connection
+  with them, were the attacks of other nations upon Dacia, the Bastarnae,
+  Alani, etc. who poured in from the north, probably pressed forward by
+  the advance of the Goths. _This was the first symptom of the great
+  migration of nations now beginning._
+
+  The especial sources for the history of M. Aurelius, are the
+  Biographies of him and L. Verus, written by JULIUS CAPITOLINUS, as
+  well as that of Avidius Cassius, by VULCATIUS GALLICANUS in _Script.
+  Hist. August._ The letters discovered in Milan, among and together
+  with the writings of FRONTO, are of no historical service.--His
+  principles are best learnt from his _Meditations on himself_.
+
+  CH. MEINERS _de M. Aurel. Antonini ingenio, moribus, et scriptis, in
+  Commentat. Soc. Gotting._ vol. vi.
+
+28. By means of adoption the Roman empire had been blessed, during the
+last eighty years, with a succession of rulers such as have not often
+fell to the lot of any kingdom. But in J. Commodus the son of M.
+Aurelius (probably the offspring of a gladiator), who reigned from his
+nineteenth to his thirty-first year, there ascended the throne a monster
+of cruelty, insolence, and lewdness. At the commencement of his reign he
+bought a peace of the Marcomanni that he might return to Rome. Being
+himself unable to support the burden of government, the helm of state
+was placed in the hands of the stern and cruel Perennis, praefect of the
+praetorian guard; but who, being murdered by the discontented soldiers,
+was succeeded by the freedman Cleander, who put up all for sale, till he
+fell a sacrifice to his own insatiable avarice, in a revolt of the
+people, caused by their want of provisions. The extravagant propensity
+of Commodus for the diversions of the amphitheatres, and the combats of
+wild beasts and gladiators, wherein he himself usually took a part, in
+the character of Hercules, became a chief cause of his dissipation, and
+thereby of his cruelty; till at last he was killed at the instigation of
+his concubine Marcia, Laetus the praefect of the praetorian guard, and
+Electus. The wars on the frontiers during his reign, in Dacia, and
+especially in Britain, were successfully carried on by his lieutenants,
+generals who belonged to the school of his father.
+
+  The especial source for the history of Commodus is his private life
+  by AEL. LAMPRIDIUS, in the _Script. Hist. August._--The history of
+  Herodian begins with his reign.
+
+29. The disasters under M. Aurelius, and the extravagances of Commodus,
+had injured the empire, but not enfeebled it. Towards the close of the
+period of the Antonines it still retained its pristine vigour. If wise
+regulations, internal peace, moderate taxes, a certain degree of
+political, and unrestrained civil liberty, are sufficient to form the
+happiness of a commonwealth, it must have been found in the Roman. What
+a number of advantages did it possess over every other, simply from its
+situation! Proofs of it appear on every side. A vigorous population,
+rich provinces, flourishing and splendid cities, and a lively internal
+and foreign trade. But the most solid foundation of the happiness of a
+nation consists in its moral greatness, and this we here seek for in
+vain. Otherwise the nation would not so easily have suffered itself to
+be brought under the yoke of Commodus by praetorian cohorts and the
+legions. But what best shows the strength which the empire still
+retained, is the opposition it continued to make, for two hundred years
+longer, to the formidable attacks from without.
+
+  D. H. HEGEWISCH _upon the Epochs in Roman History most favourable to
+  Humanity_. Hamburg, 1800-8.
+
+  Foreign commerce, so flourishing in this period, could only be carried
+  on, to any extent, with the east--mostly with India--as the Roman
+  empire spread over all the west. This trade continued to be carried on
+  through Egypt, and also through Palmyra and Syria. Information
+  thereupon will be found in
+
+  W. ROBERTSON'S _Disquisition concerning the Knowledge which the
+  Ancients had of India_. London, 1791, 4to. Often reprinted. And
+  particularly upon Egypt, in
+
+  W. VINCENT, _the Periplus of the Erythrean Sea_. London, 1802, 4to. 2
+  vols. A very instructive work.
+
+  HEEREN, _Commentationes de Graecorum et Romanorum de India notitia, et
+  cum Indis commerciis_: _in Commentat. Soc. Gott._ vol. x. xi.
+
+
+
+
+SECOND SECTION.
+
+_From the death of Commodus to Diocletian, A. C. 193-284._
+
+
+  SOURCES. The Extracts of Xiphilinus from DION CASSIUS, lib.
+  lxxiii-lxxx. though often imperfect, reach down as low as the
+  consulate of Dion himself under Alexander Severus, 229.--HERODIANI
+  _Hist._ libri viii. comprise the period from Commodus to Gordian,
+  180-238.--The _Scriptores Historiae Augustae Minores_ contain the
+  private lives of the emperors down to Diocletian, by JULIUS
+  CAPITOLINUS, FLAVIUS VOPISCUS, etc.--The _Breviaria Historiae Romanae_
+  of EUTROPIUS, AURELIUS VICTOR, and S. RUFUS are particularly important
+  for this period.--Finally, the important information that may be
+  derived from the study of medals and coins, not only for this section,
+  but for the whole history of the emperors, may be best learnt by
+  consulting the writers upon those subjects: J. VAILLANT, _Numismata
+  Augustorum et Caesarum_, _cura_ J. F. BALDINO. Rome, 1743, 3 vols. _The
+  Medallic History of Imperial Rome_, by W. COOKE. London, 1781, 2
+  vols.--But above all, the volumes belonging to this period in ECKHEL,
+  _Doctrina Nummorum Veterum_.
+
+  With the period of the Antonines begins the great work of the British
+  historian:
+
+  _The History of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire_, by EDWARD
+  GIBBON. Oxford, 1828, 8 vols. 8vo. In worth and extent this work is
+  superior to all others. It embraces the whole period of the middle
+  ages; but only the first part belongs to this period.
+
+1. The extinction of the race of the Antonines by the death of Commodus
+was attended with convulsions similar to those which took place when the
+house of Caesar became extinct at the death of Nero. It is true that P.
+Helvius Pertinax, aged sixty-seven, praefect of the city, was raised to
+the throne by the murderers of Commodus; and that he was acknowledged,
+first by the guards, and afterwards by the senate. But the reform which
+he was obliged to make at the beginning of his reign in the finances,
+rendered him so odious to the soldiers and courtiers, that a revolt of
+the first, excited by Laetus, cost him his life before he had reigned
+quite three months. This was the first commencement of that dreadful
+military despotism which forms the ruling character of this period; and
+to none did it become so terrible as to those who wished to make it the
+main support of their absolute power.
+
+  The insolence of the praetorian guard had risen very high during the
+  reign of Commodus; but it had never, even in the time of the
+  Antonines, been entirely suppressed. It was only by large donatives
+  that their consent could be purchased, their caprice satisfied, and
+  their good humour maintained; especially at every new adoption. One of
+  the greatest reproaches to the age of the Antonines is, that those
+  great princes, who seem to have had the means so much in their power,
+  did not free themselves from so annoying a dependence.
+
+  JUL. CAPITOLINI _Pertinax Imp. in Script. Hist. Aug._
+
+2. When, upon the death of Pertinax, the rich and profligate M. Didius
+Julianus, aged fifty-seven, had outbid, to the great scandal of the
+people, all his competitors for the empire, and purchased it of the
+praetorian guard, an insurrection of the legions, who were better able to
+create emperors, very naturally followed. But as the army of Illyria
+proclaimed their general Septimius Severus, the army of Syria,
+Pescennius Niger, and the army of Britain, Albinus, nothing less than a
+series of civil wars could decide who should maintain himself on the
+throne.
+
+  AEL. SPARTIANI _Didius Julianus, in Script. Hist. Aug._
+
+3. Septimius Severus, however, aged 49-66, was the first who got
+possession of Rome, and, after the execution of Didius Julianus, he was
+acknowledged by the senate. He dismissed, it is true, the old praetorian
+guard, but immediately chose, from his own army, one four times more
+numerous in its stead. And after he had provisionally declared Albinus
+emperor, he marched his army against Pescennius Niger, already master of
+the east, whom, after several contests near the Issus, he defeated and
+slew. Nevertheless, having first taken and destroyed the strong city of
+Byzantium, a war with Albinus soon followed, whom the perfidious Severus
+had already attempted to remove by assassination. After a bloody defeat
+near Lyons, Albinus kills himself. These civil wars were followed by
+hostilities against the Parthians, who had taken the part of Pescennius,
+and which ended with the plundering of their principal cities (see
+above, p. 304). Severus possessed most of the virtues of a soldier; but
+the insatiable avarice of his minister Plautianus, the formidable
+captain of the praetorian guard, robbed the empire even of those
+advantages which may be enjoyed under a military government, until he
+was put to death at the instigation of Caracalla. To keep his legions
+employed, Severus undertook an expedition into Britain, where, after
+extending the boundaries of the empire, he died at York (_Eboracum_),
+leaving his son the maxim, "to enrich the soldiers, and hold the rest
+for nothing."
+
+  Agricola had already erected a line of fortresses, probably between
+  the Firth of Clyde and the Firth of Forth. These were changed by
+  Adrian into a wall along the present boundaries of Scotland. Severus
+  again extended the frontiers, reestablished the fortresses of
+  Agricola, and afterwards built a wall from sea to sea; his son,
+  however, gave up the conquered country, and the wall of Adrian again
+  became the boundary of the empire.
+
+  AEL. SPARTIANI _Septimius Severus et Pescennius Niger_.
+
+  JUL. CAPITOLINI _Claudius Albinus, in Script. Hist. Aug._
+
+4. The deadly hatred which reigned between the two sons of Severus, M.
+Aurelius Antoninus Bassianus Caracalla, aged 23-29, and his young
+step-brother Geta, aged twenty-one, led to a dreadful catastrophe; for
+at their return to Rome, and after a fruitless proposition had been made
+for a division of the empire, Geta was assassinated in the arms of his
+mother Julia Domna, together with all those who were considered as his
+friends. The restless spirit of Caracalla, however, soon drew him from
+Rome, and in traversing first the provinces along the Danube, and then
+those of the east, he ruined them all by his exactions and cruelty, to
+which he was driven for money to pay his soldiers, and to purchase peace
+of his enemies on the frontiers. The same necessity led him to grant the
+right of citizenship to all the provinces, that he might thereby gain
+the duty of the _vicesima hereditatum et manumissionum_ (twentieth upon
+inheritances and enfranchisements), which he very soon afterwards
+changed into a tenth (_decima_).--With respect to his foreign wars, his
+first was against the Catti and Alemanni, among whom he remained a long
+time, sometimes as a friend and sometimes as an enemy. But his principal
+efforts, after having previously ordered a dreadful massacre of the
+inhabitants of Alexandria, to satisfy his cruel rapacity, were directed
+against the Parthians (see above, p. 304); and in his wars against them
+he was assassinated by Macrinus, the praefect of the praetorian guard.
+
+  The praefect, or captain, of the praetorian guard became, from the time
+  of Severus, the most important officer in the state. Besides the
+  command of the guards, the finances were also under his control,
+  together with an extensive criminal jurisdiction. A natural
+  consequence of the continually increasing despotism.
+
+  AEL. SPARTIANI _Antoninus Caracalla et Ant. Geta, in Script. Hist.
+  Aug._
+
+5. His murderer, M. Opelius Macrinus, aged fifty-three, was recognized
+as emperor by the soldiers, and forthwith acknowledged by the senate. He
+immediately created his son, M. Opelius Diadumenus, aged nine years,
+Caesar, and gave him the name of Antoninus. He disgracefully terminated
+the war against the Parthians by purchasing a peace, and changed the
+_decima_ (tenth) of Caracalla again into the _vicesima_ (twentieth).
+However, while he still remained in Asia, Bassianus Heliogabalus,
+grand-nephew of Julia Domna, and high priest in the temple of the Sun at
+Emesa, whom his mother gave out for a son of Caracalla, was proclaimed
+emperor by the legions, and, after a combat with the guards,
+subsequently to which Macrinus and his son lost their lives, they raised
+him to the throne.
+
+  Maesa, the sister of Julia Domna, had two daughters, both widows;
+  Soaemis, the eldest, was the mother of Heliogabalus, Mammaea, the
+  youngest, the mother of Alexander Severus.
+
+  JUL. CAPITOLINI _Opelius Macrinus, in Script. Hist. Aug._
+
+6. Heliogabalus, aged 14-18, who assumed the additional name of M.
+Aurelius Antoninus, brought with him from Syria the superstitions and
+voluptuousness of that country. He introduced the worship of his god
+Heliogabal in Rome, and wallowed openly in such brutal and infamous
+debaucheries, that history can scarcely find a parallel to his
+dissolute, shameless, and scandalous conduct. How low must the morality
+of that age have been sunk, in which a boy could so early have ripened
+into a monster!--The debasement of the senate, and of all important
+offices, which he filled with the degraded companions of his own lusts
+and vices, was systematically planned by him; and he deserves no credit
+even for the adoption of his cousin, the virtuous Alexander Severus, as
+he shortly after endeavoured to take away his life, but was himself for
+that reason assassinated by the praetorian guards.
+
+  # AEL. LAMPRIDII _Ant. Heliogabalus, in Script. Hist. Aug._
+
+7. His young cousin and successor, M. Aurelius Alexander Severus, aged
+14-27, who had been carefully educated under the direction of his mother
+Mammaea, proved one of the best princes in an age and upon a throne where
+virtues were more dangerous than vices. Under favour of his youth he
+endeavoured to effect a reform, in which he was supported by the
+cooperation of the guards, who had elevated him to the throne. He
+restored the authority of the senate, from among whom he chose, with
+rigid justice, his privy council of state, banishing the creatures of
+Heliogabalus from their places. The revolution in the Parthian empire,
+out of which was now formed the new Persian, was of so much importance
+to Rome, that it obliged Alexander to undertake a war against
+Artaxerxes, in which he was probably victorious. But while marching in
+haste to protect the frontiers against the advance of the Germans upon
+the Rhine, his soldiers, exasperated at the severity of his discipline,
+and incited by the Thracian Maximin, murdered him in his own tent. His
+praefect of the praetorian guard, Ulpian, had already, for the same cause,
+fallen a victim to this spirit of insubordination, which was not checked
+even by the immediate presence of the emperor himself.
+
+  The revolution in Parthia, whereby a new Persian empire was formed
+  (see above, p. 304.), became a source of almost perpetual war to Rome;
+  Artaxerxes I. and his successors, the Sassanides, claiming to be
+  descendants of the ancient kings of Persia, formed pretensions to the
+  possession of all the Asiatic provinces of the Roman empire.
+
+  AELII LAMPRIDII _Alexander Severus_, _in Script. Hist. Aug._
+
+  HEYNE _de Alexandro Severo Judicium_, Comment. i. ii. in _Opuscula
+  Academica_, vol. vi.
+
+8. The death of A. Severus raised military despotism to the highest
+pitch, as it placed on the throne the half savage C. Julius Maximinus,
+by birth a Thracian peasant. At first he continued the war against the
+Germans with great success, repulsing them beyond the Rhine; and
+resolved, by crossing Pannonia, to carry the war even among the
+Sarmatians. But his insatiable rapacity, which spared neither the
+capital nor the provinces, made him hateful to all; and Gordian,
+proconsul of Africa, in his eightieth year, was, together with his son
+of the same name, proclaimed Augustus by the people, and immediately
+acknowledged by the senate. Upon this, Maximinus, eager to take
+vengeance on the senate, marched directly from Sirmium towards Italy. In
+the mean time, the legions of the almost defenceless Gordians were
+defeated in Africa, and themselves slain by Capellianus the governor of
+Numidia. Notwithstanding this, as the senate could expect no mercy, they
+chose as co-emperors the praefect of the city, Maximus Pupienus, and
+Clodius Balbinus, who, in conformity with the wishes of the people,
+created the young Gordian III. Caesar. In the meanwhile Maximinus, having
+besieged Aquileia, and the enterprise proving unsuccessful, was slain by
+his own troops. Pupienus and Balbinus now seemed in quiet possession of
+the throne; but the guards, who had already been engaged in a bloody
+feud with the people, and were not willing to receive an emperor of the
+senate's choosing, killed them both, and proclaimed as Augustus,
+Gordian, already created Caesar.
+
+  JUL. CAPITOLINI _Maximinus Gordiani tres, Pupienus et Balbinus_, _in
+  Script. Hist. August._
+
+9. The reign of the young M. Antoninus Gordianus lasted from his twelfth
+to his eighteenth year. He was grandson of the proconsul who had lost
+his life in Africa, and in the early part of his reign, acquired a
+degree of firmness from the support of his father-in-law, Misitheus,
+praefect of the praetorian guard, as well as from the successful
+expedition which he undertook into Syria against the Persians, who had
+invaded that province. But after the death of Misitheus, Philip the
+Arabian, being made praefect of the guards in his stead, found means to
+gain the troops over to himself, and, after driving Gordian from the
+throne, caused him to be assassinated.
+
+10. The reign of M. Julius Philippus was interrupted by several
+insurrections, especially in Pannonia; until at length Decius, whom he
+himself had sent thither to quell the rebellion, was compelled by the
+troops to assume the diadem. Philip was soon after defeated by him near
+Verona, where he perished, together with his son of the same name. In
+this reign the secular games, _ludi saeculares_, were celebrated, one
+thousand years from the foundation of the city.
+
+11. Under the reign of his successor, Trajanus Decius, aged fifty, the
+Goths for the first time forced their way into the Roman empire by
+crossing the Danube; and although Decius in the beginning opposed them
+with success, he was at last slain by them in Thrace, together with his
+son, Cl. Herennius Decius, already created Caesar. Upon this the army
+proclaimed C. Trebonianus Gallus emperor, who created his son, Volusian,
+Caesar; and having invited Hostilian, the yet remaining son of Decius,
+with the ostensible purpose of securing his cooperation, he nevertheless
+soon contrived to get rid of him. He purchased a peace of the Goths;
+but, despised by his generals, he became involved in a war with his
+victorious lieutenant, Aemilius Aemilianus, in Moesia, and was slain,
+together with his son, by his own army. In three months, however,
+Aemilianus shared the same fate; Publius Licinius Valerianus, the friend
+and avenger of Gallus, advancing against him with the legions stationed
+in Gaul. Both the people and army hoped to see the empire restored under
+Valerian, already sixty years of age; but, although his generals
+defended the frontiers against the Germans and Goths, he himself had the
+misfortune to be defeated and taken prisoner by the superior forces of
+the Persians. Upon this event his son and associate in the empire, P.
+Licinius Gallienus, who knew everything except the art of governing,
+reigned alone. Under his indolent rule the Roman empire seemed on one
+hand ready to be split into a number of small states, while on the other
+it seemed about to fall a prey to the barbarians; for the lieutenants in
+most of the provinces declared themselves independent of a prince whom
+they despised, and to which, indeed, they were driven, like Posthumius
+in Gaul, for their own security.--There were nineteen of these; but as
+many of them named their sons Caesars, this period has been very
+improperly distinguished by the name of _the thirty tyrants_, although
+their intolerable oppressions might well justify the latter expression.
+The Persians at the same time were victorious in the east, and the
+Germans in the west.
+
+  The German nations which were now become so formidable to the Roman
+  empire, were: 1. The great confederation of tribes under the name of
+  _Franks_, who spread over Gaul along the whole extent of the Lower
+  Rhine. 2. The allied nations of the Alemanni on the Upper Rhine. 3.
+  The Goths, the most powerful of all, who had formed a monarchy upon
+  the banks of the Lower Danube and the northern coasts of the Black
+  sea, which soon extended from the Boristhenes to the Don; and who
+  became formidable, not only by their land forces, but also by their
+  naval power, especially after they had captured the peninsula of Crim
+  Tartary (_Chersonesus Taurica_); and by means of their fleets they not
+  only kept the Grecian, but likewise the Asiatic provinces in a
+  continual state of alarm.
+
+  TREBELLI POLLIONIS _Valerianus, Gallieni duo, triginta tyranni_, _in
+  Script. Hist. Aug._
+
+  # _Concerning the thirty tyrants under the Roman emperor Gallienus_,
+  by J. C. F. MANSO; at the end of his _Life of Constantine_.
+
+12. Gallienus losing his life before Milan, in the war against Aureolus
+an usurper, had nevertheless recommended M. Aurelius Claudius (aged
+45-47) for his successor. The new Augustus reestablished in some degree
+the tottering empire; not only by taking Aureolus prisoner and defeating
+the Alemanni, but also by a decisive victory gained at Nissa over the
+Goths, who had invaded Moesia. He died, however, soon after, at Sirmium,
+of a pestilential disease, naming for his successor Aurelian, a hero
+like himself, who mounted the throne upon the death of Quintillus the
+late emperor's brother, who had at first proclaimed himself Augustus,
+but afterwards died by his own hand.
+
+  TREBELLII POLLIONIS _divus Claudius_, _in Script. Hist. Aug._
+
+13. During the reign of L. Domitius Aurelianus, which lasted almost five
+years, those countries which had been partly or entirely lost to the
+empire were restored. Having first driven back the Goths and the
+Alemanni, who had advanced as far as Umbria, he undertook his expedition
+against the celebrated Zenobia, queen of Palmyra, who at that time
+possessed Syria, Egypt, and part of Asia Minor. These countries he again
+brought under the dominion of the empire, after having defeated Zenobia
+and made her prisoner. The western provinces of Gaul, Britain, and
+Spain, which since the time of Gallienus had been governed by separate
+rulers, and were now under the dominion of Tetricus, he reduced to their
+former obedience. Dacia, on the contrary, he willingly abandoned; and as
+he transported the Roman inhabitants across the Danube into Moesia, the
+latter henceforward bore the name of _Dacia Aureliani_. Hated for his
+severity, which in a warrior so easily degenerates into cruelty, he was
+assassinated in Illyria at the instigation of his private secretary
+Mnestheus.
+
+  FLAV. VOPISCI _divus Aurelianus_, _in Script. Hist. Aug._
+
+  Palmyra in the Syrian desert, enriched by the Indian trade, and one of
+  the most ancient cities in the world, became a Roman colony in the
+  time of Trajan. Odenatus, the husband of Zenobia, had acquired so much
+  celebrity by his victories over the Persians, that Gallienus had even
+  named him Augustus with himself. He was murdered, however, by his
+  cousin Maeonius, 267. Zenobia now took possession of the government for
+  her sons Vabalathus, Herennianus, and Timolaus, without, however,
+  being acknowledged at Rome. After this, in the time of Claudius, she
+  added Egypt to her dominions. Aurelian, having first defeated her near
+  Antioch and Emesa, soon afterwards took Palmyra, which, in consequence
+  of a revolt, he destroyed.--Even in its ruins Palmyra is still
+  magnificent.
+
+  _The Ruins of Palmyra_, by R. WOOD. London, 1753; and the _Ruins of
+  Balbec, otherwise Heliopolis_, by the same author, London, 1757, give
+  us clear and certain ideas of the splendour and magnitude of these
+  cities.
+
+  A. H. L. HEEREN, _de Commercio urbis Palmyrae vicinarumque urbium_, in
+  _Comment. recent. Soc. Gotting._ vol. vii. and the Appendix to
+  Heeren's Researches.
+
+14. An interregnum of six months followed upon the death of Aurelian,
+till at length the senate, at the repeated solicitations of the army,
+ventured to fill up the vacant throne. The object of their choice,
+however, M. Claudius Tacitus, the worthiest of the senators, was
+unfortunately seventy-five years old, and perished after a short reign
+of six months, in an expedition against the Goths. Upon this event the
+army of Syria raised M. Aurelius Probus to the purple; while Florianus
+the brother of Tacitus, who had already been acknowledged at Rome, was
+put to death by his own people.
+
+  FLAV. VOPISCI _Tacitus; ejusd. Florianus_, _in Script. Hist. Aug._
+
+15. The six years' reign of Probus was a warlike one. He defeated the
+Germans, and forced them beyond the Rhine and Danube; strengthening the
+frontiers by building a strong wall from the Danube, near Regensburg, to
+the Rhine. He also obliged the Persians to make peace. Nevertheless, the
+number of towns which he reestablished and peopled with prisoners of
+war, and the vineyards which he caused his soldiers to plant on the
+Rhine, are proofs that he had taste and inclination for the arts of
+peace. This policy, however, would not suit the legions! After he had
+perished, therefore, by the hands of his soldiers, they proclaimed the
+praefect of the praetorian guard, M. Aurelius Carus, emperor, who created
+his two sons Caesars--men very unlike each other in disposition, M.
+Aurelius Carinus being one of the greatest reprobates, while M.
+Aurelius Numerianus was gentle by nature, and had a mind well formed by
+study. The new emperor, having defeated the Goths, marched against the
+Persians, but was shortly afterwards killed, it is said, by a flash of
+lightning. Nor did his son Numerianus long survive him, being murdered
+by his own father-in-law, Arrius Aper, the praetorian praefect.
+
+  FLAV. VOPISCI _Probus imper. ejusd. Carus, Numirianus et Carinus_, _in
+  Script. Hist. Aug._
+
+16. Although this period gives us a finished picture of a complete
+military despotism, it is still evident that this was owing to the
+entire separation of the military order from the rest of the people, by
+the introduction of standing armies, and the extinction of all national
+spirit among the citizens. The legions decided because the people were
+unarmed. It was, indeed, only among them, situated far from the soft
+luxuries of the capital, and engaged in almost a continual struggle with
+the barbarians, that a remnant of the ancient Roman character was still
+preserved. The nomination of their leaders to the purple became a
+natural consequence, not only of the uncertainty of the succession,
+which could not be fixed by mere ordinances, but often of necessity,
+from their being in the field under the pressure of urgent
+circumstances. Thus a succession of distinguished generals came to the
+throne: what authority, indeed, would an emperor at that time have had
+who was not a general? All durable reform, however, was rendered quite
+impossible by the quick succession of rulers. Even the best among them
+could do but very little for the internal administration; as all their
+energies were required to protect the frontiers, and defend themselves
+against usurpers, who, with the exception of the formality of being
+acknowledged by the senate, had claims as well founded as their own.
+
+17. The decline of the empire also became so much the more rapid, in
+proportion as in these days of terror luxury had increased not only in
+the splendour and profligate effeminacy of private life, but more
+particularly in public, to a pitch almost beyond belief. The latter was
+especially shown in the exhibitions of the amphitheatre and circus; by
+which not only every new ruler, but even every new magistrate was
+obliged to purchase the favour of the people. Thus these remnants of a
+free constitution served only to accelerate the general ruin! What
+enjoyments, indeed, could be found under the rod of despotism, except
+those of the grossest sensuality; and to satisfy this, the intellectual
+amusements of the theatre (mimes and pantomimes), and even those of
+rhetoric and poetry, were made to contribute.
+
+18. Yet, during this general decay, the gradual spread of the Christian
+religion was working a reform altogether of a different nature. Before
+the end of this period it had opened itself a way into every province,
+and, notwithstanding the frequent persecutions, had made converts in
+every rank of society, and was now on the eve of becoming the
+predominant form of worship. We shall be better able to estimate its
+value, if we consider it as the vehicle by which civilization made its
+way among the rude nations that now appeared on the scene, than if we
+merely consider it as the means of improving the manners and morals of
+the Roman world. In a political view it became of the greatest
+importance on account of the hierarchy, the frame-work of which was now
+in a great measure constructed among its professors. It was afterwards
+adopted as a state religion; and although the ancient creed of Rome had
+formerly been on the same footing, yet it was only calculated for the
+republic, and not at all for the now existing monarchy. The overthrow of
+paganism was necessarily attended with some violent convulsions, yet its
+loss was nothing to be compared with the support which the throne
+afterwards found in the hierarchy.
+
+  The dispersion of the Jews, and especially the persecutions which were
+  renewed from time to time, after the reign of Nero, (but which only
+  served to kindle enthusiasm,) strongly cooperated in spreading the
+  Christian religion. These persecutions were principally called forth
+  against the Christians on account of their forming themselves into a
+  separate society, which caused them to be regarded as a dangerous sect
+  at Rome, notwithstanding the general toleration granted to every other
+  system of religious belief. Although towards the end of this period,
+  only a very small proportion of the inhabitants of the Roman empire as
+  yet professed the Christian faith, it nevertheless had followers in
+  every province.
+
+  # _History of the Social Constitution of the Christian Church_, by
+  D. G. J. PLANCK, 4 parts, 1800. It is the first part of this excellent
+  work which relates to this period.
+
+
+
+
+THIRD SECTION.
+
+_From Diocletian to the overthrow of the Roman empire in the west,
+A. C. 284-476._
+
+
+  SOURCES. It now becomes of importance to enquire whether the
+  historians were Christians or pagans. ZOSIMUS, the imitator of
+  Polybius, belonged to the last. He describes the fall of the Roman
+  state, as his model does the previous part. Of his _Histories_ only
+  five books and a half, to the time of Gratian, 410, have descended to
+  us. He was certainly a violent antagonist of the Christians, yet,
+  nevertheless, the best writer of this period. AMMIANI MARCELLINI
+  _Historiarum_, lib. xiv-xxxi. from the year 353-378 (the first
+  thirteen books are lost). Probably a Christian, but yet no flatterer;
+  and, notwithstanding his tiresome prolixity, highly instructive.
+  Together with the writers of general history already noticed at p.
+  437, we must here especially add to the abbreviators, PAULI OROSII
+  _Hist._ lib. vii. and ZONARAE _Annales_. The _Panegyrici Veteres_, from
+  Diocletian to Theodosius, can only be used with circumspection.--The
+  writers of church history, such as EUSEBIUS, in his _Hist. Eccles._
+  lib. x. and in his _Vita Constantini Magni_, lib. v. as well as his
+  continuators, SOCRATES, THEODORET, SOZOMENUS, and EVAGRIUS, are also
+  highly important for the political history of this period, though,
+  from their partiality towards the Christian emperors, they should
+  rather be classed with the panegyrists than the historians. To these
+  may be added another principal source, viz. the _Constitutions_ of the
+  emperors, which have been preserved in the _Codex Theodosianus_ and
+  _Justinianeus_, from the time of Constantine the Great.
+
+  Besides the works quoted at pages 411, 437, the Byzantine historians
+  here become of importance. We shall mention also:
+
+  _Histoire du Bas-Empire depuis Constantin_, _par_ M. LE BEAU,
+  _continuee par_ M. AMEILHON. Paris, 1824, 20 vols. 8vo. The first
+  seven parts only belong to this period.
+
+  # The German translation of GUTHRIE and GRAY'S _Universal History_,
+  5 sections, 1 vol. Leipsic, 1768. Rendered very useful by the
+  labours of Ritter.
+
+  _Histoire du Bas-Empire, depuis Constantin jusqu' a la prise de
+  Constantinople en 1453_, _par_ CARENTIN ROYOU. Paris, 1803, 4 vols.
+  8vo. A useful abridgement, without much research.
+
+1. The reign of C. Valerius Diocletian, aged 39-60, proclaimed emperor
+after the murder of Numerianus, by the troops in Chalcedon, begins a new
+section in Roman history. To the period of military despotism succeeded
+the period of partitions. After Diocletian had defeated Carinus the yet
+remaining Caesar, in Upper Moesia, where he was assassinated, he made M.
+Valerius Maximianus Herculius, a rough warrior who had hitherto been his
+comrade in arms, the sharer of his throne. Herculius now contended with
+the Alemanni and Burgundians on the banks of the Rhine, while Diocletian
+himself made head against the Persians. Nevertheless, the two Augusti
+soon found themselves unable to withstand the barbarians, who were
+pressing forward on every side, more especially as Carausius had usurped
+and maintained the title of Caesar in Britain. Each of them, therefore,
+created a Caesar: Diocletian chose C. Galerius, and Maximianus Flavius
+Constantius Chlorus, both of whom had distinguished themselves as
+generals, at that time the only road to advancement. The whole empire
+was now divided between these four rulers; so that each had certain
+provinces to govern and defend; without detriment, however, to the unity
+of the whole, or to the dependence in which a Caesar stood as the
+subordinate assistant and future successor of his Augustus.
+
+  In the partition, 292, Diocletian possessed the eastern provinces;
+  Galerius, Thrace, and the countries on the Danube (Illyricum);
+  Maximianus, Italy, Africa, and the islands; and Constantius, the
+  western provinces of Gaul, Spain, Britain, and Mauritania.
+
+2. This new system could not but have a striking effect upon the spirit
+of the government. It was now not only in fact, but also in form,
+entirely in the hands of the rulers. By their continual absence from
+Rome they became freed from that moral restraint in which the authority
+of the senate, and the name of the republic, not yet entirely laid
+aside, had held before them. Diocletian formally assumed the diadem,
+and, with the ornaments of the east, introduced its luxuries into his
+court. Thus was laid the foundation of that structure which Constantine
+the Great had to complete.
+
+3. The consequences of this new system became also oppressive to the
+provinces, inasmuch as they had now to maintain four rulers, with their
+courts, and as many armies. But however loud might be the complaints of
+the oppression occasioned thereby, it was, perhaps, the only means of
+deferring the final overthrow of the whole edifice. In fact, they
+succeeded not only in defeating the usurpers, Allectus in Britain (who
+had murdered Carausius in 293), Julian in Africa, and Achilleus in
+Egypt; but also in defending the frontiers, which, indeed, by the
+victories of Galerius over the Persians, they extended as far as the
+Tigris. Did not, however, the gloomy perspective present itself, that
+among so many rulers, and the undefined relations which existed between
+the Caesars and the emperors, the union could not be of long continuance?
+
+4. Diocletian voluntarily abdicated the throne (although the growing
+power and encroaching disposition of Galerius might perhaps have had
+some influence), and obliged his colleague Maximianus to do the same.
+The two Caesars, Constantius and Galerius, were proclaimed Augusti, and
+altered the division of the empire, so that the former possessed all the
+western countries, of which, however, he freely ceded Italy and Africa
+to Galerius, who had all the remaining provinces. The latter, during the
+same year, created Flavius Severus, Caesar, and confided to him the
+government of Italy and Africa; as he did also C. Galerius Maximin, to
+whom he gave the Asiatic provinces. The administration of the two
+emperors, however, was very different; Constantius was as much beloved
+for his mild and disinterested government, as Galerius was hated for his
+harshness and prodigality. Constantius died very soon after at York,
+leaving his son Constantine heir to his dominions, who was immediately
+proclaimed Augustus by the legions, although Galerius would only
+acknowledge him as Caesar.
+
+5. Thus Constantine, who afterwards obtained the surname of Great, began
+to rule, aged 33-64, though at first only over Britain, Spain, and Gaul;
+nevertheless, after seventeen years of violence and warfare, he
+succeeded in opening himself a way to the sole dominion of the empire.
+The rulers disagreed among themselves; and formidable usurpers started
+up and rendered war inevitable.
+
+  The history of the first seven years of Constantine, 306-313, is very
+  complicated; after that, he had only one rival to struggle with,
+  314-323. At his accession, Galerius, as Augustus, was in possession of
+  all the other provinces; of which, however, he had given to Caesar
+  Maximin the government of those of Asia, and to Caesar Severus, now
+  created Augustus, Italy and Africa. The latter, however, rendering
+  himself odious by his oppression, Maxentius, the son of the former
+  emperor, Maximianus, assumed the title of Augustus at Rome (Oct. 28,
+  306), and associated his father with himself in the government; so
+  that at this time there were six rulers: Galerius, Severus,
+  Constantine, Maximin, and the usurpers Maxentius and his father
+  Maximianus. But in the year 307, Severus, wishing to oppose Maxentius,
+  was abandoned by his own troops, upon which he surrendered himself to
+  Maximianus, who caused him to be executed. In his place Galerius
+  created his friend Licinius, Augustus; and Maximin obtained the same
+  dignity from his army in Asia. In the mean time, Maximianus, after
+  having endeavoured to supplant his own son in Rome, fled to
+  Constantine, who had crossed over into Gaul and there defeated the
+  Franks, 306; but having made an attempt upon the life of Constantine,
+  who had married his daughter Fausta, that emperor caused him to be put
+  to death, 310. As the excesses of Galerius soon brought him to the
+  grave, 311, there only remained Constantine, Licinius, and Maximin,
+  and the usurper Maxentius. The latter was soon defeated and slain,
+  312, before the gates of Rome, by Constantine, who thereby became
+  master of Italy and the capital. A war having broken out about the
+  same time between Maximin and Licinius, Maximin was defeated near
+  Adrianople, and then killed himself, 313. The year 314 brought on a
+  war between the two remaining emperors, Constantine and Licinius,
+  which, however, ended the same year in an accommodation, by which
+  Constantine obtained all the countries on the south bank of the
+  Danube, as well as Thrace and Moesia Inferior; it broke out again,
+  however, in 322, and was finally terminated by a decisive victory in
+  Bithynia, and the total overthrow of Licinius, whom Constantine put to
+  death, 324.
+
+6. However opposite may be the opinions formed respecting the reign of
+Constantine the Great, its consequences are perfectly plain. Although he
+annihilated military despotism, he established in its stead, if not
+completely, yet in great measure, the despotism of the court, and
+likewise the power of the hierarchy. He had already, during his
+expedition against Maxentius, decided in favour of the Christian
+religion; and since he thereby gained a vast number of partisans in all
+the provinces, and weakened at the same time the power of his
+co-emperors, or competitors, it was the surest way he could have taken
+to obtain sole dominion, the great object of his ambition. This change
+must nevertheless have had very considerable influence on every part of
+the government, as he found in the previously established hierarchy a
+powerful support of the throne; and since he, in concert with it,
+settled what was, and what was not the orthodox doctrine, he introduced
+a spirit of persecution heretofore unknown.
+
+  At a period in which religious parties must almost necessarily have
+  become political parties, we can by no means venture to judge of the
+  importance of the sect by the importance of their points of doctrine.
+  The quarrels of the Arians, which arose at this time, gave
+  Constantine, by the council of Nice, 325, the opportunity he wished
+  for, of making good his authority in religious legislation.
+
+7. The removal of the seat of empire from Rome to Constantinople was
+connected with this change in the form of worship--as a Christian court
+would have been awkwardly situated in a city still altogether
+pagan--although the need there was of protecting the frontiers against
+the Goths and Persians had a considerable share therein. It did,
+indeed, become the principal means of establishing the despotism of the
+court; but those who regard it as one of the causes of the decline of
+the empire, should remember, that for an empire fallen so low as the
+Roman was at this time, despotism was almost the only support that
+remained.
+
+  The various partitions of the empire from the time of Diocletian, had
+  led the way to this change of the capital; because a natural result of
+  that system was, that the emperors and Caesars, when not with the army
+  as they usually were, would reside in different cities. The seat of
+  Diocletian's government was at Nicomedia; of Maximian's, at Milan;
+  even Constantine himself remained but very little at Rome. In these
+  new residences they felt themselves unfettered; and therefore,
+  although the Roman senate existed till after the time of Constantine,
+  its authority must have fallen of itself from the time of Diocletian.
+
+8. We ought not, therefore, to wonder that the consequence of this
+removal was so complete a change in the whole form of government, that
+after a short time it seemed to be altogether a different state. A
+partition of the empire was made, which, though it might in part have
+been founded on those which had previously existed, was yet so
+different, that it not only changed the ancient divisions of the
+provinces, but completely altered their mode of government.--The court,
+with the exception of polygamy, assumed entirely the form of an eastern
+court.--A revolution also had taken place in the military system, by the
+complete separation of the civil and military authorities, which the
+praetorian praefects had hitherto possessed, but who now became merely
+civil governors.
+
+  According to the new division the whole empire was divided into four
+  _praefectures_, each of which had its _dioceses_, and each diocese its
+  _provinces_. The praefectures were: I. The eastern (_praefectura
+  Orientis_); it contained five dioceses; 1. _Orientis_; 2. _Aegypti_;
+  3. _Asiae_; 4. _Ponti_; 5. _Thraciae_; forming altogether forty-eight
+  provinces, and comprising all the countries of Asia and Egypt,
+  together with the frontier countries of Libya and Thrace. II.
+  _Praefectura Illyrici_, containing two dioceses; 1. _Macedoniae_; 2.
+  _Daciae_; forming eleven provinces, and comprising Moesia, Macedon,
+  Greece, and Crete. III. _Praefectura Italiae_, containing three
+  dioceses; 1. _Italiae_; 2. _Illyrici_; 3. _Africae_; forming twenty-nine
+  provinces, and comprising Italy, the countries on the south of the
+  Danube, as far as the boundaries of Moesia; the islands of Sicily,
+  Sardinia, and Corsica, and the African provinces of the Syrtis. IV.
+  _Praefectura Galliarum_, containing three dioceses; 1. _Galliae_; 2.
+  _Hispaniae_; 3. _Britanniae_; forming altogether twenty-eight provinces,
+  and comprising Spain and the Balearian islands, Gaul, Helvetia, and
+  Britain.--Each of these praefectures was under a _praefectus praetorio_
+  (praetorian praefect), but who was merely a civil governor, and had
+  under him _vicarios_, in the dioceses, as well as the _rectores
+  provinciarum_, of various ranks and titles. They were named
+  _proconsules praesides_, etc. Besides these, Rome and Constantinople,
+  not being included in any of the four praefectures, had each its
+  praefect.
+
+  As principal officers of state and the court (_s. cubiculi_), we now
+  for the first time meet with the _praepositus s. cubiculi_
+  (grand-chamberlain), under whom were all the _comites palatii_ and
+  _cubicularii_, in four divisions; these, at a later period, were
+  frequently eunuchs of great influence; the _magister officiorum_
+  (chancellor, minister of the interior); the _comes sacrarum
+  largitiorum_ (minister of the finances); the _quaestor_ (the organ of
+  the emperors in legislation; minister of justice and secretary of
+  state); the _comes rei principis_ (minister of the crown-treasury)
+  [privy-purse]; the two _comites domesticorum_ (commander of the
+  household guards), each of whom had his corps (_scholas_) under him.
+  The number of the state officers and courtiers was continually
+  increasing. If the good of a commonwealth consisted in forms, ranks,
+  and titles, the Roman empire must at this time have been truly happy!
+
+  At the head of the troops were the _magistri peditum_ (masters of the
+  infantry) and the _magistri equitum_ (masters of the horse), under the
+  _magister utriusque militae_ (general in chief of the whole army).
+  Their subordinate commanders were called _comites_ and _duces_.
+  Constantine considerably reduced the army. In the arrangement of the
+  troops he also made great alterations; these, however, were but of
+  slight consequence compared with that which was produced by admitting
+  into the service a continually increasing number of barbarians.
+
+  _Notitia dignitatem utriusque Imperii cum not._ PANCIROLLI GRAEV.
+  _Thesaur. Antiquitat. Rom._ vol. vii.
+
+9. It would naturally be expected that these great changes should lead
+to others in the system of taxation. New taxes, or old ones revived,
+were added to those already existing, and became, by the manner in which
+they were collected, doubly oppressive. We shall particularly notice,
+_a._ The annual land-tax (_indictio_). _b._ The tax upon trade (_aurum
+lustrale_). _c._ The free gift (_don. gratuit._), now grown into an
+obligatory tax (_aurum coronarium_). To these we must add the municipal
+expenses, which fell entirely upon the citizens, and especially upon the
+civic officers (_decuriones_), places which must have been generally
+held by the rich, as Constantine had in great measure appropriated the
+wealth of the cities to the endowment of churches, and the support of
+the clergy.
+
+  _a._ The land-tax, or _indiction_, which if not first introduced by
+  Constantine was entirely regulated under him, was collected after an
+  exact register, or public valuation, of all the landed estates. Its
+  amount was yearly fixed and prescribed by the emperor (_indicebatur_),
+  and levied by the rectors of provinces and the decurions; an arbitrary
+  standard (_caput_) being taken as the rate of assessment.
+
+  As this register was probably reviewed every fifteen years, it gave
+  rise to the _cycle of indictions_ of fifteen years, which became the
+  common era, beginning from September 1, 312. In this manner the tax
+  included all those who were possessed of property. _b._ The tax on
+  commerce; which was levied on almost every kind of trade. It was
+  collected every four years, whence the _aurum lustrale_. _c._ The
+  _aurum coronarium_ grew out of the custom which obtained of
+  presenting the emperors with golden crowns on particular occasions;
+  the value of which was at last exacted in money. Every considerable
+  city was obliged to pay it.
+
+10. The rapid spread of the Christian religion, the promulgation of
+which was enforced as a duty upon all its professors, was now
+accelerated by the endeavours of the court. Constantine forbade
+sacrifices, and shut up the temples; and the violent zeal of his
+successors unfortunately soon turned them into ruins.
+
+  _Histoire de Constantin-le-Grand_, _par le_ R. P. BERN. DE VARENNE.
+  Paris, 1778, 4to.
+
+  _Vita di Constantino il Grande dell'_ ABB. FR. GUSTA. Fuligno, 1786.
+  Both these works, especially the first, are written in a tone of
+  panegyric; the latest, and by far the best, is
+
+  # _Life of Constantine the Great_, by J. C. F. MANSO. Bresl. 1817.
+  With several very learned appendixes, which clear up some particular
+  points.
+
+11. The three Caesars and sons of Constantine the Great, Constantine,
+337-340; Constantius, 337-361; and Constans, 337-350; had been carefully
+educated, and yet resembled one another as much in their vices as they
+did in their names. They indeed divided the empire again upon the death
+of their father; but were so eager after territory, which neither of
+them was qualified to govern, that a series of wars followed for the
+next twelve years, till at last Constantius was left master of the
+whole; and by the murder of most of his relations secured the throne to
+himself.
+
+  In the partition of the empire Constantine obtained the _praefectura
+  Galliarum_, Constans the _praefectura Italiae et Illyrici_, and
+  Constantius the _praefectura Orientis_. But as Constantine desired to
+  add Italy and Africa to his portion, he attacked Constans, and
+  thereby lost his life, so that Constans came into thee possession of
+  the western countries. In consequence, however, of his wretched
+  misgovernment, Magnentius, a general, proclaimed himself emperor in
+  Gaul, and Constans was slain in endeavouring to escape, 350. A war
+  with Constantius, who was then occupied in the east, became
+  inevitable, and broke out 351. The usurper was defeated first at Mursa
+  in Pannonia, then retreating into Gaul he was again defeated, 353;
+  upon which he slew himself, together with his family.
+
+12. As Constantius, however--sunk in effeminacy and debauchery, and
+surrounded and governed by eunuchs--was unable to sustain the weight of
+government alone, he took his cousin Constantius Gallus, hitherto a
+state prisoner, and whose father he had formerly slain, to his
+assistance, created him Caesar, and sent him into the east against the
+Parthians. But his excessive arrogance, which was fomented by his wife
+Constantina, rendered him so dangerous that Constantius recalled him,
+and caused him, upon his return, to be put to death in Istria. His
+younger brother Fl. Julian, from whom the suspicious Constantius
+believed he had nothing to fear, was promoted in his place, created
+Caesar, and sent to defend the frontiers on the Rhine. Although Julian
+passed suddenly from study to warfare, he not only fought against the
+Germans with success, but also made a deep inroad into their country. In
+the mean time Constantius, after his generals had been beaten by the
+Persians, who wished to reconquer the provinces they had ceded, was
+preparing an expedition against them in person, and with that view
+endeavoured gradually to withdraw the troops of Julian, in consequence
+of which the latter, suspecting his design, was induced to accept the
+diadem presented by his soldiers. While marching, however, along the
+Danube against Constantius, he received information of that prince's
+death in Asia.
+
+13. Fl. Julian, (the apostate,) who reigned from his twenty-ninth to his
+thirty-second year, was the last and most highly gifted prince of the
+house of Constantine. Instructed by misfortunes and study, he yet had
+some faults, though certainly free from great vices. He began with
+reforming the luxury of the court. His abjuration of the religion now
+become dominant, and which he wished to annihilate by degrees, was an
+error in policy, which he must have discovered to his cost had his reign
+been prolonged. Wishing, however, to terminate the war against the
+Persians, he penetrated as far as the Tigris, where he lost his life in
+an engagement, after a reign of three years.
+
+  # _The Emperor Julian and his Times_, by AUGUST. NEANDER. Leipsic,
+  1812. An historical sketch.
+
+14. Fl. Jovianus, now thirty-three years of age, was immediately raised
+to the purple by the army. He concluded a peace with the Persians, by
+which he restored them all the territory that had been conquered from
+them since the year 297. After a short reign of eight months he was
+carried off by a sudden disorder; and the army proclaimed Fl.
+Valentinian at Nice in his stead, Valentinian almost immediately
+associated his brother Valens with himself in the government, and
+divided the empire by giving him the _praefectura Orientis_, and
+retaining the rest for himself.
+
+15. The reign of Valentinian I. in the east, who, in the year 367,
+created his son Gratian Augustus with himself, is distinguished by the
+system of toleration which he followed with regard to the affairs of
+religion, though in other respects a cruel prince. Nearly the whole of
+his reign was taken up in almost continual struggles with the German
+nations, who had recovered from the losses they had suffered under
+Julian. His first efforts were directed against the Franks, the Saxons,
+and the Alemanni on the Rhine; and afterwards against the Quadi and
+other nations on the Danube; where he died of apoplexy at Guntz in
+Hungary.
+
+16. In the mean time his brother Valens (aged 38-52 years) had to
+contend with a powerful insurrection which had broken out in the east. A
+certain Procopius had instigated the people to this, by taking advantage
+of the discontent occasioned by the oppression of Valens, who, having
+adopted the opinion of the Arians, was more disliked in the east than
+his brother was in the west. His war against the Persians ended with a
+truce. But the most important event that happened during his reign, was
+the entrance of the Huns into Europe, which took place towards its
+close. This in its turn gave rise to the great popular migration, by
+which the Roman empire in the west may properly be said to have been
+overthrown. The immediate consequence was the admission of the greater
+part of the Visigoths into the Roman empire, and this occasioned a war
+which cost Valens his life.
+
+  The Huns, a nomad people of Asia, belonged to the great Mongolian
+  race. Having penetrated to the Don, 373, they subdued the Goths upon
+  that river as far as the Theiss. The Goths, divided into Ostrogoths
+  and Visigoths, were separated from one another by the Dnieper. The
+  former, driven from their country, fell upon the Visigoths, in
+  consequence of which the emperor Valens was requested by the latter to
+  grant them admission into the Roman empire, and with the exception of
+  the Vandals, who had been seated in Pannonia from the time of
+  Constantine, they were the first barbarian nation that had been
+  settled within the boundaries of the empire. The scandalous oppression
+  of the Roman governor, however, drove them into rebellion; and as
+  Valens marched against them, he was defeated near Adrianople and lost
+  his life, 378.
+
+17. During these events, Gratian (aged 16-24 years) succeeded his father
+Valentinian I. in the west, and immediately associated his brother,
+Valentinian II. (aged 5-21 years) with himself in the empire; giving
+him, though under his own superintendence, the _praefectura Italiae et
+Illyrici_. Gratian set forward to the assistance of his uncle Valens
+against the Goths, but receiving on his march an account of his defeat
+and death, and fearing the east might fall a prey to the Goths, he
+raised Theodosius, a Spaniard, who had already distinguished himself as
+a warrior, to the purple, and gave him the _praefectura Orientis et
+Illyrici_.
+
+18. The indolent reign of Gratian led to the rebellion of Maximus, a
+commander in Britain, who, crossing into Gaul, was so strongly supported
+by the defection of the Gallic legions, that Gratian was obliged to seek
+safety in flight. He was, however, overtaken and put to death at Lyons.
+By this event Maximus found himself in possession of all the _praefectura
+Galliarum_; and by promising Theodosius not to interfere with the young
+Valentinian II. in Italy, he prevailed upon him to acknowledge him
+emperor. But having broken his promise by the invasion of Italy, he was
+defeated and made prisoner by Theodosius in Pannonia, and soon after
+executed. Upon this Valentinian II. a youth of whom great hopes were
+entertained, became again master of all the west. But, unfortunately, he
+was murdered by the offended Arbogast, his _magister militum_; who,
+thereupon, raised to the throne his own friend Eugenius, _magister
+officiorum_. Theodosius, however, so far from acknowledging, declared
+war against him and made him prisoner. He himself thus became master of
+the whole empire, but died in the following year.
+
+19. The vigorous reign of Theodosius in the east, from his thirty-fourth
+to his fiftieth year, was not less devoted to politics than to religion.
+The dexterity with which he at first broke the power of the victorious
+Goths (though they still preserved their quarters in the provinces on
+the Danube), procured him considerable influence, which the strength and
+activity of his character enabled him easily to maintain. The blind
+zeal, however, with which he persecuted Arianism, now the prevailing
+creed in the east, and restored the orthodox belief, as well as the
+persecutions which he directed against the pagans and the destruction of
+their temples, occasioned the most dreadful convulsions. His efforts to
+preserve the boundaries of the empire, not a province of which was lost
+before his death, required an increase of taxes; and however oppressive
+this might be, we cannot impute it to the ruler as a crime. In an
+empire so enfeebled in itself, and which, nevertheless, had powerful
+foes on every side to contend with, it followed that every active reign
+would be oppressive. Yet never before had the internal depopulation of
+the empire made it necessary to take so many barbarians into Roman pay,
+as under this reign; whence naturally followed a change in the arms and
+tactics of the Roman armies.
+
+  P. ERASM. MULLER, _de genio saeculi Theodosiani_. Havniae, 1798, 2 vols.
+  A very learned and in every respect excellent description of the
+  deeply-decayed Roman world as it now stood.
+
+20. Theodosius left two sons, between whom the empire was divided. Both
+parts, however, were certainly considered as forming but one empire--an
+opinion which afterwards prevailed, and even till late in the middle
+ages had important consequences--yet never since this period have they
+been reunited under one ruler. The eastern empire, comprising the
+_praefectura Orientis et Illyrici_, was allotted to the eldest son,
+Arcadius (aged 18-31) under the guardianship of Rufinus the Gaul. The
+western, or the _praefectura Galliarum et Italiae_, to the younger,
+Honorius, aged 11-39, under the guardianship of the Vandal Stilico.
+
+21. The western empire, to the history of which we shall now confine
+ourselves, suffered such violent shocks during the reign of Honorius, as
+made its approaching fall plainly visible. The intrigues of Stilico to
+procure himself the government of the whole empire, opened a way for the
+Goths into its interior, just at a time when they were doubly
+formidable, fortune having given them a leader greatly superior to any
+they had hitherto had. Alaric king of the Visigoths established himself
+and his people in the Roman empire, became master of Rome, and mounted
+the throne: it was the mere effect of chance that he did not overthrow
+it altogether.
+
+  Both Honorius and Arcadius, especially the latter, belonged to that
+  class of men who never come to years of maturity; their favourites and
+  ministers therefore governed according to their own inclination.
+  Stilico, who made Honorius his son-in-law, was not deficient, indeed,
+  in abilities for governing; and his endeavour to obtain the management
+  of the whole empire, arose, perhaps, from the conviction that it was
+  necessary he should have it. He could not, however, gain his object by
+  intrigue; for after the murder of Rufinus; 395, he found a still more
+  powerful opponent in the eunuch Eutropius, his successor in the east.
+  Under the regency of Stilico, Gaul, in consequence of its troops being
+  withdrawn to oppose Alaric, 400, was inundated by German tribes--by
+  Vandals, Alani, and Suevi--who from thence penetrated even into Spain.
+  Nevertheless, he preserved Italy from their attacks by the victory
+  which he gained, 403, over Alaric at Verona; and again over
+  Radagaisus, 405, who had advanced with other German hordes as far as
+  Florence. But Stilico, having entered into a secret alliance with
+  Alaric, for the purpose of wresting eastern Illyrica from the empire
+  of the east, was overreached by the intrigues of the new favourite
+  Olympius, whose cabal knew how to take advantage of the weakness of
+  Honorius, and of the jealousy of the Roman and foreign soldiers.
+  Stilico was accused of aspiring to the throne, and was executed August
+  23, 408. Rome lost in him the only general that was left to defend
+  her. Alaric invaded Italy the same year, 408, and the besieged Rome
+  was obliged to purchase peace; the conditions, however, not being
+  fulfilled, he was again, 409, before Rome, became master of the city,
+  and created Attalus, the praefect of the city, emperor instead of
+  Honorius, who had shut himself up in Ravenna. In 410 he assumed the
+  diadem; and, making himself master of the city by force, gave it up to
+  be plundered by his troops. Soon afterwards, while projecting the
+  capture of Sicily and Africa, he died in lower Italy. His
+  brother-in-law and successor, Adolphus, together with his Goths, left
+  Italy, now completely exhausted, 412, went into Gaul, and from thence
+  proceeding into Spain, founded there the empire of the Visigoths: he
+  carried with him, however, Placidia the sister of Honorius, either as
+  prisoner or as hostage, and married her in Gaul. During these events
+  an usurper arose in Britain and Gaul named Constantine, 407: he was
+  vanquished, and put to death, 411, by Constantius, one of Honorius's
+  generals. This latter prince not only gave Constantius his sister
+  Placidia, who had become a widow and was restored in 417, in marriage,
+  but also named him Augustus in 421. He died, however, a few months
+  after, so that Placidia henceforward had a considerable share in the
+  government. She went nevertheless, 423, to Constantinople, where she
+  remained until the death of Honorius.
+
+  # _Fl. Stilico, or the Wallenstein of Antiquity_, by CHR. FR. SCHULZE,
+  1805. Not written by way of comparison.
+
+22. In this manner was a great part of Spain, and part of Gaul, cut off
+from the Roman empire during the reign of Honorius. After his death the
+secretary John usurped the government, but was defeated by the eastern
+emperor Theodosius II. The nephew of Honorius, Valentinian III. a minor
+(aged 6-36), was then raised to the throne, under the guardian care of
+his mother Placidia (! 450). Under his miserable reign the western
+empire was stripped of almost all her provinces with the exception of
+Italy. Yet the government of his mother, and afterwards his own
+incapacity, were as much the cause as the stormy migration of barbarous
+tribes, which now convulsed all Europe.
+
+  Britain had been voluntarily left by the Romans since 427. In Africa,
+  the governor Boniface having been driven into rebellion by the
+  intrigues of the Roman general Aetius, who possessed the ear of
+  Placidia, invited the Vandals from Spain, under the command of
+  Genseric, to come to his assistance. The latter then obtained
+  possession of the country, 429-439; indeed, even as early as 435,
+  Valentinian was obliged to make a formal cession of it to them.
+  Valentinian's wife Eudoxia, a Grecian princess, was purchased by the
+  cession of western Illyricum (Pannonia, Dalmatia, and Noricum); so
+  that of all the countries south of the Danube there now only remained
+  those which belonged to the praefecture of Italy: Rhaetia and
+  Vindelicia. On the south-east of Gaul was formed, 435, the kingdom of
+  the Burgundians, which, besides the south-east part of France,
+  comprised also Switzerland and Savoy. The south-west was under the
+  dominion of the Visigoths. There remained only the territory north of
+  the Loire which still submitted to the Roman governors; the last of
+  whom, Syagrius, survived the fall of the empire itself; holding out
+  till the year 486, when he was defeated near Soissons by Clodovicus,
+  or Clovis, king of the Franks.
+
+23. But while the western empire seemed thus of itself almost to fall to
+pieces, another impetuous rush of nations took place, which threatened
+the whole of western Europe. The victorious hordes of Huns who now
+occupied the territory formerly the seat of the Goths, between the Don
+and the Theiss, and even as far as the Volga, had united themselves,
+since the year 444, under one common chief, Attila; who, by this union
+and his own superior talents as a warrior and ruler, became the most
+powerful prince of his time. The eastern empire having bought a peace by
+paying him a yearly tribute, he fell with a mighty army upon the western
+provinces. The united forces, however, of the Romans under Aetius and the
+Visigoths, obliged him near Chalons (_in campis Catalaunicis_) to
+retreat. Nevertheless, the following year he again invaded Italy, where
+he had a secret understanding with the licentious Honoria, Valentinian's
+sister. The cause of his second retreat, which was soon followed by his
+death, is unknown. The miserable Valentinian soon after deprived the
+Roman empire of its best general, being led by his suspicions to put
+Aetius to death. He himself, however, was soon doomed to undergo the
+punishment of his debaucheries, being murdered in a conspiracy formed by
+Petronius Maximus, whose wife he had dishonoured, and some friends of
+Aetius, whom he had executed.
+
+24. The twenty years which intervened between the assassination of
+Valentinian, and the final destruction of the Roman empire in the west,
+was nearly one continued series of intestine revolutions. No less than
+nine sovereigns rapidly succeeded one another. These changes, indeed,
+were but of little importance in this troublesome period, compared to
+the terror with which Genseric king of the Vandals filled the Roman
+empire: he by his naval power having become master of the Mediterranean
+and Sicily, could ravage the coasts of the defenceless Italy at his
+pleasure, and even capture Rome itself. While in Italy, the German
+Ricimer, general of the foreign troops in Roman pay, permitted a series
+of emperors to reign in his name. It would have been his lot to put an
+end to this series of Augusti, but for mere accident, which reserved
+that glory for his son and successor, Odoacer, four years after his
+father's death.
+
+  After the death of Valentinian, Maximus was proclaimed emperor; but as
+  he wished to compel Eudoxia, Valentinian's widow, to marry him, she
+  called over Genseric from Africa, who took and pillaged Rome, and
+  Maximus perished after a reign of three months, 455. He was succeeded
+  by M. Avitus, who ascended the throne at Arles; and he again was soon
+  deposed by Ricimer, 456, who, just before, had defeated the fleet of
+  the Vandals. Ricimer now placed upon the throne, first Julianus
+  Majorianus, April 1, 457; but he, having distinguished himself in the
+  wars against the Vandals, 461, was set aside, and Libius Severus put
+  in his place, who, however, died in 465, probably of poison. His
+  death was followed by an interregnum of two years, during which
+  Ricimer ruled, though without the title of emperor. At length the
+  patrician Anthemius, then at Constantinople (where they never gave up
+  their pretensions to the right of naming or confirming the sovereigns
+  of the west), was, though not without the consent of the powerful
+  Ricimer, named emperor of the west, April 12, 467, by the emperor Leo.
+  But differences having arisen between him and Ricimer, the latter
+  retired to Milan, 469, and commenced a war, in which he took and
+  pillaged Rome, and Anthemius was slain. Ricimer himself followed soon
+  after, ! Aug. 18, 472. Upon this, Anicius Olybrius, son-in-law of
+  Valentinian III. was proclaimed Augustus, but dying in three
+  months, Oct. 472, Glycerius assumed the purple at Ravenna, without,
+  however, being acknowledged at Constantinople, where they in
+  preference named Julius Nepos Augustus. The latter, in 474, having
+  expelled Glycerius, became also in his turn expelled by his own
+  general Orestes, 475, who gave the diadem to his son Romulus
+  Momyllus, who, as the last in the succession of Augusti, acquired
+  the surname of Augustulus. In 476, however, Odoacer, the leader of
+  the Germans in the Roman pay at Rome, sent him, after the execution
+  of Orestes, into captivity, and allowed him a pension. Odoacer now
+  remained master of Italy till the year 492, when the Ostrogoths,
+  under their king Theodoric, founded there a new empire.
+
+25. Thus fell the Roman empire of the west, while that of the east,
+pressed on every side, and in a situation almost similar, endured a
+thousand years, notwithstanding its intestine broils, which would alone
+have sufficed to destroy any other, and the hosts of barbarians who
+attacked it during the middle ages. The impregnable situation of its
+capital, which usually decides the fate of such kingdoms, joined to its
+despotism, which is not unfrequently the main support of a kingdom in
+its decline, can alone, in some measure, explain a phenomenon which has
+no equal in the history of the world.
+
+
+
+
+APPENDIX.
+
+    CHRONOLOGY OF HERODOTUS TO THE TIME OF CYRUS, EXTRACTED FROM THE
+    RESEARCHES OF M. VOLNEY. See Preface.
+
+
+Although Herodotus did not write his work in chronological order, yet
+we cannot doubt that he had some general plan of computing time. By
+carefully selecting and comparing the separate data scattered through
+his work, this plan to a certain extent may be traced out, and early
+history, with regard to settled chronology, must necessarily gain a good
+deal. The following essay is founded upon a procedure of this kind; it
+is drawn entirely from Herodotus, and only from data which he has
+precisely determined, the passages of his work being always referred to.
+
+The year B. C. 561, in which the fall of Astyages and the Median empire
+took place, as may be proved from Herodotus himself, is a fixed point of
+time from which we may ascend into higher antiquity. This point of time
+may be determined by the chronological data respecting the battle of
+Marathon, four years before the death of Darius (Herodotus VII. 1. 4.)
+agreeing with the general data of the Greeks, who fix it in the third
+year of the 72nd Olymp. B. C. 490. By adding to this the thirty-two
+years of Darius's reign that had already elapsed (Herodotus, ibid.), the
+eight months of Smerdis (Herodotus, III. 68.), the seven years and five
+months of Cambyses (Herodotus III. 66.), and the twenty-nine years of
+Cyrus (Herodotus, I. 214.), we obtain the year 560 as the first year of
+Cyrus.
+
+
+I. CHRONOLOGY OF THE MEDIAN EMPIRE.
+
+                                                               B. C.
+  End of the Median empire                                      561.
+  Duration of the Median empire one hundred and
+    fifty-six years (Herodotus, I, 130.)
+  The beginning of it, therefore, after their separation
+    from the Assyrians, would be                                717.
+  In this period, at first, six years of anarchy[a]         716-710.
+  Reign of Deioces fifty-three years (Herodotus, I. 102.)   710-657.
+  Reign of Phraortes, twenty-two years (ibid.)              657-635.
+  Cyaxares, forty years (I. 106.)                           635-595.
+  Irruption and dominion of the Scythians, twenty-eight
+ years (I. 203. 106.)                                       625-598.
+  Conquest of Nineveh (I. 106.)                                 597.
+  Astyages reigned thirty-five years (I. 130.)              595-561.
+
+The succession of Median kings given by Ctesias, which entirely differs
+from this, the author thinks might be explained by a duplication;
+see # _Gott. Gel. Anz._ 1810, p. 4.
+
+  [a] These are certainly not determined from Herodotus; but they
+      remain after subtracting the one hundred and fifty years'
+      reign of the four Median kings.
+
+
+II. CHRONOLOGY OF THE ASSYRIAN EMPIRE.
+
+The dominion of the Assyrians over Asia, or their empire, ended with the
+revolt of the Medes (Herodotus, I. 95.); although the existence of their
+state did not then end, but terminated with the capture of Nineveh by
+Cyaxares, B. C. 597.
+
+                                                               B. C.
+  Revolt of the Medes, as above                                 717.
+  The dominion of the Assyrians had endured five
+    hundred and twenty years (Herodotus, I. 95.)
+  The Assyrian empire lasted therefore from                1237-717.
+
+As Herodotus intended to write the history of this empire in a separate
+work (I. 184.), he only casually mentions (I. 7.) its founder Ninus, who
+began to reign 1237; and afterwards Sennacherib and his expedition (II.
+141.); and the last king, Sardanapalus (II. 150.).
+
+The mention of Sennacherib and his expedition furnishes a point of time
+for comparing the chronology of Herodotus with that of the Bible, or the
+Jews. According to the latter, Sennacherib's expedition took place B. C.
+714. (see above, p. 26.); his death takes place immediately after, and
+he has for his successor Esar-haddon, 2 Kings, xix. 37. Here then is
+certainly a contradiction, since, according to Herodotus, the Assyrian
+dominion had ceased three years before, namely, 717. M. Volney
+endeavours to reconcile this difficulty by the restoration of an ancient
+reading in the sacred text; according to which Amon, king of Judaea,
+reigned twelve years instead of two (2 Kings, xxi. 10.); from which it
+would follow, that the expedition of Sennacherib took place in 724. As
+this would leave seven years after his death for his successor
+Esar-haddon, who agrees both in time and name with the Sardanapalus of
+the Greeks (the Greek name being formed from Esar-haddon-pal, i. e.
+Esar, the lord, son of Pal), the two chronologies are thus made to agree
+exactly. But even in following the ancient usual reading, the greatest
+difference between the two statements is only ten years; quite as little
+as can be reasonably expected under such circumstances.
+
+With regard to the Assyrian chronology of Ctesias, M. Volney has
+satisfactorily shown that it is full of contradictions, and unworthy of
+any credit.
+
+
+III. CHRONOLOGY OF THE LYDIAN EMPIRE.
+
+The arrangement of the Lydian chronology rests upon the settlement of
+two principal facts: first, the great eclipse of the sun under Alyattes,
+foretold by Thales (Herodotus, I. 74.); and secondly, the conquest of
+Sardes, and overthrow of the empire under Croesus, by Cyrus; both of
+which Herodotus certainly mentions, but without assigning any precise
+date. But by a careful comparison of all the data it has been proved,
+that the great eclipse in Asia Minor (according to the Tables of Pingre)
+happened in the year 625; and the conquest of Sardes, and the end of the
+Lydian empire, B. C. 557, or in the fourth year of Cyrus. Therefore:
+
+                                                               B. C.
+  End of the Lydian empire                                      557.
+
+It subsisted under three houses; under that of the Atyadae (fabulous and
+uncertain); under that of the Heraclidae, five hundred and five years
+(Herodotus, I. 7.); and under the last, that of the Mermnadae, one
+hundred and seventy years.
+
+The Heraclidae and Mermnadae, then, reigned altogether six hundred and
+seventy-five years. Therefore:
+
+                                                               B. C.
+  Commencement of the reign of the Heraclidae, with Agron
+    the son of Ninus (I. 7.)                                   1232.
+  End of this house with the murder of Candaules, by Gyges      727.
+
+By fixings the time of Agron, son of Ninus, Herodotus verifies himself
+(I. 7.); as, by the preceding data, Ninus began his reign in Assyria,
+1237; consequently, it must have been in the fifth year of his reign
+that he conquered Lydia, and placed his son Agron upon the throne.
+
+                                                               B. C.
+  Dominion of the Mermnadae, one hundred and seventy
+    years, under kings of that house                        727-557.
+  Gyges, thirty-eight years (Herodotus, I. 14.)             727-689.
+  Ardys, forty-nine years (Herodotus, I. 16.)               689-640.
+  First irruption of the Cimmerians                             670.
+  Sadyattes, twelve years (Herodotus, I. 16.)               640-628.
+  Alyattes, fifty-seven years (Herodotus, I. 25.)           628-571.
+  War with Cyaxares, ending with the great eclipse,
+    and second irruption of the Cimmerians                      625.
+  Croesus, fourteen years and fourteen days (Herodotus,
+    I. 86.)                                                 571-557.
+
+
+IV. CHRONOLOGY OF THE BABYLONIANS.
+
+For this as well as for the Egyptians there is no evidence to guide
+us, the data being very scanty, and taken from Herodotus alone. The
+chronology of the Babylonians, according to the canon of Ptolemy, begins
+with Nabonassar, 747, who was succeeded by twelve kings (mentioned in
+the same canon), down to Nabopolassar; (see above, p. 28.)
+
+                                       B. C.
+  Nabopolassar                        627-604.
+  Nebuchadnezzar                      604-561.
+  Evil-Merodach                       561-559.
+  Neriglissar                         559-555.
+  Labynetus                           555-538.
+  Conquest of Babylon by Cyrus            538.
+
+
+V. CHRONOLOGY OF THE EGYPTIANS.
+
+M. Volney very properly commences this with the dodecarchy--as of the
+earlier periods only the time of Sesostris, 1365, is ascertained;--and
+arranges it in the following manner.
+
+                                                       B. C.
+  Dodecarchy                                          671-656.
+  Psammetichus's sole dominion thirty-nine years      656-617.
+  Reign of Neco, sixteen years                        617-601.
+  -------- Psammis, six years                         601-595.
+  -------- Apries, twenty-five years                  595-570.
+  -------- Amasis, forty-four years                   570-526.
+  Psammenitus, six months                                 525.
+  Conquest of Egypt by Cambyses
+
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+I. THE REIGNING HOUSES OF MACEDON.
+
+
+I. HOUSE OF ALEXANDER THE GREAT.
+
+    PHILIP ! 336. married,  1. Olympias. 2. Cleopatra. (3. Concubines.)
+         |
+  +------------------------------------------------------------------+
+  |           1.         1. Cleopatra.           3.               3. |
+              |                                  |                |
+  ALEXANDER THE GREAT ! 323.           PHILIP ARRHIDAEUS ! 317.   |
+  married, 1. Roxana. (2. Barsine.)       married Eurydice.       |
+              |                                                   |
+  +--------------------------------------+              Thessalonice.
+  |        1.                 2.         |            married Cassander.
+     ALEXANDER ! 311.   HERCULES ! 309.
+
+
+II. HOUSE OF ANTIPATER.
+
+                       ANTIPATER ! 320.
+                             |
+          CASSANDER ! 298, married Thessalonice.
+                             |
+  +-------------------------------------------------------+
+  | PHILIP ! 297.    ANTIPATER ! 294.    ALEXANDER ! 294. |
+
+
+III. HOUSE OF ANTIGONUS.
+
+                                ANTIGONUS ! 301.
+                                       |
+                         DEMETRIUS I. POLIORCETES ! 284.
+                                       |
+  +-----------------------------------------------------------------+
+  |       Stratonice.                   ANTIGONUS I. GONATAS ! 242. |
+     married, 1. Seleucus I.                         |
+              2. Antiochus I.  +-------------------------------------+
+                               | DEMETRIUS II. ! 233.     Alcyoneus. |
+                                        |                     |
+                            +-------------------+    +---------------+
+                            | PHILIP II. ! 179. |    | ANTIGONUS II. |
+                                      |                 DOSON ! 221
+                      +------------------------------------+
+                      | PERSEUS ! 166.    Demetrius ! 180. |
+
+
+
+
+II. GENEALOGICAL TABLE OF THE SELEUCIDAE.
+
+
+                      SELEUCUS I. NICATOR ! 281.
+  married, 1. Apame. 2. Stratonice, daughter of Demetrius Poliorcetes.
+                                   |
+  +--------------------------------------------------------------------+
+  |             1.                                            2.       |
+     ANTIOCHUS I. SOTER ! 262. married,                Phila married
+     1. Stratonice, his mother-in-law. 2. Anonymous.   Antigonus Gonatas
+                           |                           king of Macedon.
+                           |
+  +--------------------------------------------------------------------+
+  |                1.                           1.               2.    |
+    ANTIOCHUS II. THEOS ! 247.                Apame            Laodice.
+    married,                                  married Magas
+     1. Laodice, his sister-in-law.           of Cyrene.
+     2. Berenice, daughter of Ptol. Philad.
+                     |
+  +--------------------------------------------------------------------+
+  |             1.                         1.                 1.       |
+     SELEUCUS II. CALLINICUS ! 227.   Antiochus    Stratonice married
+     married Laodice,                 Hierax.      Ariarathes IV. of
+     daughter of Andromachus,                      Cappadocia.
+     father of Achaeus.
+                 |
+  +--------------------------------------------------------------------+
+  | SELEUCUS III.   Stratonice married  ANTIOCHUS III. THE GREAT ! 187.|
+   CERAUNUS ! 224.    Mithridates IV.    married Laodice, daughter of
+                        of Pontus.        Mithridates IV. of Pontus.
+                                                    |
+  +------------------------------------------------------------------+
+  | Antiochus  Laodice.  |  ANTIOCHUS IV.    Cleopatra    Antiochis  |
+      ! 192.             | EPIPHANES ! 164.   married      married
+                         |       |           Ptolemy V.   Ariarathes V.
+                         |       |                         of Cappad.
+                         |   +-----------------------------+
+                         |   | ANTIOCHUS V. EUPATOR ! 161. |
+                         |
+            SELEUCUS IV. PHILOPATOR ! 176.
+              married his sister Laodice.
+                         |
+    +------------------------------------------------------+
+    |     DEMETRIUS I.           Laodice                   |
+             ! 150.       married Perseus king of Maced.
+              |
+  +--------------------------------------------------------------------+
+  | DEMETRIUS II. NICATOR ! 126. married,     ANTIOCHUS SIDETES ! 131. |
+    1. Cleopatra, daughter of Ptol. Philom.        married his
+    2. Rhodogyne.   |                        daughter-in-law, Cleopatra.
+                    |                                   |
+  +-------------------------------------+  +---------------------------+
+  |SELEUCUS V.  ANTIOCHUS GRYPHUS ! 97. |  | ANTIOCHUS CYZICENUS ! 96. |
+     ! 125.     married Cleopatra Selene,       married Cleopatra,
+                 daughter of Ptol. Phys.      daughter of Ptol. Phys.
+                           |                            |
+                           |             +----------------------------+
+                           |             | ANTIOCHUS EUSEBES ! c. 90. |
+                           |               married Cleopatra Selene.
+                           |                            |
+                           |   +---------------------------------------+
+                           |   |    ANTIOCHUS     SELEUCUS CYBIOSACTES |
+                           |      ASIATICUS ! 58.    ! 57. married
+                           |                       Berenice, daughter
+                           |                        of Ptol. Auletes.
+                           |
+  +------------------------------------------------------------------+
+  |   Seleucus       Antioch.      Philippus     Demetr.    Antioch. |
+    Epiph. ! 94.   Epiph. ! 93.   Epiph. ! 83.   Eucar.     Dionys.
+                                                ! c. 87.     ! 89.
+
+
+
+
+III. GENEALOGICAL TABLE OF THE PTOLEMIES.
+
+
+             PTOLEMY I. son of LAGUS ! 284.
+             married, 1. Eurydice, daughter of Antipater.
+                      2. Berenice.
+                     (3. Concubines.)
+                             |
+      +-----------------------------------------------------+
+      |                  |                   |              |
+      1.                 |                   |              |
+  Ptol. Ceraunus ! 279.  |                   2.             |
+  king of Macedonia.     |                Arsinoe           |
+                         2.                                 |
+              PTOL. II. PHILADELPHUS ! 246.                 3.
+              married, 1. Arsinoe, daughter        Magas of Cyrene.
+                        of Lysimachus.                   |
+                       2. His sister Arsinoe.     +-------------+
+                         |                           Berenice
+                         |
+        +-------------------------------------------------------+
+        | PTOL. III. EVERGETES ! 221.   Berenice married        |
+          Married Berenice,             Antiochus Theos.
+          daughter of Magas.
+                  |
+  +-------------------------------------------------------------+
+  | PTOL. IV. PHILOPATOR ! 204.             Magas.     Arsinoe. |
+    married, 1. His sister Arsinoe.
+            (2. Agathoclea.)
+                  |
+  +----------------------------+
+  | PTOL. V. EPHIPHANES ! 181. |
+    married Cleopatra,
+    daughter of Antiochus the Great.
+             |
+ +---------------------------------------------------------------------+
+ | PTOL. VI. PHILOMETOR ! 145.   Cleopatra.   PTOL. VII. PHYSCON ! 117.|
+   married his sister Cleopatra.              married,
+             |                                1. His sister Cleopatra.
+             |                                2. Cleopatra the younger.
+             |                               (3. Irene.)
+  Cleopatra the younger.                          |
+                                                  |
+   +-------------------------------------------------------------------+
+   |            2.             |       2.            |     3.          |
+      PTOL. VIII.              |  PTOL. ALEXANDER    |  Ptol. Apion.
+      LATHYRUS ! 81.           |  I. ! 88.           |  king of Cyrene,
+      married,                 |  married Cleopatra, |  ! 97.
+       1, 2. his two sisters.  |  daughter of        |
+      (3. Concubines.)         |  Ptol. Lathyrus.    |
+               |               |                     |
+               |               2.                    2.
+               |          Cleop. Selene.        Cleopatra.
+               |
+      +------------------------------------------------------------+
+      |        |           |        |          |          |        |
+      |        2.          |        3.         |          |        |
+      |    Cl. Berenice.   |  Ptol. of Cyprus  |  PTOL. ALEXANDER  |
+      |                    |       ! 57.       |  II. ! 80.        |
+      |                    |                   |  married          |
+      |                    |                   |  Cleop. Berenice. |
+      2.                   3.                  3.                  |
+  Cleopatra ! 88.    PTOL. AULETES ! 51.    Cleopatra.       PTOL. ALEX.
+  married            married,                                III. ! 66.
+  Alex. I.            1. His sister Cleop.
+                      2. Unknown.
+                            |
+  +--------------------------------------------------------------------+
+  |    1.                     |            2.             |   Arsinoe |
+   BERENICE ! 55.             |   PTOL. DIONYSIUS ! 47.   |    ! 43.
+   married,                   |   married Cleopatra.      |
+    1. Seleucus Cybios.       |                           |
+    2. Archelaus.             1.                          2.
+                        CLEOPATRA ! 30.        Ptol. the younger ! 44.
+                        married,               married Cleopatra.
+                         1. 2. her brothers.
+                        (3. Jul. Caesar.)
+                         4. Antony
+
+
+
+
+IV. THE REIGNING HOUSES OF THE JEWS.
+
+
+                                   HOUSE OF THE MACCABEES.
+                                Mattathias ! B. C. 166.
+                                           |
+  +------------------------------------------------------------------+
+  |   Judas Maccabaeus,       Jonathan,          Simon, high priest  |
+    general of the army    high priest ! 143.   and ethnarch, ! 135.
+         ! 161.                                          |
+                                              +----------------------+
+                                              | John Hyrcanus ! 107. |
+                                                         |
+                      +------------------------------------------------+
+                      | Aristobulus I. ! 106,  Alex. I. Jannaeus ! 79. |
+                        king and high priest.     married Alexandra.
+                                                         |
+                      +------------------------------------------------+
+                      |    Hyrcanus II. ! 30.             Aristobulus. |
+                        high priest and ethnarch.             ! 49.
+                                   |
+           +-----------------------------------------+
+           | Alexander II. ! 49.     Antigonus ! 37. |
+                      |
+      +-----------------------------------------------+
+      | Aristobulus ! 34.         Mariamne ! 28.      |
+                             married Herod the Great.
+
+
+II. HOUSE OF HEROD.
+
+                               Antipater ! 43.
+                                    |
+          +----------------------------------------------------------+
+          | Salome.      Herod the Great ! A. C. 3.                  |
+                     married, 1. Doris. 2. Mariamne. 3. Many others.
+                                              |
+  +--------------------------------------------------------------------+
+  | Antipater    Alexander    Aristobulus    Archelaus,   |   Philip,  |
+    ! A. C. 3.   ! B. C. 5.   ! B. C. 5.     ethnarch,    |  tetrarch,
+                                 |            deposed     | ! A. C. 34.
+                      +-------------------+   A. C. 6.    |
+                      | Herod II. Agrippa |               |
+                           ! A. C. 44.               Antipas, tetrarch,
+                               |                     deposed A. C. 39.
+                      +---------------+              married Herodias.
+                      | Herod Agrippa |
+                         ! A. C. 100.
+
+
+
+
+V. GENEALOGICAL TABLE OF THE CAESARS.
+
+
+I.
+
+                        C. Julius Caesar, praetor, ! 84.
+                                        |
+  +--------------------------------------------------------------+
+  | C. JULIUS CAESAR, dictator,              Julia ! 52.         |
+            ! 44.                        married Accius Balbus.
+              |                                  |
+  +-----------------------------+   +-----------------------+
+  | Julia ! 52. married Pompey. |   |     Accia ! 42,       |
+                                       married C. Octavius.
+                                                 |
+  +--------------------------------------------------------------------+
+  |   Octavia the elder         |       C. OCTAVIUS (CAESAR AUGUSTUS)  |
+     married M. Marcellus.      |         ! A. C. 14 (see No. II.)
+                                |
+                    Octavia the younger married,
+               1. C. Marcellus.  2. Pompey. 3. M. Antony.
+
+
+II.
+
+                      CAESAR OCTAVIANUS AUGUSTUS ! A. C. 14.
+    married, 1. Scribonia.    2. Livia, widow of Tiberius Claudius Nero.
+            |                                   |
+            |   +------------------------------------------------------+
+            |   | TIBERIUS NERO ! A.C. 37.   Nero Claudius Drusus ! 9. |
+            |     married, 1. Vipsania.          married Antonia
+            |              2. Julia.               the younger.
+            |               |                           |
+            |  +--------------------------+             |
+            |  | DRUSUS CAESAR ! A. C. 25.|             |
+            |                                           |
+            |      +---------------------------------------------------+
+            |      | Germanicus                 CLAUDIUS ! A. C. 54.   |
+            |        ! A. C. 19.                married, 1. Messalina.
+            |        married Agrippina.                  2. Agrippina.
+            |              |                                  |
+            |              |      +------------------------------------+
+            |              |      | 1. Britannicus       1. Octavia    |
+            |              |        ! A. C. 34.          ! A. C. 59.
+            |              |                             married Nero.
+            |              |
+            |  +-------------------------------------------------------+
+            |  | Nero          Drusus       |          Agrippina       |
+            |    ! A. C. 29.   ! A. C. 35.  |          married,
+            |                               |           1. Cn. Domitius.
+            |                        CAIUS CALIGULA     2. Claudius.
+            |                         ! A. C. 41.             |
+            |                                                 |
+            |                  +---------------------------------------+
+            |                  |                1.                     |
+            |                           DOMITIUS NERO ! A. C. 68.
+            |                    married, 1. Octavia. 2. Poppaea Sabina
+            |
+  +----------------------------------------------------------+
+  |                    1.                                    |
+               Julia ! A. C. 17.
+    married, 1. ! M. Cl. Marcellus. 2. Agrippa. 3. Tiberius.
+                                   |
+  +------------------------------------------------------------------+
+  |     2.           2.          2.           2.            2.       |
+    C. Caesar    L. Caesar    Agrippina     Julia         Agrippa
+    ! A. C. 4.   ! A. C. 2.   ! A. C. 35.   ! A. C. 30.   Posthumus
+                              married                     ! A. C. 14.
+                              Germanicus.
+
+
+
+
+VI. GENEALOGICAL TABLE OF THE HOUSE OF CONSTANTINE.
+
+
+           CONSTANTIUS CHLORUS ! 306.
+           married, 1. Helena. 2. Theodora.
+                              |
+  +-----------------------------------------------------------------+
+    CONSTANTINE the Great ! 337.   |        Jul. Constantius      |
+    married, 1. Minervina.         |        ! 337. married,       |
+             2. Fausta.         Constantia          1. Galla.     |
+                |               married             2. Basilina.  |
+                |               C. Valer LICINIUS,      |         |
+                |               Caesar, ! 324      +----------+   |
+  +--------------------------+       |              Fl. Valer.    |
+      1.    |      2.       |    +--------------+    Licinius     |
+   CRISPUS  |  CONSTANTIUS  |       1.        2.       ! 326.     |
+    ! 326.  |    ! 361.     |     Gallus    JULIAN                |
+            2.              2.    ! 354.  (the apostate)          |
+       CONSTANTINE      CONSTANS            ! 363.                |
+          ! 340.         ! 350.                          Annibalianus.
+                                                              |
+                                         +-----------------------------+
+                                         | Dalmatius      Annibalianus |
+                                           Caesar ! 339.    ! 338.
+
+
+
+
+PRINTED BY TALBOYS AND BROWNE, OXFORD.
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+       *       *       *       *       *
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