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+The Project Gutenberg EBook of Oriental Rugs, by Walter A. Hawley
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+Title: Oriental Rugs
+ Antique and Modern
+
+Author: Walter A. Hawley
+
+Release Date: May 20, 2012 [EBook #39740]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1
+
+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK ORIENTAL RUGS ***
+
+
+
+
+Produced by Juliet Sutherland, Turgut Dincer and the Online
+Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+[Illustration: _COLOUR PLATE I_
+
+_Section of the Holy Carpet of the Mosque of Ardebil, in the Royal
+Victoria and Albert Museum, South Kensington, London. Described on Pages
+83 and 84._]
+
+SECTION OF THE HOLY CARPET OF THE MOSQUE AT ARDEBIL, Size: 34 ft. 6 in.
+by 17 ft. 6 in.
+
+
+ TRANSLATION OF INSCRIPTION.
+
+ I have no refuge in the world other than thy threshold,
+ My head has no protection other than this porchway;
+ The work of the Slave of this Holy Place.
+
+ Maksoud of Kashan.
+ 946 A. H. = 1540 A. D.
+
+FORMERLY IN THE POSSESSION OF VINCENT ROBINSON & CO., LTD., 34 WIGMORE
+STREET, LONDON, W.,
+
+And Sold by them in 1892 to THE ROYAL VICTORIA AND ALBERT MUSEUM, SOUTH
+KENSINGTON, LONDON.
+
+
+
+ ORIENTAL RUGS
+
+ ANTIQUE AND MODERN
+
+ BY
+
+ WALTER A. HAWLEY
+
+ _WITH ELEVEN FULL-PAGE PLATES IN COLOUR
+ EIGHTY HALF-TONE ENGRAVINGS
+ AND FOUR MAPS_
+
+ NEW YORK
+ DODD, MEAD AND COMPANY
+ 1927
+
+
+COPYRIGHT, 1913 BY JOHN LANE COMPANY
+
+Printed in U. S. A.
+
+
+
+
+PREFACE
+
+
+SINCE the appearance, in 1900, of the excellent work of Mr. John
+Kimberly Mumford on Oriental Rugs, the public interest in these fabrics
+has so largely increased that the author feels warranted in offering
+this monograph, which aims to treat the subject in a way that will not
+only appeal to the general reader but be of value to the student.
+
+In the chapter entitled "Rug Weaving Before the XVIII Century" is a
+brief review of some of the notable achievements in this branch of art;
+and in order that the public may as far as possible have access to the
+masterpieces described, the carpets on exhibition in the Metropolitan
+Museum of Art in New York have been given unusual prominence. The
+chapters on "How to Distinguish Rugs" and on "Purchasing Rugs" should
+prove serviceable to those who are collecting or are buying for use; and
+the chapter on "Weaving" contains many details which have not previously
+received from connoisseurs the consideration they deserve.
+
+The descriptions of all but the least important classes of rugs in the
+Persian, Asia Minor, Caucasian, and Central Asiatic groups include not
+only a general statement of their most striking features, but also a
+technical analysis that is termed "Type Characteristics." It should be
+understood, however, that these characteristics are not invariable, but
+are remarkably constant. They may interest chiefly those who aim to
+acquire expert information, yet they will doubtlessly prove valuable to
+every owner of a rug as a means for its identification.
+
+It would be difficult to acknowledge all the assistance received by the
+author since he began the study of rugs; for sometimes a mere suggestion
+has started a line of investigation resulting in interesting
+discoveries. He has freely consulted well-known authorities, who are
+quoted in the body of the work; and has received valuable suggestions
+and assistance from Messrs. T. S. Hawley, of Santa Barbara, Cal., George
+Harootunian and Frank Loftus, of Los Angeles, Cal.; George Stevenson,
+of New York; G. Graf, of the Persische Teppiche Gesellschaft, of Tabriz;
+and P. de Andrea & Co., of Constantinople. He gratefully acknowledges
+the permission of Messrs. C. F. Williams, of Norristown, Penn., and
+James F. Ballard, of St. Louis, Mo., to study their valuable
+collections; and the permission of Dr. Wilhelm R. Valentiner, Curator of
+Decorative Arts in the Metropolitan Museum in New York, to examine the
+carpets of the museum and to take photographs of them. He also wishes
+particularly to mention the kindness of the following collectors and
+firms who have allowed their rugs to be used for illustrations: Miss
+Emily Davis, of Buffalo, N. Y.; the Misses Palache, and Messrs. Nathan
+Bentz and T. S. Hawley, of Santa Barbara, Cal.; Mr. R. Y. Struble, of
+Fredericktown, Ohio; Mr. E. L. Pierce, of Syracuse, N.Y.; Mr. H. C.
+Merritt, of Pasadena, Cal.; Mr. J. F. Ballard, of St. Louis, Mo.; Mr. C.
+F. Williams, of Norristown, Penn.; Major L. B. Lawton, U.S.A., of Seneca
+Falls, N.Y.; Messrs. Mihran & Co., of Los Angeles, Cal.; Messrs. B.
+Altman & Co., Benguiat & Keresey, Wm. Baumgarten & Co., Jones &
+Brindisi, Jos. Wild & Co., W. & J. Sloane, and the Tiffany Studios, of
+New York City. He is also indebted to Vincent Robinson & Co., Ltd., of
+London, for the use of the colour plate of the Royal Garden Carpet, now
+owned by them, and to the Royal Victoria and Albert Museum, South
+Kensington, London, for permission to obtain a colour plate of the Holy
+Carpet of the Mosque of Ardebil.
+
+
+ WALTER A. HAWLEY.
+
+ NEW YORK, June, 1913.
+
+
+
+
+CONTENTS
+
+
+ CHAPTER PAGE
+
+ I INTRODUCTION 15
+
+ II PHYSICAL FEATURES AND HISTORY OF RUG-PRODUCING
+ LANDS 20
+
+ III MATERIALS 30
+
+ IV DYEING 37
+
+ V WEAVING 44
+
+ VI DESIGNS AND SYMBOLS 58
+
+ VII RUG WEAVING BEFORE THE EIGHTEENTH CENTURY 74
+
+ VIII CLASSIFICATION OF MODERN RUGS 97
+
+ IX PERSIAN RUGS 102
+
+ X ASIA MINOR RUGS 163
+
+ XI CAUCASIAN RUGS 197
+
+ XII CENTRAL ASIATIC RUGS 233
+
+ XIII INDIAN RUGS 253
+
+ XIV CHINESE RUGS 263
+
+ XV KILIMS 276
+
+ XVI HOW TO DISTINGUISH RUGS 282
+
+ XVII PURCHASING RUGS 295
+
+
+ INDEX 309
+
+
+
+
+
+ILLUSTRATIONS
+
+
+ COLOURED PLATES
+
+ PLATE
+
+ I The Holy Carpet of the Mosque of Ardebil _Frontispiece_
+ OPPOSITE PAGE
+
+ II Oushak Carpet 40
+
+ III Mosul Rug 66
+
+ IV Bergamo Rug 102
+
+ V Ghiordes Prayer Rug 130
+
+ VI Royal Persian Garden Carpet _Between pages 160 and 161_
+
+ VII Ladik Prayer Rug 190
+
+ VIII Soumak Rug 210
+
+ IX Samarkand Rug 240
+
+ X Kang-hi Rug 270
+
+ XI Keen-lung Rug 300
+
+
+ HALF-TONE ENGRAVINGS
+
+ Plate 1 Khorassan Rug 22
+
+ " 2 Meshed Rug 26
+
+ " 3 Kirman Rug 30
+
+ " 4 Shiraz Rug 34
+
+ " 5 Niris Rug 36
+
+ " 6 Feraghan Rug 42
+
+ " 7 Feraghan Rug 46
+
+ " 8 Hamadan Rug 52
+
+ " 9 Sarouk Rug 56
+
+ " 10 Sarabend Rug 58
+
+ " 11 Carpet from Northwestern Persia 64
+
+ " 12 Carpet from Northwestern Persia 68
+
+ " 13 Compartment Carpet 70
+
+ " 14 Persian Animal Carpet 72
+
+ " 15 Persian Animal Carpet 76
+
+ " 16 Persian Animal Carpet 78
+
+ " 17 So-called Polish or Polonaise Carpet 80
+
+ " 18 So-called Ispahan 84
+
+ " 19 Armenian Carpet 86
+
+ " 20 Asia Minor Dragon and Phoenix Carpet 88
+
+ " 21 Portrait of Georg Gyze by Hans Holbein 92
+
+ " 22 Oushak Carpet 94
+
+ " 23 Sehna Rug 98
+
+ Map of Persia 104
+
+ " 24 Bijar Rug 106
+
+ " 25 Kermanshah Rug 110
+
+ " 26 Kurdistan Rug with Mina Khani Pattern 114
+
+ " 27 Gorevan Rug 118
+
+ " 28 Bergamo Prayer Rug 122
+
+ " 29 Ghiordes Prayer Rug 126
+
+ " 30 Ghiordes Rug 132
+
+ " 31 Kulah Prayer Rug 136
+
+ " 32 Melez Prayer Rug 140
+
+ " 33 Melez Rug 144
+
+ " 34 Rhodian Rug 148
+
+ " 35 Konieh Prayer Rug 152
+
+ " 36 Kir-Shehr Prayer Rug 154
+
+ " E Primary Border-Stripes of Persian Rugs 156
+
+ " F Secondary Border-Stripes of Persian Rugs 158
+
+ Map of Asia Minor 164
+
+ " 37 Anatolian Prayer Rug 166
+
+ " 38 Mudjar Prayer Rug 168
+
+ " 39 Daghestan Prayer Rug 172
+
+ " 40 Kabistan Rug 176
+
+ " 41 Kuba Rug 180
+
+ " 42 Chichi Rug 184
+
+ " 43 Tcherkess Rug 188
+
+ " G Primary Border-Stripes of Asia Minor Rugs 192
+
+ " H Secondary Border-Stripes of Asia Minor Rugs 194
+
+ Map of Caucasia 198
+
+ " 44 Baku Rug 200
+
+ " 45 Shirvan Rug 202
+
+ " 46 Soumak Rug 204
+
+ " 47 Kazak Prayer Rug 208
+
+ " 48 Kazak Rug 212
+
+ " 49 Karabagh Prayer Rug 214
+
+ " 50 Gengha Prayer Rug 218
+
+ " 51 Royal Bokhara Rug 222
+
+ " 52 Princess Bokhara Rug 224
+
+ " I Primary Border-Stripes of Caucasian Rugs 226
+
+ " J Primary Border-Stripes of Caucasian Rugs 228
+
+ " K Secondary Border-Stripes of Caucasian Rugs 230
+
+ Map of Turkestan 234
+
+ " 53 Turkoman Rug with Katchli Pattern 236
+
+ " 54 Turkoman Rug with Pindé Pattern 238
+
+ " 55 Turkoman Rug of the Salor Tribes 244
+
+ " 56 Yomud Rug 248
+
+ " L Primary and Secondary Border-Stripes of Central
+ Asiatic Rugs 250
+
+ " 57 Beshire Prayer Rug 254
+
+ " 58 Beshire Rug 258
+
+ " 59 Afghan Rug 260
+
+ " 60 Beluchistan Prayer Rug 264
+
+ " 61 Turkoman Saddle-bags 268
+
+ " M Medallions in Chinese Rugs 272
+
+ " N Primary and Secondary Border-Stripes of
+ Chinese Rugs. 274
+
+ " 62 Srinagar Rug 278
+
+ " 63 XVIII Century Chinese Rug 282
+
+ " 64 Keen-lung Rug 286
+
+ " 65 Keen-lung Rug 292
+
+ " 66 Kurdish Prayer Kilim 296
+
+
+ BLACK AND WHITE ENGRAVINGS
+
+ Plate A An Upright Loom 45
+
+ " B Technicalities of Weaving 49
+
+ " C Prayer Arches of Persian, Caucasian, and Centra
+ Asiatic Rugs 61
+
+ " D Prayer Arches of Asia Minor Rugs 63
+
+ " O General Designs 291
+
+
+ CHARTS
+
+ Periods when Antique Carpets were made 96
+
+ Technicalities in the weave of Persian Rugs 161
+
+ Technicalities in the weave of Persian Rugs 162
+
+ Technicalities in the weave of Asia Minor Rugs 196
+
+ Technicalities in the weave of Caucasian Rugs 232
+
+ Technicalities in the weave of Central Asiatic Rugs 252
+
+
+
+
+ ORIENTAL RUGS
+
+ ANTIQUE AND MODERN
+
+
+
+
+ORIENTAL RUGS
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER I
+
+INTRODUCTION
+
+
+IT is not altogether surprising that in a most materialistic age many of
+a race distinguished more for its utilitarian than artistic
+accomplishments should fail to see in Oriental carpets high artistic
+expression; yet during the last twenty years choice specimens have been
+sold for sums which not only are very large, but show a tendency to
+increase with each succeeding year. In 1893 a woollen rug, known as the
+Ardebil carpet and regarded, on account of its beautiful designs and
+exquisite colours, as one of the finest products of Oriental art, was
+purchased for the South Kensington Museum. Since it had a length of
+thirty-four and a half feet with a breadth of seventeen and a half, the
+price of £2500, which was the sum paid, was at the rate of twenty
+dollars per square foot. At an auction sale in New York in 1910,[1] a
+woollen rug five and a half feet long by three and three quarters wide
+was sold for the sum of $10,200, or at the rate of four hundred and
+ninety-one dollars per square foot; and a silk rug seven feet and two
+inches long by six feet and four inches wide was sold for the sum of
+$35,500, or at the rate of nine hundred and thirty dollars per square
+foot. As it was the general opinion of connoisseurs that the prices paid
+for these two rugs were low, and as it is well known that these rugs are
+not more valuable than some others of equal size, it is not unreasonable
+to assume that many of the best judges of Oriental rugs would declare
+that at the present time the sum of five hundred dollars per square foot
+is a fair price for some antique woollen rugs, and the sum of one
+thousand dollars per square foot a fair price for some antique silk
+rugs.
+
+If these judges were asked on what they based their opinion of the value
+of these old pieces, which are less serviceable for wear than new rugs
+that can be bought of an American factory at twenty cents per square
+foot, they might with reason reply that they are works of art, woven in
+those days when Michelangelo, Titian, Rubens, and Rembrandt were busy in
+their studios; that they are as scarce as the paintings of these
+masters; and that they might justly be compared with them in beauty and
+artistic execution. Though granting that the technique of weaving makes
+it impossible to represent a design as perfectly as can be done with a
+brush, they would claim that the drawing of dainty vines, scrolls, and
+arabesques was often represented by lines that in abstract beauty of
+form are unsurpassed, and that no artist had ever produced from his
+palette colours which equalled in brilliant sheen and marvellously
+changing hue those of the woven masterpieces.
+
+Whoever is inclined to disagree with these judges and with those art
+critics of Europe and America who assert that in an aesthetic sense the
+people of the Orient are cultured to a standard beyond the comprehension
+of the Western world, should remember that the taste for any kind of art
+is based on convention and is largely a matter of cultivation. The
+Occidental, who for generations has cultivated the taste for paintings
+and statuary, looks to the painter and sculptor for the highest
+expression of artistic genius; but the Oriental takes greater delight in
+his marvellous creations of porcelain or woven fabrics. There is, too, a
+marked difference in treatment. The Occidental demands that in art
+"everything should be stated with the utmost fullness of a tedious
+realism before he can grasp its meaning"[2] and fails to recognise the
+more subtle beauty of various forms of Oriental art. The Oriental, on
+the other hand, is far less realistic and is better satisfied if his
+subject suggests abstract qualities that depend for their fullest
+appreciation on those quickening experiences that at different times
+have touched the soul of the observer. Moreover, as Buddhism, which
+prevails in many of the countries of Asia, teaches that a universal
+spirit is manifested in each form of nature, determining its character,
+and a similar idea pervades other religions of the East, the highest aim
+of Asiatic art is to express that inner spirit. It is largely this
+difference in artistic cultivation that accounts for the difference in
+taste. Whoever then would fully appreciate these rugs must view them
+not only with an eye trained to see the beautiful harmonies of colour
+and design, but with the artistic temperament of the Oriental.
+
+By study and cultivation the European as well as the American is growing
+to value more highly the products of Oriental art. When the old sea
+captains carried on trade with Japan, they imported into Europe large
+quantities of Imari ware, which the Japanese purposely decorated with
+crude and vulgar colours to meet the less refined taste of the
+Europeans, who regarded many of them as fine specimens of ceramic art
+and studiously copied them in their factories. But so great has been the
+change in artistic taste since then that now they are valued principally
+as objects of curiosity. Likewise, many beautiful Japanese Makimonos, in
+which a few strong lines gave but a hint of the essential thought,
+formerly passed before the eyes of Europeans as the paintings of
+semi-barbarians. But now we begin to see, as did Whistler, that they are
+often the products of great genius and that they express thought and
+feeling with marvellous power. There has been a similar growth in the
+appreciation of Oriental rugs. Even within the last generation this
+growth has been apparent, so that the few who wisely bought those old
+worn pieces which thirty years ago hung at doors of little shops where
+dark-faced foreigners invited acquaintance, are now the envy of the many
+who, too late, have learned that to-day they can scarcely be bought at
+any price.
+
+The more we study the several fields of art in the Orient, the better we
+realise the wonderful creative genius of its people and learn to value
+the products of any one field. Japan has awakened the admiration of the
+highest art critics for its bronzes, some of which exceed in size any
+other castings in the world, and for its netsukés, which are the
+smallest of carvings. Its blades of steel are superior to those of
+Damascus and Toledo; and its lacquer, which is the most wonderful of its
+artistic products, displays genius of a very high order. To China, a
+country that we often regard as barbarous, we owe the invention of
+silks, the printing press, and gunpowder; yet it is in porcelain, that
+was manufactured even in those days when Caesar was marching with his
+legions against the barbarous races of Central and Northern Europe, that
+China has surpassed the world and set a standard that probably will
+never again be reached. In the land where glide the Indus and the Ganges
+stand temples, erected by the descendants of the house of Tamerlane,
+before which the beholder, even if familiar with the wonders of St.
+Peter's, is lost in admiration of the intricate delicacy of detail, the
+majesty of proportions, and the gorgeous splendour of colour with which
+some of the spirit of the East is expressed in material form. When we
+realise that in these different lines of artistic effort the genius of
+Asia has rivalled and surpassed that of Europe and America, we become
+the better prepared to believe that choice specimens of woven fabrics,
+in weaving which every class of every country of Asia has been engaged
+from time immemorial, are to be regarded as works of the highest art.
+
+However pleasing the design or elaborate the detail, it is principally
+in the colouring that these rugs claim our interest and admiration. The
+colours which are derived from vegetable or animal dyes grow more mellow
+and beautiful with passing years, and applied to wools of finest texture
+acquire a lustre and softness which in the choicest specimens are like
+the radiant throat of a humming bird, or tints at the close of an autumn
+day. The different shades have different moods, expressing peace, joy,
+pensiveness, sorrow, the deep meaning of which the Oriental mind with
+its subtle and serious imagination has grasped as has none other.
+Moreover, in all truly fine pieces there is perfect harmony of tone. It
+is in this richness, suggestiveness, and harmony that the greatest
+artistic value lies.
+
+That all do not appreciate these qualities is not because they do not
+exist; for the keen perception of colour, like the keen perception of
+music, is a faculty granted to one person but denied to another. Even to
+those who take delight in colour there are different degrees of
+appreciation. "The fact is," said John Ruskin, "we none of us enough
+appreciate the nobleness and sacredness of colour." But as the ear can
+be cultivated to a higher taste for music, so can the eye be cultivated
+to a higher taste for colour; and to fully appreciate the beauties of
+Oriental rugs it is necessary to develop this faculty to its fullest
+extent.
+
+And yet it is not alone as works of art that Oriental rugs interest us.
+They suggest something of the life and religious thought of the people
+who made them. Some seem redolent with the fragrance of flowers, others
+reflect the spirit of desert wastes and wind-swept steppes. So, too, in
+the colours and designs of some appear the symbols of that mysticism
+with which the minds of the followers of Zoroaster in their effort to
+commune with the unseen forces of the universe were imbued; and though
+the original meaning of many of these symbols has been forgotten, the
+study of others leads to a better understanding of the life-thought of
+the weavers.
+
+Realising, then, that Asia has been the cradle from which has come the
+highest expression of many forms of artistic achievement, and that the
+Western mind is now assigning to its woven fabrics their proper place in
+the galleries of art, we may begin the study of Oriental rugs with the
+assurance that the further it is pursued the greater will be the
+appreciation and delight. It will take us among strange and interesting
+people, and over fields that were historic grounds before the walls of
+Rome were built. It will lead beyond the dome of St. Sophia to the land
+of the Arabian tales, where the splendour of former days is reflected in
+tomb and mosque, and where, perhaps, when the Western world grows old,
+there will rise again from crumbling ruins another nation that will
+revive the poetic and artistic genius of the East with all the majesty
+and creative power of the past.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER II
+
+PHYSICAL FEATURES AND HISTORY OF THE RUG-PRODUCING LANDS
+
+
+THE artistic character of Oriental rugs, like every other artistic
+impulse, is subject to the influence of physical environment. This
+influence is not alone that to which an individual weaver has been
+subjected, but is the transmitted effect of the accumulated experiences
+of many generations. It appears in the colours which simulate tones
+displayed by varying phases of nature, and also in the designs or
+symbols which, derived from older types by a long process of evolution,
+partially reflect feelings engendered in a people of highly imaginative
+and poetic temperament by long contact with elemental forces. Moreover,
+the quality of material used depends almost exclusively on the climate
+and physical conditions of countries where it is produced. Accordingly,
+the artistic and essential characteristics of rugs are better understood
+by a knowledge of the salient physical features of the countries where
+they are woven.[3]
+
+The principal Oriental countries that continue to produce rugs are
+China, India, Afghanistan, Beluchistan, Persia, Turkestan, Caucasia, and
+Asia Minor. As all of them are contiguous, they may be regarded as a
+geographic unit; and though there is much diversity of detail, there is
+also much in common. From near the western boundary of Asia Minor a vast
+plateau stretches eastward into Central Asia, increasing in altitude
+towards the east.
+
+Its mean elevation in Asia Minor is from two thousand to three thousand
+feet, and as it extends beyond the Zagros Mountains and crosses the
+northern half of Persia, it rises from four thousand to five thousand
+feet. Continuing eastward through Southern Turkestan and Afghanistan it
+increases in altitude until it has risen to nearly twelve thousand feet
+in the lofty table-lands of Central Asia, where it begins to descend as
+it extends farther into the desert of Gobi. From the western part of
+this plateau a spur extends northward between the Black and Caspian
+seas, to form the high table-land of Caucasia, which has a mean elevation
+of about seven thousand feet.
+
+The general topographic features of this plateau include great stretches
+of comparatively level land, broad tracts from which there is no
+drainage to the sea, and sandy desert wastes. On almost every side it is
+bounded by mountain chains and is intersected by transverse ridges that
+lift still higher peaks where rests the perpetual snow. Throughout the
+deserts and large parts of the table-lands the rainfall is slight, so
+that there are but few important river courses.
+
+The cultivated portions of this vast area are relatively small, and
+consist largely of strips of land in fertile valleys, through which flow
+perennial streams. From time immemorial these streams have been used for
+irrigation, and the inhabitants of the districts have prospered by
+abundant harvests. In one or another of these valleys have been built
+the principal cities, within the walls of which were imposing temples
+that stimulated religious fervour, schools of learning to quicken the
+intellect, and gardens where perfumed flowers and the songs of birds
+delighted the aesthetic senses. In these cities science, philosophy,
+religion, and art received their highest development. In them lived the
+most skilled artisans and artists of the Orient; and the products of the
+loom were of the finest quality.
+
+Beyond these valleys are great stretches of uncultivated tracts
+consisting of plains, hills, and mountains. Some of these tracts are
+naturally fertile and could be made productive, but at present are used
+only for pasturage, and over them numberless tribes of fierce nomads
+drive their flocks of sheep. On the other hand, where the land has no
+drainage to the sea, so that the streams and rivers that flow into it
+empty into small lakes or are finally absorbed, the soil becomes
+impregnated with alkali deposited from the waters, and the grass is
+scanty. There are also sandy wastes of great extent where scarcely any
+animal life can exist. Moreover in many parts of the country the rain
+falls only during a few months of the year, and more abundantly in the
+higher altitudes, so that the nomads are constantly searching for fresh
+pasturage, and moving from the lowlands, where the grass dies after the
+rainy season, to the higher altitudes, from which they return again at
+the approach of winter. So numerous are the flocks that in the struggle
+for pasture the weaker tribes are driven to the poorer land.
+
+The pastoral life, the necessity of moving from place to place, the
+strife resulting from the difference in quality of pasture, have
+affected the temperament and character of the people. The boundless
+stretches of land, the clear atmosphere, the burning desert sands, the
+delicate mirage, and the starry heavens, have made men hospitable,
+thoughtful, devotional; constant wanderings have made them independent;
+the struggle for pasturage has made them lawless and cruel. These
+qualities are reflected to some extent in their woven fabrics, which
+lack the high artistic finish of those woven in cities. A large
+proportion of them are prayer rugs and contain symbols of the sun and
+fire worship. The designs are barbaric, and many are doubtless the same
+as those used hundreds of years ago. The colours of the old pieces,
+woven on upland plains or in mountain fastnesses, blend less
+harmoniously than those woven by more cultured weavers; but they
+frequently possess rich, pure tones, which are no longer seen in the
+modern rugs. As even a partial expression of the thoughts and feelings
+of a people, there are no rugs from the Orient more worthy of study than
+the rare old pieces woven by nomadic tribes.
+
+Not only physical environment but the conquests of foreign enemies, as
+well as political struggles at home, have had an important influence on
+all art. It will be of interest, therefore, to briefly review the
+histories of Central and Southwestern Asia, where rugs have been made
+for over three thousand years, in order to understand the different
+racial influences which have affected their artistic development.
+
+[Illustration: PLATE 1. KHORASSAN RUG]
+
+In the rich valleys near the mouths of the Tigris and Euphrates dwelt in
+the remote past a race of unknown origin called Sumerians, and to the
+north of them lived another people known as the Accadians. These races
+built canals, cultivated the soil, established towns, and invented the
+cuneiform writing. They lived in harmony with one another, and
+continued to prosper until about 3000 B.C., when the Semitic race of the
+Chaldees, appearing from an unknown land, subdued them. The Chaldees,
+however, allowed the conquered races to retain part of their lands,
+adopted their civilisation, and about the year 2500 B.C. built the city
+of Babylon, the foundation of which biblical students claim was laid by
+the mighty hunter Nimrod. By cultivating the surrounding country, by
+developing its trade and commerce, the Babylonians became a wealthy and
+powerful nation; and by encouraging manufactures, art, and science, they
+became noted for their delicate fabrics, magnificent temples, and
+knowledge of mathematics and astronomy.
+
+About the year 2000 B.C. a number of tribesmen, among whom was Abraham,
+migrated with their flocks to the upper valleys of the Tigris and
+founded Nineveh. A century later the land occupied by colonists who
+settled about Nineveh was known as Assyria. It increased in numbers and
+in power until, in 1300 B.C., it gained its first victory over Babylon;
+and during the next four hundred years, though meeting with occasional
+reverses, it extended its rule over Babylonia, Asia Minor, and Assyria,
+and received tribute even from Egypt. It thus became the first great
+conquering power in Southwestern Asia. In their magnificent palaces of
+Nineveh, surrounded by luxury, the rulers of Assyria were resting in
+supposed security when a powerful and unexpected enemy appeared from the
+land now known as Persia.
+
+When the valleys of the Tigris and the Euphrates were inhabited by
+Sumerians and Accadians, Iran, which included modern Persia, was
+similarly inhabited by races of unknown origin. Subsequently, but at an
+exceedingly remote period, from the region about the Oxus river in
+Western Asia two branches of the great Aryan family migrated to Iran.
+One of these, which settled in the northern part, was known as the
+Medes; the other, which settled in the southern part, was known as the
+Persians. Both Medes and Persians subdued the native races and in the
+course of centuries constructed powerful empires. The former were the
+first to extend their conquests, and forming an alliance with the
+viceroy of Babylon they attacked Nineveh in the year 606 B.C. and
+destroyed it. Babylon now became the mistress of all Mesopotamia, and
+under Nebuchadnezzar it was enlarged to cover an area of one hundred
+square miles, and surrounded by walls three hundred feet high. These
+walls enclosed parks, orchards, gardens, and a city that soon became
+famous for its palaces, its temple of Bel, and its Hanging Gardens.
+
+While Babylon was rising in power changes were occurring in Iran. Cyrus,
+leader of the Persians, instigated a revolt against the Medes and
+conquered them. But not satisfied with making the Persians rulers of
+Iran he extended his conquests westward, and in the year 538 B.C., by
+diverting the waters of the Euphrates, surprised Belshazzar in his
+banquet hall and became master of Babylonia. The complete subjection of
+all Asia Minor followed, and for the next two centuries the warlike
+Persians were the dominant power in Western Asia. But in the year 331
+B.C., when Alexander the Great defeated their armies under Darius, the
+Persian Empire melted away.
+
+Whether in Egypt or China or by the Tigris the art of weaving first took
+definite form, it was in this land of Babylon and Nineveh, of the Medes
+and the Persians, of Abraham, Belshazzar, and Cyrus, where a few
+remaining monuments attest the delicate textiles of those early days,
+that in more recent ages have been woven the most perfect carpets of
+which there is any knowledge.
+
+During the succeeding five hundred years Persia, Asia Minor, Caucasia,
+and Syria became the prey of the Parthians, Greeks, and Romans, to whom
+petty tribes, recognising no sovereign power and secure in their
+mountain fastnesses, bade occasional defiance. About the year 226 A. D.
+an able leader of one of the Persian tribes founded the dynasty of the
+Sassanides, which during the reign of Chosroes (531-579 A. D.) and his
+grandson Chosroes II (590-628 A. D.) ruled over the country from the Oxus
+on the north to Arabia and Egypt on the south, and from India on the
+east to Assyria on the west. This was a period of prosperity and luxury,
+the glory of which continued until the middle of the VII Century, when
+it was overthrown by a new power rising from a most unexpected quarter.
+
+In the inhospitable land of Arabia, noted for its coffee, dates, and
+myrrh, for its dreary, sandy, waterless wastes, a land hitherto almost
+unknown in history, Mohammed promulgated the religion which, suited to
+the temperament and desires of the Bedouins, united them into a fanatic,
+militant body of conquerors. After his death his successors, known as
+the Caliphs, extended his conquests. Their successful armies quickly
+overran Persia and overthrew the Sassanian rule; then marching northward
+into Turkestan and as far east as the Indus they overcame all
+resistance. From the Greeks, by whom they were known as the Saracens,
+they snatched Palestine and Syria, and invading Egypt, conquered it
+after the long stubborn siege of Alexandria. A little later the Arabs
+became masters of Northern Africa, and settling there intermarried with
+the native races. Near the Straits of Gibraltar their African
+descendants, known as the Moors, crossed to Spain, where in the year 711
+they vanquished a powerful army that opposed them. During the following
+year they subdued all of that country and began an invasion of Northern
+Europe. But on the rich pasture lands near Tours, where the infantry of
+Charles Martel met the Mussulman cavalry in one of the most decisive
+battles of history, they were defeated with terrible slaughter and
+Christian Europe was saved.
+
+These conquests of the Mohammedans had not only a political and
+religious significance, but also an important influence on art at a time
+when Europe was sunk in ignorance and barbarism. Fond of magnificence
+and luxury, the Caliphs founded great capitals in Assyria, Egypt, and
+Spain, and built palaces that have histories which sound like fairy
+tales. Bagdad on the banks of the Tigris, with its sixteen hundred
+canals, one hundred and five bridges, and nearly a million people, with
+its countless baths, its many thousand mosques, and its royal palace,
+where was collected the best of Asiatic taste, elegance, and splendour,
+possessed more grandeur than any other city in the world. Gibbon states
+that within the palace, furnished with Oriental luxury, hung
+thirty-eight thousand pieces of tapestry, one third of which were of
+silk embroidered with gold, and that on the floors lay twenty-two
+thousand carpets. In Cairo and in Cordova, likewise, the Caliphs
+surrounded themselves with similar splendour, of which, unfortunately,
+but few traces now exist; but the Castle of the Alhambra still remains
+as a powerful reminder of their taste and artistic genius. It is largely
+to the influence of this race that were due many of the beautiful
+Spanish rugs such as Queen Eleanor in the XIII Century took to England
+from Cordova and Granada, as well as those of other periods. Moreover,
+in some of the choicest pieces of Asia Minor and Persia, woven during
+the XVI and XVII Centuries, are traces of this early Saracenic art.
+
+For about five centuries the militant power of these Mohammedans was
+dominant in Southwestern Asia when another conquering race appeared. The
+great wall of China, which was built over two hundred years before
+Christ by the famous Che-Hwang-te, to protect it against the invasions
+of the Tartars, turned westward many wandering hordes from the more
+fertile pastures and valleys of Southeastern Asia. One of these hordes
+was of Turks, who, leaving their homes near the sources of the Irtish
+and Yenisei rivers in the Altai Mountains, settled in Turkestan. Many
+centuries afterwards, to escape from other hordes pressing westward and
+to reach fresh pastures, different branches of them migrated southward
+and westward. About the year 1000 A. D. one of these branches known as
+the Seljukian Turks gained a foothold in Persia, and under Malek Shah,
+in 1072, made Ispahan its capital. About the same time it extended its
+power over Asia Minor and overran Georgia, where it destroyed the
+capital Tiflis after slaughtering the inhabitants. To this Turkoman race
+should probably be accredited the earliest Mongolian influence on
+Persian textile art.
+
+Somewhat later a people numbering forty thousand tents were ranging that
+part of Mongolia which lies north of the desert of Gobi in search of
+pasture and water. One of their number gathered about him a few
+followers, and by his own genius gained the ascendency over his tribes.
+He then allied himself with another powerful tribe, and reducing to
+obedience all the Mongolians who dwelt north of the desert of Gobi, in
+1206, in the presence of his chiefs, he assumed the title of Genghis
+Khan. After becoming the ruler of millions of nomads of the great
+central plateau of Asia and conquering part of China, which was then
+enjoying a period of great wealth and prosperity, he invaded Western
+Asia. Bokhara offered no resistance and might have been spared, but
+learning that some of the Sultan's garrison were concealed he ordered
+the city to be burned. Samarkand, which surrendered after three days'
+siege, was pillaged and the inhabitants were slaughtered. Herat appeased
+his anger by opening its gates. Even his death did not stop the ravages
+of the Mongol horde that captured and sacked Bagdad, and, crossing the
+Tigris and Euphrates, pillaged all Asia Minor. In 1258, Hulaku Khan,
+grandson of Genghis, conquered Persia and established his capital in the
+province of Azerbijan, where his descendants ruled for over a century.
+
+[Illustration: PLATE 2. MESHED RUG]
+
+With these invasions another wave of Mongolian influence was felt in
+Western Asia. Whatever may have been the effect on local art by the
+settlement of the Seljukian Turks in Persia and Asia Minor during the
+early part of the XI Century, it was inappreciable as compared with
+that of Genghis Khan and his followers. For the influence of Bagdad over
+Southwestern Asia was like that of Rome over the empire of the Cæsars,
+and when in the middle of the XIII Century it was plundered for forty
+days, and other important cities of Asia Minor and Persia similarly
+treated, there was no longer the same incentive to work, so that art for
+a time languished. But in some cities the artistic spirit of the people
+prevailed over the loss of independence, and the more skilled workmen
+were encouraged by their new masters, who, recognising the beauty of the
+Persian carpets, sent many Persian artists to China and brought many
+Chinese artists to Persia, that the different races might derive
+advantages from the instruction of one another. It is therefore not
+surprising that from this time the influence of Chinese art has been
+recognised in the woven fabrics and metal work made in the southwestern
+part of Asia. In fact, the Chinese motive known as the "key pattern," as
+well as other less familiar designs of distinctly Mongolian origin,
+appeared for the first time in some of the carpets and metal work of
+this period.
+
+Like Turkestan, Asia Minor has been one of the great battle-grounds of
+the world. During parts of the XI, XII, and XIII Centuries not only
+Seljukian Turks, but Mongols and Ottoman Turks under Murad and Bajazet,
+rose in influence until all Asia Minor, as well as Thrace and Macedonia,
+was subject to them. But still another power from the far East was to
+overrun Asia and divert Bajazet from the walls of Constantinople.
+
+Under Tamerlane, the descendant of Genghis Khan, the Mongol hordes were
+again united and again attempted the conquest of the world. From the
+walls of China to the Mediterranean Sea, and from the Steppes of
+Turkestan to the Arabian deserts, his victorious armies overcame all
+opposition. Never was conqueror more rapacious, more bloodthirsty. At
+Ispahan, seventy thousand inhabitants were slain. Georgia was laid waste
+and the people were massacred. In 1401, Bagdad was besieged and, when
+taken, a pyramid of ninety thousand human victims was raised as a
+monument to the Tartar conqueror. In the following year, when the armies
+of Bajazet and Tamerlane met on the plains near Angora, the Turks were
+defeated and Bajazet was captured. But now the tide of Mongol invasion
+receded; and laden with spoils Tamerlane returned to his capital at
+Samarkand, where he enjoyed the remaining years of his life by
+surrounding himself with a brilliant court and by building palaces and
+temples, which he adorned with royal splendour. With all his atrocious
+barbarities he had a higher appreciation of art than his Mongolian
+predecessors. At his capital were assembled skilled artisans from
+Eastern and Western Asia; and there at the beginning of the XIV Century
+European travellers saw innumerable art treasures, including carpets of
+wonderful workmanship and beauty.
+
+The Mongol power also gained an important foothold in India. This
+country, like Iran, had been subjugated by a branch of the Aryan race,
+which conquered the native Dravidians, and remained dominant until the
+VII and VIII Centuries. Then the Mohammedans invaded it, and were still
+in ascendency when Tamerlane crossed the mountains and attacked Delhi.
+After the lapse of more than a hundred years his descendants, Baber,
+Akbar, and Shah Jahan, rose to power. The magnificence of their courts
+and the splendour of the temples which they built stimulated Indian art;
+and under the instruction of Persian artisans, who were induced to
+settle in that country, the natives attained their highest skill in
+weaving.
+
+With the death of Tamerlane, in 1405, the Ottoman power in Persia and
+Asia Minor rose again, and Turkish victories followed in quick
+succession until in 1453 Constantinople fell and the church of St.
+Sophia became a mosque.
+
+After the lapse of half a century Shah Ismael of the family of the
+Safavids defeated the Turkomans in 1502, and founded a new dynasty in
+Persia. With his rise began one of the most splendid periods in its
+history. Within a few years victories extended his empire from the
+Euphrates river to Afghanistan and from the Oxus to the Persian gulf.
+This was the land of ancient Iran, over which from his court at Ardebil
+he ruled until his death. In the early part of the reign of Shah Tamasp,
+which lasted from 1524 to 1576, the new dynasty was threatened by the
+Turkish ruler, Soliman the Magnificent, after he had taken Rhodes from
+the Knights of St. John and invaded Southern Europe. In 1534 he captured
+Bagdad and Tabriz, as well as conquered Shirvan and Georgia.[4] But the
+lost territory was soon regained and the new Persian capital was
+established at Tabriz where, as will be seen later, were woven many of
+the greatest masterpieces of Persian textile fabrics. Much as these
+monarchs had accomplished, it was Shah Abbas the Great who, after ten
+years of internal strife, succeeded by expelling the Turks from Persia,
+restoring tranquillity, and establishing commerce, in elevating his
+country from one of devastation and confusion to one of greatness such
+as it had not known for many ages. He transferred his court to Ispahan,
+where, while adding to the magnificence of the city, he encouraged art
+even to the extent of sending to Italy, for study, a number of the most
+skilled artists of Persia. These in time returned and exerted an
+influence that appeared in the more elaborate designs of carpets of a
+subsequent period. It is also probable that he rendered valuable
+assistance to Akbar of India in founding carpet-weaving in that country.
+He ruled from 1586 to 1628. This period, during which America was a
+wilderness and England under Queen Elizabeth was still struggling with
+the feudal system, was the golden age of Persian history and Persian
+art; but with his death the Safavid dynasty declined and art decadence
+began.
+
+In 1722, the Afghans conquered Persia and for a number of years ruled it
+with horrible cruelty; but they were finally defeated by Nadir Shah, who
+captured Herat in 1731, extended his dominion into Georgia, and
+recovered some of the lost territory from the Turkish Empire in the
+West. After his death the sovereignty of Persia again waned, until in
+time it was confined to its present limits.
+
+It thus appears that from the earliest times recorded in history the
+southwestern part of Asia has been subject to invasion, and to constant
+struggles between the different races of the East for supremacy. Even
+from the desert of Gobi, the flanks of the Altai Mountains, and the
+deserts of Arabia have poured forth armies to devastate the land. One
+victorious power after another has extended its sway from the banks of
+the Indus to the shores of the Mediterranean. The result is that the
+present Oriental textile art is of a composite character, which can be
+understood only by taking into consideration the value of these racial
+influences that have contributed to it some of its most interesting and
+subtle charms.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER III
+
+THE MATERIALS
+
+
+AS was the case with the earliest shepherd weavers, many nomads living
+in unfrequented parts of Asia spin the wool taken from their own flocks,
+then colour it with dyes brewed from roots and herbs that they have
+personally gathered, and finally weave it according to well-known
+patterns into fabrics. But in large, enlightened communities the
+manufacture of an Oriental rug involves a division of labour. From the
+shepherds the professional dyers obtain the wool, which, after
+colouring, they sell to weavers; and these in turn often receive their
+patterns from others. A knowledge of these separate steps involving the
+industries of producing the different materials and the crafts of
+dyeing, weaving, and designing is essential to a full understanding of
+any Oriental woven fabric.
+
+The materials that were formerly used in weaving were generally of
+animal origin, such as the wool of sheep, goats, and camels. To a more
+limited extent silk and cotton also were used, and occasionally hair of
+the yak, cow, and even human hair. In later years, when there arose a
+western demand for eastern fabrics so that the aim of the weaver was to
+produce an article as cheaply as possible, flax, hemp, jute, and larger
+quantities of cotton were sometimes substituted. Since all of these
+materials are indigenous to the country where they are used, and are
+affected by its climate, altitude, humidity, and fertility, they acquire
+qualities that frequently give to rugs a distinctly local character.
+
+[Illustration: PLATE 3. KIRMAN RUG]
+
+The wool of sheep constitutes the warp and weft of at least half the
+Oriental rugs and the pile of over ninety per cent. To be sure, in Japan
+the pile is largely jute and cotton; in a few of the districts of Asia
+Minor and Persia it is mercerised cotton or silk; and in districts where
+the camel is still a beast of burden its wool and fine hair are often
+substituted for other kinds; but throughout all the rug-weaving
+countries of the East the wool of the sheep has been and still is
+preferred to all other materials for the pile of rugs. This is due not
+alone to its warmth, to the facility with which it can be spun and
+twisted into knots, but also to the fact that from the remotest times
+the inhabitants of these districts, like Abraham of old, have been
+shepherds, who followed their calling because over the steppes of
+Tartary and the great plateaus that extend through Asia Minor, Persia,
+Afghanistan, and Turkestan spread vast pasture lands that seem better
+suited than any other parts of the world for the nourishment of sheep
+with fine fleeces. In fact, a part of these districts seems to be the
+natural habitat of the sheep; for among the crags of some of the lofty
+mountain chains of Central Asia, and farther west where Eastern and
+Western Turkestan meet in the lofty plateau of Pamir, called the "Roof
+of the World," still wander great bands of magnificent native sheep with
+enormous horns and brownish grey wool, from which it is believed sprang
+the vast flocks that now browse on every hill and mountain slope of
+Western Asia.
+
+Centuries of care have effected an important evolution in this native
+stock, for in no other part of the world are there sheep with longer and
+more silky fleeces. Nevertheless there are different grades, as the
+quality depends in a measure on the climate and pasturage as well as on
+the care of the sheep. Thus in the hot, sandy lands the wool shows some
+deterioration; but in the cold, dry climates of the many high lands of
+Western Asia and in the pastures of particular localities the wool is
+long, fine, and lustrous. For instance, in parts of Khorassan, on the
+flanks of high mountains near Kirman and Shiraz, on the shores of Lake
+Niris in Farsistan, among the rolling uplands of Asia Minor, are
+produced uncommonly fine and beautiful fleeces. When, moreover, the
+sheep of these localities receive the care that is given by some of the
+nomadic tribes, as the Uzbeck Tartars, who not only shelter them but
+cover them with blankets, the wool acquires a soft and silky quality
+that is unsurpassed. The wool produced in many parts of India, on the
+other hand, is poor; for not only are the serrations, on which largely
+depends its value for textile purposes, less numerous than in better
+varieties, but it is harsh and contains many long hairs that do not well
+unite with it and that take up very little dye.
+
+The wool of the goat is much less extensively used, yet appears in some
+rugs, not only as warp and weft, but also as pile. The goats of
+Kashmir, which live in the cold climate of a table-land three miles above
+the ocean level, produce the finest and most beautiful wool; but as it
+grows near the skin, and beneath wiry hairs from which it can be removed
+only with tedious care, it is too precious to be used excepting for the
+most beautiful shawls and choicest carpets. Of next importance and
+finest texture is the wool of the Angora goat, known to commerce as
+mohair. Formerly there was not much demand for it, but now, on account
+of the consideration that it has received in the carpet factories of
+recent Sultans, it is found in many of the rugs of Asia Minor. As it
+grows to an average length of five to six inches it is easily spun; and
+its soft, lustrous sheen gives to the rugs in which it is used a silky
+and brilliant appearance. Some of the Bokhara goats, also, yield fine
+wool that is used in rugs. Yet, as a rule, yarn made from the fleece of
+the goat is not regarded with favour by weavers, since it is apt to be
+coarse and to pack closely. Nor does the wool of the goat mix well with
+the wool of the sheep. There is, however, a much finer grade growing
+next to the skin, which may be removed with a knife when it is exposed
+by combing the longer fleece in a direction reverse to that in which it
+lies. The tougher grades are preferred to any other material by weavers
+of the Afghanistan, Beluchistan, and some Turkoman rugs for selvages at
+the sides, as they afford excellent protection against hard usage.
+Goat's hair is also sometimes used in these rugs for warp. Unless mixed
+with wool it is very rarely used for weft, as it is not sufficiently
+pliable.
+
+Of more frequent use than the wool of the goat is the wool of the camel
+which grows close to the skin beneath the long hair. In the tropical
+countries, as in Soudan, the camel has no wool, but in more northern
+latitudes it yields a crop which increases in quantity and improves in
+quality as the climate grows colder. Thus in Arabia, Asia Minor, and in
+most of Persia and Turkestan the yield is small, in the table-lands of
+Eastern Persia and Afghanistan it is much larger, and on the lofty
+plateaus of Turkestan and Chinese Tartary as much as ten pounds of wool
+is obtained yearly from each beast. The clip is taken at the usual
+moulting season during the spring of the year. The wool of the older
+camels is coarse and dark, what is taken from the young is finer and
+lighter, and the most silky and valuable of all is what is obtained from
+the unborn. The best grade has been more highly esteemed than the wool
+of any other animal, and rugs in which it constitutes the pile are more
+valuable than those in which the wool of sheep is used. It is seldom
+woven in modern rugs, but dyed wool or goats' hair of similar colour is
+often substituted for it.
+
+The wool or underhair of the yak is used only among the mountain tribes
+of Tartary, and is never found in any of the choicer grades of rugs.
+Occasionally the hair of the horse or cow is employed to a limited
+extent in the pile of nomadic rugs, where it may be distinguished by its
+coarse and wiry character. In old rugs of which the pile is much worn
+cows' hair will now and then protrude like the hairs of small bristle
+brushes. Only very rarely is human hair seen in a rug.
+
+Natural colours of the several kinds of wool, which have made it
+possible to dispense with their dyeing, have always been taken advantage
+of by weavers. The only black yarn on which the wear of time has left no
+impress is from the fleece of the proverbially despised black sheep.
+Shades of white, ivory, brown, grey, rufus, and even a plum are obtained
+from different varieties. Likewise a wide range of rich chestnut colours
+are furnished by the camel.
+
+It is but natural that the nomad should depend on the wool of his flocks
+and herds for warp, weft, and pile; but people of fixed habitations have
+employed other kinds of material also. Where the sensuous luxury of the
+East called for magnificent carpets, they were often woven almost
+entirely of silk, which was easily obtained, as silkworms thrive on the
+mulberry trees that grow wild on the plains of Central and Southwestern
+Asia. Silk rugs are still woven in a few cities of Asia Minor and
+Persia. For the cheaper grades of rugs flax, hemp, and jute have been
+sparingly used; and during recent years cotton has been widely adopted,
+particularly in Persian, Indian, and Chinese rugs, on account of its
+cheapness as compared with wool. It is, however, almost entirely as warp
+and weft and rarely as pile that it is used. Though much less durable
+than wool, its white colour is far less likely to darken with age; yet
+there is a poorer variety which, after being thoroughly wet, acquires a
+dark colour.
+
+In the preparation of these different textile materials wool requires
+the greatest care. In some parts of the Orient it is not washed, and the
+lustrous hues of the pile are attributed to the fact that it is dyed in
+its naturally greasy state; but in other parts the grease and dirt are
+carefully removed. This cleansing is a craft that has been transmitted
+from parent to child, and is practised according to different methods
+in different parts of the country. One of the chief essentials is an
+abundance of clear running water free from alkali; for when the water is
+hard, as is often the case in the more arid parts of the country, it
+loses some of its cleansing properties, and potash or other chemicals
+are required to counter-act this unfavourable quality. After the wool
+has been thoroughly washed it is carefully dried in the sun and open
+air.
+
+The next important step is the proper sorting, picking, and combing. The
+sorting consists of the separation of black and light wool, or of an
+inferior from a better grade; and the picking consists of the removal of
+burrs or foreign particles. The object of combing is to effect an
+orderly arrangement of the wool so that it is ready for spinning. One
+method, corresponding to carding, is to draw the wool repeatedly between
+rows of upright spikes set in a wooden frame until every matted particle
+has been separated and all the fibres are disentangled. The older
+method, still employed in nearly every part of the Orient, consists of
+"teasing" with the cord of a heavy bow, which is suspended or held
+firmly by the left hand over the wool, while with the right hand the
+cord is made to vibrate either by striking it with a wooden instrument
+or plucking it, so that the fibres of wool are separated and assorted by
+the vibrations.
+
+When the wool has thus been prepared, it is wound about the distaff and
+then spun into yarn. In many parts of the Orient the common
+spinning-wheel has been introduced and adopted for both wool and cotton;
+in other parts are crudely made spinning-wheels of different design and
+about the height of a man. The natives of districts more remote from
+civilisation still cling to the primeval spindle, which sometimes
+consists of no more than a rounded stick half an inch in diameter and a
+foot in length with a ball of clay at one end. Many of the nomadic
+tribes of Asia Minor and Mesopotamia use in place of it a small stone of
+convenient shape, to which is tied a strip of linen a few inches in
+length. A few fibres of wool are attached to the end of the linen by
+twisting them about it, and a few more fibres are similarly attached to
+these when the stone is suspended and twirled. As the fibres become
+closely twisted together more fibres are added until on account of the
+length of the thread thus formed the stone reaches the ground. The
+thread is then wound about the stone and secured by a couple of loops so
+as to leave a piece only a few inches in length, to which more wool is
+attached in continuing the spinning. When a large ball of thread has
+been spun, it is removed from the stone and the process begun again.
+
+[Illustration: PLATE 4. SHIRAZ RUG]
+
+One advantage of these simple devices is that they can easily be carried
+anywhere. Even to-day a not unusual sight is a half barbaric shepherd
+following his flock, while he spins with simple distaff and spindle or
+stone, as did his ancestors thousands of years ago. On the end of the
+distaff, that rests beneath his left arm, is the ball of wool from which
+he selects and twists the fibres, while he deftly turns the short
+spindle or twirls the stone with thumb and forefinger of the right hand.
+The threads spun by professional spinners on spinning-wheels are of
+small diameter and are the most regular in size and texture, those spun
+with the small spindle are of larger diameter and less regular, and
+those spun by twirling a stone are made of the coarsest diameter in
+order to insure sufficient stoutness, since they are the most irregular
+in size and texture; yet yarn so made is the most highly valued by all
+weavers.
+
+Only very rarely, indeed, is one of these single threads used for yarn,
+since it would be apt to part. Two of them, therefore, are twisted
+together to form a double thread. A simple device used by many nomadic
+tribes for this purpose consists of two short sticks crossing at right
+angles, and another piece with end like a crochet needle perpendicular
+to them. The threads which are attached to this piece pass through a
+hole at the intersection of the crossed sticks and are twisted by
+twirling them. It is very seldom that three single threads are twisted
+to make a triple thread, and when such is the case it is the work of a
+professional spinner who uses a large spinning-wheel, and never the work
+of a nomad. For the weft of many rugs, and for the pile of a few rugs
+such as Sarouks and Kashans, a double thread alone is used; whilst for
+the pile of most rugs the double thread is again doubled, trebled, or
+quadrupled, so as to form yarn of two, three, or four ply, and even yarn
+of six ply is sometimes used. A distinction also exists in the manner of
+twisting together double threads to make yarn of two or more ply, since
+according to the custom of different tribes they may be twisted so
+loosely that in the length of an inch they do not describe more than a
+single revolution or so tightly as to describe several.
+
+Until the introduction of the modern spinning-wheel wool was spun in the
+Orient exactly as it was ages ago. It is this almost incredible
+disposition to adhere as with religious fanaticism to methods
+transmitted from father to son and to resist as pernicious every
+attempt at innovation that makes a precise analysis of rugs possible.
+Accordingly, the evenness or unevenness of single threads, the looseness
+or tightness with which double threads are twisted together to form yarn
+of different ply, as well as the number of the ply used, are a few of
+the important indices for distinguishing between rugs of different
+districts.
+
+Even after the yarn is spun it is not always ready for the dyer, and in
+order that it may properly absorb the dye it is often washed and
+rewashed. In some parts of the Orient it is first soaked in warm water
+and carefully rinsed in cold water. It is then placed in a copper pot or
+vat containing boiling water to which has been added carbonate or
+sulphate of soda and potash, and stirred for about an hour. After this
+thorough cleansing it is again washed very carefully in soft water and
+thoroughly dried in the sun.
+
+The wonderful sheen of many old rugs is due almost entirely to the
+materials of which they are made. This material, as a rule, is
+unsurpassed by similar products of any other part of the world, and is
+prepared by patient races who know little of the value of time. The
+simple labour required is in itself prosaic enough, yet without a doubt
+the earlier spinners and weavers, while following their flocks with
+minds free from all conventions and limitations of art, discerned the
+elemental forces of nature in all their freshness and power, and from
+them drew inspiration that bore fruit in the exquisite colouring and
+delicate tracery of the woven carpets.
+
+[Illustration: PLATE 5. NIRIS RUG]
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER IV
+
+DYEING
+
+
+HOWEVER remarkable the achievements of Oriental art in any field, their
+most pleasing effect has always been associated with colour. Without it
+the beauty of the lustre tiles of Persia, the marvellous porcelains of
+China, and the delicate textiles of Western Asia would fade into
+insignificance. It is indeed the wonderful harmonies of exquisite tints
+chosen by the touch of genius from a palette of many thousand pigments
+that awaken the appreciation of the luxurious splendour of the East.
+This love for colour is inherent in every rug-producing race of Asia and
+is older than history. It is but natural, then, that the earliest
+carpets should be radiant with glorious tints, which in a lesser measure
+are reflected in modern fabrics.
+
+If high praise is due to the artist who, by a skilful association of
+different colours of co-ordinate tones, creates the picture that
+delights the sense, a fair measure is also due to the artisan who not
+only controls the secrets of the dyes, but has mastered the difficult
+knowledge of their proper application; for the beauty of the finished
+woven product depends on the judicious dyeing of the yarn more than on
+anything else. From father to son for many generations has been
+transmitted a knowledge of those particular vegetable and animal
+products of root, leaf, fruit, and insect, and the manner of their use,
+by which the imperishable lustrous sheen and colour of the finest woven
+fabrics are produced. Indeed, this art requires to-day more technical
+knowledge than any other branch of rug weaving, since modern designs are
+no longer more than the imitation of those in older carpets; and so
+important is it regarded that a successful dyer is a man of distinction
+in his tribe.
+
+The sources from which are obtained many of the dyes that give the
+innumerable carpet colours are recorded. A few of them are received from
+remote countries, but most of the plants from which they are extracted
+grow in marshes and on hills and plains where the nomads wander with
+their flocks. Many of them are used without blending, but even some of
+the seven primary colours are derived by proper blending; and from a
+number of dyes of different strengths and qualities are produced an
+infinite number of rich and delicate shades.
+
+The principal blues of Oriental rugs are obtained from indigo. This is
+derived from colouring matter in the leaves of plants of the genus
+_Indigofera_, that grow to a height of four to six feet in the East
+Indies, when they are cut and placed in a vat containing water. In about
+twelve hours fermentation ensues; and after this subsides the liquid is
+drawn off into another vat, where after one or two hours of agitation
+the indigo forms as a precipitate. Many different species of this plant
+grow wild throughout Asia, and from the earliest times have been used to
+produce dye-stuff. Indigo is one of the most valuable of all dyes, as by
+using it in conjunction with others an infinite variety of shades
+result.
+
+Some reds are obtained from the plant madder (_Rubia tinctorum_), that
+grows abundantly in Central and Southwestern Asia, Its colouring
+properties were known to the ancients; and for a long period it has been
+cultivated in Asia Minor, where the succulent roots of the second and
+third years' growth are regularly dried and prepared for use. Other reds
+are derived from the insect cochineal (_Coccus ilicis_) that lives on
+oaks of the countries bordering the Mediterranean, and was known among
+the Arabs as "kermes," signifying Red Dye. After the discovery of
+America another species (_Coccus cacti_) was found that was more
+productive of dyeing qualities. The females, which alone are valuable,
+are plucked from the trees and killed by exposing them to vapours of
+acetic acid, or placing them in hot water, or in an oven. From their
+dried bodies, of which over fifty thousand are necessary to make a
+pound, the dye is produced. As both these dyes are noted for their
+fastness, they are constantly used, but when silk or wool is to be dyed
+cochineal is preferable to madder.
+
+The yellow dyes are obtained from several sources. Some are from the
+berries of plants of Western Asia. Others are from the leaves of the
+sumach bushes, that are indigenous to nearly every part of the world. An
+orange tinge is derived from the turmeric extracted from the short root
+stocks of a plant of the genus _Curcuma_. From time immemorial a
+beautiful yellow has been obtained from saffron. It is the product of
+the stigmas of the fragrant crocus, which are so small that over four
+thousand are necessary to furnish an ounce of dried saffron; yet the dye
+is so powerful that it will give a distinct tint to seven hundred
+thousand times its weight of water. As saffron has something of a
+stimulating effect on the human system, it has been taken by the
+Persians when mixed with their rice.
+
+With none of these three basic colours was any national feeling
+associated, yet the Persians excelled in the use of blues. The Turkomans
+of Turkestan and Asia Minor produced better reds than any other colour,
+and the best yellows, even if generally inferior in positiveness to
+blues and reds, were those of the Chinese.
+
+Though other primary and secondary colours sometimes result from the
+application of a single dye, the many thousand different tints can only
+be produced by the blending of two or more. Moreover, the qualities of
+the same dye vary greatly, as they depend on the soil where the plant
+grew, the time of year when it was removed, and the weather and other
+conditions prevailing during the dyeing.
+
+In nature green is one of the most pleasing colours, but in carpets it
+is most unsatisfactory, as it has generally a faded appearance, due
+probably to the fact that one of the dyes of which it is formed by
+blending is less permanent than the other. The Chinese greens obtained
+from the buckthorns are generally the best.
+
+Greys and browns are sometimes derived from gall nuts, and reddish brown
+from henna. For very dark browns and black, iron pyrites has been
+largely used in both old and modern rugs; but unfortunately the dye has
+a corrosive effect on the wool, so that the black knots of old rugs are
+often worn to the warp.
+
+In parts of India flowers of the bastard teak (_Butea frondosa_) make a
+favourite dye, from which are produced, by blending with other dyes, a
+large number of shades ranging from deep yellow to brownish copper
+tones. Another well known dye is _Butti lac_, obtained from an insect,
+_Coccus lacca_, that lives on the twigs of trees. It is a substitute for
+cochineal and produces different shades of red, crimson, terra cotta,
+and purple, according to the other dyes and the mordants with which it
+is blended.
+
+Besides these few dyes are innumerable others that are used either
+singly or in combination. Furthermore, different colour effects are
+produced by the application of different mordants, which it is necessary
+to use for the reason that without them many fibrous materials are
+unable to absorb a large number of the dyes. The most valuable of all
+mordants is alum; and the sulphate of iron and tin are largely employed
+in the case of red colours. Of the vegetable mordants, pomegranate rind,
+which contains some yellow colouring matter, is the best known. Valonia
+also is sometimes used, as well as limes, lemons, the fruit of the
+tamarind, and the mango.
+
+In the monograph of Mr. Harris on the "Carpet Weaving Industry of
+Southern India" are a number of directions from an old manuscript owned
+by a dyer who stated that he was the descendant of twenty generations of
+dyers who originally came from Tabriz, and that he had made his copy
+from a Persian book of dyes which had belonged to his grandfather. A few
+of these are given below, because they show not only the dyes and
+mordants, but also the methods employed.
+
+"Birbuls Blue. Take cinnabar, indigo, and alum, grind and sift lighter
+than the light dust of the high hills; soak for ten hours; keep stirring
+it; put in the wool and soak for many hours. Boil for three hours; wash
+in kurd water, water in which kurds and whey have been well beaten up;
+leave for three hours, and then wash and beat again in water.
+
+"A Fine Indigo Blue. Take indigo, soak it in water for twelve hours,
+grind it to a fine paste in a mortar, add some _Terminalia citrina_,
+pomegranate peel, and alum; and mix thoroughly. Boil; put the water into
+the hot bath and keep stirring till cold. Now mix in some iron-filings
+water, and boil steadily for another two and a half to three hours; wash
+with a beating and dry.
+
+"Ruddy Brown Grey. Take sulphate of iron, _Terminalia citrina_, oak
+galls, and alum; mix well; dry; then steep for twenty-four hours. Put in
+the wool; soak it for twenty-four hours, then boil for two or three
+hours. Dip in a soda-bath, wash, and dry.
+
+"Cinnamon. Take oak galls, acacia bark, cinnabar, and alum, and steep
+for a night. Put in the wool, and soak for twenty or thirty hours; boil
+the water for two or three hours and give a soda-bath wash; dip in
+acidulated water; and wash again with beating.
+
+"Crimson. Take lac colour and cochineal. Steep for from four to six days
+in the sun, in hot weather for the lesser time, stirring constantly till
+a rich deep colour comes where some has stood for a few minutes in a
+thin glass bottle and settled. Then strain through two cloths, and put
+in pomegranate rind and good iron-filings water. Add mineral acid;
+steep wool for thirty-six hours, then boil for three hours, wash well,
+and dry.
+
+[Illustration: _COLOUR PLATE II—OUSHAK CARPET_
+
+_The colours and pattern of this antique Oushak are similar to those of
+the best examples that remain of the carpets woven in Asia Minor during
+the XV and XVI Centuries. The deep blue of the central field, the rich
+red of the medallions, and the golden yellow of the leaves are entirely
+unlike the more subdued hues found in Persian rugs. Strongly contrasting
+with them are the more delicate tones of the tendrils and leaves, which
+display in their drawing a keen sense of refinement. In the formal
+pattern of the field are stateliness and elegance; in the narrow borders
+are simplicity and grace. Such colours and drawing show that the early
+Asia Minor weavers had an intense appreciation of the ennobling
+qualities of beauty and harmony._
+
+ _Loaned by Mr. James F. Ballard_]
+
+"Pale Greyish Green. Take copper rust, asburg,[5] and alum. Mix well
+with any hot water, not boiling; soak wool for eighteen hours, then boil
+for three hours. Give a bath with water acidulated with some limes, and
+dry in shade.
+
+"Old Gold and Rich Yellow. Take turmeric and asburg, cinnabar and alum.
+Soak all night. Steep wool for twenty-four hours, boil for four and a
+half hours, wash with a beating, and dry in shade.
+
+"Dark Grey. Take of the fruit of _Cupressus sempervirens_, seeds and
+seed pods of babul (_Acacia arabica_), iron-filings water, and alum.
+Steep over night. Now add the water and let it soak for twenty-four
+hours, then boil for two or three hours, until the colour is right, then
+wash and dry in the sun.
+
+"Rose Colour. Take ratanjot (_Onosma echioides_), a thought of
+cochineal, manjit (_Rubia cordifolia_) or lac colour a very little, and
+cinnabar. Add water, soak them for twelve hours, put in wool, and steep
+for thirty-six hours; cook it for three hours, then bathe the wool in
+alum and wash nicely; afterward dry in the shade.
+
+"Persian Scarlet. Take lac colour, and if you choose a little cochineal
+for richness, and soak from four to six days; strain it in two cloths
+and add alum and a little turmeric; let it stand for three hours. Put
+wool in and steep for twenty-four hours, then boil for two hours. Take
+out the wool and add mineral acid; re-enter wool and boil an hour more.
+Wash fifteen minutes when cold, and dry in the shade.
+
+"Saffron Yellow. Take turmeric, cinnabar, and soda, add water and keep
+for a full day. Then add some alum, make the dip, and soak the wool for
+thirty hours. Cook it for several hours, and dry in the shade after
+beating and good washing.
+
+"Rich Yellow. Take asburg and turmeric, soak for a night in water, steep
+the wool for twenty-four hours, add alum, shake out, and dry in shade."
+
+Identical shades of a number of colours are not produced in all parts of
+the Orient, not only for the reason that soil, moisture, and climate
+affect the colour values of dye-stuff, but because each family of dyers
+preserve inviolable the craft secrets transmitted from their
+forefathers. Thus it happens that different parts of the rug-producing
+countries adhere to particular tones that help to identify the locality
+where the fabrics were woven.
+
+Unfortunately the Western aniline dyes, which were introduced about the
+year 1860 and quickly adopted because they are cheaper and less
+complicated in their application, have to such an extent transplanted
+some of these fine old vegetable dyes that a number of the richest and
+most delicate colours found in the rugs of a former century are no
+longer produced. Thus the superb blue of the fine old Ispahans, as well
+as of lustre tiles and illuminated manuscripts, belongs to a lost art.
+The disadvantages of the aniline dyes are several: they have a tendency
+to make the fibres of the textile fabric brittle, and when it is wet the
+colours will frequently run. Some dyes also fade more readily than
+others, so that if a colour be the product of two or more dyes, the
+resultant tint may be totally unlike the original. On the other hand,
+not all vegetable dyes are fast; but as they fade they mellow into more
+pleasing shades. Efforts have been made to encourage the use of old
+vegetable dyes; but unless the laws which have been enacted in parts of
+Asia to restrict the importation of aniline dyes be more stringently
+enforced than in the past, the cultivation in the garden patch of the
+dye-producing herbs and plants will soon cease to be the time-honoured
+occupation it was in days gone by.
+
+Almost as important as the art of preparing the dyes is that of properly
+applying them to the yarns. It is an art that demands infinite pains in
+its technique, as well as a lifetime to acquire. It is in itself a
+separate profession practised by artisans who guard with jealousy the
+sacred secrets that transmitted from generation to generation occupy
+their thoughts to the exclusion of almost everything else. The homes of
+these professional dyers in the larger villages and cities are located
+on a stream of water which possesses mineral properties that long
+experience has proven especially suitable as solvents for the different
+kinds of colouring matter. Ranged about the walls of their low dwellings
+are jars or vats containing liquid dye of various colours. Suspended
+above them, from hooks driven into beams, are the yarns from which,
+after immersion in the proper vats, the liquids are allowed to drain.
+After this the yarns are exposed for the proper length of time to the
+dry air and burning sun. It is, therefore, the suitable mordants, the
+preparation of the proper dyes for the vats, the immersion of the yarn
+in correct sequence and for the correct length of time, as well as
+the exposure to the glare and heat of the sun for a definite period to
+be gauged to the exact moment, on which the colour results depend. This
+complicated process by which, for instance, the infinitely different
+shades of a red, a blue, or a brown may be conveyed to yarn by using the
+same dyes but by slightly modifying the steps requires the greatest
+precision, for which no rule but an experience amounting almost to
+instinct is the guide.
+
+[Illustration: PLATE 6. FERAGHAN RUG]
+
+There was a time when the Oriental had not learned the meaning of
+_tempus fugit_ or seen the glitter of Western gold, when his dyeing and
+weaving were proud callings, in which entered his deepest feelings. Then
+the old vegetable dyes that mellow, grow softer and more lustrous, were
+almost exclusively used; but now throughout all weaving countries the
+dyer has deteriorated so that he can no longer produce some of the rich
+colours in use half a century ago. Yet remote from the principal lines
+of travel, on the edges of the desert, in lonely valleys, among rugged
+mountains, half-tamed tribes are still dyeing their hand-spun yarn as
+did their fathers' fathers.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER V.
+
+WEAVING
+
+
+NEAR the tents of some nomadic tribes may occasionally be seen crude
+looms on which are woven some of the most interesting rugs that now
+reach the Western markets. In all probability they are not dissimilar to
+what were used thousands of years ago, for it would be impossible to
+construct a simpler loom. Where two trees suitably branching are found
+growing a few feet apart, all of the upper branches are removed
+excepting two, which are so trimmed as to leave a crotch at the same
+height in each tree. In each crotch is rested the end of a pole or beam,
+and parallel to it is placed another extending at a short distance above
+the ground from trunk to trunk. Or, as is more frequently the case,
+roughly hewn posts are firmly implanted in the ground and horizontal
+beams are stretched between them. In the upper one is a groove with a
+rod to which one end of the warp, consisting of strong threads of yarn
+numbering from ten to thirty to the inch, is attached, while the other
+end is tightly stretched and firmly secured to the lower horizontal
+beam. Sometimes the beams to which the warp is attached are placed
+perpendicularly, so that the weaver may stand and move sideways as the
+work progresses. But among a very large number of those tribes that are
+constantly wandering in search of new pastures for their flocks and
+herds, it is customary to let the loom lie flat on the ground, while the
+weaver sits on the finished part of the rug.
+
+[Illustration: PLATE A.—AN UPRIGHT LOOM]
+
+Under more favourable circumstances, when the tribes live in villages or
+cities, the looms are so made that the weavers are not compelled to bend
+in order to tie the first row of knots or stand erect to finish the last
+rows of a long rug. Of the several devices by which the weaver may
+remain seated while at work, the crudest consists of a plank used as a
+seat, which rests on the rungs of two ladders placed parallel to each
+other at the sides of the rug. As the work progresses, the plank is
+raised and rested upon the higher rungs. More frequently, however, both
+upper and lower beams of the frame have the shape of cylinders of small
+diameter, which revolve between the upright posts. The lower ends of the
+threads of warp are attached to the lower beam, and the other ends may
+either be wound several times around the upper one or else pass over it
+and be kept taut by weights attached to them. Such a loom is generally
+used for weaving very large rugs, which are rolled up on the lower beam
+as the work progresses.
+
+In Plate A (Page 45) is represented a loom commonly used in many parts
+of the Orient. When preparing it for weaving two stakes are driven in
+the ground at a suitable distance apart, and about them the warp is
+wound in the way a figure eight is formed. The warp is then carefully
+transferred to two rods that are attached to the upper and lower beams.
+If it has been carefully wound, none of the threads should be slack; but
+if desired the tension may be further increased by different devices.
+Two other rods, known as "Healds," are then attached to the front and
+back threads of warp; or in the case of a single rod, it is attached to
+the back threads, as shown in the Plate. A lease rod is next inserted
+between the threads of warp that cross below the upper beam, and another
+is placed below it where, if necessary, it is supported in position by
+loops. When the weaving begins, a short web is generally woven at the
+lower end to protect the knots from wear. After the first row has been
+tied, the shuttle carrying the thread of weft is passed between the
+front and back threads of warp; the heald rod attached to these back
+threads is then pulled forward, so that they are now in front of the
+others, and the shuttle is passed back. If the rug is narrow, only one
+shuttle is used; but if the rug is wide, or if the weft consists of two
+threads of unequal thickness, a shuttle is passed across from each side.
+Every thread of warp is in this way completely encircled by the thread
+of weft as it passes and repasses. When weaving large rugs, there is an
+advantage in having two heald rods, as by their use the distance between
+the front and back threads of warp may be increased. The object of the
+lease rod is to prevent any slack caused by drawing forward the threads
+of warp, and is accomplished in a very simple manner, as will be seen by
+studying the drawing; since when the tension of the back threads is
+increased by drawing them forward, the tension of the front threads is
+also increased by displacing the lease rods which thereby stretches
+them.
+
+[Illustration: PLATE 7. FERAGHAN RUG]
+
+The products of the loom are divided according to their weave into
+three separate classes. The simplest of these are the kilims, which are
+without pile and consist only of warp and weft to which a few
+embroidered stitches representing some symbol are occasionally added.
+
+A more elaborately made class are the Soumaks. They consist of warp
+covered by flat stitches of yarn and of a thread of weft which extends
+across and back between each row of stitches in the old rugs and between
+each second and third row of stitches in the new rugs. In the narrow,
+perpendicular lines that define both borders and designs the stitch is
+made by the yarn encircling two adjacent threads of warp; but in other
+parts of the rug it is made by the yarn passing across two adjacent
+threads of warp at the front, and after encircling them at the back,
+recrossing them again at the front. It is then continued across the next
+pair of adjacent threads of warp. The result is that at the back of
+these rugs each of the two threads of warp encircled by the yarn appears
+as a separate cord, while at the front the yarn passes diagonally across
+four threads of warp. As this diagonal movement is reversed in each
+succeeding row, the surface has an uneven appearance sometimes termed
+"herring bone" weave.
+
+By far the largest class of rugs are those with a pile. When making
+them, the weaver begins at the bottom and ties to each pair of adjacent
+threads of warp a knot of yarn so as to form a horizontal row. A thread
+of weft is then passed, as often as desired, between the threads of warp
+and pressed more or less firmly with a metal or wooden comb upon the
+knots, when they are trimmed with a knife to the desired length. Another
+horizontal row of knots is tied to the threads of warp; again the yarn
+of weft is inserted; and so the process continues until the pile is
+completed. In tying the knots, work almost invariably proceeds from left
+to right and from the bottom to the top. It is but rarely that the warp
+is stretched horizontally and that the knots are tied in rows parallel
+to the sides. It is still more infrequently that a rug is found in which
+the knots are tied by working from the centre to the right and left, and
+to the top and bottom. These interesting exceptions may easily be
+discovered by rubbing the hand over the pile, when it will be noticed
+that the knots lie on one another so as to face the same direction,
+which is the opposite to that in which the work of tying advanced, or as
+is generally the case, from top to bottom.
+
+The compactness, durability, and value of a rug depend somewhat on the
+number of knots in any particular area. Yet if the yarn is coarse, the
+rug may be compact even though the number of knots be small; and if the
+yarn is fine, the rug may be loosely woven, either because the rows of
+knots have not been firmly pressed down, or because there are several
+"filling threads" of weft, and still the number of knots be large. A
+square inch is a convenient size for measurement; but since all parts of
+a rug are not woven with equal compactness, the measurement should be
+made in several places if exactness be required. In loosely woven
+pieces, such as the Oushaks and some of the Genghas, there may be less
+than twenty knots to the square inch; but among the more closely woven,
+as the Kirmans and Bokharas, are frequently several hundred.
+
+These knots are of two classes, the Ghiordes and the Sehna. The Ghiordes
+are found in all rugs of Asia Minor and Caucasia, in some of the rugs of
+India, and in most of the rugs of Persia. They are named after the town
+of Ghiordes in Asia Minor, where some of the finest Asiatic pieces were
+made, and which tradition states was once the ancient Gordion, noted
+even in the days of Alexander. In tying the knot, the two ends of yarn
+appear together at the surface included between two[6] adjacent threads
+of warp around which they have been passed, so that the tighter the yarn
+is drawn the more compact the knot becomes. The three different ways of
+tying this knot are shown in Plate B, Figs. 1, 2, and 3 (Page 49), of
+which the second is known as a "right hand" and the third as a "left
+hand" knot. The Sehna knots, which are used in the Turkoman, Chinese,
+many of the Persian, and in some of the Indian rugs, take their name
+from the city of Sehna in Persia. In tying them, a piece of yarn
+encircles a thread of warp and is twisted so that its ends appear at the
+surface, one at each side of the adjacent thread of warp, as is shown in
+Plate B, Figs. 4, 5, and 6. According as this thread of warp is to the
+right or the left of the one they encircle, the knots are known as
+"right-hand" or "left-hand" knots,[7] but in the appearance of the
+carpet there is no distinction. If the pile of a rug is carefully
+parted, the two ends of yarn forming a Sehna knot can be separated; but
+with the Ghiordes knot this is impossible, as will be understood by
+studying Plate B, in which Figs. 1, 2, 3, 7, 8, and 9 are Ghiordes
+knots, and Figs. 4, 5, 6, and 10 are Sehna knots. As a rule, the Sehna
+knots, which permit of closer weaving and clearer definition of pattern,
+appear in rugs of shorter nap.
+
+[Illustration: PLATE B.—Nos. 1, 2, 3, 7, 8, 9, Ghiordes knots. Nos. 4,
+5, 6, 10, Sehna knots. No. 11, Weft-overcasting. No. 12,
+Double-overcasting. No. 13, Weft-selvage. No. 14, Double-selvage. Nos.
+15, 16, 17, illustrate one, two, and three threads of weft passing
+between two rows of knots.]
+
+The nice distinctions in the technique of weaving are rarely understood
+even by those who are familiar with Oriental rugs. The general pattern,
+which next to colour is the characteristic that most quickly arrests the
+attention, is often the sole guide by which novices guess the class. The
+more experienced will observe if the knot be Ghiordes or Sehna, and
+examine the finish at the sides and ends; but few give the peculiarities
+of the weave the consideration they deserve. This, perhaps, is because
+only those who have made a special study would believe the constancy
+with which members of a tribe or locality have followed the same method
+of tying the knot and inserting the weft. The different methods of
+treatment by separate tribes are sometimes only slight, but they afford
+a most important clue for determining the place of origin of doubtful
+classes. In fact, nearly every class has a typical weave differentiating
+it from all other classes. To be sure, there are exceptions to the
+established type which are inevitable; since, for instance, a man from
+the Feraghan district might marry a woman from the adjoining Hamadan
+district, who, to please her husband, might weave a rug with pattern
+common to his district but follow the style of weaving that she has been
+familiar with from childhood. Nevertheless, weavers of a particular
+district adhere more closely to a typical style of weaving than they do
+to any other characteristic of a rug. Nor is this surprising, since
+weaving is learned in earliest childhood; and as it contains no elements
+calculated to stimulate the imagination, it is mechanically followed
+with stereotyped precision. An innovation in pattern, by copying some
+strange designs that strike the fancy, is far more likely. These
+distinctions in weaving may be conveniently divided into those that
+affect the knot, the warp, and the weft.[8]
+
+THE KNOT.—Not only may a knot be tied as a Ghiordes or a Sehna knot, but
+it may have other distinguishing peculiarities; as, for instance, it may
+be of fine or coarse wool. This is most conveniently observed at the
+back, where it will be seen that the knots of rugs such as the Bokhara,
+Kirman, Joshaghan, and Bergamo are tied with fine yarn; while the knots
+of other rugs, as the Samarkand, Bijar, Gorevan, Kurdistan, Yuruk, and
+Kazak are tied with coarse yarn. Whether the yarn be fine, medium, or
+coarse, all specimens of any class will show a remarkable conformity.
+Also in some rugs the knots are drawn very tight against the warp, while
+in others the yarn encircles the warp loosely. Any one who has examined
+the back of many Sarouks, Kashans, Kirmans, or Daghestans, and rubbed
+the finger-nail against them, could not possibly mistake them for a
+Shiraz, Kulah, Yuruk, or Karabagh, which are less tightly woven. Again,
+as a result of using yarn in which the double thread that forms two or
+more ply has been very loosely or very tightly twisted together, there
+is some difference in the direction or slant of the strands forming the
+yarn, where it shows at the back, though this feature is not pronounced.
+For example, in most Afghans, Yuruks, Bijars, and others the strands of
+yarn where it crosses the warp in forming the knot lie for the most part
+in a direction parallel to the weft; while in other rugs, as Mosuls,
+Kurdistans, and Kazaks, the strands of yarn slant irregularly.
+Furthermore, in some rugs, as the Melez and Yuruks, as a result of the
+threads of yarn being strung rather far apart, each half of a knot
+encircling a thread of warp stands out at the back distinctly from the
+other with clear cut edges; while in many rugs, as the Shiraz or Sehna,
+each half is very closely pressed together. Also in some rugs, as
+Sarabends and Afshars, each of these half knots where they show at the
+back have the same length, measured in a direction parallel to the warp,
+as width, measured in a direction parallel to the weft; while in such
+rugs as the Kazaks, since the yarn generally consists of several ply,
+the length exceeds the width; and in a few rugs the length is less than
+the width.
+
+THE WARP.—The appearance of the back of a rug is partly due to the
+relative positions of the two threads of warp encircled by a knot. If,
+for instance, in any Kazak a pin be thrust through the nap wherever a
+single perpendicular line of one colour appears at the surface, it will
+be seen that each of the two threads of warp encircled by a single knot
+lie side by side with equal prominence. This is shown in Plate B, Figs.
+7 and 7-a (Page 49), in which the former represents a section of a rug
+cut transversely to the threads of warp, and the latter the appearance
+of the rug at the back. The same will be found true of Beluchistans,
+Feraghans, Yuruks, and many others. If, however, a Kulah,
+Persian-Kurdish, or Karabagh be similarly examined, it will be seen that
+one thread of warp to each knot is depressed, so that the back has a
+slightly corrugated appearance (as in Plate B, Figs. 8 and 8-a). And in
+the case of a Bijar or Sarouk it will be seen that one thread of warp,
+included in every knot, has been doubled under so as to be entirely
+concealed from view; with the result that the foundation of warp has a
+double thickness, which makes the rug much stronger, as in Plate B, Fig.
+9, representing a Ghiordes knot, and Fig. 10 representing a Sehna knot.
+To be sure, it occasionally happens that in rugs of a particular class
+some may have each thread of warp included in a knot equally prominent
+and others may have one slightly depressed; or that in rugs of another
+class some may have one thread of warp depressed and others may have it
+entirely concealed; but as a rule these tribal features show a
+remarkable constancy. These relative positions of the two threads of
+warp encircled by a knot are partly due to the degree of closeness with
+which the threads of warp are strung, also partly to the method of
+inserting the threads of weft or "filling" between the rows of knots;
+but more than all else they are due to the way one end of the knots is
+pulled when they are tied.
+
+THE WEFT.—In the character and arrangement of weft are technical
+differences that are more serviceable than any other feature for
+distinguishing between the rugs of different tribes and districts. So
+subtle are some of them that they can be learned only by long and
+painstaking study, and are appreciated by few except native weavers.
+Nevertheless, to any one who will carefully examine almost any
+well-known classes, it will be apparent that these differences in the
+weave are real, and that they are sufficiently constant to differentiate
+one class from another. The fine brown weft of the Bokhara, or equally
+fine bluish weft of a Sarouk that is almost concealed between firmly
+tied knots; the fine thread of cotton weft passing but once between two
+rows of knots and covered only by the transverse warp of the Sehna; the
+coarse thread of cotton weft similarly passing but once between two rows
+of knots in the Hamadan; the coarse thread of cotton weft that once
+crossing and recrossing appears irregularly between appressed rows of
+knots in Kermanshahs; the bead-like appearance of the threads of weft
+that, as a rule, pass many times between two rows of knots in Genghas;
+the crudely spun weft of coarse diameter crossing and recrossing once
+between the rows of knots in modern Mosuls; the very fine reddish brown
+weft that entirely conceals from view the warp in old Bergamos, —are
+features peculiar to these separate classes with which every rug
+expert is familiar. The weft of many other classes is equally
+distinctive, though there are exceptions to the types. It should be
+remembered, however, that the weave of many rugs woven over a hundred
+and fifty years ago is different from the weave of rugs woven only fifty
+years ago; and that many modern pieces cheaply made for commercial
+purposes are more crudely woven than were the same classes thirty years
+ago.
+
+[Illustration: PLATE 8. HAMADAN RUG]
+
+These distinctions in the weft relate to the material of which it is
+made, its colour, the size of the diameter, the way in which it is spun,
+to its loose or compressed condition between separate rows of knots, as
+well as to the number of times it crosses the warp between them, and to
+whether it is inserted with much or little slack. Most rugs are woven
+with woollen weft of a natural colour, but occasionally it has a reddish
+brown, a blue, or a yellow tint. When cotton, jute, or hemp are used,
+they are almost invariably of natural colour; only in a very few pieces,
+as some of the Kulahs, are both wool and jute ever used in the same
+piece. The weft of some classes, as Bokharas, Sarouks, and Bergamos, is
+of a very small diameter, and of others, as the Hamadans and Kurdistans,
+it is of relatively large diameter. In some classes, as the Karajes and
+Genghas, the weft is tightly spun like twine; while in the Beluchistans,
+Mosuls, and Kurdistans it is loosely spun, so that the projecting fibres
+of wool give a rough appearance to its surface.
+
+Also the weavers of some districts invariably compress very firmly the
+yarn of weft between every two rows of knots, while other weavers
+compress it only to a slight degree; as, for instance, in the Afghan,
+Tabriz, and Kirman the rows of knots are pressed down so firmly that the
+weft is almost concealed at the back and the transverse threads of warp
+are entirely covered; whilst, on the other hand, in the Karabagh or
+Kazak between every two rows of knots the weft and part of the
+transverse threads of warp are exposed to view. According as the rows of
+knots are pressed down upon the threads of weft or not, one of the two
+halves of each separate knot, as shown at the back, may extend slightly
+or very much beyond the other in the direction of the length of the rug,
+or each of them may lie in a straight line at right angles to the warp.
+Comparing Kazak, Kutais, and Tiflis rugs, for example, it will be
+noticed that as a rule the line thus formed in Tiflis rugs is nearly an
+even, clear cut line at right angles to the warp, that in the Kutais
+part of one knot extends beyond the other, while in Kazaks this
+unevenness is even more conspicuous. Or again, if typical Shirvans,
+Kabistans, and Daghestans be compared, it will be noticed that in
+Shirvans the half-knots, or parts of the knot encircling the two
+adjacent threads of warp, are often inclined at an angle of at least
+thirty degrees to the line of weft so as to present a serrated
+appearance, but that the alignment formed by knots of Daghestans is
+nearly even, and that of Kabistans is intermediate. To be sure, there
+are exceptions to this rule, but these features are remarkably constant.
+
+The number of times that a thread of weft is inserted between two rows
+of knots varies with the practice of different localities, but is almost
+constant in each locality. Weavers of Sehna rugs insert only a single
+thread of weft between every two rows of knots, which winds in front of
+and behind alternate threads of warp, with the result that the back of
+these rugs have a checkered or quincunx appearance, caused by minute
+portions of exposed warp and weft crossing each other at right angles.
+In Hamadans a much heavier thread of weft passes only once before and
+behind alternate threads of warp, so that the appearance of the weave is
+very similar to that of Sehnas.[9] In almost all other rugs the weft
+crosses twice, that is, across and back once, between every two rows of
+knots so as to completely encircle each thread of warp. The weave of a
+few rugs, as some Anatolians, shows the weft crossing three times, that
+is, twice in one direction and once in the opposite direction. In the
+Genghas, Tcherkess, Bergamos, and in many rugs over one hundred and
+fifty years old, the threads of weft frequently cross many times; and it
+is not unusual for the number to vary in different parts of the same
+rug. In Plate B, Figs. 15, 16, and 17 (Page 49), is illustrated the
+appearance of the back of rugs in which a thread of weft crosses once,
+twice, and three times between two adjacent rows of knots. There are
+likewise rugs in which the number varies with methodical regularity; for
+instance, in Khorassans it is usual to find an extra thread of weft
+inserted at intervals of every few rows of knots; in many Herats the
+threads of weft cross twice between several successive rows of knots,
+then three times between the following several rows, and so continue to
+alternate; and in some of the Kulahs a thread of woollen weft that
+crosses twice alternates with a single coarser thread of jute.
+
+As the shuttle passes back and forth, the thread of weft may be allowed
+considerable slack, so that when it is pressed down by the comb it will
+fit about the sides of the warp; or it may be drawn tightly across, so
+that it has a tendency to displace the threads of warp. If, for
+instance, a Hamadan and one of the Feraghans which, unlike the majority
+of them, has only one thread of weft crossing between the rows of knots,
+be examined, it will be seen that in the Hamadan the weft crosses with
+hardly any slack, so that the warp stands out clearly and well defined
+at the back; but that in the Feraghan the weft crosses with much slack,
+so that it folds about the warp, which accordingly seems slightly
+imbedded in it at the back. In some rugs the weft is passed across once
+with very slight slack, and as it recrosses it is allowed much slack.
+These features of the weave, which are followed with remarkable
+constancy in the same class, can be observed to advantage in a fragment
+of a rug cut transversely to the direction of the warp. If, for
+instance, the weft which crosses and recrosses between the rows of knots
+be carefully removed so as not to disturb its mould, it will be noticed
+in the case of many rugs that each thread of yarn has a similar shape of
+moderately deep undulations, which show how it conformed to the warp and
+indicate how slack it was when inserted. In the case of a few rugs, as
+the Luristans, each thread will likewise have similar undulations, but
+they will be very prominent. If, on the other hand, the weft be removed
+from some classes, as the Tabriz, Sarouk, and Kashan, one of the two
+threads will be almost straight or have slight undulations, while the
+other thread will have deep undulations. The weft of the Herez, Herats,
+old Khorassans, and Koniehs have the same peculiarities, excepting that
+the thread with very slight undulations is of three or four ply, while
+the other is of a single ply.
+
+The only instruments employed in weaving are the knife, comb, and
+scissors. The first is used, after each row of knots has been tied, to
+cut the ends of yarn to nearly the proper length; the second, to press
+firmly each row of knots; and the last, to trim the nap with care, so
+that the finished product may present an even and compact appearance.
+
+FINISH OF SIDES.—As the sides are constantly exposed to wear weavers of
+different districts strengthen them in different ways, which may be
+designated as Weft Overcasting, Double Overcasting, Weft Selvage, Double
+Selvage, and Added Selvage. Each of these terms, though not euphonious,
+suggests the method employed. In Weft Overcasting (Plate B, Fig. 11,
+Page 49) the thread of weft, after encircling the threads of warp to
+which the knots are tied, is wound about a much heavier cord that is
+strung at the side of the rug for a space equal to the thickness of the
+knots. It then partly encircles the threads of warp between the next two
+rows of knots as it passes to the other side, when it is wound about the
+heavy cord there. As this process continues, the cords at the sides are
+completely overcast with the thread of weft. When the sides have a
+Double Overcasting (Plate B, Fig. 12), heavy yarn is wound about the
+cord that has previously been encircled by the weft. Frequently several
+threads of yarn take the place of a single heavy cord. Weft Selvage
+(Plate B, Fig. 13) is made by placing two or more heavy cords instead of
+a single one at the side of the warp, and encircling them by the weft in
+figure-eight fashion. As they extend beyond the rows of knots they form
+a plain flat selvage. The Double Selvage (Plate B, Fig. 14) is used
+among nomadic tribes such as the Beluches and Afghans, whose rugs
+receive an unusual amount of hard wear, so that an extra selvage is
+necessary. In adding this extra selvage the threads of weft are carried
+about the heavy cords, as in weft selvage, and then the extra yarn is
+wound over it in figure-eight fashion so as again to encircle the heavy
+cords. In Added Selvage the heavy cords are not encircled by the weft,
+but are attached to the side of the rug by the extra yarn that winds
+about them figure-eight fashion, and also encircles two or more
+adjoining threads of warp. Sometimes also the selvage is "Mixed," or
+made by the weft encircling only one or two of the heavy cords, and then
+an extra yarn is wound about these and the remaining cord or cords.
+Moreover, the Double Overcasting and Double Selvage may be "attached"
+more firmly to the sides of the rug by the yarn passing in figure-eight
+fashion about the adjacent thread or threads of warp between the two
+rows of knots. When a Double Overcasting is thus "attached," it is
+somewhat similar to a two-cord Double Selvage.
+
+These are the principal methods of finishing the sides, though they are
+sometimes modified by tribal customs. Simple as they seem, skill is
+required in both overcasting and making the selvage; for if carelessly
+done the sides are frequently made to curl. This is occasionally found
+to be the defect of old rugs, the worn sides of which have been recently
+overcast by inexperienced weavers. When such is the case, removing the
+stitches and overcasting with more care will remove the defect.
+
+[Illustration: PLATE 9. SAROUK RUG]
+
+FINISH OF ENDS.—The ends, which receive more attention than the sides,
+are treated in several different ways; and in many rugs a distinction
+exists between the treatment of each end. The simplest finish is where
+the warp and weft are woven like the threads of a kilim, and extend
+beyond the pile as a web, which may be exceedingly short, or, as in
+Beluches and Afghans, several inches long. Frequently the ends are
+finished by a selvage formed by cords heavier than the weft braided into
+the warp; or the upper end may be doubled back and hemmed. It is not
+unusual to find both web and selvage; but though the finish be web,
+selvage, or web and selvage, the warp of the end finished last generally
+forms a fringe, and often each end will have a fringe. Sometimes each
+separate thread of warp hangs loose; sometimes a number a foot or more
+in length are twisted together in cords; and again they are knotted or
+are tied to one another diagonally so as to form a network from which
+hang the loose ends. Very frequently the loops formed by the warp that
+encircled the rod extend beyond the web at the lower end of the rug, or
+else are braided about the ultimate thread of weft in the web. Though
+the warp and weft are generally undyed in the body of the rug, the web
+of the ends is very frequently coloured. Some of the webs, particularly
+those of the Beluches, are embroidered; and through others, as the
+Kurdistans, a parti-coloured cord runs transversely; still others, as
+Bergamos, are adorned with shells, beads, or other articles to avert the
+evil eye.
+
+In the study of rugs it should be remembered that the effect of rough
+usage is so considerable that in old pieces the webs of the ends have
+frequently disappeared, leaving short fringes composed of the ends of
+warp from which some rows of knots have been removed, and that recent
+overcasting of the sides may take the place of former selvage.
+
+The many characteristics of knot, warp, weft, sides, and ends, with all
+the variations made by innumerable tribes, remarkably constant in their
+methods, are technical peculiarities that are uninteresting to those who
+feel only an aesthetic interest in rugs, yet they demand the most
+careful consideration of whoever would learn to differentiate accurately
+between the many classes. Though admitting of exceptions, these
+peculiarities are real and definite, yet their analyses often require
+the subtlest perception of small though exact distinctions, without
+which expert understanding would be impossible.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER VI
+
+DESIGNS AND SYMBOLS
+
+
+HOWEVER well woven, however resplendent in rich modulations of colour,
+Oriental rugs would quickly lose their fascination if in patterns and
+designs there were not at least some partial expression of the simple
+lives of the people, of their religious feelings, and of that veiled
+mysticism which pervades the thought of every Eastern race.
+
+In all nomadic rugs as well as in many others are innumerable reminders
+of common life. It may be only crude outlines of the goat or camel, or
+realistically drawn rose and lily; but even these are suggestive of
+associations.
+
+Religion, too, exercised on the character of rugs an important
+influence, which is expressed in the symbolism of both designs and
+colour. Without a doubt, some of these well-known designs have been
+transmitted from the earliest times, and were once associated with
+different forms of idolatry. Thus, among the old Babylonians the sun and
+moon, which are sometimes seen in the old pieces, represented particular
+deities; and very many of the oldest Chinese rugs that remain also
+contain symbols of their deities. In the early religion of Iran, which
+over 1000 years B.C. was reduced to a system by Zoroaster, the elements
+were worshipped, so that designs representing these elements would
+likewise represent the divine forces they personified. This ancient fire
+worship of the Parsees, which even to-day has a few devotees in parts of
+Persia, and the kindred sun worship have added much to the symbolism of
+Oriental rugs. Buddhism also has contributed its share; and with the
+spread of Mohammedanism appeared a Saracenic influence that is
+frequently recognised. Even the two great sects of Mohammedan followers,
+the Shiites and Sunnites, have had distinct effects in the use of
+designs, as the former employed animal figures and the latter prohibited
+them.
+
+[Illustration: PLATE 10. SARABEND RUG]
+
+There was, moreover, a symbolism that in a manner expressed the vague
+philosophic teachings of the ancient races. It was but natural that the
+early weaver engaged in tedious sedentary work, often requiring many
+months of constant application to complete, should endeavour to express
+therein not only artistic taste, but also the spirit of his innermost
+thoughts. So as he wove he sometimes left the result, though poorly
+defined and little understood to-day, of that struggle to interpret the
+great mysteries of the visible and unseen universe, from which arose the
+crude beginnings of philosophy.[10]
+
+The patterns, however, of many Oriental rugs are chiefly decorative.
+Even a casual examination shows that in all of them the coloured knots
+of the surface represent a border surrounding a central field. The
+former serves much the same function to the latter as a frame to a
+picture; yet its office is in no wise subordinate. Nor is there any part
+of the pattern more useful in determining the place of its origin. For
+this reason it is well to clearly define the special names which in this
+work are applied to its different parts. The lineal divisions are
+designated "Stripes," though they are frequently spoken of as separate
+borders. At or near the centre of the border is the main stripe, which
+is generally accompanied by a much narrower pair, one on each side,
+known as "Guard stripes." Very narrow stripes are sometimes called
+"Ribbon stripes," and those of only one or two knots in width are called
+"Lines." The latter are of solid colour or have the simplest geometric
+device. The decoration of the ribbon stripes is also necessarily simple;
+but in the main stripe of artistic rugs the patterns are often
+exceedingly elaborate, of exquisite colours, and co-ordinate in
+character with those of the field.
+
+The fields display even greater diversity of pattern than the borders.
+Frequently they are covered with a heterogeneous mass of detached and
+unrelated figures, as in many of the nomadic rugs; or, on the other
+hand, are entirely covered with repetitive patterns, as in the
+Turkomans; or with intricate and correlated designs, as in the diaper
+and floral patterns of so many of the Persian and Indian rugs. Others
+consist of a background of solid colour on which appear isolated formal
+designs, as in some of the Khorassans, or medallions on which are
+represented smaller figures, as in some of the old Sehnas and Feraghans.
+Occasionally the medallions are so large as to extend to the sides and
+ends of the fields, and thus separate the corners into nearly triangular
+shaped sections, such as are characteristic of a number of Persian and
+one or two Caucasian rugs. In a few of the latter, also, the fields are
+covered with large geometric figures suggesting the medallions. It is
+only within comparatively modern times that weavers have used solid
+colours for large portions of the fields. The intent no doubt was a
+saving in labour and pains, but the effect is frequently most
+gratifying; as when, for instance, the space beneath the arch of Asia
+Minor prayer rugs is of a uniform red, blue, or cream, relieved only by
+a gracefully suspended lamp, the tree of life, or some other emblem of
+immortality.
+
+[Illustration: PLATE C.—PRAYER ARCHES OF PERSIAN, CAUCASIAN, AND CENTRAL
+ASIATIC RUGS
+
+No. 1, Antique silk. No. 2, Kermanshah. No. 3, Khorassan. No. 4, Sarouk.
+No. 5, Persian, XVI Century. No. 6, Kashan. No. 7, Feraghan. No. 8,
+Shiraz. No. 9, Daghestan, Kabistan, Shirvan, Chichi, Kazak, Karabagh.
+No. 10, Kazak. No. 11, Shirvan. No. 12, Karabagh (not usual). No. 13,
+Beluchistan. No. 14, Bokhara, Tekke. No. 15, Khiva. No. 16, Beshire.]
+
+The patterns of prayer rugs are not only pleasing, but have a peculiar
+importance, as weavers of certain sections of the country adhere so
+strictly to time-honoured traditions that the shape of the arch, or
+mihrab, which is the principal feature, often denotes the class, as well
+as the group, to which they belong. Some of these arches are illustrated
+in Plates C and D (Pages 61 and 63), from which it will be seen that in
+Persian rugs they are formed by gracefully curving lines, but that in
+rugs of other groups, with the exception of a very few old Ghiordes
+pieces, they are geometric. The peculiarities of the arches of the
+several classes, also, are observable; as those of the Beluchistans,
+which are rectilinear and relatively high, and those of the Bokharas,
+which are tent-shaped, flat, and small. In the Caucasian group they have
+a marked resemblance to one another and also to those of the Turkoman
+rugs, but are larger than the latter. Again, the arch of almost all Asia
+Minor rugs rises higher than those of any others, excepting the Persian,
+and extends from one side of the field to the other. In many of them a
+panel is placed above the spandrel, and occasionally a second panel is
+placed beneath the field. Above the niche of some Asia Minor and
+Caucasian prayer rugs is woven a small rhomboidal figure, where the
+suppliant plants the pebble or bit of earth that he has brought from
+Mecca; and at the sides of a few arches are crude figures, where are
+placed the hands during the act of worship. More than one arch is the
+exception; but now and then are seen two and even four, one above the
+other, or several parallel to one another. These and other special
+features associated with prayer rugs will be considered more fully in
+subsequent chapters.
+
+The smaller designs that appear in rugs and compose the general pattern
+are distinguished as geometric and floral ornamentation. The former is
+adopted in those countries where the population is principally nomadic;
+and the latter is the accepted style in countries where exist numerous
+towns and cities in which the arts have been cultivated and where a
+large percentage of the population have enjoyed an advanced state of
+society. Thus in Caucasia, Turkestan, Afghanistan, and Beluchistan
+geometric designs are characteristic of the rugs; but in China, India,
+Persia, and part of Asia Minor floral designs prevail. Sir George
+Birdwood, an eminent authority on Oriental rugs, has made the statement
+that the geometric designs are found among the lower Turanian and the
+floral among the higher Aryan. But it seems most probable that the
+adoption of the geometric or floral style of ornamentation is due not so
+much to racial distinctions as to the state to which the textile art had
+advanced among the different peoples and to the waves of influence that
+at times spread over the countries. Thus the early rugs of Asia Minor
+had patterns that were more geometric than those of later times, and
+during the period when the Mongols ruled in Persia geometric patterns
+were more frequently employed in the rugs of that country than
+subsequently.
+
+[Illustration: PLATE D.—PRAYER ARCHES OF ASIA MINOR RUGS
+
+Nos. 1, 2, 3, 4, Ghiordes. Nos. 5, 6, 7, Kulah. No. 8, Ladik. Nos. 9,
+10, Bergamo. Nos. 11, 12, Melez. No. 13, Kir-shehr, Mudjar. Nos. 14,
+15, Konieh. No. 16, Anatolian.]
+
+In all rugs, however, some trace of the floral design appears. Even in
+the Turkoman weavings, the pattern of which is strictly geometric, some
+vestige of the tree of life is manifest. In the fields of Caucasian
+rugs, in which are represented squares, octagons, triangles, diagonals,
+lozenges, stars, etc., the weavers have depicted designs that are almost
+as geometric as those of the Turkoman rugs by which they have been
+influenced; but, on the other hand, large numbers of the border designs
+are distinctly floral. In the rugs of China and Asia Minor are found
+both geometric and floral ornamentation, the latter predominating in
+pieces woven during the last two centuries, and the former in those of
+earlier date. Among the woven fabrics of India and Persia, however,
+few traces of the geometric pattern remain; but vines, leaves, and
+flowers form the favourite theme for decoration.
+
+The floral patterns are the result of many centuries of growth, that
+reached its highest development in the Persian carpets of the XVI and
+XVII Centuries; and since then till the present time they have continued
+as the most characteristic features of the rugs of that country and
+India. They represent the highest technique of the weaver. In the
+borders are generally represented vines from which are pendant rosettes,
+palmettes, or flowers; and in the fields, particularly those of the fine
+antique rugs, are a profusion of floral forms realistically portrayed.
+On long, gracefully twining and intertwining stems is often the rose,
+pink, violet, lotus, crocus, narcissus, or daisy. But if the rug is more
+modern, in its field of uniform colour may be represented a central
+medallion covered with delicate tracings enriched by bright-coloured
+conventionalised flowers.
+
+In the general pattern of all rugs are interwoven particular designs or
+motives that give them a distinctive character and render the greatest
+assistance in distinguishing the groups and classes. Thus the serrated
+leaf and wine cup (Plate I, Fig. 1, opp. Page 226) is found only in
+Caucasian and old Armenian rugs; and the design represented in Plate H,
+Fig. 10 (opp. Page 194), suggestive of some Chinese character, is found
+almost exclusively in Kulahs. Not only are all designs important as aids
+in classification, but they have a special interest, as it is maintained
+by writers of the highest authority that when employed by the earliest
+weavers each had a symbolic meaning. To be sure, the origin of many has
+been lost in the remote past and is unknown even to those who now employ
+them; but others still represent definite ideas, as they did centuries
+ago, and portray to some extent the thought of the weaver. They
+therefore deserve the most careful study.
+
+[Illustration: PLATE 11. CARPET FROM NORTHWESTERN PERSIA
+
+Loaned by C. F. Williams, Esq., to the Metropolitan Museum of Art, New
+York]
+
+Few of these designs have been transmitted from a more remote past or
+have been more universally employed than has been the figure [Symbol: S]
+or [Symbol: horizontal S]. It appears in each of the groups of Oriental
+rugs excepting the Chinese; and two of the forms it assumes are
+exceedingly like the arms of the swastika and parts of the fret as
+occasionally seen in Chinese designs. In Indian rugs it is rarely found
+except in the borders, which may have been copied from those of other
+countries. It is very commonly seen in the Beluchistans, Tekkes, and
+Beshires, of the Central Asiatic group; and in the rugs of the Persian
+group that show nomadic influences. There is probably not a single class
+of the Caucasian group, nor any of the Asia Minor group, with the
+exception of the old Ghiordes, in which it is not sometimes represented.
+It may be seen near the corner of the Asia Minor "Dragon and Phoenix"
+carpet of the XIV Century, illustrated in Plate 20 (opp. Page 88); and
+appears in some of the old Armenian carpets, which are believed to be
+even older. That it was associated with sun worship and regarded as an
+emblem of light and the deity is the accepted belief. It is possible,
+however, that it was intended by some weavers to represent the serpent,
+which among many different races is emblematic of superhuman knowledge.
+
+Probably no other design has been more universally employed than the
+swastika, which appears in the textile fabrics of North American
+Indians, on the Maya ruins of Yucatan, among the monuments of the Nile,
+and on the temples of India. Widely as is its distribution, its most
+usual form of intersecting right angles is found in each of these
+countries. It is not improbable that it originated in China, where it is
+a most common decorative motive, and was almost invariably represented
+in the borders and in many of the medallions of rugs woven before the
+beginning of the XVIII Century. It is also very frequently seen in the
+rugs of Samarkand, and occasionally in those of Caucasia. It seldom
+appears in the rugs of Persia, Asia Minor, or Turkestan. The
+universality of the design indicates its great antiquity, yet its
+primitive symbolic meaning of abundance, fertility, and prosperity has
+never been lost. Some of its different forms are shown in Plate O, Figs.
+5-a, 5-b, 5-c, 5-d, 5-e, and 5-f (Page 291).
+
+The reciprocal trefoil (Plate F, Fig. 17, opp. Page 158) is a very usual
+design in Caucasian and Persian rugs; it is often found in some of the
+rugs of India and in Beluchistans, but is very rarely seen in other
+classes of the Central Asiatic or in the Chinese and Asia Minor groups.
+Its origin is uncertain, but since it appears in the "Polish Carpets"
+and other antique Persian carpets of strictly floral pattern, where its
+drawing is more elaborate than in modern rugs, it is not improbable that
+it is the conventionalised form of the lily or a spray bearing three
+leaves, and that it has the emblematic significance of the tree form.
+
+Among all primitive races the sun, moon, and stars have been associated
+with their religion, so that it is surprising that so few emblems of
+them are recognised in rugs. In the theology of the Chaldees, from which
+the earliest weavers must have received inspiration, the sun was
+regarded as one of their principal deities and the moon as another. The
+sun is generally represented by a plain circle, a circle with diameters
+intersecting at right angles, or a circle with small ovals intersecting
+at right angles; the moon is represented by the crescent. Of much more
+frequent occurrence is the eight-pointed star, another inheritance of
+those ancient times when all primitive races worshipped the heavenly
+bodies. It represented the female principle of the Chaldean sun god; and
+it is believed, too, that it represented the deity to the Medes,
+ancestors of many of the present Persians. There is a tradition among
+some Eastern races that King Solomon wore a ring of diamonds arranged in
+the form of an eight-pointed star, and also a crown containing a large
+star of which the eight points and centre were composed of precious
+stones of different colour. A star now and then seen in rugs with
+colours so arranged is known as "Mohammedan's jewel design." The
+six-pointed star, a Jewish symbol for the "shield of David," was adopted
+as a talisman by some of the Moslems. All of these stars are chiefly
+nomadic symbols, they rarely if ever are seen in the rugs of China or
+India, they are only occasionally found in those of Persia, and are of
+most frequent occurrence in the Caucasian pieces.
+
+Another design is an octagonal-shaped disc (Plate O, Fig. 10, Page 291),
+usually about two and a half inches in diameter, on the face of which
+and extending the full width are figures somewhat like hour-glasses
+placed at right angles to one another. It seems not improbable that it
+is of the same origin as the large designs that appear in the field of
+the Holbein rug of the XV Century, illustrated in Plate 21 (opp. Page
+92). It is a very old motive, and is sometimes regarded as a dial
+symbolising the diurnal motion of the earth. It is of very frequent
+occurrence in nomadic rugs; and is found in Beluchistans, in nearly all
+Caucasians, in some rugs from Asia Minor, and in only a very few from
+Persia.
+
+The zigzag line, known as the water motive, is found in many of the rugs
+of China, India, Persia, Caucasia, and Asia Minor, as well as in the
+Beluchistans and Beshires of the Central Asiatic group, though in some
+instances it appears as little more than a serrated line. It is
+represented in the narrow guard-stripes of some of the Western Asia
+Minor carpets of the XV Century. According to Mr. John Mumford, "even in
+the oldest Egyptian symbolism a zigzag line stood for water and by
+implication for eternity; and a succession of these arranged to
+represent the sea has long been a recognised carpet design in India,
+China, and Persia."
+
+[Illustration: _COLOUR PLATE III—MOSUL RUG_
+
+_Long before the commercial instinct had been felt among the weavers of
+the Orient, one or more of them dwelling in the Mesopotamian valley tied
+the knots of this old Mosul. The central field is of camel's hair that
+shades from a rich dark chestnut at one end to lighter tones at the
+other, and is enlivened by bright flowers representing those found on
+the river's banks. This variation of ground colour, the small geometric
+designs at the extreme ends of the fields, the eight-pointed stars of
+the main stripe of the border, and some of the drawing are nomadic
+characteristics. The dainty vine and flower of the narrow guard stripes,
+on the other hand, show Persian influence. This piece represents a type
+of which few now remain._
+
+ _Property of the Author_]
+
+One of the most common designs is what has been called the "latch-hook."
+When there is a long succession of latch-hooks with the straight ends
+resting on a line and the hooked ends inclined in the same direction, as
+in Plate K, Fig. 20 (opp. Page 230), they are called "running
+latch-hooks." Since they appear in the Dragon and Phoenix rug (opp.
+Page 88), that was probably woven about the end of the XIV Century, they
+are evidently a very old design, which not improbably was derived from
+the Chinese fret. The hook is of different shapes, and is sometimes
+perpendicular, sometimes inclined. Its particular function is to shade
+or subdue the harsh effect of a sudden transition from one colour to
+another that is entirely different. As such a device is unnecessary in
+artistic rugs of intricate designs, it is rarely seen in any Indian or
+Persian piece, excepting the modern Shiraz that frequently adopts
+geometric patterns; but it is found in all the rugs of Caucasia, Central
+Asia, and in most of those of Asia Minor. It is in fact as universal as
+the reciprocal trefoil.
+
+In rugs of geometric patterns are occasionally found both Greek and
+Roman crosses. The latter are represented in most of the Soumak rugs,
+and appear profusely in old Asia Minor or Armenian rugs, in which they
+were probably woven with the intent to convey a religious significance;
+but in many instances crosses are not used symbolically.
+
+The design of a comb (Plate O, Fig. 11, Page 291) is a Mohammedan emblem
+suggestive of cleanliness, yet it is not improbable that it is sometimes
+intended to represent the instrument employed in pressing the threads of
+weft closely against the knots. It is found mostly in Caucasian rugs,
+and rarely in those of other groups.
+
+In a large number of the finest carpets woven in Persia three or four
+centuries ago was represented what is known as the Chinese cloud-band
+(Plate O, Fig. 7). It appeared in Persia about the middle of the XV
+Century, and was conspicuous in the carpets of Herat, Tabriz, and Gilan,
+as well as in many of the "Polish Carpets." Later it was introduced into
+Asia Minor, but was never represented in any of the strictly nomadic
+weavings. It appears in only a very few of the modern rugs, and these
+are mostly Persian. Nor is it recognised in its usual form in any of
+the Chinese rugs that now exist; though without a doubt it originated
+with the Chinese, since their early mythology placed the abode of the
+Supreme Ruler in the Constellation of Ursa Major, of which the stars of
+the Big Dipper were represented in early art as enveloped in a band of
+clouds; but in more conventionalised ornamentation the stars are omitted
+and the band remains. As a motive, then, it is symbolic of heaven and
+the deity.
+
+In almost all rugs are found expressions of vegetable life, as a twig,
+vine, flower, or tree. Sometimes they are most naturalistic, again they
+are partly conventionalised, or so disguised, as in nomadic rugs of
+geometric designs, that only by study and comparison of many forms in a
+series can their origin be established. This universal adoption of
+floral form was due to something more than an aesthetic love for the
+beautiful, since in every country of the East some part of the tree or
+plant was emblematic. Moreover, a tree form known as the Tree of Life
+had a religious significance among many races. The Jews were told that
+in the Garden of Eden grew the "Tree of Knowledge of Good and Evil;" and
+in the Book of Revelation the Apostle John speaks of "The Tree of Life
+which bore twelve manner of fruits and yielded her fruit every month,
+and the leaves of the tree were for the healing of the nations." From
+this passage may have been borrowed the belief of the Mohammedans in the
+Tree of Life which grew in Paradise, and spread its branches that true
+believers might rest beneath them and enjoy its fruits and the
+companionship of beautiful houri. In the ancient lore of China is the
+Taoist tradition of the Tree of Life, growing by the Sea of Jade, that
+confers immortality on the fortunate who may gather and eat its fruits;
+also the tradition of the mountain top where grows the sacred tree on
+which the elect may climb and mount to heaven. Even among the ancient
+Chaldees was a story of a tree that grew to heaven and sheltered the
+earth. In different countries the Tree of Life is represented by
+different kinds; in Yarkand of Eastern Turkestan it takes the form of a
+cedar; in Persia it is generally the cypress. Wherever employed it is
+symbolic of knowledge, resurrection, immortality.
+
+[Illustration: PLATE 12. CARPET FROM NORTHWESTERN PERSIA
+
+Loaned by C. F. Williams, Esq., to the Metropolitan Museum of Art, New
+York]
+
+No other form of vegetable life was so universally employed in Oriental
+symbolism as the lotus flower (Plate O, Figs. 16-a, b, and c), since the
+Egyptian, Assyrian, Indian, Chinese, and Persian alike did it reverence.
+It was, perhaps, first employed emblematically in the valley of the
+Nile, but later it was held in high esteem by the inhabitants of India
+where the floating blossom is regarded as an emblem of the world. It was
+inseparately associated with Buddha, and its religious significance must
+have extended with the spread of Buddhism. Professor Goodyear regards a
+large number of designs that apparently are not related in form as
+derived from it through a long series of evolutions. During the highest
+development of the textile art in Persia it appears most realistically
+drawn in a large number of the carpets, especially the so-called
+Ispahans, or Herats, and the so-called Polish. It is also most
+artistically represented in the fabrics of India, and is a favourite
+design for Chinese weavers. But in other modern rugs it is seldom used
+as a motive, and is so conventionalised as often to escape notice.
+
+If the lotus was the first flower to be represented in early woven
+fabrics, as seems not improbable, several others have met with greater
+favour among modern weavers. Of these the rose, which is cultivated
+extensively in the gardens of the East, appears in a large number of the
+rugs of Persia and Asia Minor. Moreover, a pattern frequently seen in
+many old Persian rugs is an all-over pattern of small bushes with
+flowering roses. Almost equally popular is the lily, which is
+characteristic of many of the rugs of India and of a few of Western Asia
+Minor. The "Euphrates flower," which grows by the river banks of the
+Mesopotamian valley, is also occasionally found as an all-over pattern
+in some of the rugs of Western Iran and Southern Caucasia. Less
+frequently seen and still less frequently recognised, as they are
+generally woven in small figures, are the daisy, anemone, crocus,
+narcissus, pink, and violet. All are depicted chiefly on account of
+their associations and beauty, and whatever emblematic meaning they are
+intended to convey is generally no more than that of their colours.
+There are, however, in a few old Persian carpets designs of sunflowers,
+which were accepted by the Zoroastrians and the earlier sun and fire
+worshippers as symbols of the sun and emblems of light.
+
+Of the fruits of the earth none is more highly esteemed than the
+pomegranate, which was sculptured in temples of Mesopotamia and
+embroidered on the robes of Assyrian and Jewish priests. In the days of
+King Solomon it was cultivated in Palestine, where the Israelites, like
+modern Persians, made a sherbet by mixing its juice with sugar and
+spices. At the time of Homer it was cultivated in Phrygia. Now it grows
+wild over vast tracts of Syria, Persia, and Asia Minor. Yet it rarely
+appears conspicuously in any woven fabrics excepting the Ladik prayer
+rugs, in which it is invariably seen. Since the weavers of these,
+whether Christian or Moslem, would probably be familiar with many of the
+old Jewish and Assyrian rites, it is not unlikely that it refers
+emblematically to its religious associations rather than symbolises, as
+has been suggested, the idea of fruitfulness as expressed in the Turkish
+wedding custom where the bride throws a pomegranate at her feet that the
+scattered seed may fore-tell the number of her children.
+
+In almost every rug of Persia, India, and Asia Minor there is in some
+part of the border a vine with pendant leaves, flowers, rosettes, or
+palmettes; and even in many Caucasian rugs of geometric pattern the vine
+with its appendages is seen in conventionalised form. In a few of the
+more sumptuous carpets, where the drawing is elaborate, delicate
+tendrils bearing flowers or the more formal designs of the Herati border
+take the place of the vine, from which they were evolved. In such
+borders the designs generally convey no symbolic meaning, but the
+simpler vine encircling the field without beginning or end represents
+symbolically the continuity of purpose and permanency.
+
+One of the most interesting designs (Plate O, Fig. 6, Page 291) is known
+as the Cone, Palm, Mango, Almond, River Loop, and Pear. By some it is
+believed to represent no more than the closed palm of the hand, since
+there is an old tradition in Persia that a weaver once asked his little
+son to devise for him a new design, whereupon the boy thrust his hand
+into a pot of dye, then placed it sidewise upon a piece of white linen,
+on which became impressed the "palm" design formed by the hand and
+incurving small finger. By some it is regarded as a cluster of old
+Iranian crown jewels. To others, who point to the well-known pattern of
+the Kashmir weaving, it denotes the bend of the river Jhelum above
+Srinagar in the valley of Kashmir; and to Sir George Birdwood it
+symbolises the flame sacred to ancient fire worshippers. In this work it
+will be called the Pear, the name now generally applied to it. In the
+course of the many centuries that have elapsed since its origin, and in
+its migration through India, Persia, Turkestan, Caucasia, and Asia
+Minor, it has adopted more strange shapes than any other device. In the
+rugs of Sarabend it is represented in its best-known form of simple
+curving lines, in the Bakus its identity is almost lost on account of
+its geometric appearance, and in the fabrics of India it is often very
+ornate. Though its origin is hidden in the mists of the past, when its
+antiquity is considered, and also the devotion of the early races to the
+glowing orb of the sun and to terrestrial fires, it is not surprising
+that it has been regarded as a relic of the Zoroastrian faith of old
+Iran, symbolising the eternal flames before which the Parsees
+worshipped.
+
+[Illustration: PLATE 13. COMPARTMENT CARPET IN THE METROPOLITAN MUSEUM
+OF ART, NEW YORK]
+
+If the floral designs are more beautiful, others are more truly
+symbolic, and when appearing in rugs of barbaric patterns they are more
+interesting. Of these the creeping things are represented by the
+serpent, scorpion, turtle, crab, and tarantula. Among a few races of
+Asia the serpent, which is found in a few old Persian carpets, has been
+regarded as emblematic of immortality, but has been more frequently
+considered as the symbol of knowledge. The scorpion, also, was supposed
+to represent the idea of knowledge. It does not often appear in woven
+design, but is sometimes drawn with careful precision in Caucasian
+fabrics. The turtle or tortoise stands for constancy. What is called the
+"turtle border" (Plate E, Fig. 3, opp. Page 156), which was probably
+derived from interlacing arabesques, occurs most frequently in Feraghans
+and also in some other Persian rugs, as Muskabads, Sarabends, Serapis,
+and even the Sehnas. The tarantula and crab designs are found
+exclusively in borders of Caucasian rugs. As their resemblance to the
+animals they are supposed to represent is remote, it is most probable
+that they are simply the conventionalised forms of the star and
+palmette.
+
+Among the designs seen in Chinese rugs are several not found in any
+others. Of these the dragon, originally intended as a symbol of the
+infinite, denotes imperial power; the stork, long life; the duck,
+conjugal felicity; the bat, happiness; and the butterfly, a spirit.
+These designs will be noticed in the chapter on Chinese rugs.
+
+With few exceptions the only modern rugs in which birds are represented
+are the Persian. The drawing as a rule is far from natural; but in the
+fine old carpets it is often so accurate as to show unmistakably the
+order to which they belong. Several of them were used symbolically, as
+the bird of paradise, suggestive of felicity; the peacock, symbol of
+fire; the eagle, emblem of power. The attitude, to be sure, in which
+they appear, affects in a measure their symbolic meaning; as an eagle in
+flight denotes good fortune, but one in the act of descending denotes
+ill luck.
+
+As the Mohammedan religion interdicts portraying birds and beasts as
+well as human forms, they are rarely seen in any rug of Western Asia
+Minor, which is inhabited by the Sunnites, the strict conformists to the
+law of the Koran; but in Mohammedan countries lying farther to the east,
+where the Shiites or nonconformists live, animal designs are very
+common. In modern rugs of Persia and Caucasia, dogs, goats, and camels
+are the most popular animal subjects, but the drawing is often so poor
+that the identity is in doubt. In the old carpets, on the other hand,
+animals and human beings were most realistically drawn, and were
+intended to represent symbolically the weaver's thought. In fact, those
+masterpieces of Persian art known as the "Hunting Carpets" would lose
+much of their interest if their many forms of animal life were without
+symbolic meaning. In them the lion is a symbol of victory, power, the
+sun, and the day; the antelope and unicorn are symbols of restfulness
+and the moon. The lion destroying an antelope would mean, then, the
+victory of day over night, or of a powerful over a weak foe. Leopards
+and hounds likewise symbolise success and fame. There are also
+mythological creatures, as the phoenix, emblematic of life and
+resurrection, and the winged _djinni_ or Persian spirits, that often
+adorn the fields and borders of some of the elaborate antique carpets of
+Iran.
+
+Not only the forms of vegetable and animal life and their relative
+attitudes to one another were intended to convey a symbolic meaning, but
+among almost all ancient races colours had a special significance. To
+the Moslems no colour was more sacred than the green, which, though
+difficult to produce in beautiful tones, they have placed in the fields
+of many of their prayer rugs. To them, also, blue was the emblem of
+eternity, and in the spandrels above the arches it was the symbol of the
+sky. Though to the Hindoo it denotes ill luck, it was the chosen colour
+of the Persians, as well as one of the imperial colours of the Chinese.
+Among all nations yellow, another imperial colour of China, and red are
+suggestive of joy and happiness. Such colours, when used in conjunction
+with other emblems, expressed not only beauty, but also different shades
+of thought.
+
+[Illustration: PLATE 14. PERSIAN ANIMAL CARPET IN THE METROPOLITAN
+MUSEUM OF ART, NEW YORK]
+
+These are but a few of the many motives that are employed by the weaver.
+Some of them represent objects intimately associated with his daily
+life. Some of them reflect his thoughts and emotions. Others are the
+still unsolved hieroglyphics of his craft. When, then, we examine some
+old worn rug, we may see only an exquisite pattern resplendent in the
+deep rich colours of an art now lost; but if to an aesthetic taste be
+added an interest in a symbolism that expresses something of the thought
+and life of the weaver, we may find in the study of the various designs
+another charm that increases with the discovery of any previously hidden
+meaning.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER VII
+
+RUG WEAVING BEFORE THE XVIII CENTURY
+
+
+THERE are no records to definitely indicate in what land the art of rug
+weaving originated, or to disprove that it developed independently in
+different lands. It would be unreasonable, then, to assume that rugs
+were not woven in northern regions as early as in southern. In fact,
+during the Neolithic age the Lake-dwellers of Switzerland grew and spun
+flax, and it is believed that they had looms. Moreover, it is probable
+that the savages of cold climates soon learned to weave garments with
+the long wool of their sheep or goats; and the similar process of
+weaving mats for the floors of their huts would naturally follow.
+Nevertheless, such evidence as now remains points to the civilisations
+of the Euphrates or the Nile, as the birthplace of this art.
+
+Though we do not know when the first rugs were made, without a doubt
+they existed before the pyramids of Egypt or the palaces of Babylon had
+risen from the plains. Among the rock-cut tombs of Beni-Hassan in Egypt,
+that date from about 2500 B. C. are pictures of men with spindles, of
+looms and weavers. There is also unmistakable evidence of the antiquity
+of a high state of the textile art among the ruins in the valleys of the
+Tigris and the Euphrates. On carved walls of the palaces of Nineveh,
+where dwelt the rulers of Assyria over three thousand years ago, are
+elaborate drawings indicating that carpets of remarkable workmanship
+were then in use. In the borders of some of the robes worn by the rulers
+are designs of rosettes and latch-hooks, and on one is depicted the tree
+of life, similar to what may be seen in modern rugs. Nor are ancient
+writers silent. In the Old Testament are frequent references to woven
+fabrics. Homer, also, speaks of them in his Odyssey. Herodotus,
+Diodorus, Pliny, Strabo, in fact almost all classic writers have
+mentioned them. Moreover, designs on pottery, bowls, tiles, and walls,
+similar in appearance to those found in the oldest existing carpets,
+carry contributory evidence to their antiquity and character.
+
+This art, that necessity created, comfort nourished, and luxury matured,
+has been a process of slow development. To the mind of some dark
+tribeswoman of the desert contemplating the rushes gathered from a
+sluggish stream and strewn upon the floor of her master's hut several
+thousand years ago, may have been suggested the first idea of a mat.
+Indeed, from earliest times mats of reeds, straw, bamboo, or other
+pliable material have been constantly made. At first they were doubtless
+without ornament; later they were coloured with dyes obtained from roots
+and herbs to increase their attractiveness; finally designs symbolic of
+nature or the deity were embroidered on them. As wealth and luxury
+increased the ornamentation became more elaborate, until during the rule
+of the Caliphs the mats rivalled in beauty the carpets for which, during
+the summer months, they were substituted. "On these mats," wrote the
+eminent authority, Dr. F. R. Martin, "the artist found free scope for
+displaying as much artistic skill as on the real carpets, and gold
+threads were intertwined to make them as precious as the most expensive
+silk and gold carpets." Long, however, before they had reached such a
+high state of perfection, they would have suggested the idea of making
+warmer and more durable floor coverings. The first of these was a simple
+web of warp and woof; later they assumed a character not dissimilar to
+the kilims now made in the lands of their origin. With further advance,
+more elaborate carpets and tapestries were made; but it was not until
+the art had been developing for a great many centuries, that there
+appeared those most perfect products of knotted pile that were similar
+in kind but superior in quality to the modern pieces.
+
+Slow as was this development, as early as the Christian era, the work of
+the most skilled weavers of the Orient deserved to be classed as a fine
+art. During the time of the Sassanian kingdom (extending from about 226
+A. D. to 632 A. D.) carpets of elaborate design and finish were produced
+in Mesopotamia and Syria. Most of them were of the wool of sheep or
+goats; and in them were represented designs of trees, birds, animals,
+and other figures. Other pieces were made of silk richly embroidered
+with silver and gold. Moreover, authentic evidence from the VI Century
+A. D. not only gives us positive knowledge of the marvellous workmanship
+of that time, but enables us to conjecture through what a long period
+of progression the artisans had been labouring to arrive at such
+results. Dr. Karabacek, director of the Imperial Library of Vienna, in
+his monograph "Die Persische Nadelmalerei Susandschird," gave the
+following description of the "Spring of Chosroes" carpet:
+
+"When Ctesiphon, the residence of the Sassanides, fell into the hands of
+the Arabs in the year 637 A. D., they found in the royal palace, the
+ruins of which still remain, a colossal carpet of 1051 square
+metres,[11] which was originally made for Chosroes I. His successor,
+Anoschar (531-579 A. D.), used it also, but only during the stormy
+weather, when remaining in the gardens was impracticable. The
+festivities were then transferred to the palace, where a garden with the
+beauty of springtime was represented by the pattern of the carpet. This
+was the Winter Carpet that was called in Persia the Spring of Chosroes.
+Its material, which was marvellous and costly, consisted of silk, gold,
+silver, and precious stones. On it was represented a beautiful pleasure
+ground with brooks and interlacing paths, with trees and flowers of
+springtime. On the wide borders surrounding it were represented
+flower-beds in which precious stones coloured blue, red, yellow, white,
+and green denoted the beauty of the flowers. Gold imitated the
+yellow-coloured soil and defined the borders of the brooks, where the
+water was represented by crystals. Gravel paths were indicated by stones
+of the size of pearls. The stalks of trees were of gold and silver, the
+leaves and flowers of silk, the fruits of many-coloured stones."
+
+As the value of this carpet was estimated at about three quarters of a
+million dollars, it was regarded as too precious to fall to the lot of a
+single captor, and was accordingly divided into segments to be
+distributed as booty among the soldiers. Even if during this period
+there was no other fabric so valuable and elaborate, it represented the
+importance of the textile art during the dynasty of the Sassanides.
+
+[Illustration: PLATE 15. PERSIAN ANIMAL CARPET IN THE METROPOLITAN
+MUSEUM OF ART, NEW YORK]
+
+During the Caliphate (632 to 1258 A. D.) the Moslem rulers, devoted to
+luxury, preserved the art treasures of their conquered subjects and
+encouraged them to renewed efforts. This is particularly true of the
+Caliphs and sultans of Syria and Egypt. A carpet that adorned the
+banquet hall of the Caliph Hisham of Egypt, who died 743 A. D., was of
+silk interwoven with strands of gold, and had a length of three hundred
+feet and a breadth of one hundred and fifty feet. All of the rooms of
+the Egyptian palaces, occupied by the sultans, contained carpets of silk
+and satin; and the mosques of Syria were similarly furnished. In the
+year 1067 A. D. one of the Caliphs was forced to sell his accumulated
+treasures, which consisted, besides jewels and works of art, of about
+four thousand bales of carpets. Dr. Martin states that a single one of
+these bales contained several hundred perfect carpets, which were woven
+in silk and gold, and that some of them contained portraits of entire
+royal families. One of them, valued at about $300,000, was made for the
+Caliph el Mirz li alla in the year 964 A. D. It was of blue silk, on
+which were represented the heavens and the earth, seas and rivers, as
+well as the holy cities Mecca and Medina. Such was the character of some
+of the carpets woven during the days of the Caliphs.
+
+As the imperfect records which have been left us indicate that the
+finest carpet collections of this period were in the mosques and palaces
+of Syria and Egypt, it has been assumed that they were woven by the
+native artisans. To some extent this is doubtless true, as rug weaving
+was one of the oldest industries of these countries. But it is more
+probable that most of them were made elsewhere and were acquired as
+presents or by purchase. Some were made in Armenia, Assyria, and
+Turkestan; but the largest number, as well as the most costly and
+elaborate, doubtless came from the same hills and towns of Persia where
+many of the finest pieces are woven to-day. In several of these towns as
+many as three or four hundred looms were constantly at work; and since
+the carpets consisted of warp and weft only, it is probable that they
+were produced far more rapidly than modern rugs in which knots are tied
+to the warp. But if they lacked the richness of deep, heavy pile, they
+were elaborately woven with threads of gold and silver, and were often
+embellished with precious stones.
+
+
+ANTIQUE PERSIAN CARPETS
+
+To the tendency of overestimating the age of art objects to which
+antiquity adds value, there is no exception in the case of Oriental
+rugs, yet there is good reason to believe that a few pieces still exist
+that were woven in Persia as early as the XIII or XIV Century. Indeed,
+we cannot positively affirm that there may not be religiously preserved
+some relic of the Seljukian dynasty, which ruled in Persia till about
+1150 A. D., for we have little knowledge of what some of the old mosques
+which no Christian has ever entered may contain; but it is more probable
+that the oldest remaining pieces belong to the Mongolian period, which
+began with the invasion of the armies of Genghis Khan in the first half
+of the XIII Century. This conclusion is based partly on the facts that
+their archaic patterns indicate a very remote period, and that they
+suggest early Mongolian influences. Moreover, as the age of rugs of a
+somewhat later period can be determined by the evidence of similarity of
+their designs with those of early tiles, metal work, pottery, and
+miniatures, of established age, it is possible to infer the relative age
+of these older pieces by comparison of patterns showing a progressive
+development.
+
+One of the oldest Persian pieces now existing, the property of C. F.
+Williams, Esq., of Norristown, Pa., is in the Metropolitan Museum of Art
+of New York (Plate 11, opp. Page 64). It is also one of the most
+interesting. In it are found Persian, Armenian, Caucasian, and Mongolian
+characteristics, which serve to determine the district where it was
+woven and to suggest its age. Its Sehna knot, cotton warp and weft, as
+well as much of the drawing, are typical of Persia. The tri-cleft leaf
+and stem seen in the two lower corners, in the main stripe, and in parts
+of the field are found in almost all Armenian rugs. The reciprocal
+sawtooth of the outer border stripe and the geometric inner stripe are
+Caucasian features. Certain colour tones, the octagonal discs at each
+end of the large central palmettes, and more particularly the tendrils
+or scrolls of the main stripe of the border which resemble the foliate
+forms as they appear in Chinese rugs and porcelains of the late Ming and
+Kang-hi periods, are Mongolian. The combination of these characteristics
+indicates that it was made in the most northwesterly part of Persia
+where in 1258 Hulaku Khan established his capital, and his successors
+ruled for over a century. Here undoubtedly the craft of weaving
+flourished for a long period, and exercised an important influence on
+the surrounding countries. To judge by the colours; the formal character
+of the border; the rigid lines of the large palmette motives of the
+field, which are not seen in carpets of a much later period; and the
+stiff, archaic character of the bushes with foliage and blossoms
+arranged mechanically on the thick trunks, it is not unreasonable to
+place this piece as early as the middle of the XIV Century, during the
+interval between the overthrow of the Seljukian dynasty by the followers
+of Genghis Khan and the later invasion of the Timurids. In fact, it
+may be even older, since those graceful lines that belong to the highest
+art of a subsequent period are entirely lacking. But in the drawing is
+strength, and in the colours, a few of which have faded, are beauty and
+harmony.
+
+[Illustration: PLATE 16. PERSIAN ANIMAL CARPET IN THE METROPOLITAN
+MUSEUM OF ART, NEW YORK]
+
+Such old pieces are very rare, yet a similar one, belonging to Prof. W.
+Bode, is in the Kaiser Friedrich Museum at Berlin. Its drawing is more
+regular, and the trunks of the trees are broader. These two carpets
+represent the art of weaving at a very early period.
+
+Of equal interest and higher artistic merit is another carpet (Plate 12,
+opp. Page 68), belonging to C. F. Williams, Esq., and at present in the
+Metropolitan Museum of Art but formerly in the possession of J. Böhler
+of Munich. It has a length of nearly seventeen feet and a breadth of
+nearly twelve. There are about three hundred knots to the square inch.
+Though much of that stiffness of drawing found in the earlier pieces
+remains, the more pliant branches and less regular setting of the
+flowers indicate a later date; so that it is not improbable that it was
+woven about the first of the XV Century. Dr. Martin regards this piece
+as one of the oldest of the Timurid period if not from the Mongolian,
+and says that the trees resemble those in a Mongolian miniature in the
+Musée des Arts Decoratifs in Paris, and in a manuscript from the year
+1396. At any rate, they display more formal drawing than the trees of
+more recent carpets. The character of pattern and the colouring suggest
+that it was woven in Northwestern Persia.
+
+The field is skilfully divided into three subfields by beds of flowers,
+from which slender trees rise and partly screen from view more stately
+cypresses. The subdivisions are further indicated by pairs of palmettes,
+of which the upper pair mark a transition between the lower pair and
+those more elegant forms commonly seen two centuries later. There are
+likewise palmettes of simpler form in the two guard stripes. But the
+principal ornamentation of the rich border is the interlacing arabesques
+of three different colours, which are decorated with a slender wreath of
+leaf and flower. There is, moreover, a particular interest in the
+grouping of the arabesques since they form a design which may be the
+prototype of the so-called turtle borders so frequently seen in
+Feraghans and Gorevans, and is itself derived, according to Dr. Martin,
+from a still older form in which branching arabesques extend across the
+whole field. It may not be unreasonable to assume that this pattern has
+been handed down from that earlier period when a Saracenic influence was
+felt in all the weavings.
+
+If the chief interest in this piece is centred in the pattern, its
+greatest charm lies in its soft, dainty colours, some of which are
+exquisitely beautiful. They are expressed in delicate shades of orange,
+ivory, light green, sable brown, and light and dark blue on a
+background of pinkish red. This pattern and colouring suggest an
+Eastern wood when the first frost of autumn has left its touch on the
+leaves. The border contains the same colours as the field but is strong
+and effective, since the soft tones are in the narrow guard stripes and
+the deeper colours appear in the broad central stripe in larger masses
+and in immediate contact.
+
+If this carpet was woven about 1400 A. D., as seems not improbable, the
+drawing of the trees, palmettes, and border designs becomes by
+comparison an important guide for determining the age of other antique
+Persian carpets.
+
+Very different, indeed, from the preceding is a woollen piece (Plate 13,
+opp. Page 70), sixteen feet four inches long by eleven feet two inches
+wide, that was formerly in the collection of Mr. Vincent Robinson of
+London, but is now in the Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York, which
+bought it at the Yerkes sale in 1910, for $19,600. It has about six
+hundred knots to the square inch, and is woven with warp of cotton and
+silk, and with weft of silk. The pile is velvety, and the texture,
+drawing, and colouring display a high grade of artistic craftsmanship.
+Another of similar character is represented in the Vienna Publication of
+Oriental Carpets of 1889, at which time it belonged to the Countess
+Clotilde Clam-Gallas of Vienna; and a third belongs to the Palais de
+Commerce at Lyons.
+
+In no other rugs from Iran is the effect of Mongolian tradition on
+design more noticeable; but that this was due to the Timurid invasion at
+the end of the XIV Century is doubtful, and it is not improbable that
+more immediate intervention with China determined the motives. Nor is
+the Saracenic influence obscured, since in every part of the field and
+border is seen the perfect rhythm of graceful arabesques. Such carpets
+represent, in fact, the transition from those earlier pieces to the
+higher products of Persian looms.
+
+[Illustration: PLATE 17. SO-CALLED POLISH OR POLONAISE CARPET IN THE
+METROPOLITAN MUSEUM OF ART, NEW YORK]
+
+One of the simplest ways of studying the pattern is to regard it as
+consisting of a number of units formed by a large rounded octagon
+encircled by eight heart-shaped escutcheons, and with a smaller
+rounded octagon at the centre of the diagonal lines connecting them. On
+the large octagons, which are of dark blue crossed by narrow bands of
+sable brown, is represented the fight of dragon and phoenix so common
+in the ornamentation of the Ming dynasty; and in the smaller octagons,
+which are plum colour, are four running lions in red, blue, and green.
+The eight escutcheons alternate in crimson and blue, and have arabesques
+and Chinese ducks. The large pentagonal-shaped areas of the ivory field
+are covered with a most symmetrically drawn tracery of tendrils and
+flowers in red, yellow, and blue; and in the smaller hexagonal-shaped
+areas are cloud bands of similar colours.
+
+The border shows a marked advance over that of the preceding piece. The
+main stripe, which follows a pattern that with slight modification is
+adopted in many of the carpets of this and a later period, consists of a
+chain-like series of octagons similar to those of the field, separating
+elongated panels with crenated edges. The latter are adorned with cloud
+bands in yellow interlaced with delicate tendrils supporting flowers in
+red, yellow, green, and white, on a dark blue field; and surrounding
+them on a red ground is also a delicate tracery of leaves and flowers.
+The outer and inner stripes have arabesques and tendrils bearing flowers
+in red, green, and blue on a ground of golden yellow. All the colours of
+both field and border have mellowed into rich, beautiful hues in which
+is the most perfect harmony.
+
+The intricacy and character of design, the delicacy of drawing, and the
+tones of colour indicate that this piece was woven near the beginning of
+the Safavid dynasty, in the early part of the XVI Century. Mr. Robinson
+ascribes its origin to Bagdad; but it seems far more probable that it
+came from the northwestern part of Persia, which was an important centre
+of textile art only a few years later. This piece and the two others
+described on the pages just preceding are among the most interesting
+carpets now existing; for they represent not only a very high standard
+of the textile craft, but also most important steps in its development.
+
+There is no evidence to indicate how early animal carpets were woven in
+Persia. Dr. Martin found a piece with archaic drawing, that from its
+resemblance to an old tile of established age, he placed at about the
+year 1300 A. D.; but it was about the beginning of the XVI Century that
+were woven the first of those masterly pieces which displayed animals
+surrounded by a maze of floral life. Lions, leopards, boars, deer, and
+hounds were the principal motives. To each of these was ascribed some
+principle or quality, so that it has been assumed that the aim of the
+weaver was to give expression to some theme of interest.
+
+A number of these carpets represent the chase and are called "Hunting
+Carpets." The best of them are regarded by Dr. Martin as belonging to
+the latter half of the XVI Century for reasons indicated in the
+following extract from his work: "The manuscript of Nizami, one of the
+pearls of the British Museum, which was executed in Tabriz 1539-1542 for
+the Shah Tamasp, has the most wonderful designs on the margins. Although
+the manuscripts and the miniatures are signed by Persia's most renowned
+masters, there is nothing to give a hint as to who has drawn these
+magnificent borders. This manuscript, which at the time it was written,
+was considered one of the most remarkable 'the like of which the eye of
+time never beheld,' plainly proves that the large carpets with hunting
+scenes must be relegated to a later time or to about 1560-1570. Both
+animals and trees are of a far more stately and earlier character in the
+manuscript."
+
+One of the best of these pieces with animals (Plate 14, opp. Page 72) is
+in the Metropolitan Museum of Art, in New York, by which it was
+purchased at the Yerkes sale in 1910, for $15,200. It has a length of
+ten feet eleven inches with a breadth of five feet ten inches, and an
+average of four hundred and eighty knots to the square inch. Both warp
+and weft are of silk, and the pile is of wool. As it was confidently
+believed by Mr. Edward Stebbing[12] that this piece belonged for a long
+time to the Mosque of Ardebil, where Ismael had established his capital,
+and from which Tamasp subsequently moved; it is not improbable that it
+belongs to the early period, between the closing years of Ismael's reign
+and the first part of the reign of Tamasp.[13] Nor is there anything in
+the technique of colour or design to convey a different impression, as
+the general colour of the field is a claret red, and that of the border
+a dark blue characteristic of this period.
+
+The most noticeable feature of the carpet is the display of animal life
+amid the carefully balanced arrangement of floral figures. Four-fifths
+of the field can be divided into two perfect squares with sides equal to
+the breadth of the field; and the remainder will be equivalent to
+one-half of one of these squares. Each quarter of a square contains
+animals, probably intended to represent a lion, leopard, and boar, that
+are perfectly balanced with those of the adjacent and alternating
+quarters. Moreover, the same balance exists in the case of the smaller
+animals and floral forms. Thus it appears that each square forms a
+perfect unit in which is shown a remarkable relation between all parts.
+Such mathematical exactness indicates the highest artistic skill. The
+repetition of pattern also accentuates the predominant idea of animal
+life, which is rendered even more noticeable by the strong golden yellow
+of some of the group. Whoever has studied the early Iranian monuments
+remembers with how slight variation some of the drawing has been copied
+during subsequent generations; so that it is not surprising that Mr.
+Stebbing should call attention to the resemblance of some of the animals
+in this carpet to those of the rock-carved sculptures of Tak-i-Bostan
+near Kermanshah.
+
+As is the case with most modern Persian rugs, there is no correspondence
+between the size of the animals and the flowers. Nevertheless the lack
+of harmony is not felt, as the animal and the floral life are intended
+to be regarded separately. The principal flowers of the field are
+peonies, some of which are woven with silver threads. They also appear
+in the border arranged with perfect precision within the folds of
+symmetrical cloud-bands and interlacing arabesques. The latter form a
+well-executed repetitive figure that suggests an origin for the
+reciprocal trefoil or lily pattern, as it is sometimes called, which
+received its highest development in the silk rugs of a later century.
+
+On the whole, this piece is not far short of the highest sumptuary
+standard of a subsequent period, and is an excellent example of the
+artistic development of the earliest part of the Safavid dynasty. In few
+other carpets is combined such intricacy of design with richness and
+simplicity of colour.
+
+Of still greater interest than the last is the Arbedil Carpet, now in
+the South Kensington Museum. It has a length of thirty-four and a half
+feet with a breadth of seventeen and a half; the texture shows about
+three hundred and twenty-five knots to the square inch; and the pile is
+of wool tied to warp and weft of silk. It has been very carefully
+studied by Mr. Edward Stebbing, from whose description the following
+extracts are taken:
+
+"The body ground is blue, covered with a floral tracery of exquisite
+delicacy and freedom of treatment. A central medallion of pale yellow
+terminates on its outer edge in sixteen minaret-shaped points from which
+spring sixteen cartouches; four green, four red, and eight light cream;
+and from two of these again, as it were, suspended and hanging in the
+direction of the respective ends of the carpet, two of the sacred lamps
+of the mosque.
+
+"Quarter sections of the central medallion also on a pale yellow ground,
+relieved by tracery, form the angles; while a broader border completes
+the glorious design, a border of the alternate elongated and rounded
+cartouches filled with floral and other tracery, the former on a base of
+red, the latter on a rich brown ground flanked on the inner side by a
+broad band of cream seven inches wide, relieved by a variation of a
+so-called cloud pattern, and a narrower band of crimson near the body of
+the carpet; and on the outer side by a single broad band, also seven
+inches wide, of tawny hue, shading from dark to light, and relieved by a
+bold design in blue."
+
+But however exquisite the tracery, however delicate the colouring, the
+greatest interest centres in the fact that in a panel adjoining the
+border of the upper end is the following inscription:
+
+ "I have no refuge in the world other than thy threshold;
+ "My head has no protection other than thy porchway;
+ "The work of the slave of the holy place, Maksoud of Kashan,
+ in the year 946."
+
+Here is revealed the age of the carpet, which not only determines the
+character of workmanship of a particular period, but affords a standard
+for determining by comparison the relative age of other pieces. The year
+946 corresponds with our year 1540 A. D., and the position of the date
+indicates that it was inscribed a little before the completion of the
+fabric. Accordingly, it would not be unreasonable to assume that the
+carpet was begun during the closing years of the reign of Ismael, who
+died at Ardebil in 1524, and that it was finished during the reign of
+Tamasp I.
+
+To infer that at this period were many such carpets would be a mistake;
+since this was doubtless woven by the order of the court, and by one of
+the most skilled artisans, who may have made it the crowning labour of
+his life. It indicates the highest technique acquired in the early part
+of the Safavid dynasty.
+
+[Illustration: PLATE 18. SO-CALLED ISPAHAN IN THE METROPOLITAN MUSEUM OF
+ART, NEW YORK]
+
+Besides the mosque carpets, other pieces such as small prayer rugs were
+used for devotional purposes. When the first of them were made is
+unknown, though they existed in the days of the Caliphs, when the
+words of the Prophet were still fresh in the memories of his followers;
+and they were also used at an early period among Turkomans. The oldest
+that remain belong to the early part of the Safavid rule. One that was
+formerly in the collection of Stefano Bardini of Florence and is now
+owned by Mr. Benjamin Altman, appeared at the exhibit of the
+Metropolitan Museum of Art in 1910. It is a woollen piece with a length
+of nearly five and a half feet and a breadth of three and a quarter. In
+the central field is a prayer arch resembling some of a later period,
+with outlines gracefully recurving near the base and broken on each side
+by a pentagonal-shaped flower. All parts of each of the two trees that
+rise from the bottom of the field are reversely duplicated in the other.
+Some of the stiffness of drawing of the earlier carpets remains, but the
+blossoms are clustered more naturally and the whole treatment is more
+skilful. The effect of the scroll-work on the red ground of the
+spandrel; of the suspended lamp with its bright flowers of red, yellow,
+and pink; and of the blossoming trees beneath, is most pleasing; but the
+chief interest centres in the outer border stripe, where appear features
+that are more interesting than harmonious, features derived from Persia,
+Assyria, Mongolia, and Arabia. The rounded octagons have Cufic lettering
+that recalls early Mesopotamian civilisation; the cartouches at the
+bottom with their cloud-bands suggest Mongolian conquests; and the upper
+cartouches contain the following verses from the Koran:
+
+ "Iman the victorious and expected Mahdi, the Lord of the Age.
+ Zalsi and Hason; and bless the standing proof.
+ Oh Lord bless Mohammed the chosen one. Ali, the elect, Fatimeh the
+ Immaculate.
+ Jofer Sadik, Mooza Kazin, Ali Riza Mohammed Taki, Mohammed Nakee, Ali.
+ The two branches Harson and Hussein Bless Ali Zaimulubbad Mohammed
+ Bak'r."
+
+These verses, the archaic lamp, and the green of the field, a colour
+sacred to Moslems, all indicate the religious character of the carpet.
+Similar features also appear in another antique piece of about the same
+age, but the Cufic characters of the border are within squares
+surrounded by circles that resemble Chinese seals as they appear in
+early manuscripts. Both of these pieces were probably woven in
+Northwestern Persia about the middle of the XVI Century. Few such prayer
+carpets remain, though without doubt they were used by devotees during
+succeeding periods, and it is not unusual to see, even in modern
+Kermanshahs, prayer arches of the same pattern.
+
+Of totally different character but of about the same age is an animal
+rug (Plate 15, opp. Page 76) that belongs to the Metropolitan Museum of
+Art. It was bought at the Yerkes sale in 1910, for $5,600, and had
+previously belonged to the collection of Vincent Robinson of London. It
+has a length of about seven and a half feet with a breadth of about five
+and a half, and consists of woollen pile tied to cotton warp crossed by
+woollen weft. The weave is not unlike what is seen in many modern
+Sarouks; as the knot is Sehna, one thread of warp is doubled under the
+other in each knot, and the coloured thread of weft, which crosses
+twice, is partly exposed at the back.
+
+Like so many of the old Persian pieces, the ground colour of red appears
+in the main field, and is strongly contrasted with the dark blue of the
+medallion and dark green of the corners. Red and green also appear in
+the border contrasted with yellow. This association of colour is not
+usual, nor is the repetitive pattern of the border with its sharp cusps
+at many of the angles, nor the trapeziform corners, and the nearly
+rectangular medallion. Likewise the mechanically formed bushes with
+their quince-like fruit, on which sit birds of disproportionate size,
+show a departure from the accepted traditions of the Safavid schools.
+Yet these very features awaken new interest, and suggest that it was
+probably woven in some part of Northern or Western Persia where the
+influence of the court was not paramount. Nevertheless the accurate
+balance of the different halves, and the drawing of the palmettes show
+that it is distinctly Iranian.
+
+If this last piece be compared with the animal rug (Plate 16, opp. Page
+78) that was presented to the Metropolitan Museum of Art by Mr. Cochran,
+the wide contrast will at once be noticeable. As the latter has a length
+of about eight and two-thirds feet with a breadth of nearly six, the
+difference in size and proportions is not great; nor is there any
+particular difference in the number of animals; nor in the balanced
+relation of upper and lower, right and left halves; nor in the red
+ground of the main fields. But here the resemblance ends. Whereas in the
+former the animals are one of the most prominent features, in the latter
+they are subordinate to the rich assemblage of floral and palmette
+forms, that occupy not only the field but also the border. It is,
+indeed, a piece that marks a transition from the animal rugs, so
+prominent in the early part of the XVI Century but rarely woven later
+than its end, to the more elegant pieces, so characteristic of the court
+of Ispahan, which belong almost exclusively to the XVII Century. It
+accordingly seems not without reason to assign it to about the year
+1600.
+
+[Illustration: PLATE 19. ARMENIAN CARPET IN THE METROPOLITAN MUSEUM OF
+ART, NEW YORK]
+
+Not only do these different elements that denote a transition add
+interest; they also give a most pleasing effect. The main border stripe
+of a rich green with its well-drawn palmettes surrounded by vines and
+foliated stalks, on which rest naturally drawn birds of handsome
+plumage, and the chaste floral designs of the narrow guards, serve as a
+tasteful frame to the central picture. Here again the outer field, with
+artistic effect, brings into greater relief the central medallion, where
+on a ground of greenish yellow, standing and seated amidst blossoming
+shrubs in red, blue, and green, as in a garden, are richly dressed human
+forms. Apart from these, yet perhaps intended in some way to reflect the
+tenor of their thoughts, are four ducks, emblematic of matrimonial
+happiness. Whatever may have been the original shade of the central
+medallion, it is now slightly out of harmony with the surrounding
+colours, and is perhaps the only jarring note in this exquisite piece of
+workmanship. Not improbably the present shade is due to the unfriendly
+hand of time, since the artistic genius of the weaver is fully displayed
+in the masterly arrangement of other colours and in the delicacy and
+precision of the drawing of the perfectly balanced floral and animal
+forms.
+
+The difficulty of determining the locality where the antique carpets
+were woven is often greater than in the case of modern rugs, but this
+piece was probably one of the last of those fine old animal carpets that
+were woven in the northwestern part of Persia.
+
+Though modern silk rugs fail to awaken the interest of woollen pieces,
+the old silk carpets were formerly regarded as the choicest products of
+weaving. As a rule, they were the work of the most skilled artists
+employed in the imperial factory under the direction and patronage of
+the court. It was during the reign of Shah Tamasp that they received
+special attention. Following a custom that had been in vogue of sending
+carpets as presents to foreign courts, in 1566 he sent to the Sultan of
+Constantinople a number of pieces on which flowers, birds, and animals
+were woven with silk on threads of gold. But it was doubtless after his
+successor Shah Abbas I had begun to embellish his capital at Ispahan,
+that were made the famous "Polish" silk or "Polonaise" carpets about
+which there has been so much controversy. It is true that Mr. Robinson
+in his "Eastern Carpets" claims that they were woven in Poland by
+Persians taken there by a Pole named Mersherski; but it seems far more
+probable that they were woven under the supervision of the Persian court
+and were either sent as presents to European sovereigns or purchased by
+wealthy connoisseurs of art.
+
+How many of these pieces may be hidden away in the palaces and mosques
+of the far East it is impossible to determine, but two hundred would be
+a very conservative estimate of the number owned by the different courts
+of Europe and by private collectors of that country and America. One of
+them was presented to the Danish court as late as 1639; and it is
+believed that all that reached Europe arrived there between the years
+1604 and 1650.
+
+Their beauty is exquisite and chaste. To the threads of silver and gold
+is tied silken nap that often displays a striking brilliancy. Unlike the
+earlier Persian carpets which had more subdued hues, these pieces have
+light tones such as salmon, rose, and green, which are arranged with
+perfect harmony. Moreover, there is an elegance of design representing
+the highest types of Iranian, Saracenic, and Mongolian influences
+combined. Here in perfection are dainty floral forms, the rhythmic
+tracery of arabesques, and delicate cloud-bands. In them the textile art
+of the East reached a perfection that probably has never been surpassed.
+
+One of these (Plate 17, opp. Page 80), that has a length of about nine
+feet and a breadth of five and a half, belongs to the Metropolitan
+Museum of Art. In many respects it is typical of its class, though
+threads of yellow and grey are substituted for the usual gold and silver
+of the foundation. On a field of rose are outlined palmettes, leaves,
+and scrolls in green, blue, brown, and salmon, that harmonise with the
+light blue of the border. All of these colours blend with pleasing
+effect and soften lines that in a print seem harsh. Furthermore with all
+its complexity of detail, every part of the pattern is arranged with
+mathematical precision. That a carpet with such perfect balance of every
+part, such intricacy of elaborate detail, such graceful curves of the
+heavy foliate leaves should be woven without copying some older pattern
+or a carefully executed drawing, seems improbable.
+
+[Illustration: PLATE 20. ASIA MINOR DRAGON AND PHOENIX CARPET IN THE
+KAISER FRIEDRICH MUSEUM, BERLIN]
+
+In this piece and in others of the same class can be recognised what is
+probably the prototype of more conventionalised and less elegant
+designs so often seen in modern Persian pieces, since the palmette with
+encircling lancet leaves in its borders is most suggestive of the
+borders of modern Herats; and the rhomboidal-shaped figure connecting
+four palmettes at the centre is equally suggestive of the Herati or fish
+pattern seen in the field of innumerable Feraghans.
+
+It was also during the reign of Shah Abbas[14] and his immediate
+successors that most of the so-called Ispahans were woven, though some
+of them appeared as early as the XV and some as late as the close of the
+XVII Century. As in the case with the Polish silk carpets, within recent
+years some difference of opinion has existed regarding the place of
+their manufacture. After careful research, Dr. Martin believes that they
+came from Herat and with this idea some other authorities concur. It is
+true that Herat belonged to the Persian Empire during the reign of the
+Safavid dynasty, and that even in the days of Shah Ismael magnificent
+carpets were woven there. It is also true that during the time of Tamasp
+and Abbas it was as important an art centre as Tabriz, and that the
+weaving of carpets was a leading industry there. Furthermore, there has
+not been found the same evidence to show that Ispahan was at this period
+an equally important centre of weaving. On the other hand, it is well
+known that the splendid industrial and art products of this period were
+largely due to the direct encouragement and favour of the court, and
+that the court was for most of the time at Ispahan. It is also known
+that skilled artisans were repeatedly removed from one district to
+another at the command of a sovereign, so that carpets of similar
+character might be woven contemporaneously in remote parts of Persia. It
+accordingly seems not improbable that the original type of these carpets
+was evolved at Herat and that many of them at least were made at Herat,
+but that others were also made at Ispahan. At any rate they were made to
+a great extent under the influence that emanated from Ispahan.
+
+Almost without exception they are pieces of large size and oblong shape.
+The ground colour of the field is usually red, the border blue; but blue
+is occasionally used in the field and green in the border. Their
+distinguishing feature is the use of the palmette, that was probably
+derived from the lotus, so frequently associated with the Buddhist cult
+of India and China. In the field it generally occurs in pairs that
+slightly vary in size. Of almost equal importance are the Chinese
+cloud-bands and the scrolls or arabesques. These three designs were
+constant motives in almost all the Ispahans; but they were subject to
+modifications in size and shape, which appearing in chronological order
+furnish some guide to the time when the carpets were woven. For
+instance, the palmettes were at first small and distributed plentifully
+over the field; later they became larger, until in a few instances they
+were a yard in diameter. Dr. Martin says that in the first part of the
+XVII Century the palmettes began to be very large and the richness of
+the interior design to disappear; until at the end of the XVII Century
+only a few were sufficient to cover the ground that one hundred years
+before was almost hidden by innumerable designs of small palmettes,
+cloud-bands, and scroll work. He also states that towards the middle of
+the XVII Century the borders began to lose their importance and that the
+palmettes were surrounded by two long, narrow leaves.
+
+Though most of the antique Iranian carpets that remain were woven in the
+Northern provinces, it is well known that even from earliest times
+carpets of elaborate design and skilful technique were also woven in
+Southern Persia. In fact, many of the wonderful pieces that adorned the
+palaces and mosques of the Fatimid Caliphs of Egypt came from the
+districts of Fars and Kirman. The latter, notwithstanding invasions of
+Seljukian Turks, Mongolians, and Afghans, has continued almost
+uninterruptedly as a centre of the textile industry; yet comparatively
+few pieces exist that were woven there three or four centuries ago.
+Their colour scheme harmonises more with that of the carpets of Western
+Persia than with the more sombre tones of the old animal carpets and
+Ispahans, or with the brighter hues of the so-called Polish. Their
+patterns also show a distinction from those of northern textile fabrics.
+The fields are often artificially divided, by foliate stalks or
+lance-shaped leaves with serrated edges, into rhomboidal figures that
+contain mechanically drawn shrubs, palmettes, or flowers. In the main
+stripe of the border are generally represented interlacing arabesques
+adorned with flowering vines or arabesques and a sub-pattern of vines.
+Mongolian designs are rarely seen in any of these pieces, which probably
+represent more closely than any other Persian carpets native art
+unaffected by foreign influences. Almost all of them are now owned in
+Europe.
+
+Of the early rugs, those woven in Armenia are far less known than those
+from Persia. Nevertheless, it may reasonably be assumed that the high
+culture that was manifested in Bagdad and Ctesiphon during the sway of
+the Caliphs was felt among the mountainous districts to the north; and
+that the Seljukian rulers, who left such artistic monuments in the old
+Armenian capitals, appreciated and encouraged the manufacture of fine
+woollen fabrics. In fact, Marco Polo, who travelled through that region
+during the latter part of the XIII Century, referred to them as being
+remarkably handsome.
+
+Probably the oldest remaining pieces are the so-called Dragon carpets,
+which, it is believed, were produced from the XIV to the XVII Century
+and possibly even earlier. Not infrequently the length is at least twice
+the breadth; the very narrow border occasionally consists of only a
+single stripe; and the field is occupied by a trellis-like pattern of
+narrow, conventionalised leaves, within which are designs containing
+archaic flowers and dragons. The ground colour of the field is generally
+some shade of red, that of the border white, and the leaves are yellow,
+blue, or green. In the borders of many of them appear an S motive from
+which undoubtedly was derived the design so frequently seen in panels of
+more recent Asia Minor prayer rugs.
+
+In the Metropolitan Museum of Art of New York is a XV Century carpet
+(Plate 19, opp. Page 86), which, though widely differing from these
+pieces in general pattern, so closely resembles them in the essential
+characteristics of weave and colour that it is unquestionably of the
+same class. The field is occupied by concentric diamonds with stepped
+sides. The encircling bands, that are mostly red, yellow, and violet,
+and the corners, that are white, contain numerous archaic forms,
+including palmettes, trees, birds, and animals. There are also numerous
+small designs of the tri-cleft leaf so common to the Circassian and
+Soumak rugs; and the ray-like edges of the central lozenge, as well as
+the four palmettes that rest upon it, suggest the origin of the
+effulgent stars of old Daghestans and Kabistans. An effort has been made
+to balance similar designs in corresponding parts of the field, though
+its centre is at one side of the geometric centre of the diamonds. The
+palmettes show distinctly a strong Persian influence and the animal
+forms likewise show that it was not woven by a sectarian Sunnite of
+Western Asia Minor.
+
+Part of a very unusual carpet (Plate 20, opp. Page 88), from a district
+in Eastern Asia Minor, is in the Kaiser Friedrich Museum at Berlin. Its
+principal interest lies in the fact that it is very old and that its
+approximate age has been determined. In the hospital at Siena, Italy, a
+similar rug is represented in a fresco called the "Wedding of the
+Foundling," painted by Domenico di Bartolo about the year 1440, so that
+it is reasonable to conclude that this particular piece was woven not
+much later. In fact, its character would indicate that it or some other
+from which it has been copied was much older. Each of the nearly square
+compartments contain octagons, within which on a yellow field are
+represented the mythical fight of the dragon and phoenix that was
+adopted as the Ming coat of arms. It is interesting to note that the
+chain pattern of the brownish-black main border stripe is not unlike
+what is seen in modern pieces, but the running latch hooks of the
+corners and the small S designs are unusually stiff. This disposition to
+formal drawing, which is conspicuous in all parts of the rug, shows an
+archaic style noticeable only in the very earliest carpets.
+
+In the celebrated painting of Georg Gyze (Plate 21, opp. Page 92) which
+hangs in the Berlin Gallery, is represented a rug of a class so
+frequently seen in the paintings of Hans Holbein that they are known as
+"Holbein rugs." Their marked dissimilarity to those previously described
+indicates that they were woven under different circumstances if not in
+different regions. Neither in the fields nor borders is any trace of
+Mongolian or Persian influences; and the absence of all floral, leaf,
+and animal forms so usual in most antique carpets is noticeable. Indeed,
+the fact that animal forms rarely appear in the art of the Sunni
+Mohammedans aids in determining the place of their origin. They came
+from Asia Minor or Western Armenia.
+
+It has generally been assumed that they were woven in Western Asia
+Minor, because they were purchased there in former centuries and taken
+thence to Europe; but they possess many features that indicate they may
+have been woven farther to the east, whence many could easily have been
+transported westward in caravans. Their borders contain the well-known
+pattern derived from Cufic letters which, more conventionalised, appears
+in later years only in such rugs as the Kabistans and Daghestans of
+Eastern Caucasia. Most of them also contain the small octagonal discs
+and larger octagonal figures with Greek crosses at the centre that
+suggest forcibly the designs of Southeastern Caucasia. The narrow
+stripes of ribbon and chain pattern found in many of them also are
+very common in Caucasian rugs; so that it seems not improbable that
+these Holbein rugs were made within the boundaries of that greater
+Armenia which, embracing the upper Mesopotamian valley, extended over
+the eastern part of Asia Minor and the southern part of modern Caucasia.
+
+[Illustration: PLATE 21. PORTRAIT OF GEORG GYZE BY HANS HOLBEIN, SHOWING
+A HOLBEIN RUG WITH CUFIC BORDER]
+
+These rugs claim the attention not only because they have borders of
+such interesting origin, but by the fact that the age when they were
+woven is ascertainable. As Holbein lived between the years 1497 and
+1543, and some other rugs of this type appear in the works of early
+Flemish and Italian painters, it may reasonably be assumed that some of
+them were made before the end of the XV Century.
+
+A very excellent example of this class, owned by Mr. C. F. Williams, is
+now in the Metropolitan Museum of Art. It has a length of about five
+feet with a breadth of three and a half. The ground colour of the field
+is an olive green and that of the main stripe of the border is red. The
+prevailing colours of the designs, which are entirely geometric, are
+blue, green, and ivory. All of these rugs are small or of moderate size,
+and are slightly oblong. Some of them have a ground colour of green; and
+yellow is frequently found in the pattern. The weaving is rather loose;
+and compared with Persian rugs they have fewer knots to the square inch.
+
+Another carpet from Asia Minor that also belongs to Mr. C. F. Williams
+appears in Plate 22, opp. Page 94. It is the only entire rug with this
+pattern that is known, though a piece of a similar rug is in the
+Victoria and Albert Museum at London. On fields of blue and red are
+outlined three large four-pointed stars separated by smaller diamonds.
+Within these figures and in the surrounding field is a network of
+tracery supporting conventionalised leaf and floral forms. Between the
+field and the main stripe of the narrow border is a close co-ordination
+of pattern, but the simple ribbon of the inner guard seems alien. It
+appears without modification in many later Asia Minor and Caucasian
+rugs.
+
+An important feature are the double knots at the corners of the stars,
+since they are identical with designs found in a manuscript made for one
+of the Shahs in 1435, and thus assist to determine the age of the rug.
+For this reason and on account of its general character, it seems not
+unreasonable to place it as early as the middle of the XV Century.
+
+Similar carpets were woven during a long period, and it is probable that
+in the latter half of the following century they were largely influenced
+by the weavers that Solyman the Magnificent, after capturing Tabriz in
+1534, transported to his own country. The same general features still
+remained, but the detail was more elaborate and ornate. Arabesques,
+palmettes, and floral forms, both of field and border, resembled more
+nearly the Iranian character. But at a later period, after the beginning
+of the general decadence to which every industry and art were subject,
+the patterns became much simpler, and the colours were reduced almost
+exclusively to red and blue with a little green. At length, both pattern
+and colours assumed the type of modern Oushaks, that by a slow process
+of devolution originated from these antique pieces.
+
+In Armenia and Asia Minor it is probable that weaving existed before the
+Christian era, and that the earliest carpets which remain, though
+affected by more eastern influences, are largely the product of an
+indigenous art. But in India it was otherwise. It is true that Sir
+George Birdwood is authority for the statement that the Saracens
+introduced carpet-weaving there; but it is most probable that at the
+time of the invasion of the armies of Tamerlane and during the lives of
+many of his successors, whatever carpets were woven were very crude.
+Even when the Moguls began to build and embellish palaces, they obtained
+their carpets from Persia. But at length Shah Akbar established
+manufacturies at Lahore about the year 1580, and invited Persian weavers
+to settle there. From them the native workmen acquired much of their
+knowledge of patterns and technique.
+
+It was during the reign of Shah Jahan (1628-1658), builder of the famous
+peacock throne and Taj Mahal, that most of the choicest pieces that now
+remain were woven. In delicacy of texture they rival those of any other
+country, and it is not unusual to find pieces with nearly eight hundred
+knots to the square inch; moreover, all their designs are depicted with
+remarkable clearness of definition. One of the most noted of these
+carpets is the woollen piece, about eight yards long by two and a half
+wide, that was made at the royal factory at Lahore and presented to the
+Girdlers Company of London in 1634. The mingling of leaf and floral
+forms, as well as the Herati designs of rosette and crumpled leaf, on a
+field of red, shows unmistakably its relation to Persian carpets. At the
+same period were woven large numbers of others with fields covered
+with an imposing display of superbly drawn flowers, of which every
+part from root to leaf tips was represented with astonishing realism.
+Another class included the animal or hunting carpets, which unlike their
+Persian prototypes seem intended not so much to portray symbolically
+some historic event or abstract idea, as to convey a correct impression
+of an actual event.
+
+[Illustration: PLATE 22. OUSHAK CARPET
+
+Loaned by C. F. Williams, Esq., to the Metropolitan Museum of Art, New
+York]
+
+One of these, a woollen piece with a length of eight and a quarter feet
+and a breadth of five and a quarter, is in the Boston Museum of Fine
+Arts. The inspiration was from some old Persian piece, but the rendering
+is peculiarly Indian. In this representation of an Oriental jungle is a
+strange mingling of the real and unreal. The struggle of a monster bird
+with a winged beast, half lion, half elephant, and the demoniac faces of
+the border suggest the inspiration of early pagan mythology; but the
+movements of the running gazelles and the stealthily creeping tiger, the
+attitude of the driver of the cart and his attendant, are most natural.
+The drawing as a whole is exceedingly delicate. The ground colour of the
+field is the red of most Ispahans and Herats of this period, but the
+border is a cream colour, a combination not in accord with Persian
+tradition. The other colours are fawn, blue, pink, grey and brown. It is
+probably the only Indian hunting carpet of its kind.
+
+Few strictly antique carpets from other countries of the Orient are
+known. Of the innumerable pieces that were surely woven in Caucasia and
+Western Turkestan before the end of the XVII Century, scarcely a vestige
+can be found. Nor are there many from the looms of Syria, though in the
+days of the Caliphs every mosque was adorned with magnificent carpets.
+It is true a few sterling pieces of Saracenic character, that have been
+ascribed to the region about Damascus, still exist. There are also a few
+rare and beautiful pieces that have come to light in China.[15] But of
+the countless thousands that in almost every country of the Orient once
+covered floors of palaces and mosques, representing one of the most
+refined arts, now nearly lost, only an insignificant fraction remains.
+
+[Illustration: CHART INDICATING PERIODS WHEN ANTIQUE CARPETS WERE MADE]
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER VIII
+
+CLASSIFICATION OF MODERN RUGS
+
+
+RUGS contribute to the comfort of the nomad more than
+any other fabric. With them he closes the entrance to his tent or covers
+the floor and couches on which he sits and sleeps. Thrown over other
+objects they form the table, made into saddle bags they take the place
+of trunks. The followers of Islam when at prayer kneel on a rug, and in
+token of affection spread one over the grave of a friend. To dwellers in
+cities, also, rugs contribute largely to the comfort and luxury of the
+home. Indeed, without them the splendour of Oriental life would seem
+incomplete, since they are the principal furnishings of every house,
+where stout woven pieces with long pile are spread as floor coverings,
+and lighter ones are hung as portières and tapestries. Yet it is in the
+assembly or dining hall that the finest rugs are used, though here the
+most valued are exposed only on great occasions.
+
+In the East a rug receives a particular name according to which of these
+special purposes it is adapted. The large, almost square piece that is
+used to cover the centre of the assembly hall is known as the "Khali;"
+and the narrow strips or "runners" that are placed at its sides and ends
+are known as the "Kenares." It is on the Kenares that the servants are
+required to walk and the less honoured guests to stand, for they are
+rarely of such fine quality as the former. Before the divan, that
+generally surrounds three walls and is covered with fine cloth and
+velvet, are seats on which are placed carpets called "Sedjadeh." They
+are nearly twice as long as broad, and since they are of moderate size
+and excellent quality they are frequently used for many other purposes.
+The hearth rug, termed "Odjalik," can generally be distinguished from
+others, as each end of the field is of triangular shape with the apex at
+the extremity. However much any of these may be valued, the one that to
+every worshipper of Allah has the most sacred association is the
+"Namazlik," or prayer rug, at one end of which is an arch in token of
+the mosque. At call for prayer the faithful Moslem spreads his rug with
+arch directed towards Mecca, and kneeling with the palms of his hands at
+each side of the centre he bows his head till it touches the rug. As the
+Mohammedans of Persia are unwilling that a Namazlik be trampled by the
+foot of an infidel, few from there can be bought; but the Mohammedans of
+other countries are less scrupulous, so that many of the prayer rugs
+sold in America have been made solely for trade and have never been used
+in worship. They may be beautiful, but special interest attaches to old
+pieces of which the well-worn nap shows where the knees of both father
+and son for over half a century have often pressed. In addition to these
+are other rugs with technical names, but a classification of much
+greater importance is that which depends on the country or district
+where they are woven.
+
+When the Oriental rugs first appeared in the market of the United
+States, they were spoken of as "Turkish," for the reason that importers
+purchased them from Turkish merchants of Constantinople. But when it
+became known that they had been taken there by caravans from countries
+farther to the east, and that large numbers of them came from Persia,
+the name "Persian," that to the mind of many conveys ideas of splendour,
+was at once applied; even to-day all classes of Oriental rugs are often
+spoken of as Persian. As objects of ornament or utility, their value is
+independent of their place of origin; yet it is known that the wool of
+the nap and the dyes used in some districts are superior to those in
+others, and that in consequence the beauty of some rugs will improve
+with age far more than that of others. It is also known that because in
+certain districts the material of warp and weft, as well as the
+workmanship, is of a superior quality, the rugs made there will wear
+better than others. The knowledge, then, of where a rug is made is
+important in determining the quality and value, which otherwise only a
+critical examination, that few people are able to make, would show.
+
+[Illustration: PLATE 23. SEHNA RUG]
+
+Furthermore, the knowledge of where a rug is made, suggesting the class
+of people who wove it, adds immeasurably to our interest. When, for
+instance, we look at an old piece of Kurdish weave with its nomadic
+designs and shaggy nap, on which a Moslem savage as an Apache often
+rested fully half a century ago, there is called up a picture of the
+dark-visaged tribesman, fearless and untamed as were his ancestors
+who contested the march of Xenophon over two thousand years ago. We see
+him wandering with his flocks over the hills while he watches for a
+chance to fall upon an unsuspecting stranger. We picture to ourselves
+the hut of brush upon the mountain side where a slender barbaric girl
+bends to tie, with wonderful patience, the knots one by one. So if we
+would enjoy our Oriental rugs, we should know what people made them, and
+whence and how they journeyed, before they reached our fireside.
+
+At the request of a purchaser the vendor is ever ready to classify a
+rug, but his statements are not always reliable. This is partly due to
+the fact that even the great importing houses are often deceived.
+Throughout Asia Minor, Persia, Turkestan, even farther east, great fairs
+are regularly held. Here gather the representatives of tribes from far
+distant quarters to enjoy for a few days or weeks the gay life and
+abandon of the East while bartering the products of their different
+crafts. Here come the purchasing agents looking for rugs; and the pieces
+that may be brought from afar are bought and shipped by camel and rail
+to such great marts as Tabriz, Tiflis, and Constantinople, where the
+bales are unpacked and the rugs assorted, classified and labelled,
+before they are resold to the importing houses of Europe and America.
+Thus both in the buying from the itinerant agent of rugs assembled from
+different quarters and in the reassortment at the exporting cities there
+is frequent opportunity for errors of classification.
+
+The characteristics of the different groups and classes of rugs are
+given in later chapters, but it should not be presumed that these are
+infallible guides to the locality where they were made. Often a ruler,
+by fostering art, has drawn to his capital artists and artisans from
+other districts. Thus designs and quality of workmanship characteristic
+of one district would be adopted in another. So, too, the great caravans
+that pass along regular routes eastward and westward, and the annual
+pilgrimages to Meshed and Mecca, have been most potent influences for
+the dissemination of designs. Yet taking into consideration the general
+pattern and smaller designs; the material of warp, weft, and pile; the
+knot; the dyes; the finish of sides and ends, and the peculiarities of
+the weave, it is possible with a reasonable amount of certainty to
+determine in what districts almost all Oriental rugs are woven.
+
+It should be borne in mind, however, that the names by which some of the
+rugs are known in America are not the same as those by which they are
+known in Asia. For instance, the rugs made by some of the tribes of the
+Tekke Khanate are known in the Orient as "Tekkes;" but as the great
+depot for Turkestan carpets was formerly the city of Bokhara, they are
+generally known in this country as "Bokharas." On the other hand, there
+are local distinctions in the eastern countries not known in the
+western. The accompanying classification, therefore, is slightly
+arbitrary, but should be convenient for reference; since the classes
+represent the cities or districts where are woven the several different
+kinds, excepting the Chinese, which are divided chronologically. The
+names of the groups are not in each instance entirely satisfactory, but
+are probably the best that can be chosen. The fourth group, for example,
+has frequently been called the "Turkoman;" but as it includes some of
+the rugs of Afghanistan, and also those of Beluchistan, which is remote
+from Turkestan, that name is not sufficiently comprehensive. The
+district where these rugs are made is, strictly speaking, the western
+and southwestern part of Central Asia; but the term here employed has
+the authority of some German writers of note. So, too, the rugs of
+Herat, though it is now a city of Afghanistan, are included with the
+Persian group; but it should be remembered that Herat, as well as the
+districts of Mosul and Kurdistan, was once part of the old Persian
+Empire.
+
+
+ GROUP I. PERSIAN.
+
+ (_a_) Khorassan district:
+ Herat, Khorassan, Meshed.
+
+ (_b_) Shiraz district:
+ Ispahan, Kirman, Yezd, Shiraz, Niris.
+
+ (_c_) Feraghan district:
+ Feraghan, Hamadan, Kara-Geuz, Bibikabad, Iran, Sarouk,
+ Kashan, Sarabend, Burujird, Sultanabad, Muskabad, Mahal,
+ Joshaghan, Gulistan, Teheran.
+
+ (_d_) Sehna district, or Adelan province:
+ Sehna, Bijar, Kermanshah, Persian Kurdistan, Karaje.
+
+ (_e_) Tabriz district:
+ Tabriz, Gorevan, Bakshis, Serapi, Herez, Suj-Bulak, Karadagh,
+ Afshar.
+
+ (_f_) Kurdistan district:
+ Western Kurdistan, Mosul, Gozene.
+
+
+ GROUP II. ASIA MINOR OR TURKISH.
+
+ (_a_) West Asia Minor district:
+ Bergamo, Ghiordes, Kulah, Oushak, Ak-Hissar, Demirdji,
+ Kutayah, Smyrna, Melez, Isbarta, Rhodian, Broussa,
+ Hereke.
+
+ (_b_) Central Asia Minor district:
+ Konieh, Ladik, Kir-Shehr, Anatolian, Karaman, Sivas, Mudjar,
+ Nigde, Tuzla, Kaisariyeh, Zile, Yuruk.
+
+
+ GROUP III. CAUCASIAN.
+
+ (_a_) North Caucasian:
+ Daghestan, Kabistan, Kuba, Derbend, Lesghian, Chichi,
+ Tcherkess.
+
+ (_b_) Trans Caucasian:
+ Baku, Shirvan, Soumak, Shemakha, Tiflis, Kutais, Kazak,
+ Karabagh, Shusha, Gengha.
+
+
+ GROUP IV. CENTRAL ASIATIC.
+
+ (_a_) West Turkoman sub-group, Western influence:
+ Royal Bokhara, Princess Bokhara, Tekke, Yomud, Khiva, Afghan,
+ Beshir.
+
+ (_b_) East Turkoman sub-group, Eastern influence:
+ Samarkand, Kashgar, Yarkand.
+
+ (_c_) Beluchistan.
+
+
+ GROUP V. INDIAN.
+
+ (_a_) Northern India:
+ Srinagar, Amritsar, Lahore, Multan, Agra, Allahabad,
+ Mirzapur, Zabalpur, Patna, Jaipur.
+
+ (_b_) Southern India:
+ Madras, Mysore, Bangalore, Warangal, Malabar, Hyderabad,
+ Marsulipatam.
+
+
+GROUP VI. CHINESE.[16]
+
+
+ (_a_) XVII Century:
+ Late Ming 1600-1643 and Early Kang-hi (1662-1700).
+
+ (_b_) XVIII Century:
+ 1. Late Kang-hi (1700-1722). 2. Yung-ching (1722-1736).
+ 3. Keen-lung (1736-1795).
+
+ (_c_) Early and Middle XIX Century.
+
+ (_d_) Late XIX Century or Modern.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER IX
+
+PERSIAN RUGS
+
+
+IN the grouping of Oriental rugs, it is not always desirable to follow
+the present political divisions of territory, since great and frequent
+changes in national boundaries have occurred without corresponding
+changes in the traditional style of weaving. Thus it happens that with
+the rugs made in Persia, which is still called Iran by its inhabitants,
+it is desirable to group those made within that former Iran that
+included the valley of Mesopotamia on the west and part of Afghanistan
+on the east. The woven products of all this territory have
+characteristics that are similar to one another and that differentiate
+them from those of other countries. Their patterns are distinctly
+floral, representing leaf, bud, and flower, and show a tendency to
+naturalistic drawing with graceful and often intricate lines. Moreover,
+their colour schemes of delicate tones are not only beautiful but in
+perfect harmony. In marked contrast with them are the rugs of Caucasia,
+Asia Minor, and Central Asia, which have patterns of geometric shape or
+highly conventionalised flower forms, and colours that often appear in
+bold contrast. In the Chinese rugs, also, is generally less harmony of
+colour, as well as less co-ordination of design, than in the Persian.
+The scroll and floral patterns appear on the field in isolated figures,
+or else imitate with more formal drawing the diaper pattern of some
+Iranian carpets. Only in the rugs of India is there a similarity to the
+patterns and colour tones of those of Persia; but the designs are more
+realistically drawn, less artistically arranged, and less profuse.
+
+[Illustration: _COLOUR PLATE IV—BERGAMO RUG_
+
+_The weaver of this interesting Bergamo followed the early Asia Minor
+traditions in the use of rich, deep blue and red of field and border,
+yet in respect to pattern showed his freedom from conventionality by
+departing from types peculiar to his district and adopting many nomadic
+designs prevalent throughout Anatolia. Reciprocal latch-hooks form the
+background of the central field, on which are three upright panels
+containing octagonal discs; and latch-hooks surrounding lozenges and
+forming what may originally have been intended to represent the tree of
+life appear almost as conspicuously in the border. There are also combs,
+knots of destiny, and innumerable S-forms. The panels at the upper and
+lower ends of the field and the reciprocal vandykes are most suggestive
+of Ladiks, but in the place of pomegranates at the ends of the upright
+stalks are small checquered squares. Bergamos with such patterns are now
+rarely seen._
+
+ _Loaned by Mr. Hulett C. Merritt_]
+
+The similarity in the rugs of the Persian group is due to past political
+influences as well as to common ties of race and religion. From the time
+when Ctesiphon and Babylon vied with the cities of Persia in the
+splendour of their capitals, all of this territory was repeatedly under
+one and the same dominant power, which at different times was held by
+Saracens, Seljukian Turks, Timurids, and Safavids; and even after the
+end of the Safavid dynasty the influence of Nadir Shah was felt over
+Mesopotamia as well as Western Afghanistan. A still stronger influence
+is that of race; for Aryans, Arabs, Armenians, and Turks have blended
+with the early people of the whole territory, until not only do all
+resemble one another, but their craftsmanship is similar. Furthermore,
+with the exception of a few rapidly disappearing Parsees, who still
+cling to the early Zoroastrian faith, all are Mohammedans; and in their
+frequent pilgrimages to the same shrines is a constant interchange of
+ideas and exchange of fabrics. It is true Asia Minor, Caucasia, and
+India have shared to some extent the same influences, but to a much less
+degree.
+
+A resemblance, also, exists between many of the physical features of the
+entire country that affect the habits and industries of the people. To
+be sure the Euphrates and Tigris, that wind sluggishly through the great
+Mesopotamian valley, and the great ranges of the Elburz and Zagros, that
+extend from Mt. Ararat easterly and southeasterly through Persia, have
+no counterpart; but on the other hand in Mesopotamia, Persia, and
+Western Afghanistan are great stretches of sandy wastes where there is
+little vegetation, high table-lands where during rainless summer months
+the earth is parched, and little valleys of fertile soil that are
+watered by streams from the encircling mountain ridges. Throughout this
+territory, wherever physical conditions are similar, the people follow
+similar pursuits. In the deserts the impoverished Bedouins live; in the
+higher lands some two millions of nomads follow their sheep and goats,
+pitching their tents wherever there is pasture; in the valleys are
+several millions of people, who, with the placid contentment of the
+East, irrigate their garden patches, fashion simple articles of metal,
+and weave artistic rugs.
+
+A general decadence in social, political, and industrial life pervades
+the whole country; yet due partly to the inheritance of a past
+associated with the glories of Persepolis and Ecbatana, Babylon and
+Nineveh, Bagdad and Ctesiphon, and to the more immediate influence of
+the textile masterpieces of three centuries ago, rugs are still produced
+that in delicacy of weave, beauty of design, and harmony of colours
+surpass those of any other part of the world. In the weave of the best
+examples is displayed a technical skill only approached by a few of the
+Royal Bokharas. In the fine rhythm of lines and in the colour scheme of
+harmonious and delicate tones, with which a few of the best products of
+India alone compare, is united the touch of both artist and artisan. The
+fields of the old pieces are lavishly covered with intricate designs of
+buds and blossoms supported by vines or tendrils, and frequently
+encircled by arabesques that interlace so as to form an harmonious
+whole. The fields of the modern pieces are frequently of solid colour,
+with central medallions and triangular corners defined by graceful
+lines. Again, the ground colour of the field, which is either uniform or
+slightly shading from one end to the other, is covered with
+realistically drawn or conventionalised floral designs that are arranged
+with studied precision, and are now and then relieved by some nomadic
+design. Surrounding the fields are borders of several stripes, some of
+which contain an undulating vine with pendent flowers or palmettes
+co-ordinate in drawing and colouring with the main pattern. It is,
+however, principally in the colours, which are delicate yet rich,
+subdued yet lustrous, that these rugs surpass all others. Their most
+distinctive tones are blues, reds, browns, and greens, so arranged that
+the ground colours of border and field generally contrast yet remain in
+perfect harmony; as where there is some moss green in border and wine
+colour in field, each being subordinated to other superimposed colours
+representing floral detail.
+
+[ILLUSTRATION: MAP OF PERSIA]
+
+The best known of the floral patterns, repeated with formal precision
+throughout the field, is the Herati pattern, which is of uncertain
+antiquity and origin. It consists of a central figure that generally
+represents a rose, but sometimes a peony or rosette, about which are
+grouped other figures like crumpled or lance-shaped leaves. Probably
+both the central and encircling figures are of Persian origin, though
+the latter have been regarded by some authorities as representing fish
+and attributed to Egypt or to China; in fact, they are occasionally
+drawn so as distinctly to show eyes and fins. Very frequently four of
+these figures are arranged about a lattice-shaped design with pendants
+and a central rosette, as in Plate O, Fig. 4 (Page 291). This Herati or
+Fish Pattern, as it is frequently called, appears in many of the old
+Persian rugs and in most of the modern pieces, particularly the
+Feraghans and Herats. A less frequently seen floral pattern, which has
+been used from a very remote time and is still represented in modern
+rugs, is the Guli Hinnai, or Flower of Hinnai (Plate O, Fig. 3). Of this
+plant Mohammed was so fond that he called it the "chief of this world
+and the next."
+
+It occurs as a formal pattern in many of the Feraghans, and in several
+other rugs in which its bright five-petalled flowers are scattered
+informally over the field. Another floral pattern frequently seen is the
+Mina Khani, illustrated in Plate O, Fig. 2, that was named after Mina
+Khan, a former Persian ruler. It is particularly characteristic of
+Persian Kurdish pieces in which a dark blue field is covered by a
+network of intersecting olive-coloured vines. At the intersections are
+placed large flowers that alternate in regular series according to their
+different designs and colours; and between them often appear other
+flowers, such as the smaller and brighter coloured Hinnai, so as to
+destroy too great stiffness of design. As the flowers are relatively
+large and sufficiently separate to show the intervening blue field, this
+is one of the most effective of the formal repetitive floral patterns. A
+still more formal pattern (Plate O, Fig. 1), which appeared in some of
+the Persian rugs of the XVI and XVII centuries, was named after Shah
+Abbas. It is not unlikely that it was suggested by the Mina Khani
+design, to which it bears a slight resemblance; but the principal motive
+is so conventionalised that it has lost much of the floral character.
+Between the large and formal palmettes, that are arranged with
+mathematical precision, are grouped with similar regularity smaller
+palmettes, connected by angular vines and leafy branches.
+
+Only a few Persian rugs have the formal repetitive patterns, such as the
+Herati, Guli Hinnai, Mina Khani, and Shah Abbas. Others have the
+repetitive pattern of bushes, flowers, or the pear, on a field of rich
+colour. The remainder have patterns consisting largely of scrolls,
+vines, or tendrils, drawn with exquisite art and decorated with leaves,
+flowers, and buds in beautiful profusion; also birds, beasts, human
+beings, demons, and other imaginary shapes, sometimes associated with
+the foliage but frequently bearing no apparent relation to it, appear as
+special motives. Since many of these forms, which originated in the
+remote past, have been transplanted from one country to another, and
+conventionalised to meet the new environment, it is interesting to
+observe the designs in the different classes of rugs and trace as far as
+possible the influences to which they are due.
+
+
+HERATS.—On great lines of travel between India, Turkestan, and Persia,
+the city of Herat in Northwestern Afghanistan for centuries occupied
+commercially a most important position, so that its people long since
+became familiar with the best fabrics of the surrounding countries.
+During the XV Century it reached its greatest prosperity, and exerted an
+important influence on the art and culture of Western Asia. Before the
+art decadence that followed the capture of the city by Nadir Shah in
+1731, and the removal of many of its artisans to Persia, its looms were
+producing some of the best rugs of the Orient, which excelled in
+delicacy of drawing and in perfect harmony of colours. The fields
+contained patterns of serrated leaves entwined with flowing arabesques,
+scrolls, and Chinese cloud-bands. Conspicuous among this tracery were
+palmettes and such flowers as the lotus and peony, which were often most
+realistically drawn.[17] These rugs are of further interest, as they
+contained in field and border the design that, slightly changed, appears
+in many of the later rugs of Persia as the Herati pattern.
+
+The modern rugs are as unlike other Afghans as were the antique pieces
+and show a close relationship to those of Persia. Nor is this
+surprising, as the weavers, though falling far short of the high
+standards of the time when Herat was part of Persia, are still mindful
+of the early traditions. Moreover, many of the rugs are made across the
+border in Khorassan, and have the silky pile peculiar to the rugs of
+that province; but their tones of colour, consisting principally of red
+or blue in the field, and light green, yellow, and ivory in the border,
+as well as most of the patterns, are dissimilar. In one type the fields
+are covered with pear designs; but their bent narrow ends always turn in
+the same direction, whilst those of other rugs turn in different
+directions in alternate rows. Another type suggests the Feraghans,
+because their fields are covered with the Herati or Fish pattern; but
+the borders of the Feraghans usually have the well-known turtle pattern,
+while the borders of these adhere to the traditional Herati design. It
+is also not unusual to see a large central medallion, in which blue or
+red predominates, separated by a field of lighter colour from the
+triangular patterns of the corners. Now and then, a nomadic influence is
+seen in the small adventitious figures of the field.
+
+[Illustration: PLATE 24. BIJAR RUG]
+
+One of the most characteristic features of this class are the borders,
+that generally have three stripes, of which the central consists of a
+continuous vine of crumpled leaves so conventionalised as to be merely
+bent, thorny stalks partly enveloping formal rosettes. The other stripes
+are narrow, and have some simple undulating vine. This typical border,
+the stout, closely woven warp and weft of cotton, their large, almost
+square shapes and rather coarse weave, are important aids in
+distinguishing this class from all others. Some of the rugs recently
+made are coarse; but the older rugs have excellent dyes, lustrous nap,
+and matured tones of well-blended colours.
+
+_Type Characteristics._[18] _Colours_, principally red and blue with
+minor quantities of green, yellow, and ivory. _Knot_, Ghiordes, rarely
+Sehna. Knots to inch horizontally, eight to eleven; perpendicularly,
+nine to twelve. A half knot, as it appears at back, is about as long,
+measured in direction of length of rug, as wide.[19] The rows of knots
+are firmly pressed down so that the warp is concealed at back. _Warp_,
+of cotton, rarely wool; one of the two threads encircled by a knot is
+generally doubled under the other, sometimes it is only depressed.
+_Weft_, wool, occasionally cotton; of coarse diameter. For a short space
+a thread of weft crosses twice, that is across and back once, between
+every two rows of knots, then three times, and so alternates every
+several rows. _Pile_, wool of medium length, soft, and silky. _Border_,
+three to five stripes, and frequently an outer edging of uniform colour.
+_Sides_, a double overcasting. _Both ends_, narrow web and loose warp
+fringe. _Texture_, stout and firm. _Weave_ at back is of coarse grain.
+_Usual length_, eight to twenty feet. _Usual width_, three fifths to
+three quarters length.
+
+
+KHORASSANS.—Among Iranians, Khorassan is often spoken of as the Land of
+the Sun. In its northern part are long ranges of mountains where herds
+and flocks find excellent pastures, and intervening valleys where the
+soil is cultivated. But the remainder of the province, with the
+exception of scattered oases, where small towns and villages are
+located, is almost entirely a desert, from which in classic times the
+Parthians advanced to harass the armies of Greece and Rome, then
+retreated to seek the protection of its vast salt marshes and
+inhospitable wastes.
+
+Nevertheless, in the little villages surrounded by a dreary wilderness
+have been produced as beautiful rugs as in those more favoured spots
+where prevailed cultured influences that could develop an Omar Khayyam
+and produce the sacred shrine of Meshed. Even before the Mongolian
+invasion several hundred looms, each employing four or five women, were
+busy in the town of Toon in Central Khorassan. Lying farther to the east
+is the district of Kain, which was once renowned for its beautiful rugs
+of Herati pattern, but of later years has produced coarser pieces with
+inferior designs and bad colours. Still better known was Birjand, in the
+southeastern part of the province, where formerly were woven pieces of
+superior workmanship that contained from two hundred to three hundred
+knots to the square inch. Their colours were of delicate shades; and it
+was not unusual to employ ivory or other light tones for the ground,
+with which was contrasted the darker tones of the Herati or pear
+patterns. Over a century ago many such towns in Khorassan were weaving
+rugs of artistic design and beautiful colours, but as a rule the present
+products fall far below the early standards.
+
+Most of the Khorassans now seen were made almost fifty years or more ago
+and rival the best of modern Persian rugs. As a rule, they are of large
+size and have closely woven texture. They can be distinguished from most
+others by the silkiness of their moderately long nap, which is often due
+to the fact that it is from the fleece of a yearling lamb as well as
+because it is cut long and unevenly. Another characteristic is the use
+of some shade of red, as a pink, rose, or wine colour. Very frequently
+it is magenta or even purple, which are rarely found in other Persian
+rugs. Blue and cream are also largely employed. Their colours are
+generally softened by age, yet are warm, and at times brilliant, as when
+a large field of bright rose red or blue surrounds a central medallion.
+
+The diversity of pattern in Khorassans is partly due to copying designs
+of rugs brought from other provinces by the pilgrims who yearly visit
+Meshed, and to the remoteness from one another of different centres of
+weaving in a province occupying one fourth of all Persia. One pattern,
+however, based upon the treatment of the pear design, which is employed
+in many of these pieces, at once distinguishes them from rugs of other
+districts. It consists of large pears arranged in regular order on a
+field of dark colour with their principal axes inclined diagonally in
+the same direction, and of two or three much smaller pears partly
+resting on them and partly projecting beyond their edges. Unlike the
+pear designs in other Persian rugs, which are oval, these are elongated
+like those of Indian rugs; and within them, as well as in the field, are
+often small floral figures. This distinctive pattern is rendered more
+effective by the colour scheme; since frequently pears of red or
+magenta, defined by lines of yellow and containing white petalled
+flowers, rest upon a ground of dark blue. The Herati design is also
+frequently employed, and in very old pieces are occasionally represented
+birds and animals naturalistically drawn. It is not unusual to see a
+central medallion or large vase of flowers surrounded by a field of
+bright uniform colour, and in some rugs are two medallions. When the
+centre contains a medallion, the triangular-shaped corners are set off
+by lines that are much simpler than those in Sarouks and Kermanshahs.
+
+Few other rugs have more noticeable borders; for not only are they very
+wide, but in the main stripe, which is as wide as several guard stripes,
+is some characteristic pattern. Occasionally it contains the Herati
+design, but more frequently it consists of a heavy undulating vine with
+incipient flower forms, that at times almost assume the appearance of a
+bird's head resting on a sub-pattern of double floral vine. This stripe,
+illustrated in Plate E, Fig. 2, (opp. Page 156) is so frequently met
+with in Khorassans as to be characteristic of them. The narrow guard
+stripes usually contain some simple vine or ornate reciprocal figure.
+
+_Type Characteristics._ _Colours_, principally rose, blue, and ivory,
+with minor quantities of yellow and green. _Knot_, Sehna. Many are
+"left-hand." Knots to inch horizontally, eight to thirteen;
+perpendicularly, twelve to twenty. The rows of knots are firmly pressed
+down, so that the warp is concealed and the weft is partly hidden at
+back. _Warp_, cotton; one of the two threads encircled by a knot is
+doubled under the other. A few short lengths of threads of warp hang
+loose at the back of some pieces. _Weft_, almost always cotton,
+occasionally wool of fine diameter and usually dyed blue. A thread of
+weft crosses twice between two rows of knots, excepting at intervals of
+every six or eight rows of knots, where it crosses three or more times.
+_Pile_, wool of medium length, silky and unevenly clipped. _Border_,
+three to six stripes, and generally an outer edging of uniform colour.
+_Sides_, a double overcasting of same colour as edging. _Both ends_, a
+narrow web and short warp fringe. _Texture_, moderately firm. _Weave_ at
+back is of moderately fine grain. _Usual length_, five to twelve feet.
+_Usual width_, three fifths to three quarters length.
+
+
+MESHEDS.—In few parts of the East have the weavers received greater
+inspiration from sacred and historic association than those of Meshed.
+To Shiite Mohammedans it contains the most holy spot in Persia; for
+within a mosque resplendent with façade of blue and white tiles, and
+with gilded minarets of exquisite design, lie the remains of Ali Riza,
+the eighth Imam or Moslem priest, in a tomb that is viewed yearly by
+nearly one hundred thousand pilgrims. It was for a short time the
+capital of Shah Abbas, who beautified its mosques; and here Nadir Shah,
+whose remains lie in the mausoleum, held his court after the capture of
+Delhi. Within its walls was born Firdousi, the Homer of Persia; and not
+far away, among the mountains to the west, was the home of the poet and
+astronomer, Omar Khayyam. Not only devotees but large numbers of
+merchants regularly visit the city in the caravans from Khiva, Bokhara,
+Herat, Yezd, and Teheran, so that it is also a city of commercial
+importance.
+
+It is possible that a few of those matchless pieces which were
+attributed to Herat before its destruction by Nadir Shah were made in
+the district near Meshed, since according to an Arabian traveller[20]
+who visited it during the XIV Century many fine carpets then lay on the
+floor of its mosque. It is also believed that within the shrine, which
+has never been entered by an unbeliever, still remain some of the most
+magnificent carpets of the Orient. But for more than a century the
+textile industry has been declining, and the rugs now seen are generally
+of recent manufacture.
+
+As a rule, these rugs are of the Khorassan type, and have the same silky
+appearance of nap, though it is shorter and more evenly clipped. The
+pattern, however, is generally different, as seldom is the field
+completely covered with the pear design, but whenever used, it is of
+elaborate drawing and frequently very large. Nor is the characteristic
+Khorassan border stripe, illustrated in Plate E, Fig. 2 (opp. Page 156),
+employed. On the other hand, it is not usual to see large central
+medallions, with floral designs in tones of rose or pink on fields of
+blue or ivory, and borders with undulating floral vines, in which
+appears evidence of Herati influence. Most of the rugs that now exist
+were made within the last fifty years, and are of large size and
+almost square shape. The colour scheme inclines to light and often
+brilliant tones, which at times are strongly contrasted with small
+masses of much darker shades. The wool is excellent, and the warp and
+weft are rarely coarse.
+
+[Illustration: PLATE 25. KERMANSHAH RUG]
+
+_Type Characteristics._ _Colours_, principally rose or pink, blue and
+white, with minor quantities of yellow and green. _Knot_, generally
+Sehna, rarely Ghiordes. Knots to inch horizontally, eight to fifteen;
+perpendicularly, twelve to seventeen. The rows of knots are pressed
+down, so that the warp is concealed and the weft is partly hidden at
+back. _Warp_, generally cotton, occasionally wool; one of the two
+threads encircled by a knot is doubled under the other. _Weft_, wool or
+cotton, of fine diameter and usually dyed blue. A thread of weft crosses
+twice between every two rows of knots. _Pile_, wool of fine quality and
+medium length. _Border_, usually from three to six stripes, occasionally
+as many as eight, and generally an outer edging of uniform colour.
+_Sides_, a double overcasting of same colour as edging. _Lower end_, a
+narrow web and warp fringe. _Upper end_, a web and warp fringe.
+_Texture_, moderately firm. _Weave_ at back is of slightly coarse grain.
+_Usual length_, six to fourteen feet. _Usual width_, two thirds to seven
+eighths length.
+
+
+ISPAHANS.—Still imposing in the ruins of its former splendour,
+surrounded by orchards, vineyards, and groves of trees that shade a
+broad, well-watered plain, is the ancient city of Ispahan. Under the
+Caliphs it became the capital of Persia; and though sacked by Tamerlane,
+who slew seventy thousand of its inhabitants, it rose to such importance
+that in the XVII Century it contained within its walls several palaces,
+one hundred and sixty mosques, over two score of colleges, nearly two
+thousand caravansaries, and about three quarters of a million people.
+Now the population has dwindled to about sixty thousand; and the few
+stately mosques and colleges that remain amid miles of deserted streets,
+abandoned bazaars, and ruined homes but feebly reflect the magnificence
+of the former capital.
+
+Here was the royal court of Shah Abbas, who sent to Italy, for the
+purpose of studying decorative art, a number of the most experienced
+artisans, to whom are accredited some of the gracefully drawn designs of
+many of the early carpets. Here, in the days of its greatest prosperity,
+were founded many industries, and on its looms were undoubtedly woven
+some of the best of old Persian carpets. Though Herat is now regarded
+by some authorities as the centre where the so-called Ispahan rugs were
+made, it is improbable, as previously pointed out, that all of them came
+from there. But after the death of Shah Abbas the rug industry began to
+decline; and with the removal of the capital to Shiraz, in 1760, Ispahan
+ceased to be a rug-producing centre of consequence. There may be a doubt
+whether such enormous carpets, as the one with length of sixty feet and
+breadth of thirty that Sir Purdon Clark in his monograph on Oriental
+Carpets mentions as lying in the hall of Chehel Sutoon at Ispahan, were
+made there or were imported from other cities; but the weaving of rugs
+has never entirely ceased; and so great is the fame of the former glory
+of the city that even now Oriental dealers will often apply to rugs the
+term "Ispahan" as an epithet of superiority.
+
+The few modern pieces which reach the western markets bear little
+resemblance to their prototypes; and even among themselves show little
+similarity of pattern, though the pear and Herati designs are not
+uncommon. In some rugs a century old the field is almost covered with
+what is known as the Persian crown jewel, and in others the field
+contains diamond-shaped medallions arranged in regular order with small
+foliate and floral forms placed between them. Small figures of animals
+are also occasionally represented. The border is generally narrow and
+lacking in impressive individuality, so that the character of the rugs
+depends largely on the pattern of the field and the well-seasoned
+colours, which are always rich and harmonious. Some shade of red or blue
+is usually chosen for the ground; and in the designs are green, yellow,
+and white. The weave has variations rarely found in other rugs; for the
+warp, which is usually cotton, may also be wool, or wool and cotton
+twisted together; and the weft may likewise be wool or cotton, and may
+cross between the rows of knots either once or twice in different rugs,
+or even once or twice in the same rug.
+
+_Type Characteristics._[21] _Colours_, principally red and blue, with
+minor quantities of green and yellow. _Knot_, Ghiordes. Knots to inch
+horizontally six to nine; perpendicularly, eight to fourteen. The rows
+of knots are firmly pressed down. _Warp_, usually cotton, occasionally
+wool; in a few pieces wool or cotton are twisted together. Each thread
+of warp is equally prominent at back. _Weft_, wool or cotton. A thread
+of weft crosses once or twice between two rows of knots. If it is wool,
+it generally crosses twice; if of cotton, two threads are generally
+placed side by side and cross together once as a single thread. _Pile_,
+wool, of short or medium length. _Sides_, a double selvage of two or
+three chords. _Lower end_, a web. _Upper end_, a web and fringe.
+Occasionally the web is turned back and hemmed. _Texture_, firm. _Weave_
+at back is moderately coarse. _Usual length_, six to fourteen feet.
+_Usual width_, two fifths to two thirds length.
+
+
+KIRMANS.—On account of the isolated position of Kirman in Southeastern
+Persia, where the almost impassable saline and sandy deserts by which it
+is surrounded on the north and east, and the mountain ridges that
+separate it from the fertile valleys of Persia on the west, in a measure
+protected it from the repeated invasions that disturbed the political
+and industrial conditions of Northern Persia, it has continuously for
+over a thousand years been an important centre for the manufacture of
+rugs. Moreover, during all this period it has been noted for the
+excellence of their quality. As early as the Mohammedan conquests its
+fabrics were taken to furnish the floors and divans of Caliphs' palaces.
+When Marco Polo visited Persia in 1270 he wrote of the beautiful shawls
+and carpets made by the women of Kirman; and the noted French traveller
+Chardin, who lived in that country during part of the XVII Century, also
+spoke most favourably of them. Even after Nadir Shah removed many of the
+most skilled weavers to the northern part of Persia subsequent to
+ascending the throne in 1739, and Aga Mohammed Khan pillaged the city
+and massacred many of the inhabitants in 1794, the rug industry
+continued to prosper, and to-day that district is producing the best of
+modern pieces.
+
+To this isolation is also largely due the excellence of the weave and
+dyes, since the artisans have in a measure escaped the pernicious
+influences of market demands and aniline colours. And to it must be
+attributed the fact that the old Iranian textile art appears nowhere
+else in greater purity; for of all the rugs on the market to-day these
+conform more nearly in texture, colour, and design to the masterpieces
+of earlier times, and show none of the foreign influences appearing in
+pieces woven in the north. And yet in Kirman is complexity of race as
+well as religion; for the Beluches who have wandered across the desert
+mingle with the Persians; and the Guebres, still practising in secret
+their fire worship, meet with the Mohammedans.
+
+For long ages silkworms have been cultivated in the district about
+Kirman and fed on the mulberry trees that grow wild among its hills, so
+that it is not surprising that small quantities of silk are sometimes
+used in the rugs; but as a rule the pile is entirely of wool, yet of
+such fine quality and so well woven that many of the old pieces have a
+lustrous and silky appearance. This wool, which is white and of
+unusually fine texture, is partly the product of the native sheep and
+partly the product of a variety of goats that live among the ridges and
+yield fleeces almost as fine as those of Kashmir.
+
+It is probably because of the fondness of the people of Kirman for
+roses, which they cultivate for the attar, that they depict them so
+profusely in their rugs. Sometimes they represent them as filling vases
+set in rows, or again as formal bouquets arranged in regular order upon
+the field. They also weave them in the borders among green leaves, as
+placed there tenderly and not hanging from such stiffly formed vines as
+are seen in other Persian rugs. Nor are they conventionalised like the
+flowers of most modern rugs; but petal, leaf, and stem are drawn with a
+precision that suggests the work of Indian weavers. Usually they are red
+contrasting with a ground colour of soft, ashy grey in the field, and of
+golden yellow in the rich, harmonious border. Sometimes, instead of a
+profusion of roses, there are other flowers, such as the sunflower,
+suggesting the old Zoroastrian faith, the cypress, or the sacred
+"cocos." Again, the general design may be modified from one strictly
+floral, and amid the foliage may be introduced birds, animals, or human
+beings; but the naturalistic drawing is always noticeable. In modern
+pieces the central medallion is often adopted, yet the general
+resemblance to older pieces is evident. As a rule the border has five
+stripes, of which the main one is twice the width of any other, and
+surrounding the outer is a narrow edging that is usually pinkish red;
+though now and then, according to the general colour scheme, a very
+pleasing effect is obtained by substituting an edging of moss green.
+
+[Illustration: PLATE 26. KURDISTAN RUG WITH MINA KHANI PATTERN]
+
+_Type Characteristics._ _Colours_, principally grey or ivory, with minor
+quantities of faun, yellow, rose, and blue. _Knot_, Sehna. Knots to inch
+horizontally eleven to twenty; perpendicularly, eleven to twenty. The
+rows of knots are pressed down so that the warp is concealed and the
+weft is partly hidden at back. _Warp_, cotton; one of the two threads
+encircled by knot is doubled under the other. _Weft_, generally wool of
+fine diameter, occasionally cotton, and frequently dyed blue. A thread
+of weft crosses twice between every two rows of knots. _Pile_, wool,
+short, soft, and silky. _Border_, usually of five stripes and an outer
+edging of uniform colour that is generally pink but sometimes green.
+_Sides_, a double overcasting of the same colour as edging. _Both ends_,
+a narrow web and short warp fringe. _Texture_, very firm. _Weave_ at
+back is of moderately fine grain. _Usual length_, five to seven feet.
+_Usual width_, three fifths to two thirds length.
+
+
+YEZD.—In the centre of a sandy plain, midway between Kirman and Kashan,
+is the city of Yezd, where almost the last of the Iranian
+fire-worshippers, now a small part of the total population, still follow
+the ancient faith. Though partly shut off from the great desert of
+Khorassan by a mountain range, the city is only an oasis, where the
+drifting sands that buried the old city ever suggest to the inhabitants
+the dread spirit of desolation which finds an echo in ruined walls
+within. At the present time very few piled rugs are woven there and they
+are rarely seen in Western markets; yet on account of the historic
+interest in its people, the name is sometimes applied to modern products
+made in other districts. At one time it was noted for its silk rugs, and
+also for its felt "namads," which are generally too heavy to be
+transported, since some of them have a thickness of two inches and a
+superficial area of ten thousand square feet.
+
+
+SHIRAZ.—Near the centre of a small, well-cultivated valley encircled by
+mountains is Shiraz, capital of Farsistan. During the reign of Kerim
+Khan, from 1760 to 1779, it was the capital of Persia; but since then it
+has suffered from earthquakes and neglect until now much of its former
+glory has departed. And yet there still remain associations to kindle
+the imagination, for without the gates are the gardens that Persian
+poets have extolled in verse; the tombs of Saadi and Hafiz; and not far
+away are the spots where Cyrus, Darius, and Xerxes lived, and the ruined
+palaces that Alexander destroyed in a night of drunken revelry.
+
+As early as the time of the Caliphs this district produced large numbers
+of carpets; though few, if any, remain that were woven before the XV
+Century. As is the case with modern pieces, all of them were
+distinguished for their soft and beautiful wool, which is to be
+attributed to the climate and pasture of the surrounding mountains and
+valleys. One of the oldest existing rugs of this district which
+displays the characteristic wool is referred to by Dr. F. R. Martin in
+the following words:[22] "As soon as I had touched it, I was certain
+that we had to deal with a very rare kind of carpets which were made at
+Shiraz, or at least with the brilliant Shiraz wool. Most of the carpets
+made of that wool are lost, because the material was such a soft one
+that it was easily worn out. I know of very few which are older than the
+eighteenth century. No wool in all Persia takes such rich and deep
+colour as the Shiraz wool. The deep blue and the dark ruby red are
+equally extraordinary, and that is due to the brilliancy of the wool,
+which is firmer and, so to say, more transparent than silk, and makes
+one think of translucent enamel. As a piece of colour this carpet is
+certainly one of the finest, and there are very few carpets that have
+greater charm, which even the best reproduction could not give. In its
+colours there is something of an early Gothic stained-glass window,
+where the dust of ages has so covered the design that it has become
+obscured and the imagination of the spectator must complete it.
+Certainly the Persians for whom this carpet was made used to sit and
+dream for hours over the beauty of its colours, beautiful as the
+wonderful landscape surrounding Shiraz."
+
+On account of the design and workmanship of this remarkable piece it is
+referred by Dr. Martin to the XV Century. During the two following
+centuries the carpets of Shiraz attained the high standard of excellence
+prevalent in the principal cities of Persia; but most of those pieces
+are now extremely rare, as they were woven chiefly for imperial use or
+for exchange with foreign rulers. This city experienced the art
+decadence that began with the XVIII Century, yet under the patronage of
+Kerim Khan imperial factories for weaving were again established there.
+
+Though some of the rugs made eighty or even sixty years ago are
+certainly beautiful, these modern pieces, as a rule, lack the excellent
+qualities of early rugs, and those more recently woven are still poorer.
+On a few of them are depicted designs that are strictly Persian; but
+they generally depart widely from the early traditions, and floral forms
+are very much conventionalised. In a large number of this class the
+field is covered with pear designs which are described by straight lines
+and angles. Sometimes they are as small as in the Sarabends, occupying
+the whole field as the principal motive; or they may be placed less
+prominently within diagonal or perpendicular stripes. Again, they may be
+as large as in Khorassans and grouped with other designs. Another very
+common pattern, known as the "pole-medallion," consists of a narrow
+perpendicular bar connecting two or more large diamond-shaped figures on
+which are grouped conventionalised floral forms and geometric designs.
+In other pieces the pattern is as geometric as that of any Caucasian
+rug, and it is not unusual to see both field and border profusely
+adorned with latch-hooks enclosed within and surrounding geometric
+figures. Nor is it unusual to see small figures of men and animals
+scattered through the field. Indeed, there is no other Persian rug in
+which the pattern is so heterogeneous. The borders usually consist of a
+number of narrow stripes, or a wide one with narrow guard stripes. One
+of them, at least, almost invariably contains some form of vine and
+leaves, and not infrequently the row of small X figures that also appear
+in Shirvans. In fact, the rugs are sometimes mistaken for Shirvans on
+account of the resemblance in geometric designs.
+
+Though there is such variety in the patterns, these rugs are not
+difficult to recognise. There is something distinctive about the dark
+blues and reds contrasted with smaller areas of ivory and yellow. They
+are, as a rule, loosely woven, and many of them have a trait of lying
+unevenly on the floor. Not infrequently an extra band of pile is woven
+between the border and the broad embroidered webs of the ends, from
+which hang a loose fringe. The sides are overcast with heavy strands of
+wool varied like a barber-pole at regular intervals; and, as is not the
+case with any other class, they are often ornamented at intervals with
+coloured tassels.
+
+There are also large numbers of Shiraz saddle-bags, which are superior
+to any others made. They resemble the Caucasian, as the patterns are
+geometric; but they may be distinguished from them by the finer wool and
+a slightly different colour scheme.
+
+Not infrequently the term "Mecca" is applied to Shiraz rugs, and the
+impression is conveyed that they were made there. Nor is the statement
+always entirely devoid of truth; for each year caravans aggregating some
+two hundred thousand souls enter that city to make their devotions to
+Allah, to walk around the sacred stone within the Kaaba, and leaving
+behind their forgotten sins to return homeward with a bit of sacred
+earth or a strip of the temple's covering. Each of these pilgrims bears
+offerings for propitiation, of which a large proportion are rugs; and
+whatever their size, they are invariably the choicest the devotee can
+offer. Since the Mohammedan priests regard the best interests of their
+religion and themselves as conserved by a disposition of all articles
+not directly available for their use, they sell large quantities of such
+rugs, that find their way to Cairo, Damascus, and Constantinople.
+Furthermore, the pilgrims carry many pieces which are sold or exchanged
+along the routes of the caravans or at Mecca, and ultimately reach the
+same markets. Such a large number of the pieces that years ago came from
+these sources were of the well-known type of Shiraz rugs that they and
+similar pieces which had never left Persia were called Mecca rugs. This
+deception is still encouraged by some dealers, because for many buyers a
+special interest is attached to a piece that they are persuaded has been
+carried on this pilgrimage as an offering.
+
+_Type Characteristics._ _Colours_, principally blue, red, and ivory, with
+minor quantities of yellow and green. _Knot_, generally Sehna,
+frequently Ghiordes. Knots to inch horizontally seven to twelve;
+perpendicularly, eight to twelve. At back one of the half knots is
+generally smaller than the other and pressed to one side. The other half
+knot is about as long as wide, and the yarn is not drawn tight against
+the warp. The rows of knots are pressed down, so that their alignment is
+slightly irregular, and the warp is concealed at back. _Warp_, almost
+always wool; in a few modern rugs goats' hair is used. Each of the
+threads encircled by a knot is almost equally prominent at back, or
+occasionally one to each knot is depressed. _Weft_, wool of medium
+diameter, frequently coloured red. A thread of weft crosses twice
+between every two rows of knots. _Pile_, wool, short to medium, and
+silky. _Border_, three to five stripes. Beyond the borders, at each end,
+is frequently a narrow band of pile. _Sides_, a heavy double overcasting
+in a barber-pole stripe or in short lengths of different colours, which
+generally consist of two of the following colours: red, yellow, green,
+and blue. In some pieces small tufts of wool protrude from the sides at
+regular intervals of one or more feet. _Lower end_, a broad web of
+coloured stripes, through which may run a dovetailed coloured cord, and
+warp loops. _Upper end_, a broad web of coloured stripes, through which
+may run a dovetailed coloured cord, and warp fringe. _Texture_, loose.
+_Weave_ at back is of slightly coarse grain. _Usual length_, five to
+nine feet. _Usual width_, three fifths to four fifths length.
+
+[Illustration: PLATE 27. GOREVAN RUG]
+
+
+NIRIS.—A resemblance exists between the rugs that take their name from
+Lake Niris and those of Shiraz, which is distant only fifty miles to the
+westward; for many of each class are woven with the same silky wool,
+obtained from sheep that graze in the intervening mountain ranges, and
+the shepherd weavers about the lake have acquired ideas from the old
+capital. This resemblance exists mostly in the soft, floccy appearance
+of the nap, and in the barber-pole or parti-coloured overcasting of the
+sides. The webs of each end are broad and have long fringes; but
+generally those of the Shiraz are embroidered and crossed with one or
+more parti-coloured cords, whilst those of Niris pieces are, as a rule,
+flatly woven in stripes of different colours. There is also an
+occasional resemblance in pattern, but the best known pattern of the
+Niris is rarely seen in the Shiraz. On the other hand, they are more
+firmly woven; and there is a slight difference in the character of their
+weave, since one of the two threads of warp encircled by a knot is
+depressed below the other, and the weft is of wool coloured red, whereas
+in the Shiraz it is frequently of cotton.
+
+The pears are the favourite design, and, like those in Sarabends, extend
+over the field in orderly array; but they are much larger and consist of
+an assemblage of bright colours isolated from one another, yet grouped
+gracefully in a way that might readily suggest the origin of crown
+jewels sometimes ascribed to them. Frequently the ground is a dark blue,
+and the pears are of red, blue, green, and ivory. Violet and yellow are
+also employed. In other types, less usually seen, the field is covered
+with a lattice-work pattern containing small figures. The typical border
+has a broad central stripe of vine and flower, with narrow guards of
+simpler vine or reciprocal trefoil. Barber-pole stripes are also
+characteristic of the borders.
+
+_Type Characteristics._ _Colours_, principally blue, red, yellow, green,
+and ivory. _Knot_, Ghiordes. Knots to inch horizontally six to eleven;
+perpendicularly, seven to fifteen. The rows of knots are not closely
+pressed down, so that at the back the warp is noticeable and the weft
+conspicuous. _Warp_, wool; one of the two threads encircled by a knot is
+depressed below the other at back and frequently doubled under the
+other. _Weft_, wool of medium diameter, generally dyed red. A thread of
+weft crosses twice between every two rows of knots. _Pile_, wool, of
+medium length. _Border_, generally of three stripes, sometimes as many
+as seven. _Sides_, a heavy double overcasting in a barber-pole stripe or
+in short lengths of different colours, such as red, blue, green,
+yellow, and black. _Both_ ends, a broad web of coloured stripes, one row
+of knots, and loose warp fringe. _Texture_, loose. _Weave_ at back is of
+slightly coarse grain. _Usual length_, four to seven feet. _Usual
+width_, three quarters to four fifths length.
+
+
+FERAGHANS.—Stretching eastward from the base of Mt. Elwund is the plain
+of Feraghan. Its length does not exceed forty-five miles, nor its
+breadth ten or fifteen, yet here are clustered several hundred villages.
+On account of its altitude of seven thousand feet, the ground is covered
+with snow in winter, and the people are then huddled in their low mud
+houses, and the flocks and herds are gathered within the village walls.
+But in the spring the men are cultivating the fields, and the sheep are
+grazing on the banks of numerous streams. It is a plain of fertility and
+industry. For generations it has been productive of large numbers of
+fine rugs, and it is still possible among its villages to find some of
+those old pieces that have been regarded by the Persians themselves as
+the best examples of the textile art.
+
+When the characteristic patterns of Feraghans have once been carefully
+observed, they are never forgotten; yet it is surprising to note the
+many distinctions observable in a large collection. These patterns may
+conveniently be divided into two groups, namely: one in which the field
+is entirely covered with diaper designs, and the other in which the
+field contains a central medallion surrounded by uniform colour.
+Probably nine tenths of these rugs fall within the first group, which is
+divisible into three sub-groups: those in which the field is covered
+with the Herati design; those in which the field is covered with the
+Guli Hinnai design; and those in which the field is covered with some
+other small diaper design.
+
+The Herati design is the one most frequently seen, and is found in the
+very oldest of existing Feraghans. As a rule, the crumpled leaf does not
+exceed a length of four or five inches, and the rosettes are
+proportionally small, so that the ground colour is almost entirely
+concealed, and at a short distance is not distinguishable; but there are
+other pieces in which the leaf is over a foot in length, and the figures
+less closely clustered, so that the ground enters prominently into the
+colour scheme. The prevailing colour of the leaf and rosette is
+generally rose red, which gives a distinctly reddish tone to the rug;
+though the small designs have shades of green, yellow, white, and light
+blue. The ground is usually a rich, dark blue; but occasionally red or
+even ivory is used. In very few other rugs are the corners separated
+from the field, unless there is a central medallion; but in almost all
+Feraghans small triangular-shaped corners, with colours contrasting with
+those of the field, are separated from it by lines bearing teeth or
+serrated edges.
+
+Surrounding the field is a border that has from five to seven stripes.
+The main stripe is about three times as wide as any other, and may have
+a ground colour of red, blue, or ivory white; but in many of the best
+pieces it is moss green, with blue, yellow, or red appearing in the
+overlying pattern. Of different but corresponding shades is the colour
+of the ground and designs of other stripes. Probably three fourths of
+the Feraghans now seen have the well-known turtle design in the main
+stripe; but it is sometimes replaced by the rose design shown in Plate
+E, Fig. 12 (opp. Page 156), or by an undulating vine with rosette or
+palmettes. On the innermost stripe, which is very narrow, is invariably
+represented some reciprocal figure, as the trefoil or sawtooth; and on
+the other stripes are undulating vines, with floral or quasi-floral
+figures.
+
+The Feraghans with fields covered with Guli Hinnai designs instead of
+the Herati show a difference in both drawing and colouring, though the
+general effect is much the same. In place of crumpled leaves and
+rosettes of reddish hue are the star-like flowers of the Hinnai plants
+that brighten the mountains surrounding the Feraghan plain with their
+large yellow or ivory coloured petals. The pattern, as a whole, is
+slightly more prominent, and the prevailing colour tone, which is rich,
+is less red and more yellow. There is, however, a very noticeable
+difference in the pattern of the third sub-group, though specimens are
+not frequently seen. In these the small figures of conventionalised
+flowers sometimes have geometric shapes and are arranged in diagonal or
+perpendicular rows. Moreover, they generally lack the rich colouring of
+the preceding sub-groups.
+
+The central medallion is found not only in modern but also in old
+Feraghans. It is generally of diamond or hexagonal shape, with serrated
+edges and with pendants. Almost invariably Herati figures cover its
+surface, and not infrequently some lattice-work design with small
+conventionalised leaves or flowers appear faintly on the field of
+uniform colour surrounding it. As a rule, pieces of this group are of a
+more striking and handsome appearance than those in which the entire
+field is covered with numerous minute figures of equally rich hues that
+blend and produce, when viewed at a distance, an undefined colour. The
+border designs are similar to those of the other group. All of the old
+pieces were stoutly woven; and though the nap was short, many of those
+that remain are still serviceable.
+
+_Type Characteristics._ _Colours_, principally red and dark blue, with
+minor quantities of yellow, light blue, green, and white. _Knot_, Sehna,
+rarely Ghiordes. Knots to inch horizontally eight to thirteen;
+perpendicularly, seven to eighteen. The rows of knots are pressed down,
+so that the warp is usually concealed at back. _Warp_, cotton; each of
+the two threads encircled by a knot is equally prominent at back.
+_Weft_, cotton, occasionally dyed blue or pink. A thread of weft of fine
+or medium diameter crosses twice between every two rows of knots, or
+occasionally a thread of coarse diameter with much slack crosses only
+once, so that the transverse warp produces a quincunx effect. _Pile_,
+wool, clipped short. _Border_, three stripes. _Sides_, a double
+overcasting in dark colour. _Lower end_, a web. _Upper end_, a web and
+warp fringe. _Texture_, firm. _Weave_ at back is of slightly coarse
+grain. _Usual length_, four to twelve feet. _Usual width_, three fifths
+to two thirds length.
+
+
+HAMADANS.—A little to the northeast of Elwund and at an altitude that
+overlooks a small, well-cultivated valley adjacent to the Feraghan plain
+is the city of Hamadan. On this site was the ancient city of Ecbatana,
+capital of Media; and here guarded by Jews is a tomb, which tradition
+declares is the burial place of Esther and Mordecai. Within the
+encircling walls are gardens, bazaars, and mosques; yet the present city
+of forty thousand inhabitants with its general misery and squalor has
+little to remind one of the magnificence of that former capital which
+for a short period was mistress of the world.
+
+[Illustration: PLATE 28. BERGAMO PRAYER RUG]
+
+Like Yezd, Hamadan is famous for its namads; and like Yezd it once
+produced, according to tradition, most beautiful silk carpets, though no
+longer are any woven there. But its looms have been busy for the last
+few generations weaving rugs of wool and camels' hair, which have such
+marked individuality that they bear unmistakably on their face the stamp
+of identification. The few old rugs that remain are sterling pieces,
+which are stoutly woven and of excellent dyes. They come in many sizes;
+some are simply mats, others sedjadehs, and an unusually large number
+are runners. The typical pattern of the mats and smaller sedjadehs
+consists of a central diamond-shaped medallion, surrounded by a field of
+contrasting colour, from which are set off the triangular-shaped
+corners. In the large sedjadehs and in the runners, which are sometimes
+twenty feet or more in length, are often three or more pole medallions,
+though the pole device may be omitted. These medallions and corners are
+covered with small, carefully drawn geometric figures, or more
+frequently with floral designs such as appear in Feraghans, and as a
+rule are defined by serrated lines or are fringed with hooks or
+comb-like teeth. The colour of the surrounding field is unobtrusive. In
+some pieces it is void of pattern, and its monotonous tone is broken
+only by slight variations of shade; yet not infrequently it is marked
+with faint lines of slightly darker or lighter tint, like a delicate
+tracery. Not only are the borders wide, but a broad edging, which is at
+least one half and sometimes two thirds as wide as all the coloured
+stripes combined, surrounds them. As it is usually of camels' hair and
+without pattern, it is a very noticeable characteristic. The main stripe
+has an undulating vine with conventionalised flowers, and the two guard
+stripes have a simpler vine, or, more frequently, the reciprocal
+trefoils.
+
+To this general type, however, are many exceptions. Sometimes the
+figures of the medallion and corners are more geometric; sometimes the
+corners are omitted; the outside edging may be decorated with large
+conventionalised floral or geometric figures; and occasionally a camel
+or some other animal is represented in the field or border. A few of the
+old rugs were strikingly handsome. Dr. George Birdwood refers to a large
+Hamadan that formerly hung in the India Museum in these words:[23] "An
+irregular lozenge form, a little island of bright clustering flowers, of
+which the prevailing colours are red and blue, adorns the centre; while
+the wide extended ground of yellow, in irregular shades, surrounds it
+with a rippling amber sea; and there are blue pieces in the corners,
+within the broad blue border worked in arabesques. It is a carpet not to
+be laid on a floor, but to be hung in a gallery, to be looked at like a
+golden sunset. It was a sacrilege to remove it from the mosque where it
+evidently was once spread under the great dome. _Beati possidentes._"
+
+Most of the old pieces have disappeared, and in their places are modern
+products with pile of wool or goat's hair often dyed in garish colours.
+There are also many nondescript rugs, which were gathered from wandering
+tribes or surrounding villages and taken to Hamadan, since for a long
+time it has been one of the great rug markets of Persia. When exported
+from there they were often classed as products of that city.
+
+Moderately old Hamadans contain more camel's hair than any other class
+of rugs, since in very many of them it forms the pile of both field and
+outer edging, where its soft tones of pale chestnut colour contrast with
+the bright shades of blue, red, and yellow yarn used in other parts of
+the field and border. This lavish use of camel's hair, the broad
+encircling edging, the cotton warp, and a single thread of coarse weft
+passing once between two rows of knots, distinguish them from all other
+rugs.
+
+_Type Characteristics._ _Colours_, principally the chestnut of camel's
+hair with red and blue. _Knot_, Ghiordes. Knots to inch horizontally,
+six to nine; perpendicularly, eight to twelve. The rows of knots are
+firmly pressed down. _Warp_, cotton; each of the two threads encircled
+by a knot is equally prominent at back. _Weft_, generally cotton,
+frequently wool; of coarse diameter. A thread of weft crosses only once
+without slack between every two rows of knots, so that the white spots
+of transverse cotton warp exposed at back have a quincunx appearance.
+_Pile_, in old rugs, mostly camel's hair and some wool; in recent rugs,
+mostly wool clipped short. _Border_, wide, generally of three or four
+stripes, and a broad outer edging of camel's hair. _Sides_, overcast,
+generally in brown or red. _Lower end_, a narrow web and warp loops.
+_Upper end_, a narrow web turned back and hemmed. _Texture_, very firm.
+_Weave_, at back is of moderately coarse grain. _Length_, three to
+twenty-four feet. _Width_, two fifths to three quarters length.
+
+
+IRANS.—Although neither a city nor district of Persia is called Iran, a
+well-defined class of rugs is known to the trade by that name. They are
+woven by some of the old Iranian stock dwelling principally in the
+province of Irak-Ajemi. These people follow no particular pattern or
+colour scheme of their own, but to a large extent copy those of a few
+well-known Persian classes; yet in other respects their rugs have a
+noticeable individuality. They are woven with a Ghiordes knot and so
+loosely that if the rug be observed from the front, as it is bent
+backward in a plane parallel to the direction of the weft, the
+foundation threads of warp and weft, which are of cotton, will show
+distinctly between the knots. Each of the two threads of warp encircled
+by a single knot are equally prominent at the back. Ordinarily the
+threads of weft cross twice between the rows of knots, but occasionally
+they cross only once, as in Hamadans. Many of the fabrics regarded as
+Sarabends, Feraghans, and even Hamadans are in reality Irans, which on
+account of their inferior workmanship are much less valuable.
+
+_Type Characteristics._ _Colours_, principally blue and red, with minor
+quantities of ivory, yellow, green, and brown. _Knot_, Ghiordes. Knots
+to inch horizontally, six to eleven; perpendicularly, seven to eleven. A
+half knot as it appears at back is frequently longer, measured in the
+direction of the length of the rug, than wide. The rows of knots are not
+pressed down closely, so that the warp is noticeable at back. _Warp_,
+cotton; each of the two threads encircled by a knot is equally prominent
+at back; they are not closely strung, so that each half knot stands out
+distinctly. _Weft_, cotton; a thread of weft of coarse diameter as a
+rule crosses twice between each two rows of knots, and only rarely
+crosses but once. The weft is conspicuous between the knots at front
+when the rug is bent backwards. _Pile_, wool of medium length. _Border_,
+generally four to six stripes. _Sides_, a heavy double overcasting that
+is generally brown or black, but sometimes red. _Lower end_, a narrow
+web. _Upper end_, a narrow web and loose warp fringe. _Texture_, loose.
+_Weave_ at back is of coarse grain. _Usual length_, five to ten feet.
+_Usual width_, two fifths to three quarters length.
+
+
+SAROUKS.—Towards the western end of the Feraghan plain and at an
+altitude of seventy-five hundred feet is the mud-walled village of
+Sarouk. Here, shaded by poplars, are clustered one hundred and fifty
+houses, with floors, roofs, and sides of mud that has dried and cracked
+until it admits the wind. The sun and light enter through the open
+doors, for there are no windows. Nor are there chimneys, but simply
+openings between the rafters to permit the escape of smoke from the open
+fireplace in the floor below and the entrance of more wind. At times the
+atmosphere is not only oppressive with smoke, but is laden with odours
+that arise from the pens beneath and beside the houses, where fowls,
+sheep, and goats are huddled. During the winter and early spring snow
+lies on the ground; a little later a hot summer follows. Yet amid these
+depressing surroundings and under these adverse conditions lived
+weavers who gave the name of their little village to some of the most
+beautiful rugs made in all the East.
+
+Now and then is seen an old piece with surface like velvet and with
+mellowed tones of perfect harmony that has come from these huts or
+surrounding hills; but probably not one in a score, perhaps not one in a
+hundred, of the Sarouks now offered for sale in this country was woven
+there, as most of them are made in the work-houses of larger cities,
+though they follow essentially the general appearance and technique of
+old and genuine pieces, even if lacking some of their best qualities.
+Nevertheless, the modern pieces are of handsome colour, of graceful
+pattern, and are well woven. Some of them, which were made two or three
+decades ago, had large designs of the cypress, willow, or the tree of
+life, as well as realistically drawn animals represented in the fields;
+but the great majority of those now seen invariably follow a pattern
+consisting of a large medallion with pendants, or of two or more
+concentric medallions resting on the field, from which are set off the
+four corners. Defining the edges of both medallions and corners are
+lines that are most artistically irregular, yet correspond with one
+another.
+
+Between each part is the greatest co-ordination, for the designs of
+field, corners, medallions, and borders are similar. On long delicate
+stems that bend and interlock like carved tracery are leaves, buds, and
+flowers, suggesting the craftsmanship of the best days of old Iran. The
+borders generally have only three stripes: a broad main stripe on which
+appears an elaborately drawn undulating vine with pendent flowers, and a
+narrow guard stripe on each side. Sometimes the guards are ornamented
+with only a simple vine, but more frequently with a reciprocal pattern,
+which, however, is so well drawn as to conflict in no wise with the
+harmony of the floral forms. In the drawing of the borders the weavers
+exercise greater latitude than in any other part of the rug; for
+occasionally they add a narrow outer edging of dark colour, place the
+reciprocal figure next to the innermost stripe as a fringe to the field,
+or increase the number of stripes to seven. Rarely is the medallion
+wanting in modern pieces, but now and then the pendants are replaced by
+bunches of flowers, and in some pieces the corners extend along the
+sides in undulating lines until they meet near the centre.
+
+[Illustration: PLATE 29. GHIORDES PRAYER RUG]
+
+All of these pieces are so closely woven that the fine bluish weft is
+hardly discernible at the back. Very few other rugs have such
+short-cut wool, which has a velvety appearance, rendered more effective
+by the soft, rich colours that are always in perfect harmony and
+excellent taste. As a rule they are dark. Ever present in the ground
+colours are deep blues and reds, suggestive of the hues of the so-called
+"Ispahans;" while olives, delicate greens, and ivory represent with
+consummate dignity of tone and design a lavish tracery of leaves and
+foliage motives.
+
+_Type Characteristics._ _Colours_, principally dark blue and red, with
+minor quantities of green, olive, buff, and ivory. _Knot_, Sehna. Knots
+to inch horizontally twelve to eighteen; perpendicularly, twelve to
+twenty. The rows of knots are pressed down, so that the warp is
+concealed and the weft is partly hidden at back. _Warp_, cotton, rarely
+linen; one of the two threads encircled by a knot is almost always
+doubled under the other; in a few pieces it is only depressed. _Weft_,
+cotton, of small diameter, dyed blue. A thread of weft of fine diameter
+crosses twice between every two rows of knots. _Pile_, wool, short and
+velvety. _Border_, generally of three stripes but sometimes as many as
+seven. Occasionally there is an outer edging of dark colour. _Sides_, a
+tightly wound double overcasting of red, blue, or black wool. _Both
+ends_, a narrow web, or web and short warp fringe. _Texture_, very firm.
+_Weave_ at back is of fine grain. _Length_, four to twelve feet.
+_Width_, two thirds to three quarters length.
+
+
+KASHANS.—Near the centre of the province of Irak-Ajemi, on the ancient
+and well-travelled highway between Ispahan and Teheran, is the city of
+Kashan, from which, according to an old tradition, the three Wise Men of
+the East followed the Star of Bethlehem. Like many of the cities of
+Persia it is now largely in ruins; its homes are infested with
+scorpions; for many months of the year the heat, which in a measure is
+due to the proximity of the great salt desert that extends far into
+Khorassan, is unendurable; yet in spite of these inconveniences, for
+which perhaps familiarity has in a measure lent contempt, forty thousand
+people live there. In the past it has produced some of the greatest
+artists and artisans of weaving. It was once the home of Maksoud, whom
+Shah Ismael I ordered to weave the famous carpet of the Mosque of
+Ardebil, which, ranking among the greatest woven products that still
+exist, bears unmistakable evidence of the wonderful technique and
+artistic skill then practised in Kashan. Without a doubt other textile
+masterpieces of the XVI and XVII Centuries were woven there, for it
+would be unreasonable to believe that the city where Maksoud had learned
+his art was not at that time a prominent rug-producing centre.
+
+According to Persian tradition many of the antique silk carpets came
+from Kashan. At any rate, it has been for a long time customary to take
+the raw silk from other places to be spun and dyed there. Some of it is
+woven into rugs, which are considered among the best of modern pieces,
+though the demand for them is small.
+
+On the other hand, the woollen pieces are now found in every market,
+though it is only within recent years that they have been generally
+known. Occasionally they are defined as a higher grade of Sarouks, on
+account of the striking resemblance in texture, colours, and designs;
+yet there are certain distinctions: the warp is often linen, the nap is
+a little shorter, the texture slightly firmer, and there are a great
+number of border stripes. A feature that is more frequently found in
+these two classes than in any other is the fringe of hooks or short
+comb-like teeth that border the innermost stripe and extend into the
+field. Without doubt Kashans are among the most perfect as well as the
+most expensive woollen products of the modern Persian looms. Their
+velvet-like surface and rich sheen give them an appearance that to those
+unfamiliar with rugs seems like that of silken pieces. The fine wool is
+dyed with rich, deep tones of blue, olive, red, and brown; the perfectly
+balanced pattern is artistic as well as ornate; and on account of the
+very short nap the drawing of each minute detail is clear. In place of
+bold designs accentuated by masses of colour are delicate tracings of
+floral and foliage motives, of graceful arabesques and foliated stalks,
+so expressed in rhythmic lines and harmonious tones as to give a sense
+of the greatest refinement. Even though these rugs be modern and
+chemically washed, their wealth of artistic workmanship and exquisite
+colour make them exceedingly handsome.
+
+_Type Characteristics._ _Colours_, principally dark blue, red, and
+yellowish brown, with minor quantities of light blue and green. _Knot_,
+Sehna. Knots to inch horizontally sixteen to twenty; perpendicularly,
+sixteen to twenty-four. The rows of knots are firmly pressed down so
+that the warp is concealed and the weft almost hidden at back. _Warp_,
+generally cotton, rarely linen; one of the two threads encircled by a
+knot is doubled under the other. _Weft_, generally cotton, of small
+diameter, dyed blue; rarely linen. A thread of weft crosses twice
+between every two rows of knots. _Pile_, wool, very short and velvety.
+_Border_, generally of seven stripes. _Sides_, a tightly wound double
+overcasting in dark red, blue, or brown. _Lower end_, a narrow web.
+_Upper end_, a narrow web and short warp fringe. _Texture_, very firm.
+_Weave_ at back is of very fine grain. _Usual length_, six to ten feet.
+_Usual width_, three fifths to three quarters length.
+
+
+SABABENDS.—Standing on the top of lofty Elwund, that rises on the
+boundary between the provinces of Ardelan and Irak-Ajemi, in
+Northwestern Persia, one would see within a radius of ninety miles as
+prolific a centre of rug weaving as anywhere exists. Just within this
+distance to the northwest are Sehna and Bijar, to the southeast is
+Sultanabad, to the southwest is Kermanshah; and skirting the mountain on
+the eastern side are the high plains where lie the districts of Hamadan,
+Feraghan, and Sarawan, as well as the village of Sarouk and less
+important centres of weaving.
+
+Among the valleys of the Sarawan district, that lies on the northern
+flanks of mountain ranges extending as far as Ispahan, are made the rugs
+which, by a corruption of the word Sarawan, are known as the Sarabends.
+No other rugs of Persia have a pattern that is so simple, and that for
+generations has been followed with so little variation. Nor are there
+any other modern rugs that have changed less from the old styles in
+respect to colour and quality. The typical pattern of the field consists
+of rows of pear designs arranged in transverse lines, with the smaller
+ends pointing in different directions in alternate lines. The pears of
+the field show great diversity of shape, but those of the borders are
+long, narrow, and most angular; yet they never assume the rectilinear
+figures found in Baku rugs. Only very rarely is there any departure from
+this pattern; though in a few old pieces is an adaptation of the Herati
+design, and now and then is seen a geometric figure, or human form, or
+the date when the piece was woven.
+
+The ground colour of the field may be blue, red, or white. If blue, it
+is so largely covered with pinkish or rose-coloured pears that the
+prevailing hue, when the pieces are viewed from a distance, is light
+red. If, on the other hand, the field is red, the pears are mostly blue;
+and if the field is ivory white, the pears are red and blue. In all old
+pieces the blue has rich, deep tones, the red has mellowed into soft
+rose or delicate pink, and the white has turned to ivory. This pleasing
+effect is increased by shades of yellow and green, which are added to
+the other colours of the pears.
+
+With few exceptions the borders have a large number of narrow stripes,
+of which the central is about one third the aggregate width. Its ground
+colour is ivory white, but the angular vine and pendent, narrow pears
+have the same colours as those of the field. On each side of it is
+usually a stripe with ground colour corresponding to that of the field
+and with an undulating vine and rosette. Almost invariably there is an
+outer stripe of reciprocal trefoil in red and blue, which may be
+balanced by a reciprocal sawtooth adjoining the field. It is not unusual
+to see large pieces with two white stripes, and very rarely one is seen
+with three.
+
+The best of these pieces are made in the town of Mirabad, which
+signifies the "city of Mir," and are accordingly called Mir-Sarabends.
+They can be distinguished from others, known to the trade as Royal
+Sarabends, by the fact that in tying the knots the yarn is so twisted
+that one thread of warp is doubled under the other; and in the latter
+each of the two threads appear with equal prominence at the back.
+Neither of them should ever be mistaken for Iran imitations, in which
+the pile is of much looser texture and is tied with the Ghiordes knot.
+For durability, there are very few modern pieces that will give the
+satisfaction of Sarabends; for as a rule they are stoutly and closely
+woven, and though there is monotony in the pattern, those coloured with
+vegetable dyes will grow more beautiful with age.
+
+_Type Characteristics._ _Colours_, principally red or blue, with minor
+quantities of ivory, yellow, and green. _Knot_, Sehna. Knots to inch
+horizontally eight to thirteen; perpendicularly, nine to thirteen. The
+rows of knots are firmly pressed down, so that the warp does not show at
+back. _Warp_, cotton. In Mir-Sarabends one of the two threads encircled
+by a knot is doubled under the other at back. In Royal Sarabends each is
+equally prominent. _Weft_, cotton, of fine diameter, and dyed red or
+blue. A thread of weft crosses twice between every two rows of knots.
+_Pile_, wool of short or medium length. _Border_, five to seven stripes,
+and occasionally even more. _Sides_, a red double overcasting. _Lower
+end_, a web, or web and short warp fringe. _Upper end_, a web and short
+warp fringe. _Texture_, firm. _Weave_ at back is of moderately fine
+grain. _Length_, five to eighteen feet. _Usual width_, two fifths to two
+thirds length.
+
+[Illustration: _COLOUR PLATE V—GHIORDES PRAYER RUG_
+
+_Only now and then is seen a prayer Ghiordes that represents such a high
+type of artistic skill. The weaving follows more closely the fine
+technique of the Persian than that of the Asia Minor weaver. Yet it is
+the drawing and colouring that claim attention. The delicate tracery of
+the spandrel, the minute delineation of tendril and leaf in the border,
+and the perfect balance of every part of one side with a corresponding
+part in the other, resemble the finest workmanship of old Iran. Not only
+so, but the beautiful border pattern of rosette and leaf is so
+suggestive of the well-known Herati design that it seems not improbable
+that here is shown the influence of those Persian weavers that Solyman
+the Magnificent took with him to Asia Minor after his capture of Tabriz.
+The colour also displays dainty tones and careful shading found in no
+other class of Asia Minor rugs. Such pieces are usually regarded as
+products of the XVI Century._
+
+_Property of the Author_]
+
+
+BURUJIRDS.—About sixty miles to the west of Sultanabad and forty to the
+south of the Sarawan district is the city of Burujird. It is in a rich,
+well-watered valley and is surrounded by numerous hamlets. Most of the
+population are engaged in agriculture; and only a small part, who are
+stimulated by the increased prices occasioned by the rug industry of
+Sultanabad, are weavers. They produce pieces that resemble closely the
+Sarabend rugs, as the field is generally occupied with pear designs; but
+on account of the Ghiordes knot and cotton warp and weft, they might be
+mistaken for Iran rugs.
+
+
+SULTANABADS.—Southeastward from the plain of Feraghan is the city of
+Sultanabad, which in recent years has become important as the centre of
+a great rug industry controlled by Europeans and Americans. Higher
+prices, resulting from the constantly increasing Western demand for
+Persian rugs, have stimulated the native weavers to more persistent
+efforts. Those who are too poor to purchase wool and dyes[24] are
+supplied by the companies. Others, who are more dependent, are paid
+regular wages. Thus it happens that not only large numbers of looms are
+constantly at work in the city, but a hundred hamlets and villages that
+lie within a day's journey produce rugs that are marketed there. But
+while the output has been increased the true artistic spirit has been
+suppressed, and patterns favoured or supplied by foreign purchasers only
+are in demand. Most of the rugs are well woven, though there is a
+difference in grades. Some take the name of the city, others are called
+Savalans, from a range of mountains that lie to the north, and others
+are known as Mahals. Most of them are large pieces, rather coarsely
+woven.
+
+
+MUSKABADS.—In the district of Muskabad, a short distance to the
+northwest of Sultanabad, are produced rugs very similar to the Mahals.
+They come in the same large carpet sizes and nearly square shapes; they
+have almost the same harmonious colour scheme of unobtrusive red,
+yellow, blue, green, and ivory; they have the same cotton warp and weft,
+the same finish of sides and ends; but as a rule they are less closely
+woven. The patterns are varied. Occasionally they have large figures
+such as are seen in Gorevans, though these are more usual in Mahals. In
+some of them the field is covered with conventionalised leaf and floral
+form. But the usual type has two or more concentric medallions of
+different colours covered with the small Herati designs so distinctive
+of the Feraghans. When such is the case, the border has usually the
+turtle pattern in the main stripe and some stiffly drawn vine and floral
+pattern in the smaller stripes. But the velvety appearance, the elegant
+finish of old Feraghans, is always lacking. The nap is of soft wool of
+medium length, but the surface of the back displays coarse texture.
+These pieces lack the artistic qualities of most Persian rugs; but on
+account of their excellent quality of material and stoutness of weave
+they are very serviceable.
+
+_Type Characteristics._ _Colours_, principally red, blue, and ivory,
+with minor quantities of green and brown. _Knot_, Ghiordes or Sehna.
+Knots to inch horizontally seven to fourteen; perpendicularly, eight to
+twelve. The rows of knots are not firmly pressed down. _Warp_, cotton;
+one of the two threads encircled by a knot is generally depressed at
+back, and frequently nearly doubled under the other. _Weft_, cotton, of
+medium to coarse diameter. A thread of weft crosses twice between every
+two rows of knots. _Pile_, wool, of medium length. _Border_, three to
+five stripes, with a narrow outer edging. _Sides_, a double overcasting.
+_Lower end_, a very narrow web and short warp fringe. _Upper end_, short
+warp fringe. _Texture_, moderately firm. _Weave_ at back is of very
+coarse grain. _Length_, ten to eighteen feet. _Width_, two thirds to
+seven eighths length.
+
+
+JOSHAGHANS.—Lying to the southeast of Sultanabad and to the north of
+Ispahan is a district where a century ago were woven some of the best
+carpets of Persia, known as Joshaghans or Djushghans. Even long before
+then it was noted for its textile fabrics; but during the reign of Nadir
+Shah, who removed many of the best artisans from the central to the
+northwestern part of Persia, the carpet weaving received a new impulse,
+and continued to flourish there until nearly the middle of the last
+century. Since that time it has almost ceased, so that the genuine
+Joshaghans of rich, deep colour and skilfully drawn pattern are all
+sixty or more years of age. They may still be found scattered throughout
+the country, and should be carefully preserved; for they merit the high
+esteem accorded to them by the Persians themselves.
+
+[Illustration: PLATE 30. GHIORDES RUG]
+
+In a few of these pieces are seen the Shah Abbas pattern. In other
+pieces the field is covered with scrolls, or with a lattice-work
+pattern in which small floral forms are the motives. Again it is
+occupied by pear designs encircled by small rounded figures, which
+combined form the outlines of a larger pear, while in the intervening
+spaces are small floral forms. The principal border stripe generally
+consists of floral designs, which not infrequently are some form of the
+Herati pattern. The secondary stripes often contain floral vines.
+
+Whatever the pattern of the field, the effect is always striking and
+beautiful; for the lines are never harsh, and the colours are rich. The
+ground is very frequently a rose tint, but is sometimes dark blue; and
+the overlying designs are rose, yellow, green, and ivory. The colours of
+the border are generally the same as those of the smaller designs, so
+that the effect is always harmonious. These rugs are excellently woven;
+and the soft lustrous wool of the pile, which is usually longer than
+that of Sarabends and Feraghans, has often an appearance like plush.
+
+_Type Characteristics._ _Colours_, principally red and blue, with lesser
+quantities of yellow, green, brown, and ivory. _Knot_, Ghiordes. Knots
+to inch horizontally seven to eleven; perpendicularly, eight to
+thirteen. The rows of knots are not always firmly pressed down, so that
+the warp may be seen at back. _Warp_, usually cotton, occasionally wool;
+one of the two threads encircled by a knot is usually depressed below
+the other at the back. _Weft_, wool, sometimes dyed red, brown, or
+reddish brown, but frequently of natural colour. A thread of weft
+generally crosses twice, but sometimes three times between every two
+rows of knots. _Pile_, wool of short or medium length. _Border_, usually
+three stripes. _Sides_, a double overcasting that is generally brown or
+black. _Lower end_, a web. _Upper end_, a web and warp fringe.
+_Texture_, moderately firm. _Weave_ at back is of moderately fine grain.
+_Usual length_, eight to sixteen feet. _Usual width_, two fifths to two
+thirds length.
+
+
+SEHNAS.—Seldom has prophecy been more precisely fulfilled than the one
+made a decade ago that the old Persian rugs would rapidly disappear from
+the market. Nor is it better exemplified than in the case of those woven
+before the middle of the last century in Sehna, capital of Ardelan, for
+to-day it is exceedingly difficult to obtain any of them. Nevertheless,
+there are still many looms among the four or five thousand families of
+the city, where true to early traditions are woven modern fabrics that
+maintain the same floral Persian patterns, the same colour, the same
+general character of weave; but they lack the fine technique of the
+older pieces. It is, indeed, surprising that these modern pieces so
+closely resemble the old in all save quality, when it is considered that
+Sehna is distant only fifty miles from the western border of Persia;
+that it is surrounded by Kurdish tribes who for generations have woven
+rugs with nomadic features; and that it is not far distant from other
+important rug centres.
+
+To one familiar with the leading characteristics it is possible at once
+to distinguish these rugs. Their nap is exceedingly short, and the weave
+is so distinctive that with eyes closed an expert will generally
+recognise them after rubbing the hand across the front and back. Their
+patterns, also, conform to well-established types, yet have sufficient
+variety to be always interesting. They may be conveniently divided into
+two groups: one represents the entire field covered with floral designs,
+and the other represents a field of uniform colour with a medallion at
+the centre, or with two or more concentric medallions. The former, which
+is undoubtedly the older group, has generally a small diaper pattern of
+the Herati design or floral figures daintily drawn. To obviate too great
+monotony, a number of the old pieces have the leaves and flowers so
+adjusted that the ground conveys the effect of lattice work, or less
+often have small trees of cypress regularly placed amid the other floral
+designs. Again, the field may be covered with large pear designs placed
+in rows. Of modern pieces the most beautiful pattern, as a rule,
+consists of a field of rich, uniform colour, as ivory or red, containing
+at its centre a single medallion of contrasting ground colour, which is
+generally dark blue or even black. The four corners of the field have
+serrated edges and are covered with floral designs similar to those of
+the medallion. The borders, which are invariably narrow, usually consist
+of three stripes, but sometimes of only two. With very few exceptions
+they are floral, and in the main one, that has a ground colour of yellow
+or red, are represented designs which are also similar to those of the
+medallion. Some of the old Sehnas had borders that were less floral than
+more modern pieces, and the turtle design so common to Feraghans was
+often used. Isolated and adventitious designs, such as are seen in all
+nomadic rugs, are never found in these pieces, nor are the floriated
+scrolls that are peculiar to Sarouks, Kashans, and Kermanshahs.
+
+As is seldom the case with modern rugs, occasionally both linen and
+silk are used for the warp, and silk for overcasting, but generally the
+warp is cotton and the overcasting is of wool. The city of Sehna has
+given its name to the kind of knot with which almost all the rugs of
+China and Turkestan as well as many of the rugs of India and Persia are
+tied; yet strange as it may seem, its own weavers have been inconsistent
+in its use. To be sure, most of its rugs have the Sehna knot, but a
+surprisingly large proportion of both recent and comparatively old
+pieces have the Ghiordes knot. Only a few other rugs ever adopt the same
+style of weaving; for a thread of weft passes between two rows of knots
+but once, so that at the back only alternate threads of white cotton
+warp appear between these knots and thus give to the weave a checkered
+appearance or quincunx effect. Moreover, the yarn of the knots is not
+drawn tightly against the warp, so that in whatever direction the hand
+is rubbed the surface feels like a file. Very few other rugs are so
+closely woven, as four hundred knots to the square inch are not
+uncommon; and in very old pieces nearly double that number are now and
+then met with. Since both warp and weft are of fine threads and the nap
+is very short, these rugs are exceedingly thin and, accordingly, are not
+well adapted for floor use.
+
+Some old saddle-bags are still to be found, rich in their fields of deep
+blues and floral forms of brighter tones, but unfortunately they are
+somewhat marred by the long slit in the centre made to fit the saddle.
+
+_Type Characteristics._ _Colours_, principally dark blue, red, and
+ivory, with lesser quantities of green, light blue, and yellow. _Knot_,
+Sehna, often Ghiordes. Knots to inch horizontally eleven to twenty;
+perpendicularly, twelve to twenty-four. The rows of knots are closely
+pressed down, but the yarn of knots is not drawn tight against the warp.
+_Warp_, generally cotton, occasionally linen, rarely silk. Each of the
+two threads encircled by a knot is equally prominent at back. _Weft_,
+generally cotton, occasionally wool or linen, rarely silk. A single
+thread of small diameter crosses only once between every two rows of
+knots, so that the white spots of transverse warp exposed at back have a
+quincunx appearance. _Pile_, wool clipped very short. _Border_, three
+stripes. _Sides_, a tightly wound double overcasting. _Lower end_, a
+short web, or web and warp loops, or web and short warp fringe. _Upper
+end_, short web and fringe. _Texture_, very firm. _Weave_ at back is of
+fine grain but very rough. _Length_, three to seven feet. _Width_, two
+thirds to three quarters length.
+
+
+BIJARS.—One hundred miles beyond Hamadan, on the road to Tabriz, is the
+city of Bijar, capital of the district of Gehrous. It is surrounded by
+barren mountains that rise out of high table-lands, where for miles
+scarcely a habitation or bush breaks the monotony, and where not even a
+blade of grass or flower brightens the cracked and sun-parched earth,
+except for a short season of the year. As is the case throughout nearly
+all Persia, the spirit of desolation has crept into the city; the
+grapevine climbs over ruined walls; the shade of poplars and willows
+falls alike on decaying palace and crumbling houses. Yet there still
+remain caravansaries, schools, and mosques, as well as a population of
+five thousand people. Without doubt the importance of the city is partly
+due to the regiment of soldiers that the governor maintains to keep in
+subjection the bands of robbers and fierce Kurds who, in large numbers,
+live throughout the surrounding country. Nor are they the only tribes of
+fierce foreign blood dwelling in this region; for it is stated that
+during the invasions of the Timurids, a body of Turkomans from the
+fortress town of old Saraks, where the corners of Persia and Afghanistan
+meet Turkestan, followed the conqueror westward and settled here. After
+them is named a small river that flows a short distance to the north and
+finally empties into Lake Urumiah; and it is not unusual to apply the
+name Saraks to the rugs woven about Bijar, though they have none of the
+Turkoman characteristics.
+
+By adopting some of the best qualities of both Persian and Kurdish rugs,
+the Bijar weavers have produced pieces of unusual merit. The foundation
+is generally of wool; but unlike almost all other rugs with nomadic
+features one thread of warp to each knot is doubled beneath the other in
+the process of weaving, so that it is almost or entirely concealed.
+Bijars are accordingly pieces of great firmness and durability.
+Moreover, their threads of warp and weft are of coarse diameter, so that
+they are invariably thick even when the nap is not long. They are also
+distinctive in the effective massing of bright and strong colours.
+Perhaps the association with ranges of treeless hills, with salt wastes,
+with vast plains where rainless months leave the grass parched and the
+flowers withered, has deadened the Persian love for the brilliant,
+joyous colours so acutely cherished in other parts of Asia; but by the
+weavers of Bijar it is not unusual to discard many of the Persian
+colours, which, however rich, are subdued and sombre, and adopt the
+brighter hues seen in some of the rugs of Asia Minor. Yet, as is not
+always the case with the latter, there is no sense of outraged taste;
+and though crimson reds, deep blues, or tawny camel's hair be brought in
+relief against a field of strongly contrasting colour, the effect,
+except in modern pieces of poor dyes, is never displeasing.
+
+[Illustration: PLATE 31. KULAH PRAYER RUG]
+
+In the pattern much latitude is exercised, but only in the oldest pieces
+are found the gracefully flowing lines suggestive of the highest Persian
+art. In many pieces a central medallion and triangular-shaped corners,
+separated by a field of plain or slightly shaded colour, is a favourite
+pattern. But the defining lines are severe, and lack the delicate
+drawing characteristic of Kermanshahs and Sarouks. Or the field may be
+covered with a lattice-work pattern that contains small repetitive
+forms, consisting of slender stems supporting one or more flowers.
+Frequently a rug is covered with a medley of designs composed of
+conventionalised flowers, crudely drawn trees, as well as birds,
+animals, or human beings. The borders generally consist of an outer
+edging of plain colour, and three stripes, on which are often
+represented purely geometric forms, but more frequently the undulating
+vine and pendent leaves, such as are common to most Persian rugs.
+Fortunately many sterling pieces still remain that have none of the
+earmarks of factory-made rugs, but are beautiful with their soft wool
+and lustrous colours, as well as interesting with their blending of
+Persian and Kurdish features.
+
+_Type Characteristics._ _Colours_, principally red, also blue, ivory,
+green, yellow, and chocolate. _Knot_, Ghiordes. Knots to inch
+horizontally six to ten; perpendicularly, eight to twelve. The rows of
+knots are pressed down, so that the warp is concealed at back and the
+weft partly hidden. _Warp_, wool; one of the two threads encircled by a
+knot is doubled under the other. _Weft_, wool, of medium or coarse
+diameter, frequently dyed red. A thread of weft crosses twice between
+every two rows of knots. _Pile_, of medium length, usually wool, but
+frequently partly of camel's hair. _Border_, of three stripes, often
+with an outer edging. _Sides_, a double overcasting in red or purple.
+_Lower end_, a web that is occasionally coloured or a narrow braided
+selvage. _Upper end_, a web with loose warp fringe and sometimes a
+braided selvage. The webbing is occasionally turned back and hemmed.
+_Texture_, very firm. _Weave_ at back is of coarse grain. _Length_, six
+to sixteen feet. _Width_, one quarter to three fifths length.
+
+
+KERMANSHAHS.—On an ancient highway between Bagdad and Teheran is the
+city of Kermanshah. As it is situated near the frontiers of northwestern
+Persia, facing the Turkish provinces, and is surrounded by mountains
+where once wandered bands of homeless marauding Kurds who recognised no
+government, it was formerly a most important stronghold of defence. A
+century ago Robert Kerr Porter, who visited the city, referred to the
+luxurious gardens and orchards that surrounded it, and to the villages
+of the vicinity in which were made "carpets of most beautiful colour and
+fabric." Within later years the moat has filled with rubbish, the
+encircling walls have crumbled, and the deserted bazaars and
+caravansaries show that its present population of about twelve thousand
+is but a small part of what it has been. With its decline in political
+importance followed a decline in industrial activities; yet for a long
+time it remained a rug-producing centre of importance. In 1880 Sir
+George Birdwood wrote that "the finest Oriental rugs of our time, which
+at the Vienna Exhibition astonished all beholders, are those made in the
+palace of the Governor of Kermanshah, in Kurdistan, and are only
+disposed of as presents."[25] And in 1890 a traveller[26] spoke of the
+weaving as follows: "It is a process carried on in homes, hovels, and
+tents by women and children.... The vegetable dyes used are soft and
+artistic, especially a wonderful red and the various shades of indigo.
+The dull, rich tints, even when new, are quite beautiful. The women
+pursue their work chiefly in odds and ends of time, and in some cases
+make it much of a pastime."
+
+From this city and the surrounding hills are still obtained large
+quantities of rugs, which follow the same patterns that for years have
+been characteristic of this district. Yet most of the modern Kermanshahs
+are made elsewhere in the work-houses of exporting companies. So
+noticeable is the resemblance in drawing and colouring of some of them
+to the Kirmans of Southeastern Persia, that they are offered now and
+then by dealers as real Kirmans, though they lack the fine technique and
+artistic merit of the latter. They possess, however, the same wealth of
+floral expression, for throughout border and field are sprays of flowers
+on delicate vines and foliate stalks. Most of the pieces now seen
+contain at the centre of the field a large medallion, which may have
+serrated or lobed edges, be oval or of diamond shape, and with or
+without pendants. The corners are defined by lines that do not always
+conform to those of the medallion; and the borders have always several
+stripes, of which the main one is usually but little wider than the
+others. In all these different parts are floral and foliage motives that
+find expression in sunflowers, roses, tulips, daisies, and many simpler
+forms, supported by delicate branching sprays and vines.
+
+There are, however, other patterns less frequently met with, as it is
+not unusual to see elaborate pear designs, and sometimes the cypress or
+the palm tree naturalistically drawn. Covering the field of a rare old
+Kermanshah recently seen were thirty large panels, which like so many
+small rugs contained central fields that were alternately coloured blue
+and ivory. Surrounding each of these little fields, on which were
+represented the arch of a temple and the tree of life, were borders
+wherein were woven verses from the Koran, and at the intersections of
+the borders were floral designs like roses. Encircling all the panels
+was a wide border containing escutcheons in which were woven other
+verses. Without doubt this rug was used for sacred purposes. In fact, a
+larger proportion of Kermanshahs than almost any other Persian rugs have
+prayer arches as well as verses from the Koran inscribed in some part of
+them, but with very few exceptions they are recently woven and bear no
+evidence of devotional usage.
+
+The general colour scheme is distinctive, for the tones are much lighter
+than those of most other Persian rugs. Frequently a field of ivory
+surrounds the central medallion, though sometimes a light rose red is
+used. Other colours are light blue, green, and buff, which are softened
+by the floccy quality of the excellent and moderately short-clipped
+wool. One feature common to almost all of them is the narrow edging of
+pinkish red that surrounds the border. This edging, the foliate scrolls,
+the soft light tones, and the rather coarse weaving, that leaves the
+white or sometimes pinkish weft exposed at the back, are characteristics
+by which these rugs may readily be distinguished. As they come in all
+sizes from small mats to large carpets, and have tones that harmonise
+with almost any surroundings, they are a most popular class with those
+who care little for association and ignore the fact that they are
+chemically washed.
+
+_Type Characteristics._ _Colours_, principally light rose and ivory,
+also blue, green, and buff. _Knot_, Sehna. Knots to inch horizontally
+twelve to eighteen, perpendicularly eleven to eighteen. The rows of
+knots are pressed down, so that the warp is concealed at back, but the
+weft is conspicuous. _Warp_, cotton; one of the two threads encircled by
+a knot is doubled under the other. _Weft_, cotton, of medium diameter,
+sometimes dyed pink. A thread of weft crosses twice between every two
+rows of knots. _Pile_, wool, soft and of medium length. _Border_,
+frequently of three stripes of almost equal width, but sometimes many
+stripes; also an outer edging that is generally red, but occasionally
+blue. _Sides_, a double overcasting in same colour as edging. _Lower
+end_, a narrow web and warp loops, or short warp fringe. _Upper end_, a
+narrow web and short warp fringe. _Texture_, firm. _Weave_ at back is of
+moderately coarse grain. _Usual length_, four to fourteen feet. _Usual
+width_, three fifths to four fifths length.
+
+
+WESTERN KURDISTANS.—Within the land lying between the Anti-Taurus and
+Zagros mountains, where the Euphrates and Tigris rivers have their
+sources, dwell a people almost as untamed as when in the dawn of history
+they were designated the "Warriors;" or centuries later, under the name
+"Carduchis," opposed the retreat of Xenophon and his ten thousand
+Greeks. Now they are known as "Kurds," of whom large numbers, wild,
+brave, and hospitable, live a nomadic life among table-lands partly
+covered with sycamores and oaks, or follow their sheep over lofty
+pine-crowned mountains, that for long months are enveloped in snow.
+Doubtless the cheering influence of green hillsides and the rich
+vegetation of innumerable valleys, where streams flow perennially, is in
+a measure responsible for their more sprightly aspect when contrasted
+with that of the Persians. They recognise no law but the will of their
+chief, to whom they maintain strictest fealty. "There was up to a recent
+period no more picturesque or interesting scene to be witnessed in the
+East than the court of one of these great Kurdish chiefs, where, like
+another Saladin, the bey ruled in patriarchial state, surrounded by his
+clansmen with reverence and affection, and attended by a body-guard of
+young Kurdish warriors, clad in chain armor, with flaunting silken
+scarfs, and bearing javelin, lance, and sword, as in the time of the
+Crusades."[27]
+
+[Illustration: PLATE 32. MELEZ PRAYER RUG]
+
+Large numbers, also, are settled in Persia, where they cultivate the
+soil of small tracts of land, or live in villages of stone houses. Many
+of them are scattered around Lake Urumiah. Others have made their homes
+in the district of Kermanshah, and not a few have wandered as far as
+Khorassan. But wherever they may be, they are distinguished by their
+appearance; for the men are bold and handsome, and the young women, whom
+custom permits to appear unveiled in public, are beautiful as well as
+graceful.
+
+There is no racial distinction between the Kurds who live the pastoral
+life and those who dwell in villages, or between the Kurds of Asiatic
+Turkey and those of Persia; yet environment has produced a marked
+difference in their textile fabrics. Those woven by the tribes that live
+among the mountains that encircle Lake Van and extend to the north of
+Diarbekr embody the wild characteristics of the weavers. They are strong
+and coarse, with close weave, long nap, and bold patterns, that suggest
+Caucasian influence devoid of artistic feeling. In some of them is a
+large central diamond or lozenge surrounded by latch-hooks, as well as
+floral forms so conventionalised as to be purely geometric; now and then
+Arabic symbols and letters are scattered over the field. Moreover, the
+colours lack the delicate shades of Persian rugs, but possess rich,
+strong hues obtained from native dyes that applied to the excellent wool
+give it a warm, lustrous appearance. Brown is very largely used. There
+are also dark reds and blues brightened by dashes of white and yellow.
+Only the Kazaks, Tcherkess, and one or two Asia Minor weaves are trimmed
+with such long nap, which, together with the deep colours and long
+shaggy fringe, give these pieces a semi-barbaric appearance possessed by
+no other rugs. Sometimes they are confused with the Mosuls; but as a
+rule the pile is longer, and they are more coarsely woven. In fact, the
+yarn is so coarse that it is not unusual to see pieces with only thirty
+or forty knots to the square inch. Like the Persian-Kurdish rugs, they
+rarely come in large, almost square shapes, and are frequently decidedly
+oblong. They may, however, easily be distinguished from them by their
+cruder patterns, darker colours, coarser texture, and the fact that each
+of the two threads of warp encircled by a knot is equally prominent at
+the back.
+
+_Type Characteristics._ _Colours_, principally brown, red, and blue,
+with minor quantities of yellow, green, and white, and the natural
+colour of the undyed wool. _Knot_, Ghiordes. Knots to inch horizontally
+four to seven; perpendicularly, six to nine. A half knot, as it appears
+at back, is as long as, or longer than, wide. The rows of knots are
+closely pressed down. _Warp_, wool; each of the two threads encircled by
+a knot is equally prominent at back. _Weft_, wool, of coarse diameter,
+and often dyed a reddish colour. A thread of weft crosses twice between
+every two rows of knots. _Pile_, wool, occasionally camel's or goat's
+hair clipped long. _Border_, generally of three stripes. _Sides_, a
+heavy double overcasting, usually in brown or black, occasionally in
+several different colours. _Lower end_, a narrow web, through which runs
+a coloured cord, and warp loops. _Upper end_, a narrow web, one or more
+rows of knots and long, coarse warp fringe. _Texture_, very stout.
+_Weave_ at back is of very coarse grain. _Length_, five to sixteen feet.
+_Width_, two fifths to two thirds length.
+
+
+PERSIAN KURDISTANS.—Nowhere is the influence of association among
+weavers more evident than in the Kurdish rugs woven by the tribes
+settled in the rich valleys of Northwestern Persia, as is apparent in
+weave, colours, and pattern, which differ widely from those seen in the
+Kurdish rugs of Asiatic Turkey. The warp is only rarely of coarse goats'
+hair, and is generally soft, brown wool. The pile is much shorter, so
+that the drawing is clearly defined. Likewise, the colours are more
+varied and of more delicate tones so as to include lighter shades of
+green, rose, and ivory with the darker reds, blues, and browns. But the
+chief distinction consists of the more artistic pattern. The medallion
+in the centre of the field with corner pieces in which appear some form
+of repetitive pattern is most common. Instead of large figures are often
+the more dainty Herati designs borrowed from the Feraghans and the
+Sehnas, or the pear design from the Sarabends. Now and then is seen a
+rare old piece with field completely covered with drawings of the tree
+of life and strange floral conceits; but the pattern that is
+pre-eminently typical of this type of Kurdish pieces is the Mina Khani,
+though it is occasionally adopted in other rugs. The white and yellowish
+flowers, connected by a lattice work sub-pattern of brown or olive,
+rests on a ground of dark blue, that in accordance with a feature
+peculiar to rugs of Kurdish weaves varies from one end of the field to
+the other, so as to suggest that their wandering life often made it
+difficult to obtain the roots and herbs necessary to produce similar
+shades. As is rarely the case with other patterns, the naturalistic
+flowers that are pendent from the undulating vine of the main stripe and
+the flowers of the field have nearly the same drawing. The two remaining
+stripes of the narrow border have most simple vines.
+
+Almost without exception rugs of this class are stoutly woven. To
+assure firmness, one thread of warp is depressed below the other in
+tying the knots; and the weft that is thrown across for filling is of
+fair quality. On account of the firm texture, excellent wool, and good
+colours it is still possible to obtain moderately old pieces, that as
+objects of utility as well as ornament are desirable for their sterling
+qualities.
+
+A similarity exists between the Persian-Kurdish, Mosul, and Bijar rugs;
+but a precise, even if easily overlooked, difference in the weave serves
+to distinguish one from the other. As may be seen by examining the backs
+of typical specimens, in Mosuls every thread of warp lies in the same
+plane parallel with the surface of the pile; in the Persian Kurdistans
+one of the two threads of warp encircled by a knot is depressed at an
+acute angle to that plane; and in Bijars one of the two threads of warp
+encircled by a knot is doubled under the other so as to be at right
+angles to that plane.
+
+_Type Characteristics._ _Colours_, principally red and blue, also
+yellow, green, and white. _Knot_, Ghiordes. Knots to inch horizontally
+seven to ten; perpendicularly, eight to twelve. A half knot, as it
+appears at back, is no longer than wide and is frequently not so long.
+The yarn is loosely woven, so that each separate ply is distinct. The
+rows of knots are pressed down, so that the warp is largely concealed
+and the weft partly hidden at back. _Warp_, wool; one of the two threads
+encircled by a knot is generally much depressed below the other at back;
+but sometimes each is equally prominent. _Weft_, wool, of medium
+diameter. A thread of weft usually crosses twice between every two rows
+of knots, only rarely once. _Pile_, wool, and occasionally some camel's
+hair of medium length. _Border_, three to four stripes. _Sides_, a heavy
+double overcasting in dark colour. _Lower end_, web crossed by a
+parti-coloured cord, and warp loops. _Upper end_, web crossed by a
+parti-coloured cord, and loose warp fringe. _Texture_, very firm.
+_Weave_ at back is of coarse grain. _Usual length_, six to twelve feet.
+_Usual width_, five eighths to two thirds length.
+
+
+KARAJES.—Dwelling near Hamadan, in the northwestern part of Persia, are
+tribes who weave rugs that are known in the markets as Karajes. In their
+colour scheme, length of nap, and texture they resemble many of the
+Kurdistans; but in the technicalities of weave they show a marked
+difference. As a rule, a single thread of weft crosses only once between
+two rows of knots, or in a few pieces two threads of weft pass side by
+side as though one. In this particular they resemble Hamadans; but the
+alignment of their knots at the back is more regular, their weft is
+inserted with some slack, their warp is of wool, and their weft is
+almost always of wool. They are generally runners, with long nap of
+soft, lustrous wool, with rich colours, and with border of three
+stripes. The pattern is Iranian, and very often consists of a small bush
+or sprig of leaf and flower disposed in formal array throughout the
+field. Sometimes the floral forms are placed within the diamonds formed
+by a trellis pattern, but more frequently they are arranged in rows like
+the pear designs of Sarabends. In some pieces they are very much
+conventionalised and suggest similar figures seen in rugs of Southern
+Caucasia; and in others stem, leaf, and flower are very realistic.
+Another pattern frequently followed consists of three or four large
+diamond-shaped medallions extending from one end of the field to the
+other. The borders are moderately narrow, and an undulating vine of
+well-known Persian character generally appears in one or more of the
+stripes. As these pieces are almost always comparatively old, the
+vegetable dyes that were used for colouring have mellowed, and have a
+richness of tone that is accentuated by the depth of pile and softness
+of wool. The prevailing tone of many is a deep plum colour.
+
+_Type Characteristics._ _Colours_, principally dark blue or plum and
+red, with minor quantities of yellow, brown, and white. _Knot_,
+Ghiordes. Knots to inch horizontally six to twelve; perpendicularly,
+seven to twelve. A half knot, as it appears at back, is as long as wide,
+and occasionally is longer. The rows of knots, which have even alignment
+at back, are not firmly pressed down. _Warp_, wool, rarely cotton; each
+of the two threads encircled by a knot is equally prominent at back.
+_Weft_, wool, rarely cotton; a single thread of medium diameter crosses
+once between every two rows of knots; but in parts of the same rug two,
+three, or even four threads of small diameter will cross side by side as
+a single coarse thread. Occasionally a thread of weft crosses three or
+four times. The filling of weft stands up as high as the knots at the
+back, giving an even surface. _Pile_, wool, of medium length or
+moderately long. _Border_, of three stripes. _Sides_, a heavy double
+overcasting. _Lower end_, web and warp loops. _Upper end_, web and short
+fringe. _Texture_, moderately loose. _Weave_ at back is of coarse grain.
+_Usual length_, eight to fourteen feet. _Usual width_, three eighths to
+one half length.
+
+[Illustration: PLATE 33. MELEZ RUG]
+
+
+TABRIZ.—Although Tabriz, capital of the province of Azerbijan, is
+situated in a remote corner of Persia, from the earliest times it has
+been one of the most important centres in the Orient for the production
+of carpets. They were well known in the days of the Caliphs; and some of
+the earliest masterpieces that now remain were woven there during the
+reign of Shah Tamasp, who extended to this industry his royal patronage.
+This city has been for a long period on the great routes of caravans
+passing to Trebizond and Tiflis from the country to the south and east,
+so that it has become the principal mart of Persia for the export of
+rugs gathered from surrounding regions. Nevertheless, it still continues
+to produce its own pieces; but the weavers are in the employ of foreign
+companies who prescribe the character of workmanship. As a consequence,
+the rugs are of good material, excellently woven; and though many of the
+old dyes are no longer used, the colours as a rule are fair; yet on
+account of the mathematical exactness of their formal patterns the truly
+Oriental spirit is largely lacking.
+
+Since the rugs are made solely to meet the requirements of Western
+buyers, the patterns are various. Most of them consist of a large
+central medallion surrounded by a broad field of ivory, blue, or red
+that extends to the sides and ends. In others, a small diamond occupies
+the centre and is surrounded by a series of concentric medallions.
+Although in these respects they correspond with Kermanshahs, Sarouks,
+and Kashans, the patterns of their fields lack the long scrolls and
+interlacing branches, and consist frequently of short, slender stems
+supporting fronds, leaves, flowers, or the pear designs arranged so as
+to present almost the appearance of lace-work. Sometimes the drawing is
+a delicate tracery representing intertwining arabesques. A field
+completely covered with the small designs peculiar to Sehnas, or
+containing the disjunct forms of nomadic rugs, is never seen; and yet it
+is not improbable that many of the early Tabriz weavers were Kurds.
+Sometimes the flowers are similar to the roses of Kirmans, or are
+realistically drawn compositæ surrounded by delicate leaves on graceful
+stems; some times the small designs are as formal as the palmettes of
+old Ispahans, from which they were doubtless copied; again, the
+naturalistic and conventional may be blended together in an harmonious
+whole. But whatever the pattern, the different parts show the perfect
+balance so frequently seen in the antique pieces of three or four
+centuries ago. Nevertheless, to these types are many exceptions, since
+the weavers will produce for hire any class of rug or copy any coloured
+drawing.
+
+The borders differ from those of Kermanshahs, with which these rugs are
+frequently compared, in the fact that in their central stripe the
+continuous vine of leaf and flower is less conspicuous; and in its place
+are often palmettes, pears, shrubs, or formal trees separated by
+foliated scrolls. Not infrequently the smaller stripes, also, have a
+repetitive pattern of leaf and flower, though in some of the many
+stripes is usually a well-drawn vine. Again, the border may consist of a
+series of cartouches that have been copied from much older rugs and
+contain verses of the Koran or of Persian poets. Within recent years
+this tendency among the Tabriz and Kermanshah weavers to imitate not
+only borders but also fields of old masterpieces is increasing.
+
+A feature peculiar to a very large number of these rugs is the adoption
+of very finely spun linen for the warp; though cotton, which is used for
+the weft, is sometimes substituted. The knots are carefully tied, and
+the closely woven texture presents an appearance at the back similar to
+that of Sarouks; but the almost concealed weft is generally either white
+or pink. The weave compared with that of Kermanshahs is finer, but the
+wool of the closely shorn nap is neither so soft to the touch nor so
+silky, the colours are harsher, and the patterns more formal. These rugs
+are made in all sizes, though most are large and almost square.
+
+_Type characteristics._ _Colours_, principally red, blue, and ivory.
+_Knot_, Ghiordes. Knots to inch horizontally twelve to twenty;
+perpendicularly, ten to twenty-two. The rows of knots are pressed down,
+so that the warp is hidden and the weft partly concealed at back.
+_Warp_, generally cotton, frequently linen; one of the two threads
+encircled by a knot is doubled under the other. _Weft_, as a rule, is
+cotton, occasionally it is wool or linen, of fine diameter, and
+frequently dyed pink. A thread of weft crosses twice between every two
+rows of knots. _Pile_, wool, clipped short and harsh to the touch.
+_Border_, from five to eight stripes and an outer edging. _Sides_, a
+two-cord selvage. _Both ends_, a narrow web and loose warp fringe.
+_Texture_, firm. _Weave_ at back is of fine texture. _Usual length_,
+nine to eighteen feet. _Usual width_, two thirds to four fifths length.
+
+
+GOREVANS.—Of the many rugs now made in Persia and designed primarily for
+use, few are of such moderate price as the Gorevans, which, during
+recent years, have been imported in large numbers from the province of
+Azerbijan in Northwestern Persia. A hasty glance suggests Occidental
+craftsmanship, but in every essential they are distinctly Oriental.
+Their stout weave, large size, and nearly square shape place them in the
+class of Persian pieces often called carpets, to which belong the
+Kermanshahs, Muskabads, Mesheds, and rugs of Tabriz. Yet they are
+frequently larger than any of these, and are readily distinguished from
+them by their colours and patterns. It is true that they have the same
+light shades, but the tones are in a distinctly different scale,
+consisting principally of dull brick-red, light terra cotta, buff, dark
+blue, dull green, yellow, and ivory, which, when once recognised, are
+rarely mistaken for those of any other rugs. Nor are the colours
+distributed in patches so small as to blend when viewed at a short
+distance, but are of sufficient masses to be separately observed and
+analysed.
+
+The patterns are equally distinctive. The field is generally covered
+with a number of concentric hexagonal-shaped medallions, of which the
+longer sides of the largest are often marked with conspicuous
+indentations such as are not seen in classes made in other districts.
+All of the medallions are covered with large designs, in which the
+artist has departed from the usual forms of vine, leaf, and flower, that
+poorly imitate the splendid examples of so-called "Ispahans," and in
+many instances has represented them in the archaic drawing of the oldest
+remaining Persian carpets. Hard, straight lines with angles replacing
+graceful curves define the medallions, corners, stems, leaves, and
+flowers. And not infrequently the formal treatment shows a European
+influence, as when all semblance of leaf and flower has disappeared in
+the extremely conventionalised forms that are placed with set regularity
+in the field. A very noticeable feature of these rugs is the manner in
+which the designs are coloured, as it is not unusual to represent a
+large figure in two strongly contrasting colours, as blue and pink
+separated by a stiffly drawn line.
+
+The designs of the corners are similar to those of the central
+medallions, but the designs of the borders are dissimilar. The small
+stripes are marked with Persian vines of well-known floral and leaf
+forms that show nothing of the drawing characteristic of the field. The
+main stripe occasionally has cartouches and star medallions, but in most
+instances has the turtle pattern, though its treatment differs from the
+usual form seen in Feraghans. A co-ordination in colour exists between
+field and border. The ground of both the main stripe and one of the
+medallions is often a dark blue or a red, while the ground of the other
+stripes corresponds with those of other medallions.
+
+All of the Gorevans are modern pieces, and so lack the interest of those
+that follow traditional patterns; but their stout weave, warm colours,
+and archaic designs make them both serviceable and pleasing.
+
+_Type Characteristics._ _Colours_, principally dull red, dark blue, and
+buff, with minor quantities of green, yellow, and white. _Knot_,
+Ghiordes. Knots to inch horizontally six to eight; perpendicularly, six
+to ten. The most conspicuous half of a knot, as it appears at the back,
+is, as a rule, longer than wide. The rows of knots are somewhat pressed
+down, but the warp is rarely entirely concealed at back. _Warp_, cotton;
+one of the two threads encircled by a knot is usually depressed below
+the other at back; sometimes both threads are equally prominent. _Weft_,
+cotton, of coarse diameter, sometimes dyed blue. A thread of weft
+crosses only once between every two rows of knots, or frequently twice.
+_Pile_, wool, of medium length. _Border_, generally of three stripes,
+occasionally four or five. _Sides_, a two-cord double selvage. _Both
+ends_, a short warp fringe. _Texture_, rather loose. _Weave_ at back is
+of very coarse grain. _Usual length_, ten to sixteen feet. _Usual
+width_, three fifths to three quarters length.
+
+
+BAKSHIS.—A close relationship exists between the Gorevans, which are a
+comparatively modern product, and several other less known sub-classes
+of earlier origin that are woven in small towns in the east central part
+of the province of Azerbijan. One of these towns, located fifty miles to
+the southeast of Tabriz, is Bakshis, which formerly produced rugs that
+were highly esteemed by the Persians, before the weavers were corrupted
+by a spirit of commercialism. Those which are exported to-day are of
+little artistic value, are poorly coloured, and carelessly woven. The
+patterns are inferior copies of other well-known classes.
+
+[Illustration: PLATE 34. RHODIAN RUG]
+
+
+SERAPIS.—The rugs known as Serapis are named after the village of Sirab
+in the mountainous district between Tabriz and Ardebil; but they are
+made not only there, but also in the country farther to the east. The
+large sizes are frequently mistaken for Gorevans, as they are of
+similar shape and have similar finish of sides and ends, yet as a rule
+they are better woven. Many of them follow the same patterns of
+concentric medallions, but the lines of others are more artistically
+drawn. Although the borders lack the gracefully symmetric vines of old
+Iranian pieces, the drawing is interesting in its individuality and is
+in harmony with that of the field. All the colours are cheerful. A field
+of ivory or some light shade of buff usually surrounds the central
+medallions, on which appear soft and pleasing tones of smaller designs.
+Yet on the whole there is a tendency to employ richer and deeper tones
+than those of Gorevans. The smaller pieces often contain more elaborate
+patterns, but there are always the same pleasing and unobtrusive shades
+of colour.
+
+_Type Characteristics._ _Colours_, principally red, blue, and ivory,
+with minor quantities of green and yellow. _Knot_, generally Sehna,
+frequently Ghiordes. Knots to inch horizontally six to ten;
+perpendicularly, seven to twelve. The rows of knots are firmly pressed
+down, so that the warp does not show at back. _Warp_, cotton; one of the
+two threads encircled by a knot is generally much depressed below the
+other at back, and frequently doubled under the other. _Weft_, cotton,
+of coarse diameter. A thread of weft crosses twice between every two
+rows of knots. _Pile_, wool of medium length. _Border_, three stripes.
+_Sides_, a double selvage of two cords, or double overcasting attached
+figure-eight fashion to the sides. The selvage or overcasting is usually
+in red or buff. _Lower end_, a narrow web and warp loops or short warp
+fringe. _Upper end_, a narrow web and warp fringe. _Texture_, stout.
+_Weave_ at back is of coarse grain. _Usual length_, ten to eighteen
+feet. _Usual width_, two thirds to three quarters length.
+
+
+HEREZ.—The city of Herez is in the extreme eastern part of the province
+of Azerbijan, where for a long time the weavers steadily adhered to the
+sterling values of early fabrics and produced pieces that were followed
+with slight modification in many of the former Gorevans. In a measure
+the rugs of Tabriz also are reflected in the medallion pattern of some
+of these pieces, but for their gracefully flowing lines are substituted
+more rectangular ones; and in place of many colours are few, of which
+blue and a reddish copper are particularly noticeable. Another
+well-known and interesting type consists of a field of white, on which,
+with formal precision, are represented, in delicate shades of red, blue,
+yellow, and green, archaic leaves and flowers supported by stems and
+tendrils that are so conventionalised as to form geometric lines and
+angles. At regular intervals the branching tendrils assume the shape of
+arches, of which in larger pieces there are frequently one or two dozen;
+and so closely do they resemble prayer arches that these rugs are
+sometimes mistaken for namazliks. The borders usually consist of three
+stripes. The outer and inner are narrow guards containing some simple
+floral figure, and the broad central stripe has often a continuous vine
+with formal leaves and a conspicuous design suggestive of the
+cloud-band. The tones are never harsh; many of the pieces are large and
+almost square, and the wool of the pile is generally excellent.
+
+_Type Characteristics._ _Colours_, principally ivory, light blue, and
+reddish brown, also some yellow and green. _Knot_, Ghiordes. Knots to
+inch horizontally five to ten; perpendicularly, six to twelve. The most
+conspicuous half of a knot, as it appears at the back, is longer than
+wide. The rows of knots are only slightly pressed down, so that the weft
+is noticeable at back. _Warp_, cotton; one of the two threads encircled
+by a knot is depressed below the other at back, or each thread is
+equally prominent. _Weft_, of cotton, seldom of wool, of moderately
+coarse diameter. A thread of weft crosses twice between every two rows
+of knots. _Pile_, wool of medium length. _Border_, generally of three
+stripes. _Sides_, a two-cord double selvage. _Lower end_, a very narrow
+web and short warp fringe. _Upper end_, a short warp fringe. _Texture_,
+loose. _Weave_ at back is of very coarse grain. _Usual length_, nine to
+fifteen feet. _Usual width_, two thirds to seven eighths length.
+
+
+SUJ-BULAKS.—About fifty miles to the south of Lake Urumiah and the same
+distance from the western boundary of Persia is the old Kurdish capital
+of Suj-Bulak. Kurds still largely predominate in the district and
+comprise most of the population of the city, to the discomfort of the
+much smaller number of Persians, for whose protection a large garrison
+was formerly maintained. Accordingly, the rugs made in this vicinity are
+strongly characteristic of Kurdish pieces in the strong texture, the
+excellent quality of wool, the rich, dark colours, the finish of sides
+and ends. The patterns also are largely Kurdish, but frequently show the
+influence of Persian association.
+
+In typical old pieces deep reds and blues are largely used. One of them
+is generally the ground colour of the central field, and shows the
+Kurdish influence by a gradual shading from end to end; the other
+appears in the overlying pattern, which partakes of a floral character.
+The drawing sometimes represents flowering plants, such as the rose
+bush, arranged in perpendicular rows and brightened by tints of white,
+green, or yellow. Detached flowers not infrequently line the edges of
+the field. The wide borders also, as a rule, have vines and floral
+forms.
+
+_Type Characteristics._ _Colours_, principally dark red and blue, with
+minor quantities of brown, green, yellow, and ivory. _Knot_, Ghiordes.
+Knots to inch horizontally seven to ten; perpendicularly, eight to
+twelve. The rows of knots are, as a rule, pressed down, so that the
+alignment of each half knot is very uneven; but frequently this feature
+is not regularly maintained in all parts of the same rug, so that here
+and there the warp is noticeable at back. _Warp_, wool; each of the two
+threads encircled by a knot is generally equally prominent at back, but
+occasionally one is depressed below the other. _Weft_, wool, of medium
+diameter. A thread of weft crosses twice between every two rows of
+knots. _Pile_, wool of medium length. _Border_, of three to four
+stripes. _Sides_, a double selvage of two or three cords in blue, red,
+or brown. _Lower end_, a web through which runs a parti-coloured cord,
+and a warp fringe. Frequently there is a braided selvage in addition to
+the web. _Upper end_, the same as lower, excepting that the web is
+occasionally turned back and hemmed. _Texture_, moderately loose.
+_Weave_ at back is of slightly coarse grain. _Usual length_, six to
+seven feet. _Usual width_, two fifths to three fifths length.
+
+
+KARADAGHS.—In the extreme northwestern part of Persia, between the city
+of Tabriz and the river Aras, is a mountain range called Kara Dagh,
+which signifies the "Black Mountain," On its slopes and in the adjoining
+valleys rugs have been woven for at least several hundred years, and at
+one time were well known in Europe, but few have reached this country.
+Most of them are produced for home use, so that they are, as a rule,
+well woven, of good material, and of vegetable dyes. They resemble in
+colour scheme, weave, and finish of sides and ends the rugs of Karabagh,
+which immediately adjoins this district on the north. Indeed, in no
+other rugs of Persia are the traditions of Iranian weavers so much
+disregarded and Caucasian ideas so closely followed.
+
+The field of many of these rugs is completely covered with
+conventionalised flowers of several different colours, so arranged that
+diagonal lines are of similar colours. Sometimes it is covered with a
+pattern of hexagonal-shaped figures containing geometric forms or
+conventionalised floral designs. Again, it may contain the Herati
+pattern or one similar to the Mina-Khani. In fact, some repetitive
+pattern of small design is the usual type; but now and then some form of
+pole medallion, which the weavers have learned from their more southern
+neighbours, is substituted. The patterns of the borders are either
+mechanically drawn vines or contain geometric figures characteristic of
+Caucasian pieces. For guard stripes the reciprocal trefoil is constantly
+used.
+
+The colour scheme is generally bright and pleasing. A favourite colour
+for the field is blue or a camel's hair yellow; sometimes rose is seen.
+The nap of modern pieces is medium long and of old pieces is short. The
+weave of the latter is excellent, so that the closely pressed knots and
+stout threads of weft make at the back an even surface unlike the coarse
+appearance of many rugs.
+
+_Type Characteristics._ _Colours_, principally blue, red, yellow, green,
+and white. Knot, Ghiordes. _Knots_ to inch horizontally seven to eleven;
+perpendicularly, seven to eleven. The rows of knots are not firmly
+pressed down, so that the warp appears at back, and the weft is
+prominent. _Warp_, wool; each of the threads encircled by a knot is
+equally distinct at back. _Weft_, wool, of coarse diameter, occasionally
+dyed. A thread of weft crosses twice between every two rows of knots.
+_Pile_, wool, of moderate length. _Border_, three to six stripes.
+_Sides_, a double selvage of two or three cords. _Both ends_, a narrow
+web and short warp fringe. _Texture_, moderately firm. _Weave_ at back
+is of rather coarse grain. _Usual length_, five to nine feet. _Usual
+width_, two fifths to two thirds length.
+
+
+MOSULS.—Near the ruins of ancient Nineveh, on the bank of the Tigris, is
+the city of Mosul. Once it was not only an important mart for wares
+carried up and down the river, and for vast caravans from east and west,
+but it became noted for its textiles from which was derived the name
+"muslin." At length on account of pestilence, misrule, and the sack of
+armies its population and industries have dwindled; though it is still
+the capital and commercial centre of a district that lies between the
+high table-lands surrounding Lake Van and the low plains of Bagdad, and
+that extends across the Mesopotamian valley to the mountain ridges
+bordering Western Persia. Within this extensive area are large stretches
+of rich pasture, where Abraham once fed his flocks, and where each year
+Kurdish nomads from the north drive their sheep when the winter snows
+cover their own hillsides. Arabs, Turks, Armenians, Jews, and Christians
+likewise mingle with the natives, so that the population is as mixed as
+can be found anywhere in the Orient.
+
+[Illustration: PLATE 35. KONIEH PRAYER RUG]
+
+Thus it happens that the rugs marketed in the city of Mosul are made by
+different races and show great diversity of character. It would, indeed,
+be often difficult to distinguish them if the weave were disregarded;
+for though they are prone to yellow and russet hues, and the long wool
+is floccy as well as lustrous, there is no pattern that can be
+considered truly typical. Many of them borrow Caucasian designs, such as
+stars, latch-hooks, diagonal bands, and barber-pole stripes. Others have
+patterns adopted almost bodily from Kurdish pieces. But however much the
+nomadic rugs are copied, a Persian influence is always shown by the way
+in which the severer features are softened. In fact, a very large
+percentage of rugs that come from Mosul are made by the tribes that
+wander as far east as the great mountain divides along the borders of
+Western Persia, and adopt patterns and colour schemes current in
+Azerbijan and Ardelan. It accordingly happens that medallion patterns
+resembling those of Bijars, but with bolder and less graceful outlines,
+are seen. More frequently the field is covered with small figures common
+to Feraghans, as well as with the well-known pear designs; but the
+former are coarsely drawn, and the latter lack the gracefully rounded
+lines seen in Sarabends and are often as geometric as those of the Baku
+rugs. Somewhere in almost all these pieces appears evidence of some
+conventionalised floral form; but now and then a rare old piece is found
+which was woven in the plains of Mesopotamia, with field completely
+covered with a naturalistically drawn tulip that grows on the banks of
+the Tigris and Euphrates. Its bright flowers and leaves, supported by a
+delicate stalk, constitute one of the most beautiful designs seen in any
+rug.
+
+The borders are rarely wide, and generally consist of three stripes, one
+of which usually has some simple vine, and the others some well-known
+geometric pattern. It is, also, not unusual to find an outer edging
+surrounding the border. In a few of these pieces camel's hair is used
+even to the extent of occupying the whole field; and goat's hair or
+sheep's wool, dyed to a similar colour, is constantly employed. One of
+the most usual colours is some shade of yellow. Reddish hues also
+prevail. These rugs frequently have the same pleasing effect of slightly
+graduated changes so common in the ground colour of Kurdistans, but as a
+whole the colour scheme is lighter. On the other hand, they follow the
+shading adopted in Persian rugs, which in a measure eliminates the
+sudden transition between adjacent areas of strongly contrasting colour
+so noticeable in nomadic pieces. On account of the present remoteness of
+the Mosul district from important highways of travel, many excellent
+pieces, which with careful use should acquire the rich tones of those
+now old, are still woven there.
+
+_Type Characteristics._ _Colours_, principally yellow and brownish red,
+with minor quantities of blue, green, and white. _Knot_, Ghiordes. Knots
+to inch horizontally five to seven; perpendicularly, seven to nine. A
+half knot, as it appears at back, is as long as wide and frequently
+longer. The yarn is not drawn tightly against the warp. The rows of
+knots are firmly pressed down, so that the warp is concealed at back.
+_Warp_, almost always wool, rarely cotton; each of the two threads
+encircled by a knot is equally prominent at back. _Weft_, generally of
+wool, of coarse diameter and frequently dyed red or orange, but
+occasionally of cotton. As a rule, a thread of weft crosses twice
+between two rows of knots, but sometimes crosses only once; or two or
+three threads cross side by side, as in Karajes. _Pile_, wool and
+occasionally camel's hair, of medium length. _Border_, of three stripes
+with frequently an outer edging of solid colour. _Sides_ are generally a
+heavy double overcasting, but in a few pieces there is a two-cord weft
+selvage or double selvage. _Lower end_, a web. _Upper end_, a web and
+warp fringe; occasionally there is a heavy braided selvage, or the web
+is turned back and hemmed. _Texture_, moderately firm. _Weave_ at back
+is of coarse grain. _Usual length_, six to ten feet. _Usual width_, two
+fifths to three quarters length.
+
+Now and then are seen comparatively scarce rugs, such as the Teheran,
+Gulistan, Kara-Geuz, Bibikabad, Afshar, and Gozene, that were woven
+within the Iranian boundaries. Some of them are no longer produced, and
+others are woven in such small numbers that but few are exported.
+
+[Illustration: PLATE 36. KIR-SHEHR PRAYER RUG]
+
+The Teherans were formerly made in the present capital of Persia. The
+typical pattern consists of the Herati design or some floral form
+occupying the central field, which is two or three times as long as
+wide. The weave resembles that of Irans, since the knot is Ghiordes,
+each of the two threads of warp that it encircles is equally prominent
+at the back, and both warp and weft are cotton. The borders are wide,
+and the sides are finished with a two-cord selvage.
+
+Gulistan is the Persian name for a flower garden, and the rugs known by
+that name were once made in a district not far from Kashan, where rose
+bushes bloomed profusely. The fields may be covered with
+conventionalised floral and leaf patterns, or again they may contain
+roses naturalistically drawn with extended petals, as if viewed from
+above. The most striking characteristic is the opulence of colour, such
+as red, blue, and yellow softened by shades of brown and green. Even the
+weft and the webs of the ends are red, blue, or brown. The sides have a
+two-cord selvage, warp and weft are usually of cotton, and one thread of
+warp to each knot is depressed at the back. These rugs, which formerly
+came in large sizes, are no longer made.
+
+Only a short distance to the northeast of Hamadan is the district of
+Kara-Geuz, which is occupied by a large tribe, who in the past have
+furnished some of the best of Persian cavalry. The people are
+industrious, and not only cultivate the land but engage in weaving. Some
+of their rugs closely resemble the Kurdish pieces, and others correspond
+with the Irans. In the technique of weave they often follow the
+Hamadans. On the outskirts of this district is the town of Bibikabad,
+where, also, rugs are woven for market.
+
+For a number of generations the country adjoining Lake Urumiah on the
+west and stretching into the Turkish domain has been partly occupied by
+a powerful race of brave and active people who are known as Afshars.
+They are regarded as a branch of the Yuruks of Asia Minor, and the rugs
+of both tribes have many points of similarity. The wool of the nap is
+generally the coarse product of the mountain sheep. The patterns
+incorporate some of the floral features of Persian rugs, though they
+display many Caucasian characteristics. These Afshars bear a close
+resemblance to the Kazaks, from which they may be distinguished by
+observing a fold as they are bent backwards, which will show the fibres
+of the yarn of a knot standing out at front as a unit, while in Kazaks
+they have a greater tendency to blend. Also at the back, each half of a
+knot is no longer than wide, nor is it drawn closely against the warp,
+while in Kazaks each half of a knot is often double its width and is
+drawn closer.
+
+In the country about Gozene, in the watershed of the Euphrates river,
+are made a few rugs for local use, though they occasionally reach
+Western markets. The pattern, which is very simple, usually consists of
+some small diaper figure of brown or grey colour, or of dull tones of
+maroon. Many of this class have a double foundation of warp; and
+frequently, at the back, the knots do not form regular lines parallel
+with the length, as is the case with other rugs. This is due to the fact
+that any thread of warp may be encircled by both the left half of some
+knots and the right half of others. Occasionally, also, a knot is tied
+about four threads of warp. In other rugs of this class which have a
+single foundation of warp the weave resembles that of Mosuls.
+
+
+BORDER STRIPES
+
+The most noticeable feature of Persian border stripes is their floral
+character, which is very frequently represented by a vine winding from
+side to side with pendent flowers marking each flexure. Some of these
+vines have been evolved from arabesques, and others from naturalistic
+tendrils, but all are graceful. In a few pieces the stripes contain rows
+of detached flowers, rosettes, or pears, expressed in rich yet
+unobtrusive colours, that are always in perfect harmony with those of
+the field. Rarely is the pattern geometric. Accordingly, with the
+exception of the Indian and some of the Chinese, they are the most
+elegant, pleasing, and artistic of all border stripes. Moreover, some of
+them follow almost the same patterns that were in use centuries ago.
+
+
+_Primary Stripes._—In Plate E, Fig. 1 (opp. Page 156), is represented a
+typical Herat stripe derived from some of the XV and XVI Century
+carpets. It shows close relationship to the pattern of conventional
+rosette and pair of attendant leaves so frequently seen on the fields of
+such rugs as the Feraghans and Sehnas. In this stripe the angular and
+serrated leaves are extended to form a vine.
+
+One of the best known Khorassan stripes, shown in Plate E, Fig. 2, bears
+a resemblance to the Herat stripe; and it is not unlikely that they had
+a common origin, since they were designed in adjoining and freely
+communicating districts. The enlargements of the vine at the centre of
+each flexure are doubtless leaves, but they occasionally resemble the
+heads of birds.
+
+[Illustration: Plate E. Primary Border-Stripes of Persian Rugs]
+
+The so-called turtle pattern, Plate E, Fig. 3, has probably been derived
+from the interlacing arabesques that appeared in rugs at least as early
+as the beginning of the XV Century, as is indicated on Page 79. The
+rosette and attendant leaves between adjacent "turtles" suggest the
+Herati pattern. This stripe is found principally in Feraghans, Irans,
+Sehnas, and Muskabads. One that is similar, but more mechanically drawn
+and with wider spreading arms, is typical of Gorevans and Serapis.
+
+A stripe found in Joshaghans, representing a row of floral bushes, is
+shown in Plate E, Fig. 4. It is also seen in some of the old rugs of
+Northwestern Persia. Another Joshaghan stripe, which also suggests the
+Herati pattern, is represented in Fig. 5.
+
+A single row of pears (Plate E, Fig. 6) is a characteristic Luristan
+stripe.
+
+The dainty pattern of Plate E, Fig. 7, in which the vine has been
+abandoned and serrated leaves nearly surround a floral device, shows a
+not unusual Herez stripe.
+
+As a rule the drawing of Persian-Kurdish stripes is never crowded, and
+represents a simple vine with bright pendent flowers. A stripe commonly
+seen in this class is represented in Plate E, Fig. 8. It is also seen in
+the Bijars.
+
+On account of the geographic position of the Karadagh district, which is
+separated only by the Aras river from Caucasia, its stripes show a
+combination of floral and geometric design not usual in other Persian
+pieces. Plate E, Fig. 9, represents one of these stripes with a rosette,
+and the serrated leaf so common among the Shirvans. Plate E, Fig. 10,
+represents another stripe of the same class with eight-petalled
+star-shaped flowers pendent from an angular vine.
+
+A beautiful stripe, representing a vine and pendant flower, which is
+frequently seen in some of the Persian-Kurdish rugs, is shown in Plate
+E, Fig. 11.
+
+In Plate E, Fig. 12, is illustrated a very dainty pattern of vine and
+roses that now and then is seen in old Feraghans; and in Fig. 13 are
+also represented vine and roses as they occasionally appear in old rugs
+of Northwestern Persia.
+
+The very mechanically drawn double vine shown in Plate E, Fig. 14, is
+sometimes seen in stripes of Hamadans. In fact, simplicity of border is
+a characteristic of this class.
+
+Mosul and Kurdish stripes show a similarity, but the former are often
+more mechanically drawn than the latter. In Plate E, Fig. 15, is a
+stripe from an old and beautiful Mosul with conventionalised vine and
+King Solomon's eight-pointed star.
+
+Undoubtedly the most typical of any class of Persian stripes is the
+well-known Sarabend pattern of formal vine with pendent pear on white
+ground. It is very rarely that a rug of this class is without this
+stripe (Plate E, Fig. 16). Its presence at once indicates that the piece
+is either a Sarabend or an Iran copy.
+
+In Plate E, Fig. 17, is the well-known pear pattern of a Meshed stripe.
+The graceful form, resembling in a measure the Indian drawing, is
+peculiar to these stripes.
+
+The Kirman stripe (Plate E, Fig. 18) invariably contains red roses
+naturalistically drawn, surrounded by a profusion of leaves and stems.
+This is one of the most beautiful of Persian border patterns.
+
+Somewhat similar, but far more formal, is the Kermanshah stripe, one of
+which appears in Plate E, Fig. 19, with mechanically drawn flowers,
+leaves, and vines.
+
+The formal pattern (Plate E, Fig. 20) of octagons surrounded by
+latch-hooks is now and then found in borders of Shiraz rugs, and
+indicates how great a concession their weavers at times make to nomadic
+influences.
+
+The main stripe of Sehnas is always narrow and contains some floral
+form, though frequently much conventionalised. One of these stripes is
+shown in Plate E, Fig. 21.
+
+Very few Persian rugs have such wealth of floral ornamentation in the
+borders as the Sarouks and Kashans. A stripe typical of the former is
+represented in Plate E, Fig. 22.
+
+
+_Secondary and Tertiary Stripes._—The ornamentation of a large
+proportion of secondary stripes of Persian rugs consists of running
+vines, which fall within two divisions, according to the absence or
+presence of pendants.
+
+Plate F, Fig. 1 (opp. Page 158), taken from an inner stripe of a
+Kermanshah, shows one of the simplest vines with budding tendrils at
+each flexure.
+
+In Plate F, Fig. 2, is a simple stripe seen in such rugs as Gorevans.
+Similar stripes are very common. As there is no pendant, the character
+of the vine depends upon the form it assumes in alternating flexures,
+one of which in this instance is an eight-petalled star.
+
+[Illustration: PLATE F. SECONDARY BORDER-STRIPES OF PERSIAN RUGS]
+
+In many of the Karadaghs is seen the Caucasian stripe (Plate F, Fig.
+3) consisting of an angular vine, from each flexure of which spring
+small designs like three-leaf clover.
+
+Another type peculiar to some rugs of Northwestern Persia, as the Bijars
+and even Sehnas, is shown in Plate F, Fig. 4. Here one flexure is a
+serrated leaf, and the other is a small rosette with short curving
+tendrils.
+
+A simple vine of somewhat similar order appears in Plate F, Fig. 5. At
+each flexure is a flower of four petals, and from alternating flexures
+spring tendrils of colour different from that of the vine. Stripes of
+similar drawing appeared in Persian carpets as early as 1350 A. D. A
+further stage in the development of the same pattern is illustrated in
+Plate F, Fig. 6.
+
+One of the simplest forms of a vine with pendant is shown in Plate F,
+Fig. 7. It appears in Asia Minor carpets woven during the XIII Century,
+and also in some of the earliest Iranian carpets. Now and then it is
+seen in modern Persian rugs.
+
+A very common form of a vine with pendant is shown in Plate F, Fig. 8.
+This pattern is seen in a large number of Persian rugs, such as Mosuls,
+Bijars, Kurdistans, and Hamadans. Each flexure of the vine is enlarged
+to almost the form of a leaf, and between them is a branching pendant.
+
+In another stripe (Plate F, Fig. 9), taken from a Feraghan, there is no
+particular enlargement to the vine, and the alternating pendants are
+buds and flowers of four petals.
+
+A more geometric form that appears in such rugs as Muskabads is shown in
+Plate F, Fig. 10. In this the vine represents serrated leaves, and
+suggests one of the Shirvan patterns.
+
+A very similar stripe (Plate F, Fig. 11), taken from a Sehna, should be
+compared with those of Figs. 8 and 10, as it serves to illustrate the
+evolution of vine patterns. In fact, if a very large number of stripes
+were arranged in proper order, they would show almost imperceptible
+gradations from one type to another.
+
+One of the simplest vines with pendant, adopted by the Kurdish tribes,
+is shown in Plate F, Fig. 12; and in Fig. 13 is another vine with
+pendent pear alternating with a rosette.
+
+Not all the patterns, however, are vines. In Plate F, Figs. 14 and 15,
+for instance, is represented the same secondary stripe as it appears at
+the sides and the ends of some moderately old Persian rugs. The former
+pattern bears a resemblance to the one in Fig. 5, and each illustrates a
+series of connecting links.
+
+A graceful pattern that is seen in Bijars, Hamadans, and other rugs of
+Northwestern Persia is represented in Plate F, Fig. 16. It was probably
+derived from an old form of leaf and tendril.
+
+The reciprocal trefoil (Plate F, Fig. 17) which is constantly used in a
+tertiary stripe, is probably a degenerate form of an ornate floral
+design. It is more widely used for a border stripe than any other
+pattern, as it is found not only in such Persian rugs as Sarabends,
+Bijars, Sarouks, and Kashans, but in many of the Indian and Beluchistan
+rugs, and in almost all of the Caucasian group. It was commonly used in
+Persian rugs as early as the year 1500.
+
+In many of the rugs of Persia and Asia Minor is seen as a tertiary
+stripe the simple ribbon pattern (Plate F, Fig. 18). Its origin is lost
+in the dim past, and it is not improbable that once it had a symbolic
+meaning.
+
+A very interesting tertiary stripe, because of its well-authenticated
+age, contains the "Y" pattern shown in Plate F, Fig. 19. It is found in
+some Persian carpets that were woven as early as 1550.
+
+One of the simplest guard stripes, shown in Plate F, Fig. 20, is
+frequently found in modern Persian rugs, as well as in Iranian carpets
+woven six centuries ago.
+
+[Illustration: COLOUR PLATE VI. PERSIAN GARDEN CARPET
+
+This carpet and the one at the Naesby House, Sweden, which it resembles
+in pattern but not in colouring, are, so far as known, the only complete
+carpets of this type. The Naesby carpet has been assigned to the middle
+of the XVIII. Century; this is undoubtedly much older.
+
+A 16TH CENTURY PERSIAN ROYAL "GARDEN" CARPET (Reputed to have been made
+for Shah 'Abb[=a]s for Safavi Palace.) Date 1587-1628.
+
+31 ft. 0 in. x 12 ft. 3 in.
+
+[_Statement of the owner_]
+
+ORIGINALLY IMPORTED BY VINCENT ROBINSON & CO., LTD., LONDON.]
+
+The pattern represents a Persian garden divided into four sections by
+two intersecting streams, which are bordered by rows of cypress trees,
+alternating with bushes on which are birds. These sections are similarly
+divided by smaller streams, that meet at the four pavilions of each
+side, into plots containing trees and flowering bushes. Four peacocks
+rest above the central basin. The colours are harmonious, and show the
+mellowing influence of time.
+
+
+TECHNICALITIES IN THE WEAVE OF PERSIAN RUGS
+
+ Legend:
+
+ KNOT—
+ H = Horizontally
+ P = Perpendicularly
+ WARP—
+ s = silk
+ l = linen
+ e = each equally prominent
+ d = 1 to the knot depressed
+ h = 1 to the knot doubled under
+ WEFT—
+ s = silk
+ l = linen
+ No. = No. times crossing bet. two round knots
+ SIDES—
+ O = overcast
+ S = selvage
+ LOWER END
+ W = web
+ S = Selvage
+ K = Rows knots
+ L = warp loops
+ F = fringe
+ UPPER END
+ W = web
+ S = selvage
+ K = Rows knots
+ T = turned back and hemmed
+ F = fringe
+
+ +------------+----------------------------+------------------------------+
+ | | KNOT | WARP |
+ | +---------+------+-----------+-----+-------+----+-----------+
+ | PERSIAN | | | Number to | | | | At back |
+ | | | | Inches | | | | |
+ | | G = | S = +-----+-----+ w =| c = | +---+---+---+
+ | | Ghiordes| Sehna| H | P | wool| cotton| s/l| e | d | h |
+ |------------+---------+------+-----+-----+-----+-------+----+---+---+---+
+ |Bijar | G | | 6-10| 8-12| w | | | | | h |
+ |Feraghan | [G] | S | 8-13| 7-18| | c | | e | | |
+ |Gorevan | G | | 6-8 | 6-10| | c | |[e]| d | |
+ |Hamadan | G | | 6-9 | 8-12| | c | | e | | |
+ |Herat | G | [S] | 8-11| 6-12| [w] | c | | |[d]| h |
+ |Herez | G | | 5-10| 6-12| | c | |[e]| d | |
+ |Iran | G | | 6-11| 7-11| | c | | e | | |
+ |Mod. Ispahan| G | | 6-9 | 8-11| w | c | | e | | |
+ |Joshaghan | G | | 7-11| 8-13| [w] | c | | e | | d |
+ |Kashan | | S |16-20|16-24| | c |[l] | | | h |
+ |Karadagh | G | | 7-11| 7-11| w | | | e | | |
+ |Karaje | G | | 6-11| 7-12| w | [c] | | e | | |
+ |Kermanshah | | S |12-18|11-18| | c | | | | h |
+ |Khorassan | | S | 8-13|12-20| | c | | | | h |
+ |Kirman | | S |11-20|11-20| | c | | | | h |
+ +------------+---------+------+-----+-----+-----+-------+----+---+---+---+
+
+ +------------+------------------------+-------+-----------------+
+ | | WEFT | SIDES | LOWER END |
+ | +-----+-------+----+-----+---+---+-----+---+---+---+
+ | PERSIAN | | | | | | | | | | |
+ | | w = | c = | | | | | | | | |
+ | |wool | cotton| s/l| P | O | S | W/S | K | L | F |
+ +------------+-----+-------+----+-----+---+---+-----+---+---+---+
+ |Bijar | w | | | 2 | O | | W | | | |
+ | | | | | | | | [S] | | | |
+ |Feraghan | | c | | 2 | O | | W | | | |
+ |Gorevan | | c | | 1-2 | | S | | | | F |
+ |Hamadan |[w] | c | | 1 | O | | W | | L | |
+ |Herat | w | [c] | | 2 | O | | W | | L | |
+ | | | | |[3-4]| | | | | | |
+ |Herez |[w] | c | | 2 | | S | W | | | F |
+ |Iran | | c | |2/[1]| O | | W | | | |
+ |Mod. Ispahan| w | c | | 1-2 | O | | W | | | |
+ |Joshaghan | w | | | 2 | O | | W | | | F |
+ |Kashan | | c |[l] | 2 | O | | W | | | |
+ |Karadagh | w | | | 2 | | S | W | | | F |
+ |Karaje | w | [c] | | 1 | O | | W | | L | |
+ |Kermanshah | | c | | 2 | O | | W | |[L]| F |
+ |Khorassan |[w] | c | | 2 | O | | W | | | F |
+ | | | | |[6-8]| | | | | | |
+ |Kirman | w | [c] | | 2 | O | | W | | | F |
+ +------------+-----+-------+----+-----+---+---+-----+---+-------+
+
+
+ +------------+-----------------+-----------+-----------+----------+
+ | | UPPER END | NAP | WEAVE | TEXTURE |
+ | +-----+---+---+---+-----------+-----------+----------+
+ | PERSIAN | | | | |l = long |f = fine |l = loose |
+ | | | | | |m = medium |m = medium |m = medium|
+ | | W/S | K | T | F |s = short |c = coarse |f = firm |
+ +------------+-----+---+---+---+-----------+-----------+----------+
+ |Bijar | W | | | F | m | m | f |
+ | | [S] | | | | | | |
+ |Feraghan | W | | | F | s | m | m |
+ |Gorevan | | | | F | m | c | l |
+ |Hamadan | W | | T | | m/s | m | f |
+ |Herat | W | | | F | m | c | f |
+ |Herez | | | | F | m | c | l |
+ |Iran | W | | | F | m | c | l |
+ |Mod. Ispahan| W |[K]|[T]| F | m/s | m | f |
+ |Joshaghan | W | | | F | m | f | m |
+ |Kashan | W | | | F | s | f | f |
+ |Karadagh | W | | | F | m | m/c | m/f |
+ |Karaje | W | | | F | m/l | c | l |
+ |Kermanshah | W | | | F | m | c | f |
+ |Khorassan | W | | | F | m | m/f | m/f |
+ |Kirman | W | | | F | s | f | f |
+ +------------+-----+---+---+---+-----------+-----------+----------+
+
+
+
+ +------------+----------------------------+------------------------------+
+ | | KNOT | WARP |
+ | +---------+------+-----------+-----+-------+----+-----------+
+ | PERSIAN | | | Number to | | | | At back |
+ | | | | Inches | | | | |
+ | | G = | S = +-----------+ w = | c = | |---+---+---+
+ | | Ghiordes| Sehna| H | P | wool| cotton| g/l| e | d | h |
+ +------------+---------+------+-----+-----+-----+-------+----+---+---+---+
+ |Persian | | | | | | | | | | |
+ | Kurdistan | G | | 5-9 | 6-13| w | | | e | d | |
+ |Western | | | | | | | | | | |
+ | Kurdistan | G | | 4-7 | 6-9 | w | | | e | | |
+ |Mahal | G | S | 7-12| 6-12| | c | | e | d | |
+ |Meshed | [G] | S | 8-15|12-17| [w] | c | | | | h |
+ |Mosul | G | | 5-7 | 7-9 | w | [c] | | e | | |
+ |Muskabad | G | S | 6-11| 6-11| | c | | | d |[h]|
+ |Niris | G | | 6-11| 7-15| w | | | | d |[h]|
+ |Sarabend | | S | 8-13| 9-13| | c | | e | | h |
+ |Sarouk | | S |12-18|12-20| | c |[l] | |[d]| h |
+ |Sehna | G | S |11-20|12-24| | c |[l] | e | | |
+ |Serapi | [G] | S | 6-10| 7-12| | c | | | d |[h]|
+ |Shiraz | [G] | S | 7-12| 8-12| w | |[g] | e |[d]| |
+ |Suj-Bulak | G | | 7-10| 8-12| w | | | e |[d]| |
+ |Tabriz | G | |12-20|10-22| | c |[l] | | | h |
+ +------------+---------+------+-----+-----+-----+-------+----+---+---+---+
+
+ +------------+------------------------+-------+-----------------+
+ | | WEFT | SIDES | LOWER END |
+ | +-----+-------+----+-----+---+---+-----+---+---+---+
+ | PERSIAN | | | | | | | | | | |
+ | | w = | c = | | | | | | | | |
+ | |wool | cotton| s/l| No. | O | S | W/S | K | L | F |
+ +------------+-----+-------+----+-----+---+---+-----+---+---+---+
+ |Persian | | | | | | | | | | |
+ | Kurdistan | w | | | 2 | O | | W | | L | |
+ |Western | | | | | | | | | | |
+ | Kurdistan | w | | | 2 | O | | W |[K]|[L]| |
+ |Mahal | | c | | 2 | O | | W | | | F |
+ |Meshed | w | c | | 2 | O | | W | | | F |
+ |Mosul | w | [c] | |2/[1]| O |[S]| W | | | |
+ |Muskabad | | c | | 2 | O | | W | | | F |
+ |Niris | w | | | 2 | O | | W | K | | F |
+ |Sarabend | | c | | 2 | O | | [W] | | | F |
+ |Sarouk | | c | | 2 | O | | W | | | F |
+ |Sehna | | c | | 1 | O | | [W] | | | F |
+ |Serapi | | c | | 2 | | S | W | | L |[F]|
+ |Shiraz | w | | | 2 | O | | W | | L | |
+ |Suj-Bulak | w | | | 2 | | S | W | | | F |
+ |Tabriz |[w] | c |[l] | 2 | | S | W | | | F |
+ +------------+-----+-------+----+-----+---+---+-----+---+---+---+
+
+
+ +------------+-----------------+-----------+-----------+----------+
+ | | UPPER END | NAP | WEAVE | TEXTURE |
+ | +-----+---+---+---+-----------+-----------+----------+
+ | PERSIAN | | | | |l = long |f = fine |l = loose |
+ | | | | | |m = medium |m = medium |m = medium|
+ | | W/S | K | T | F |s = short |c = coarse |f = firm |
+ +------------+-----+---+---+---+-----------+-----------+----------+
+ |Persian | | | | | | | |
+ | Kurdistan | W | | | F | l | c | f |
+ |Western | | | | | | | |
+ | Kurdistan | W |[K]| T | F | l | c | f |
+ |Mahal | [W] | | | F | m | c | m/f |
+ |Meshed | W | | | F | m | m | m/f |
+ |Mosul |W/[S]| |[T]| F | m | c | m/f |
+ |Muskabad | [W] | | | F | m | c | m/f |
+ |Niris | W | K | | F | m | m | l |
+ |Sarabend | W | | | F | m/s | m/f | f |
+ |Sarouk | W | | | F | s | f | f |
+ |Sehna | W | | | F | s | m | m |
+ |Serapi | W | | | F | m | c | f |
+ |Shiraz | W | | | F | m | m | l |
+ |Suj-Bulak | W | |[T]| F | m | m/c | m/l |
+ |Tabriz | W | | | F | s | f | f |
+ +------------+-----+---+---+---+-----------+-----------+----------+
+
+ [] indicates the less frequent condition.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER X
+
+ASIA MINOR RUGS
+
+
+ALL rugs that are woven in the Turkish provinces of Asia are frequently
+grouped together and called "Turkish" rugs; but a more natural
+classification is to distinguish between those made to the east and
+those made to the west of a line drawn from the Gulf of Iskenderoon to
+Trebizond, deflecting slightly in its course so as to follow the ridges
+that divide the watershed of the western forks of the Euphrates river
+from the plateau of Anatolia. With the exception of the very few pieces
+that come from Syria or other southerly districts, those woven in the
+Turkish provinces east of this line show such a relationship to those of
+Persia that they are more properly classed with them; while on the other
+hand, with the exception of the rugs of the wandering Yuruks, those
+woven to the west of this line and in the neighbouring islands of the
+Mediterranean conform so closely to a common type that they fall
+naturally into a separate group. It is better, therefore, to treat them
+separately and to call them the Asia Minor Rugs.
+
+Though a certain glamour attaches to all that comes from Persia, the
+Indes, or Far Cathay, in no part of the Orient are rugs woven on more
+classic ground than are the Asia Minor pieces. They are still made in
+the shadow of the walls where Croesus lived and among villages where
+Homer trod. Their yarn is spun with crude distaff by the shepherd who
+still drives his flock along the same road where Artaxerxes marched,
+across the bridges that Roman legions built, and over the green slopes
+of Mt. Ida. In fact the names of some of them call to mind pictures of
+the Crusades, the journey of Paul, the march of Alexander's conquering
+army, and of cities founded before the beginning of history.
+
+When analysing the rugs of Asia Minor, it is necessary to make a
+distinction that has been previously noticed in the case of Persian
+rugs, though with them it is less important. From the time when there
+arose a large demand in the markets of Europe and America for the rugs
+of the East the natural supply decreased, and, as a consequence, the
+price of those that remained increased. To meet this deficiency, and
+because of the higher prices, there was established a system by which
+large numbers of women and children were constantly employed; although
+many worked in their own homes, using such material as was furnished by
+their employers and receiving fixed daily wages. In the western and
+southern parts of Asia Minor, which are connected by railroads with
+seaports, are a number of communities where this system is in vogue. One
+of these is at Demirdji in the province of Smyrna, where there are a
+small number of looms; others are in the districts of Ghiordes and
+Kulah, which together have about one thousand looms; and Oushak, the
+principal rug-weaving centre of Asia Minor, has as many more.[28] Almost
+all rugs produced at such places are now shipped to Smyrna, which itself
+has but very few looms, or to Constantinople, whence they are reshipped
+to Western markets. These products lack much of the oldtime artistic
+spirit and individuality of character, on account of the dependence of
+the weavers on their employers, who demand the largest output consistent
+with fair quality. Furthermore, the weavers are frequently required to
+reproduce Western patterns. The result is that most of these rugs
+possess little of the firmness of texture, the harmonious relations of
+designs, and the excellent colour of old fabrics. Since, then, they
+represent in a measure European influences, and are subject to further
+changes to meet the demands of a fluctuating foreign taste, it would be
+of little use to describe them, especially as all their original
+characteristics exist in the old pieces.
+
+The striking features of Asia Minor rugs woven over fifty years ago are
+the colour schemes, main patterns, and the separate designs, which may
+be either independent of the pattern or constitute part of it. The
+colour effect of Asia Minor rugs is as a rule brighter than that of the
+Central Asian, Indian, or Persian groups; for the reds, blues, and
+yellows are less subdued. Some of their tones never appear in Chinese
+rugs, and on the whole they most closely resemble those of the Caucasian
+pieces; yet it is not unusual to see such colours as mauve, lavender,
+and canary yellow, that rarely appear even among these. Moreover, in a
+few of them masses of strongly contrasting colours are placed beside
+one another without the customary shading of Persian rugs or the
+artificial device of Caucasian latch-hooks to soften the effect of harsh
+combinations.
+
+[Illustration: MAP OF ASIA MINOR]
+
+The difference, nevertheless, between the Asia Minor rugs and those of
+other groups is less apparent in the colour schemes than in the main
+patterns, for in the Asia Minor rugs is evidence of an independent
+inspiration and development. There are lacking the rigid octagonal
+figures of the Central Asian groups; the frets and floral sprays
+distinctive of Chinese; the naturalistic floral treatment of the Indian;
+the delicate tracings, rhythm of movement, and wealth of foliage motives
+that characterise the Persian; as well as the severely geometric forms
+and conventionalised motives of the Caucasian. Instead of gracefully
+flowing lines we find strong rectangular ones; instead of flowers
+realistically balanced on interlacing, foliate stalks, they are arranged
+separately in formal rows. But if their patterns lack the fertility of
+invention or the refinement of Persian and Indian pieces, they excel
+them in the strength of their clear definition, accentuated by massing
+of colour. It is, however, in the prayer patterns, which appear in the
+majority of Asia Minor rugs, that the weavers attain their best results;
+for in such work they have the inspiration of a high religious as well
+as artistic spirit. In these patterns, which differ from those of any
+other group of rugs, is often manifest singular beauty and grace, as
+well as delicate sentiment derived from worship in Moslem chapels; for
+in many is represented the burning lamp that, projected against a
+background of sacred green, hangs from the column-supported arch, above
+which is spread a spandrel of blue typifying the vaulted heavens.
+
+Likewise many of the small designs that are found in other groups of
+rugs are rarely, if ever, seen in this one; as, for instance, animals,
+birds, fishes, and human beings are never employed, on account of the
+religious prejudice of the Sunnite Mohammedans, who prevail in the
+country. Nor, with very few exceptions, is the Herati design, so
+characteristic of Persian rugs, nor the pear design, so characteristic
+of both Persian and Indian rugs, ever seen. Furthermore, the reciprocal
+trefoil, that is used as a motive for a small border stripe in all
+Caucasian and many Persian rugs, is very rarely found in Asia. Minor
+pieces woven during the last two centuries, though it appears in some of
+an earlier era. But in its place are the water motive and ribbon, which
+are less frequently employed by the weavers of any other country. There
+are also many small floral motives that appear only in Asia Minor rugs,
+and that will be noticed in connection with the separate classes.
+
+These characteristics of colour, pattern, and design are not the result
+of a spontaneous growth unalloyed by foreign influences; for a natural
+art never existed in Asia Minor, which has never enjoyed a national
+existence; but they are the results of artistic movements that at
+different times have swept over that country. Thus, as an heirloom of
+dynasties that once flourished farther east, are the Cufic characters
+that appear in some of the early border patterns; and as a relic of the
+Mongol and Timurid invasions are the dragon and other designs found in
+the oldest pieces. In Oushaks, as well as others, are seen the evidences
+of Persian treatment; while the drawing and colour schemes of the prayer
+rugs forcibly suggest Saracenic, Grecian, and Christian ideas. In fact,
+the rugs of Asia Minor, while possessing co-ordination of colour and
+design, are in a measure composite. They never reach the high artistic
+development of Persian rugs, because the latter were produced under the
+fostering care of great kings whose royal magnificence could secure from
+years of patient labour suitable furnishings for palaces and mosques;
+yet they are none the less interesting subjects for speculation and
+study.
+
+
+BERGAMOS.—In the valley of the Caïcus and twenty miles from the Ægean
+Sea is the city of Pergamus, that gives its name to the Bergamo rugs. It
+is of unknown antiquity, and may have stood when Agamemnon was warring
+with the house of Priam before the walls of that other city of the same
+name. In turn, Persians, Macedonians, Thracians, Syrians, and Romans had
+taken possession of it before the Apostle Paul founded there one of the
+seven churches of Asia. Greek sculptors chiselled its monuments,
+philosophers taught beneath the shade of its trees, and scholars
+gathered there the library that rivalled that of Alexandria. Partly
+encircled by mountains and enclosed by the wall of this old city, that
+was wellnigh destroyed during the Turkish wars, is the modern city of
+some fifteen thousand inhabitants. It is to-day one of the flourishing
+cities of the Levant, yet only in the surrounding ruins is there any
+reminder of its former greatness and splendour. But in these crumbling
+relics of the past and in the excellence of its woven fabrics of more
+recent times are traces of the artistic spirit that once prevailed
+there.
+
+[Illustration: PLATE 37. ANATOLIAN PRAYER RUG]
+
+It is still possible to obtain many good specimens of Bergamos
+representing the craftsmanship of fifty or more years ago, when aniline
+dyes and European patterns were unknown east of the Hellespont. Almost
+without exception they are sterling fabrics that glory in a wealth of
+colour accentuated by depth of pile and sheen of soft lustrous wool. An
+observer is at once impressed by the tones of deep blue and madder red
+that a few lines or patches of ivory white bring out more clearly, and
+forms a favourable estimate of the value of these pieces independently
+of the drawing, which seems subservient to the part of giving spirit and
+quality to the colour scheme. In fact, it is to the genius of the dyer
+who applies his knowledge to the tinting of carefully selected wool, and
+to the pains of the weaver in constructing the foundation of warp and
+weft rather than to his skill in arranging artistic designs, that these
+pieces command as high a price as old Kirmans of similar age.
+
+In two particulars Bergamos differ from most Asia Minor rugs: in shape
+they are nearly square, and prayer rugs are the exception rather than
+the rule. Nor do all the prayer rugs follow the same general pattern, as
+is usually the case with other classes. They may have low tent-shaped
+arches like those of Daghestans, high triangular arches with stepped
+sides and a panel above the spandrels as in the Kir-Shehrs, or they may
+have shapes unlike those of any other class. Moreover, the pieces not
+used as prayer rugs also have great diversity of pattern; but as a rule
+some large figure, as a medallion, occupies the centre of the field.
+Very frequently it is of hexagonal shape, with the sides at upper and
+lower ends of the rug serrated or fringed with latch-hooks. As is not
+the case with many of the Persian rugs, the field surrounding the
+medallion is almost always covered with small designs, arranged with
+careful precision so as to show a perfect balance with reference to the
+centre. Eight-pointed stars and other geometric figures are frequently
+used, but there is a leaning to floral designs, which, however, are
+often so conventionalised as almost to lose their identity. Most
+prominent of these is the Rhodian lily and the pomegranate; but the lily
+never shows such graceful drawing or such dainty colouring as in the
+Kulahs, and in some pieces even loses all resemblance to a floral form.
+The pomegranate, which suggests the Ladik, is more frequently seen in
+the main border stripe. Undulating vines do not find favour among the
+Bergamo weavers, and small isolated geometric designs are largely
+employed in the narrow border stripes, while larger, more complex
+figures often replace the floral in the main stripe.
+
+In no other class of rugs are so many and such painstaking devices to
+avert the spell of the evil eye. Should an unexpected visitor surprise
+the weaver while at work, he may be required to part with a bit of his
+frock, which is then attached to the wide web of the end; should a
+similar occurrence of ill omen follow, another bit of different material
+and colour may be sewn upon this; and as a crowning talisman, a button
+may be affixed to both. Small cowrie shells from the Ægean shores are
+often used for such purposes; and now and then may be seen a woollen
+tassel dangling from the centre or from one of the ends of the rug.
+
+_Type Characteristics._ _Colours_, principally red and blue, with minor
+quantities of yellow, white, and green. _Knot_, Ghiordes. Knots to inch
+horizontally five and one half to nine; perpendicularly, seven to
+eleven. The rows of knots are pressed down, so that the warp is
+concealed at back. _Warp_, wool; each of the two threads encircled by a
+knot is equally prominent at back. _Weft_, wool of fine diameter, dyed
+red. A thread of weft crosses from two to six times between every two
+rows of knots. _Pile_, wool; generally of medium length but frequently
+long. _Border_, from one to four stripes; most frequently of three.
+_Sides_, a weft selvage of two, three, or four cords, coloured red or
+blue, with occasionally some green or yellow. _Both ends_, a web, that
+is sometimes six or seven inches wide, coloured red and crossed by broad
+longitudinal stripes, which are generally blue, but may be black, white,
+brown, or yellow. Some device to avert the evil eye is frequently
+attached to the webs. Beyond the web is a tasselled warp fringe.
+_Texture_, moderately firm. _Weave_ at back is of fine grain. _Usual
+length_, three to seven feet. _Usual width_, three quarters to nine
+tenths length.
+
+
+GHIORDES.—Whether, as has been maintained, the town of Ghiordes, that
+lies a day's journey to the east of Pergamus, is on the site of the
+ancient Gordion where tradition says the father of Midas dedicated his
+chariot to Jupiter, and Alexander severed the bark which bound the pole
+to the yoke, it claims attention from the fact that the rugs woven there
+one and two centuries ago not only excelled similar products in all
+other parts of Asia Minor, but equalled the best fabrics woven in Persia
+during the same period. Indeed, a few connoisseurs would rank them still
+higher; yet with reference to technique of weave and delicacy of
+colour and drawing, very few should be classed with those woven in the
+previous century by the protégés of Tamasp and Shah Abbas.
+
+[Illustration: PLATE 38. MUDJAR PRAYER RUG]
+
+So essentially do the modern rugs of the Ghiordes district differ from
+the old pieces in weave, colour, and pattern, and so great is their
+inferiority, that they have little interest; but fortunately it is still
+possible to purchase pieces from seventy-five to one hundred and fifty
+years of age, and others still older are in the hands of collectors or
+in museums. In determining their age the colours and drawing, as well as
+weave and pattern, are important indices. For instance, the reddish
+tones of the fields of pieces less than a century old have a pinkish or
+even magenta tinge, while in the oldest the red is of rich, deep colour.
+Similarly, in the case of blues, greens, yellows, and even the ivories
+that rarely occupy the field, a riper and richer colour marks the
+greater age. Likewise with the drawing, greater painstaking and higher
+artistic skill are apparent in the older rugs; though in some of the
+oldest the designs are less ornate than in those of a subsequent period.
+This is also true of the patterns as a whole; since the best types are
+found in rugs that are probably from one hundred and fifty to two
+hundred and fifty years old, whereas in the extremely old pieces there
+is an approach to archaic forms.
+
+The difference between the odjaliks and namazliks, which are the kinds
+most frequently seen, is most noticeable. The colours, to be sure, are
+much the same, though as a rule lighter and duller tones predominate in
+the odjaliks. Their borders show a greater tendency to use geometric
+figures, some of which are profusely fringed with latch-hooks suggestive
+of Caucasian influences. They also contain archaic designs believed to
+be associated with sun worship, as well as many floral forms common to
+the prayer rugs. It is, however, in the fields that the distinction is
+most noticeable; since the large masses of uniform colour that make the
+namazliks so effective are wanting, and instead are frequently seen
+hexagonal-shaped medallions that are fringed with large rounded
+latch-hooks and contain a lozenge or other geometric design in the
+centre. At both ends of the fields are sometimes narrow panels
+containing quasi-floral forms, and stiff conventions occupy the
+intervening corner spaces.
+
+In striking contrast to these odjaliks are the old Ghiordes prayer rugs,
+with the rich tones of solid colour in the fields and the delicate
+drawing of the borders. No doubt they were made with unusual care, since
+they were intended for religious purposes. The pattern represents an
+entrance into a mosque; and it is not improbable that some of the
+earliest rugs were copied directly from archways, many of which still
+exist in Mohammedan countries.[29] Near the base of all Ghiordes arches,
+at each side, is a shoulder, which in old pieces was supported by a
+single pilaster or a pair. Sometimes these were ornamented with scroll
+work or floral forms, but finally many of them degenerated into floral
+devices that bore slight resemblance to columns, and in other rugs they
+have entirely disappeared. In some very old pieces the shoulders and the
+mihrab were rounded, but as a rule the shoulders are flattened at a very
+obtuse angle; and the mihrab is either plain or has stepped sides that
+culminate in a blunted apex. To further suggest the sacred purposes of
+the rug a lamp is often suspended from the niche, though floral forms
+may take its place, and not infrequently these too are wanting. Almost
+without exception some reminder of the tree of life, such as the small
+floral sprig or the Rhodian lily, is projected from the inner side of
+the arch and from all sides of the border against the field. In the
+spandrel, also, is almost invariably some floral or leaf form; though
+these may be very much conventionalised or even supplanted by geometric
+figures. Above the spandrel is a panel, which may contain some floral
+form, scroll device, or verse from the Koran; and another panel, though
+generally with different design, is almost invariably placed beneath the
+field. A scroll resembling a large S (Plate O, Fig. 9, Page 291)
+frequently appears in these panels. Its resemblance to forms found in
+Armenian dragon carpets of earlier centuries is very noticeable.
+
+The border surrounding the field is as characteristic of this class as
+is the prayer arch. There are invariably a number of stripes, which
+generally consist of a wide central one, two secondary, and two or more
+small guard stripes. The drawing is distinctly floral, yet is widely
+different from the Persian. A design (Plate G, Fig. 1, opp. Page 192)
+frequently seen in the central stripe represents a large palmette or
+rosette partly surrounded by leaves, suggestive of the Herati
+design, and connected by tendrils with more delicate flowers or leaves.
+But the more usual design (Plate G, Fig. 3) consists of flowers and
+fruits that are arranged in quadrangular shape, so that the alternate
+units face in different directions as they extend around the border.
+Though it is far from naturalistic, its delicate lace-like drawing with
+clear definition and its tones in harmony with the central field,
+contribute largely to the beauty of the rug. The secondary stripes have
+generally repetitive leaf forms; and running through the guard stripes
+is a simple vine, ribbon, or wave design. Occasionally, however, the
+typical Ghiordes border is replaced by one borrowed from the near
+district of Kulah, and instead of the broad central stripe are several
+narrow parallel stripes studded by perpendicular rows of small floral
+figures (Plate G, Fig. 12). An unusual feature of these rugs is the
+linen nap which is sometimes used in the field instead of wool, for the
+reason that it retains its colour while wool darkens with age; and
+another is the silken fringe which is often seen at the corners of fine
+specimens. The nap is always short, and the rugs are closely woven.
+
+_Type Characteristics._ _Colours_, principally red, blue, yellow, and
+white. _Knot_, Ghiordes. Knots to inch horizontally seven to twelve;
+perpendicularly, eight to sixteen. The rows of knots are pressed down,
+so that the warp is concealed and the weft is partly hidden at back.
+_Warp_, wool or cotton and in a few pieces raw silk. One of the two
+threads encircled by a knot is usually slightly depressed below the
+other at the back. _Weft_, wool or cotton. A thread of weft crosses
+twice between every two rows of knots. _Pile_, wool, and occasionally
+some cotton, clipped very short so as to be harsh to the touch.
+_Border_, six to nine stripes. _Sides_, a weft selvage of two or three
+cords, or only infrequently an added selvage of silk. _Both ends_, a
+narrow web and warp fringe. A few pieces have an added silk fringe at
+the corners. _Texture_, firm. _Weave_ at back is of very fine grain, but
+slightly rough. _Usual length_, five to seven feet. _Usual width_, two
+thirds to three quarters length.
+
+
+KULAHS.—About fifty miles from Ghiordes, in a southeasterly direction,
+is the Turkish village of Kulah. Both places are surrounded by the same
+general character of hills and plains, and for the last several
+centuries the people of each have been subject to the same influences of
+race and religion. They have undoubtedly visited, intermarried, and
+become familiar with the arts and crafts of one another. It is not,
+therefore, surprising that some of their rugs should have similar
+technique of weave, and that a few resemble one another in general
+pattern and small designs. Moreover, such a close correspondence exists
+between many of the old rugs of both districts, that even the most
+experienced are sometimes at a loss to distinguish between them. In fact
+it is surprising that there is so marked a distinction between most of
+them. In the Kulahs the border designs are not so elaborately drawn, nor
+are the prayer arches so high. They have rarely the fringe that adorns
+the corners of some Ghiordes rugs, or more than one panel. The field
+usually contains floral figures, arranged in formal order; the spandrel
+is almost always extended in two narrow stripes, one at each side of the
+field; and the colours are always subdued. These and other
+characteristics of each class make it possible to distinguish between
+most of them.
+
+As is the case with Ghiordes rugs, sedjadehs are almost unknown; but it
+is not unusual to see odjaliks. These resemble prayer rugs in the
+following respects: the borders are almost identical; the central fields
+contain the same floral figures resting on a similarly coloured ground;
+both ends of the hexagonal-shaped field resemble a mihrab; and the space
+between the field and border is covered with designs peculiar to the
+spandrels of the prayer rugs.
+
+On account of their artistic drawing and soft colours the prayer rugs
+are favourite pieces with all collectors. It is true that the arch is
+flatter than that of any other rug of this group, and is defined either
+by plain sloping lines, or more frequently by stepped edges, so that it
+lacks the classic beauty of the Ghiordes type; but on the other hand the
+Rhodian lily and other floral forms characteristic of these pieces are
+delineated with a realism and graceful delicacy that are unequalled in
+any other Asia Minor rugs. Arranged on slender sprays along each side of
+the field, hanging as long clusters from the niche in place of a lamp,
+or placed on the panel in formal rows, they accentuate with their bright
+tones the subdued richness of the ground colours. Sometimes, however,
+these simple field designs are replaced by more formal drawings that
+represent a plat of land with a tomb shaded by a tall cypress and other
+trees with many leafy branches. Rugs with these designs are not uncommon
+in Germany, whither large quantities of Asia Minor prayer rugs were
+shipped many years ago, and where they are known as "Friedhofteppiche,"
+or "Grave Rugs,"
+
+[Illustration: PLATE 39. DAGHESTAN PRAYER RUG]
+
+The most pleasing features are in the fields, but the most
+distinguishing features are in the borders, which are invariably of
+several stripes. Instead of the large central stripe with floral and
+repetitive designs common to most rugs is a series of parallel bands,
+from five to ten in number and about an inch in width, that contain rows
+of minute floral forms. These narrow bands are a distinguishing feature
+of the Kulahs, though they have occasionally been copied by the Ghiordes
+weavers. Nevertheless, they are sometimes replaced by the broad stripe
+containing rows of geometric-shaped designs, as in Plate G, Fig. 13
+(opp. Page 192), which also are peculiar to these rugs. Strange as it
+may seem, these designs have doubtless been derived from leaf forms by
+successive degradation, as will be seen by comparing Figs. 13-a, 13-b,
+13-c, and 13-d of Plate O (Page 291). There is still another border design
+that is so constantly found in the secondary stripe of these pieces and
+so rarely in any others that it might well be designated the "Kulah
+stripe" (Plate H, Fig. 10, opp. Page 194). The design consists of a
+repetitive figure suggestive of some Chinese device, but is in reality a
+degraded form of a vine, as will be seen by observing some of the very
+old border stripes. Between the inner secondary stripe and the field is
+usually a narrow stripe containing a continuous ribbon design, or a
+simple vine-like form, as in Plate F, Fig. 18 (opp. Page 158). Often a
+part of each succeeding undulation of the vine has been omitted and the
+remaining parts have been compressed, so as to leave small detached
+figures like a row of "f's," as in Plate H, Fig. 2. It is not unusual to
+see both vine and detached figures in the same rug.
+
+Diversity prevails in the colours of field, spandrel, panel, and
+borders. In the field is generally a mellowed red, or a yellow tint that
+is described both as golden brown and apricot; blue also is occasionally
+seen, and white is very rare. But whatever the colour of the field, that
+of the spandrel is generally a light blue, indicative of the sky, and
+the overlying panel is frequently a dark blue. Green and brown often
+appear in the border, as well as a canary yellow peculiar to Asia Minor
+rugs. Moreover, a few of these pieces have a single small area of red or
+blue, that was doubtless inserted to avert the evil eye, since it shows
+no more relation to the surrounding colours than spilt ink might have;
+yet in spite of these contrasts and the fact that the nap lacks the
+lustre peculiar to many other classes, some of them are as beautiful as
+Ghiordes.
+
+Between these old fabrics and the modern, which factory-like are
+produced in large quantities to meet the demands of a Western market
+and taste, is the most noticeable difference, for the latter are
+inferior to the former in patterns, weave, and dyes. Furthermore, with
+the wool of many is mixed mohair, so that rapid deterioration follows
+slight usage.
+
+_Type Characteristics._ _Colours_, principally red, brownish yellow, and
+blue, with minor quantities of green, dark brown, and white. _Knot_,
+Ghiordes, Knots to inch horizontally five to ten; perpendicularly, seven
+to twelve. The rows of knots are not firmly pressed down. _Warp_, wool;
+one of the two threads encircled by a knot is noticeably depressed at
+the back. _Weft_, in most rugs, of wool of medium diameter, sometimes
+dyed yellow. A thread of weft crosses twice between every two rows of
+knots. In other rugs, even very old, the weft consists of a coarse
+thread of jute crossing once between two rows of knots and alternating
+with a small thread of jute and another of wool crossing side by side
+once between the next two rows of knots. _Pile_, wool, of short or
+medium length. _Border_, six to nine stripes. _Sides_, a coloured mixed
+selvage of two, three, or four cords. _Both ends_, a coloured web and
+warp fringe. _Texture_, loose. _Weave_ at back is of moderately coarse
+grain. _Usual length_, five to seven feet. _Usual width_, three fifths
+to three quarters length.
+
+
+OUSHAKS.—Fifty miles eastward from Kulah is the city of Oushak, famous
+during the XV and XVI Centuries for the carpets exported thence to
+Europe to adorn the halls of cathedrals and thrones of monarchs. But
+with the subsequent decadence in Asiatic art its glory ebbed, so that
+half a century ago it was but a small mud-housed city known for the
+excellence of its dyes and the wool which was taken there from the
+interior to be washed, spun, and then sold to the weavers of the
+surrounding country. Since then, however, its population has steadily
+grown, and the weaving industry has thrived, until now it is one of the
+most populous cities of Asia Minor, with looms more numerous than those
+of any other city. The weaving is done entirely by women and girls, most
+of whom are Mohammedans. Though they live principally in private houses,
+they are under the direction of large firms, who furnish the wool as
+well as the patterns, which are in accordance with European and American
+demands.
+
+Important distinctions exist between the different grades of these rugs.
+Some are known as "Turkish Kirmans," in which Persian designs are
+frequently introduced, others are of still finer workmanship, but the
+oldest and coarsest pieces were formerly known as "Yapraks." These are
+distinguishable by their strong colours of red, green, and blue, of
+which only two as a rule are seen in a single rug, and are massed to
+produce striking effects. Their foundation of warp and weft, which are
+dyed in the same colours, is loosely woven and often of an inferior
+grade of wool. Many of them are too large and heavy for domestic use,
+but are well adapted for salons and public halls.
+
+With such slight variations in pattern and none in colour, Oushaks would
+be of little interest were it not that their prototypes were striking
+pieces woven by artisans whom Sultan Solyman the Magnificent brought
+from the northwestern part of Persia, when he conquered it in the XVI
+Century. Some of them appear in the paintings of old masters, and when
+contrasted with the modern fabrics indicate how great is the decline in
+the craftsmanship of the weavers. Of the beautiful well-balanced designs
+once represented in the fields, only large stars and diamonds, defined
+by less pleasing lines and placed with less regularity, remain. All of
+the graceful arabesques and dainty floral motives that appeared as
+sub-patterns are omitted. As works of art, the modern products are
+little esteemed; but their durability, depth of pile, and wealth of
+colour make them excellent objects of utility.
+
+_Type Characteristics._ _Colours_, principally red, blue, and green.
+_Knot_, Ghiordes. Knots to inch horizontally four to eight;
+perpendicularly, four to nine. A half knot, as it appears at back, is
+longer than wide. The rows of knots are not closely pressed down.
+_Warp_, wool. Each of the two threads encircled by a knot is equally
+prominent at back, or one is slightly depressed below the other. _Weft_,
+wool of medium diameter and generally dyed red. A thread of weft crosses
+twice between every two rows of knots. _Pile_, wool, clipped long.
+_Border_, usually of three stripes. _Sides_, generally a double
+overcasting, occasionally a selvage. _Both ends_, generally a web
+coloured red and a warp fringe. _Texture_, very loose. _Weave_ at back
+is of moderately coarse grain. _Length_, carpet sizes. _Usual width_,
+two thirds to four fifths length.
+
+
+AK-HISSAR.—Almost seventy-five miles by rail from Smyrna and a short
+distance to the west of Ghiordes is the Turkish town of Ak-Hissar, the
+White Citadel. Even before the building of the railroad rugs were woven
+in this district; and in recent years the work-house system has been
+established, and large quantities, that bear some resemblance to the
+modern products of Kulah and Oushak, have been exported.
+
+
+DEMIRDJI.—Half a century ago the town of Demirdji was almost
+uninhabited; but as a result of the Occidental demand for Oriental rugs
+and the disappearance of old pieces, it has grown to be an important
+manufacturing centre. Many of its weavers learned their trade at the
+historic Ghiordes, which is about twenty-five miles distant; but the
+fabrics are more closely woven and the wool is more carefully selected
+than is the case with the modern Ghiordes.
+
+
+KUTAYAH.—On the main railroad that will eventually connect the Bosphorus
+with the Euphrates is the town of Kutayah. As it is on the edge of the
+Anatolian plateau, wool and goat's hair have been for a long period
+important articles in its trade. Both of them are now used in the local
+manufacture of rugs, which in a measure resemble the products of Oushak.
+
+
+SMYRNA.—The location of Smyrna on a magnificent harbour and its
+connection by rail with all the important rug districts of the interior,
+have made it the principal centre for the export trade in Asia Minor
+rugs. Many of the people are also largely engaged in the industry of
+weaving, but almost all weavers are now in the employ of large companies
+who furnish the materials and patterns. As a result, the Smyrna rugs are
+mere copies of well-known types of other Turkish pieces, or, as is
+generally the case, of stereotyped patterns that have been evolved to
+meet the requirements of European and American tastes. Many of the rugs,
+to be sure, are well woven and serviceable, but they lack individuality
+of character.
+
+
+MELEZ.—About seventy-five miles to the south of Smyrna and twenty from
+the Mediterranean Sea is the town of Melassa, or Melez. It is now little
+known, but was once the market place of an important rug-producing
+district, which included a large part of the classic province of Caria.
+Accordingly, the pieces that came from there were sometimes called
+Carian, but are more generally known as Melez.
+
+[Illustration: PLATE 40. KABISTAN RUG]
+
+On their face they show a close relationship to the Anatolians, and
+also, though in a less degree, to many other Asia Minor rugs; yet as is
+to be expected of the products from one corner of the country, they have
+a distinct individuality in both pattern and colour. Occasionally an old
+piece is seen, in which the border is very narrow and the whole field is
+covered with parallel stripes on which are systematically arranged
+geometric and semi-floral forms; but as a rule the fields are not much
+wider, and often less wide, than each of the adjacent borders. Within
+this central space are frequently arranged prominent designs, which are
+widely different from the designs of any other rugs, and are suggestive
+of Chinese ornament, but were doubtless derived from floral or tree
+forms (Plate O, Fig. 12, Page 291). Moreover, projecting in regular
+order from the alternate sides of the narrow border stripe, next to the
+field, are sometimes seen thumb-like figures, that fit against one
+another like the cogs of a wheel (Plate H, Fig. 15, opp. Page 194). Each
+of these features, though not always present, is peculiar to this class.
+
+Of the several border stripes, the central is generally as wide as the
+remainder and not altogether dissimilar to that of the Ladiks. Very
+frequently it consists of a row of palmettes between which are
+conventionalised leaves and flowers on slender stems; but now and then
+the palmettes are replaced by eight-pointed stars or other geometric
+figures, and the intervening spaces filled with corresponding designs.
+The secondary stripes are of a pronounced Caucasian type; and almost
+invariably in a smaller tertiary stripe is represented a waving line or
+the reciprocal sawtooth.
+
+The prayer rugs are equally characteristic. In typical examples the
+lines defining the mihrab descend from the niche to meet the sides of
+the narrow field at an angle of forty-five degrees, and are then
+deflected towards its centre, to return again to its sides. The
+resulting drawing shows two equilateral triangles on each side of the
+field at the base of the mihrab, which in conjunction with the upper
+sides of the triangles has the appearance of an incomplete diamond. This
+effect, moreover, is frequently accentuated by a perpendicular row of
+diamonds extending from just below the niche to the base of the field.
+The sides of mihrab, field, and central designs are, as a rule, fringed
+with small geometric or conventionalised floral forms; and in the
+spacious spandrel are more realistic floral designs arranged on a
+trellis-like sub-pattern.
+
+This individuality of pattern is accompanied by a less marked yet
+noticeable individuality of colour scheme. As is the case with many
+Bergamos, the principal tone is a dark red, which generally appears in
+the central field, and is also used almost without exception in the
+broad end webs, the side selvages, and the threads of weft. Ivory white
+for the spandrel, some yellow and green for the borders, are common
+colours; but the one that rarely appears in any appreciable quantity in
+other rugs is a characteristic tone of lavender or mauve, which is
+present in almost every old Melez. Not always are these tones pleasing,
+as many of the rugs have been poorly dyed; but there are other pieces,
+now rapidly growing scarce, of which the colours are exceedingly rich
+and harmonious.
+
+_Type Characteristics._ _Colours_, principally red, with minor
+quantities of blue, yellow, white, and some mauve. _Knot_, Ghiordes.
+Knots to inch horizontally five to eight; perpendicularly, six to
+eleven. A half knot, as it appears at back, is as long as wide or
+slightly longer. The rows of knots are not closely pressed down, yet the
+warp does not show at back. _Warp_, wool; each of the two threads
+encircled by a knot is equally prominent at back. _Weft_, wool of small
+diameter, dyed blue or red. A thread of weft generally crosses four
+times between every two rows of knots. _Pile_, wool, of medium length
+and sometimes short. _Border_, wide, from three to seven stripes.
+_Sides_, a selvage of two to four cords, usually coloured red. _Lower
+end_, a red web and loose warp fringe. _Upper end_, a red web, a braided
+selvage, and loose warp fringe. _Texture_, moderately loose. _Weave_ at
+back is of slightly coarse grain. _Usual length_, four and one half to
+six feet. _Usual width_, three fifths to three quarters length.
+
+
+ISBARTA.—In the town of Isbarta in the southern part of the province of
+Konieh are woven rugs which are sometimes known to the trade as
+"Spartas." Like many other pieces made to meet the Western demand, they
+lack spontaneous individuality, but are often of excellent quality and
+coloured in delicate tones, arranged harmoniously.
+
+
+RHODIAN.—Even at a very early period the people of the islands bordering
+the southwestern coast of Asia Minor produced textile fabrics that
+rivalled many of the best products of the mainland. None of them were
+more beautiful or more interesting than those which came from the Island
+of Rhodes, where were blended the vigorous Grecian and the more subtle
+Oriental arts. Here was the inspiration of the sea, cloudless skies,
+luxuriant vegetation. Here was felt the deep influence of the Mohammedan
+and Christian religions, as well as an early pagan mythology; and there
+is little doubt that the cathedral walls and picturesque church of the
+valiant knights of St. John made an impression on the weavers. It is not
+surprising, therefore, that the fabrics should be of deep, rich colour
+full of suggestion, and that the drawing of the long central panels
+should remind one of cathedral windows.
+
+Of the many beautiful rugs formerly woven in Rhodes only a few now
+remain, and these are generally in the hands of collectors. Some are
+odjaliks, some namazliks, some sedjadehs; but all, with the exception of
+a few crude and coarsely woven pieces, have colours and weave that
+bespeak a ripe age, amounting in many instances to one hundred years or
+more. On the field of odjaliks are represented as a rule the usual
+hexagonal figure with two sides at each end forming a triangle; and on
+the fields of the namazliks are prayer arches which, though
+characteristic, never equal the graceful drawing seen in Ghiordes rugs.
+It is the sedjadehs that awaken the greatest interest, as they have some
+striking peculiarities rarely seen in rugs of the mainland.
+
+Their field is divided into two or three panels that extend almost the
+full length of the field, and terminate at one end in flat and often
+serrated arches. The spandrels are small; and placed transversely above
+them is a low panel, that contains designs of mechanically drawn leaves,
+vandykes resembling those of Ladiks, and other figures common to Asia
+Minor rugs. In fact, these pieces at once suggest prayer rugs containing
+two or more prayer arches, but the pattern is generally regarded as a
+representation of cathedral windows. Both colouring and designs give
+force to this idea. In each of the principal panels is a different
+ground colour, as red, blue, or green, which is never gaudy, yet
+exceedingly rich on account of the depth of pile; and in the overlying
+figures there is often a strangely contrasting splendour of brighter
+colouring. Furthermore, one of the most usual of these designs, arranged
+like pole medallions, consists of large eight-pointed stars with
+effulgent rays of brilliant hues. As we look at some of the rare old
+pieces with this pattern, cathedral windows almost appear before us with
+bright sunshine streaming in golden rays through the stained glass and
+brightening the interior with its more sombre tones of "dim religious
+light." Sometimes the pole design is modified so as to suggest a tree
+of life extending from one end of the panel to the other. An equally
+common design represents six very mechanically drawn leaves assembled in
+the form of a medallion (Plate O, Fig. 15, Page 291). Each of these
+leaves has two straight edges meeting at right angles and containing at
+the corner a small rectangular spot; but the remaining sides that form
+the circumference of the medallion are deeply serrated, so as to produce
+much the same effect as the rays of effulgent stars. In the fields are
+also frequently seen latch-hooks, and occasionally checkerboards with
+different colours for separate squares.
+
+Between field and border is a close correspondence in both colours and
+small designs. The latter consist principally of geometric and
+semi-floral forms, as eight-pointed stars, the octagonal disc, and the
+geometric leaf that is typical of Kulah rugs. No other design is more
+prevalent than the last, which may be found in all parts of these rugs.
+Sometimes it is drawn most realistically so as to resemble the flower
+forms so common in spandrels of Kulahs; but again the outlines are most
+conventional with square-like projections at the edges and a bar of
+underlying field of contrasting colour crossing the face diagonally, as
+in the border stripe of Plate G, Fig. 13, (opp. Page 192), which shows
+the foliate origin of the latter.
+
+The name "Makri" is frequently applied to these rugs, since they were
+often bought in the city of that name, which is one of the harbours of
+Southwestern Asia Minor nearest to Rhodes.
+
+_Type Characteristics._ _Colours_, principally red and blue, also
+considerable yellow, green, and white. _Knot_, Ghiordes. Knots to inch
+horizontally five to eight; perpendicularly, seven to nine. The rows of
+knots are not firmly pressed down, so that the warp shows in places at
+back. _Warp_, wool; each of the two threads encircled by a knot is
+equally prominent at back, occasionally one to each knot is slightly
+depressed below the other. _Weft_, wool, of medium diameter, coloured
+red. A thread of warp usually crosses twice between every two rows of
+knots, rarely only once, and sometimes as many as four times. _Pile_,
+wool, clipped long. _Border_, two to three stripes. _Sides_, a double
+selvage of two, three, or four cords, usually coloured red or blue.
+_Lower end_, a web, either red or of several colours, and long warp
+fringe hanging loose or braided. _Upper end_, a web, either red or of
+several colours, beyond which is often a heavy braided selvage; also a
+long warp fringe hanging loose or braided. _Texture_, moderately loose.
+_Weave_ at back is of slightly coarse grain. _Length_, four to seven
+feet. _Width_, three fifths to four fifths length.
+
+[Illustration: PLATE 41. KUBA RUG]
+
+
+BROUSSA.—At the base of Mt. Olympus and distant only twenty-five miles
+from the Sea of Marmora, with which it is connected by rail, is the city
+of Broussa. By reason of this location and its proximity to
+Constantinople, it is an important commercial centre; and on account of
+the excellence of the wool and silk obtained in the surrounding country,
+rugs are woven here for foreign markets. The fabrics are stoutly made
+and compare favourably with those of Smyrna.
+
+
+HEREKE.—In the town of Hereke, on the Sea of Marmora, is a Turkish
+factory, where large numbers of silk rugs are manufactured. Most of the
+silk is obtained in the immediate neighbourhood and from the country
+about Mt. Olympus. As the early weavers were brought from Kirman to
+instruct the artisans of the Sultan, and the patterns have been largely
+copied from old Persian and Asia Minor pieces, it is not surprising that
+many of the fabrics compare favourably with the silk rugs of Persia.
+
+
+KONIEHS.—At the base of Mt. Taurus and overlooking the salt desert of
+Central Asia Minor is the city of Konieh. Within its present walls is
+all that is left of the ancient Iconium that opened its gates to
+Xenophon, Cyrus, and Alexander, but drove forth the Apostle Paul.
+Finally it surrendered to Seljukian conquerors, who, realising the
+importance of its situation on one of the great highways between east
+and west and in an oasis of well-watered fields, orchards, and gardens
+which face a great barren plain, established there a Mussulman capital,
+that became noted for its opulence and culture. In later years it
+successfully resisted the assault of Frederic Barbarossa; but
+subsequently it declined, until now the only remaining vestiges of its
+former importance are several colleges, one hundred mosques, and the
+famous green tower surmounting the tomb of the whirling dervishes.
+
+In few other cities of Asia Minor were greater inducements offered to
+the rug weavers. Surrounding them lay hills and plains that produced
+sheep with soft, fine fleeces. On the oaks that grew not far to the
+north lived the kermes, from which were obtained the vermilion dyes
+famous even through Persia. The political and commercial importance of
+the city, as well as the religious fanaticism of the people, aided them.
+Accordingly a great many choice pieces were formerly woven there, but on
+account of the remoteness of the city from the markets that supplied
+Europe, few found their way into channels of trade.
+
+Large numbers were used solely for religious purposes, but other kinds
+are as frequently seen. All of them contain both geometric and floral
+forms. The geometric forms resemble designs prevalent in Eastern
+Anatolia and in Caucasia, such as latch-hooks, eight-pointed stars, and
+barber-pole stripes; and the floral forms consist of mechanically drawn
+palm leaves and the tree-of-life design.
+
+Probably in no other Asia Minor rug is such latitude in the drawing of
+the prayer arch. Sometimes it begins below the middle of the field and
+rises at a sharp angle to a point near the upper end; again it may be
+exceedingly flat; but generally it has the same pitch as the arches of
+Kulahs, and, like them, the sides, as a rule, are stepped or serrated.
+Furthermore, it is not unusual to see latch-hooks projecting from each
+step or serration into the spandrel, which is filled with small floral
+and geometric forms. From the niche is occasionally suspended a lamp;
+and arranged against the border, on each side of the field, is a row of
+conventionalised flowers, or small sprigs which resemble three
+triangular-shaped petals at the end of a straight stem. These floral or
+foliate designs are one of the most constant features of this class. The
+borders are more geometric than those of almost any other Asia Minor
+rugs, and even when vines are represented they are drawn with stiff
+formality.
+
+Whatever may be lacking in artistic drawing is frequently atoned for by
+the excellence of the colour scheme, which occasionally rivals that of
+the Ghiordes and Kulahs. Rich reds or blues are almost invariably found
+in the fields, where there is sufficient depth of nap to enhance their
+richness; and the borders are brightened by attractive tones of yellow,
+green, and white. Contrasted with these old pieces, the modern rugs of
+Konieh have little artistic merit, but are large pieces desirable solely
+for their durability.
+
+_Type Characteristics._ _Colours_, principally red and blue, with minor
+quantities of yellow, green, and white. _Knot_, Ghiordes. Knots to inch
+horizontally five to eight; perpendicularly, six to ten. The rows of
+knots are not very firmly pressed down. _Warp_, wool; each of the two
+threads encircled by a knot is equally prominent at back. _Weft_, wool,
+of medium diameter, dyed red. A thread of weft crosses twice between
+every two rows of knots. _Pile_, wool, of medium length. _Border_, from
+two to five stripes, with frequently an outer edging. _Sides_, generally
+a selvage of two or three cords, but occasionally an overcasting. _Both
+ends_, a web and warp fringe. _Texture_, only moderately firm. _Weave_
+at back is of slightly coarse grain. _Usual length_, four and one half
+to six feet. _Usual width_, three fifths to three quarters length.
+
+
+LADIKS.—On the ruins of ancient Laodicea is the mud-walled town of the
+village of Ladik, once the centre of an important rug industry. Among
+the surrounding hills are still woven pieces which resemble in pattern,
+though they poorly imitate in weave and colour, the early prototypes
+that have been classed among the masterpieces of Asia Minor. Few of
+these old rugs remain, and they are often badly worn in spots; yet they
+display tones mellowed by the touch of more than a century, and rival
+the Ghiordes in beauty of design.
+
+As is the case with other classes of rugs woven in Turkish countries,
+the sedjadehs and odjaliks lack the interesting details of the
+namazliks, from which they widely differ. On the central fields of many
+of them are oblong hexagonal-shaped medallions, often three in number,
+that contain designs of stars or other geometric figures. Between the
+fields and the borders of the ends are generally spacious panels, on
+which are represented rows of vandykes. These figures are one of the
+most permanent characteristics of this class of rugs; and though their
+origin is uncertain, it is not improbable that they are derived from
+arrowheads, which were one of the emblems of the Chaldean deity Hoa, the
+reputed inventor of Cufic writing. The borders are also geometric,
+consisting, as a rule, of three stripes, of which the central contains
+an angular vine that in different pieces may be very simple or very
+ornate. One of the central stripes often adopted is represented in Plate
+G, Fig. 10 (opp. Page 192) and shows a vine with conventionalised leaf.
+Latch-hooks are common in the sedjadehs, and when floral forms are
+present the fact is generally disguised by the harsh, mechanical
+drawing.
+
+In contrast with these pieces, the namazliks with their interesting
+arches and dainty drawing are most pleasing. In a large number of them
+the central fields occupy about one half the space within the border,
+the spandrels extend for a considerable distance above the arch, and the
+panels are larger than in any other prayer rug. Occasionally arches
+resembling those of the Ghiordes or Kir-Shehrs are seen; but they are
+to be regarded merely as copies, since the typical arch differs widely
+from any other and gives to this class one of its greatest charms.
+Instead of rising to the apex in lines of many serrations, each side of
+the arch rises from the border and falls in one large serration, then
+rises again to form the niche. The arch is often fringed with
+latch-hooks, and extending above the apex of each serration and the
+niche are perpendicular devices that may, also, be a development of the
+latch-hook, since they have not been traced to any other satisfactory
+origin. But whatever their origin may be, their shape as well as that of
+the arch at once suggests Saracenic mosques. In the spandrel are
+constantly seen serrated leaves, rosettes, and designs peculiar to the
+Ladik. The large panel is equally typical, and consists of reciprocally
+drawn vandykes, from which rise perpendicular stems supporting leaves
+and pomegranates. These are generally five in number, and are so
+gracefully and naturalistically drawn that it seems surprising that the
+vandykes, from which they spring, are ornamented with a profusion of
+latch-hooks. The central fields are sometimes without ornament, but as a
+rule they contain some suggestions of the tree of life either in the
+central design or in the three-leaf sprigs arranged about the borders.
+The latter are as characteristic as any other part of the rug, and
+consist of four stripes separated by dotted lines. The main stripe most
+frequently contains a row of delicately drawn lilies alternating with
+rosettes, though occasionally a very formal vine with conventionalised
+leaf is substituted for it. In the stripes at each side are very angular
+vines with three-cleft leaves, and in the narrow innermost stripe is
+generally a ribbon pattern.
+
+All of the drawing has clear definition accentuated by rich and strongly
+contrasting colours. The fields of the namazliks, like those of the
+Ghiordes, are entirely occupied by masses of unshaded blue, red, or
+brown, that are relieved only by the colours of superimposed designs.
+But as is not the case with Ghiordes, there is often a strong contrast
+between the colours of centre and ends; yet the tones are always in
+perfect harmony. Other rugs may have more delicate drawing or more
+exquisite finish; but in the barbaric arrangement of strong colour and
+in the uniqueness of graceful designs, none exceed the old prayer
+Ladiks.
+
+[Illustration: PLATE 42. CHICHI RUG]
+
+_Type Characteristics._ _Colours_, principally red and blue, with minor
+quantities of green, yellow, and brown. _Knot_, Ghiordes. Knots to inch
+horizontally nine to twelve; perpendicularly, ten to thirteen. A half
+knot as it appears at back is longer than wide. The rows of knots are
+pressed down so that the warp is concealed at back. _Warp_, wool. One of
+the two threads encircled by a knot is generally depressed below the
+other at the back. _Weft_, wool of fine diameter, generally dyed red. A
+thread of weft crosses twice between every two rows of knots. _Pile_,
+wool, of medium length. _Border_, three to five stripes. _Sides_, a red
+added selvage of two or three cords. _Both ends_, a narrow web and warp
+fringe. _Texture_, moderately firm. _Weave_ at back is of medium grain.
+_Usual length_, four and one half to seven feet. _Usual width_, three
+fifths to two thirds length.
+
+
+KIR-SHEHRS.—To the north of the great salt desert and in the southern
+part of the province of Angora is the town of Kir-Shehr. It stands
+between two mountain ranges, on which are raised sheep with fine
+fleeces, and is on the branch of the Kizil Irmak, whose waters are well
+suited for preparing wool for the dyes obtained in the surrounding
+country. On account of the excellence of wool, water, and natural dyes,
+as well as the remoteness of the town from main highways of travel, many
+of the old rugs were excellent pieces, free from the taint of Western
+influences, and possessing the charm of individuality. It was due,
+moreover, to the fact that its three or four thousand inhabitants, and
+the Turkomans who roamed the surrounding country, rarely felt the
+influence of larger cities that they were so untrammelled by
+conventionalities. Unhesitatingly they grouped together large spaces of
+red, yellow, and blue, as well as grass-coloured green, for which they
+had a particular fondness and employed to a greater extent than almost
+any other weavers; yet in the case of these old pieces the artistic
+sense is rarely shocked, since the individual colours are good and the
+tones are harmonious. Furthermore, the patterns show an unusual blending
+of floral and geometric forms.
+
+Most of the pieces come in moderate sizes; some are mats, others small
+sedjadehs, but the choicest are the prayer rugs. The serrated sides of
+the arch, which rise at a steep angle from the centres of each side of
+the rather narrow fields, are formed of several parallel lines of
+different colour. In a not unusual rug, for instance, eight narrow lines
+separating the spandrel of grass-green from the inner field of brick-red
+appeared in the following order: red, black, white, yellow, lavender,
+yellow, red, and blue. The inmost line is frequently fringed with
+tri-cleft floral forms, which, as in Koniehs, extend in a row along the
+sides of the field. From the niche is usually suspended the design of an
+inverted tree of life, and above it are projected latch-hooks or similar
+devices. It is not unusual to see two arches, and there are sometimes as
+many as four, placed one within the other. The spacious spandrel that is
+continued in narrow stripes along the borders to the bottom of the field
+is covered with geometric or conventionalised floral forms; and the
+horizontal panel, which may be placed at either end of the field,
+contains designs in harmony with the remaining parts.
+
+On the whole, the wide borders have some of the most characteristic
+features; for, as a rule, not only are one or two of the stripes of a
+peculiar cherry red and one a rich yellow, but three or four of the
+narrow stripes next to the field are similar in width and ornamentation
+to those of the Kulah. When contrasted with them the broad central
+stripe and the outer one seem lacking in harmony, for they are
+distinctly floral and suggestive of Persian influences.
+
+On account of the quality of their wool and weave, these rugs are soft
+and flexible. They resemble in some minor details others of the
+Anatolian plateau, yet they can be distinguished by the presence of
+grass-green colour and the shape of the prayer arch. The nap of these
+old pieces, like that of Kulahs and Ladiks, is of medium length; though
+in modern pieces it is often longer, and the weft and webs are coloured
+as are those of Bergamos.
+
+_Type Characteristics._ _Colours_, principally red and green, also some
+blue, brown, and white. Knot, Ghiordes. _Knots_ to inch horizontally
+five to nine; perpendicularly, five to ten. A half knot as it appears at
+back is as long as, or longer than, wide. The rows of knots are not
+firmly pressed down, so that in places the warp shows. _Warp_, wool;
+each of the two threads encircled by a knot is equally prominent at
+back, or occasionally one is slightly depressed. _Weft_, wool, of medium
+or coarse diameter and generally of different colours in the same rug. A
+thread of weft crosses from two to six times between two rows of knots,
+varying in the same rug. _Pile_, wool, of medium length. _Border_, from
+five to eight stripes. _Sides_, a weft selvage of two, three, or four
+cords of different colours. _Lower end_, web and warp loops. _Upper
+end_, a web and warp fringe. _Texture_, loose. _Weave_ at back is of
+coarse grain. _Usual length_, four to six feet. _Usual width_, two
+thirds to four fifths length.
+
+
+ANATOLIANS.—To all of Asia Minor was once applied the term "Anatolia,"
+which signifies the Land of the Rising Sun; so that any product of this
+country might well be called Anatolian, just as any product of Persia
+might be called Iranian. In fact, many of the less known classes, as the
+Nigde, Tuzla, Mudjar, and even the Kir-Shehr, Melez, and Konieh, are
+often called Anatolian. But as there is a special type of rugs known as
+Iranians, so is there a special type known as Anatolians. They are,
+however, a mixed lot, that come from parts of a wide stretch of
+territory, extending over the interior table-land to the home of the
+Kurds, and incorporating ideas received from many districts. It is,
+accordingly, difficult to define them as a type; but, as a rule, they
+are small pieces that are often used for mats and pillows, with
+moderately long nap of soft, floccy wool, with narrow borders, and a
+colour scheme that inclines to bright and sometimes garish colours.
+
+Doubtless the best of them come from the provinces of Angora and Konieh,
+lying within a radius of one hundred miles of Lake Tuz Gul. Here can be
+obtained the best of wool and dyes; and in some of the old pieces
+appears the artistic drawing of the more important rug centres farther
+to the west, but with a strange blending of geometric and floral forms.
+Eight-pointed stars as well as latch-hooks are seen everywhere, and a
+very old design with the shape of ram's horns is frequently used. In
+many of the prayer rugs the arches are of the Kir-Shehr order, though
+the panels may contain vandykes suggestive of Ladiks. There is the
+greatest latitude in the width of the borders, which occasionally are
+their most noticeable feature and again are most insignificant; but in
+either case they rarely contain more than three stripes, and not
+infrequently only one. Red, blue, green, and brown are the usual
+colours, but pink and canary yellow are sometimes used.
+
+Farther to the east, among the foot-hills of the Anti-Taurus mountains,
+is woven a coarser type by the Kurdish tribes. With the exception of
+wool and dyes they have little to their credit; for their usual
+unsymmetric shapes, crude geometric designs, long uneven nap, and
+braided fringe of warp at the ends are lacking in all elegance.
+
+_Type Characteristics._ _Colours_, principally red, blue, green, brown,
+and white. _Knot_, Ghiordes. Knots to inch horizontally five to nine;
+perpendicularly, six to twelve. A half knot, as it appears at back, is
+generally as long as wide, or longer. The rows of knots are not firmly
+pressed down, yet the warp is frequently concealed at back. _Warp_,
+wool; each of the two threads encircled by a knot is equally prominent
+at back. _Weft_, wool, of medium or coarse diameter and usually dyed, A
+thread of weft crosses two, three, and four times between two rows of
+knots frequently varying in the same piece. _Pile_, wool, of medium
+length. _Border_, one to three stripes, and occasionally an edging.
+_Sides_, a weft selvage of two or three cords. _Both ends_, a web and
+warp fringe. _Texture_, loose. _Weave_ at back is of coarse grain.
+_Usual length_, two and one half to six feet. _Usual width_, one half to
+two thirds length.
+
+
+KARAMANS.—At the foot of Mt. Taurus and overlooking the plain that
+stretches northward into the heart of Asia Minor is the city of Karaman.
+Before its subjection in the XV Century by Bajazet II and the removal of
+the capital to Konieh, that lies sixty miles to the northwest, it was
+the seat of a Turkish government extending to the Mediterranean Sea; but
+to-day the only reminder of its early importance are several Saracenic
+mosques covered with rich arabesques. Of the rugs woven there during the
+early period almost nothing is known, but, on account of the former
+importance of the city, it is not improbable that they compared
+favourably with the rugs of other parts of the Turkish Empire. On the
+other hand, some of the modern products are among the poorest rugs of
+the East, and contain little artistic merit. A feature peculiar to many
+of them is the use of natural wool of reddish brown colour, obtained
+from sheep which live on the mountain ranges to the south of Karaman.
+The pile is long, the weave is never very firm, and at each end is a
+coloured web.
+
+
+SIVAS.—In the city of Sivas, at the eastern end of Anatolia, and in the
+villages of the surrounding plain, girls and women have woven rugs from
+time immemorial; but on account of the difficulties of transportation
+few of them reach this country. The carefully finished sides and ends,
+the formal character of the pattern, and the almost harsh effect of the
+strongly contrasting colours of many of them are unlike what are found
+in the nomadic rugs made farther to the east and west. In the weave is a
+hint of Persian influence; for not only are both warp and weft of
+cotton, but the warp is of small diameter and well spun, and one of the
+two threads to which a knot is tied is depressed below the other. The
+pattern, on the other hand, is distinctly Turkish. One of the best known
+types consists of a large hexagon that reaches to the sides and ends,
+and contains within it a medallion on which are designs similar to those
+seen in Bergamos. On the white field surrounding the medallion are often
+small rosettes and floral figures. The corners of the field may be
+fringed with running latch-hooks or a row of formal T's, and contain a
+rosette at their centre. The borders are rarely wide, and often consist
+of a single stripe that contains some conventionalised floral form.
+Although these rugs are well woven, their crude blending of floral and
+geometric figures, as well as their formality of drawing, which is
+accentuated by the shortness of the nap, are most suggestive of
+Occidental conventions.
+
+[Illustration: PLATE 43. TCHERKESS RUG]
+
+_Type Characteristics._ _Colours_, principally red and white; also dull
+blue, green, and light yellow. _Knot_, Ghiordes. Knots to inch
+horizontally seven to eleven; perpendicularly, nine to fifteen. A half
+knot, as it appears at back, is not as long as wide. The rows of knots
+are pressed down, so that the warp does not show at back. _Warp_,
+cotton, well spun and of small diameter. One of the two threads
+encircled by a knot is depressed below the other at back and sometimes
+doubled under the other. _Weft_, cotton, of medium diameter. A thread of
+weft crosses twice between every two rows of knots. _Pile_, wool of
+short to medium length. _Border_, narrow, one to three stripes. _Sides_,
+an added selvage of four or five cords attached in places, and with weft
+encircling inner cord of selvage. _Both ends_, narrow web and loose warp
+fringe. _Texture_, firm. _Weave_ at back is only slightly coarse. _Usual
+length_, three and one half to six and one half feet. _Usual width_, two
+thirds to four fifths length.
+
+
+MUDJARS.—Near the river Kizil Irmak in Central Asia Minor is the city of
+Mudjar, which produces rugs that occasionally reach this country. They
+are often classed as Anatolians, but their colour scheme covers a wider
+range, including red, yellow, green, blue, mauve, and pink, all of which
+may be seen in the same piece. In fact no other rug of Asia Minor
+contains as a rule so many colours, which appear in the broad borders of
+old, well-woven pieces with glistening wool almost like mosaic work.
+Many of this class are namazliks with arches very similar to the arches
+in the rugs of Kir-Shehr, which is distant only twenty-five miles to the
+north; and in the panels above the spandrel are not infrequently designs
+of vandykes borrowed from the Ladiks. Some suggestion of the tree of
+life often appears in the field, and again rows of flowers may extend
+into it from the sides. Some of the best examples are very handsome.
+
+_Type Characteristics._ _Colours_, principally red, yellow, blue, green,
+and ivory, also mauve and pink. _Knot_, Ghiordes. Knots to inch
+horizontally six to nine; perpendicularly, seven to twelve. _Warp_,
+wool. Each of the two threads of warp encircled by a knot is frequently
+equally prominent at the back, but generally one is depressed below the
+other. _Weft_, wool, of medium to coarse diameter dyed red or brown. A
+thread of weft crosses twice between every two rows of knots. _Pile_,
+wool of medium length. _Border_, broad, of three to four stripes.
+_Sides_, a three-cord selvage, frequently red. _Both ends_, coloured
+webs and fringe. _Texture_, loose. _Weave_, moderately coarse. _Usual
+length_, four to six feet. _Usual width_, two thirds to three quarters
+length.
+
+
+NIGDES.—Near the base of the Anti-Taurus mountains in the eastern part
+of the province of Konieh is the city of Nigde, which is little known in
+this country as a rug-producing centre, though its fabrics reach Europe.
+Many of them are namazliks, that are distinguished by their high
+geometric arches. The borders often show the influence of the Kurdish
+tribes, and contain patterns common in the Mesopotamian valley; but
+their colour scheme of red, blue, and yellow more closely resembles the
+Anatolian. Most of them are of small size and are poorly woven.
+
+
+TUZLAS.—Another class of Asia Minor rugs rarely seen are the Tuzlas.
+They are generally regarded as Anatolians, but are made by people who
+live about Lake Tuz Gul in the province of Konieh. Some of them are well
+woven, and have soft woollen pile and attractive patterns. The prayer
+arch of the namazliks bears some resemblance to the arch of the
+Kir-Shehrs; the panel is relatively high; and not infrequently the
+borders have rosettes similar to those of Bergamos. The principal
+colours are red, blue, green, and ivory.
+
+
+KAISARIYEH.—One of the few Asia Minor centres for the manufacture of
+silk textiles is the city of Kaisariyeh, the ancient Cæsarea, near the
+eastern part of Anatolia. Formerly rugs of excellent quality were made
+there; but the modern products are, as a rule, inferior both in
+workmanship and material to those of Hereke. Frequently their dyes are
+aniline and the colours garish. Many of them are prayer rugs with
+arches resembling the Ghiordes pattern, but their borders are more
+conventional. Woollen rugs which are copies of other well-known Asia
+Minor pieces are also woven there.
+
+[Illustration: _COLOUR PLATE VII—LADIK PRAYER RUG_
+
+_The rug here represented conforms in every particular to one of the
+best types of Ladik prayer rugs. It contains the beautiful border stripe
+of Rhodian lilies, the pomegranates and vandykes in the panel below the
+central field, and the queer designs of scrolls and serrated leaves so
+peculiar to these rugs. It is interesting to see how the pattern of the
+innermost stripe, which consists of a row of S-forms at the top and
+sides, is changed so as to resemble a ribbon at the bottom, to note the
+eight-pointed stars resting on octagons in the lower panel, so
+suggestive of nomads, and also the designs which have been placed near
+the two corners on the left, between the rosettes and Rhodian lilies of
+the main stripe, as if to divert the spell of the "evil-eye." Such
+irregularities, denoting the idiosyncrasies of the weaver, add to the
+charm of Oriental rugs._
+
+ _Loaned by Mr. Hulett C. Merritt_]
+
+
+YURUKS.—Suggestive of gipsies, yet widely unlike them, are the tribes of
+Turkoman descent known as Yuruks. This term means "Wanderers;" and they
+are well named, since throughout the western part of Asia Minor they
+follow their sheep, cattle, and camels from the rich pastures among the
+mountain tops of the interior, where they live in summer, to the
+fertile, sunny plains bordering the seashore in winter. Even near Smyrna
+and the slopes of Mt. Olympus may be seen their black goat's-hair tents,
+where the unexpected guest is always welcome.
+
+In their rugs is the reflection of their untrammelled lives, unaffected
+by the refinements of cities; and as their lives are different from
+those of all other inhabitants of Asia Minor, so are these rugs entirely
+distinct, resembling more than anything else the work of the wild Kazaks
+of the Caucasus. In them will be recognised the same long nap, the same
+massing of colour, the same profusion of latch-hooks, and other simple
+designs. The colours, however, are less brilliant, bright reds and
+yellows being more sparingly used; but on the other hand the depth of
+floccy nap gives a subdued richness to the dark metallic madder, blue,
+green, and brown, such as is rarely seen in any Kazak. The patterns show
+the usual diversity of nomadic rugs. The fields may contain crude,
+unrelated figures, or diagonal stripes on which are small geometric
+designs. Again from the Kurdish tribes to the east may be adopted the
+pear designs as well as floral forms, but the drawing is always far from
+realistic.
+
+Most of the modern rugs have fine wool coloured with vegetable dyes, and
+stout warp and weft woven to give flexibility; but their patterns show a
+want of all artistic feeling. Now and then, however, comes to light a
+piece that has stood the wear of more than a century, showing the touch
+of a higher craftsmanship, and with colours softened by each succeeding
+year.
+
+_Type Characteristics._ _Colours_, principally brown, red, and blue,
+with minor quantities of yellow, green, and white. _Knot_, Ghiordes.
+Knots to inch horizontally five to seven; perpendicularly, six to nine.
+The rows of knots are not closely pressed down, yet the warp does not
+show at back. _Warp_, wool or goat's hair; each of the two threads
+encircled by a half knot is equally prominent at back. _Weft_, wool of
+medium diameter. A thread of weft crosses two, three, or four times
+between every two rows of knots, varying in the same rug. _Pile_, wool,
+clipped long. _Border_, from four to six stripes, occasionally with an
+outer edging. _Sides_, generally a heavy double overcasting, but
+occasionally a double selvage of two or three cords. _Lower end_, a
+coloured web through which generally runs a parti-coloured cord, and
+warp loops; or the warp threads may be knotted and hang loose. _Upper
+end_, a coloured web through which generally runs a parti-coloured cord,
+a braided selvage, and a warp fringe; or the warp ends may be braided
+together at short intervals. _Texture_, loose. _Weave_ at back is of
+moderately coarse grain. _Usual length_, four to nine feet. _Usual
+width_, two fifths to two thirds length.
+
+
+ASIA MINOR BORDER STRIPES
+
+Regarded as a whole, the borders of Asia Minor rugs show but slight
+relationship to either the geometric patterns of the Caucasian, or the
+floral patterns of the Persian; for as a rule the geometric features
+either are subordinate or suggest an origin by degradation from floral
+designs, and the floral features generally are represented by an orderly
+arrangement of disjunct forms rather than by continuous vines with
+pendent flowers. Yet there is no doubt that some were copied by
+Caucasian weavers, and that many were derived from Persian patterns.
+They are frequently, however, more artistic than the former, more
+interesting than the latter, and rival both in beautiful colouring and
+delicate drawing.
+
+_Primary Stripes._—Several different stripes peculiar to Ghiordes prayer
+rugs are illustrated in Plate G, Figs. 1, 2, 3, 4, and 5 (opp. Page
+192). The first of these is probably the oldest. It is so strikingly
+suggestive of the Herati design of rosette and attendant leaves that
+there can be little doubt of its Persian origin. The seed-like processes
+of the alternate rosettes are noticeable. The second, which is found in
+many of the Ghiordes rugs, shows the same pattern more conventionalised,
+with the rosette resembling an open pod and with the leaves almost
+octagonal-shaped. The third is a still greater evolution of the same
+pattern in which leaves and rosettes of nearly equal shape and size are
+placed at three angles of a quadrangular space. The last, which is a
+very elaborate pattern somewhat similar to the first, is found in a few
+old rugs. Besides these, a number of parallel lines similar to those of
+Kulah rugs (Plate G, Fig. 12) are sometimes seen in the Ghiordes.
+
+[Illustration: PLATE G. PRIMARY BORDER-STRIPES OF ASIA MINOR RUGS]
+
+One of the best known Ghiordes stripes found in odjaliks and sedjadehs
+is shown in Plate G, Fig. 6. It is a broad stripe with wide, vine-like
+bands covered with rows of small flecks or flowers. Between each flexure
+of the band are designs probably symbolic of early sun worship.
+
+In Plate G, Fig. 7, is represented the most usual and beautiful stripe
+of the Ladik prayer rugs. The principal motives are Rhodian lilies, and
+rosettes identical with Persian forms, that are probably
+conventionalised roses. Another stripe, in which the lily is replaced by
+a conventionalised vine, is shown in Plate G, Fig. 8. Both these stripes
+are found only in Ladik rugs. Other stripes seen now and then in Ladik
+and Melez sedjadehs are illustrated in Plate G, Figs. 9, 10, and 11,
+each of which shows a conventionalised leaf.
+
+One of the most typical Kulah stripes is seen in Plate G, Fig. 12. It
+might in fact be regarded as a number of parallel stripes, but as will
+be evident by observing a large series of Kulahs it serves the function
+of a single broad stripe. Often the separate bands are replaced by a
+ground of uniform colour marked by parallel rows of minute flowers of
+regularly varying colour. Occasionally this stripe is copied by Ghiordes
+weavers.
+
+In Plate G, Fig. 13, is a well-known stripe that appears both in Kulah
+and Rhodian rugs. As previously explained, its origin is probably
+floral, though the drawing is geometric. A formal stripe found in
+Bergamos, and consisting largely of diamonds and eight-pointed stars, is
+represented in Plate G, Fig. 14.
+
+Figs. 15 and 16 of Plate G illustrate the border stripes of Melez rugs.
+Each contains regularly spaced rosettes, separated by conventionalised
+leaf forms. A much more geometric Melez border, in which the rosettes
+are replaced by eight-pointed stars and the leaves by discs, is shown in
+Plate G, Fig. 17.
+
+A geometric stripe of uncertain origin that is found in some Koniehs is
+shown in Plate G, Fig. 18.
+
+In Plate G, Figs. 19 and 20, are represented two stripes characteristic
+of Kir-Shehrs. The former is a dainty pattern consisting of a row of
+bushes separated by the lily design. It is occasionally found in the
+Melez also.
+
+A typical Mudjar stripe in which the geometric patterns are subdivided
+into small and richly coloured mosaic work is seen in Plate G, Fig. 21.
+
+In Plate G, Fig. 22, is illustrated a Yuruk border stripe such as is
+frequently seen in modern pieces.
+
+_Secondary and Tertiary Stripes._—In Plate H, Figs. 1 and 2 (opp. Page
+194), are illustrated two secondary stripes frequently seen in Ghiordes
+and Kulah rugs. The first is most suggestive of a running vine, and the
+second has doubtless been derived from it.
+
+A more ornate pattern, which generally accompanies the broad band of
+perpendicular lines peculiar to Ghiordes and Kulah rugs, is shown in
+Plate H, Fig. 3. The arrangement of three leaves in angles of
+quadrangular spaces suggests relationship to the primary stripe of Plate
+G, Fig. 3 (opp. Page 192).
+
+Two other secondary stripes found in Ghiordes rugs are seen in Plate H,
+Figs. 4 and 5. The former, which is also found in Kulahs is a vine and
+flower subject to many modifications.
+
+A tertiary stripe containing a ribbon-like vine is very usual in
+Ghiordes and Kulah pieces. One of these, which is very graceful, is
+shown in Plate H, Fig. 6.
+
+Another angular vine with pendent flower, that appears as a secondary
+stripe of a large number of Ladik prayer rugs, is illustrated in Plate
+H, Fig. 7. This resembles a few Persian stripes, but the drawing of the
+pendent leaf is characteristic of Asia Minor.
+
+Figs. 8 and 9 of Plate H represent two tertiary stripes often seen in
+Ladiks and Kulahs. They illustrate the evolution of patterns; for in the
+same stripe of a rug will sometimes be seen the first of these and the
+simple ribbon pattern of Plate F, Fig. 18 (opp. Page 158), and also in
+the same stripe of another rug will sometimes be seen the second of
+these and a continuous row of "_ff_" designs, as in Plate H, Fig. 2.
+
+The most typical of all Kulah secondary stripes, though it is also seen
+in Rhodian rugs and occasionally in an old Ghiordes, is illustrated in
+Plate H, Fig. 10. A somewhat similar stripe is shown in Plate H, Fig.
+11. The design looks like a Chinese motive, but that it is evolved from
+a vine will be seen by comparing these stripes with those in Figs. 4 and
+12. All of them are Asia Minor border stripes.
+
+[Illustration: PLATE H. SECONDARY AND TERTIARY BORDER-STRIPES OF ASIA
+MINOR RUGS]
+
+In Figs. 13 and 14 of Plate H are illustrated the swastika and S
+stripe, which are seen now and then in Asia Minor rugs, such as Kulahs,
+and also in Caucasian rugs.
+
+One of the most typical of Melez secondary stripes, representing
+processes like cogs projecting in a row from alternating sides of the
+stripe, is shown in Plate H, Fig. 15. The stripes shown in Figs. 16 and
+17 of Plate H, representing a row of small rosettes and a row of
+octagonal discs, are also occasionally seen in Melez rugs.
+
+The very angular vine shown in Plate H, Fig. 18, is sometimes seen in
+Koniehs.
+
+A very unusual secondary stripe (Plate H, Fig 19), found in a few
+Anatolians, represents a fret pattern, which was probably copied from
+some monument.
+
+The chain pattern (Plate H, Fig. 20) is occasionally seen as a tertiary
+stripe in the Ghiordes. It appeared in Asia Minor rugs of several
+centuries ago, and has been copied by the weavers of Caucasia. Sometimes
+the lines are angular, and again the S's are separated by small round or
+square dots.
+
+
+TECHNICALITIES IN THE WEAVE OF ASIA MINOR RUGS
+
+ Legend:
+
+ KNOT—
+ H = Horizontally
+ P = Perpendicularly
+ WARP—
+ g = goat's hair
+ s = silk
+ e = each equally prominent
+ d = 1 to the knot depressed
+ h = 1 to the knot doubled under
+ WEFT—
+ s = silk
+ j = jute
+ No. = No. times crossing bet. two round knots
+ SIDES—
+ O = overcasting
+ S = selvage
+ LOWER END
+ W = web
+ S = Selvage
+ K = Rows knots
+ L = warp loops
+ F = fringe
+ UPPER END
+ W = web
+ S = selvage
+ K = Rows knots
+ T = turned back and hemmed
+ F = fringe
+
+ +------------+----------------------------+------------------------------+
+ | | KNOT | WARP |
+ | +---------+------+-----------+-----+-------+----------------+
+ | ASIA MINOR | | | Number to | | | | At back |
+ | | | | Inches | | | | |
+ | | G = | S = +-----+-----+ w = | c = | |---+---+---+
+ | | Ghiordes| Sehna| H | P | wool| cotton| g/s| e | d | h |
+ +------------+---------+------+-----+-----+-----+-------+----+---+---+---+
+ |Anatolian | G | | 5-9 | 6-12| w | | | e | | |
+ |Bergamo | G | | 5-9 | 7-10| w | | | e | | |
+ |Ghiordes | G | | 7-12| 8-16| w | c |[s] | e |[d]| |
+ |Karaman | G | | 6-9 | 8-13| w | | | | d | |
+ |Kir-Shehr | G | | 5-9 | 5-10| w | | | e |[d]| |
+ |Konieh | G | | 5-8 | 6-10| w | | | e | | |
+ |Kulah | G | | 5-10| 7-12| w | | |[e]| d | |
+ |Ladik | G | | 9-12|10-13| w | | |[e]| d | |
+ |Meles | G | | 5-8 | 6-11| w | | | e | | |
+ |Rhodian | G | | 5-8 | 7-9 | w | | | e |[d]| |
+ |Sivas | G | | 7-11| 9-15| | c | | | d |[h]|
+ |Youruk | G | | 5-7 | 6-9 | w | |[g] | e | | |
+ +------------+---------+------+-----+-----+-----+-------+----+---+---+---+
+
+ +------------+--------------------------+-------+-----------------+
+ | | WEFT | SIDES | LOWER END |
+ | +-----+-------+----+-------+---+---+-----+---+---+---+
+ | ASIA MINOR | | | | | | | | | | |
+ | | w = | c = | | | | | | | | |
+ | |wool | cotton| s/j| No. | O | S | W/S | K | L | F |
+ +------------+-----+-------+----+-------+---+---+-----+---+---+---+
+ |Anatolian | w | | | 2-4 | | S | W | | | F |
+ |Bergamo | w | | | 2-6 | | S | W | | | F |
+ |Ghiordes | w | c |[s] | 2 | | S | W | | | F |
+ |Karaman | w | | | 2 | O | S | W/S | | L | |
+ |Kir-Shehr | w | | | 2-6 | | S | W | | L | |
+ |Konieh | w | | | 2 | | S | W | | | F |
+ |Kulah | w | |[j] | 2/[1] | | S | W | | | F |
+ |Ladik | w | | | 2 | | S | W | | | F |
+ |Meles | w | | | 4 | | S | W | | | F |
+ |Rhodian | w | | |2/[1-4]| | S | W | | | F |
+ |Sivas | w | c | | 2 | | S | W | | | F |
+ |Youruk | w | | | 2-4 | O |[S]| W |[K]| L | F |
+ +------------+-----+-------+----+-------+---+---+-----+---+---+---+
+
+ +------------+-----------------+-----------+----------------------+
+ | | UPPER END | NAP | WEAVE | TEXTURE |
+ | |-----------------+-----------+-----------+----------|
+ | ASIA MINOR | | | | |l = long |f = fine |l = loose |
+ | | | | | |m = medium |m = medium |m = medium|
+ | | W/S | K | T | F |s = short |c = coarse |f = firm |
+ |------------+-----+---+---+---+-----------+-----------+----------|
+ |Anatolian | W | | | F | m | c | l |
+ |Bergamo | W | | | F | m/l | f | m |
+ |Ghiordes | W | | | F | s | f | m |
+ |Karaman | W/S | | T | F | l | c | l |
+ |Kir-Shehr | W | | | F | m | c | l |
+ |Konieh | W | | | F | m | m/c | m/f |
+ |Kulah | W | | | F | m/s | m/c | l |
+ |Ladik | W | | | F | m | m | m/f |
+ |Meles | W/S| | | F | m/[s] | m/c | l |
+ |Rhodian | W/S| | | F | l | m/c | m/l |
+ |Sivas | W | | | F | m/s | m/c | f |
+ |Youruk | W | K |[T]| F | l | c | l |
+ +------------+-----+---+---+---+-----------+----------+-----------+
+
+ [] indicates the less frequent condition.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XI
+
+CAUCASIAN RUGS
+
+
+ASIDE from the facts that the Caucasus is rugged, that during the Middle
+Ages it was ruled by the illustrious Tamara, and that till recently the
+physical charms of its women made them favourites in the slave markets
+of Constantinople, the character and history of that country are to-day
+almost as unknown to the average reader as they were when the bards of
+ancient Greece bound Prometheus to its rocks and hung the Golden Fleece
+from its oaken boughs. Yet it is a country of wonderful interest. Above
+its gorges, rivalling those of the Himalayas, rise mountains higher than
+the Alps. On the southwestern slope are combined the luxuriant
+vegetation of tropical lowlands with virgin forests of fir and pine, and
+in meadows and beside shaded brooks grow flowers of strange beauty.
+Beneath the ground is undeveloped wealth of ores and mineral oil. The
+river Phasis is the natural home of the pheasant; the crags are the
+resorts of ibex; and in secluded glens sharing solitude with bear, wolf,
+and boar are hidden the wild aurochs.
+
+Moreover, the philologist, ethnologist, and historian can here follow
+his favourite pursuit with as much zest as the Alpine climber, botanist,
+mineralogist, and sportsman; for within the confines of this region are
+spoken some seventy languages by as many distinct clans, each of remote
+origin. Some are the descendants of the early dwellers; some are the
+Aryan stock that found its way to Europe before the beginning of
+history; still others are but the offspring of the flotsam and jetsam
+which recurring waves of Asiatic conquerors, surging westward in ancient
+times, left stranded here. Nevertheless, for so many generations have
+the present inhabitants remained among their mountain strongholds,
+unabsorbed and unassimilating, that they have been regarded as a type
+sufficiently pure and characteristic to give its name to the great
+Caucasian race.
+
+Though enjoying greater isolation than surrounding countries, the
+Caucasus at different times and in different ways has felt their
+influences. During the Augustan age of Tamara's rule she attracted by
+her brilliancy, taste, and industry foreign courtiers and artisans.
+Hardly was she dead before Genghis Khan's horde of conquering Mongols
+poured over the land; and rival suitors, enraptured by her daughter's
+beauty, pressed their claims by invading it with their Mohammedan
+armies. For long succeeding years Persia struggled with Turkey for the
+mastery of the country, and was about to take it when Russia grasped the
+prize, but only after Shamyl with a few brave thousands had defeated
+vast armies.
+
+Each of these foreign guests or foes left some impression on the native
+art; so that Caucasian rugs show traces of Turkoman, Turkish, and
+Persian influences. It is rarely, excepting in a few small geometric
+figures, that there is any evidence of the Turkoman influence; but it is
+not unusual to see border stripes and field designs adopted from the
+Turkish rugs. Some of these stripes represent both geometric and floral
+patterns, either copied directly or derived with slight modifications
+from rugs woven three or four centuries ago in Asia Minor or Armenia.
+The Persian influence is apparent only in the floral forms. It doubtless
+inspired the stripe of dainty carnations so common in a large number of
+Caucasian pieces, the pear design inseparable from Baku rugs, as well as
+many other figures that first appeared in the rugs of Persia.
+
+Nevertheless, these rugs have their own distinct characteristics, which
+have a boldness and virility that are to be attributed in a measure to
+grand and rugged scenery as well as to centuries of struggle for
+independence, since in art the influence of environment is most
+apparent. They lack something of the sobriety, artistic drawing, and
+delicate colouring of those woven in vast deserts, amid the monuments of
+fallen empires, and in the gardens of the East; they contain on the
+other hand, both in line and colour, the forceful expression of
+untrammelled thought. The patterns are largely geometric; the tones of
+colour, in which clear red, blue, green, and yellow predominate, are
+strong. On the whole, they possess an individuality of character that is
+not surpassed by the rugs of any other group.
+
+[Illustration: MAP OF CAUCASIA]
+
+
+DAGHESTANS.—In no part of Caucasia have better rugs been woven than in
+Daghestan, "the mountain country." Nor is it surprising that this
+province should produce distinctive types, when it is considered that it
+has a length of over two hundred miles; that its topography is
+diversified by glaciated mountains, barren steppes, and fertile valleys;
+and that it is occupied by numerous clans, many of whom differ in origin
+as well as religion. Some of the rugs come from the city of Derbend on
+the Caspian Sea; some come from Kuba in the southeastern corner; others,
+called Kabistans, are produced in the country about Kuba; a few are made
+by the Lesghians who live among the lofty mountains; and in other parts
+of the province are woven pieces which formerly were sent in large
+numbers to Europe and America, where they soon became known as
+Daghestans.
+
+Though their resemblance to the Kabistans is so great that it is often
+difficult to distinguish between them, the rugs which acquired the trade
+name of Daghestans are different from almost all other Caucasian pieces.
+This is largely because the province is bounded on three sides by a sea
+and a nearly impassable mountain range, which render communication with
+surrounding territory difficult, and create a natural isolation, where
+in the course of many generations a distinct type was developed.
+Moreover, these same physical conditions have impeded both the
+introduction of aniline dyes, so that even among modern pieces spurious
+colours are not frequently seen; and also the adoption of new designs,
+so that the patterns of two or three centuries ago are still largely
+used.
+
+It is among the oldest rugs of the Daghestan weave that are found many
+of the best examples of Caucasian textile art. The dark, rich reds and
+blues of the fields, which are brightened by the ivory, light blue,
+green, and yellow of the small designs, resemble the fine colouring of
+choice Persian carpets. But the patterns are totally dissimilar; for it
+is only in a few rare old pieces, in which are copied some designs such
+as the lotus, or the running vine with leaf and bud, that there is any
+likeness to the realism of Persian floral ornamentation.
+
+The drawing, however, is never crude, and on account of the short nap
+and strongly contrasting colours always appears with clear definition.
+With the exception of conventionalised pears, the three-leaf sprig,
+which is commonly seen in the field, and the narrow border stripes of
+carnations, almost all of the figures are geometric; and are so
+carefully drawn, so closely clustered, that they represent an appearance
+frequently compared to mosaic work. Even when the patterns represent
+large medallions or stars, they contain smaller concentric forms, or are
+divided and redivided into smaller stars, diamonds, or tessellated
+figures, so that the effect is the same. In some form or other the
+latch-hook is seen in almost all these pieces. Of small designs, the
+octagonal disc is almost invariably found; and animals, human beings,
+and the pear are not infrequently seen.
+
+As the population of the province is largely Mohammedan, namazliks as
+well as sedjadehs are made; but with the exception of the unobtrusive
+arch of the namazlik, which is represented in Plate C, Fig. 9 (Page 61),
+there is little difference between them. There is never any panel as in
+Asia Minor rugs; nor is there a noticeable spandrel, since the space
+above the arch contains designs similar to those on the rest of the
+field.
+
+As a rule, the borders consist of three or four stripes separated by
+coloured lines. Only in the secondary stripes are any floral forms
+employed; and these, with the exception of the carnation design, are
+rare. The reciprocal trefoil is most characteristic as an outer stripe;
+the serrated line is also employed; and it is not unusual to find next
+to the field a broad stripe of diagonal barber-pole bars, on which are
+small dotted lines.
+
+_Type Characteristics._ _Colours_, principally blue, red, and ivory,
+with minor quantities of green and yellow. _Knot_, Ghiordes. Knots to
+inch horizontally seven to twelve; perpendicularly, eight to fifteen. A
+half knot, as it appears at back, is as long as wide and occasionally
+longer. The rows of knots are not firmly pressed down, so that their
+alignment is even and the warp shows at back. _Warp_, wool; each of the
+two threads encircled by a knot is equally prominent at the back;
+occasionally in old pieces one thread is slightly depressed below the
+other. _Weft_, wool of medium diameter. A thread of weft crosses twice
+between every two rows of knots. _Pile_, wool, clipped short. _Border_,
+three to five stripes. _Sides_, a selvage of two, three, or four cords,
+or occasionally a weft-overcasting. _Both ends_, a web, one row of knots
+or more, and loose warp fringe. Occasionally there is also a narrow
+braided selvage. _Texture_, moderately firm. _Weave_ at back is of fine
+grain. _Usual length_, five to ten feet. _Usual width_, one half to two
+thirds length.
+
+[Illustration: PLATE 44. BAKU RUG]
+
+
+KABISTANS.—Within recent years most of the rugs shipped from the
+southern part of Daghestan have become known in Western markets as
+Kabistans, though the distinction between them and the type that takes
+the name of the province is so slight that it is determinable only by
+the strictest analysis. In fact, Kabistans are merely a variety of
+Daghestans. Both have short nap and occasionally adopt the same colour
+scheme and patterns, so that many of each class are indistinguishable
+from one another.
+
+On the other hand, there are a few interesting points of difference
+between the best types, which are largely attributable to geographic
+environment. As the only easy access to this province from the south is
+by the shore of the Caspian, where the great mountain wall that forms an
+almost impassable barrier between Northern and Southern Caucasia
+descends to the plain, the district adjacent to this entrance on the
+line of travel would naturally feel and show a foreign influence, while
+the remote and more inaccessible parts of the province would be
+unaffected. Accordingly, the designs of Kabistans are more varied, and
+it is not surprising to find in them evidences of Persian influence not
+so apparent in the Daghestans. In some, for instance, are pear designs,
+like those occasionally seen in Shiraz pieces; and the rich tones, that
+are usually more subdued than those of the Daghestans, suggest the
+finest dyes of the Feraghans. There is also a slight difference in
+weave. Both display the two threads of warp encircled by each knot with
+equal prominence at the back; but in the Daghestans the alignment of the
+two halves of the knot, as they appear at the back, is more regular;
+while in the Kabistans one extends beyond the other in the direction of
+the length of the rug, as is the case with the Shirvans woven in the
+adjoining country to the south. Frequently the weft of Kabistans is of
+cotton; and the filling is not as wide as that of Daghestans, which is
+of wool. Moreover, the Kabistans may be either overcast or have a
+selvage at the sides, but the Daghestans have almost always a narrow
+selvage. Among the modern pieces there is a tendency for both classes to
+follow the side finish of the Shirvans.
+
+A well-known type of old Kabistans, that is also sometimes repeated in
+Daghestans, has a dark blue field on which are spaced in regular order
+white bracket-like designs, in which the perpendicular arms are usually
+connected (Plate O, Figs. 18-a and 18-b, Page 291). Their origin is
+unknown; but when their shape and their position in reference to the
+rosettes or effulgent stars that are placed near them are considered,
+the thought is at once suggested that in them is reproduced after a long
+process of slow change a conventionalised form of the Herati design.
+Other small harmonious designs are properly spaced throughout the
+fields, and in the main stripe of the border, on a cream-coloured
+ground, is frequently seen the beautiful pattern of Cufic origin
+represented in Plate J, Fig. 19 (opp. Page 228). Old pieces of this
+pattern, which are now growing rare, represent in weave, colour, and
+design the masterpieces of Caucasian textile art.
+
+Another pattern consists of diagonal stripes with small geometric
+figures, or of small floral forms arranged in rows, so that those of
+similar colour fall in diagonal lines. Again, the entire field may be
+covered with rectangular pears like those of Baku rugs. Oblong odjaliks
+are often seen with fields of dark colour, at each end of which are
+large geometric figures symmetrically balanced with reference to the
+centre. But they are so fringed with latch-hooks and so subdivided into
+smaller devices, which are accentuated by the shortness of the nap, that
+they have the effect of an assemblage of smaller designs.
+
+_Type Characteristics._ _Colours_, principally blue, also some red,
+ivory, green, and brown. Knot, Ghiordes. _Knots_ to inch horizontally
+seven to twelve; perpendicularly, eight to sixteen. A half knot, as it
+appears at back, is as long as wide and occasionally longer. The rows of
+knots are not firmly pressed down; their alignment is less even than in
+Daghestans, yet the warp may be seen at back. _Warp_, wool; each of the
+two threads encircled by a knot is equally prominent at back. _Weft_,
+wool or cotton, of medium diameter. A thread of weft crosses twice
+between every two rows of knots and occasionally three times. _Pile_,
+wool, of medium length. _Border_, three to five stripes. _Sides_,
+generally a weft-overcasting, or a two-cord weft selvage; occasionally a
+double overcasting or selvage. _Lower end_, a narrow web, not
+infrequently a fine braided selvage and warp loops. _Upper end_, a
+narrow web, occasionally a fine braided selvage and warp fringe.
+_Texture_, moderately firm. _Weave_ at back is of medium grain. _Usual
+length_, five to twelve feet. _Usual width_, one half to three quarters
+length.
+
+[Illustration: PLATE 45. SHIRVAN RUG]
+
+
+KUBAS.—Not far from the southeast corner of the province of Daghestan,
+in a plain watered by streams that debouch from the Caucasus, is the
+small town of Kuba. It is on the site of an old Persian fort, about
+which in the course of time sprang up a town sufficiently important to
+be the residence of a Khan. For a long period previous to the treaty
+of Gulistan, in 1813, the influence of the Persians had been predominant
+in this part of the country; and it is not improbable that some of the
+oldest Kuba rugs now existing are the work of their weavers. Many, on
+the other hand, have few foreign characteristics either of weave or
+design, and show a relationship to the work of the Shemakha tribes, who
+inhabit an adjoining district in Shirvan.
+
+In some of this class the floral form receives more elaborate treatment
+than in any other Caucasian rug. One of the patterns of undoubted
+Iranian inspiration represents a large oval panel or medallion, with
+graceful outlines resting on a field of deep blue and sable brown,
+streaked with waving lines of gold. Within the medallion is a lavish
+display of large flowers _en masse_, and not detached from one another
+or arranged in set form, as is the case with most floral patterns. In
+each corner is a rose with spreading petals that equals the largest seen
+in nature, and with colour that suggests the beauty of a Duchess or
+Marechal Niel. Surrounding all is a narrow dainty border of some
+well-known Persian vine. The most recent copies of this pattern, that
+has been followed for at least a century and a half, are so crude as to
+resemble but slightly the oldest, which suggest the work of some early
+Kirman weaver and are unsurpassed in beauty and artistic elegance by any
+other Caucasian rug.
+
+Other patterns are more distinctly representative of the native art. The
+field of some is occupied by large, irregular, octagonal-shaped figures
+defined by serrated edges and subdivided by mosaic work, at the centre
+of which is some well-known design. One of the most pleasing patterns
+consists of a field on which with mathematical precision are placed
+large effulgent stars. At their centre is often a much smaller star
+enclosed by a diamond from which extend broad rays directed towards the
+eight principal points of the compass. When softened by time the
+different shades, such as light blue, ivory, and deep red of the
+enveloping rays, contrasted with other shades at the centre and with a
+dark blue of the ground, are exceedingly beautiful.
+
+The Kubas and Shemakhas have similar tones of colour, consisting
+principally of blues, reds, sable brown, and yellow, to which the soft,
+velvety character of the wool of the best examples gives a quality of
+richness that is distinctive. The finish of their sides and ends, which
+is usually similar to that of the Soumaks, is also identical, so that
+they are frequently mistaken for one another, and can only be
+distinguished by a difference of pattern and a slight difference of
+weave.
+
+_Type Characteristics._ _Colours_, principally blue, red, and brown,
+occasionally some green. _Knot_, Ghiordes. Knots to inch horizontally
+six to nine; perpendicularly, seven to thirteen. The rows of knots are
+pressed down, so that the warp is almost hidden at back. _Warp_, fine
+wool; the two threads encircled by a knot are equally prominent at back.
+_Weft_, wool of fine or medium diameter. A thread of weft crosses twice
+between every two rows of knots. _Pile_, wool of medium length.
+_Border_, one to three stripes. _Sides_, a blue double selvage of two or
+three cords. _Both ends_, a narrow blue web of "herring-bone" weave, a
+knotted selvage or several rows of knots, and short warp fringe.
+_Texture_, slightly loose. _Weave_ at back is of moderately fine grain.
+_Usual length_, four to nine feet. _Usual width_, one half to two thirds
+length.
+
+
+DERBENDS.—Near the great walls built by Alexander on the Caspian Sea,
+where mountains rise abruptly so as to leave only a narrow pass, is one
+of the oldest cities of Caucasia. It was known by the Romans as Albana,
+and was renamed by the Persians of the VI Century "Derbend," which in
+their language signifies a gateway. No other city of Caucasia has been
+visited by more foreign foes. Tartar tribes passed that way when
+entering Europe; Mongolians captured it as late as the XIII Century;
+Russians and Persians in turn held it. Moreover, the sea has offered an
+easy approach to the Turkoman tribes dwelling to the east. It is
+therefore somewhat surprising that there is so little evidence of
+artistic foreign influence in the weavings; but this is due, perhaps, to
+the fact that pieces with an authentic age of over two centuries no
+longer exist, and such old rugs as remain are very scarce; whilst the
+modern pieces are derived largely from the mountainous districts that
+find a market in the city.
+
+Occasionally, however, there comes to light a very old piece that
+reaches the standard of the finest Kabistan. The field of such a one may
+be filled with elaborately drawn pears like those seen in many of the
+Niris rugs. Again, it may be covered with a checkered or lattice-work
+pattern that contains within the diamonds geometric or semi-floral
+mosaic designs. Surrounding this field are three or four stripes, of
+which the outer has a reciprocal pattern. The nap is of fine wool of
+moderate length. At the back of these older rugs is sometimes
+displayed finely spun reddish dyed threads of woollen weft pressed
+closely together between lines of knots carefully tied to brownish
+threads of woollen warp; but not infrequently cotton is used for both
+warp and weft. Such designs and technique suggest the rugs woven much
+farther to the south.
+
+[Illustration: PLATE 46. SOUMAK RUG]
+
+In contrast with these beautiful but rare pieces, the modern products
+are sad commentaries on the retrogression in weaving; for those that are
+ordinarily found in the market are like poor imitations of inferior
+Daghestans. They are of slightly larger size, and have longer nap,
+looser weave, and cruder colours. Moreover, they show evidences of
+Turkoman influences; for not infrequently the warp is of brown goat's
+hair, and at each end is a reddish brown web like what may be seen in
+the rugs of Yomud tribes living on the eastern shores of the Caspian.
+Still other nomadic characters, resembling the workmanship of Kazak
+tribes, appear in the large star-like or diamond-shaped figures which,
+fringed with latch-hooks and coloured with bright tones of red, blue, or
+green, are often placed in simple array on a field of strongly
+contrasting colour. There is nothing, however, offensive in the colour
+scheme, excepting when aniline dyes are used. With wear the nap of many
+of them acquires the soft and pleasing effect of Beluchistans.
+Furthermore, they are both flexible and durable, though entirely lacking
+in artistic qualities.
+
+_Type Characteristics._ _Colours_, principally blue, red, and ivory,
+with minor quantities of green, yellow, and brown. _Knot_, Ghiordes.
+Knots to inch horizontally five to nine; perpendicularly, six to twelve.
+Each half knot is about as long as wide, and occasionally longer. The
+rows of knots are generally pressed down, so that the warp is concealed
+at back. _Warp_, generally wool, occasionally cotton. The separate
+threads are not strung closely together. Each of the two threads
+encircled by a knot is equally prominent at the back. _Weft_, generally
+wool, but often cotton. In some pieces a thread of weft of medium
+diameter crosses twice between every two rows of knots; not infrequently
+it crosses both twice and three times in the same piece; rarely a thread
+of coarse diameter crosses only once. _Pile_, wool of medium length.
+_Border_, three stripes. _Sides_, a double selvage of two or three
+cords, or occasionally a double overcasting. _Both ends_ have a web,
+frequently a knotted selvage, and a warp fringe. _Texture_, moderately
+loose. _Weave_ at back is of medium grain. _Usual length_, five to seven
+feet. _Usual width_, one half to two thirds length.
+
+
+LESGHIANS.—On the northern flank of the high mountain ranges that extend
+eastward from Kazbek into the province of Daghestan, live the numerous
+tribes classed as Lesghians. Their different dialects and languages
+would indicate unrelated origins; but their common religion, mode of
+life, and struggle for liberty have established between all of them
+strong bonds of sympathy. They are nominally Christians, but essentially
+Mohammedans. Most of them live in almost inaccessible spots, beneath the
+snow covered, glaciated ridges, and beside fierce flowing torrents,
+where on occasions they have converted their homes into almost
+impregnable fortresses. These are the people who united with the
+Circassians in the long-continued struggle against the Russian Empire,
+and followed Shamyl to repeated victory among the mountain defiles.
+
+It might naturally be expected that the rugs of such people would
+partake of a character totally distinct from those woven in the sunny
+atmosphere of Kirman, amid the sacred influences of Meshed, or among the
+peaceful hills of Ghiordes. Such, in fact, is the case, since both
+patterns and colouring display extreme simplicity, as well as strength
+and beauty. Large numbers of these rugs are of moderate size and
+slightly oblong; and are flexible yet stout. Both warp and weft are of
+fine brown wool; and as is rarely the case with any other Caucasian rugs
+excepting the Shushas, one of the two threads of warp encircled by a
+knot is often almost doubled beneath the other. The knotted fringe of
+the ends suggests the work of tribes living further westward, but the
+selvage of the sides shows relationship to the Daghestans.
+
+The patterns of some of these rugs are not unlike those of rugs woven
+south of the Caucasus; and not infrequently the fields contain unrelated
+designs such as the lozenge fringed with hooks, the octagonal disc,
+eight-pointed stars, and S forms. The borders usually consist of two or
+three stripes, on which is some geometric pattern. The colours are few
+and characteristic. Blue and yellow are generally present, and
+frequently red and brown. On the whole, these pieces have an interesting
+individuality unlike that of any other rugs.
+
+_Type Characteristics._ _Colours_, blue, yellow, red, brown, and ivory.
+_Knot_, Ghiordes. Knots to inch horizontally six to nine;
+perpendicularly, six to eleven. The rows of knots are firmly pressed
+down, so that the warp is almost hidden at back. _Warp_, brown wool;
+one of the two threads encircled by a knot is depressed below the other
+at back, or doubled under the other. _Weft_, wool of medium diameter. A
+thread of weft crosses twice between every two rows of knots. _Pile_,
+wool of medium length. _Border_, usually three stripes. _Sides_, an
+added selvage, which is generally wool but occasionally cotton, of two,
+three, or four cords. Both ends, a web, two or three rows of knots, and
+a warp fringe. In some pieces there is also a braided selvage.
+_Texture_, firm. _Weave_ at back is of slightly coarse grain. _Usual
+length_, five to eight feet. _Usual width_, one half to two thirds
+length.
+
+
+CHICHIS.—On the lower slope of the Caucasus, extending down into the
+valley of the Terek are the homes of the Tchechens, the weavers of
+pieces so often spoken of as Chichis. Beyond them to the north are great
+stretches of Russian steppes, and to the south is the land of the hardy
+Lesghians. Nevertheless, their rugs show little relationship to the work
+of the latter or of any other tribes to the north of the mountain chain;
+but resemble more closely the work of the Shirvans in the valley of the
+Kur, so that not infrequently they are mistaken for them. Indeed, their
+general character is remote from anything barbaric, and is more in
+keeping with the pleasing effect of the Persian sense of harmony. All
+floral forms are conventionalised, but the geometric designs have a
+delicacy of drawing, a refinement of detail, from which every jarring
+note is eliminated.
+
+Like almost all weavers, the Tchechens adopt different patterns. On the
+field of some of the rugs is a plentiful array of small devices
+surrounding two or three large geometric figures; or again the field may
+be covered with pear designs arranged in regular order; but most of the
+rugs now seen follow a common type. In this the field resembles a floor
+inlaid with beautiful mosaic work, formed of carefully cut stones of
+various hues, studiously arranged in the form of small diamonds,
+eight-pointed stars, or rosettes. Not infrequently the rosettes are
+outlined by a fret device surrounding a central star. They are
+invariably arranged in lines parallel to the ends of the rugs, and this
+horizontal effect is sometimes accentuated by inserting between each row
+narrow bands composed of conventionalised leaves. The colours of these
+small designs are generally ivory, light blue, pale yellow, or red; and
+appear more pronounced by contrast with the underlying ground of light
+blue. Now and then the nomadic instinct of the Tchechen tribes, who lead
+their flocks regularly from the green pastures of the ridges to the
+valley of the Terek, crops out in unrelated devices such as combs and S
+forms, which they weave in the field. But they usually arrange them so
+as to harmonise with the main pattern, or else place them near the sides
+and ends, which are almost invariably fringed with either a serrated
+line or a row of reciprocal trefoils projecting from the border into the
+field. This feature of a reciprocal trefoil employed as a fringe to the
+edges of a field independently of the lines of a stripe, is seen in very
+few other classes.
+
+Often the borders, which contain a large number of stripes, are as wide
+as the central field, with which they harmonise both in colour and
+design. There is something chaste in the simplicity of the geometric
+figures of the secondary stripes and of the conventionalised floral
+drawing of the main stripe. The latter, as represented in the type
+generally seen (Plate I, Fig. 6, opp. Page 226), consists of a row of
+about eight rosettes, connected by an angular vine drawn with such
+breadth and regularity as to resemble a number of parallel bars diagonal
+to the sides. In fact, this pattern would be entirely geometric were it
+not for the three-cleft leaves, which spring from opposite sides of the
+rosettes. Of the secondary stripes, the outer almost invariably has the
+reciprocal trefoil, and one has frequently a continuous line of
+eight-pointed stars. The arch of the prayer rugs is similar to that of
+Daghestans.
+
+_Type Characteristics._ _Colours_, principally ivory, blue, and red,
+with minor quantities of green and brown. _Knot_, Ghiordes. Knots to
+inch horizontally seven to ten; perpendicularly, eight to twelve. The
+rows of knots are not firmly pressed down, so that the warp may be seen
+at back. _Warp_, wool; each of the two threads encircled by a knot is
+equally prominent at back. _Weft_, wool, of medium diameter. A thread of
+weft crosses twice between every two rows of knots. _Pile_, wool, of
+short or medium length. _Border_, three to five stripes. _Sides_,
+generally a double overcasting, but occasionally a double selvage of two
+or three cords. _Both ends_, a web, one row of knots or more, and a warp
+fringe. _Texture_, moderately firm. _Weave_ at back is of medium grain.
+_Usual length_, four and one half to six and one half feet. _Usual
+width_, five eighths to three quarters length.
+
+[Illustration: PLATE 47. KAZAK PRAYER RUG]
+
+
+TCHERKESS.—The narrow strip of fertile and beautiful country that
+reaches from the Kuban valley southward along the shore of the Black Sea
+for a distance of two hundred miles is occupied by a people known to
+the western world as Circassians. In their own land they are called
+"Tcherkesses," a Tartar term for "cutter of roads" or highwaymen; and
+they have been in the habit of speaking of themselves as "Adighies" or
+Nobles. In fact, there has been no prouder Caucasian race, even though
+their homes were often log huts and their daughters were sold in the
+markets of Constantinople. These are the people, who half a century ago
+finally yielded after a long, fierce struggle for independence; but a
+hundred thousand families, preferring exile to submission to the Czar,
+migrated to Armenia and Asia Minor, where they intermarried with other
+races, and are rapidly losing their identity.
+
+Very few of the Circassian or Tcherkess rugs have been woven by those
+who left their country. The best were made before the exodus; and on
+account of the hardships and poverty of the people, many that have come
+to the market within recent years are greatly inferior to the excellent
+pieces of former times and are often mistaken for the work of nomadic
+tribes. Not only so, but crude and foreign devices have crept into some
+of them. It is, therefore, to the older pieces that we must turn for a
+better understanding of this class.
+
+Something of the ruggedness of lives spent in struggles with men and
+nature found expression in the fabrics, which show firmness of texture,
+boldness of design, richness of colour. In fact they resemble the Kazaks
+so closely in their long nap, and finish of sides and ends that they are
+constantly mistaken for them; yet they may be distinguished from all
+classes by the large amount of brownish red or tawny colour of the field
+and their stereotyped patterns. These usually consist of diamond-shaped
+figures sometimes called "sun-bursts," that are often regarded as crude
+copies of the Russian coat of arms; but there is little doubt that they
+have been derived from the medallions of some old Armenian rugs of the
+XIV and XV Centuries, in which also appear the same tri-cleft leaves so
+common in both this class and the Soumaks. These patterns are
+sufficiently large to occupy the full breadth of the field; and there
+are seldom less than two and occasionally as many as four or five
+extending from one end to the other. The strong contrast between the
+blue and ivory of the figures and the red or tawny colour of the ground
+is softened by the depth of pile, which in turn adds warmth and
+richness. The borders are always of three stripes. The main one almost
+invariably has the tarantula design and is enclosed by guards with the
+serrated sawtooth design. Many of these old pieces are excellently
+woven and have a dignity of pattern and wealth of harmonious colour
+rarely seen in nomadic rugs.
+
+_Type Characteristics._ _Colours_, principally red and tawny yellow,
+with minor quantities of blue and white. _Knot_, Ghiordes. Knots to inch
+horizontally six to nine; perpendicularly, seven to ten. A half knot, as
+it appears at back, is as long as wide or longer. The rows of knots are
+firmly pressed down, so that the warp does not show at back. _Warp_,
+wool; generally each of the two threads encircled by a knot is equally
+prominent at back, occasionally one is depressed below the other.
+_Weft_, wool of medium diameter. A thread of weft usually crosses only
+twice between every two rows of knots, but in some pieces as many as
+four or six times. _Pile_, wool of medium length. _Border_, three
+stripes. _Sides_, a two-cord double selvage. _Both ends_, as a rule have
+a web, a heavy braided selvage, and knotted warp fringe; occasionally
+either web or selvage may be omitted. _Texture_, very firm. Weave at
+back of medium grain. _Usual length_, five to ten feet. _Usual width_,
+one half to two thirds length.
+
+
+BAKUS.—No other rugs of Caucasia have greater individuality of colour
+and design than the Bakus. This, perhaps, is partly due to the fact that
+the district from which they come is dissimilar to any other. It
+consists largely of the peninsula of scanty vegetation, where the great
+mountain chain extends to the dreary Caspian, leaving at its base the
+narrow strip of land now famous for its immense accumulations of mineral
+oil. Hither, during the past, the followers of Zoroaster have come from
+all directions to worship in the temple of the Guebres, where day and
+night the priests watched the blue flame that rose perpetually from the
+ground, and once in long intervals spread over the waters like a sea of
+fire. This sacred spot has been owned in turn by Saracens, Persians,
+Turks, Russians, and the Princes of Shirvan; so that the influences of
+different religions and different races have been felt here.
+
+The most noticeable feature of many of these rugs is their dull colours,
+that give the impression of being partly bleached or having faded. There
+are subdued tones of light blue, tan, pale ocherous yellow, and black,
+as well as light, medium, and dark brown colours of natural wool; but in
+the rugs woven a century ago the colours were much richer. None of them
+are used in large masses excepting for the underground; nor are there
+striking contrasts, so that the effect is somewhat monotonous.
+
+[Illustration: _COLOUR PLATE VIII—SOUMAK RUG_
+
+_The shape, colouring, and particularly the pattern of this interesting
+Soumak, which was probably woven seventy-five or more years ago, not
+only are unusual but belong to a higher type than is often seen.
+Arranged in diagonal rows on a field of red are flowering bushes, that
+for the most part are blue and pink, but at one end are green, yellow,
+and brown. The accurate drawing of these bushes and of the reciprocal
+trefoils of the guard stripes, the care with which the stitches have
+been inserted, and the fine texture of the wool, as is shown even in the
+cream-white warp at the knotted ends, alike proclaim the excellent
+quality of this rare piece._
+
+ _Loaned by Mr. Theodore S. Hawley_]
+
+An equally important characteristic is the large number of pear designs,
+which are unlike those of any other rug. These designs (Plate O, Fig.
+6b, Page 291) are so rectangular that they have lost all resemblance to
+floral drawing; and to add to their formality, each is placed in the
+field with studied regularity and often surrounded by a delicate
+hexagonal shaped sub-pattern giving a diaper effect. Sometimes, also,
+they appear in the border between an array of other designs, to which
+they show no relation; but they never constitute the sole feature of the
+rug as they do in Sarabends.
+
+At the centre of the field is often a star-shaped design surrounded by a
+large diamond or other figure fringed with radiating lines. These lines
+suggest the effulgence of light; and it is not improbable that their
+origin lay in the mysticism of fire worship. In sedjadehs the corners
+are set off by quadrants of octagons, of which the diagonal sides are
+serrated and frequently fringed with radiating lines like the central
+medallions. Throughout both corners and fields often appear
+eight-pointed and effulgent stars, the three-cleft leaf, S designs,
+crude human and animal forms, and other small geometric devices like
+those seen in Daghestans and Shirvans. But more noticeable than any of
+these are the realistic but mechanically drawn birds, which are
+represented in larger numbers and more frequently than in any other rugs
+woven within the last century.
+
+The borders contain from three to five stripes, of which one at least is
+always geometric; and another, as a rule, has some suggestion of floral
+form. Often it is only the carnation in profile; but now and then it is
+a running vine with leaf or flower, adopted without modification from
+Persian rugs. This is not, however, surprising, when it is remembered
+that during the reign of Shah Abbas, Baku belonged to Persia, which for
+centuries had been the home of devout Parsees, some of whom undoubtedly
+made pilgrimages to the sacred temple.
+
+These rugs can at once be recognised by their short nap, and their
+characteristic colours and designs. They are always interesting on
+account of their marked individuality and the still unsolved symbols of
+Zoroastrian mysticism they may contain; but in spite of the careful
+delineation of the design and the delicate mosaic effect of the central
+medallions, very few, excepting the old pieces, are handsome.
+
+_Type Characteristics._ _Colours_, principally brown, tan, blue, yellow,
+and black. _Knot_, Ghiordes. Knots to inch horizontally six to nine;
+perpendicularly, seven to eleven. The rows of knots are firmly pressed
+down, so that the warp does not show at back. _Warp_, wool; each of the
+two threads encircled by a knot is generally equally prominent at back,
+occasionally one is depressed slightly below the other. _Weft_, usually
+cotton, sometimes wool, of medium diameter. A thread of weft crosses
+twice between every two rows of knots. _Pile_, wool, clipped short.
+_Border_, three to five stripes. _Sides_, a weft overcasting or a narrow
+weft selvage. _Both ends_, a web, one row of knots or more, and a warp
+fringe. _Texture_, moderately firm. _Weave_ at back is of slightly
+coarse grain. _Usual length_, six to nine feet. _Usual width_, one half
+to two thirds length.
+
+
+SHIRVANS.—Between the rugs of Shirvan and Daghestan is a relationship
+easily accounted for by the fact that they are adjoining provinces, and
+that almost the only approach to Daghestan for the Asiatic races among
+whom the art of weaving reached its highest development was through
+Shirvan. Both districts, therefore, received ideas from the same
+sources; but since Shirvan has been at times more completely under the
+sway of Persia, it has yielded more readily to the influence of the
+Persian weavers, as is observable in the flower and foliate forms which
+are used more frequently and are drawn more realistically in its rugs
+than in those of Daghestan. On the other hand, the technique of weave as
+well as finish of sides and ends in the Shirvans lacks something of the
+refinement observable in the Daghestans.
+
+The oldest existing Shirvans are absorbingly interesting. In them the
+foliate forms are more noticeable than in almost any other Caucasian
+rugs, though they may in a measure be disguised by formal treatment.
+Sometimes they appear as large figures covering a great part of the
+field and acting as sub-patterns for superimposed smaller devices; but
+they are most frequently found in the borders. Other old pieces contain
+lattice-work of hexagonal-shaped diaper patterns, within which may be
+designs abounding in latch-hooks and figures strongly suggestive of
+Chinese devices. Such patterns, however, are unusual; as the fields of
+most old Shirvans are covered with large medallions, stars, and diamonds
+similar to those of Daghestans, although the drawing inclines to greater
+simplicity of outline and detail; and they have greater diversity of
+colour, as tones of blue, red, green, and brown in a field of ivory are
+not unusual.
+
+[Illustration: PLATE 48. KAZAK RUG]
+
+The patterns of the more modern rugs have become corrupted into a mere
+mechanical copying of conventional forms lacking all artistic spirit.
+Some of them resemble those found in both Daghestans and Kabistans, but
+generally the designs are drawn less clearly in Shirvans. This is partly
+because, as a rule, they are not so closely woven and the nap is not
+quite so short. Now and then the large medallions so common to Soumaks
+are seen; and not infrequently the field is covered with diagonal
+parallel stripes on which are small geometric devices.
+
+There is, however, one pattern peculiar to Shirvans that rarely, if
+ever, is adopted in any other class. It has somewhat the appearance of
+pole medallions and consists of a panel that occupies nearly the whole
+field and contains broad incisions at each side, which nearly divide it
+into three or four rectangular sections. Within each of them are
+octagonal figures, and an octagonal shape is given to both ends of the
+panel so as to leave small corners to the field. Each part often
+contains small designs such as latch-hooks, octagonal discs, S forms,
+eight-pointed stars, and combs, as well as crudely drawn dogs and other
+animal or human forms. With slight modifications this pattern is
+sometimes repeated in the prayer rugs (Plate C, Fig. 11, Page 61), but
+the section at one end is more completely an octagon, and the remainder
+is an oblong rectangle. A more usual pattern for prayer rugs has the
+same form of arch that is common in Daghestans.
+
+Whatever the fields of these rugs may lack in delicacy of drawing is
+amply compensated for by the diversity and beauty of some of their
+borders, which have a well balanced harmony of colours. They have seldom
+less than three, nor more than five stripes, of which the secondary are
+often as interesting as the primary. The best known is the one with
+serrated leaf and wine glass, represented in Plate I, Fig. 1, opp. Page
+226, which is found in such a large percentage of Shirvans that it is
+almost typical of them. If the figures of the field contain latch-hooks,
+they are very apt to be expressed in some form in the primary stripe.
+Such a one appears in Plate I, Fig. 2; and the beautiful Georgian
+pattern (Plate J, Fig. 9, opp. Page 228) is also occasionally seen. A
+very much rarer stripe, which is shown in Plate J, Fig. 8, is only used
+when the field has a large central panel with a corresponding pattern.
+Now and then appears a stripe with no other ornamentation than a formal
+row of pear designs. Of the secondary stripes, the one with the designs
+of carnations (Plate K, Fig. 1, opp. Page 230) is very frequently seen,
+but its beauty depends largely upon the delicacy of its drawing and
+colour scheme. On the whole, the Shirvan dyer displays a wider scope in
+the selection of colours than his Daghestan neighbour, but the tones are
+not always so rich or harmonious.
+
+_Type Characteristics._ _Colours_, principally blue, red, and ivory.
+_Knot_, Ghiordes. Knots to inch horizontally seven to twelve;
+perpendicularly, eight to twelve. The rows of knots are firmly pressed
+down, so that the transverse warp does not show at back. _Warp_, wool;
+each of the two threads encircled by a knot is equally prominent at
+back. _Weft_, generally wool, occasionally cotton, of medium or coarse
+diameter. A thread of weft crosses twice between every two rows of
+knots. _Pile_, wool, of short or medium length. _Border_, three to five
+stripes. _Sides_, generally a weft selvage of two or three cords or a
+double selvage, occasionally a double overcasting. _Both ends_, a web,
+one row of knots or more, and a warp fringe. _Texture_, slightly loose.
+_Weave_ at back is moderately coarse. _Usual length_, four to six feet.
+_Usual width_, one half to four fifths length.
+
+
+SOUMAKS.—Seventy miles to the northwest of Baku, and about the same
+distance to the south of Kuba, where the high ranges of the Caucasus
+begin to descend to the sea, is the city of Shemakha. It was almost
+destroyed by Nadir Shah, but recovered sufficiently within the last
+century to become the capital of Shirvan and a manufacturing centre of
+silks. It is the market place for many tribes from the mountains of
+Daghestan and the valley of the Kur, who take thither their rugs, from
+which its own weavers often borrow patterns. By a corruption of the name
+of the city, their fabrics are called Soumaks, though they are more
+popularly known as Kashmirs, because ends of yarn hang loosely at the
+back, as is the case with the beautiful shawls of the noted valley of
+India.
+
+[Illustration: PLATE 49. KARABAGH PRAYER RUG]
+
+It is, of course, the finish at the back and the absence of pile that
+make them so different from all other rugs and place them in a class by
+themselves; but even apart from these characteristics, they are as
+distinct a type as any in Caucasia. On the fields of most of them are
+three or four diamond-shaped medallions, that occupy nearly the full
+width of the field and extend from one end to the other. Almost without
+exception they are slightly hexagonal, and are incised on the diagonal
+sides to represent crosses. These patterns are doubtless derived from
+very old Armenian rugs; and it is possible that once the crosses had
+a religious significance, as it is claimed that the earlier weavers of
+this type were a Christian sect; but the present weavers are mostly
+Mohammedans. At the centre of the medallions and in the triangular
+spaces at the sides are flattened octagons, which are generally
+ornamented with some star-shaped devices. Superimposed on these larger
+patterns and surrounding them on the field, are also many small designs,
+which as a rule are grouped with a regularity suggestive of the mosaic.
+Some are common to other Caucasian pieces; but a few are more frequently
+seen in this class than in any other, as for instance, the knot of
+destiny (Plate O, Fig. 17, Page 291), and the tri-cleft leaf, drawn like
+a bird's claw, which appeared in Armenian rugs at least five centuries
+ago. Sometimes the medallions and octagons are replaced by smaller and
+more ornate figures, but the geometric character is seldom entirely
+lost.
+
+There are also some old pieces with a totally different pattern, and
+with fine colours that are most pleasing in the rich harmony of tones.
+They may contain geometric, foliate, or floral designs. One recently
+examined had a field of rose red completely covered with diagonal rows
+of innumerable dainty figures, which were evidently the conventionalised
+forms of small flower bushes. Not a single other design appeared in the
+field, yet the richness of colour and chasteness of pattern made it
+exceedingly beautiful.
+
+The patterns of the border stripes, that number from two to five, are
+generally distinctive; though occasionally they follow well known
+Caucasian drawing. The outer one has so frequently the running
+latch-hook that it is almost typical. As a rule, it has the simple form
+shown in Plate K, Fig. 20 (opp. Page 230); but now and then the more
+elaborate drawing of the Georgian stripe (Plate J, Fig. 9, opp. Page
+228) is followed. Sometimes this is replaced by the reciprocal trefoil,
+which is used also for the inner stripe; and a running vine and rosette,
+such as the one in Plate K, Fig. 4, is not infrequently used for a
+secondary stripe. The primary stripes, on the other hand, although most
+dissimilar to those of other rugs, differ so widely among themselves,
+that no one is typical. Separating these primary and secondary parts of
+the border are frequently narrow lines with the barber-pole device.
+
+The old pieces are of fine texture and excellent wool, which even in the
+warp displays a silky character. The dyes are faultless, though the
+colours never acquire a lustre. Red and blue are largely employed, but
+they are partly replaced by brown in the more modern pieces; and in both
+old and modern is usually an orange yellow that rarely appears in other
+Caucasian rugs.
+
+_Type Characteristics._ _Colours_, principally red, blue, brown, some
+yellow, and white. _Knot_, flat stitch. Knots to inch horizontally eight
+to fourteen; perpendicularly, six to sixteen. _Warp_, wool; each thread
+is equally prominent at the back. _Weft_, wool, of fine or medium
+diameter. A thread of weft crosses twice between every two rows of knots
+in old rugs, and between every second and third row in modern rugs.
+_Border_, two to five stripes. _Sides_, generally a double selvage of
+several cords, occasionally an overcasting. _Both ends_, narrow web, one
+or more rows of knots and fringe; sometimes heavy added selvage. _No
+nap._ _Usual length_, five and one half to twelve feet. _Usual width_,
+one half to three quarters length.
+
+
+SHEMAKHAS.—Flatly woven Soumaks are not the only rugs of the Shemakha
+tribes. Some of the same people, who dwell among the ranges of the
+Caucasus a short distance to the north, make rugs of pile that
+occasionally surpass in quality of material and beauty of colour scheme
+the best of Daghestans, and are sometimes spoken of by dealers as "Royal
+Daghestans;" yet they are seldom seen and little known. In fact, they
+are frequently mistaken for Persian fabrics on account of the subdued
+richness of their deep reds, blues, greens, yellows, and browns, and the
+patterns which are largely floral.
+
+Very often the principal border stripe is the well-known Georgian
+pattern, that occurs in so many Soumaks, even though the secondary
+stripe be some Persian pattern. These rugs also resemble the Soumaks in
+the coloured woollen selvage of the sides, and in the narrow coloured
+web of "herring-bone" weave and knotted fringe of the ends. In some, the
+field is divided by diagonal bars into large diamond-shaped figures
+containing conventionalised flowers; in others, it is merely a
+background over which are strewn more realistically drawn floral forms;
+and in all is expressed an artistic perception of design and colour not
+frequently found in Caucasian pieces.
+
+_Type Characteristics._ _Colours_, principally blue, red, and brown.
+_Knot_, Ghiordes. Knots to inch horizontally seven to eleven;
+perpendicularly, seven to thirteen. The rows of knots are pressed down,
+so that the warp is almost hidden. _Warp_, wool; one of the two threads
+encircled by a knot is depressed below the other at back. _Weft_, wool,
+of fine or medium diameter. A thread of weft crosses twice between every
+two rows of knots. _Pile_, wool, of medium length. _Border_, two to
+three stripes. _Sides_, a blue selvage of two or three cords. _Both
+ends_, a narrow blue web of "herring-bone" weave, a knotted selvage or
+several rows of knots, and short warp fringe. _Texture_, slightly firm.
+_Weave_ at back is of moderately fine grain. _Usual length_, four to
+eight feet. _Usual width_, two fifths to two thirds length.
+
+
+TIFLIS.—When it is considered that for centuries Tiflis has been the
+Georgian capital, where culture and art received more encouragement than
+in the provinces; that it was in constant communication with the
+rug-producing countries on all sides; and was on one of the great
+highways between Persia and Europe, it is surprising that what has been
+written hitherto about Caucasian rugs has contained almost no reference
+to a type peculiar to this city and district. This is undoubtedly due to
+the fact that within recent years hardly any rugs have been produced
+there, and that the old pieces are few and but little known.
+
+Nevertheless, now and then come to light beautiful old rugs which are
+dissimilar to those of all other classes. The wool of their moderately
+long nap has a silkiness that suggests a Shiraz or a Meshed; the colour
+scheme includes a very wide range of bright and positive tones, such as
+blue, green, rose, and ivory; the weave of delicate and fine threads is
+as close as that of old Bergamos. A glance at the ends and back helps to
+determine the type; for the warp is occasionally of cotton, which is a
+peculiarity not seen in many other Caucasian classes; the weft which
+crosses from three to five times is of very finely spun wool mostly dyed
+a brown or dull red, and strung with great exactness; and the knots are
+tied with care. There is also something distinctive in many of the
+patterns; for however interesting they may be, precision of drawing is
+often combined with discordance of detail. One part of the field, for
+instance, may consist of a well executed diaper pattern; another part
+may represent a number of stiff, perpendicular, parallel bars, occupying
+the full width of the field; and still another part may be entirely
+occupied by hexagonal-shaped pear designs. Adjoining these may be other
+pear designs of totally dissimilar shape as well as mystic symbols and
+other strange devices. Likewise, many different colours may be placed in
+close relation, yet the wool is so soft and the tones so delicate that
+the effect is not harsh. Some sort of tree-form is not unusual; but on
+the whole, the designs of both field and border are geometric.
+
+_Type Characteristics._ _Colours_, principally blue and red, with minor
+quantities of yellow, green, and brown. _Knot_, Ghiordes. Knots to inch
+horizontally six to ten; perpendicularly, six to ten. A half knot, as it
+appears at back, is as long as wide or longer. The rows of knots are
+firmly pressed down, so that the warp does not show at back. _Warp_,
+generally wool, occasionally cotton; each of the two threads encircled
+by a knot is equally prominent at back. _Weft_, wool, of fine diameter,
+usually dyed red or brown. A thread of weft crosses from three to five
+times between every two rows of knots. _Pile_, soft wool of medium
+length. _Border_, three to five stripes. _Sides_, a double overcasting
+or narrow selvage. _Both ends_, a web and warp fringe. _Texture_, firm.
+_Weave_ at back is of moderately fine grain. _Usual length_, six to
+eleven feet. _Usual width_, three eighths to two thirds length.
+
+
+KUTAIS.—Among a large assortment of Caucasian rugs are occasionally seen
+a few pieces from Kutais, once famed as the home of Media, and now the
+capital of Imeritia. The gardens surrounding its homes, that line both
+banks of the river Rion, are fragrant with lilacs and roses; in the
+valley beyond the city, pink rhododendrons and yellow azaleas blossom
+beneath the oaks. Here is woodland scenery not found in other parts of
+Caucasia, and it might be expected that the weavings of the people would
+have a striking individuality of their own; but they are little known as
+a distinct class. In fact, they bear such a resemblance to the Kazaks
+that they are constantly mistaken for them; though as a rule they have a
+more oblong shape and somewhat shorter nap; they are less stoutly woven,
+less barbaric, and contain fewer crude, nomadic devices. Moreover, as
+this district was producing rugs before the Cossacks had settled
+permanently in Southern Caucasia, it is not improbable that some of its
+patterns were copied by them.
+
+[Illustration: PLATE 50. GENGHA RUG]
+
+A peculiarity of this class is the drawing of the pear designs, which
+are found in a very large number of the rugs. The extension of the
+narrower end, instead of being a short, curved hook, is generally more
+developed, so that it may be as long as the major axis of the pear and
+frequently stands almost at right angles to it. Also attached to the
+sides of the pear are rectangular bead-like processes (Plate O, Fig. 6c,
+Page 291). In many of these rugs, the field is divided into a number
+of bands parallel with the sides; and through them run vines, from which
+the pears are suspended. Or the pears may be arranged in regular order
+on the field without the bands and vines. Sometimes the field is reduced
+to a very small space by a broad border consisting of a number of
+stripes, some of which are often of striking patterns. One of them is
+represented in Plate I, Fig. 15 (opp. Page 226), which suggests the
+grape vine common to the gardens of Kutais. Some form of the tree of
+life and floral forms are also seen in old pieces.
+
+A resemblance exists between the weave of Kutais and Tiflis rugs, as in
+each the weft usually crosses several times; it is generally coloured
+blue or red, and is formed of fine threads of yarn. The wool of the nap
+is of the same fine quality; but the warp of the Kutais rugs, which is
+almost invariably of wool, frequently consists of a brown and white
+thread twisted together; and the knots are tied less evenly, so that the
+alignment at the back is a little more irregular, yet less so than in
+Kazaks.
+
+_Type Characteristics._ _Colours_, principally red, blue, and white,
+with minor quantities of yellow, brown, and black. _Knot_, Ghiordes.
+Knots to inch horizontally five to nine; perpendicularly, six to eleven.
+A half knot, as it appears at back, is as long as wide or longer. The
+rows of knots are slightly pressed down. The alignment is more even than
+in Kazaks. _Warp_, generally wool, occasionally cotton; each of the two
+threads encircled by a knot is equally prominent at the back. _Weft_,
+wool, of fine or medium diameter. A thread of weft usually crosses three
+times, occasionally only once, and again four or five times. _Pile_,
+wool, of medium length or long. _Border_, three to five stripes.
+_Sides_, either a double overcasting, or a double selvage of two or
+three cords. _Both ends_, a web and warp fringe. _Texture_, moderately
+firm. _Weave_ at back, generally of medium fine grain but occasionally
+coarse. _Usual length_, six to twelve feet. _Usual width_, one third to
+two thirds length.
+
+
+KAZAKS.—Of the warlike Cossack tribes, which were once stationed along
+the southeastern border of Russia to protect it from the depradations of
+Caucasians, a number settled permanently in Circassia, and a few crossed
+the mountains to the high plateau lying between Lake Gotcha and Mt.
+Ararat. Here they adopted more sedentary lives; but there still lingers
+the inherited spirit that generations ago won for them the name Kazaks,
+which denotes to the Tartars, from whom many have doubtless sprung, a
+Marauder. All of these tribes weave; but the rugs seen in this country
+come principally from the southern district, where may also be found the
+fabrics of other races such as Armenians, Tartars, and the native
+people. Nevertheless, the Kazak weavings are of a most distinct type, to
+which even the smaller Kazakjes conform. They have bright, rich colours,
+of which a liberal amount of green is almost invariably present, though
+sparingly used in other Caucasian rugs. Only the Tcherkess vie with them
+in the length of the nap; and no other class has such noticeable
+patterns of incongruous sizes and shapes. They have, in fact, the most
+nomadic, unconventional patterns of all this northern group; and in
+their barbaric characteristics, they bear much the same relation to
+other Caucasian rugs as those of Western Kurdish and Yuruk tribes bear
+to Persian and Asia Minor pieces.
+
+In marked contrast to the almost mosaic drawing of Chichis and many
+Daghestans, the Kazaks show a tribal fondness for large patterns.
+Sometimes the field is divided into three horizontal panels, which may
+be entirely plain except for a simple design fringing the edges; or as
+is more frequently the case, it may be occupied by large, slightly
+elongated octagons, within which are represented smaller figures.
+Occupying almost the entire field of other pieces are large patterns
+like medallions, perfectly balanced with reference to the centre and
+subdivided into small sections, each of which contains individual
+motives. A few of this class, also, have the "sunburst" pattern, so
+characteristic of the Tcherkess.
+
+At least half the pieces now seen are without any formal pattern, but
+contain a heterogeneous lot of geometric designs characteristic of
+nomadic weavings; but even these are generally arranged with the idea of
+symmetrical balance. For instance, at the centre may be a large
+geometric figure surrounded at equal distances by pairs of smaller and
+similar figures. Not infrequently the drawing of the upper and lower
+half, or of the right and left side, shows an almost perfect
+correspondence, notwithstanding the many separate designs. The most
+common of these are eight-pointed stars, lozenges fringed with
+latch-hooks, and what are known as the "tarantula" device. Of the
+innumerable small figures, the octagonal discs and S forms are the most
+common; crude animal and human figures are also seen.
+
+Excepting the addition of the arch, there is little distinction between
+namazliks and sedjadehs. It is small and less graceful than that of Asia
+Minor pieces, and follows stiff lines in harmony with the general
+pattern. It is, however, drawn in two different ways. Generally it has
+the shape of half an octagon, or of a wall-tent with apex flattened;
+but not infrequently it is square or slightly oblong. The narrow bands
+that form the arch are extended transversely from each side of the base
+to the borders; and occasionally they are continued down the sides of
+the field to form at the bottom a figure similar to the square-shaped
+arch. Now and then a comb, or small figure of diamond shape, on which to
+place the bit of sacred earth from Mecca, is outlined within the mihrab;
+and now and then crude palm-like figures, indicating where the hands are
+to be rested in the act of devotion, are represented at the sides.
+
+However many stripes the border may contain, rarely are there more than
+one of any consequence; since the guard stripes have generally only the
+reciprocal sawtooth or trefoil patterns, the barber-pole or dotted lines.
+The absence of important secondary stripes, however, brings out more
+prominently the drawing and colouring of the main one. The most common
+pattern is what is known as the "tarantula" represented in Plate I, Fig.
+8 (opp. Page 226). Very similar is the crab pattern (Plate I, Fig. 7),
+which was undoubtedly derived from the double vine of some Persian rug,
+as the crab-like figure may be resolved into a rosette to which are
+attached four conventionalised leaves. Another pattern, which is also
+seen in Kutais rugs, is the crude but striking vine shown in Plate I,
+Fig. 15, which, when represented in bold, rich colours on an ivory
+field, makes a most effective and beautiful border stripe. Other border
+stripes frequently employed in these rugs appear in Plate I.
+
+Unfortunately, during recent years, many inferior rugs of other tribes
+have been sold as Kazaks, which in a measure they often resemble though
+they lack their spirit and character. The very modern Kazaks, also, are
+often of poor quality, but those made two generations or more ago were
+carefully and stoutly woven, with silky wool dyed with the best of
+vegetable colours. There is always something interestingly barbaric in
+their long, almost shaggy nap, their masses of rich red and green, their
+bold designs surrounded by smaller nomadic figures, all of which
+collectively find no counterpart in any other Caucasian rugs.
+
+_Type Characteristics._ _Colours_, principally red, green, and yellow,
+also some blue, white, and brown. _Knot_, Ghiordes. Knots to inch
+horizontally six to nine; perpendicularly, seven to ten. The rows of
+knots are pressed down, so that the warp is hidden at back. _Warp_,
+wool; each of the two threads encircled by a knot is equally prominent
+at back. _Weft_, wool, of coarse diameter, usually dyed red or brown. A
+thread of weft generally crosses only twice between every two rows of
+knots, but occasionally three or four times. _Pile_, wool, clipped long.
+_Border_, three to five stripes. _Sides_, a double overcasting attached
+in figure-eight fashion to the sides, or a double selvage having from
+three to five cords. _Lower end_, a red or brown web and warp loops, or
+a braided selvage and fringe. _Upper end_, a red or brown web,
+occasionally a braided selvage or several rows of knots, and a warp
+fringe. _Texture_, stout. _Weave_ at back is of very coarse grain.
+_Usual length_, five to twelve feet. _Usual width_, one third to three
+quarters length.
+
+
+KARABAGHS.—To the southeast of Lake Gotcha and north of the river Aras,
+that divides Caucasia from Persia, is the district of Karabagh, a name
+signifying "Black Vineyard." On account of its geographic position, it
+has been subject to the Shahs for long periods, during the many
+struggles between the two countries. It is, moreover, separated from the
+rug-producing district of Karadagh by the river only; and its southern
+border is less than eighty miles distant from the city of Tabriz, to
+which many of its rugs are taken. For these reasons it would be only
+natural to expect that the weavings of Karabagh would show more of the
+Persian influence than those of any other part of Caucasia. Such,
+indeed, is true, when applied to the oldest pieces; but it is not at all
+true in the case of a large percentage of the modern products.
+
+Within recent years large numbers of these coarsely made and wretchedly
+dyed rugs have reached the Western markets. Some of them resemble Kazaks
+in their geometric figures; but differ from them in their workmanship,
+since one of the two threads encircled by a knot is depressed; they are
+much more loosely woven; they are not so large; nor for the most part
+are they so heavy. Other pieces often lack the symbolic and other small
+designs that render nomadic rugs so interesting. Occasionally the
+central field is almost figureless, or there may be large expanses of
+white or some raw colour such as startling red, yellow, or blue, on
+which appear stiffly and crudely drawn nondescript devices.
+
+[Illustration: PLATE 51. ROYAL BOKHARA RUG]
+
+It is a relief to turn from these poor pieces to those woven half a
+century ago, with less obtrusive colouring and more chaste patterns.
+Many of the old pieces are oblong sedjadehs, which have often a length
+almost twice the breadth; though the more modern pieces incline to
+smaller and nearly square sizes. There are also namazliks that do not
+always religiously follow the usual pattern; for now and then one is
+seen with an arch of several steps, rising from near the middle of the
+sides, and with a diamond for the sacred earth or pebble from Mecca, as
+is shown in Plate C, Fig. 12 (Page 61). The particular piece from which
+this was drawn was over fifty years old and was three fourths as wide as
+long. Scattered over the main field, which was yellowish brown, and the
+spandrels, which were white, were geometrically shaped flowers with long
+angular stems tinted with blue, green, and pinkish red.
+
+The borders show as great diversity as the fields, but one stripe
+usually contains a concession to the Persian and another to the
+Caucasian tradition. For instance, the primary stripe may be of Iranian
+character flanked by the running latch-hook; or it may be the well-known
+crab pattern, while the adjacent stripe may be a running vine of simple
+form.
+
+Many of these old pieces are very handsome and equal in artistic finish
+the best of Caucasian rugs; the drawing is carefully executed; the
+colours are rich; the weave is fair; but like the rare old rugs of
+Daghestan and Tiflis, are now seldom seen.
+
+_Type Characteristics._ _Colours_, principally red, blue, yellow, and
+white. _Knot_, Ghiordes. Knots to inch horizontally six to ten;
+perpendicularly, seven to ten. The rows of knots are only slightly
+pressed down, yet the warp is generally concealed at back. _Warp_, wool;
+one of the two threads encircled by a half knot is depressed below the
+other at back. _Weft_, wool, of medium or coarse diameter, sometimes
+dyed red. A thread of weft crosses twice between every two rows of
+knots. _Pile_, wool, of short or medium length. _Border_, three stripes.
+_Sides_, generally a double selvage of two or three cords, in lengths of
+different colours; occasionally a double overcasting attached
+figure-eight fashion. _Lower end_, a web and warp loops, or a braided
+selvage, one row of knots or more, and a warp fringe. _Upper end_, a
+web, a web turned back and hemmed, or a braided selvage, one row of
+knots or more, and a warp fringe. _Texture_, loose. _Weave_ at back is
+of coarse grain. _Usual length_, four to nine feet. _Usual width_, one
+half to three quarters length.
+
+SHUSHAS.—About seventy miles to the southeast of Lake Gotcha is Shusha,
+capital of Karabagh. Nearly two centuries ago, it was built by Nadir
+Shah on an almost inaccessible mountain side to guard the northern
+boundary of Persia, which had been extended to the Caucasus. It has now
+about twelve thousand inhabitants, and is the market place for numerous
+tribes that are scattered over the dry plains as far as the Aras river.
+In this city and in the suburbs are woven rugs that are frequently
+imported to this country and sold under several names, yet are of a
+distinct type. They resemble the Karabaghs of the surrounding country
+but differ from them in their richer and more subdued colours as well as
+in the stoutness of weave. One thread of warp to each knot is doubled
+beneath the other, whereas in the rugs of the desert tribes it is only
+depressed.
+
+_Type Characteristics._ _Colours_, principally dark blue, red, and
+brown, with minor quantities of green and yellow. _Knot_, Ghiordes.
+Knots to inch horizontally seven to twelve; perpendicularly, six to
+eleven. The rows of knots are only slightly pressed down, so that the
+warp shows at back. _Warp_, wool; one of the two threads encircled by a
+knot is much depressed below the other at back, and frequently doubled
+under the other. _Weft_, wool, of medium diameter, generally dyed red. A
+thread of weft crosses twice between every two rows of knots. _Pile_,
+wool of medium length. _Border_, three stripes. _Sides_, a double
+selvage of two or three cords, often attached to the sides in
+figure-eight fashion. _Lower end_, a narrow web and warp loops. _Upper
+end_, a web that is sometimes turned back and hemmed, and a warp fringe.
+_Texture_, moderately firm. _Weave_ at back is of slightly coarse grain.
+_Usual length_, four to nine feet. _Usual width_, one half to three
+quarters length.
+
+
+GENGHAS.—Over the land lying between lakes Gotcha, Van, and Urumiah, in
+Caucasia, Armenia, and Persia, tribes of mixed origin wander back and
+forth, but frequently gather at the yearly fair of Elizabethpol. During
+the period when the Persian rule extended over the country, it was the
+residence of a Khan and an important centre of trade. As it was then
+known as Ganja or Gengha, the weavings of these nomads, which were
+marketed there, acquired that name.
+
+[Illustration: PLATE 52. PRINCESS BOKHARA RUG]
+
+Naturally they are a heterogeneous lot containing ideas incorporated
+from many sources; but they resemble the Kazaks more than anything
+else, and are frequently mistaken for them. Yet some of the distinctions
+are very marked: they have a more oblong shape; the nap is shorter; and
+they are less stoutly woven. In the Kazaks a thread of weft, as a rule,
+crosses only twice between two rows of knots, which are firmly pressed
+down; but in these rugs a thread of weft crosses from four to eight
+times between two rows of knots, which are not firmly pressed down, so
+that the narrow filling of weft is sometimes even four times as wide as
+a row of knots and presents a bead-like appearance. In the colour scheme
+of numerous pieces, which in many respects resembles that of Karabaghs,
+is often a preponderance of ivory white. There is no characteristic
+pattern. The field may be covered with diagonal stripes as in some
+Shirvans; it may consist largely of lozenges fringed with latch-hooks
+and tarantula devices; again, it may have some large central figure
+surrounded by a motley lot of emblematic as well as apparently
+meaningless devices, or crudely drawn human, animal, or floral forms.
+The borders, likewise, include a wide scope of patterns. It is,
+therefore, largely by the character of the weave, quality of material,
+and finish of sides and ends, that these pieces can be distinguished
+from other nomadic products.
+
+_Type Characteristics._ _Colours_, principally blue, red, and white,
+with minor quantities of green, yellow, and brown. _Knot_, Ghiordes.
+Knots to inch horizontally six to eight; perpendicularly, six to nine. A
+half knot, as it appears at back, is longer than wide. The rows of knots
+are not firmly pressed down, so that the warp shows at the back. _Warp_,
+generally wool, occasionally goat's hair; each of the two threads
+encircled by a knot is equally prominent at the back. _Weft_, wool, of
+medium diameter and usually dyed red. A thread of weft crosses twice
+between every two rows of knots, but generally three and frequently as
+many as six or eight times. _Pile_, wool of medium length. _Border_,
+three or four stripes. _Sides_, a double selvage of two, three, or four
+cords. _Lower end_, a web, usually coloured red, and warp loops. _Upper
+end_, a web to which a braided selvage is often added, and a warp
+fringe. _Texture_, very loose. _Weave_ at back is of coarse grain.
+_Usual length_, five to nine feet. _Usual width_, two fifths to two
+thirds length.
+
+
+BORDER STRIPES
+
+Disregarding a very few floral secondary stripes that have been derived
+from Persian rugs, the Caucasian borders are characterised by geometric
+patterns, which distinguish them from other groups. But were it possible
+to trace them to their origin, it would doubtless be found that a very
+large number that are now strictly geometric have degenerated from leaf
+and flower patterns. Of the remainder, some are symbolic and others are
+crude copies of familiar objects. The more artistic and realistically
+drawn floral patterns appear in the less conspicuous secondary stripes;
+but on the other hand the primary stripes contain a number of unusually
+interesting patterns, which have been copied for centuries.
+
+
+PRIMARY STRIPES.—The cup and serrated leaf pattern (Plate I, Fig. 1,
+opp. Page 226) appears so frequently in Shirvans as to be almost
+typical. It is also occasionally seen in Daghestans and Kabistans; but
+probably originated in Southern Caucasia or Armenia, since it is found
+similarly drawn in rugs woven in that district about 1500 A. D. It is a
+pattern that scarcely varies with time or locality except in the number
+of serrations to the leaf and in the shape of the cup.
+
+Serrated leaf patterns, represented in Figs. 2 and 3, Plate I, are
+sometimes seen in Kazak and other nomadic rugs. It is not improbable
+that they have a common origin with the Shirvan cup and leaf pattern.
+
+In the stripe represented in Plate I, Fig. 4, is a series of wine cup
+rosettes that are occasionally seen in the old rugs from the Shirvan
+district. In fact, the wine cup design is a favourite there.
+
+Another stripe, in which a somewhat similar cup appears, is shown in
+Plate I, Fig. 5. This is an old nomadic pattern not frequently seen.
+
+Fig. 6 of Plate I, represents the well-known Chichi border stripe,
+composed of rosettes separated by diagonally drawn ribbon-like bars. To
+the rosettes are attached tri-cleft leaves. This stripe suggests at once
+some Persian vine and flower.
+
+What is known as the crab pattern (Plate I, Fig. 7), is seen in Kazaks
+and other Caucasian nomadic rugs, as well as in a few very modern Asia
+Minor pieces. Though its resemblance to a crab is noticeable, it is
+really a rosette to which are attached four crudely drawn leaves, that
+frequently contain smaller designs at their centres.
+
+[Illustration: PLATE I. PRIMARY BORDER-STRIPES OF CAUCASIAN RUGS]
+
+Slightly resembling the last is the so-called tarantula pattern (Plate
+I, Fig. 8), that was possibly derived from the stripe with an
+eight-pointed star (Plate K, Fig. 12, opp. Page 230); but it seems more
+probable that the inspiration is Iranian and that it is intended for
+rosette and double vine. This stripe is found in Kazaks, Genghas,
+Tcherkess, and other nomadic rugs.
+
+Somewhat like the last is the stripe of Plate I, Fig. 9, that is now and
+then seen in old Tiflis and other rugs of Southern Caucasia. It suggests
+a geometric rosette and double vine.
+
+Occasionally the dainty clover-leaf design, represented in Plate I, Fig.
+10, is used by the nomadic weavers. It is almost the only reciprocal
+pattern found in a Caucasian primary stripe.
+
+The repetitive urn-shaped pattern of Plate I, Fig. 11 is once in a while
+seen in old rugs of the Daghestan country.
+
+On account of the resemblance between the stripes shown in Plate I,
+Figs. 12 and 13, they have probably a common origin. Both are found in
+rugs of the Daghestan and Shirvan districts, and the former is
+occasionally seen in rugs of Asia Minor. Sometimes smaller adventitious
+devices are placed at the sides of the stripes between the rosettes.
+
+Resembling the last is the pattern shown in Plate I, Fig. 14, which is
+commonly seen in Shirvan rugs and kilims. It is purely geometric and
+resembles one used in Western Asia Minor rugs of the XV Century, from
+which it may have been derived.
+
+Though greatly conventionalised, the pattern represented in Plate I,
+Fig. 15 is a vine and leaf derived from much more ornate forms, which
+may be seen in a XVI Century Asia Minor piece that is in the British
+Museum. It is now seldom copied, but was once a popular pattern for the
+Kazak and Kutais weavers.
+
+Some form of the latch-hook appears in a large number of Caucasian
+stripes, but mostly in nomadic pieces. Figs. 16, 17, 18, 19, and 20 of
+Plate I, represent patterns found mostly in old Kazaks and kindred rugs.
+The last one is also occasionally used as a secondary stripe. The
+patterns shown in Plate I, Figs. 21 and 22 are from stripes sometimes
+seen in the Daghestan and Shirvan districts.
+
+A much more interesting stripe because of its well authenticated
+antiquity, is the one shown in Plate J, Fig. 1 (opp. Page 228). It is
+found in rugs made in Southern Caucasia two centuries ago, and according
+to Dr. Martin has been used since the XII Century. Probably as the
+result of copying, the design appears reversed in many old rugs.[30]
+These stripes are seen in comparatively recent pieces, but principally
+in those of the Daghestan and Shirvan districts. Though the latch-hook
+is suggested by the small triangular parts, it is more probable that
+originally they were intended for leaves. In a few stripes the design is
+elongated, and in place of a single crossbar there are several, forming
+a figure that slightly resembles a poinsetta, which is the term
+occasionally applied to it by weavers.
+
+The stripe shown in Plate J, Fig. 2, which is found in Kazak and other
+nomadic rugs, is interesting as representing a vine of which the pendant
+flower is replaced by a T formed by latch-hooks.
+
+In Figs. 3 and 4 of Plate J, are patterns of stripes found in rugs of
+the Shirvan and Daghestan districts. As they are several centuries old,
+they may be derived from Armenian patterns, to which they show kinship.
+Both patterns are at times reversed as the result of copying.[31] A
+stripe also used in the same districts and probably of similar origin is
+seen in Plate J, Fig. 5.
+
+Differing from any of these because of their utilitarian origin, are the
+separate designs, which arranged in perpendicular rows, form the "churn"
+stripe of Plate J, Fig. 6. Each of them represents crude machines for
+churning milk, which were formerly used by the nomadic tribes of
+Southern Caucasia and Armenia, who constructed them out of logs with a
+length of about five feet, and placed the sharpened base in the ground.
+Then hanging a goat's skin filled with milk over each of the sides, and
+seating themselves in the middle, they turned first one then the other.
+As might be expected, these stripes belong entirely to nomadic rugs.
+
+Figs. 7 and 8 of Plate J, represent stripes sometimes seen in Shirvans.
+The latter is undoubtedly derived from the prayer patterns that are
+often used in these rugs.
+
+What is known as the Georgian stripe is shown in Plate J, Fig. 9. It is
+found in Daghestans, Kabistans, Shirvans, Soumaks, Shemakhas, and Kubas.
+Though a primary stripe, it is rarely placed at the centre of the
+border, but at the outer or the inner side, or at both sides with a less
+ornate stripe between. As a rule it accompanies only the more artistic
+rugs.
+
+Generally the primary stripes of Soumaks are different from those of
+other rugs. A few appear in Figs. 10, 11 and 12 of Plate J. The last is
+interesting on account of the leaf-like forms of the octagonal designs.
+
+[Illustration: PLATE J. PRIMARY BORDER-STRIPES OF CAUCASIAN RUGS]
+
+The stripes seen in Plate J, Figs. 13, 14 and 15 are found only in
+nomadic rugs. The last is interesting principally on account of the
+swastikas.
+
+And old form now and then seen in the Daghestan-Shirvan classes appear
+in Plate J, Fig. 16. It is an archaic pattern copied from a most
+interesting Daghestan prayer rug.
+
+The stripe shown in Plate J, Fig. 17 is sometimes adopted in rugs of
+Southern Caucasia, such as the Kutais and Kazak.
+
+Another very old pattern found in the borders of the Daghestan-Shirvan
+classes is shown in Plate J, Fig. 18. Though it suggests the narrow
+tertiary stripes known as "barber-poles," it differs from them by being
+very much wider, and by containing bars of many different colours, as
+red, yellow, cream, blue, green, and brown, which generally contain
+short, oblong dashes.
+
+A very interesting stripe, found almost exclusively in rugs from the
+districts of Daghestan and Shirvan, is the Cufic pattern of Plate J,
+Fig. 19. It is particularly characteristic of old Daghestans and
+Kabistans, but must have been introduced through Shirvan from Armenia,
+as it can be traced through a gradation of changes to stripes of Cufic
+characters used in Asia Minor rugs of the XV Century.
+
+Plate J, Fig. 20 represents a "bracket-chain" pattern that probably
+originated in Asia Minor, but is occasionally found in the rugs of
+Caucasia.
+
+In Plate J, Fig. 21 is a stripe representing scorpions, that is very
+rarely seen in Shirvans; and in Fig. 22 is a stripe representing birds,
+sometimes seen in Bakus.
+
+
+SECONDARY AND TERTIARY STRIPES.—As the pattern shown in Plate K, Fig. 1
+(opp. Page 230) shows in profile flowers representing carnations, it has
+been called the "carnation pattern." It is very common in Shirvans,
+Kabistans, and Daghestans.
+
+Less frequently seen are the rectangular vine with a design like a
+three-leaf clover, shown in Plate K, Fig. 2, and the very graceful vine
+with leaf and flower shown in Fig. 3, both of which are indiscriminately
+used in place of the carnation pattern in rugs with the same primary
+stripe. The latter is the most dainty and graceful Caucasian floral
+stripe. It is found in pieces of the Kabistan and Daghestan classes made
+over a century and a half ago, and is probably of Iranian extraction.
+
+Another floral pattern from the same district is seen in Plate K, Fig.
+4. It often accompanies the Georgian stripe of Daghestans and Soumaks,
+with which its stiff drawing harmonises.
+
+Likewise, the stripe shown in Fig. 5 is found now and then in the same
+classes of rugs. Similar rosettes are sometimes represented in Persian
+stripes that show the influence of nomadic weavers.
+
+Simple forms of the running vine which are seen mostly in the rugs of
+Southern Caucasia are represented in Plate K, Figs. 6, 7, 8, 9, and 10.
+All are old patterns. The third appears in an Asia Minor carpet woven
+about 1250 A. D. The fourth is found in some of the oldest remaining
+rugs from Southern Caucasia, that date back two and a half centuries;
+and a pattern similar to the last is seen in some Persian carpets made
+about 1650 A. D.
+
+Plate K, Figs. 11 and 12 represent stripes sometimes seen in Chichis and
+a few other Caucasian rugs.
+
+A very simple pattern, but one that at times is very attractive on
+account of its delicate colouring, is shown in Plate K, Fig. 13, and
+another is shown in Fig. 14. Both are used principally in rugs of
+Southern Caucasia.
+
+The stripe represented in Plate K, Fig, 15, is found in very old rugs of
+the Daghestan and Derbend types; and there is a tradition among some of
+the native weavers that the designs originally represented boat hooks
+used by the sailors of the Caspian Sea. It is not unreasonable to
+suppose that the early weavers imitated objects of utility before those
+of mere ornament; but even if there is any basis for the tradition, it
+is equally probable that these designs are derived from the lily or
+other floral forms, and were introduced from Persia.
+
+Somewhat similar to the last is the reciprocal trefoil, which generally
+appears with more simple drawing than is shown in Plate F, Fig. 17 (opp.
+Page 158). It is more widely used for a border stripe than any other
+pattern, as it is found in almost all Caucasian, in a large number of
+Persian, in Indian, and Beluchistan rugs. It was commonly used in
+Persian rugs as early as the year 1500.
+
+The dainty Chain pattern of Plate K, Fig. 16 has a well authenticated
+antiquity, as it is found in Asia Minor carpets of the XV Century, from
+which it was probably derived. Without doubt it was a favourite pattern
+three centuries ago, as it appears in some of the early paintings in
+which Oriental carpets are represented.
+
+[Illustration: PLATE K. SECONDARY AND TERTIARY BORDER-STRIPES OF
+CAUCASIAN RUGS]
+
+Not infrequently the right-angled corners are rounded so as to give it a
+more graceful form.
+
+As the purely geometric pattern of Plate K, Fig. 17 is entirely lacking
+in ornamental features, it is used principally to separate more
+important stripes. Occasionally it is found in such rugs as the Chichis
+and Shirvans.
+
+Another very simple pattern that is sometimes used as an inside stripe
+is seen in Plate K, Fig. 18. This is evidently an archaic form and is
+found principally in pieces of the Shirvan district.
+
+The reciprocal sawtooth and the running latch-hook patterns (Plate K,
+Figs. 19 and 20) belong to the less important stripes of not only
+Caucasian but a number of Persian rugs. The former pattern appears
+constantly on the monuments of ancient Susa, and doubtless had once some
+symbolic meaning. The latter is seen in the corners of the Dragon and
+Phoenix carpet (Plate 20, opp. Page 88) which was woven about 1350
+A. D.
+
+
+TECHNICALITIES IN THE WEAVE OF CAUCASIAN RUGS
+
+
+ Legend:
+
+ KNOT—
+ H = Horizontally
+ P = Perpendicularly
+ WARP—
+ g = goat's hair
+ e = each equally prominent
+ d = 1 to the knot depressed
+ h = 1 to the knot doubled under
+ WEFT—
+ No. = No. times crossing bet. two round knots
+ SIDES—
+ O = overcast
+ S = selvage
+ LOWER END
+ W = web
+ S = Selvage
+ K = Rows knots
+ L = warp loops
+ F = fringe
+ UPPER END
+ W = web
+ S = selvage
+ K = Rows knots
+ T = turned back and hemmed
+ F = fringe
+
+ +------------+----------------------------+------------------------------+
+ | | KNOT | WARP |
+ | +---------+------+-----------+-----+-------+----+-----------+
+ | CAUCASIAN | | | Number to | | | | At back |
+ | | | | Inches | | | | |
+ | | G = | S = |-----------| w =| c = | |---+---+---+
+ | | Ghiordes| Sehna| H | P | wool| cotton| g | e | d | h |
+ |------------+---------+------+-----+-----+-----+-------+----+---+---+---+
+ |Baku | G | | 6-9 | 7-11| w | | | e | | |
+ |Chichi | G | | 7-10| 8-12| w | | | e | | |
+ |Daghestan | G | | 7-10| 8-15| w | | | e |[d]| |
+ |Derbend | G | | 5-9 | 6-12| w | [c] | | e | | |
+ |Gengha | G | | 6-8 | 6-9 | w | |[g] | e | | |
+ | | | | | | | | | | | |
+ |Kabistan | G | | 7-12| 8-16| w | | | e | | |
+ |Karabagh | G | | 6-10| 7-10| w | | | | d | |
+ |Kasak | G | | 6-9 | 7-10| w | | | e | | |
+ |Kuba | G | | 6-9 | 7-13| w | | | e | | |
+ |Kutais | G | | 5-9 | 7-12| w | [c] | | e | | |
+ |Lesghian | G | | 6-9 | 6-11| w | | |[e]| d |[h]|
+ |Shemakha | G | | 7-11| 7-13| w | | | | d | |
+ |Shirvan | G | | 7-12| 8-12| w | | | e | | |
+ |Shousha | G | | 7-12| 6-11| w | | | | d | h |
+ |Soumak | | | 8-14| 6-16| w | | | e | | |
+ |Tcherkess | G | | 6-9 | 7-10| w | | | e |[d]| |
+ |Tiflis | G | | 6-10| 6-10| w | [c] | | e | | |
+ -------------+---------+------+-----+-----+-----+-------+----+---+---+---+
+
+ +------------+---------------------+-------+-----------------+
+ | | WEFT | SIDES | LOWER END |
+ | +-----+-------+-------+---+---+-----+---+---+---+
+ | CAUCASIAN | | | | | | | | | |
+ | | w = | c = | | | | | | | |
+ | |wool | cotton| No. | O | S | W/S | K | L | F |
+ +------------+-----+-------+-------+---+---+-----+---+---+---+
+ |Baku | w | | 2 | O | S | W | K | | F |
+ |Chichi | w | | 2 | O |[S]| W | K | | F |
+ |Daghestan | w | | 2 |[O]| S | W | K | | F |
+ |Derbend | w | [c] | 2/[1] |[O]| S | W |[K]| | F |
+ |Gengha | w | | 2-4 | | S | W | | L | |
+ | | | | [6-8] | | | | | | |
+ |Kabistan | w | c |[2]/[3]| O | S |W/[S]| | L | |
+ |Karabagh | w | | 2 |[O]| S |W/[S]|[K]| L | F |
+ |Kasak | w | |2/[3-4]| O | S |W/[S]| | L | F |
+ |Kuba | w | | 2 | | S | W |[K]| | F |
+ |Kutais | w | |3/[1-5]| O | S | W | | | F |
+ |Lesghian | w | | 2 | | S | W | K | | F |
+ |Shemakha | w | | 2 | | S | W/S | | | F |
+ |Shirvan | w | [c] | 2 |[O]| S | W | K | | F |
+ |Shousha | w | | 2 | | S | W | | L | |
+ |Soumak | w | | 2 |[O]| S | W/S | K | | F |
+ |Tcherkess | w | |2/[4-6]| | S | W/S | K | | F |
+ |Tiflis | w | | 3-5 | O | S | W | | | F |
+ +------------+-----+-------+-------+---+---+-----+---+---+---+
+
+ +------------+-----------------+-----------+-----------+----------+
+ | | UPPER END | NAP | WEAVE | TEXTURE |
+ | +-----+---+---+---+-----------+-----------+----------+
+ | CAUCASIAN | | | | |l = long |f = fine |l = loose |
+ | | | | | |m = medium |m = medium |m = medium|
+ | | W/S | K | T | F |s = short |c = coarse |f = firm |
+ +------------+-----+---+---+---+-----------+-----------+----------+
+ |Baku | W | K | | F | s | m | m/f |
+ |Chichi | W | K | | F | m/s | m | m |
+ |Daghestan | W | K | | F | s | f | m/f |
+ |Derbend | W |[K]| | F | m | m | m/l |
+ |Gengha |W/[S]| | | F | m | c | l |
+ | | | | | | | | |
+ |Kabistan |W/[S]| | | F | m | m | m/f |
+ |Karabagh |W/[S]|[K]| T | F | m | c | l |
+ |Kasak |W/[S]|[K]| | F | l | c | f |
+ |Kuba |W/[S]|[K]| | F | m | m | m/l |
+ |Kutais | W | | | F | m | m/c | m/f |
+ |Lesghian | W | K | | F | m | c | f |
+ |Shemakha | W/S | | | F | m | m/f | m/f |
+ |Shirvan | W | K | | F | m/s | m/c | m/l |
+ |Shousha | W | |[T]| F | m | m/c | m/f |
+ |Soumak | W/S | K | | F | | m | m |
+ |Tcherkess | W/S | K | | F | m | m | f |
+ |Tiflis | W | | | F | m | m/f | f |
+ +------------+-----+---+-------+-----------+-----------+----------+
+
+ [] indicates the less frequent condition.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XII
+
+CENTRAL ASIATIC RUGS
+
+
+THE land that extends eastward about fourteen hundred miles from the
+Caspian Sea to the western boundary of the Chinese Empire, and northward
+for a similar distance from the Arabian Sea through Beluchistan and
+Afghanistan to the steppes of Western Siberia, is one of the least
+civilised parts of the eastern continent. Here until within a few recent
+years, the people lived the same untrammelled lives that their ancestors
+pursued for past centuries; and the encroachments of the Russian Empire
+on the north and the English on the southeast, have as yet made little
+impression on their uncultured natures. To these circumstances it is
+largely due that the rugs termed Central Asiatic, which come from this
+district, still possess to a large degree the originality of design,
+virility of character, and beauty of colour that are so rapidly
+disappearing from the woven products of countries more subject to the
+influence of Western civilisation.
+
+These rugs may conveniently be divided into three natural sub-groups,
+which include:
+
+1. The Turkoman, consisting of what are known in this country as Royal
+and Princess Bokharas, the Tekkes, Yomuds, Khivas, and Beshires, all of
+which are made in Turkestan;[32] and the Afghan, of which part are made
+in Turkestan and part in Afghanistan.
+
+2. The Turko-Chinese, consisting of the Samarkands, which re made in
+Western Turkestan, and the Kasghars and Yarkands made in Eastern
+Turkestan.
+
+3. The Beluchistans or Beluches, made principally in Beluchistan.
+
+No other rugs adhere more strictly to uniformity of colour and design
+than the Turkoman. And, when it is considered that their prevailing
+tones and their simple, geometric designs are such as would readily be
+adopted by people with primitive ideas of ornamentation, it seems
+probable that they have been copied with only slight modification for a
+great many centuries, even though more gorgeous and elaborate carpets
+were woven during the short period when Samarkand was capital of the
+East. This is probably true, notwithstanding no other country in the
+world has been subject to more conquests than Turkestan or overrun by so
+many different races. For here, as we learn by the aid of philology,
+dwelt the Aryans even before the light of history had come to dispel the
+mists of antiquity. Two or three thousand years later it was overrun by
+Cyrus and added to the dominion of the Medes and Persians. In the V
+Century A. D., Tartar tribes conquered it; and in the following century
+Turks and Persians divided it between them. Still later it was again
+overrun by the Arabs, who, sword in hand, converted the vanquished to
+the creed of Islam. When a few more centuries had rolled away the Mongol
+hordes of Genghis Khan swept over it; and once again it suffered
+desolation under the iron hand of Tamerlane, "Scourge of Asia." But in
+spite of these waves of conquest and the minor struggles with Persians,
+Greeks, and Romans, that left their impress on the country, each of the
+several classes of Turkoman rugs, including even those made two
+centuries ago, show a remarkable conformity to definite types, however
+much may be their modification in small detail. Their nap is invariably
+short; in all of them some shade of dark red is the predominating
+colour; and in most of them some form of an octagon appears. They are,
+moreover, the best woven and the most beautiful of the Central Asiatic
+rugs.
+
+[Illustration: MAP OF TURKESTAN]
+
+Though the Turko-Chinese rugs are made in places subject to the
+influence of Turkomans and far removed from the culture of Chinese, they
+are unlike the rugs of the former and resemble those of the latter. Not
+improbably this is because Tamerlane had gathered at Samarkand noted
+artists and artisans from China, whose influence continued long after
+his death. And as traditional patterns have been transmitted for
+centuries, there is little doubt that some of the modern rugs, even
+though falling far short of the standard of their early prototypes, more
+closely resemble them than they do any other rugs of Asia. In these
+pieces Turkoman simplicity of geometric figures is replaced by an
+elaboration of conventional floral forms and by designs associated with
+early philosophies; sobriety of colour yields to the bright and even
+gaudy tones not infrequent in modern textile fabrics.
+
+The Beluchistans, which are regarded as a sub-group of the Central
+Asiatic rugs, show a closer relationship to the Turkoman rugs than to
+any others. A few of them have octagonal patterns suggestive of
+Bokharas, and all have the long webs at the ends and the heavy goat's
+hair selvage at the sides peculiar to Afghans and Tekkes. On the other
+hand, many of the patterns both of field and border resemble Persian
+workmanship; so that placing these rugs in the same group with the
+Turkoman and Turko-Chinese rugs, which are not made in an adjoining
+territory, is slightly arbitrary.
+
+
+ROYAL BOKHARAS.—The best known district in Turkestan is the Khanate of
+Bokhara, which extends from the offshoots of the lofty Pamir mountains
+in the east to the desolate sandy plains beyond the Amu Daria, or Oxus
+river, on the west. Situated in its northern half and near the centre of
+a fertile valley is its capital, Bokhara, "The Noble." Though noted for
+its cruelty, it was once the intellectual centre of Asia, and still
+possesses nearly a hundred schools and innumerable mosques. These and
+its bazaars are almost all that remain of the splendour of those days
+when the great caravans that came from China, India, Persia, and Russia
+made it one of the great marts of the East.
+
+On account of its commercial importance, the wild tribes of the Kirghiz
+steppes, the Turkomans from Kizil Kum,[33] the Afghans who dwell north
+of the Paropamisus range, and the fierce Tekkes and Yomuds from the
+west, came and bartered their rugs for other necessities. Many of these
+rugs were taken in caravans, that often numbered several thousand
+camels, and sold in the Russian market places of Astrakan, Orenburg, or
+Nijni Novgorod. Since they came from the same place, the term Bokhara
+was often applied to each of the different classes. Thus we hear of
+Royal Bokharas, Princess Bokharas, Tekke Bokharas, Yomud Bokharas, and
+Khiva Bokharas.
+
+Of these five classes the Royal Bokharas, as a rule, not only are the
+best woven, but are made of the finest material; even the warp of many
+of them is of soft, silky white wool. The old rugs were made in the city
+and suburbs of Bokhara, where now only a few pieces are made. Both old
+and new are found only as sedjadehs. They have two well-known patterns,
+one of which consists of an octagon surrounding a quartered hexagon. Of
+these quarters, which are either plain or contain a small triangle of
+contrasting colour, a pair that are opposite are always white or cream
+coloured, and the other pair are of some shade of red. Small triangular
+figures are invariably seen above and below the hexagons, as well as
+small diamond, oval, or spear-shaped figures at each end of the major
+axis. In the other pattern the contour of the octagon is rounder; and
+the hexagon is replaced by an eight-pointed star, at the centre of which
+is a diamond containing a rectangle or occasionally a Greek cross.
+Projecting into the four corners from the star are small designs, that
+careful observation of a large number in many different kinds of rugs
+shows to be leaf forms. Between the diagonally placed octagons of both
+these types are stars or diamond-shaped figures, that are usually of the
+same design regardless of the shape of the octagon. In large rugs the
+centres of the octagons are generally joined by straight lines of dark
+blue colour.
+
+It is uncertain why the term Royal has been applied to this class of
+Bokharas, but it is eminently befitting the old well-woven, velvet-like
+pieces. A few have small patches of pink or ruby coloured silk; and all
+have a prevailing tone of red diversified by deep blues and touches of
+lighter red and ivory, that convey an idea of opulence and dignity
+worthy of a king.
+
+_Type Characteristics._ _Colours_, principally dark red, with minor
+quantities of blue, pink or orange, and ivory. _Knot_, Sehna. Knots to
+inch horizontally eight to twelve; perpendicularly, sixteen to
+twenty-four. The rows of knots are firmly pressed down, so that the warp
+is concealed at back and the weft is almost hidden. _Warp_, fine white
+wool; each of the two threads encircled by a knot is equally prominent
+at back. _Weft_, wool, of fine diameter. A thread of weft crosses twice
+between every two rows of knots. _Pile_, fine wool, or occasionally
+silk, clipped short. _Border_, three stripes divided by smaller coloured
+lines. _Sides_, a blue double overcasting. _Both ends_, a narrow web and
+short warp fringe. _Texture_, firm. _Weave_ at back is of fine grain.
+_Usual length_, four to ten feet. _Usual width_, three fifths to four
+fifths length.
+
+[Illustration: PLATE 53. TURKOMAN RUG WITH KATCHLI PATTERN]
+
+
+PRINCESS BOKHARAS.—The rugs known as Princess Bokharas are woven by the
+Mohammedan tribes who dwell in parts of the Khanate of Bokhara. They are
+nearly square and the field is divided into four equal sections by
+perpendicular and horizontal bands. Because of this pattern they are
+called "Katchlis," a word derived from the Armenian language signifying
+"like a cross." The bands generally have designs that are co-ordinate
+with those in part of the border; but not infrequently the designs of
+the horizontal band differ from those of the perpendicular one, and in a
+few rare instances consist of an octagonal figure. It is generally
+believed that the well-known Y-shaped motive characteristic of the field
+and the border is intended to represent the tree of life, but some
+native weavers suggest a different interpretation. To them the whole rug
+symbolises a mosque; the perpendicular arm of the cross is the entrance;
+the Y-shaped designs are benches; and the broad diagonal lines with
+serrated edges in the borders are groves of trees surrounding the
+mosque. A very large percentage of these pieces are namazliks. One of
+their peculiarities is the position of their unobtrusive tent-shaped
+prayer arch, which is in a panel entirely within their upper border.
+
+Compared with Royal Bokharas their nap is rarely of as fine quality, the
+warp is usually of brown instead of cream white wool, and the weave is
+coarser. Also, the tones of colour are more sombre, and of browner
+shades; but in rare old pieces the rich mahogany and bronze hues of the
+ground, on which are represented small designs in shades of cream and
+dark blue, are exceedingly rich and pleasing. Unfortunately, within
+recent years large numbers of this class have been made solely for
+commercial purposes, and lack the finer qualities of their prototypes.
+
+_Type Characteristics._ _Colours_, principally dark red or brown, with
+minor quantities of dark blue and ivory. _Knot_, Sehna. Knots to inch
+horizontally eight to twelve; perpendicularly, fourteen to eighteen. The
+rows of knots are firmly pressed down, so that the warp is concealed at
+back and the weft partly hidden. _Warp_, brown wool or goat's hair; each
+of the two threads of warp encircled by a knot is equally prominent at
+back. _Weft_, wool, of fine diameter. A thread of weft crosses twice
+between every two rows of knots. _Pile_, wool of short or medium length;
+occasionally some goat's hair is used. _Border_, three stripes,
+separated by narrow lines. _Sides_, a double overcasting or a double
+goat's hair selvage of three cords. _Both ends_, a web and warp fringe.
+_Texture_, stout. _Weave_ at back is of moderately fine grain. _Usual
+length_, four and one half to six feet. _Usual width_, two thirds to
+four fifths length.
+
+
+TEKKES.—A little over two centuries ago there lived on the peninsula of
+Mangishlar, on the eastern shore of the Caspian Sea, an almost unknown
+tribe called the "Tekke," a term which is said to denote a mountain
+goat, and was applied on account of the headlong pace at which the men
+rode over rough mountain sides. About the beginning of the XVIII Century
+they packed their _khibitkas_,[34] and after moving southward to escape
+from the attacks of a more powerful tribe, they met the Yomuds in the
+southwestern corner of Turkestan and robbed them of their lands. Further
+eastward they snatched the fertile oasis of Ak-kal from some Kurds,
+whose ancestors a Shah of Persia had located there in earlier times to
+protect his kingdom from fierce northern tribes. By irrigating and
+cultivating the soil, they prospered and increased rapidly in
+population, until, about 1830, they numbered one hundred thousand. One
+fourth of them then moved eastward; and after settling on the banks of
+the Tajand, not far from the Persian town of Saraks, they attacked the
+inhabitants of Merv and captured the city. Growing thus to be a powerful
+people, they occupied much of the country between Persia and the Amu
+Daria.
+
+Ever restless, they were constantly looking for weaker foes on whom to
+fall; and when a leader would announce an intended raid, hundreds or
+even thousands would meet at the appointed rendezvous prepared to
+blindly follow him. Sometimes it was through the passes that looked down
+into the fertile valleys of Northern Persia. Stealthily creeping through
+them they would fall unexpectedly upon an unprotected village and dash
+away with young women and children. If pursued, they would stab their
+captives, and if necessary, ride more than one hundred miles a day in
+flight. At other times, they would attack caravans crossing the deserts
+and carry away both camels and wares.
+
+[Illustration: PLATE 54. TURKOMAN PRAYER RUG, WHICH ACCORDING TO A.
+BOGOLUBOW HAS THE TYPICAL PINDÉ PATTERN]
+
+Their raids, however, were not viewed with complacence by the Russians,
+who had been steadily advancing on the land lying between the Caspian
+and the Amu Daria, and whose armies the Tekkes harassed. At length in
+January, 1881, came the final death struggle in the memorable attack on
+the fortress of Geok Teppe, where thirty-three thousand tribesmen and
+seven thousand women and children had taken refuge. With the fall of
+that stronghold and the terrible punishment that followed, the power of
+the Tekkes was completely crushed; and a people whose ancestors for
+countless centuries had roamed the desert, recognising no master,
+yielded finally to the advance of civilisation.
+
+These were the people whose wives and daughters wove the rugs generally
+known as Tekke Bokharas, of which large numbers with excellent weave and
+sterling dyes can still be found. As few of them were designed for
+mosques or palaces, it is very unusual to find pieces over one hundred
+years old, and even these are rare. Indeed, any that are now forty years
+old should possess great interest, as they were woven at a time when the
+Tekkes were still a fierce race. Very many have the Katchli pattern. The
+prayer arch, which is similar to that of Princess Bokharas, is in a
+panel exterior to the field and within the border. Not infrequently
+there are three arches in the same horizontal panel, which, as a rule,
+is above the field, but occasionally below it. In a great many of these
+rugs the three-leaf clover is found in some part of the field; and in
+the band of pile that extends beyond the border at one end are usually
+small conventionalised bushes with white and yellow flowers. The pattern
+shown in Plate L, Fig. 4 (opp. Page 250), appears almost invariably in
+the outer stripe.
+
+There are other types, into one of which it would seem as if the very
+spirit of the desert had crept. Their dark ground colours are brightened
+by lighter tones that give an effect of strange yet not inharmonious
+beauty. A few would seem to speak of the early Zoroastrian faith, for in
+their fields are designs like stars with effulgent rays that suggest the
+burning altars of fire worshippers.
+
+The shape or some peculiarity of the rug indicates the purpose for which
+it was intended. For instance, the rugs which were made for doors of the
+khibitkas have at the upper end a selvage with the web turned back and
+hemmed, and at each corner a heavy braided cord of about two feet in
+length, by which they were suspended. Other pieces have webs at both
+ends. Many beautiful pieces are made for use on horses or camels. Those
+intended for camels are of oblong shape with a field usually containing
+large octagons, between which are smaller octagons similar to those in
+Royal Bokharas.
+
+Tekkes may be distinguished from the Princess Bokharas, which they
+resemble, by their goat's hair selvage at the sides, by one thread of
+warp to each knot being slightly depressed at the back, and by their
+coarser character. There is, however, a great similarity in the colours,
+though in the Tekkes tones of deep plum and rich red are not uncommon.
+
+_Type Characteristics._ _Colours_, principally dark red, brown, or plum,
+with minor quantities of dark blue and ivory. _Knot_, Sehna. Knots to
+inch horizontally seven to twelve; perpendicularly, nine to fourteen.
+The rows of knots are slightly pressed down, but the warp shows at back.
+_Warp_, wool or goat's hair; one of the two threads encircled by a knot
+is depressed below the other at back. _Weft_, wool of fine or medium
+diameter. A thread of weft crosses twice between every two rows of
+knots. _Pile_, wool, or occasionally goat's hair of short or medium
+length. _Border_, three stripes, separated by coloured lines. _Sides_, a
+three-cord double goat's hair selvage. _Lower end_, a wide coloured web
+and long warp fringe. _Upper end_, a braided selvage turned back and
+hemmed, or occasionally a wide coloured web and long warp fringe.
+_Texture_, firm. _Weave_ at back of moderately fine grain. _Length_,
+five to eight feet. _Usual width_, three fifths to four fifths length.
+
+
+KHIVAS.—On the west bank of the Amu Daria, and stretching for two
+hundred miles above its mouth, is the plain of the Khanate of Khiva.
+Most of the people live in khibitkas, and either follow a nomad's life
+or raise from the alluvial soil, that is watered by innumerable canals,
+crops of cotton, corn, and rice, as well as melons, peaches, and
+pomegranates. A large population, also, inhabits the city of Khiva,
+which before the building of the Siberian railway, was on one of the
+direct highways between east and west. Caravans of nearly two thousand
+camels regularly passed through it en route to Orenburg in spring and to
+Astrakan in fall, carrying wares from districts farther to the east as
+well as its own rugs and manufactured articles.
+
+[Illustration: _COLOUR PLATE IX—SAMARKAND RUG_
+
+_Although this rug is an excellent example of that class generally known
+as Samarkands, it was bought in Yarkand. Undoubtedly it was woven in
+some part of Turkestan that lies between these two cities; yet with the
+exception of the eight-pointed stars at the centre of the upper and
+lower medallions the pattern is characteristic of Chinese ornamentation.
+Surrounding the central medallion, on a ground of rich deep blue, are
+six conventionalised butterflies, and near them are four clusters of
+pomegranates. At each end of the field are designs that suggest the tree
+of life, which under different forms appears so persistently in the
+woven fabrics of the East. The delicate drawing of these motives is
+accentuated by the formal character of the four corners and by the broad
+border of well-known stripes. It is a piece in which beauty of line and
+colour is combined with unsolved symbolism._
+
+
+ _Loaned by Mr. Hulett C. Merritt_]
+
+On account of the constant intercourse between the Khiva and Bokhara
+tribes, their woven fabrics show a close relationship in patterns and
+colours; yet they contain important differences. Those made by the Khiva
+tribes are cruder, and reflect the effect of constant struggles against
+the rigours of the desert and the fierce Kirghiz from the steppes to the
+north. The wool is also coarser and longer, and the knots are much fewer
+to the inch. Occasionally geometric as well as animal designs suggestive
+of Caucasian influence occur. Moreover, the brownish threads of weft
+that separate each row of knots, are noticeable at the back, whereas
+in other Turkoman rugs the weft is hardly perceptible.
+
+Many of the old pieces were very handsome, as is shown by the following
+description of an antique goat's hair carpet from Khiva by Dr.
+Birdwood.[35] "The ground is of madder red, decorated with leaves and
+scrolls and lozenge-shaped forms in red, white, and orange, each lozenge
+being defined by a deep line of indigo blue. The ends terminate in a
+fringe. Professor Vambery says that these rich lustrous carpets are made
+entirely by the nomad women about Khiva, the head worker tracing out the
+design in the desert sand and handing out to her companions the dyed
+materials of different colours as required in the progress of weaving."
+
+_Type Characteristics._ _Colours_, principally dark red, with minor
+quantities of blue and ivory. _Knot_, Ghiordes or Sehna. Knots to inch
+horizontally six to ten; perpendicularly, eight to fourteen. The rows of
+knots are but slightly pressed down, so that the warp shows at back.
+_Warp_, wool or goat's hair; each of the two threads encircled by a knot
+is equally prominent at the back. _Weft_, wool of medium or coarse
+diameter. A thread of weft crosses twice between every two rows of
+knots. _Pile_, wool of medium length. _Border_, generally three stripes.
+_Sides_, a double selvage of two or three cords, which is generally of
+goat's hair. _Both ends_, a web, one or more rows of knots and a warp
+fringe. _Texture_, stout. _Usual length_, four and one half to six feet.
+_Usual width_, three fifths to three quarters length.
+
+
+YOMUDS.—When, in 1718, the Yomuds were driven by the Tekkes from their
+homes in the well-watered region about Kizil Arvat, they moved to a less
+fertile country to the north and west. Though now numbering about one
+hundred thousand, they have few villages; and regardless of the dreary
+sand storms, the biting cold of winter, or the terrible heat of summer,
+they wander with their sheep and goats from place to place in search of
+more favoured spots. Sometimes their khibitkas are seen along the border
+of the Caspian Sea as far south as Astrabad in Khorassan, or among the
+sandy trackless wastes of Kara Kum, nearly as far north as the Aral Sea.
+
+Many of their rugs rival the Royal Bokharas in wealth of colour. The
+prevailing tone of the field is usually red or maroon, but is sometimes
+rose, plum, or dark brown; and the remaining shades correspond with the
+blue, green, brown, and white of Tekkes. Contrasted with these is the
+ivory ground of the border, which, as a rule, has a much brighter colour
+than the field. Furthermore, the pile of the old pieces has a lustre
+that is due to the excellence of the dyes and the thick soft wool.
+
+There are several distinct types, of which only one is well-known. Its
+pattern is clearly Turkoman, though the lesser designs show that there
+has been frequent intercourse with the weavers of Caucasia. Covering the
+field of these pieces are regularly placed diamond-shaped figures that
+suggest those of the Royal Bokharas, from which they may have been
+developed to the almost entire exclusion of the octagon; though the
+latter appears much less prominently in the centre of the diamonds. In
+the border occurs the running latch-hook, the barber-pole stripe, and a
+geometrically drawn vine. The webs of the ends, which are usually red
+and striped, are broad and have a fringe of goat's hair, sometimes
+braided into ropelike tassels, but more often hanging loose.
+
+The saddle bags are of irregular shape resembling a flat walled tent,
+and contain in both field and border much brighter colour than the rugs.
+Their field is checkered with diamond-shaped figures rich in ivory
+colour and separated from each other by diagonal barber-pole stripes;
+their border contains the running latch-hook.
+
+_Type Characteristics._ _Colours_, principally dark red and mahogany
+brown, with minor quantities of blue, green, and white. _Knot_,
+generally Sehna, occasionally Ghiordes. Knots to inch horizontally five
+to eight; perpendicularly, seven to ten. The rows of knots are pressed
+down, so that the warp is largely concealed at back. _Warp_, coarse wool
+or goat's hair; each of the two threads encircled by a knot is equally
+prominent at the back, or one is slightly depressed below the other.
+_Weft_, wool, of medium diameter, or occasionally wool mixed with goat's
+hair. A thread of weft crosses twice between every two rows of knots.
+_Pile_, wool, of medium length. _Border_, three stripes. _Sides_, either
+a two-cord selvage of red alternating with blue or brown, or a goat's
+hair double selvage of three or four cords. _Both ends_, a broad,
+reddish brown web through which, as a rule, run coloured lines or
+several narrow stripes, and a long warp fringe. _Texture_, stout.
+_Weave_ at back is moderately coarse. _Usual length_, five to twelve
+feet. _Usual width_, two thirds to three quarters length.
+
+
+BESHIRES.—On the Amu Daria and not far from Afghanistan is a small
+district from which the rugs known as Beshires now and then find their
+way to this country. As it is not far from several routes of caravans,
+these rugs show a relationship to the products of other Turkoman tribes.
+Their colour scheme is principally the dark red and brownish tones found
+in Bokharas, Yomuds, and Khivas. The ends, too, have the web crossed by
+several lines, such as blue, green, and yellowish brown, that are usual
+in Afghans. The patterns sometimes contain a suggestion of the geometric
+figures of the Yomuds and some Caucasian pieces; and yet they have a
+striking character of their own. Not infrequently the field is covered
+with broad, irregular scrolls or foliate forms, unlike anything seen in
+any other class of rugs. Again the field may be occupied with a trellis
+pattern, which divides it into diamond-shaped figures. Within these are
+smaller diamonds surrounded by eight-pointed stars and quasi-floral
+forms. The borders, as a rule, are narrow and have simple designs that
+incline to the geometric; but a few are of fair width and are ornamented
+with rosettes and conventionalised leaves. In namazliks, which are
+rarely seen, the prayer arch lies within the field. Almost all of this
+class found in this country are old rugs; and on account of their rich,
+harmonious colours and unobtrusive yet distinctive patterns, are always
+pleasing and interesting.
+
+_Type Characteristics._ _Colours_, principally dark red and brown, with
+minor quantities of blue, yellow, and white. _Knot_, Sehna. Knots to
+inch horizontally seven to twelve; perpendicularly, seven to twelve. A
+half knot, as it appears at back, is as long as, or longer than, wide.
+The rows of knots are pressed down, so that the warp is almost hidden at
+back. _Warp_, generally goat's hair. Each of the two threads encircled
+by a knot is equally prominent at back, or occasionally one is slightly
+depressed. _Weft_, wool or goat's hair of medium or coarse diameter. A
+thread of weft crosses twice between every two rows of knots. _Pile_,
+wool, of medium length. _Border_, generally three stripes, occasionally
+only one. _Sides_, a goat's hair selvage of two to four cords. _Both
+ends_, a wide web, crossed with several coloured stripes. _Texture_,
+stout. _Weave_, coarse. _Length_, four to twelve feet. _Usual width_,
+two fifths to two thirds length.
+
+
+AFGHANS.—One of the most distinctive classes of Turkoman rugs is known
+in this country both as Afghans and Khivas. Both of these names are
+unfortunately applied; for their only title to be called the latter is
+that many were formerly exported from the bazaars of Khiva, and that
+they slightly resemble the rugs of that city. Nor are they strictly
+Afghans, since they come from the territory of mountain ridges and
+fertile valleys that stretches from the Hindu Koosh Mountains northward
+across the eastern part of the Khanate Bokhara, and are made by the
+tribesmen of both countries. In fact, they differ considerably from the
+rugs of Central and Southern Afghanistan, and bear no resemblance to
+those of floral pattern woven about Herat.
+
+Within the territory where these rugs are made the Aryan and Teutonic
+races have met and blended; and across it have passed the armies of the
+greatest conquerors of Asia. Here still exist some of the most untamed
+races of the East, feeding their flocks on lofty table-lands, or
+cultivating patches of valleys, through which flow icy streams to form
+the Amu Daria. Here the rights of hospitality are held sacred, but
+wrongs are revenged without recourse to any tribunal.
+
+When the antecedents, customs, and surroundings of the people are taken
+into consideration, it is not strange that their rugs should be strong
+and firm in texture, bold in design, positive and striking in colour.
+Most of them are large and almost square in shape, though mats are not
+uncommon. The traditional pattern consists of perpendicular rows,
+usually three in number, of large octagons, that are almost in contact.
+Between these rows are much smaller diamond-shaped designs, which
+consist in some pieces of a cluster of eight-pointed stars, and in
+others of a geometric figure that is occasionally fringed with hooks and
+contains within its centre an eight-pointed star.
+
+With a few exceptions the octagons, which closely resemble those of
+Royal Bokharas, are symmetrical, and all their details are drawn as
+regularly as if the rugs were factory woven. They are invariably divided
+into quarters which usually are marked with a small figure like a
+three-leaf clover. The field contains but few adventitious designs and
+they are rarely animal, as the Afghans are Sunni Mohammedans. One of the
+most common of these designs, which appears also in the Tekkes and
+Yomuds, is probably intended to represent part of the headstall of camel
+trappings. The pattern of the border conforms to that of the field, but
+frequently has crudely drawn floral forms and a conventionalised vine.
+The sides have an added selvage of brown goat's hair; and the ends
+are finished with reddish brown webs, from which hang loose fringes of
+dark wool or goat's hair.
+
+[Illustration: PLATE 55. TURKOMAN RUG OF THE SALOR TRIBES]
+
+As characteristic as the large bold octagons are the colours, which
+however subdued are invariably of rich hues. Those of the field consist
+of dark red, maroon, or reddish brown. The quarters of the octagon are
+of a deep blue alternating with a red that is lighter than the field. In
+some pieces this red is blood colour, or nearly crimson, standing out in
+bold relief against the adjacent blue and a field of maroon. Lines of
+green, orange, yellow, and white often appear in the body of the rug;
+lines of dark blue and a checkered pattern in red and blue are frequent
+in the red webs of the ends.
+
+Though these rugs are, as a rule, heavier and coarser in texture than
+most other Turkoman rugs, the old pieces have a soft plushy nap of fine
+wool and goat's fleece, as well as richness of tone, that is very
+attractive. They are exceedingly durable and moderate in price.
+
+_Type Characteristics._ _Colours_, principally dark red and mahogany
+brown, with minor quantities of blue, green, yellow, and white. _Knot_,
+generally Sehna, occasionally Ghiordes. Knots to inch horizontally five
+to eight; perpendicularly, seven to ten. The rows of knots are pressed
+down, so that the warp is largely concealed at back. _Warp_, coarse wool
+or goat's hair; each thread encircled by a knot is equally prominent at
+back, or one is slightly depressed below the other. _Weft_, wool, of
+medium diameter, or occasionally wool mixed with goat's hair. A thread
+of weft crosses twice between every two rows of knots. _Pile_, wool, of
+medium length. _Border_, three stripes. _Sides_, a goat's hair double
+selvage of three or four cords. _Both ends_, a broad web of reddish
+brown colour through which run several narrow lines or several narrow
+stripes, and a long fringe. _Texture_, stout. _Weave_ at back is
+moderately coarse. _Usual length_, five to twelve feet. _Usual width_,
+two thirds to three quarters length.
+
+
+SAMARKANDS.—A little over one hundred miles east of Bokhara, and on the
+southern border of the desert of Red Sands, the river Zarafshan,
+"Strewer of Gold," has turned a plain of yellow loam into an oasis.
+Forty-three large canals bring its waters to fields of cotton; to
+vineyards; to orchards of apple, pear, peach, and pomegranate; and to
+gardens of fragrant flowers. Here is Samarkand, "The Mirror of the
+World." Few cities as old remain after passing through so many
+vicissitudes of fortune. Alexander forced his way through its gates, the
+Chinese Empire annexed it, and finally Tamerlane seized and made it the
+magnificent capital of one third of the known world. His tomb and other
+remaining monuments attest the grandeur of that time when there was
+fostered here the art, the luxury, and the splendour of the East.
+
+The rugs known as Samarkands are woven in a district somewhat eastward
+from the city and are often called "Malgarans." They are not to be
+compared with the magnificent carpets that adorned the palaces and
+mosques of the capital of Tamerlane; yet they possess a special
+interest, as in them are combined features derived from both Eastern and
+Western Asia. Either because this city, known as Samo-Kien, was once
+part of the Chinese Empire, or as is more probable, because it is on one
+of the great highways of caravan travel between China and Western Asia,
+the Chinese element is particularly noticeable. It appears in the
+colours that are in strong contrast; in the general pattern that shows
+little affinity for those of Persian or West Asian rugs; and even in the
+weave, in which silk is occasionally mixed with the wool of both warp
+and pile.
+
+The ground colour of the field is usually some shade of red or madder,
+with blue and yellow appearing conspicuously in the principal designs
+and border stripes. Or again, the field may be blue, soft brown, gray,
+or tan, with which the colours of the designs and borders, that may
+contain red, yellow, and blue, invariably appear in strong contrast.
+
+Few rugs have a more noticeable pattern, which consists principally of
+rounded medallions. If there be but one, it is in the centre; and if
+there be many, one is at each corner. They are usually ornamented with
+Chinese scrolls or some geometric design, as an eight-pointed star; but
+dragons, birds, or fishes are not uncommon. Occasionally, also, flowers
+of Persian design, with eight rounded petals, appear in the medallion,
+and others of larger size cover the field; or they may even exclude the
+medallion and constitute the principal motive. Some simple design in
+fretwork gives finish to the corners of the field, which is further
+covered with Chinese butterflies, scrolls, or archaic flower forms. The
+borders are equally distinctive, and unlike those of Chinese rugs are
+relatively wide and consist of several stripes surrounded by an edging
+of uniform colour. One of the stripes has generally a stiffly undulating
+vine; another a continuous swastika design; and a third is marked with
+frets, the barber-pole design, or a design which by some is regarded as
+the sacred Chinese mountain rising from the waves. In most pieces warp
+and weft are loosely woven, and the pile is of a medium grade of wool;
+but in very old pieces the wool is fine and lustrous.
+
+_Type Characteristics._ _Colours_, principally red, blue, and yellow.
+_Knot_, Sehna. Knots to inch horizontally six to eight; perpendicularly,
+five to eight. Each half knot, as it appears at back, is as long as, or
+longer than, wide. The rows of knots are not firmly pressed down, so
+that the warp shows at back. _Warp_, generally cotton, occasionally
+wool; one of the two threads encircled by a knot is doubled under the
+other. _Weft_, generally cotton, occasionally wool, of coarse diameter
+and frequently dyed. A thread of weft crosses twice, between every two
+rows of knots, and occasionally three times. _Pile_, wool, of medium
+length. _Border_, three stripes with a pink edging. _Sides_, a red or
+pink overcasting. _Lower end_, web and warp loops. _Upper end_, web and
+warp fringe. _Texture_, moderately firm. _Weave_ at back, rather coarse.
+_Length_, six to fourteen feet. _Usual width_, one half to three fifths
+length.
+
+
+KASHGARS AND YARKANDS.—Among the foothill plains at the western end of
+the Chinese Empire, are the mud-walled cities of Kashgar and Yarkand,
+that were ancient even in the days when Marco Polo visited there.
+Situated in populous and fertile districts, each has been a city of
+political and industrial importance; but on account of the great divides
+that separate them from Western Turkestan, Persia, and India, their
+commerce has been principally with Thibet and China. Thus it has
+happened that only within recent years have any of their textile fabrics
+reached Europe and America, where they are still almost unknown. Yet
+even in the remote past, these cities gained a reputation for the
+culture of silk and the weaving of carpets. Moreover, at different
+periods they were centres of luxury, so that it may safely be assumed
+that many of their woven products were of a high order of excellence.
+
+These rugs, to be sure, come from a district lying within the Chinese
+Empire; but it is so remote from the centres where the well-known
+Chinese rugs have been and are woven, and is so much nearer to West
+Turkestan and Afghanistan, that it seems best to place them in the
+Central Asiatic group.
+
+As a rule, such pieces as reach this country show crude workmanship
+entirely lacking in graceful floral patterns or artistic drawing.
+Octagonal forms, animals, and even mythical creatures are often
+distributed over the fields so as to give them a decidedly Chinese
+character. The narrow border stripes ornamented with the swastika and
+fret forms are often similar to some of the Samarkand stripes. The
+colours, which lack the subdued richness of Persian pieces, are often
+light; but they occasionally consist largely of tones of dark blue and
+red which show Turkoman influences. Most of these rugs are interesting
+on account of their quaintness and individuality; but few compare in
+quality of material, weave, or artistic finish with other classes of
+this group.
+
+
+BELUCHES OR BELUCHISTANS.—"When creating the world, the Almighty made
+Beluchistan out of the refuse" are the words of an old proverb, that
+refers to a land which formerly produced some of the most interesting
+rugs of the East. In fact, the thought is not surprising when the
+desolate character of the country is considered; for a sandy, waterless
+waste stretches over the greater part, and only in a corner to the
+northeast and in narrow strips, where streams from mountain sides water
+small valleys, is any cultivation. Across this sparsely settled land and
+farther westward into the southeastern part of Persia, untamed tribes of
+Beluches and Brahoes wander with their sheep, goats, and large numbers
+of camels. Their rugs, woven on crudely made looms, bear little
+resemblance to the more artistic floral pieces of the Indian weavers to
+the east or to those of Kirman to the west. Nor are they closely related
+to the Turkoman rugs with which they are usually grouped. In fact, they
+possess an individuality that once recognised is never forgotten; an
+individuality due to the isolated condition of a country that is
+protected from its nearest neighbours by barriers of deserts and
+mountain ridges, and is possessed by a still unconquered people. To
+these circumstances, also, it is due that the rugs are rarely coloured
+with aniline dyes, though many modern pieces have been chemically washed
+by dealers.
+
+[Illustration: PLATE 56. YOMUD RUG]
+
+One of the most distinguishing features of Beluchistans are their tones
+of colour, that rarely depart from traditional usage. They are
+principally a red of the shade of madder, a blue with purple cast, and a
+dark brown that has sometimes a slight olive tinge, particularly when
+appearing in the webs. Frequently, too, dull tones of green are seen.
+Contrasting with these more subdued ground colours is almost invariably
+some ivory which appears as small detached figures in part of the
+border, or as outlines of principal designs. The patterns also show
+individuality and diversity. Most frequently they are geometric and
+represent some ill defined octagons suggesting Turkoman rugs. Or they
+may consist of a field covered with diagonal bands, with large lozenges,
+or medallions, all of which are decorated profusely with latch-hooks.
+Still others have some crudely drawn flower design, as the Mina Khani,
+that tells of Persian influences.
+
+A fair proportion have the prayer pattern, consisting of a large
+rectangular shaped mihrab, which is as high as, and frequently higher
+than, wide. The borders, as a rule, consist of three or four stripes.
+The main stripe is geometric and in the guard stripes are running
+latch-hooks or the reciprocal trefoil, though occasionally they are
+replaced by some conventionalised vine or ribbon pattern.
+
+Proportionally to their length few other rugs have such long webs at the
+end, though they are sometimes entirely worn away while the body of the
+rug is still serviceable. They are usually coloured in harmony with the
+colours of the field, and are marked with embroidered lines or simple
+designs. No other rugs have a surface with more lustrous sheen, due to
+the soft, fine wool of the pile, which in old pieces is short and
+closely woven, giving a play of colours, and velvety appearance
+unsurpassed by any other nomadic rugs. Many of the choicest pieces of
+Beluchistan weave now on the market are the small saddle bags, that are
+of rich yet subdued colours, and possess the character and sheen of very
+old rugs.
+
+_Type Characteristics._ _Colours_, principally red, blue, and brown,
+with minor quantities of white. _Knot_, Sehna. Knots to inch
+horizontally six to nine; perpendicularly, seven to ten. The rows of
+knots are usually pressed down, so that the warp does not show at back.
+_Warp_, wool; each of the two threads encircled by a knot is equally
+prominent at back, or one is slightly depressed below the other. _Weft_,
+of coarse, wiry wool, of medium diameter. A thread of weft crosses twice
+between every two rows of knots. _Pile_, wool, and occasionally camel's
+hair, of medium length. _Border_, three stripes. _Sides_, a heavy goat's
+hair selvage of three or four cords. _Both ends_, a broad embroidered
+web with warp fringe. _Texture_, slightly loose. _Weave_ at back is
+moderately coarse. _Usual length_, four and one half to six feet. _Usual
+width_, two thirds to three quarters length.
+
+
+BORDER STRIPES
+
+The border stripes of the Central Asiatic group are even more geometric
+than the Caucasian; for it is rarely that any floral forms are seen in
+them, though they may appear in the pile that extends beyond the borders
+of the ends. Even the vines are so angular as almost to lose their
+identity. Octagonal figures, stars, frets, and latch-hooks are common.
+In fact, the group as a whole, shows the influence of the Caucasian and
+Chinese groups more than the Persian.
+
+
+PRIMARY STRIPES
+
+The stripe shown in Plate L, Fig. 1 (opp. Page 250) is one of many found
+in the rugs known as Royal Bokharas. The eight-pointed stars, as well as
+the small tent-like designs, which may have been derived from the
+headstalls of horses, are almost always found in it.
+
+A well-known stripe of Princess Bokharas corresponding with the pattern
+of the field, appears in Plate L, Fig. 2. It represents a continuous
+series of designs shaped like a Y, that were doubtless derived from
+forms of trees. More frequently the stripe (Fig. 3) of broad, serrated
+diagonal lines, that originally may have been intended to represent
+foliage, is seen.
+
+Another stripe found in Princess Bokharas and also in Tekkes and Khivas
+is shown in Plate L, Fig. 4. It forcibly suggests the Chinese fret.
+Sometimes it is used as a primary but more frequently as a secondary
+stripe.
+
+In Plate L, Fig. 5, is a stripe frequently seen in Tekkes, which is
+interesting on account of the eight-pointed stars and latch-hooks
+similar to those of Caucasian rugs. Without doubt this is only one of
+the many instances illustrating the migration of designs.
+
+Plate L, Fig. 6 represents a stripe peculiar to Yomuds. The running vine
+is most mechanically drawn and fringed with latch-hooks, which are a
+constant feature of this class.
+
+Another Yomud stripe with vine in which serrations take the place of
+latch-hooks is shown in Plate L, Fig. 7. Pendent from the vine are other
+hooks shaped like frets.
+
+Very similar to an old Caucasian stripe is the one represented in Plate
+L, Fig. 8; but in this stripe the small designs are drawn so that the
+proportion of length to width is greater; and it is probable that they
+were copied from a wreath of leaves. This stripe is very commonly seen
+in Beluchistans.
+
+[Illustration: PLATE L. PRIMARY AND SECONDARY BORDER-STRIPES OF CENTRAL
+ASIATIC RUGS]
+
+Plate L, Fig. 9 represents a mechanically drawn vine found in Beshires.
+
+Well-known Afghan stripes are shown in Plate L, Figs. 10 and 11.
+
+In Plate L, Figs. 12 and 13 are two of the most typical and interesting
+stripes of Samarkands and Yarkands. The first is supposed to represent
+the sacred mountain of Chinese lore rising out of the waves. The second
+is a vine with leaves and flowers, which suggest Persian influences.
+
+A stripe with simple archaic pattern peculiar to Yarkands is seen in
+Plate L, Fig. 14.
+
+
+SECONDARY STRIPES
+
+In Plate L, Fig. 15 (opp. Page 250), is a well-known form of a secondary
+stripe found in Royal Bokharas.
+
+A stripe seen in both Princess Bokharas and Tekkes is shown in Plate L,
+Fig. 16. It bears a slight resemblance to some conventionalised vines
+found in other groups.
+
+Stripes of running latch-hooks (Plate K, Fig. 20, opp. Page 230) are
+frequently found in Yomuds, and occasionally in Beluchistans.
+
+In Beluchistans the reciprocal trefoils, so well-known in Caucasian and
+Persian rugs, are very frequently used.
+
+The pattern of a double vine, illustrated in Plate L, Fig. 17, is a
+Beshire stripe that suggests a Persian influence.
+
+In Plate L, Fig. 18, is the narrow pear stripe that appears in a very
+large number of Afghans and in some Khivas.
+
+Two well-known stripes that belong to Samarkands are shown in Plate L,
+Figs. 19 and 20. The pattern of the conventionalised vine speaks of
+Persian origin, and the swastikas suggest Chinese origin.
+
+In Tekkes, Yomuds, Afghans, and Beluchistans the small barber-pole
+stripes are constantly employed.
+
+
+TECHNICALITIES IN THE WEAVE OF CENTRAL ASIATIC RUGS
+
+
+ Legend:
+
+ KNOT—
+ H = Horizontally
+ P = Perpendicularly
+ WARP—
+ g = goat's hair
+ e = each equally prominent
+ d = 1 to the knot depressed
+ h = 1 to the knot doubled under
+ WEFT—
+ g = goat's hair
+ No. = No. times crossing bet. two round knots
+ SIDES—
+ O = overcasting
+ S = selvage
+ LOWER END
+ W = web
+ S = Selvage
+ K = Rows knots
+ L = warp loops
+ F = fringe
+ UPPER END
+ W = web
+ S = selvage
+ K = Rows knots
+ T = turned back and hemmed
+ F = fringe
+
+ +------------+----------------------------+------------------------------+
+ | | KNOT | WARP |
+ | +---------+------+-----------+-----+-------+----+-----------+
+ | CENTRAL | | | Number to | | | | At back |
+ | ASIATIC | | | Inches | | | | |
+ | | G = | S = +-----+-----+ w =| c = | +---+---+---+
+ | | Ghiordes| Sehna| H | P | wool| cotton| g | e | d | h |
+ |------------+---------+------+-----+-----+-----+-------+----+---+---+---+
+ |Afghan | G | S | 5-8 | 7-10| w | |[g] | e | d | |
+ |Beluchistan | | S | 6-9 | 7-10| w | |[g] | e | d | |
+ |Beshire | | S | 6-9 | 8-11| [w] | [c] | g | e |[d]| |
+ |Princess | | | | | | | | | | |
+ | Bokhara | | S | 8-12|16-24| w | | | e |[d]| |
+ |Royal | | | | | | | | | | |
+ | Bokhara | | S | 8-12|14-18| w | |[g] | e | | |
+ |Tekke | | | | | | | | | | |
+ | Bokhara | | S | 7-12| 9-14| w | |[g] | | d | |
+ |Khiva | G | S | 6-10| 8-14| w | |[g] | e | | |
+ |Samarkand | | S | 6-8 | 5-8 | [w] | c | | | | h |
+ |Yomud | [G] | S | 7-12| 9-17| w | | g | e |[d]| |
+ +------------+---------+------+-----+-----+-----+-------+----+---+---+---+
+
+ +------------+--------------------------+-------+-----------------+
+ | | WEFT | SIDES | LOWER END |
+ | +-----+-------+----+-------+---+---+-----+---+---+---+
+ | CENTRAL | | | | | | | | | | |
+ | ASIATIC | w = | c = | | | | | | | | |
+ | |wool | cotton| g | No. | O | S | W/S | K | L | F |
+ +------------+-----+-------+----+-------+---+---+-----+---+---+---+
+ |Afghan | w | | | 2 | | S | W | | | F |
+ |Beluchistan | w | | | 2 | | S | W | | | F |
+ |Beshire | [w] | [c] | g |2/[1] | | S | W | | | F |
+ |Princess | | | | | | | | | | |
+ | Bokhara | w | | | 2 | O | | W | | | F |
+ |Royal | | | | | | | | | | |
+ | Bokhara | w | | | 2 | O |[S]| W | | | F |
+ |Tekke | | | | | | | | | | |
+ | Bokhara | w | | | 2 | | S | W | | | F |
+ |Khiva | w | | | 2 | | S | W | K | | F |
+ |Samarkand | [w] | c | | 2 | O | | W | | L | |
+ |Yomud | w | | | 2 | | S | W | | | F |
+ +------------+-----+-------+----+-------+---+---+-----+---+---+---+
+
+ +------------+-----------------+-----------+-----------+----------+
+ | | UPPER END | NAP | WEAVE | TEXTURE |
+ | |-----+---+---+---+-----------+-----------+----------+
+ | CENTRAL | | | | |l = long |f = fine |l = loose |
+ | ASIATIC | | | | |m = medium |m = medium |m = medium|
+ | | W/S | K | T | F |s = short |c = coarse |f = firm |
+ +------------+-----+---+---+---+-----------+-----------+----------+
+ |Afghan | W | | | F | m | m/c | f |
+ |Beluchistan | W | | | F | m | c | m/l |
+ |Beshire | W | | | F | m | c | f |
+ |Princess | | | | | | | |
+ | Bokhara | W | | | F | s | f | f |
+ |Royal | | | | | | | |
+ | Bokhara | W | | | F | m/s | m/s | f |
+ |Tekke | | | | | | | |
+ | Bokhara | W | |[T]| F | m/s | m/f | f |
+ |Khiva | W | | | F | m | m | f |
+ |Samarkand | W | | | F | m | c | m |
+ |Yomud | W | | | F | m | m/c | f |
+ +------------+-----+---+---+---+-----------+-----------+----------+
+
+ [] indicates the less frequent condition.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XIII
+
+INDIAN RUGS
+
+
+THROUGHOUT parts of India are woven rugs known as _Dari_, which are
+unlike the rugs of any other country. They are pileless cotton fabrics,
+that may represent an indigenous craft old as the Aryan migrations.
+Their designs are of the simplest order; usually no more than plain
+stripes of blue, red, and black, or only blue and white modified
+occasionally by simple geometric figures. Furthermore, their workmanship
+is poor, so that they possess little artistic merit. Some pieces of
+large size are exported, but they awaken but little interest compared
+with other kinds of rugs.
+
+The weaving of pile carpets in India, on the other hand, does not appear
+to have been the result of spontaneous growth or to have flourished
+without artificial encouragement. It was probably introduced by the
+Saracens, but carpets of elaborate design and workmanship were not made
+till the reign of Shah Akbar, who imported Persian weavers. Under his
+patronage and the encouragement of his royal successors, the manufacture
+of pieces that rivalled those of Persia continued for a hundred years,
+but after the death of Shah Jahan, in 1658, the industry began to
+decline. Nevertheless, for nearly a hundred years longer excellent
+fabrics were produced as the result of the system that was maintained in
+all the provinces by lesser potentates. This system, which was also in
+vogue in parts of Persia, is described by Dr. George Birdwood as
+follows: "The princes and great nobles and wealthy gentry, who are the
+chief patrons of these grand fabrics, collect together in their own
+houses and palaces all who gain a reputation for special skill in their
+manufacture. These men receive a fixed salary and daily rations and are
+so little hurried in their work that they have plenty of time to execute
+private orders also. Their salaries are continued even when through age
+or accident they are past work; and on their death they pass to their
+sons, should they have become skilled in their father's art. Upon the
+completion of any extraordinary work, it is submitted to the patron; and
+some honour is at once conferred on the artist and his salary increased.
+It is under such conditions that the best art work of the East has
+always been produced."
+
+After the overthrow of the Mogul dominion by Nadir Shah, in 1731, the
+production of carpets rapidly diminished and the quality deteriorated.
+This was due to several causes. With the conquests of the East Indian
+Company, that began in the middle of the XVIII Century, and the
+extension of trade into every district, large quantities of antique
+carpets became the property of the Company or of those in its employ.
+Many of them, including sumptuous pieces that had adorned the palaces of
+the descendants of Tamerlane, found their way to England. Thus were
+removed many of the masterpieces that had been an inspiration to the
+weavers. Moreover, with the overthrow of native princes their patronage
+ceased; and later, when looms were established in jails for the
+employment of convicts, undesirable competition reduced the wages of
+free labour. Still more pernicious was the introduction of aniline dyes,
+and the elimination of individual taste by supplying patterns, that were
+often of European origin, to be mechanically copied. Thus it followed
+that, in spite of the efforts of Mr. Robinson and of others, for nearly
+half a century, to resuscitate the art and restore it to its former
+condition, weaving in India, to-day, rests purely on a commercial basis;
+and the workmanship is almost as mechanical as the manufacture of
+machine-made carpets in Europe or America.
+
+Yet to the cloud hanging over the weaving of India is a brighter lining.
+European companies have established factories where natives are employed
+making rugs that in quality equal the products of Smyrna and Sultanabad.
+Some of them, indeed, are even more firmly woven than the Persian
+products from which they are copied. In many of the towns, also, are
+looms where the weavers, who are mostly boys, enjoy more independence.
+Moreover, the companies, realising that the future of their business
+depends on the quality of the fabrics, are largely discarding aniline
+dyes. It is now possible, therefore, to obtain Indian rugs of excellent
+workmanship and colours at very moderate prices; but individuality,
+representative of native character and temperament, is entirely lacking;
+and in its place is simply a reproduction of Persian or European
+patterns.
+
+[Illustration: PLATE 57. BESHIRE PRAYER RUG]
+
+Any arrangement of these rugs in sub-groups must be arbitrary, as
+similar conditions of early foreign influence, royal patronage, and the
+jail and factory systems, have prevailed throughout India. Yet since the
+northern part has been more directly under the influence of the courts
+and more intimately connected with Herat, which seems to have left a
+strong impress on the weavings of all the surrounding country, it is
+convenient to make a distinction between the rugs of Northern and
+Southern India.
+
+The principal rug-producing centres of Northern India at present are
+Srinagar, Amritsar, Lahore, Multan, Allahabad, Agra, Mirzapur, Sindh,
+Jubbulpur, and Jaipur.
+
+
+SRINAGAR.—From the extreme northern part of India come the rugs of
+Kashmir, which are often named after the capital of the province,
+Srinagar, the "City of the Sun." To a large extent, they resemble the
+far more famous shawls that were woven in the central valley, where
+winds the Jhelum, that some believe first suggested the pear design. The
+pieces woven before the British occupation of India were of excellent
+quality and contained delicate colour schemes, that were exceedingly
+pleasing; but the products of the last half century show deterioration.
+The colours are harsher, the mechanical drawing of the patterns show
+European influence, and the borders resemble too closely the central
+field to have distinct characters. Yet many of them are now dyed with
+vegetable colours, and are stoutly woven with the soft and silky wool
+for which this district is renowned.
+
+
+AMRITSAR.—On account of famine and several other causes, a large number
+of the people of Kashmir migrated about the year 1840. Some of them
+settled at Amritsar, where they followed their former craft of making
+shawls, until a change of fashion, that occurred about the year 1870,
+deprived many of their occupation. These turned to rug weaving and thus
+gave an impetus to that industry.
+
+Amritsar is now the most populous and wealthy city of the Punjab; and as
+some twenty thousand men and boys are employed at the looms, it is one
+of the leading rug-producing centres of India. Yet before the exhibition
+of Indian rugs at the World's Fair in Chicago, in 1893, there had not
+been any demand in this country for its rugs. For a long period it has
+been the home of weavers who found in the surrounding mountains and
+valleys the best of wool, but before the revival of the industry their
+patterns and workmanship were of an inferior character. Under the
+factory system, conducted by American and English firms, has been a
+marked improvement. Both dyes and wool are excellent, and the technique
+of weave equals what is found in the best of Persian products, To the
+square inch are frequently two hundred Sehna knots; and since when tying
+a knot one thread of warp is doubled under the other, as in Bijars, and
+the threads of weft are pressed down very firmly, the texture is
+unusually close. The nap is short; the sides are overcast; and as a
+rule, the lower end has a cotton web and the upper end a web and fringe.
+The moderate prices for rugs of such excellent dyes and workmanship are
+possible only on account of the wage of the weaver, which does not
+exceed one eighth what he would receive in this country.
+
+There is nothing, however, in the pattern to distinguish these rugs from
+others; for in the drawing the greatest latitude is exercised. It may be
+a copy of a European carpet, or some Indian or Iranian antique. Of
+recent years, many well-known modern Persian patterns have been
+followed, so that not infrequently these pieces are mistaken for the
+products of Kermanshah or Sultanabad.
+
+
+LAHORE.—About the year 1580, the imperial carpet factory of Shah Akbar
+was established at Lahore, the capital of the Punjab; where during the
+reign of the Mogul princes were produced many of the best examples of
+Indian weaving. It was here that, in 1634, was woven the well-known
+carpet now in the possession of the Girdler's Company of London. Some of
+the pieces that still remain show wonderful delicacy of drawing and
+brilliancy of colouring. At a much later period, under the British rule,
+the jail system of weaving was inaugurated, and rugs were made with both
+woollen and cotton foundation. Within more recent years the factory
+system followed; and on account of the nearness of Amritsar to the
+capital, some foreign firms have weaving establishments in both cities.
+It is not surprising, then, that there should be a resemblance in their
+products, which is seen in the finish of sides and ends and in the
+character of weaving, which usually shows one thread of warp to each
+knot doubled under the other; but as a rule the rugs of Lahore come in
+lighter shades and are woven with fewer knots to the square inch. In the
+guards of the border often appear geometric figures; but the patterns in
+other respects largely follow well-known Persian drawing, though leaf
+and flower are more artistically portrayed and the designs are less
+crowded.
+
+
+MULTANS.—One of the most ancient cities of the Punjab is Multan, which
+during the vicissitudes of centuries was more than once captured by
+early Mohammedan conquerors and also by Tamerlane. Its woven fabrics are
+of three types: the _Dari_, which are made almost exclusively in the
+jails; rugs of cotton pile, that have been made only within the last
+sixty years; and rugs of woollen pile, that have been produced for an
+unknown period. As the looms on which they are made are unlike those of
+other districts, and the weavers are but little affected by external
+influences, it is not surprising that the pile carpets not only display
+uniqueness of pattern rarely seen in other Indian pieces but also
+possess peculiarities of weaving as well as of material. Usually they
+are of moderate size, but some have a breadth of twelve feet. There are
+seldom more than one hundred knots to the square inch and occasionally
+only nine, so that the texture is coarse. Not infrequently a single knot
+encircles four threads of warp, and between two rows of knots is a
+single thread of weft. Almost all of the weavers are Mohammedans, who
+have a tradition that they originally came from Persia; yet their
+products contain few of the Iranian characteristics, since the field is
+usually occupied by geometric designs or crudely drawn floral patterns.
+As is seldom the case with weavers who dwell in cities, these dye their
+own wool, using both vegetable and aniline dyes. The principal colours
+are bold and strongly contrasting tones of red, yellow, and blue. Some
+of the cotton rugs, however, have a single colour of bluish shade. On
+the whole, the Multan rugs possess great individuality but little
+artistic merit.
+
+
+AGRA.—Almost within sight of the minarets of the Taj Mahal are prison
+walls where convicts of Agra ploddingly weave. In 1891, Dr. John Hurst
+"saw a long row of prisoners for life, who were chained to each other by
+the feet, engaged in weaving a rug for Queen Victoria, and another for
+the ex-Empress Eugenie." Most of these pieces are of cotton foundation.
+Each thread of warp is equally prominent at the back, and the texture is
+looser than in Amritsars. The nap is short, and the fibres of the knots
+blend well together. Not infrequently the fields are monotones of
+delicate shades of blue, green, or fawn colour. As a rule, the rugs are
+very large and heavy; and it would seem that this has always been the
+case, as Mr. Robinson suggested that the reason for establishing looms
+at this place was the early demand for carpets too large to be imported
+on elephants.
+
+
+ALLAHABAD.—Situated like Benares on the banks of the Ganges, and next to
+it the most sacred city of India to the faithful Brahman, is Allahabad,
+capital of the northwestern provinces. Its geographic and political
+importance, as well as the fact that each year half a million or more
+devotees visit it, have been important factors in the growth of its
+industries, one of which is the weaving of rugs. Yet the numbers
+produced have never been great. As a rule they are of large size, and
+are loosely woven with each thread of warp equally distinct at the back.
+Few of them equal the best examples of the Amritsar looms.
+
+
+MIRZAPUR.—When it is considered that Mirzapur is the centre of a very
+populous cotton-producing district in the valley of the Ganges, to the
+west of Benares, and is the seat of important manufactures, it is not
+surprising that it is noted for its carpets. Those made half a century
+ago were well woven and dyed with fast colours, but largely on account
+of the employment of convicts, the texture of those made since then is
+coarse and loose, the patterns are poor, the colours crude. To a limited
+extent a higher grade of wool has been imported as a substitute for the
+harsh local product, but the result has not been satisfactory. These
+rugs accordingly find small favour among those who appreciate artistic
+qualities, and give little satisfaction where durability is the chief
+requisite. It should be noted, however, that within recent years efforts
+have been made to raise their standard.
+
+
+JUBBULPUR.—Two hundred miles to the southwest of Allahabad is Jubbulpur,
+capital of a district of over half a million people. A century ago many
+beautiful rugs were woven there; but since the establishment of a School
+of Industry, in 1850, the character of weaving has retrograded rather
+than advanced. In 1880, Dr. Birdwood wrote of its rugs as follows: "The
+foundation, as now scamped is quite insufficient to carry the heavy pile
+which is a feature of this work; and is moreover so short in the staple
+as to be incapable of bearing the tension even of the process of
+manufacture. Jubbulpur carpets often reach this country (England) which
+will not bear sweeping, or even unpacking. I know of two which were
+shaken to pieces in the attempt to shake the dust out of them when first
+unpacked. The designs once had some local character, but have lost it
+during the last four or five years." Within recent years few have been
+exported.
+
+[Illustration: PLATE 58. BESHIRE RUG]
+
+
+SINDH.—Formerly good rugs were woven at Sindh, one hundred miles above
+the mouth of the Indus; but after the introduction of aniline dyes their
+colours, as well as patterns, deteriorated. In the poorest pieces the
+foundation was of cotton and hemp, and cow hair was frequently used for
+pile. Very few of them have been imported into this country.
+
+
+JAIPUR.—In the palace of the Maharajah at Jaipur, the great commercial
+centre of Rajputana, are some of the most beautiful carpets that remain
+in India. Native appreciation is also apparent in the present
+workmanship of the district weavers. There is nothing crass or inelegant
+in the patterns which follow the pleasing drawing of Persian rugs. The
+vine, leaf, and flower, trees, and animals are faithfully portrayed. The
+texture of weave is excellent.
+
+The principal rug-producing centres of Southern India are Madras,
+Marsulipatam, Ellore, Vellore, and Bangalore. Rugs are also woven in
+Hyderabad, Warangal, and Ayyampet in the Tanjore district.
+
+
+MADRAS.—Only within a comparatively recent period have rugs been made at
+Madras, the early stronghold of the British in South India. Over half a
+century ago, native products, woven in the interior towns of the Dekkan,
+were shipped by way of Coconada to that city and were sometimes known as
+Madras rugs. Two of these pieces, which were sent by Mr. Vincent
+Robinson to the South Kensington Museum, differ widely in harmony of
+colours, beauty of design, and delicacy of workmanship from the present
+products of Madras. Yet the latter have much to commend them. Some are
+made in the jail, others in the School of Fine Arts, and others in the
+Anjuman Industrial School. All are made of good wool, coloured with
+vegetable dyes. Great diversity appears in the patterns, as some are
+copied from antique carpets represented in the "Vienna Carpet Book,"
+others are copied from rugs of Northern India, Persia, and Asia Minor.
+As a rule, the fields are well covered with repetitive designs, that
+give them the appearance of factory-made carpets.
+
+
+MARSULIPATAM.—Two hundred and fifty miles north of Madras on the
+Coromandel coast is the city of Marsulipatam, one of the earliest of the
+British settlements in India, from which the East India Company shipped
+rugs over two centuries ago. At that time they were among the finest
+produced in that country, but the demands of agents for articles that
+could be produced as cheaply as possible resulted in the use of inferior
+materials and in poorer workmanship. Most of the dyes are aniline. The
+patterns, that once were executed with marvelous beauty of detail, gave
+way to crude drawing until "these glorious carpets of Marsulipatam have
+sunk to a mockery and travesty of their former selves."[36] Few of them
+are any longer imported into this country.
+
+
+ELLORE.—Not far from the delta of the Godavari river is the town of
+Ellore, where a few centuries ago some Persians settled, and where their
+descendants, faithful to early tradition, have followed the craft of
+weaving. Here in former times were produced some of the best rugs in
+Southern India; and even as late as 1883, Mr. E. B. Havell wrote that he
+had seen pieces woven to meet special orders which were equal in point
+of interest and material to the old specimens in the hands of
+connoisseurs of London or in native palaces. This is one of the few
+districts in Southern India where the industry exists outside of jails.
+In the town and surrounding country are about four hundred looms
+operated by some three thousand people, who are Mohammedans.
+
+In the better class of rugs, in which vegetable dyes are still used, and
+the yarn is often a native product of wool obtained from sheep of the
+uplands and spun by shepherds, something of the old style of
+craftsmanship remains. On the other hand, a very large percentage of the
+rugs which are intended solely for export trade are of an inferior
+order, since many of their colours are obtained from aniline, their
+weaving is inferior, and their patterns are ordinary. Mr. Henry T.
+Harris, in his report on the Madras Industrial and Art Exhibition, 1903,
+said: "The exhibits of carpets sent from Ellore were poor in conception,
+weave, and colour.... The patterns in use were poor and often
+modifications of cheap Wilton, Kidderminster, and German power loom
+designs. Some of the old patterns are still with the weavers, but
+unfortunately there is no trade demand for this fine class of goods, the
+old dyes are being forgotten and have given place to cheap anilines
+unskilfully applied."
+
+[Illustration: PLATE 59. AFGHAN RUG]
+
+In length, the rugs are from a few feet to twenty-four feet. The warp is
+of cotton, and the weft is sometimes of jute or hemp. The pile is of an
+inferior quality, as it consists largely of the wool taken from a sheep
+after death, known as "dead" wool, or as "Chunam" or "limed" wool, since
+it is necessary to treat it with lime. Unfortunately vegetable dyes do
+not produce in it the same results as in "live" wool; and since the
+scarcity of wool in Southern India frequently necessitates its use,
+aniline dyes are for this reason alone often employed. The number of
+knots to the square inch is relatively small. The patterns show great
+diversity, as Persian features predominate in the older rugs; but both
+geometric and floral designs are employed in the modern.
+
+
+VELLORE.—Almost a hundred miles to the west of Madras is the town of
+Vellore, where native weavers once produced fine woollen carpets on
+their own looms. A few specimens of these old pieces are preserved in
+the jail to serve as patterns for the convicts, who now weave the only
+rugs of the district. There are some fifty looms; and as the largest is
+about thirty feet wide, almost any size of rug may be obtained. The
+product rests on a commercial basis and depends on the market demands,
+restricted by the material available and the limitations of the weavers.
+According to the order, the rugs may be coloured with vegetable or
+aniline dyes; they may have warp and weft of cotton, jute or hemp; and
+they may have from six to sixteen knots to the inch measured
+horizontally and perpendicularly. In the patterns, which are as
+promiscuous as those of Ellore and often similar, the Herati design with
+a corresponding border is not infrequently used. Recently an effort has
+been made to exclude all but vegetable dyes and improve the
+craftsmanship.
+
+
+BANGALORE.—The principal weaving industry in the Mysore state is centred
+about Bangalore, a city of about two hundred thousand inhabitants. Its
+founder, Hyder Ali, is said to have established looms and to have
+imported the first weavers. In 1908, the nine jail looms, of which the
+largest had a length of nearly thirty feet, were constantly occupied in
+making rugs to order. The number of knots to the square inch varied
+greatly according to the quality required; and the dyes were almost
+entirely aniline. In the city are employed a much larger number of
+weavers, who clean and spin the wool produced in the district, as well
+as dye it by secret processes, that they guard most carefully. The
+closeness of texture; the colouring by aniline or vegetable dyes; and
+the use of cotton, jute, or hemp, for warp and weft, are regulated by
+the requirements of the trade, which is conducted largely by two or
+three English firms.
+
+
+HYDERABAD.—Splendid craftsmanship was once displayed in the rugs made in
+the cities of Hyderabad and Warangal, in the district of Hyderabad. The
+weave was exceedingly fine, and the colours were brilliant but
+harmonious. Now few rugs are produced in these cities, and they have
+poor patterns and wretched colours.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XIV
+
+CHINESE RUGS
+
+
+THE existence of Chinese rugs of age and merit was almost unknown to the
+Western world until the close of the last century, when a few pieces
+reached Europe, where they aroused the just admiration of art
+connoisseurs. About the beginning of this century a larger number, which
+were obtained during the Boxer revolution by reason of the spoliation of
+homes, temples, and palaces, that never before had been entered by
+foreigners, were exported to this country. In New York City, between the
+years 1908 and 1910, some of them were sold at public auctions for
+prices that stimulated collectors in China to search for more. But they
+have proved to be scarce when compared with other Oriental rugs, so
+that, as yet, the general public are only slightly familiar with them.
+
+Moreover, little is known about their antecedents, for written records
+are exceedingly meagre. It has been suggested that many were made in
+Eastern Turkestan along the highways that extend to Persia and India.
+But it is more probable that they were woven in Eastern China, where
+other branches of art reached a remarkable development under the
+patronage of wealthy mandarins and the imperial court. Even if they are
+not the product of an indigenous growth, the knowledge of weaving may
+easily have been acquired from Western Asia; since it was not unusual
+several centuries ago to import weavers from one country to another to
+instruct native craftsmen. Furthermore, the features which at a glance
+differentiate these rugs from all others, proclaim their Chinese
+character. The diaper patterns that cover the fields of some of them,
+and the foliate and floral forms that appear in most of them, not only
+are unlike those of any other groups, but have well-known Chinese
+elements. A more distinctive feature are the colours, which are
+relatively few. Many of them, as tan, yellow, and blue, are of shades
+unlike what are seen in other rugs. Even more distinctive than these are
+the reds, which never have the primary colours found in other groups but
+resemble the tints of ripe apricot, peach, pomegranate, and persimmon.
+Similar tones are seen in old Chinese porcelain. The geometric and
+floral ornamentation also shows relationship to what is found in the
+products of other branches of Chinese art. More characteristic still are
+the small designs which are so related to the philosophic and religious
+thought of the people and to the industrial and social life that their
+Chinese origin is unmistakable.
+
+Though it be granted that nearly all were woven in Eastern China, it is
+not possible satisfactorily to assign them to different classes based on
+locality; yet without doubt important distinctions, observable also in
+the early paintings and porcelains and resulting largely from
+differences of race and character of country, exist between those woven
+in Northern China, where the highest appreciation of art existed, and
+those woven in Southern China. It is probable, however, that such marked
+local distinctions as are found in other groups never existed in Chinese
+rugs. Such distinctions as do exist relate more to stages in development
+of the textile art, so that the natural classification is based on the
+successive periods when they were woven.
+
+The absence of written and traditional history regarding the weaving of
+these periods is by no means an insuperable obstacle to such
+classification. By a careful examination of large numbers of rugs, it is
+possible to arrange them with reasonable accuracy in series that
+represent progressive forms of ornamentation and design from the archaic
+to the modern. A most important aid to this arrangement is the
+interdependence so conspicuous in the several arts of China; for designs
+of innumerable articles with well-established ages, especially of the
+ceramic art, have been copied by the weavers.
+
+Technical peculiarities in weaving are also an aid in determining the
+period to which rugs belong. An important distinction, for instance,
+often exists in the manner in which the material is spun. If pieces of
+yarn be taken from old rugs and carefully examined, as they are
+untwisted, the simpler, cruder methods of spinning practised in former
+days are often apparent. In some of the oldest fabrics that remain the
+wool was very loosely spun. Irregularities in the size of yarn are also
+more noticeable in old than in modern pieces.
+
+[Illustration: PLATE 60. BELUCHISTAN PRAYER RUG]
+
+More important often in determining the relative age of a rug than
+either design or technical peculiarities of weaving, is the shade of
+colour; for however excellent were the original dyes and whatever care
+was exercised in their application, they slowly changed under the
+mellowing influence of time to tones that are obtained by no human
+process. Furthermore, as is the case with porcelains, certain colours
+were peculiar to certain periods. For instance, golden browns are seen
+mostly in pieces woven before the middle of the XVIII Century, and azure
+blue in pieces woven before the XIX Century. Yellow with a lemon or
+citron cast is found principally in pieces woven since the beginning of
+the XVIII Century; and green is rarely found in pieces woven before the
+middle of the XVIII Century. Aniline dyes were not introduced into China
+much before the year 1870. The time when a rug was woven may safely be
+regarded as not more remote than the period when the ornamentation and
+designs it contains were generally adopted; yet it may be much more
+recent, as the oldest designs were copied even after the adoption of
+newer ones. It is necessary, then, in determining the age of a rug to
+consider not only the evidence of the spinning, the weaving and designs,
+but also the evidence of colour.
+
+Though Chinese rugs have features that distinguish them from other
+groups and divide them into separate classes; they also have many
+features in common. All are woven with the Sehna knot. In all but the
+earliest rugs the warp and weft are of cotton; each thread of warp is
+equally prominent at the back; and the weft, which is coarser than the
+warp, crosses twice between two rows of knots. The nap of both old and
+modern rugs is almost always wool or silk, and rarely, if ever, jute or
+cotton. The sides are finished by carrying the weft around the outer
+threads of warp, but never so as to form a wide selvage. The lower end,
+as a rule, has a very narrow web and warp loops; and the upper end has a
+narrow web and fringe. Compared with other groups they are generally
+more loosely woven. These and other features of resemblance and of
+distinction will be more fully noticed in considering the rugs of
+different periods.
+
+In rugs of this group are constantly seen symbols intimately associated
+with the religious and philosophic thought of China. One of them is the
+Sacred Mountain rising out of the waves of eternity, which is an old
+Chinese emblem, though more frequently found in rugs of Samarkand and
+Yarkand. Others are the cloud-band and the Joo-e. There are also
+mythical creatures, as the dragon, emblem of imperial power; the Ky-lin,
+partly deer, partly unicorn; the Fung-Kwang or phoenix; and the
+lion-dog. Still other symbolic and decorative designs are the figure
+Shou and the stork, emblems of longevity; the bat and butterfly,
+denoting happiness; the conch, wheel of law, and the two fishes, which
+are Buddhist emblems; and the lyre and chess board, which are symbols of
+the literati.
+
+It is not improbable that rugs were woven during the Sung dynasty
+(960-1280 A. D.), when for nearly three centuries prosperity prevailed,
+literature and art flourished, and the court at Hang Chow was maintained
+with imperial splendour; but as far as is known, none of them exist. Nor
+do any remain that may have been woven during the Yuan dynasty
+(1280-1370) distinguished by the reign of the illustrious Mongol prince,
+Kublai Khan; though designs appearing in later rugs were used in kindred
+arts of these and preceding periods.
+
+
+MING RUGS.—The oldest Chinese rugs that remain were probably woven near
+the end of the Ming period, or during the first half of the XVII
+Century. It may reasonably be assumed that they were superior in quality
+to those of any former period, since during this time Persia and India
+were producing their greatest woven masterpieces; and other branches of
+Chinese art were marked by an advance over the work that had preceded.
+Yet, on the whole, it was a period of ebb in the splendid
+accomplishments of intellectual and artistic effort that marked the Tang
+and Sung dynasties.
+
+Such pieces as exist are distinguished by careful workmanship, archaic
+designs, and sobriety of colour. Most of the rugs were woven with warp
+and weft of cotton. Some, intended principally for wealthy mandarins or
+the imperial court, had pile of silk attached to warp and weft of
+cotton; and others were made entirely of silk. Fewer in number, but
+constituting the most sumptuous products of the Chinese weavers' art,
+were the rugs of silk woven on a web of metal threads.
+
+The field of many of these early rugs contained all-over patterns.
+Sometimes the repeat designs are of octagonal shape and are arranged in
+horizontal and perpendicular lines, so as to leave small diamond-shaped
+spaces between diagonally placed octagons. Within these designs are
+often the emblems of happiness or longevity, floral motives, and
+sometimes archaic dragons. In another well-known pattern the field is
+completely covered with a swastika-fret and marked at regular intervals
+with diagonal rows of bats, emblematic of happiness. Occasionally a
+field of plain colour contains an irregular arrangement of objects used
+for sacrificial or sacred purposes. Again, it may be covered with an
+all-over pattern of small archaically drawn dragons resembling some of
+the earliest designs in Chinese decorative art, or of most
+conventionalised floral forms on mechanically drawn stems.
+
+The essential feature, however, of a large number of these rugs, and one
+that probably antedates the all-over pattern, is a central medallion
+surrounded by a field that is either plain, that is marked with a
+subdued diaper pattern, or contains what is known as the "tiger skin"
+pattern, consisting of waving lines repeated throughout the field. The
+medallions may be either octagonal or, as is more frequently the case,
+rounded; but the defining lines are angular and generally represent
+frets. Sometimes they contain archaic dragons, which are so
+conventionalised in a few pieces that it is apparent that from them
+originated many of the Chinese scrolls. In other pieces, the shape of
+the central medallions and the designs which cover them suggest most
+forcibly that they were copied from old mirror backs. The corners of the
+fields may contain simple scrolls, but more frequently they correspond
+closely in drawing with the central medallions.
+
+The borders are equally typical. They are invariably narrow, and
+generally consist of a single stripe which is figured and surrounded
+with a coloured edging. Probably over three quarters of the rugs of this
+period have a stripe with a pattern of swastika-frets. Two of these
+stripes, which are very old patterns, are illustrated in Plate N, Figs.
+1 and 2 (opp. Page 274). Occasionally some form of the key pattern
+appears in the inner stripe, but almost all Chinese rugs that have two
+border stripes with figures belong to a later period. Many of the oldest
+borders are without figured stripes, and consist merely of one or more
+stripes of plain colour.
+
+The few colours used in the rugs of this period have deep, rich tones.
+Undyed dark brown or blackish wool was occasionally used in the outer
+edging that surrounded the field or in the narrow border stripes; but
+more frequently the same colour effect was obtained by the use of
+corrosive dyes that in time have often eaten the wool almost to the
+foundation of warp and weft. Wools dyed with corrosive browns are also
+used in the fields and enhance the effect of designs of contrasting
+colours, which stand out in bold relief. Other colours, as soft dull
+yellow and shades of blue, are also seen in the borders. The field is
+usually richer. In some pieces it is a deep red; in others it is a soft
+yellow, golden brown or yellowish tan, that shows the effect of time on
+what were originally several shades of apricot. Dark and light blues,
+sky blue, and robin's egg blue, as well as jade green and bottle green,
+are also found in these old pieces. In the metal and silk rugs the glint
+of silver even though tarnished, adds lustre to colours that have grown
+deeper and richer with age.
+
+
+KANG-HI.—During the first years of the Tsing dynasty, that continued
+from 1644 to its recent overthrow, the country was so occupied by wars
+waged between the conquering Manchoos and the still resisting followers
+of the Ming dynasty that art was nearly at a standstill. But during the
+reign of the illustrious Kang-hi, 1662-1722, art revived and enjoyed one
+of the most splendid periods of its history. There is, however, a
+noticeable difference between the rugs that belong to the early and to
+the late part of this reign; so that it is convenient to divide them
+into the early Kang-hi pieces, that were woven during the last part of
+the XVII Century, and the late Kang-hi pieces, almost all of which were
+woven at the beginning of the XVIII Century. This division is also
+convenient; as many rugs cannot be definitely assigned to the reign of a
+particular emperor, and, accordingly, the broader distinction of
+assigning them to different centuries is frequently adopted.
+
+In weaving, as in making porcelain, many of the products of the late
+Ming were still copied during the early Kang-hi period, but there was a
+freer use of colour and a more decorative ornamentation. Many of the
+figures are still geometric. Frets are conspicuous in the fields of
+large numbers of these pieces. The dragon also is a favourite motive;
+but in the scrolls that represent the legs and bifurcated tail, and in
+the conventionalised head, the resemblance to the mythical monster is
+almost lost. Sometimes two or more of these constitute a medallion in
+the centre of the field, in which others are grouped with regularity;
+while similar forms occupy the corners. Some of the rugs in which the
+fields are covered with sundry objects, as scrolls, vases, altar pieces,
+and sacred plants, also belong to this period. The borders of these and
+late Kang-hi pieces have frequently an outer edging of brown and a
+single border stripe with swastika-fret. In a few pieces, the stripe has
+a well-balanced scroll which has been developed from designs of
+conventionalised dragons and frets that appear in the central
+medallion and in the corners of the field. Occasionally, however, there
+is an inner stripe with the key meander. The colour scheme of the late
+Ming, including the golden browns and deep blues, is largely employed in
+rugs of this period.
+
+[Illustration: PLATE 61. TURKOMAN SADDLE-BAGS]
+
+The same influences that resulted during the late Kang-hi period in the
+remarkable development of decorative art as applied to porcelains,
+produced a corresponding effect in the rugs woven at the same time.
+Manchurian ideas and taste gave renewed spirit to earlier Chinese style.
+The fields were not infrequently covered with sub-patterns of fret work,
+on which medallions appeared more prominently. The geometric figures
+were largely supplanted by foliate forms. Even when the central
+medallions and corner figures are of frets or stiffly conventionalised
+dragons, the fields are often covered with delicate scroll or foliate
+sub-patterns that support floral forms resembling the lotus or the
+peony. The drawing of some of these has a Western character, and there
+is little doubt that at this time the art of Persia had a strong
+influence on the weaving of China. In other pieces of this class, the
+foliate and floral forms no longer appear as sub-patterns but become the
+prominent feature in the decoration of the field; and the
+conventionalised flowers are arranged with precision in diagonal or
+perpendicular lines. To this period also belong rugs of a distinct type,
+in which the field represents a blending of pictorial and symbolic
+ideas, as, for instance, a homeward flight of swallows; or a grove where
+butterflies flit among the leaves, and deer with sacred fungus,
+emblematic of longevity, wander.
+
+The employment of border stripes of uniform colour was still continued,
+but there was a tendency to employ more elaborate designs in many of the
+figured stripes. It is not unusual to see single or double vines with
+conventionalised flowers; and though the drawing is mechanical, the
+relationship to Persian art is apparent. Yet in most of these pieces the
+swastika-fret is used. A noticeable difference also exists in the colour
+scheme of many of the late Kang-hi rugs, which frequently display
+brighter colours. Much of the yellow, for instance, contains more red,
+giving it a golden hue known as the "imperial yellow."
+
+
+YUNG-CHING.—During the short reign of Yung-ching (1722-1736), though
+many of the old patterns were followed, the tendency to adopt more
+ornate forms begun during the first part of the XVIII Century continued.
+Manchurian ideas were now a strong factor in Chinese art, so that the
+use of colours and ornamentation followed broader lines. To this period
+are assigned most of those rugs in which designs are defined by lines of
+contrasting colour that has been so treated that the lines are depressed
+and throw the designs into bold relief. It is very difficult, however,
+to definitely determine that any particular rug belongs to this period;
+since the transition in colour scheme and patterns was gradual; and the
+effect of time on dyes, one of the most reliable factors in determining
+age, depends somewhat on their exposure to the elements and to use. But
+broadly speaking, figures of leaf and flower were more frequently
+adopted than in preceding periods and designs became less
+conventionalised and more artistic. Lemon and citron shades of yellow,
+also, became more prominent during this period.
+
+
+KEEN-LUNG.—The long reign of Keen-lung, lasting from 1736 to 1795, was
+one of the most prolific for Chinese art. To this period may safely be
+assigned most of the existing rugs made before the XIX Century, as well
+as many of the finest porcelains. The rugs partake of a more
+cosmopolitan character than those which had preceded; for not only are
+many of the designs and colours strictly Chinese, but others are of a
+Persian character, and others still suggest Mohammedan influences
+observable in the products of Turkestan and India. Moreover, many of the
+designs show a delicate shading that is not observable in the rugs made
+during the early part of the century. As a whole they are the most
+ornate of Chinese rugs. Woven after the inspiration of Persian
+masterpieces had left its strongest impress on Chinese weavers, and
+decoration in kindred arts had assumed a luxurious style, they represent
+in the drawing of leaf and flower, of birds, butterflies, and emblems of
+early philosophy and faith, and in the colours that blend with rare
+harmony, the most elaborate and voluptuous expression of native
+craftsmanship.
+
+In the best examples the geometric, and many of the stiff conventional
+forms which continued through the XVII and the early part of the XVIII
+Century, disappeared. In their place was a greater refinement of design,
+a greater accuracy of drawing, which found expression in floral forms
+that reached their highest development at this time and became
+characteristic of it. Occasionally they are represented in profile as is
+usually the practice in Western Asia, but more often are represented as
+viewed from above. Some of them, as chrysanthemums, peonies,
+sunflowers, and orchids, are most dainty and naturalistic. The fields of
+many of these pieces are covered with such flowers carefully arranged in
+harmonious groupings of leaf, bud and flower, but never with the formal
+and exact balance of old Persian carpets. Not infrequently mingled with
+them in the same piece are more conventional designs that belong to an
+earlier period; sometimes there is a single central medallion; and
+occasionally there are a large number of them. As a rule these
+medallions are entirely floral, and in rugs made during the latter part
+of this period they display elaborate ornamentation that distinguishes
+them from earlier ones; but now and then they contain fabulous
+creatures, as the lion-dogs, by which in a few instances they are
+entirely replaced.
+
+[Illustration: _COLOUR PLATE X—CHINESE RUG_
+
+_Perfect technique of weaving, accuracy of drawing, and subdued rich
+colouring are the characteristics of this unusual piece. The knots of
+the fine woollen yarn are tied with a precision not frequently seen in
+Chinese rugs, and the shortness of nap discloses the faithfulness with
+which an artist of no ordinary ability has represented plants and
+flowers. Their soft tones stand out in relief against a background now
+darkened and enriched by the mellowing influence of time. Moreover, the
+motives of the upper and the lower half of the field, even to the
+minutest detail, show an exact balance. Many old Chinese rugs are of
+uncertain age, but this piece has been attributed, not without reason,
+to the Kang-hi period._
+
+ _Loaned by Mr. Nathan Bentz_]
+
+There are also many other well-known types of Keen-lung rugs.
+Surrounding the central medallion of some pieces are grouped the Taoist
+symbols; emblems of the literati, as chess boards, scrolls, and the
+lyre; as well as tripods, flower vases, fans of state, fruits of
+abundance, emblems of honours, and symbols of longevity and happiness.
+To this class also belong many of the pieces which have neither
+medallions nor corner pieces, but have fields completely covered with a
+pattern of continuous foliate stems and conventional flowers, repeated
+with exact precision of drawing. Likewise, in a few pieces the field is
+completely covered with an all-over pattern of small hexagonal or other
+geometric figures containing a conventionalised flower, strongly
+suggesting Turkoman influences. Some of the "Grain of Rice" rugs, also,
+were woven during this period.
+
+The borders are as distinctive as the fields. Only in a few pieces is
+the swastika meander seen, but in its place is often the T pattern. The
+key patterns represented in Plate N, Figs. 7 and 8 (opp. Page 274), as
+well as the dotted line (Fig. 22), are also largely employed. Almost all
+of these rugs have two ornamented stripes, and occasionally three, to
+which is added an outer margin of plain colour. In a few pieces both
+stripes are geometric; but generally one is floral and one geometric, in
+which case the wider, that, with very few exceptions, is the floral, is
+the inner one. Very rarely the border contains two floral stripes; and
+now and then Buddhist emblems and other devices are introduced.
+
+The breadth of artistic conception expressed in designs is accompanied
+by a wider scope of colour, in the use of which these rugs may
+conveniently be grouped in three sub-classes. The first is the Blue and
+White, with ground of ivory or ashy white and designs that have shades
+of light or dark blue. The second comprises those in which the ground is
+some shade of yellow. Sometimes it has a tinge of lemon, orange, or
+apricot. Again it is what is known as dull, golden, mandarin, or
+imperial yellow. The overlying designs may contain a different shade of
+yellow from that of the field, an ivory white, a blue, or a red. The
+third subclass comprises those in which the ground colour is some shade
+of red; such as persimmon, terra cotta, crushed strawberry, apricot red,
+or a deep salmon pink, which is rare. The overlying designs may be a
+shade of blue, ivory white, yellow, gray, and even green. Colours of
+both field and border are sometimes the same but are more frequently
+complementary. As a whole, the elaborate designs, delicate shading, and
+rich colours rank these rugs among the most beautiful products of the
+Chinese loom.
+
+The rugs woven during the reigns of Kea-king (1796-1820) and Tao-Kwang
+(1821-1850), extending to the middle of last century, repeat with slight
+modification the patterns of the preceding period, though there is a
+tendency to use larger and coarser designs. The colours, too, are
+similar, yet they lack the deep richness that is matured only with the
+lapse of great time. Many of these rugs, as well as some woven still
+later, before the introduction of aniline dyes and factory processes,
+are beautiful; but as a rule the modern pieces lack the refinement of
+technique observable only in those produced before the beginning of the
+XIX Century.
+
+
+MEDALLIONS
+
+The study of medallions which occur in fields of Chinese rugs is not
+only interesting but is an important aid in determining their age; yet
+it should be remembered that approved patterns were often repeated even
+after the introduction of more elaborate styles. Many of the oldest
+medallions were copied from bronzes or mirror backs, and their drawing
+is geometric except as embellished by some conventionalised figures of
+the dragon. By a process of evolution these figures, in turn, were
+converted into scrolls, which in time were replaced by elaborate leaf
+and flower patterns.
+
+In Plate M, Fig. 1 (opp. Page 272), is a "Shou" design of octagonal
+shape, copied from an old rug which was probably woven during the early
+part of the XVII Century.
+
+[Illustration: PLATE M. MEDALLIONS IN CHINESE RUGS]
+
+Figs. 2, 3 and 4 of Plate M, represent fret-covered medallions, which
+also are found in rugs of the same period. The first is probably the
+oldest pattern; and the last, to judge by the panel surrounding it, was
+apparently copied from a bronze mirror back.
+
+In Plate M, Fig. 5, is a copy of a medallion similar to the one shown in
+Plate M, Fig. 2, but with the dragons replaced by frets.
+
+A medallion of greater interest is illustrated in Plate M, Fig. 6. It
+shows the evolution of scrolls from dragons, of which the heads alone
+betray their origin. Such medallions are found mostly in the earliest
+rugs.
+
+By comparing Fig. 7 of Plate M with the preceding, it is apparent that
+its scrolls had a similar origin, but in this one the dragon heads have
+entirely disappeared. The design is characteristic of the early Kang-hi
+rugs.
+
+In Plate M, Fig. 8, is represented a medallion that closely resembles
+some of the earliest period; but the more accurate drawing and clearer
+definition of lines shows that it is a later copy. It is found in late
+Kang-hi pieces.
+
+To this period, also, belongs the geometric pattern with swastikas
+represented in Plate M, Fig. 9.
+
+Another medallion with frets and dragon heads is shown in Plate M, Fig.
+10. The particular rug from which it was copied was probably woven about
+the Yung-ching period; but there is little doubt that similar medallions
+appeared in older rugs.
+
+In Figs. 11 and 12 of Plate M, are represented two medallions with
+foliate designs that were largely employed in the early Keen-lung
+period. A comparison of the first with Fig. 13 of Plate M, shows an
+interesting step in the evolution of the Chinese drawing.
+
+A very different medallion pattern of the same age is shown in Plate M,
+Fig. 14, in which an encircling border consists of cloud-bands.
+
+Also during the Keen-lung time first appeared medallions with accurately
+drawn flower designs. One of this period is shown in Plate M, Fig. 15.
+Wreath-like borders, such as are seen in this and the preceding one, are
+found in XVIII and XIX Century pieces.
+
+
+CHINESE BORDER STRIPES
+
+The knowledge that certain border stripes antedate others in definite
+sequence of time, is another aid in determining the age of Chinese
+rugs. As was seen to be the case with medallions, the earliest stripes
+were purely geometric. In others, still very old, appeared forms of
+conventionalised dragons, which again were replaced by simple scrolls
+and these by ornate floral forms. But it should be remembered that
+earlier designs were often copied in later rugs, so that the evidence of
+age is merely contributory.
+
+Stripes containing the swastika meander were used almost exclusively in
+the oldest rugs. Figs. 1, 2, and 3 of Plate N (opp. Page 274), represent
+three old forms, which rarely appear in any pieces woven since the
+Kang-hi time. The pattern of Plate N, Fig. 4, in which alternate
+swastikas are reversed, is also very old.
+
+The usual drawing of the swastika stripe is shown in Plate N, Fig. 5. It
+is found largely in Kang-hi rugs, and if used in more recent fabrics, is
+often accompanied by a stripe with some other pattern. As illustrated
+here, the facing of the swastika is reversed in the middle of the
+stripe.
+
+The shading of Plate N, Fig. 6, which is somewhat similar to Plate N,
+Fig. 4, is characteristic of the Keen-lung and subsequent periods.
+
+In Figs. 7, 8, 9, and 10, of Plate N, are Key and T patterns, which are
+found in rugs of the Kang-hi and subsequent periods, but rarely in
+earlier pieces. When employed in rugs woven later than the middle of the
+XVIII Century they are often shaded. These meander and key-patterns are
+of great antiquity; and though the drawing is exceedingly simple, it is
+supposed that the figures from which they were derived once symbolised
+clouds and thunder.
+
+A very interesting stripe derived from dragons is illustrated in Plate
+N, Fig. 11. The rectangular frets represent bodies of which
+conventionalised heads alone betray their origin. The graceful scroll in
+the middle was also probably derived from dragon forms. This stripe is
+seen in old Kang-hi rugs.
+
+The rectangular frets and floral forms are combined in an unusual stripe
+(Plate N, Fig. 12) that appeared in rugs which were probably woven about
+the Yung-ching period. It shows the influence of older traditions on
+which are ingrafted the later inspiration.
+
+Still more interesting is a stripe (Plate N, Fig. 13) seen in what are
+known as Buddhist rugs of the Keen-lung period. In different parts of
+the border appear the Buddhist emblems, the Joo-e, conch, wheel of law,
+and knot of destiny, separated by cloud-bands and foliate and floral
+motives.
+
+[Illustration: PLATE N. PRIMARY AND SECONDARY BORDER-STRIPES OF CHINESE
+RUGS]
+
+The tendency to use more ornate forms in the Keen-lung and later rugs is
+shown in Plate N, Figs. 14, 15, and 16, which illustrate three stripes
+that with slight modifications are found in large numbers of Chinese
+rugs of the last half of the XVIII and the XIX Centuries.
+
+The stripe illustrated in Plate N, Fig. 17, on which are represented
+halves of octagonal discs containing conventional flower forms, is found
+in some rugs woven as early as the first part of the XVIII Century, as
+well as in more subsequent pieces. The central fields of some rugs in
+which it is found have geometric Ming patterns, and others have floral
+conceits that suggest Persian influences.
+
+In Figs. 18, 19, 20, and 21, of Plate N, are represented simple stripes
+found in XVIII Century rugs. The last of these, which is found in
+Keen-lung porcelain, shows a marked resemblance to the reciprocal
+trefoil so common in Persian pieces.
+
+The simple dotted stripe (Plate N, Fig. 22) was rarely employed before
+the middle of the XVIII Century, but has been constantly used since
+then.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XV
+
+KILIMS
+
+
+KILIMS have a special interest apart from their beauty and utility, as
+some of them undoubtedly resemble the early fabrics of the Egyptians and
+Babylonians from which were evolved the more durable pile carpets. The
+different links in this evolution can only be conjectured. Yet it is not
+unlikely that such pieces as the nomadic kilims, which occasionally have
+little tufts of wool attached for ornament or loose threads of weft
+hanging from one side, first suggested the greater durability and warmth
+that would be derived from a woven fabric completely covered with tufts
+of yarn.
+
+It is also certain that the most delicately woven kilims have likewise
+been evolved from cruder forms. In fact, the different steps in this
+evolution correspond to three separate styles of weaving still in vogue.
+The earliest products which were made subsequent to the primitive
+weaving of uncoloured warp and weft were doubtless similar to the simple
+fabrics now used to line the under side of saddle bags, and consisted of
+a warp and weft of uniformly coloured threads. A much more advanced
+style, induced by a desire for ornamentation, was the representation of
+patterns which required the use of different coloured threads of weft.
+As these threads were never carried beyond the edges of each pattern,
+their loose ends were at first allowed to hang at the back, giving an
+appearance somewhat similar to what is seen in Soumaks. The third and
+most finished style, representing much higher workmanship, was produced
+by deftly disposing of the ends of threads of weft so that they should
+be concealed and thus permit each surface of the kilim to be exactly the
+same.
+
+Each of these kinds of weaving is constantly seen in the East. The first
+not only is used as a lining for saddle bags, but is frequently
+substituted for them. It is also sometimes used as the only floor
+covering, or again is laid as a protection beneath valuable carpets. It
+often replaces the heavier felt for tents, and indeed is utilised for
+all purposes requiring a strong material like canvas. The second is
+found among nomadic weavers, especially those of Asia Minor; who
+naturally waste no unnecessary labour in weaving kilims with a delicate
+finish, which would be quickly marred by the rough usage that they
+receive. The third, which is the more elegant product, is invariably not
+only of excellent finish but of carefully drawn patterns. In this
+country, the last two are used principally for portières and couch
+coverings; but in the Orient they still serve, as they have from the
+remotest times, for floor coverings; and because of the custom of
+removing the shoes when entering a house, last for a great many years.
+
+Though these three styles represent the principal variations in kilim
+weaving, there are a few pieces with embroidered pattern; and
+embroidered stitches are sometimes added to represent some simple
+design, or as is frequently the case in Shirvans, to make more prominent
+the separate horizontal compartments.
+
+When weaving a kilim, the threads of warp are strung as in piled rugs,
+and number from six to eighteen to the inch according to the texture.
+There are generally about twenty threads of weft to the inch, measured
+at the front or back; but in pieces of the finest workmanship, there may
+be as many as fifty, and in the crudest only eight or nine. At the sides
+of the kilim, the threads of weft encircle the last thread of warp as at
+the sides of any pattern; but at the ends, the threads of warp are
+braided about a heavier added cord, or else are tied in knots, from
+which their loose ends are permitted to hang like tassels.
+
+The patterns are usually geometric; and even when an attempt is made to
+copy floral figures, the drawing inclines to the rectilinear. If a
+straight line representing the side of a figure is horizontal, or in the
+direction of the weft, it will often be several inches in length; but a
+straight perpendicular line never exceeds an inch in length. This is
+because the threads of weft are never carried from one pattern to
+another or to the adjoining field, but are turned back at its defining
+edges, so that an opening is left, which would impair the strength of
+the fabric if it were of much length. Accordingly, if it is desired to
+represent a pattern with perpendicular sides, it is necessary that the
+edges be slightly uneven. But here necessity is turned to advantage, as
+this unevenness or fringing softens lines that otherwise would be
+harsh. Defining the outlines of many figures is yarn of different
+colours, which either may be woven like other threads of weft, or when
+it serves the purpose of closing the space between adjacent threads of
+warp, may be attached by stitches. Borders find slight favour with kilim
+weavers, and in most pieces they are entirely wanting or only present at
+one end. Even when they completely surround the field, there is
+generally some difference in design or colour between the stripes of
+side and end. Prayer arches are found in some of the kilims, but their
+outlines rarely correspond closely with those of piled rugs.
+
+The colours, by which alone the patterns are distinguished, are largely
+responsible for the character of the kilim. Threads of weft of every hue
+that is seen in piled rugs are employed in these pieces; yet the
+colouring never appears the same, since there are lacking the lustre and
+deep wealth of tones due to the length of pile, in which appears an
+almost imperceptible gradation from the ends that are exposed to the
+light and have incurred the mellowing influence of the elements to the
+part which retains more of the original colours and seems darker,
+because it is more concealed. Indeed, on account of the lack of pile,
+the colours and patterns would seem harsh were it not for the
+irregularities of perpendicular and diagonal lines, the devices of
+latch-hooks, and other peculiarities that convey to the eye an
+impression of blending. Moreover when the designs are large, the effect
+of the colour is always severe; but when the field is covered with
+innumerable small figures, it is greatly softened.
+
+As kilims are much less durable than rugs that have a pile to protect
+the warp and weft, it is not surprising that few of great age remain.
+The oldest piece of which we have any knowledge is a fragment obtained
+by Dr. M. A. Stein, the archæological explorer, from the ruins near
+Khotan, in Eastern Turkestan, of an ancient settlement, which was buried
+by sand drifts about the fourth or fifth century _anno domini_. The
+weave is almost identical with that of modern kilims, and has about
+fourteen threads of warp and sixteen threads of weft to the inch. The
+pattern consists of narrow stripes of blue, green, brownish yellow, and
+red, containing very small geometric designs. With this one exception,
+so peculiarly preserved, there are probably very few over a century old.
+
+[Illustration: PLATE 62. SRINAGAR RUG]
+
+Though kilims are now made in most of the districts where piled carpets
+are woven, very few classes are recognised. This is because it is
+difficult to distinguish between most of them, and such differences as
+exist are with few exceptions unimportant. The best known classes are
+the Sehna, Shirvan, Karaman, Kurdish, Turkish, and Merv.
+
+The Sehna kilims are usually of small size, and rarely exceed a breadth
+of four and a half feet and a length of seven. They are far superior to
+all others in the delicacy of colour, daintiness of design, quality of
+material, and character of workmanship. Their patterns, including
+border, are identical with those of the piled rugs; and the colours, to
+which at a short distance the small figures of the Herati design give
+the effect of blending, are the same. As is not the case with other
+kilims, the warp is of cotton or linen and there are generally from
+fourteen to sixteen threads to the inch. The weft is of wool, and to an
+inch there are often nearly fifty threads encircling a thread of warp as
+they cross and recross. The old pieces, like the rugs of which they are
+true copies, are rapidly becoming scarce. They resemble tapestries and
+are unfit for hard usage.
+
+A large percentage of the kilims now sold in this country are Shirvans.
+Their fields are divided into a number of parallel horizontal
+compartments or bands a foot or more in width separated by narrower
+bands. Not infrequently the principal figures of the wide bands are
+hexagons surrounding smaller geometric figures; and through the more
+narrow bands runs a waving line or a parti-coloured cord. Another
+peculiarity, occasionally seen, are the ray-like projections of uniform
+colour fringing the edges of the sides. As a rule, there are no borders,
+but at each end are two or more narrow bands that give the effect of a
+border. In some pieces webs of plain colour extend beyond the bands; and
+the ends are fringed with loose threads of warp. The colours are always
+pronounced, because of lack of shading, and consist mostly of red, blue,
+and ivory. Yellow and green are also used. These kilims are much heavier
+than the Sehnas, and also larger, as the average size is about five by
+nine feet; and some are even seven by twelve feet.
+
+From the district of Karaman in Southern Asia Minor, such a large number
+of kilims were formerly imported into Europe that the general name of
+Karamani was applied to all kilims. They are still made there by many of
+the tribes of Turkish or Turkoman origin, who wander over the Taurus
+mountains, and like all their fabrics are stoutly woven. Their average
+size is about four and a half by eight feet. In colours and patterns,
+they resemble many of the Kurdish kilims from the districts farther to
+the east.
+
+A distinction similar to what exists in the piled rugs of the Kurds, and
+dependent on the district in which they are made, is observable in their
+kilims, as those which come from the Persian border have carefully drawn
+designs, that are generally lacking in others woven in the mountainous
+watershed of the Tigris and the Euphrates. Many of these are coarsely
+woven, and from the back hang the loose ends of threads of weft, that in
+more artistic pieces, are removed. Moreover, in modern pieces the
+colours are often crude or even garish. Some of the kilims have large
+diamond-shaped figures containing small designs; others have horizontal
+bands in which are woven embroidered devices suggestive of the so-called
+Bagdad portières; in many are wide spaces without designs; but whatever
+the pattern, there is usually a parti-coloured cord running through the
+web at the end.
+
+In many parts of Asia Minor are made kilims that are usually classed as
+Turkish. They are of large size, and since they are used mostly for
+portières or curtains, are divided perpendicularly into equal halves,
+that at times are united by stitches. The tribes that make them also
+make large numbers of smaller prayer kilims with pointed arches
+suggesting the Ghiordes design. Some of them are beautifully woven, yet
+the finest workmanship is shown in pieces known as "Kis-kilims" or
+girl's kilims. These are made with the utmost care, since they are
+intended as a bride's gift to her husband; and a sentiment of romance,
+and the hope that her skill may weigh favourably in the estimation of
+her accomplishments, contribute to influence the weaver. Sometimes even
+a lock of hair is added as a charm, or coloured beads as a talisman.
+
+The Christians who live permanently about Oushak, and are, accordingly,
+not under the necessity of making such small pieces as can conveniently
+be carried by wandering tribes, weave some of the largest kilims. Most
+of them are at least six feet in width and many are much wider.
+
+The best known kilims from the Central Asiatic group are known as "Merv
+Kilims," since they are woven by Turkoman tribes who inhabit the desert
+near the old capital of Merv. The brilliant colours found in the
+products of more Western tribes are entirely wanting, and in their place
+are the few subdued, rich tones so characteristic of all Turkoman
+weavings. These pieces are stoutly woven, and since the pattern is
+represented by diagonal lines, there is no open work. The designs are
+largely of diamond-shape, and are arranged in parallel horizontal lines
+on a field that is usually surrounded by a border profusely ornamented
+with carefully drawn latch-hooks. A heavy embroidered selvage, from
+which hang loose threads of warp, often occurs at the ends. These kilims
+are noted for their durability, and are usually of large size.
+
+In the city of Dera Ghazi Khan, four miles from the Indus river, are
+woven kilims in which warp and weft are of wool, as is not the case with
+almost all the rugs of India. They are made by the women in their own
+homes and display an individuality which also is rare in Indian textile
+fabrics. In a monograph on "Carpet Weaving in the Punjab," Mr. C.
+Latimer says: "The Dera Ghazi Khan rug, which belongs really to the kind
+of fabrics known as kilims, is woven in stripes, with designs between
+them, and it is interesting to notice that the patterns employed were by
+local tradition originally copied from the robes of the Pharaohs of
+Egypt."
+
+Though all such Oriental weavings lack the precision of drawing and the
+delicacy of minutely varied colour so frequently found in piled rugs;
+though they never display high, artistic perception or poetic instinct,
+nevertheless some of the oldest pieces with designs suggestive of the
+workings of a primitive imagination untrammelled by the conventions of
+art, and with a chaste simplicity of colour that lends an atmosphere of
+dignity, possess a subtle charm that awakens an intense interest.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XVI
+
+HOW TO DISTINGUISH RUGS
+
+
+THE owner of an Oriental rug will find the pleasure to be derived from
+it will be greater if he knows where and by whom it was made. This is
+particularly true if it is one of those pieces of which the charm
+depends more on its individuality than on the masterly handling of line
+and colour. The study of classification, therefore, will well repay the
+effort; though unfortunately it is often discouraging, since it involves
+a consideration of the characteristics of a hundred different classes,
+almost all of which are found to have exceptions to the best known
+types. To add to the difficulty, the opinions of dealers in regard to
+the less known classes are very often erroneous; and detailed
+descriptions, even at the best, are unsatisfactory. Without a long
+personal experience in handling rugs, combined with careful study, it is
+impossible to become expert; but familiarity with one class makes it
+easier by comparison and a process of elimination to distinguish others.
+
+The beginner should first learn to identify each of the six groups. Of
+these the Chinese can readily be distinguished by their well-known
+patterns, which are found in no other part of the Orient except in the
+rugs known as Samarkands, Yarkands, and Kashgars; and the Indian may
+generally be recognised by the realism and formal arrangement of their
+floral patterns. Relatively few of either group are found in the United
+States; and as about ninety per cent of the rugs belong to the other
+four groups, they alone will be considered in detail. Leaving out of
+consideration, then, the Chinese and Indian rugs, it should be
+remembered:
+
+ (_a_) That, as a rule, rugs from Persia have floral patterns;
+ and rugs from Asia Minor, Caucasia, and Central Asia have
+ geometric.
+
+ (_b_) That figures with latch-hooks belong principally to rugs
+ of the Caucasian group and, to a limited extent, to the rugs
+ of the Asia Minor group.
+
+[Illustration: PLATE 63. XVIII CENTURY CHINESE RUG]
+
+ (_c_) That fields covered with designs of octagonal or diamond
+ shape belong to rugs of the Central Asian group.
+
+ (_d_) That about two thirds of the Persian group have cotton
+ warp; and the remaining third, as well as the Asia Minor and
+ almost all the Caucasian and Central Asian group have woollen
+ warp.
+
+ (_e_) That about one third of the Persian group have one of
+ the two threads of warp encircled by a knot doubled under the
+ other so as to be hidden at the back; and that this is not the
+ case with the remaining two thirds nor with almost all classes
+ of other groups.
+
+ (_f_) That, with few exceptions, the Persian rugs have a side
+ finish of overcasting; and the other groups have both
+ overcasting and selvage.
+
+ (_g_) That the rugs from Persia and Central Asia have both
+ light and dark colours which, though rich, are subdued and
+ harmonious; that the rugs of Asia Minor and Caucasia have
+ colours that are often gaudy and inharmonious; and that the
+ rugs of the Central Asian group have dark tones of red, blue,
+ and brown.
+
+ (_h_) That all of the rugs of Asia Minor and Caucasia have the
+ Ghiordes knot; that the rugs of Central Asia, with rare
+ exceptions, have the Sehna knot; that the rugs of Persia with
+ woollen warp have the Ghiordes knot; and that those with
+ cotton warp have either the Ghiordes or the Sehna knot.
+
+ (_i_) That the few classes of rugs which have very long
+ end-webs belong to the Central Asian group. Of the classes
+ with moderately long end-webs, several belong to the Central
+ Asian and the Asia Minor groups, only two belong to the
+ Persian group, and none belongs to the Caucasian group.
+
+Excluding the Indian and Chinese rugs, it follows from the above
+statements that:
+
+
+ (1) A rug is from Persia or Central Asia,—
+ If it has a Sehna knot.
+
+ (2) A rug is probably Persian,—
+ If the patterns are distinctly floral;
+ If the warp is cotton;
+ If one of the two threads of warp encircled by a knot is doubled
+ under the other.
+
+ (3) A rug is probably from Asia Minor, Caucasia, or Central Asia,—
+ If the pattern is geometric;
+ If the sides are selvaged.
+
+ (4) A rug is probably from Asia Minor or Caucasia,—
+ If the colours are gaudy or inharmonious.
+
+ (5) A rug is probably from Caucasia,—
+ If the designs are largely fringed with latch-hooks.
+
+ (6) A rug is probably from Central Asia,—
+ If the field is covered with octagons or diamond-shaped designs,
+ and has dark tones of red, blue or brown;
+ If it has long webs at the ends.
+
+
+Of these four groups the Persian has the largest number of classes, some
+of which can only with difficulty be distinguished from one another.
+They may, however, conveniently be divided into the following sub-groups,
+depending on the technical peculiarities of the weaving and the material
+of the warp, so that the task of learning the class of a particular rug
+will be greatly facilitated by first determining to which of these
+sub-groups it belongs, and then eliminating the others from
+consideration.
+
+ { Kashan
+ { Kermanshah
+ { Khorassan
+ { Sehna Knot (A) { Kirman
+ { One thread of { { Meshed
+ { warp to each knot { { Mir Sarabend
+ { doubled under and { { Sarouk.
+ { hidden at back. {
+ { { { Gorevan
+ { { { Herat
+ { { Ghiordes Knot (B) { Herez
+ { { Serapi
+ { { Tabriz
+ {
+ { { Feraghan
+ Cotton { Each thread of { Sehna Knot (C) { Mahal
+ Warp { warp equally prominent { { Muskabad
+ { at back or { { Royal Sarabend
+ { one slightly depressed {
+ { { { Gulistan
+ { { Ghiordes Knot (D) { Iran
+ { { Joshaghan
+ { { Luristan
+ { { Sultanabad
+ {
+ { { Sehna Knot (E) Sehna
+ { Quincunx effect {
+ { of weft at back. { Ghiordes Knot (F) { Hamadan
+ { Ispahan (modern)
+
+
+It should be remembered, when studying the foregoing table, that all
+classes of rugs are subject to occasional variations in the
+technicalities of their weave, as for instance, the Herats may have
+woollen warp and Sehna knots; the Tabriz very often have linen warp;
+some of the Feraghans, Mahals, Muskabads, and Sehnas have the Ghiordes
+knot and some of the Sultanabads have the Sehna knot; the Joshaghans may
+have woollen warp; and in modern Ispahans the weft sometimes crosses
+twice between two rows of knots.
+
+
+ { One thread of warp to each knot doubled (G) { Bijar.
+ { under at back { Niris[37]
+ {
+ { { Karadagh.
+ Woolen { { Suj-Bulak
+ Warp, { Each of the two threads of warp to a knot { Kurdistan.
+ Ghiordes { equally prominent at back, or one slightly (H) { Afshar.
+ Knot. { depressed { Mosul.
+ { { Shiraz.[38]
+ {
+ { Quincunx effect of weft at back (I) { Karaje.[39]
+
+
+
+With reference to size, these rugs may conveniently be divided as
+follows:
+
+
+ { Gorevan.
+ { Mahal.
+ Rugs invariably of carpet size { Muskabad.
+ { Serapi.
+ { Sultanabad
+
+ { Bijar.
+ { Herat.
+ { Kermanshah.
+ Rugs frequently, but not always, of carpet size { Khorassan.
+ { Meshed.
+ { Sarabend.
+ { Tabriz.
+
+ { Hamadan.
+ Rugs frequently seen as runners { Karaje.
+ { Kurdistan.
+ { Mosul.
+
+
+Of the sub-groups represented on Page 284, "A" includes those that have
+the closest and finest woven texture. In this respect the Kashans,
+Sarouks, and Kirmans are, in the order named, superior to the others;
+and the Kermanshahs are the coarsest and the least evenly woven. In
+sub-group "B" the Tabriz are the best woven and have the shortest nap.
+The Gorevans and Serapis have several concentric medallions, in which
+are designs of archaically drawn leaves, and have generally the
+so-called turtle border. The Herats have the typical Herati border. Of
+the classes of sub-group "C," the Royal Sarabends are the closest woven.
+The Feraghans are slightly coarser and the Mahals and Muskabads are much
+coarser and have longer nap. The Luristans, Joshaghans, and Gulistans
+are the best woven of sub-group "D." At the back of Luristans each half
+knot is distinct from the other like a separate bead; and in a few
+Joshaghans each half knot is almost as distinct. Both Irans and
+Sultanabads are coarsely woven. Comparing sub-groups "E" and "F," the
+weave of Sehnas presents a file-like appearance at the back; and in
+Hamadans the weft is of much coarser diameter than in the other two
+classes. The Bijars of sub-group "G" are much stouter than the Niris and
+have one of the two threads of weft to each knot more completely doubled
+under the other. The webs at the ends of the Niris are very much longer
+than those of Bijars. Sub-group "H" contains the Kurdistans, Suj-Bulaks
+and Mosuls, all of which are woven in territory where for generations
+the Kurds have held sway, and show Kurdish characteristics. The Western
+Kurdistans may easily be distinguished by their brown colours, nomadic
+character, and coarse warp and weft. The Persian Kurdistans are very
+stoutly and firmly woven, and usually have one of the two threads of
+warp encircled by a knot depressed below the other. The Mosuls have each
+of the two threads of warp encircled by a knot equally prominent at the
+back; and a characteristic feature is the coloured, crudely spun yarn of
+weft, which on account of the size of its diameter stands up as high as
+the yarn of the knots at the back. In a typical Suj-Bulak the alignment
+of knots at the back appears uneven or serrated. The Karadaghs have
+Caucasian characteristics; the Afshars have coarse, wiry wool for the
+weft, and threads of warp strung so that each half knot is distinct.
+
+Although the technicalities of weaving are the most reliable evidence
+for determining the class to which a rug belongs, the patterns are
+important guides. It will be well, therefore, to remember that:
+
+A Persian rug is probably a Shiraz, Karadagh, Karaje, Mosul, Kurdistan,
+or Afshar, if the pattern is partly geometric.
+
+If the field has concentric medallions, the rug may be a Kermanshah,
+Sarouk, Kashan, Sehna, Gorevan, Herez, Tabriz, Mahal, Muskabad, or
+Sultanabad.
+
+If the field is covered with pear designs, the rug may be a Sarabend,
+Burujird, Khorassan, Shiraz, Niris, Iran, Joshaghan, or Luristan.
+
+[Illustration: PLATE 64. CHINESE RUG OF THE KEEN-LUNG PERIOD]
+
+If the field is covered with small Herati designs, the rug may be a
+Feraghan, Sehna, or an Iran.
+
+If the field is covered with small designs of the Guli Hinnai plant, the
+rug may be a Feraghan.
+
+If the field is covered with the Mina Khani pattern, the rug may be a
+Persian Kurdistan.
+
+A Persian rug is usually a Shiraz, Niris, Mosul, or Kurdistan if the nap
+is long.
+
+It is almost invariably either a Shiraz or a Niris if the webs of the
+ends are long, and the overcasting of the sides has a barber-pole design
+or has short lengths of different colours. The Niris resembles the
+Shiraz; but one thread of warp to each knot is more depressed, the ends
+generally have longer webs, and the field is more frequently covered
+with large pear designs. It is a Shiraz if short tassels or tufts
+project at regular intervals from the ends; and it is probably a Niris
+if it has a long end-web of different coloured stripes.
+
+It is probably a Karadagh, Gorevan, Serapi, Herez, or Tabriz if the
+sides are finished with a selvage.
+
+Many of these classes have features by which they can be distinguished
+at once from all others. For instance:
+
+The Sarabend has a field completely covered with pear designs of
+moderate size facing in opposite directions in alternate lines; borders
+of several stripes, of which one or two are ivory white with an angular
+vine from which are suspended mechanically drawn pear designs, and one
+or two narrow stripes with reciprocal trefoils. Only two other classes
+are similar: the Iran copies, which are always woven more coarsely and
+have the Ghiordes knot, and the Burujirds, which are rarely seen.
+
+Most Feraghans have fields that are completely covered with small Herati
+or Guli Hinnai designs, and have the turtle pattern in the border. The
+only other rugs that are similar are the Iran copies, which have the
+Ghiordes knot and are more coarsely woven.
+
+Almost all Hamadans may be distinguished at once by the broad band of
+camel's hair surrounding the border, and the coarse weft crossing only
+once between two rows of knots so as to give a quincunx effect at the
+back.
+
+Gorevans are invariably of carpet size. They have fields almost covered
+with central medallions on which are archaically drawn leaves, and a
+broad central border stripe with a large conventionalised turtle
+pattern. They have usually the same colour tones, which once seen are
+not forgotten. The Serapis are similar to Gorevans but are usually older
+and of better colours.
+
+The Kermanshahs have tones of ivory, pink, and light green, that are
+softer and lighter than those of almost any other rug. The fields have
+concentric medallions with dainty floral forms that are rarely seen in
+other classes except the Sarouks and Kashans; and the borders, that
+correspond in drawing and colouring with the field, have an outer edging
+that is almost invariably of pink, but sometimes dark blue. The drawing
+and colours, which are not easily described but quickly learned, at once
+distinguish these pieces from all others.
+
+Some Mesheds resemble Kermanshahs, but the nap is more silky, uneven,
+and lustrous. The texture at the back is finer.
+
+The rugs of Tabriz, which are usually made in carpet sizes, may be
+distinguished by their linen nap hanging in a short fringe at the ends.
+They are not likely to be confused with any classes but the Mesheds,
+Khorassans, and Kermanshahs; but the nap is shorter, and harsher to the
+touch; the knot is Ghiordes, and the drawing more formal.
+
+Almost the only Persian rug that has small, geometric, adventitious
+designs and latch-hooks is the Shiraz. It is the only one that has small
+tufts of wool projecting from the sides; and with the exception of the
+Niris is the only one that, as a rule, has a barber-pole overcasting and
+a long web at the ends. It is also one of the most loosely woven.
+
+The Sarouk and Kashan may be distinguished from all others by their
+short velvety nap; dark rich colours; fields of graceful foliated stalks
+and floral forms resting on concentric medallions; and the fine, firm,
+texture of the weave. A carefully drawn design of the running latch-hook
+appears in the borders; and the weft is usually some shade of blue. The
+Kashans are almost the same as Sarouks but have closer weave and finer
+texture. They very rarely come in large sizes.
+
+Muskabads and Mahals are invariably made in large carpet sizes. Their
+texture is firm; they are very coarsely woven; and there is great
+irregularity in the size of the knots as shown at the back. Of the two,
+the Mahals are the better grade.
+
+A large rug with woollen warp and with one thread of warp to each knot
+doubled under the other is almost always a Bijar.
+
+Sehnas are always very thin rugs and of small or moderate size. With few
+exceptions the field is covered with Herati or pear designs. They can
+be identified by the quincunx appearance of the fine cotton weft at the
+back and the file-like feeling of the weave.
+
+The only Persian rug that has a side selvage and also shows evidence of
+Caucasian influence in the geometric drawing of the patterns is the
+Karadagh.
+
+The Gozenes may be distinguished from other classes by their dull
+colours. In many of them each thread of warp is encircled by the right
+half of some knots and the left half of others.
+
+
+The Asia Minor rugs have so many features in common that they cannot
+conveniently be divided into sub-groups. For instance: almost all have a
+coloured weft, a coloured web with fringe at the ends, and a selvage at
+the sides; all, excepting the Ghiordes and a few modern pieces, have
+woollen warp and weft; and all have the Ghiordes knot. To be sure, a
+distinction may be made in the length of the nap, since as a rule the
+Bergamo, Rhodian, Karaman, Yuruk, and some of the Anatolians have a long
+nap; and the remainder usually have a short nap; and also in the
+weaving, as in the Bergamo, Ghiordes, Karaman, Kulah, and Ladik, one
+thread of warp to each knot is generally depressed, and in the remaining
+classes all threads of warp are equally prominent; furthermore,
+Anatolians, Bergamos, Karamans, Rhodians, and Koniehs, have rarely more
+than three stripes to the border; and Kir-Shehrs, Kulahs, Ladiks, and
+Ghiordes have seldom less than five; but these features are not always
+constant and pronounced. The patterns, therefore, and those smaller
+designs which frequently are peculiar to a single class are of
+considerable assistance in distinguishing one from the other. The arch
+of the namazliks is also an invaluable feature for identification since
+its shape is different in each class as will be seen by reference to
+Plates C and D (Pages 61 and 63).
+
+Leaving out of consideration modern pieces, made to meet the demands of
+exporting companies, the Bergamo and Rhodian have certain points of
+resemblance. As a rule, they are almost square, and have long nap, long
+webs with coloured bands at the ends, a side selvage, and coloured weft.
+The Rhodian may generally be distinguished by their brighter colours and
+their panels, suggesting windows, placed parallel to the length of the
+rug. The Bergamos, which are more frequently seen, have rich, deep blue
+and red colouring, and more devices to avert the evil eye than any other
+Oriental rug.
+
+Two panels, one above the arch and the other below the field, are
+almost invariably seen in the Ghiordes prayer rugs and occasionally in
+the Kulahs, but rarely in any other classes. The typical pattern of the
+central border stripe of Ghiordes prayer rugs, consisting of most
+conventionalised leaf and rosette, is not seen in any other rugs; nor is
+the pattern of the broad border stripe of the odjaliks and sedjadehs,
+consisting of an undulating band covered with small flecks and fringed
+with latch-hooks.
+
+The most characteristic features in the pattern of Kulahs are the
+numerous narrow fleck-covered bands that occupy the centre of the
+border, and the secondary stripe with design like a Chinese device
+represented in Plate H, Fig. 10 (opp. Page 194).
+
+The pomegranates at the end of the field, and the Rhodian lilies in the
+main stripe of the border, distinguish Ladik prayer rugs from all
+others. Figures of vandykes, which are seen in some Anatolians and
+Mudjars, are also a constant feature of Ladiks.
+
+A characteristic feature of Koniehs is the row of sprigs with three
+triangular-shaped petals that project from the border against the field.
+
+As a rule, the Kir-Shehrs contain in the field a larger amount of
+grass-green colour than any other rug.
+
+The narrow border stripe of thumb-like processes that fit one another
+like cogs and the mauve or heliotrope colour are important aids in
+distinguishing Melez rugs.
+
+On account of their long pile and their patterns of latch-hooks and
+other geometric figures, the Yuruks alone of all this group resemble the
+Caucasian rugs. They may also be distinguished from other Asia Minor
+rugs by the facts that the weft is of coarse, wiry wool, and the threads
+of warp are not strung closely together, so that at the back each half
+knot appears very distinct from the other.
+
+
+A similarity prevails in the technique of most Caucasian rugs, as all
+have the Ghiordes knot, and almost all have warp and weft of wool, sides
+that are selvaged, and ends with a web and loose fringe. Moreover,
+classes that are in a measure geographically related show resemblances,
+as for instance: the Chichi, Daghestan, Kabistan, and Shirvan, which
+have short nap; the Tcherkess, Kazak, and Genghas which have medium to
+long nap; and the Soumak, Shemakha, and Kuba, which have a similar
+selvage at sides and ends. The only classes in which one thread of warp
+to each knot is depressed or doubled under the other are the Karabagh,
+Shemakha, and Shusha, from the southeastern part of Caucasia, and the
+Lesghian from the northern part.
+
+[Illustration: PLATE O. No. 1, Shah Abbas design. No. 2, Mina Khani
+design. No. 3, Guli Hinnai design. No. 4, Herati design. Nos. 5-a, b, c,
+d, e, f, Swastikas. Nos. 6-a, b. c, d, e, f, g, h, i, j, k, l, m, Pear
+designs. No. 7, Cloud-bands. No. 8, Pitcher. No. 9, Motives of Asia
+Minor and Armenian rugs. No. 10, Octagonal disc. No. 11, Combs. No. 12,
+Motives of Melez rugs. Nos. 13-a, b, c, d, 14, 15, conventionalised
+leaf-forms in Asia Minor rugs. Nos. 16-a, b, c, The lotus. No. 17, Knot
+of destiny. Nos. 18-a, b, Motives of Daghestans and Kabistans.]
+
+The Soumak with its flat stitch and with ends of yarn hanging loose at
+the back is unlike all other rugs. At the sides is a carefully woven
+selvage, and next to the nap at the end is a narrow selvage of fine spun
+threads. The rugs of Shemakha, woven by some of the same tribes who
+dwell nearer the mountains, have similar selvages at the sides of blue
+or bluish green, similar ends of a narrow web of "herring-bone" weave
+and one or more rows of knots, and a medium long nap of rich blues,
+reds, yellows, browns, and greens. The Kuba rugs are almost identical
+with them, except that each thread of warp is equally prominent at the
+back, whereas in the Shemakhas one thread to each knot is depressed. When
+once these selvages, the narrow end-webs of "herring-bone" weave, and
+the particular tones of colour characteristic of these rugs have been
+carefully observed, they are not forgotten. The well-known Georgian
+stripe (Plate J, Fig. 9, opp. Page 228) is rarely found in any but these
+three classes.
+
+The Baku rug may be distinguished by its geometric-shaped pear designs,
+and stiffly drawn birds. If modern, the tones are dull.
+
+Long, shaggy nap, strong colours, of which red and green are almost
+invariably present, and large designs surrounded by numerous small
+nomadic figures are the general features of a Kazak. The Tcherkess has a
+striking resemblance to it, so that they are constantly mistaken for one
+another; but the Tcherkess is generally better woven and the pattern
+usually consists of what is known as the "Sunburst" resting on a field
+of dull red or a tawny shade. The border is almost invariably of three
+stripes, of which the central has the tarantula design, and the two
+guards have a reciprocal sawtooth design.
+
+The field of the typical Chichi has an all-over pattern of small
+geometric design; and its main border stripe has rosettes separated by
+diagonal ribbon-like bars, as shown in Plate I, Fig. 6 (opp. Page 226).
+
+Rugs from the Karabagh district may frequently be recognised by the
+Persian influence in the drawing of their patterns.
+
+Genghas may readily be distinguished from other classes of this group by
+the fact that the weft crosses more than twice and frequently many
+times, between every two rows of knots, which are not appressed, so that
+the weft, as it encircles the warp, appears at the back like a narrow
+beaded surface.
+
+Daghestans, Kabistans, and Shirvans have so many different patterns that
+it is not always easy to distinguish the classes; but it will be some
+assistance to remember that the border design of wine cup and serrated
+leaf (Plate I, Fig. 1, opp. Page 226) is found in about one half of the
+Shirvans, and that the bracket design (Plate J, Fig. 19, opp. Page 228)
+is peculiar to Daghestans and Kabistans.
+
+[Illustration: PLATE 65. CHINESE RUG OF THE KEEN-LUNG PERIOD]
+
+The small Central Asiatic group is not only unlike other groups, but may
+naturally be divided into three sub-groups, which are also distinct from
+one another and contain well-defined classes, viz.:
+
+ (_a_) Afghan, Royal Bokhara, Princess Bokhara, Tekke, Khiva,
+ Yomud, and Beshire.
+
+ (_b_) Samarkand, Kashgar, and Yarkand.
+
+ (_c_) Beluchistan.
+
+In the first sub-group the prevailing colours are dark reds and browns
+with minor quantities of blue, green, and ivory. The Afghans are almost
+always of large size, and may be recognised at once by the broad web of
+the ends and the large octagonal shaped figures placed in contact in
+perpendicular rows. The Royal Bokharas are smaller, the end webs are not
+so wide, the octagons are never in contact and are separated diagonally
+by diamond-shaped figures. The Princess Bokharas and many Tekkes have
+the Katchli pattern. The Yomuds resemble the other classes of this
+sub-group in colour; but in the fields, diamond designs have entirely
+replaced the octagons.
+
+The rugs of sub-group "b" almost always have cotton warp; whereas the
+rugs of sub-groups "a" and "c" invariably have woollen or goat's hair
+warp.
+
+The Samarkands are somewhat similar in colours and patterns to Chinese
+rugs, but may be distinguished by the fact that they almost invariably
+have three border stripes, whereas the Chinese usually have only one or
+two. The Kashgar and Yarkand also show Chinese influence.
+
+The Beluchistans with brown, blue, green, and claret colours may be
+identified at once by their long embroidered webs at each end.
+
+In the determination of the class to which a rug belongs, the pattern
+first of all attracts attention; and if it be one peculiar to a single
+class, it is an important guide. But in the great majority of cases,
+this will not be sufficient. It is, therefore, desirable to observe if
+the designs be floral or geometric, if the colours be subdued or
+obtrusive, if the knot be Sehna or Ghiordes, if the warp be cotton or
+wool. The variations in finish of sides and ends are also an index of
+the class. The pattern and these few technical details are the only
+characteristics by which most dealers attempt to determine the different
+kinds of rugs. But in the case of half of them, such evidence is far
+from conclusive. The back should be even more carefully examined than
+the front; because here are shown those subtle, but nevertheless
+positive distinctions, relating to the manner of tying the knot and the
+treatment of warp and weft, which are the most permanent tribal
+characteristics of Oriental weaving. It should be noticed, then, if each
+thread of warp encircled by the yarn that forms the knot lies in the
+same plane parallel with the surface and is equally prominent; or if one
+to each knot be depressed below the other, or if it be doubled under the
+other so as to be concealed. It should also be noticed if the weft be
+coloured or uncoloured, of fine or of coarse diameter; and if a thread
+of weft crosses only once or two or more times from side to side between
+every two rows of knots. Furthermore, the knots themselves should be
+carefully scrutinised to see if each row of them is firmly pressed down
+upon the weft, if each knot has a length equal or exceeding its width,
+if the yarn of which they are formed is drawn tight against the warp,
+and if it is loosely or closely spun. Only by consideration of all these
+different points, and sometimes even more, such as the nature of the
+colours, the character of wool, and the manner in which it is spun, is
+it possible to determine doubtful cases of identification.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XVII
+
+PURCHASING RUGS
+
+
+AS those who have expert knowledge of the value of Oriental rugs are
+exceedingly few, compared with those who admire and wish to own them,
+the object of this chapter is to make suggestions regarding a proper
+selection, when purchasing, and to point out some of the pitfalls that
+beset the inexperienced.
+
+In estimating the value of any rug, three distinct qualities are to be
+considered: rarity, artistic beauty, and utility.
+
+Rarity may depend on the age of a rug, the locality where it was woven,
+or its type. In determining the age, which as a rule is greatly
+exaggerated, a number of facts should be considered. One is the
+condition resulting from wear; though at times this is misleading, since
+of two pieces, one may have been handled with almost religious
+solicitude and the other exposed to the elements and to hard usage.
+Moreover, an artificial appearance of natural wear is sometimes
+counterfeited. Another is the pattern, since, as has been shown in the
+case of antique carpets, the character of drawing changed with
+succeeding periods. Even when the patterns of old carpets are copied in
+modern pieces, a distinction is usually discernible to a careful
+observer. The colours, too, play an important part in determining age;
+for not only are some characteristic of different periods, as particular
+shades of yellow and green of Chinese rugs and the blue of Persian; but
+the mellowing influences of time, acting through the agencies of
+exposure and wear, cause effects that cannot be produced by any
+artificial process.
+
+Occasionally the time when a rug is made is recorded in Arabic numbers
+woven above a word denoting "year." If they are indistinct on account of
+the length of the nap, they may be more clearly read in reverse order at
+the back. In the following lines, each of them is represented below the
+one in our own notation, to which it corresponds.
+
+0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9
+
+[Illustration: Arabic numerical symbols]
+
+These numbers represent not the Christian but the Mohammedan year,
+which, dating from the time of the Hegira, began about the middle of
+July 622, or a little before the actual flight from Medina. It should
+also be remembered that the lunar and not the solar year is considered
+in Moslem chronology; which, according to our reckoning, gains about one
+year in every thirty-three and seven tenths years. To calculate, then,
+the year of our time corresponding with the year expressed in the rug,
+from the number should be subtracted one thirty-three and seven tenths
+part of itself, and then should be added six hundred and twenty-two.
+Thus, if the year 1247 was woven in the rug, our corresponding year
+would be A. D. 1247 less 37 (or 1210) plus 622, or 1832. When such dates
+appear in old rugs, they are generally to be depended on, but in modern
+ones they are more likely to be antedated to give the effect of greater
+age.
+
+With reference to the time when woven, rugs may conveniently be divided
+into three broad classes; Antique rugs or carpets made over two
+centuries ago; old rugs made fifty or more years ago; and modern rugs
+made since the introduction of aniline dyes, or within the last fifty
+years.
+
+The number of antique carpets that exist is undetermined, as it is
+impossible to estimate how many remain in Oriental mosques and palaces.
+Nor has any complete catalogue been made of those that are owned in
+Europe and America. They consist principally of the products of Persia,
+Asia Minor, Armenia, and China. Many belong to the museums and the
+remainder to sovereigns and wealthy collectors. Like rare porcelains and
+old paintings, their value increases with each passing year; and the
+prices received for them range according to the fancy and caprice of the
+purchaser. They are the most valued and the most costly of all rugs.
+
+[Illustration: PLATE 66. KURDISH PRAYER KILIM]
+
+The number of rugs over fifty years of age, but not belonging to the
+previous class, is very large. A few are sufficiently prized to be
+placed in art museums, some belong to collectors, large numbers
+embellish the halls and drawing rooms of people of refinement, and
+others are yearly brought from the Orient; but dealers and the public
+already realise that their numbers are limited. Even now they are
+searched for in the remotest corners of every rug-producing country; and
+in a few years the last, now cherished as family heirlooms, will have
+been exchanged for western gold. Almost all are well woven, though some
+are too much worn to be trodden longer under foot. None are treated with
+aniline dyes, but the colours mellowed by time are exceptionally good
+and frequently contain rare tones characteristic of the first class.
+Moreover, large numbers contain emblems of a symbolism still shrouded in
+mysteries that increase their fascination. On the whole, this is the
+choicest stock from which to choose elegant carpetings for luxurious
+homes. When it is considered that rugs of this class are beginning to
+disappear from the market, the prices at which they may be purchased are
+moderate compared with the prices of more modern pieces.
+
+The great majority of existing Oriental rugs have been woven within the
+last fifty years. A few of them, including many of the newest, have
+colours that compare favourably with those of older pieces; but a large
+number show the effect of aniline dyes. Some woven by nomads or dwellers
+in remote villages, without thought of sale, have designs and
+workmanship such as have characterised the fabrics of these people for
+past generations; but others, which are the products of the work-house
+system, though well woven as a rule, lack the charm of spontaneous
+individuality. Age alone has little influence in determining the value
+of these modern rugs, since they have not yet become rare; yet even in
+them the wear of time affects their other qualities. Other things being
+equal, they cost less than the old and the antique rugs.
+
+The locality where a rug was woven is also to be considered in
+determining its rarity and therefore its value. Of the countless carpets
+that once existed in Egypt, of the very early rugs of Caucasia and
+Turkestan, not a piece remains; but if one were to be found it would be
+almost priceless. The antique carpets of Syria, or of Kirman, Shiraz,
+and Tabriz, woven over three centuries ago, are more valuable than
+others of equally good workmanship, of which relatively large numbers
+remain. So, too, of the rugs classed as old, but falling short of the
+venerable age of the real antiques, those which are now difficult to be
+obtained on account of their scarcity, are more valuable than those
+which are being produced in larger numbers. Rugs such as the Joshaghan,
+Tiflis, and many others of sixty or more years of age, are no longer
+woven. Modern products from the same districts may adopt the old names,
+but they are not the same. Accordingly, it will be only a short time
+when they too will disappear from the market. Good examples of such
+pieces should therefore receive more careful consideration on the part
+of purchasers and collectors, as their value is increasing with each
+passing year.
+
+Furthermore, the rarity of an old rug is often independent of its age or
+the locality where it was made, and is due to its peculiar type. For
+instance, the Ming Rugs of China with silver threads and the so-called
+Garden Carpets of Iran represent types rather than localities. Likewise
+the Hunting Carpets of Persia, the Holbein Carpets of Asia Minor, and
+the Dragon Carpets of Armenia, represent, as far as we know, the textile
+craft of no well-defined district of limited area, as is the case of
+modern rugs, but rather rare types. Such pieces are valuable, not alone
+on account of their age, but also because they represent these rare
+types.
+
+A rug is also valued for its artistic beauty. The innumerable rugs which
+centuries ago were in daily use soon disappeared, and only those
+intended for palaces or temples have been preserved. It is but natural,
+then, that the antique carpets representing the highest art of their
+time should be not only rare but also beautiful. Yet even in them is
+often a distinction that affects their value. Fortunately, very many of
+the larger number of rugs of less age, but classed as old, likewise
+possess artistic beauty. This chiefly depends on the drawing and the
+colouring.
+
+It will be noticed that almost without exception careful drawing
+accompanies workmanship of a high class. This is partly due to the facts
+that the more excellent the weave the easier it is to clearly define
+patterns; and that on shortness of nap, which as a rule is found in
+closely woven rugs, depends accuracy of delineation. The charm of rugs
+often depends, also, on the graceful flow of lines, the careful balance
+of different parts of patterns, and the proper co-ordination between
+border and field. Careful attention should accordingly be given to the
+drawing when selecting a rug.
+
+The artistic beauty of Oriental rugs depends still more on the
+colouring, since, as has been elsewhere expressed, drawing, which is
+intellectual, finds its highest development in the Occident, and
+colouring, which is sensuous, finds its highest development in the
+Orient. It at once suggests sumptuous luxury. In all of the antique
+carpets that remain and in very many rugs over fifty years of age, all
+the colours employed in a single piece are in tones of perfect harmony,
+and are so placed with reference to one another that the effect is most
+agreeable. But in some of the modern pieces, such as are produced in
+parts of Asia Minor and Caucasia, are colours which, like discordant
+notes of music, grate harshly on the senses. The most pleasing effect is
+when colours of border and field are complementary, yet so in harmony as
+to accentuate the qualities of each.
+
+There are also colours which, independent of their association, are in
+themselves good or bad. The best are found in the antique carpets woven
+when the art of the dyer was an honourable profession. The colours are
+also very good in still later pieces; but for a century now some of the
+finest have not been used, and even the secret of producing them has
+been lost. Here and there dyers and weavers cling to early traditions,
+so that among modern rugs are many examples of good colouring; but the
+most recent pieces, excepting when softened by artificial processes,
+often display harsh and garish colours. This distinction is in a measure
+due to the fact that old colours were largely produced by vegetable dyes
+and the modern are too often produced by aniline. Not infrequently both
+vegetable and aniline colours are used in the same piece, and sometimes
+the quantity of aniline colour is so small that it is scarcely
+objectionable; but as a rule it is best never to purchase a rug that is
+so tainted.
+
+One objection to the use of aniline dyes is that by removing some of the
+natural oil of the wool they are apt to make it brittle, so that it is
+less able to stand wear. Another is that in time some of the dyes, which
+have been applied collectively to produce a single colour, will fade or
+even disappear, so that the final colour may be a most undesirable shade
+not in harmony with those that surround it. If the fibres are brittle
+and become harsher to the touch when wet with water, it is an indication
+that aniline dyes have been used. Another test is the application of
+weak vegetable acids, which will make the colour spread if produced by
+aniline dyes, but are not likely to affect it if produced by vegetable
+dyes. Many native weavers can distinguish by placing the wool in their
+mouths, when they experience a sweet or bitter taste, according as
+vegetable or aniline dyes have been used. It is a mistake, however, to
+assume that the dyes are aniline because the wool has a brighter colour
+at the surface of the nap than at the foundation; or because the colour
+spreads when wet with water; since in time even some of the vegetable
+colours will fade; and when fresh they will run during the first washing
+in water, but afterwards they are little affected either by water or
+weak acids.
+
+Even when the same colours and the same kind of dyes were used, there is
+a marked distinction in the appearance of old and of recently woven
+rugs, which is due to wear as well as exposure to sun and weather. The
+effect of time, imperceptible at first, is shown in rich tones of
+remarkable softness and beauty, that add greatly to the value of a rug.
+It accordingly happens that artificial processes are adopted to create
+as far as possible the same results without the lapse of time. Some of
+these are as novel as were the efforts of the distinguished viceroy of
+King-te Chin, in the reign of Kang-hi, to produce antique
+porcelains.[40] Henry Savage Landor says[41] that "to manufacture
+'Antique Carpets' is one of the most lucrative branches of modern
+Persian carpet making. The new carpets are spread in the bazar in the
+middle of the street, where it is most crowded, and trampled upon for
+days or weeks, according to the days required, foot passengers and their
+donkeys, mules and camels making a point of treading on them in order to
+'add to age' in the manufacturer's goods. When sufficiently worn down
+the carpet is removed, brushed, and ordinarily sold for double or treble
+the actual price, owing to its antiquity."
+
+[Illustration: _COLOUR PLATE XI—CHINESE RUG_
+
+_This large Chinese carpet represents some of the best workmanship of
+the Keen-lung period. In it are shown the graceful drawing of leaf,
+fruit, flower, and butterfly, and the dainty colouring of blue, yellow,
+brown, and apricot on a field of ivory that are so characteristic of
+this time. The usual balance of designs throughout the field is
+maintained with precision; but, as is not always the case, different
+motives occupy corresponding positions. Thus a cluster of leaves and
+fruit may be balanced with a cluster of leaves and flowers. The
+conventional drawing of the corners and the somewhat formal panel that
+surrounds the central medallion give to the pattern strength of
+character while they detract nothing from its beauty._
+
+
+ _Loaned by Mr. Nathan Bentz_]
+
+Whatever may be their character, the methods employed to give softened
+effects to the colours are known as "washing." Most of those in vogue in
+the Orient, such as washing with lime water, do little real injury. In
+this country to artificially mellow the colours has become a regular
+business of firms, who guard the secret of their different methods. Some
+use ammonia, borax, and soap, which also do very little injury to the
+rug. Others use chloride of lime, boracic acid, vinegar, or oxalic acid,
+that remove some of the natural oils of the wool and accordingly impair
+its qualities for wear. In fact, pieces are occasionally injured to the
+extent that the wool has become brittle and may readily be plucked out.
+Nevertheless, it does not necessarily follow that all rugs washed with
+an acid solution have been seriously injured; but the colours never have
+the same richness as those which have been softened by natural processes
+operating for a long period of years. To be sure, rugs that have been
+washed are often more attractive than they were in their raw colours;
+but the older, more beautiful rugs with genuine tones mellowed by time
+are always to be preferred. Over ninety per cent of the Kermanshahs,
+Sarouks, Kashans, Tabriz, Muskabads, Mahals, and Gorevans, and a large
+percentage of all other modern rugs sold in this country, have been
+treated by some artificial process to soften their colours or give them
+the appearance of age. It is generally necessary, when selecting a large
+rug for a floor covering, to accept a washed piece; but when a smaller
+rug or a runner will meet the requirements, it is preferable to choose
+the older unwashed piece, which, as a rule, is more beautiful and costs
+but little more. In the case of most pieces, the tones of colour are
+sufficient to enable one who is experienced to distinguish between those
+that are artificially aged and those that are not. In the case of
+others, a simple test is to rub them thoroughly with a wet rag; when, if
+acid or chloride of lime has been used, it can generally be detected by
+the odour.
+
+The artistic beauty of a rug also depends somewhat on the fineness of
+the nap; as the soft, floccy fibres of some wools acquire a velvety
+appearance, or give to the colours a sheen and a lustre compared with
+which other rugs look harsh and coarse. For instance, the rugs of Shiraz
+and Meshed, the Beluchistans, and many Bokharas are noted for the lustre
+of their colours; but on the other hand many of the rugs of Asia Minor
+and Caucasia have colours that are without lustre, and the rugs of India
+which are made of dead or "Chunam" wool, seem lifeless.
+
+When selecting any rug, then, the purchaser should carefully observe if
+the patterns are well drawn and their different parts show a proper
+balance. He should observe if the colour tones are harmonious with one
+another, if each colour in itself is good, and if they have been
+softened by natural processes acting for a long time. And he should
+notice if the wool is coarse, dead, and lustreless, or if it has a sheen
+and glint in the light of day; for these are the qualities that make up
+the artistic beauty of a rug.
+
+The utility to be derived from rugs that properly belong to museums and
+collectors receives small consideration, though even with them the more
+perfect their condition the more valuable they are. But in case of the
+great majority of rugs, which are intended for use as well as for
+ornament, their utility is an important consideration to the purchaser.
+Rugs that have warp and weft of strong yarn and a close firm texture,
+will wear better than others. Also, such rugs as Bijars, in which one
+thread of warp to each knot is doubled under the other, will be found to
+wear better than such rugs as Mosuls which have each thread of warp
+equally prominent at the back. For durability, long nap is also to be
+preferred to short, since it protects the foundations of the knots from
+wearing and becoming loose.
+
+Before purchasing an old rug, it should be spread on the floor to see if
+it lies flat and if its shape is regular. It should be examined by
+daylight and not by electric light, which gives a false impression of
+colour and sheen. It should be held up with the back turned to the
+purchaser, and carefully examined for weak spots through which the light
+may pass; since, when so held, many pieces which seem in good condition
+when lying on the floor, resemble a sieve. The foundation threads should
+also be carefully inspected, as sometimes they rot and will tear with
+slight tension. Moreover, as the selvage or overcasting of the sides and
+the webs of the ends are intended primarily not for ornament but for
+protection, it should be noted if they are in good condition. Sometimes
+the webs of the ends are entirely gone, so that continual fraying of the
+nap is prevented with difficulty. Sometimes the selvage or overcasting
+of the sides is broken and some of the threads of warp are injured. Or
+the sides may be well protected by a stout overcasting; but on
+examination it will be seen that it is not the original finishing, and
+that some of the border has disappeared. Again, it may have been
+overcast too tightly, so that the sides curl and turn under, and thus
+expose the border to injury when trodden on. Careful examination will
+often reveal surprises. In many old rugs the field is full of rents,
+that have been sewn together; in others entire pieces have been removed,
+so that they are no longer of their original length; or parts of the
+border are gone, or even the whole of it has been replaced by the
+border of another rug; yet all so deftly done that the changes are
+scarcely noticeable.
+
+Nevertheless, old pieces, if otherwise meritorious, are not to be
+discarded on account of a few imperfections, since what can be
+accomplished in the hands of a careful repairer is remarkable. Broken
+threads of warp and weft can be mended; missing knots can be replaced
+with others of similar yarn; crooked pieces can be straightened by
+loosening here and stretching there; borders that curl can be flattened
+by removing the yarn and overcasting again more carefully. In fact, if
+the nap be not so worn that the foundation of warp and weft is exposed,
+it is far better to choose an old rug with some rents than a new one
+with garish aniline dyes. Nor should a piece be slighted, because the
+brownish black areas of wool dyed with iron pyrites are worn low; since
+often the most beautiful effects are obtained by a surface of brighter
+colours standing out in relief, on account of the worn blackish nap that
+surrounds it. Now and then a bargain can be had by buying a rug which,
+because of some imperfection that is not serious, has been passed by;
+and now and then a piece reeking with dirt has proved, when properly
+cleansed, to be a gem.
+
+The foundation, consisting of the warp and weft, receives but little
+consideration from purchasers; yet it is one of the most important
+indices of the quality of a rug, and its strength is one of the most
+necessary conditions for utility. The warp is best observed at the ends.
+In most Chinese and Indian rugs and in some of the Persian, it is of
+cotton; in others it is of wool or goat's hair. In the Chinese rugs the
+diameter of the threads of warp is much smaller than the diameter of the
+threads of the weft, and has little strength, but in almost all other
+rugs it is at least as large and as stout. The weft may readily be
+observed at the back. In very many of the best rugs, it consists of fine
+spun wool; but in many modern ones, it is of coarse wool or cotton. The
+number of knots to the square inch does not of itself demonstrate the
+quality of texture, since a rug may have only a few knots of coarse
+diameter and be firmly woven, or it may have many knots of fine diameter
+and be loosely woven; but in the same class the better rug has generally
+more knots than a poorer one. When selecting a rug, then, the back
+should be most carefully observed; for here may be seen if the yarn that
+forms the knots is well spun, if the knots themselves are drawn tight
+and well pressed down, and if the threads of weft are carefully
+inserted and have a texture that indicates fine workmanship. Almost
+invariably it will be found that if the back of a rug shows good
+material, and has an appearance of firmness and skilful, painstaking
+weaving, the front will correspond with good colours and careful
+drawing.
+
+The value of antique carpets, which depends to some extent on their
+size, and to a much greater extent on their rarity and character, is
+constantly increasing; for the reason that their number is limited and
+each year they are more highly appreciated. It is, therefore, impossible
+to affix even approximate prices; but the sums paid at the Yerkes sale
+in 1910, when some thirty pieces were sold at auction for an average of
+about $9,400, will serve as a guide. The following are some of the
+pieces sold and the prices realised:
+
+
+ Carpet, size 7 feet 4 inches by 5 feet 4 inches, attributed
+ to Western Persia, at end of XVI Century, and purchased by
+ the Metropolitan Museum of Art, N. Y. $5,600
+
+ Persian carpet, XVI Century, described on page 86 5,600
+
+ Polish silk carpet, XVI Century, size 6 feet 6 inches by 4 feet
+ 7 inches 4,700
+
+ Polish silk carpet, XVI Century, size 6 feet 6 inches by 4 feet
+ 7 inches 3,500
+
+ Polish silk carpet, XVI Century, size 6 feet 11 inches by 4 feet
+ 10 inches 12,300
+
+ Silk carpet, XVI Century, size 7 feet 2½ inches by 6 feet
+ 5 inches, stated to have belonged to the Ardebil Mosque 35,500
+
+ Moorish carpet, XVI Century, size 10 feet 11 inches by 5 feet
+ 10 inches, stated to have belonged to the Ardebil Mosque and
+ purchased by the Metropolitan Museum of Art, N. Y. 15,200
+
+ Hispano Moresque Mosque carpet, size 34 feet 5 inches by 16 feet
+ 8 inches, flat stitch 8,600
+
+ Carpet attributed to Western Iran, size 16 feet 4 inches
+ by 11 feet 2 inches, and purchased by the Metropolitan Museum
+ of Art, N. Y. 19,600
+
+ Carpet similar to the Mosque carpet of Ardebil, XVI Century,
+ size 23 feet 11 inches by 13 feet 5 inches 27,000
+
+
+The value of rugs over fifty years of age but not sufficiently old to
+belong to the antique class also depends as much on the technique of
+weave, drawing, colouring, and rarity as on the size; yet even this must
+be taken into consideration. In proportion to their size the most
+expensive of these rugs are the Kirmans, Sehnas, and Niris from Persia;
+the Ghiordes and Ladiks from Asia Minor; the Daghestans and Kabistans
+from Caucasia; and the Royal Bokharas and Yomuds from Central Asia.
+Considering both utility and attractiveness the least expensive are
+probably the Sarabends and Mosuls from the Persian group, the Yuruks
+from Asia Minor, Kazaks and Tcherkess from Caucasia, and Afghans and
+Beluchistans from Central Asia. As is the case with antique carpets, the
+prices of all old rugs in good condition are steadily advancing.
+
+There is likewise a tendency for the prices of modern rugs to increase
+with each year, since on account of the gradual opening of Oriental
+countries to the markets of the world, and the greater demand for rugs,
+the wages of weavers are increasing. Some of them, as the Tabriz,
+Gorevans, Kermanshahs, Muskabads, Mahals, Sarouks, and Kashans, are now
+made almost exclusively under the direction of the work-house system,
+and are sold at prices that fluctuate but slightly. But in a short time
+the prices of all of them will doubtless be higher.
+
+When a rug of carpet size is required, the Kermanshahs are generally
+preferred on account of their soft colouring and refined patterns, that
+harmonise with the furnishings of most reception rooms. Less expensive
+and more showy are the Gorevans, which are suitable for halls or dining
+rooms. In the Afghans, which are splendid rugs for a den, are combined
+durability with a moderate price. Within recent years some of the Indian
+rugs, as the Amritsars and Lahores, have been growing in favour, as they
+not only have good colours, artistic patterns, and exceedingly good
+texture, but are reasonable in price. Of smaller rugs required both for
+ornament and use, the Shiraz, Feraghan, Mosul, Bergamo, Tcherkess,
+Bokhara, and Beluchistan are desirable.
+
+As is the case with other works of art, so much deception can be
+practised in the sale of rugs that a purchaser cannot use too much
+circumspection. Sometimes through ignorance or with intention, a dealer
+will declare that the wool of a rug which has been coloured with aniline
+dyes has been coloured with vegetable dyes only; that a rug washed with
+acid has matured naturally; that a new rug which has been artificially
+worn almost to the knot is an antique; or that a particular rug belongs
+to the class desired, as where a Shirvan is offered for a Shiraz or a
+Bijar for a Bergamo, which ordinarily are worth much more. It is,
+accordingly, discreet to buy only of such firms as have a reputation
+which is above reproach; and if for any reason it is difficult to learn
+the standing of a firm, the purchaser would do well to make an effort to
+test its reliability by inquiring about the qualities of some class of
+rugs with which he is familiar before purchasing others; and if there
+appears to be any intention to deceive, he should at once look
+elsewhere. In any event, he should take a guarantee that the rug
+purchased is as represented. Firms that have gained an honourable
+reputation by honest dealing deserve the patronage of the public, and
+will always be found ready to make restitution if any mistake has been
+made.
+
+At times, the best rugs may be bought at auctions and at the fairest
+prices. Auctions such as the Yerkes, where estates are being closed or
+where firms are dissolved, occasionally occur, when every opportunity is
+given the purchaser to thoroughly examine in advance pieces which are
+sold without reservation to the highest bidder. On such occasions, rare
+pieces are sometimes bought at very moderate prices. But as a rule,
+unless the purchaser is a good judge and has previously carefully
+examined a coveted piece in broad daylight, it is better not to buy at
+auctions. During the sale it is impossible to properly examine a rug.
+The glare of electric light thrown upon it gives a too favourable
+impression of its beauty. The competitive bids of other real or
+fictitious purchasers and the words of the auctioneer too often lead
+beyond the dictates of good judgment. At such times one would do well to
+remember the old words _caveat emptor_.
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[1] The Yerkes sale.
+
+[2] Stewart Dix, in "Arts of Old Japan."
+
+[3] The influence of the physical aspects of a country on its art as
+expressed in architecture is nowhere more clearly shown than in Egypt,
+and there is little doubt that, likewise, the character of the native
+rugs was influenced by the spirit of the sluggish Nile and the boundless
+desert wastes. But as Egypt long ago ceased to be a rug-producing
+country, and none of its ancient rugs remain, it will only be briefly
+referred to in this work, though symbolic designs which had their origin
+there during the Caliphate or even earlier were adopted by foreign
+weavers and occasionally appear with modified form in modern rugs.
+
+[4] It is said that he carried Persian weavers as captives to Asia Minor
+and Constantinople.
+
+[5] This is a product of flowers of the genus _Delphinum_ that grows in
+the Himalayas. It is also obtained as a powder from Afghanistan.
+
+[6] In a few rare instances a knot is tied to four threads of warp.
+
+[7] Most Sehna knots are right-hand knots, but the Sehna knots of a
+large proportion of Khorassan rugs are left-hand knots.
+
+[8] As far as the writer is aware, no one has hitherto called attention
+to the many precise distinctions there are in weaving, and to the fact
+that each class of rugs follows a distinct type of its own. For this
+reason this branch of the subject is treated more fully than would
+otherwise be necessary.
+
+[9] A few of the weavers about Gozene in Asia Minor make rugs with a
+double foundation, in which a single thread of coarse weft crosses twice
+between parallel rows of threads of warp. Only rarely is this method
+followed in other districts.
+
+[10] Sir George Birdwood has made the statement that "A deep and
+complicate symbolism, originating in Babylonia and possibly in India,
+pervades every denomination of Oriental carpet. Thus the carpet itself
+prefigures space and eternity, and the general pattern or filling, as it
+is technically termed, the fleeting, finite universe of animated beauty.
+Every colour has its significance; and the design, whether mythological
+or natural, human, bestial, or floral, has its hidden meaning. Even the
+representatives of men hunting wild beasts have their special
+indications. So have the natural flowers of Persia their symbolism,
+wherever they are introduced, generally following that of their colours.
+The very irregularities either in drawing or colouring, to be observed
+in almost every Oriental carpet, and invariably in Turkoman carpets, are
+seldom accidental, the usual deliberate intention being to avert the
+evil eye and insure good luck."
+
+[11] The equivalent of 106 feet square.
+
+[12] See his work, "The Holy Carpet of the Mosque at Ardebil."
+
+[13] Ismael reigned, 1502-1524; Tamasp reigned, 1524-1576.
+
+[14] 1586-1628.
+
+[15] These will be considered in a later chapter.
+
+[16] This group includes both antique and modern rugs.
+
+[17] Robert Kerr Porter, a well-known traveller, stated that the floor
+of the audience hall of the governor at Tabriz, whom he visited in 1818,
+"was entirely overspread with Herat carpets, those of that manufacture
+being the richest that can be made."
+
+[18] By "Type Characteristics" is meant the characteristics of such
+types of the class as are most frequently seen. There are exceptions to
+these types.
+
+[19] As this is the case with most rugs, only the exceptions to this
+feature will be noticed in the type characteristics of other classes.
+
+[20] Ibn Batutah.
+
+[21] Of modern Ispahans.
+
+[22] "Burlington Magazine," December, 1909.
+
+[23] In "Industrial Arts of India."
+
+[24] Sidney Churchill in the Imperial Vienna Book says that "the dyes of
+Sultanabad have perhaps the most extensive colour scheme in Persia."
+
+[25] "Industrial Arts of India."
+
+[26] Mrs. Elizabeth Bishop in "Journeys in Persia and Kurdistan."
+
+[27] Encyclopedia Britannica.
+
+[28] It is also to be noted that within the last few years large numbers
+of pieces bearing resemblance to old Oriental rugs have been woven about
+Constantinople.
+
+[29] One of the most interesting is at Sivas, where are the remains of a
+most beautiful Seljuk gateway, with architectural lines that might well
+have been taken for a weaver's model. As in many prayer rugs, the
+engaged columns support a high arch over which a panel rests above a
+figured spandrel. The outlines of each of these parts suggest most
+forcibly the drawing of the prayer rug, and the resemblance is carried
+even further; for corresponding with the border stripes is the chiselled
+masonry that once rested above the panel and still extends to the foot
+of the entrance at each side of the arch.
+
+[30] One of these is represented in Dr. Bode's "Knupfteppiche," where it
+appears as a secondary stripe.
+
+[31] An intermediate pattern suggested by each is found in an old Asia
+Minor piece owned by Dr. Bode.
+
+[32] A. Bogolubow, in his excellent work "Tapis de l'Asie Centrale,"
+divides the Transcaspian Turkomans into two principal groups, the Salors
+and Yomuds, each of which includes sub-groups. These are again
+divisible into many tribes, almost all of whom weave. As their rugs,
+though resembling one another, show different characteristics, they
+might properly be separated into numerous classes; but since only a few
+of them are known in this country, they alone will be described.
+
+[33] "Desert of Red Sands."
+
+[34] A tent in which an average of five people live.
+
+[35] In "Industrial Arts of India."
+
+[36] Dr. Birdwood.
+
+[37] Sometimes Sehna knot.
+
+[38] Sometimes one thread of warp to each knot is doubled under the
+other.
+
+[39] Rarely Iran, Feraghan, Mosul, and Kurdistan.
+
+[40] It is stated that in the short space of a few weeks he created
+valuable antique porcelains to present to his noble friends by placing
+recent copies of old specimens in a vessel containing very greasy soup,
+where they were duly boiled for a month, and after that placing them in
+the "foulest drain of the neighbourhood," where they remained until
+seasoned.
+
+[41] In "Across Coveted Lands, 1903."
+
+[42] All references of an unimportant character are indicated by the
+page number only.
+
+
+
+
+INDEX[42]
+
+
+ A
+
+ Abbas, Shah, 88, 89, 169, 211;
+ pattern named after, 105;
+ sent artisans to India, 111;
+ rug industry declined after death of, 112.
+
+ Abraham, 23, 31.
+
+ Acacia used as a dye, 40, 41.
+
+ Accadians, 23.
+
+ Adighies, 209.
+
+ Afghan rugs, 293, 304, 305;
+ geometric designs of, 62;
+ technicalities in weave of, 51, 53, 56, 57, 235.
+ Rugs described, 243, 244, 245;
+ border stripes, 251.
+
+ Afghan tribes, 90.
+
+ Afghanistan, 41, 103, 233, 243, 244;
+ camel's wool of, 82.
+
+ Afshar rugs, 100, 286;
+ technicalities in weave of, 51.
+ Rugs described, 155.
+
+ Aga Mohammed Khan pillaged Kirman, 113.
+
+ Agamemnon, 166.
+
+ Agra, 255, 257.
+
+ Agra rugs described, 257.
+
+ Akbar, Shah, 28;
+ received assistance from Shah Abbas, 29;
+ established rug weaving at Lahore, 94;
+ imported Persian weavers, 253;
+ carpet factory of, 256.
+
+ Ak-Hissar, 175.
+
+ Ak-Hissar rugs, 101.
+ Rugs described, 175, 176.
+
+ Ak-kal, oasis of, 238.
+
+ Albana, 204.
+
+ Alexander the Great, 169, 181, 246;
+ destroyed Shiraz, 115;
+ built walls at Derbend, 204.
+
+ Alhambra, 25.
+
+ Ali Riza, Imam, 110.
+
+ Allahabad, 258.
+
+ Allahabad rugs described, 258.
+
+ Altai Mts., 29;
+ original home of the Turks, 26.
+
+ Altman, Benjamin, 85.
+
+ Alum, used as a mordant, 40, 41.
+
+ Amritsar, 255, 258.
+
+ Amritsar rugs, 101, 257, 305.
+ Rugs described, 255.
+
+ Amu Daria. _See_ Oxus river.
+
+ Anatolia, 163, 182;
+ the "Land of the Rising Sun," 187.
+
+ Anatolian rugs, 101, 176, 190, 289, 290;
+ illustration of prayer arch of, 63.
+ Rugs described, 187, 188, 189;
+ border stripes, 195.
+
+ Angora, 27, 185, 187;
+ goat's wool, 32.
+
+ Anilines. _See_ Dyes.
+
+ Animal carpets, 86, 87.
+
+ Anjuman Industrial Art School, 259.
+
+ Anoschar, 76.
+
+ Anti-Taurus Mts., 140, 187, 190.
+
+ Arabia, 24, 29, 32.
+
+ Arabic features in rugs, 85;
+ notation, 296;
+ symbolism in Western Kurdistan rugs, 141.
+
+ Arabs, in Persia, 103;
+ overran Turkestan, 234.
+
+ Ararat, Mt., 103, 219.
+
+ Aras river, 151, 157, 224.
+
+ Ardebil, Persian capital under Ismael, 28;
+ mosque of, 82, 127.
+
+ Ardebil carpet, 15;
+ described, 83, 84.
+
+ Ardelan district, 100, 129, 133, 153.
+
+ Armenia, 209;
+ origin of some Caucasian border stripes of, 226, 228, 229.
+
+ Armenian rugs, 91, 170, 209, 220;
+ designs derived from, 64, 65, 67, 209, 214, 215.
+ Rugs described, 91.
+
+ Armenians in Persia, 103;
+ in Mosul, 103.
+
+ Artaxerxes, 103.
+
+ Aryan races, in India, 28;
+ in Persia, 103;
+ in Caucasia, 197;
+ in Turkestan, 234;
+ floral ornamentation employed by, 62.
+
+ Asburg used as a dye, 41.
+
+ Astrabad, 241.
+
+ Astrakan, market for Bokharas, 235;
+ for caravans from Khiva, 240.
+
+ Auctions, 306.
+
+ Ayyampet, 259.
+
+ Azerbijan province, 26, 145, 147, 148, 149, 153.
+
+
+ B
+
+ Baber, Shah, 28.
+
+ Babylon, 23, 24, 74, 102, 103.
+
+ Bagdad, 81, 138, 152;
+ carpets covering the floors of, 25;
+ captured by Tartars, 27,
+ by Solyman the Magnificent, 28.
+
+ Bajazet, defeated by Tamerlane, 27;
+ Karaman subject to, 188.
+
+ Bakshis rugs described, 148.
+
+ Baku, 210, 214.
+
+ Baku rugs, 101, 292;
+ pear design in, 70, 129, 153, 198, 202.
+ Rugs described, 210, 211, 212;
+ border stripes, 229.
+
+ Bangalore, 259, 261.
+
+ Bangalore rugs, 101, 259.
+ Rugs described, 261.
+
+ Barbarossa, Frederic, 181.
+
+ Bardini, Stefano, 85.
+
+ Bastard teak used as a dye, 39.
+
+ Bedouins, 103.
+
+ Belshazzar, 24.
+
+ Beluches, in Kirman, 113;
+ untamed tribes of, 248.
+
+ Beluchistan, 233.
+
+ Beluchistan rugs, 205, 234, 239, 301, 305;
+ technicalities in weave of, 53, 56, 57;
+ illustration of prayer arch of, 61;
+ geometric designs in, 62;
+ S design in, 64;
+ zigzag line in, 66;
+ reciprocal trefoil in, 160, 230.
+ Rugs described, 248, 249;
+ border stripes, 251.
+
+ Beni-Hassan, tombs of, 74.
+
+ Bergamo rugs, 101, 289, 305;
+ technicalities in weave of, 50, 52, 53, 54, 57;
+ illustration of prayer arch of, 63;
+ prevailing colour tone of, 178.
+ Rugs described, 166, 167, 168;
+ border stripes, 193.
+
+ Berlin gallery, 92.
+
+ Beshire rugs, 101, 233, 293;
+ illustration of prayer arch of, 61;
+ S design in, 65;
+ zigzag line in, 66.
+ Rugs described, 243;
+ border stripes, 251.
+
+ Bibikabad, town of, 154.
+
+ Bibikabad rugs described, 155.
+
+ Bijar, 129, 136.
+
+ Bijar rugs, 100, 153, 256, 286, 288, 302, 305;
+ technicalities in weave of, 51, 52;
+ compared with Persian-Kurdistans and Mosuls, 143.
+ Rugs described, 136, 137;
+ border stripes, 157, 159, 160.
+
+ Birbul's blue used as a dye, 40.
+
+ Bird figures in rugs. _See_ Designs.
+
+ Birdwood, Sir George, cited, 62, 70, 94, 122, 138;
+ quoted, 59, 241, 253, 258, 259, 260.
+
+ Birjand, 108.
+
+ Bishop, Mrs. I. B., quoted, 138.
+
+ Bode, Dr. Wm., cited, 79, 227, 228.
+
+ Bogolubow, A., cited, 233.
+
+ Böhler, J., cited, 79.
+
+ Bokhara, 100, 110, 245;
+ captured by Genghis Khan, 26;
+ the "Noble," 236.
+
+ Bokhara rugs, 100, 243, 305;
+ goat's hair in, 32;
+ technicalities in weave of, 50, 52, 53.
+
+ Bokhara, Princess, rugs, 101, 233, 235, 293;
+ illustration of prayer arch of, 61.
+ Rugs described, 237, 238;
+ border stripes, 250, 251.
+
+ Bokhara, Royal, rugs, 101, 103, 233, 241, 242, 243, 244, 293, 304;
+ compared with Princess, 237;
+ the arch compared with that of Tekkes, 239.
+ Rugs described, 235, 236;
+ border stripes, 250, 251.
+
+ Border stripes, defined, 59;
+ Persian, described, 156, 157, 158, 159, 160;
+ Asia Minor, described, 192, 193, 194, 195;
+ Caucasian, described, 225, 226, 227, 228, 229, 230, 231;
+ Central Asiatic, described, 250, 251;
+ Chinese, described, 273, 274, 275.
+
+ Boston Museum of Fine Arts, 94.
+
+ Brahoes, 248.
+
+ British Museum, 82.
+
+ Broussa, 181.
+ Rugs described, 181.
+
+ Buckthorns used as a dye, 39.
+
+ Buddhism, influence on Asiatic art, 16;
+ on symbolism, 58;
+ the lotus an emblem of, 69.
+
+ Buddhist emblems, 271, 274.
+
+ Burujird, 131.
+
+ Burujird rugs described, 131.
+
+ Butea fondosa used as a dye, 39.
+
+ Butti lac used as a dye, 39.
+
+
+ C
+
+ Cæsarea. _See_ Kaisariyeh.
+
+ Caïcus valley, 166.
+
+ Cairo, Caliphs in, 25;
+ Mecca rugs sold in, 118.
+
+ Caliphate, 20, 76.
+
+ Caliphs, 24, 25, 77, 90, 91, 115;
+ prayer rugs in time of, 85;
+ Ispahan under, 111;
+ Kirman rugs in palaces of, 113;
+ Tabriz rugs known in days of, 145.
+
+ Caliph Hisham, carpet of, 76.
+
+ Camel's hair. _See_ Wool.
+
+ Carduchis, 140.
+
+ Caria. _See_ Melez.
+
+ Chaldees, 23;
+ symbolism derived from, 66.
+
+ Chardin cited, 113.
+
+ Charles Martel, 25.
+
+ Chehel Sutoon, enormous carpet of, 112.
+
+ Che-Hwang-te, 26.
+
+ Chichi rugs, 100, 290, 292;
+ illustration of prayer arch of, 61;
+ Kazaks contrasted with, 220.
+ Rugs described, 207, 208;
+ border stripes, 226, 231.
+
+ Chinese fret, 67, 165;
+ influence, 293;
+ medallions, 272, 273.
+
+ Chosroes I, "Spring of Chosroes" carpet made for, 76.
+
+ Chunam wool, 261, 301.
+
+ Churchill, Sidney, A. T., quoted, 131.
+
+ Cinnabar used as a dye, 40, 41.
+
+ Circassians. _See_ Tcherkess.
+
+ Clark, Sir Purdon, cited, 112.
+
+ Clotilde Clam-Gallas, Countess, cited, 80.
+
+ Coccus cacti used as a dye, 38.
+
+ Coccus ilicus used as a dye, 38.
+
+ Coccus lacca used as a dye, 38.
+
+ Cochineal used as a dye, 38.
+
+ Cochran, Wm. Alexander Smith, 86.
+
+ Coconada, 259.
+
+ Colour, the artistic value of, 18;
+ the symbolism of, 59, 72.
+
+ Cone design. _See_ Designs.
+
+ Constantinople, 27, 98, 99, 118, 181, 197, 209;
+ Persian weavers taken to, 28;
+ silk carpets sent to Sultan of, 87.
+
+ Conventions in art, 16.
+
+ Cordova, 25.
+
+ Cossacks, 218, 219.
+
+ Cotton, used in weaving 30;
+ mercerized, 30.
+
+ Cow's hair used in weaving, 30, 33.
+
+ Crocus used as a dye, 39.
+
+ Croesus, 163.
+
+ Crown jewel design. _See_ Designs.
+
+ Ctesiphon, 76, 102, 103.
+
+ Cufic lettering, in Altman carpet, 85;
+ in borders of Asia Minor and Caucasian rugs, 92, 166, 202, 229;
+ reputed inventor of, 183.
+
+ Cupressus sempervirens used as a dye, 41.
+
+ Curcuma used as a dye, 38.
+
+ Cyrus, 24, 115, 181; Turkestan overrun by, 234.
+
+
+ D
+
+ Daghestan, 198, 206, 214.
+
+ Daghestan rugs, 205, 212, 213, 216, 290, 292, 293, 304;
+ technicalities in weave of, 51, 54;
+ illustration of prayer arch of, 61;
+ effulgent stars in, 91;
+ Cufic borders of, 92;
+ Bergamo prayer arch compared with that of, 167;
+ weave of Kabistans compared with that of, 201;
+ designs in, 211;
+ colour scheme of Shirvans compared with that of, 214;
+ mosaic drawing of, 220.
+ Rugs described, 198, 199, 200;
+ border stripes, 226, 227, 228, 229, 230.
+
+ Daghestan, Royal, 216.
+
+ Damascus, 17;
+ antique carpets of, 95;
+ Mecca rugs sold in, 118.
+
+ Dari, 211, 257.
+
+ Darius, 215.
+
+ Dekkan, rugs woven in interior of, 259.
+
+ Delhi, 28, 110.
+
+ Demirdji, 164, 176.
+
+ Demirdji rugs described, 176.
+
+ Deodorus, 74.
+
+ Dera Ghazi Khan, 280; Kilims, 281.
+
+ Derbend, 199, 204.
+
+ Derbend rugs described, 204, 205;
+ border stripes, 230.
+
+ Designs, geometric, 62, 64, 185;
+ floral, 62, 64, 68, 185;
+ almond, 70;
+ animal, 89, 83, 91, 112, 114, 126, 137, 165, 200, 211, 213, 225, 248;
+ antilope, 72;
+ arabesques, 71, 79, 81, 83, 94, 104, 156, 175;
+ barber-pole, 117, 118, 119, 153, 182, 200, 215, 229, 242, 246, 251;
+ bat, 71, 266;
+ birds, 71, 87, 91, 119, 114, 137, 165, 229, 246, 270, 292;
+ bird of paradise, 71;
+ butterfly, 71, 246, 266, 269, 270;
+ camel, 72;
+ chessboard, 271;
+ chrysanthemum, 271;
+ cloud-band, 67, 90, 106, 265, 274;
+ cocos, 114;
+ comb, 67, 208, 213, 221;
+ conch, 274;
+ cone, 70;
+ crab, 71;
+ cross, 67, 92, 236, 237;
+ crown jewel, 70, 112;
+ daisy, 64, 69;
+ diamond, 91, 141, 145, 177, 200, 203, 212, 223;
+ djinni, 72;
+ dog, 72, 213;
+ dragon, 71, 246, 266, 268, 273, 274;
+ dragon and phoenix, 92;
+ duck, 71, 81, 87;
+ eagle, 71;
+ Euphrates flower, 69, 189;
+ fish, 165, 246;
+ fung-kwang, 266;
+ fungus, 269;
+ gazelle, 95;
+ goat, 72;
+ Joo-e, 265, 274;
+ key-pattern, 27, 267, 274;
+ knot of destiny, 274;
+ ky-lin, 265;
+ lamp, 165, 170, 182;
+ latch-hook, 67, 74, 117, 145, 155, 167, 169, 180, 182, 183, 184, 186,
+ 187, 189, 200, 202, 203, 212, 215, 220, 223, 225, 227, 228, 231,
+ 242, 249, 250, 251, 278, 282, 288;
+ lily, 167, 170, 172, 184, 193, 230;
+ lion, 72, 95;
+ lion-dog, 266;
+ lotus, 64, 68, 69, 89, 199;
+ lozenge, 62, 91, 123, 141, 206, 220, 225, 249;
+ lyre, 271;
+ mango, 70;
+ medallion, 60, 86, 87, 104, 106, 108, 109, 110, 121, 123, 126, 134,
+ 138, 139, 145, 149, 169, 183, 189, 200, 212, 214, 215, 220, 267,
+ 269, 271, 272, 273;
+ moon, 65, 69;
+ octagonal disc, 66, 92, 180, 200, 206, 213, 220, 275; palm, 70;
+ palmette, 70, 71, 89, 90, 94, 106, 121, 177;
+ peacock, 71;
+ pear, 70, 106, 109, 110, 116, 129, 142, 145, 153, 165, 191, 200, 201,
+ 207, 218, 219;
+ peony, 104, 270;
+ phoenix, 72;
+ pole-medallion, 117, 152, 179;
+ pomegranate, 69, 167;
+ reciprocal sawtooth, 78, 121, 130, 209, 221, 231;
+ reciprocal trefoil, 121, 130, 160, 165, 208, 215, 221, 249;
+ river loop, 70;
+ rose, 62, 69, 139, 193;
+ rosette, 70, 94, 104, 121, 188, 193, 201, 207, 208, 221, 226, 230,
+ 290, 292;
+ running latch-hook, 67, 242;
+ sacred mountain, 265;
+ scorpion, 71;
+ S design, 64, 91, 92, 170, 195, 206, 208, 211, 213, 220;
+ serpent, 71;
+ serrated leaf and wine cup, 64;
+ shield of David, 66;
+ Shou, 266, 272;
+ star, 62, 65, 71, 93, 112, 183, 200, 203;
+ effulgent star, 201, 211;
+ eight-pointed star, 177, 179, 180, 182, 187, 193, 206, 207, 208, 210,
+ 213, 220, 236, 244, 246, 250;
+ stork, 71, 266;
+ sun, 65, 66, 69;
+ sunburst, 209, 220, 292;
+ sunflower, 69, 271;
+ swastika, 64, 65, 194, 229, 246, 248, 271, 273;
+ tarantula, 71, 209, 220, 221;
+ tiger, 95;
+ tree, 137;
+ tree of life, 60, 68, 182, 186, 189, 219, 237;
+ tri-cleft leaf, 78, 91, 184, 199, 208, 211, 215, 226;
+ turtle, 71;
+ vandyke, 179, 183, 184, 187, 189, 290;
+ wheel of law, 266;
+ zigzag line, 66, 67.
+
+ Diaper pattern, 102, 263.
+
+ Diarbekr, 141.
+
+ Die Persische NadelmalereiSusandschird,76.
+
+ Distaff, 36.
+
+ Dix, Stewart, quoted, 16.
+
+ Djinni. _See_ Designs.
+
+ Djushaghan. _See_ Joshaghan.
+
+ Domenico di Bartolo, painting of, 92.
+
+ Dragon and Phoenix carpet, 65, 231.
+
+ Dragon carpets, 91, 298.
+
+ Dravidians, 28.
+
+ Dyeing, 37; process of, 42, 43.
+
+ Dyes, 30;
+ of Sultanabad, 131;
+ of Oushak, 174;
+ of Amritsar rugs, 256;
+ Aniline dyes introduced into India, 254, into China, 265;
+ objection to, 299;
+ how to distinguish, 299, 300.
+
+
+ E
+
+ East India Company, 254.
+
+ Ecbatana, 103, 122.
+
+ Elburz Mts., 103.
+
+ Eleanor, Queen, Spanish rugs sent to, 25.
+
+ Elizabeth, Queen, 29.
+
+ Elizabethpol, 224.
+
+ Ellore, 259, 260.
+
+ Ellore rugs described, 260.
+
+ El Mirz li alla, Caliph, 77.
+
+ Elwund Mt., 120, 122, 129.
+
+ Encyclopedia Britannica quoted, 140.
+
+ Ends, finish of, 57.
+
+ Esther, Queen, 122.
+
+ Evil eye, superstition of, 59, 168.
+
+
+ F
+
+ Fairs, Oriental, 99.
+
+ Farsistan, wool of, 31;
+ antique carpets from Shiraz, capital of, 115.
+
+ Fatimid Caliphs, 90.
+
+ Feraghan district, 125, 129, 131.
+
+ Feraghan rugs, 100, 132, 133, 142, 147, 153, 156, 285, 305;
+ technicalities in weave of, 51, 55;
+ small designs in, 60;
+ illustration of prayer arch of, 61;
+ turtle border of, 79;
+ Guli Hinnai pattern of, 105;
+ pattern of Herat rugs compared with that of, 106.
+ Rugs described, 120, 121, 122;
+ border stripes, 157, 159.
+
+ Filling, 52.
+
+ Firdousi, 110.
+
+ Fish pattern. _See_ Designs.
+
+ Flame design. _See_ Designs.
+
+ Flax used in weaving, 30, 33.
+
+ Floral design. _See_ Designs.
+
+ Friedhofteppiche, 172.
+
+
+ G
+
+ Gall nuts used as a dye, 39.
+
+ Ganges river, 17, 258.
+
+ Ganja. _See_ Gengha.
+
+ Gehrous district, 136.
+
+ Gengha, 224.
+
+ Gengha rugs, 101, 290, 292;
+ technicalities in weave of, 52, 53, 54.
+ Rugs described, 224, 225;
+ border stripes, 227.
+
+ Genghis Khan, 26, 78, 198, 234.
+
+ Geok Teppe, 238.
+
+ Geometric pattern. _See_ Designs.
+
+ Georgian pattern, 213, 215, 228, 230, 292.
+
+ Ghiordes, 164, 168, 175, 176, 206.
+
+ Ghiordes rugs, 65, 101, 183, 184, 191, 289, 289, 290, 304;
+ illustration of prayer arch of, 63;
+ Karabaghs compared with, 225.
+ Rugs described, 168, 169, 170, 171;
+ border stripes, 192, 193, 194, 195.
+
+ Gibbon cited, 25.
+
+ Gilan, cloud-band in antique carpets of, 67.
+
+ Girdler's Company, India carpet presented to, 94, 256.
+
+ Goat's hair. _See_ Wool.
+
+ Gobi desert, 21, 26, 29.
+
+ Goodyear, Prof., cited, 69.
+
+ Gorevan rugs, 100, 285, 286, 287, 301, 305;
+ technicalities in weave of, 51;
+ turtle border of, 79;
+ patterns of Muskabads resembling those of, 131;
+ relation of Bakshis rugs to, 148;
+ relation of Herez rugs to, 149.
+ Rugs described, 146, 147, 148;
+ border stripes, 157, 158.
+
+ Gotcha lake, 224.
+
+ Gozene, 156.
+
+ Gozene rugs, 100, 154, 289;
+ technicalities in weave of, 54.
+ Rugs described, 54.
+
+ "Grain of rice" pattern in Chinese rugs, 271.
+
+ Granada, 25.
+
+ Guebres, in Kirman, 113;
+ temple at Baku of, 210.
+
+ Guli Hinnai pattern, 104, 120, 121;
+ illustrated, 291.
+
+ Gulistan rugs, 100, 154, 286.
+ Rugs described, 155.
+
+ Gulistan treaty, 203.
+
+ Gyze, Georg, 92.
+
+
+ H
+
+ Hafiz, 115.
+
+ Hair, of cow, 30, 33; of horse, 33.
+
+ Hamadan, 122, 129, 136, 143, 155.
+
+ Hamadan rugs, 100, 286, 287;
+ technicalities in weave of, 52, 53, 54, 55;
+ similarity of some Irans to, 125;
+ similarity of Karajes to, 144;
+ similarity of weave of Kara-Geuz rugs to, 155.
+ Rugs described, 122, 123, 124;
+ border stripes, 157, 159, 160.
+
+ Hang Chow, 266.
+
+ Harris, Henry T., quoted, 40, 260.
+
+ Havell, E. B., cited, 260.
+
+ Hegira, 296.
+
+ Hemp used in weaving, 30, 33, 261, 263.
+
+ Herat, 105, 110, 244, 285;
+ captured by Nadir Shah, 29;
+ so-called Ispahans probably made at, 89, 112.
+
+ Herat rugs, 69, 89, 100;
+ technicalities in weave of, 54, 55;
+ cloud-band in antique rugs of, 67;
+ ground colour of, 95;
+ influence on Indian weaving of, 255.
+ Rugs described, 105, 106;
+ border stripes, 156.
+
+ Herati pattern, 89, 94, 104, 106, 108, 109, 112, 120, 121, 129, 132,
+ 134, 142, 152,153, 157, 165, 170, 201;
+ illustrated, 291.
+
+ Hereke, 181.
+
+ Hereke rugs described, 181.
+
+ Herez, 149.
+
+ Herez rugs, 101, 286, 287;
+ technicalities in weave of, 55.
+ Rugs described, 149, 150;
+ border stripes, 157.
+
+ Herodotus, 74.
+
+ Herring bone weave, described, 47;
+ in Shemakhas, 216, 217, 292.
+
+ Himalayas, 41.
+
+ Hindu Koosh Mts., 244.
+
+ Hoa, 183.
+
+ Holbein, Hans, 92, 93.
+
+ Holbein rugs, 298;
+ octagonal disc in, 66.
+ Rugs described, 92, 93.
+
+ Homer, 69, 74, 110, 163.
+
+ Hulaku Khan, conquered Persia, 26;
+ Mongolian capital established in Persia by, 78.
+
+ Hunting carpets, 298;
+ symbolism in, 72.
+ Carpets described, 82.
+
+ Hurst, Dr. John, quoted, 257.
+
+ Hyderabad, 259, 262.
+
+ Hyderabad rugs described, 262.
+
+ Hyder Ali, 261.
+
+
+ I
+
+ Ibn Batutah, Meshed visited by, 110.
+
+ Iconium, 181.
+
+ Imari ware, 17.
+
+ Imeritia, 218.
+
+ India Museum, 122.
+
+ Indigo used as a dye, 38, 40.
+
+ Indigofera used as a dye, 38.
+
+ Indus river, 17, 24, 29.
+
+ Irak-Ajemi, 124, 127, 129.
+
+ Iran rugs, 100;
+ similarity in some rugs of the Kara-Geuz district to, 155.
+ Rugs described, 124, 125;
+ border stripes, 157.
+
+ Irtish river, 26.
+
+ Isbarta, 178.
+
+ Iskenderoon gulf, 163.
+
+ Ismael, Shah, established capital at Ardebil, 82;
+ Ardebil Mosque carpet made during reign of, 84;
+ carpets made at Herat during reign of, 89;
+ Ardebil Mosque carpet made by order of, 127.
+
+ Ispahan, sacked by Tamerlane, 27;
+ Shah Abbas transferred his court to, 29;
+ probability that some of the so-called Ispahans were made at, 89;
+ description of city, 111.
+
+ Ispahan blue, 42.
+
+
+
+ Ispahan rugs, lotus design in, 69;
+ made at Ispahan, 89;
+ sombre tones of, 90;
+ red fields of, 95;
+ blues and reds of the antique, 127;
+ palmettes of the antique, 145.
+ Modern rugs described, 111, 112, 113.
+
+
+ J
+
+ Jahan, Shah, 28; builder of Taj Mahal, 94;
+ Indian rug-weaving declined after death of, 253.
+
+ Jail system of India, 254.
+
+ Jaipur, 255, 259.
+
+ Jaipur rugs described, 259.
+
+ Japan, 17.
+
+ Jhelum river, suggested as origin of pear design, 70;
+ Srinagar on the, 255.
+
+ Joshaghan district, 132.
+
+ Joshaghan rugs, 100, 286, 298;
+ technicalities in weave of, 50.
+ Rugs described, 132, 133;
+ border stripes, 157.
+
+ Jubbulpur, 255, 258.
+
+ Jubbulpur rugs described, 258, 259.
+
+ Jute, used in weaving, 30, 33;
+ in Kulahs, 174;
+ in Vellore rugs, 261;
+ in Bangalore rugs, 262.
+
+
+ K
+
+ Kaaba, 117.
+
+ Kabistan, 199.
+
+ Kabistan rugs, 101, 204, 290, 292, 293, 304;
+ technicalities in weave of, 54;
+ illustration of prayer arch of, 61;
+ effulgent stars of, 91;
+ Cufic borders of, 92;
+ patterns of some Shirvans similar to those of, 213.
+ Rugs described, 200, 201, 202;
+ border stripes, 226, 228, 229.
+
+ Kain, 108.
+
+ Kaisariyeh, 190.
+
+ Kaisariyeh rugs described, 190, 191.
+
+ Kaiser Friedrich Museum, 79, 92.
+
+ Kang-hi rugs, 78, 101.
+ Rugs described, 268, 269;
+ border stripes, 274;
+ medallions, 273.
+
+ Karabacek, Dr., quoted, 74.
+
+ Karabagh district, 222, 224.
+
+ Karabagh rugs, 101, 290, 292;
+ technicalities in weave of, 51, 53;
+ illustration of prayer arch of, 61;
+ Karadaghs compared with, 151;
+ Shushas compared with, 224.
+ Rugs described, 222, 223.
+
+ Karadagh district, 151.
+
+ Karadagh rugs, 100, 286, 289.
+ Rugs described; border stripes, 157, 158.
+
+ Kara-Geuz district, 155.
+
+ Kara-Geuz rugs, 100, 154.
+ Rugs described, 155.
+
+ Karaje rugs, 100, 286;
+ technicalities in weave of, 53.
+ Rugs described, 143, 144.
+
+ Kara Kum desert, 241.
+
+ Karaman, 188.
+
+ Karaman rugs, 101, 289.
+ Rugs described, 188.
+ Kilims, 278, 279.
+
+ Kashan, 115, 127, 155.
+
+ Kashan rugs, 100, 285, 286, 288, 301, 305;
+ technicalities in weave of, 35, 51, 55;
+ illustration of prayer arch of, 61;
+ pattern of Sarouks like that of, 134;
+ correspondence of some rugs of Tabriz with, 145.
+ Rugs described, 127, 128, 129;
+ border stripes, 160.
+
+ Kashgar, 247.
+
+ Kashgar rugs, 101, 234, 282, 292.
+ Rugs described, 247, 248.
+
+ Kashmir, 70, 255;
+ goat's wool of, 32, 114.
+
+ Katchli, derivation of, 237;
+ pattern used in Tekkes, 239, 293.
+
+ Kazak rugs, 101, 290, 292, 304;
+ technicalities in weave of, 51, 53;
+ illustration of prayer arch of, 61;
+ Western Kurdistans compared with, 141;
+ Afshars compared with, 155;
+ Yuruks compared with, 191;
+ Tcherkess compared with, 209;
+ Kutais compared with, 222;
+ Genghas compared with, 224.
+ Rugs described, 219, 220, 221, 222;
+ border stripes, 226, 227, 228, 229.
+
+ Kazakje, 220.
+
+ Kea-king dynasty, 272.
+ Rugs described, 272.
+
+ Keen-lung dynasty. Rugs described, 270, 271, 272;
+ border stripes, 274, 275;
+ medallions, 273.
+
+ Kenares defined, 97.
+
+ Kerim, Khan, 115;
+ royal patronage of weaving at Shiraz under, 116.
+
+ Kermanshah, 83, 129, 138.
+
+ Kermanshah rugs, 134, 137, 147, 160, 285, 288, 301, 305;
+ technicalities in weave of, 52;
+ illustration of prayer arch of, 61;
+ corners of Khorassans compared with those of, 109;
+ Tabriz rugs compared with, 145, 146;
+ Amritsars mistaken for, 256.
+ Rugs described, 138, 139, 140;
+ border stripes, 38.
+
+ Kermes used as a dye, 38.
+
+ Key pattern, 27.
+
+ Khali defined, 97.
+
+ Khibitkas, defined, 238;
+ rugs made for doors of, 239.
+
+ Khiva, 110, 240, 241, 244.
+
+ Khiva rugs, 100, 233, 235, 242, 293;
+ illustration of prayer arch of, 61.
+ Rugs described, 240, 241;
+ border stripes, 250, 251.
+
+ Khorassan, 107, 115, 127;
+ wool of, 31;
+ Herats made in, 106;
+ Kurdistans in, 141;
+ Yomuds in, 241.
+
+ Khorassan rugs, 60, 100, 117, 288;
+ left-hand knots in, 48;
+ technicalities in weave of, 54, 55;
+ illustration of prayer arch of, 61;
+ resemblance of Mesheds to, 110.
+ Rugs described, 107, 108, 109, 110;
+ border stripes, 156.
+
+ Khotan, 278.
+
+ Kidderminster, 260.
+
+ Kilims, earliest rugs similar to, 75;
+ pattern in Shirvan, 227.
+ Kilims described, 276, 277, 278, 279, 280, 281.
+
+ King-te Chin, 300.
+
+ Kirghiz, steppes, 235;
+ tribes, 240.
+
+ Kirman, 113, 115, 203, 206, 248;
+ wool of, 31;
+ carpets made during Caliphate at, 90;
+ early weavers taken to Asia Minor from, 181.
+
+ Kirman rugs, 100, 285, 297, 304;
+ technicalities in weave of, 50, 51, 53;
+ resemblance of Kermanshahs to, 138;
+ flowers in Tabriz rugs compared with those of, 145;
+ some old Bergamos as valuable as, 167.
+ Rugs described, 113, 114, 115;
+ border stripes, 158.
+
+ Kirmans, Turkish, 174.
+
+ Kir-Shehr, 185.
+
+ Kir-Shehr rugs, 101, 289, 290;
+ illustration of prayer arch of, 63;
+ prayer arches of Bergamos compared with those of, 167;
+ prayer arches of Ladiks compared with those of, 183;
+ often called Anatolian, 187;
+ prayer arches of Mudjars compared with those of, 189;
+ prayer arches of Tuzlas compared with those of, 190.
+ Rugs described, 185, 186;
+ border stripes, 193.
+
+ Kis-kilims, 280.
+
+ Kizil Arvat, 241.
+
+ Kizil Irmak river, 185, 189.
+
+ Kizil Kum, "desert of red sands," 235.
+
+ Knights of St. John, 28, 179.
+
+ Knots, Ghiordes, 48;
+ Sehna, 48;
+ right-hand, 48;
+ left-hand, 48;
+ peculiarities of, 48;
+ illustrated, 49.
+
+ Konieh, 188, 190.
+
+ Konieh rugs, 101, 289, 290;
+ technicalities in weave of, 55;
+ illustration of prayer arch of, 63;
+ resemblance in pattern of Kir-Shehrs to that of, 186;
+ prayer arches of Anatolians compared with those of, 187.
+ Rugs described, 181, 182, 183;
+ border stripes, 193, 195.
+
+ Koran, 72.
+
+ Kuba, 199, 202.
+
+ Kuba rugs, 101, 290, 292.
+ Rugs described, 202, 203, 204;
+ border stripes, 228.
+
+ Kublai Khan, 266.
+
+ Kulah, 164, 171, 174.
+
+ Kulah rugs, 101, 289, 290;
+ technicalities in weave of, 51, 52, 53, 54;
+ illustration of prayer arch of, 64;
+ lily pattern in, 167;
+ Ghiordes rugs adopting border of, 171;
+ geometric leaf of, 180;
+ prayer arch of Koniehs compared with those of, 186.
+ Rugs described, 171, 172, 173, 174;
+ border stripes, 193, 194.
+
+ Kur valley, 207, 214.
+
+ Kurdistan, Persian, rugs, 100, 286, 287;
+ technicalities in weave of, 51;
+ Mina Khani pattern characteristic of, 105;
+ Western Kurdistans compared with, 141.
+ Rugs described, 142, 143;
+ border stripes, 157, 159.
+
+ Kurdistan rugs, 286;
+ technicalities in weave of, 51, 53, 57;
+ Karajes compared with, 143;
+ ground colour of some Mosuls similar to that of, 154;
+ some Kara-Geuz rugs similar to, 155.
+
+ Kurdistan, Western, rugs, 100, 286;
+ described, 140, 141, 142.
+ Kilims, 280.
+
+ Kurds, 134, 136, 138, 140, 141, 145, 187, 191;
+ located at Ak-kal by Shah of Persia, 238.
+
+ Kutais, 218.
+
+ Kutais rugs, technicalities in weave of, 53.
+ Rugs described, 218, 219;
+ border stripes, 227, 229.
+
+ Kutayah, 176.
+
+ Kutayah rugs described, 176.
+
+
+ L
+
+ Lacquer, 17.
+
+ Ladik rugs, 101, 167, 289, 290, 304;
+ illustration of prayer arch of, 63;
+ pomegranate design in, 70;
+ border stripe of Melez rugs similar to that of, 177;
+ vandykes of Rhodian rugs resembling those of, 179;
+ nap of, 186;
+ Kir-Shehr panels compared with those of, 187;
+ vandykes in Mudjars borrowed from, 189.
+ Rugs described, 183, 184;
+ border stripes, 193, 194.
+
+ Lahore, 255, 256;
+ royal factory at, 94.
+
+ Lahore rugs, 101, 305.
+ Rugs described, 256, 257.
+
+ Landor, Henry Savage, quoted, 300.
+
+ Laristan border stripe, 157.
+
+ Latch-hooks. _See_ Designs.
+
+ Latimer, C., quoted, 281.
+
+ Lattice-work pattern, 119, 121, 133, 134, 137, 204.
+
+ Lemons used as a mordant, 40.
+
+ Lesghian rugs, 101, 199, 290.
+ Rugs described, 206, 207.
+
+ Lesghian tribes, 206, 207.
+
+ Limes used as a mordant, 40.
+
+ Linen, in Sehnas, 135;
+ in Tabriz, 146;
+ in Ghiordes, 171;
+ in Sarouks, 127;
+ in Kashans, 128.
+
+ Loom, described, 44;
+ illustrated, 45.
+
+ Lotus. _See_ Designs.
+
+ Luristan rugs, 286;
+ technicalities in weave of, 55.
+
+
+ M
+
+ Madder used as a dye, 38.
+
+ Madras, 259.
+
+ Madras rugs described, 259, 260.
+
+ Mahal rugs, 286, 288, 301, 305;
+ similar to Muskabads, 131, 132.
+
+ Maharajah, 259.
+
+ Makimonos, 180.
+
+ Makri rugs, 180.
+
+ Maksoud, 84, 127, 128.
+
+ Malek Shah made Ispahan the capital of Persia, 26.
+
+ Malgaran, 246.
+
+ Manchoos, 268.
+
+ Mangishlar peninsula, 238.
+
+ Marco Polo, referred to Armenian carpets, 91;
+ referred to Kirman weavings, 113;
+ visited Kashgar, 247.
+
+ Marsulipatam, 259, 260.
+
+ Marsulipatam rugs described, 260.
+
+ Martin, Dr. F. R., quoted and cited, 74, 77, 79, 81, 82, 89, 90, 116,
+ 227.
+
+ Maya ruins, swastika on, 65.
+
+ Mecca, 77, 98;
+ pilgrimages to, 99;
+ bit of earth from, 221, 223.
+
+ Mecca rugs, 117, 118.
+
+ Medallions. _See_ Designs.
+
+ Medes, 23, 24, 66, 234.
+
+ Medina, 77, 296.
+
+ Melez rugs, 101, 290;
+ technicalities in weave of, 51;
+ illustration of prayer arch of, 63;
+ sometimes called Anatolians, 187.
+ Rugs described, 176, 177, 178;
+ border stripes, 193, 195.
+
+ Mersherski, 88.
+
+ Merv Kilims, 280, 281.
+
+ Meshed, pilgrimages to, 99, 108.
+
+ Meshed rugs, 100, 147, 217, 288, 301.
+ Rugs described, 110, 111;
+ border stripes, 158.
+
+ Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York; rugs exhibited in, 78, 79, 80,
+ 82, 85, 86, 91, 93.
+
+ Michelangelo, 16.
+
+ Mina Khan, 105.
+
+ Mina Khani pattern, 105, 142, 152, 249;
+ illustrated, 291.
+
+ Ming dynasty, 78, 81, 266, 268;
+ coat of arms of, 92.
+
+ Ming rugs, 101, 298.
+ Rugs described, 266.
+
+ Mirabad, 130.
+
+ Mirror backs in Chinese rugs, 267, 272, 273.
+
+ Mir-Sarabend. _See_ Sarabend.
+
+ Mirzapur, 255, 258.
+
+ Mirzapur rugs described, 258.
+
+ Mohair, 174.
+
+ Mohammed, 24;
+ epithet applied to Guli Hinnaiby, 104.
+
+ Mohammedans, 98, 103, 113, 237, 257;
+ dominant in Southwestern Asia, 25;
+ invaded India, 28;
+ Meshed sacred to, 110;
+ prejudice against depicting animals by Sunnite, 165;
+ Caucasia invaded by, 198;
+ influence on weaving by, 58, 270.
+
+ Mongols, captured Bagdad, 26;
+ gained foothold in India, 28;
+ in Persia, 62;
+ in Caucasia, 198;
+ overran Turkestan, 234.
+
+ Mordants, 40.
+
+ Mordecai, 122.
+
+ Moslems, 70;
+ preserved art treasures, 76;
+ green sacred to, 85.
+
+ Mosul district, 152.
+
+ Mosul rugs, 101, 286, 287, 302, 304, 305;
+ technicalities in weave of, 51, 52;
+ Western Kurdistans confused with, 141;
+ Persian Kurdistan and Bijar rugs compared with, 143;
+ resemblance of weave of some Gozene rugs with that of, 156.
+ Rugs described, 152, 153, 154;
+ border stripes, 157, 158, 159.
+
+ Mt. Ararat, 103, 219.
+
+ Mt. Ida, 163.
+
+ Mt. Kazbek, 206.
+
+ Mt. Olympus, 181, 191.
+
+ Mudjar, 189.
+
+ Mudjar rugs, 101, 290;
+ illustration of prayer arch of, 63;
+ frequently classed as Anatolians, 187.
+ Rugs described, 189, 190;
+ border stripes, 193.
+
+ Multan, 255.
+
+ Multan rugs described, 257.
+
+ Mumford, John Kimberly, cited, v, 67.
+
+ Musée des Arts Decoratifs, 79.
+
+ Muskabad district, 131.
+
+ Muskabad rugs, 100, 286, 288, 301, 305;
+ turtle border in, 71.
+ Rugs described, 131, 132;
+ border stripes, 157, 159.
+
+
+ N
+
+ Nadir Shah, Afghans defeated by, 29;
+ influence of, 103;
+ art decadence following capture of Herat by, 106;
+ destruction of Herat by, 110;
+ weavers removed to Northern Persia by, 113, 132;
+ Shemakha almost destroyed by, 214;
+ Shusha built by, 224;
+ overthrow of Mogul dominion by, 254.
+
+ Namads, 115, 122.
+
+ Namazlik, 98, 150.
+
+ Netsukés, 17.
+
+ Nigde, 190.
+
+ Nigde rugs, 101;
+ classed as Anatolians, 187.
+ Rugs described, 190.
+
+ Nijni Novgorod, 235.
+
+ Nimrod, 23.
+
+ Nineveh, 23, 102;
+ drawings on walls of, 74;
+ Mosul near ruins of, 152.
+
+ Niris lake, wool obtained near, 31.
+
+ Niris rugs, 100, 204, 286, 287, 304.
+ Rugs described, 119, 120.
+
+ Nizami manuscript determining age of Hunting Carpets, 82.
+
+ Nomadic influence, 106;
+ characteristics in rugs, 134; rugs, 58, 153.
+
+
+ O
+
+ Oak gall, used as a dye, 40.
+
+ Odjalik, 97.
+
+ Omar Khayyam, 108, 110.
+
+ Onosma echioides used as a dye, 41.
+
+ Orenburg, 235, 240.
+
+ Oriental art, 16.
+
+ Ottoman Turks, 27, 28.
+
+ Oushak, city and district, 164, 176.
+
+ Oushak rugs, type of modern, 94;
+ evidences of Persian treatment in, 166.
+ Rugs described, 174, 175.
+
+ Outer edging in Kirmans, 114;
+ in Hamadans, 123;
+ in Sarouks, 126;
+ in Bijars, 137;
+ in Kermanshahs, 139;
+ in Mosuls, 153.
+
+ Overcasting of sides; weft overcasting described, 55, 56;
+ illustrated, 49;
+ double overcasting described, 55, 56;
+ illustrated, 49.
+
+ Oxus river (Amu Daria), 23, 24, 235, 238, 240, 243, 244.
+
+
+ P
+
+ Palais de Commerce at Lyons, 80.
+
+ Palm design. _See_ Designs.
+
+ Pamir plateau, sheep of, 31;
+ mountains of, 235.
+
+ Paropamisus Mts., 235.
+
+ Parsees, 103;
+ symbolism derived from fire worship of, 58, 71;
+ at Baku, 211.
+
+ Parthians, 24.
+
+ Patna rugs, 101.
+
+ Paul, St., 166, 181.
+
+ Pear design. _See_ Designs.
+
+ Pergamus, 166, 168.
+
+ Persepolis, 103.
+
+ Phasis river, 197.
+
+ Pile of rugs, 47.
+
+ Pliny, 74.
+
+ Polish silk carpets, reciprocal trefoils in, 65;
+ Chinese cloud-bands in, 67;
+ lotus in, 69.
+ Carpets described, 88;
+ bright hues of, 90.
+
+ Polonaise carpets. _See_ Polish silk.
+
+ Pomegranate. _See_ Designs.
+
+ Pomegranate rind used as a mordant, 40.
+
+ Porter, Sir Robert Kerr, quoted, 106, 138.
+
+ Prayer arches, 60, 62;
+ illustrated, 61, 63.
+
+ Prayer rugs. _See_ Namazlik.
+
+ Priam, 166.
+
+ Prometheus, 197.
+
+ Punjab, 255, 256, 257.
+
+
+ R
+
+ Ratanjot used as a dye, 16.
+
+ Rembrandt, 16.
+
+ Rhodes, Isle of, 28, 178.
+
+ Rhodian rugs, 101, 289.
+ Rugs described, 178, 179, 180;
+ border stripes, 193.
+
+ Rion river, 218.
+
+ River loop. _See_ Designs.
+
+ Robinson, Vincent, cited, 80, 81, 86, 88, 254, 258, 259.
+
+ Rubens, 16.
+
+ Rubia cordifolia used as a dye, 41.
+
+ Rubia tinctorum used as a dye, 38.
+
+ Runners, 97.
+
+ Ruskin, John, quoted, 18.
+
+
+ S
+
+ Saadi, 115.
+
+ Saddle-bags, 117, 135, 249.
+
+ Safavid dynasty, 29, 81, 83, 84, 85, 89, 103.
+
+ Saffron used as a dye, 39.
+
+ Salors, 233.
+
+ Samarkand, capital of Tamerlane, 27;
+ the "Mirror of the World," 245.
+
+ Samarkand rugs, 101, 233, 265, 282, 293;
+ technicalities in weave of, 50;
+ swastika in, 65.
+ Rugs described, 245, 246, 247;
+ border stripes, 251.
+
+ Samo-Kien, 246.
+
+ Sarabend rugs, 285, 304;
+ technicalities in weave of, 51;
+ pear design of, 70, 116, 119, 144, 153;
+ turtle border in, 71;
+ pile of, 133.
+ Rugs described, 129, 130;
+ border stripes, 158, 160.
+ Mir-Sarabends, 130.
+ Royal Sarabends, 130.
+
+ Saracenic art, 21;
+ influence, 58, 80, 88, 166.
+
+ Saracens, carpet weaving introduced into India by, 94;
+ Persia under dominion of, 103;
+ Baku in possession of, 210.
+
+ Saraks, town of, 136, 238.
+
+ Sarawan district, 129, 131.
+
+ Sarouk, 125.
+
+ Sarouk rugs, 134, 285, 286, 288, 301, 305;
+ technicalities in weave of, 51, 52, 53, 55;
+ illustration of prayer arch of, 61;
+ animal carpet with weave similar to that of, 86;
+ corners of Khorassans compared with those of, 109;
+ patterns of Bijars compared with those of, 137.
+ Tabriz rugs compared with, 145, 146.
+ Rugs described, 125, 126, 127;
+ border stripes, 160.
+
+ Sassanides, Kingdom of, 24;
+ elaborate carpets made during rule of, 74;
+ capture of capital of, 75.
+
+ Savalans, 131.
+
+ Sedjadeh, 97.
+
+ Sehna, 48, 129, 133.
+
+ Sehna rugs, 100, 286, 304;
+ technicalities in weave of, 51, 54;
+ medallions of, 60;
+ turtle border in, 71.
+ Herati design in Persian Kurdistans borrowed from, 142.
+ Rugs described, 133, 134, 135;
+ border stripes, 157, 158, 159.
+
+ Sehna kilims, 278.
+
+ Seljukian Turks, effect on art, 26;
+ powerful in Asia Minor, 27;
+ overthrow by Genghis Khan, 78;
+ invasion of Southern Persia by, 90;
+ monuments in Armenia of, 91;
+ dominion in Persia of, 103;
+ Konieh surrendered to, 181.
+
+ Selvage, weft selvage described, 55, 56;
+ illustrated, 49;
+ double selvage described, 55, 56;
+ illustrated, 49;
+ mixed selvage described, 56.
+
+ Serapi rugs, 285;
+ turtle border in, 71.
+ Rugs described, 148, 149;
+ border stripes, 157.
+
+ Shah Abbas pattern, 198, 206.
+
+ Shemakha, city of, 214.
+
+ Shemakha rugs, 101, 290, 292.
+ Rugs described, 216, 217;
+ border-stripes, 228.
+
+ Shield of David. _See_ Designs.
+
+ Shiites, 58;
+ animal designs permitted by, 72;
+ Meshed sacred to, 110.
+
+ Shiraz, wool of, 31;
+ city of, 115.
+
+ Shiraz rugs, 100, 286, 288, 297, 301, 305;
+ technicalities in weave of, 51;
+ illustration of prayer arch of, 61;
+ latch-hooks in, 67;
+ resemblance of Niris rugs to, 119;
+ pear design of Kabistans similar to those of, 201;
+ wool of Tiflis rugs suggests that of, 217.
+ Rugs described, 115, 116, 117, 118;
+ border stripes, 158;
+ saddle-bags, 117.
+
+ Shirvan district conquered by Solyman the Magnificent, 28.
+
+ Shirvan rugs, 101, 290, 292, 293, 305;
+ technicalities in weave of, 54;
+ illustration of prayer arch of, 61;
+ design of Shiraz rugs similar to that of, 117;
+ weave of Kabistans compared with that of, 201;
+ pattern of Chichis resembling that of, 207;
+ geometric design of Bakus seen in, 211;
+ some patterns of Genghas similar to those of, 225.
+ Rugs described, 212, 213, 214;
+ border stripes, 226, 227, 228, 229, 231.
+ Kilims, 278.
+
+ Shusha, 224.
+
+ Shusha rugs, 101, 290.
+ Rugs described, 224.
+
+ Sides, finish of, 55; illustrated, 49.
+
+ Silk, used for weaving, 33;
+ indigenous to Asia, 33;
+ cultivated at Kashgar and Yarkand, 247;
+ used in Kirmans, 114;
+ in Yezd rugs, 115;
+ in Hamadans, 122;
+ in Kashans, 128;
+ in Sehnas, 134, 135;
+ in Ghiordes, 178;
+ in Hereke rugs, 181;
+ in Kaisariyeh rugs, 190;
+ in Royal Bokharas, 236.
+
+ Silk carpets, sent to Sultan of Constantinople, 87;
+ made at Kashan, 128.
+
+ Sindh, 255, 259.
+
+ Sindh rugs described, 259.
+
+ Sirab, village of, 148.
+
+ Sivas, Seljukian gate at, 170;
+ city of, 188.
+
+ Sivas rugs described, 188, 189.
+
+ Smyrna, 164, 175, 176;
+ Yuruks at, 191.
+
+ Smyrna rugs, 101;
+ Broussa rugs compared with those of, 181;
+ Indian rugs compared with those of, 254.
+ Rugs described, 176.
+
+ Solyman, King, the ring of, 66;
+ pomegranates cultivated in days of, 69;
+ his emblem of an eight-pointed star, 158.
+
+ Solyman the Magnificent, Iran threatened by, 28;
+ weavers taken to Asia Minor by, 94, 175.
+
+ Soumak rugs, 290, 292;
+ weave of, 47;
+ designs of cross in, 67;
+ tri-cleft leaf in, 91, 209;
+ Kubas and Shemakhas compared with, 203;
+ patterns of Shirvans compared with those of, 213.
+ Rugs described, 214, 215, 216;
+ border stripes, 228, 230.
+
+ Sousa, reciprocal sawtooth on monuments of, 231.
+
+ South Kensington Museum, 15, 83, 259.
+
+ Spanish rugs sent to Queen Eleanor, 25.
+
+ Sparta rugs. _See_ Isbarta.
+
+ Spindle, 34, 35.
+
+ Spinning, 34, 35.
+
+ Spring of Chosroes carpet described, 76.
+
+ Srinagar, 70, 255.
+
+ Srinagar rugs described, 255.
+
+ Stebbing, Edward, cited, 82;
+ quoted, 83, 84.
+
+ St. Sophia, 19, 28.
+
+ Star design. _See_ Designs.
+
+ Stein, Dr. M. A., cited, 278.
+
+ Strabo, 74.
+
+ Stripes. _See_ Border.
+
+ Suj-Bulak, town of, 150.
+
+ Suj-Bulak rugs, 286.
+ Rugs described, 150, 151.
+
+ Sulphate of iron used as a mordant, 40.
+
+ Sulphate of tin used as a mordant, 40.
+
+ Sultanabad, 129, 131, 132.
+
+ Sultanabad rugs, 286;
+ Indian rugs compared with those of, 254, 256.
+ Rugs described, 131.
+
+ Sumach used as a dye, 38.
+
+ Sumerians, 23.
+
+ Sung dynasty, 266.
+
+ Sunnites opposed to depicting animal figures, 58, 72, 91, 99, 165, 254.
+
+ Swastika. Illustrated, 291. _See_ Designs.
+
+ Symbols in colours and designs, 18, 19, 20, 58, 59, 72.
+
+
+ T
+
+ Tabriz, 136, 145, 148, 151, 227;
+ captured by Solyman the Magnificent, 28, 94;
+ dyers from, 40;
+ an important art centre, 89;
+ a mart for rugs, 99;
+ Herat carpets in hall of governor at, 106.
+
+ Tabriz rugs, 286, 287, 288, 297, 301, 305;
+ technicalities in weave of, 53, 55;
+ Chinese cloud-band in, 67;
+ medallions of Herez rugs similar to those of, 149.
+ Rugs described, 145, 146.
+
+ Taj Mahal, 94, 257.
+
+ Tak-i-Bostan, rock-carved sculptures of, 83.
+
+ Tamara, Queen, 197, 198.
+
+ Tamarind used as a mordant, 40.
+
+ Tamasp, Shah, 28, 82, 169;
+ Ardebil carpet finished during reign of, 84;
+ silk rugs made during reign of, 87;
+ Herat an important art centre during time of, 89;
+ Tabriz carpets woven during reign of, 145.
+
+ Tamerlane, 172, 254;
+ Mongols united by, 27;
+ Ispahan sacked by, 111;
+ artists gathered at Samarkand by, 234;
+ Samarkand made capital by, 246;
+ Multan captured by, 257.
+
+ Tang dynasty, 266.
+
+ Tanjore district, 259.
+
+ Taoist symbols, 271.
+
+ Tao-Kwang, 272. Rugs described, 272.
+
+ "Tapis de l'Asie Centrale" quoted, 233.
+
+ Tartars, 26, 220;
+ Turkestan conquered by, 234.
+
+ Tartary, 31, 32.
+
+ Tchechen. _See_ Chichi.
+
+ Tcherkess (Circassian) rugs, 290, 292, 304, 305;
+ technicalities in weave of, 54;
+ tri-cleft leaf in, 91;
+ long nap of Western Kurdistans similar to that of, 141;
+ sunburst pattern of Kazaks similar to that of, 220.
+ Rugs described, 208, 209, 210;
+ border stripes, 227.
+
+ Tcherkess tribes, 209.
+
+ Teheran, 138;
+ caravans to Meshed from, 110.
+
+ Teheran rugs described, 154, 155.
+
+ Tekke, derivation of name, 238.
+
+ Tekke rugs, 101, 233, 293;
+ illustration of prayer arch of, 61;
+ S design in, 65;
+ selvage at sides of Beluchistans similar to that of, 235;
+ similarity in colours of Yomuds and those of, 242;
+ designs in Afghans and Yomuds similar to those of, 244.
+ Rugs described, 238, 239, 240;
+ border stripes, 250, 251.
+
+ Terek valley, 207, 208.
+
+ Terminalia citrina used as a dye, 40.
+
+ Tiflis, overrun by Seljukian Turks, 26;
+ mart for rugs, 99;
+ caravans from Tabriz to, 145;
+ capital of Georgia, 217.
+
+ Tiflis rugs, 298;
+ technicalities in weave of, 53;
+ resemblance between weave of Kutais and that of, 219.
+ Rugs described, 217, 218;
+ border stripes, 227.
+
+ Tiger skin pattern, 267.
+
+ Timurids, invasion of, 103, 136;
+ designs due to, 80, 166.
+
+ Titian, 16.
+
+ Toledo, 17.
+
+ Toon, 108.
+
+ Trebizond, 145, 163.
+
+ Turanian races, geometric designs among, 62.
+
+ Turkish Kilims, 280.
+
+ Turmeric used as a dye, 41.
+
+ Turtle border, 121, 132, 157;
+ probable origin of, 71, 79.
+
+ Tuz Gul, lake, 187, 190.
+
+ Tuzla rugs sometimes classed as Anatolians, 187.
+ Rugs described, 190.
+
+ Type characteristics, not invariable, v;
+ term defined, 107.
+
+
+ U
+
+ Urumiah lake, 150, 155, 224.
+
+ Uzbeck Tartars, care of sheep by, 31.
+
+
+ V
+
+ Valonia used as a mordant, 40.
+
+ Value of antique carpets, 15, 16, 304.
+
+ Vambery, Prof., cited, 241.
+
+ Van lake, 141, 152, 224.
+
+ Vandykes. _See_ Designs.
+
+ Vellore, 259, 261.
+
+ Vellore rugs described, 261.
+
+ Victoria and Albert Museum, 93.
+
+ Vienna publication of Oriental carpets, 80, 259.
+
+
+ W
+
+ Warangal, 259, 262.
+
+ Warangal rugs described, 262.
+
+ Warp, arrangement on loom, 46;
+ characteristics of, 51, 52;
+ illustrated, 49.
+
+ Washing, materials for weaving, 33, 34, 36;
+ artificial, 300, 301.
+
+ Weaving described, 46, 47;
+ illustrated, 49.
+
+ "Wedding of the Foundling," 92.
+
+ Weft, arrangement of, 47;
+ technical characteristics of, 52, 53, 54, 55.
+
+ Whirling Dervishes, at Konieh, 181.
+
+ Williams, C. F., 78, 79, 93.
+
+ Whistler cited, 17.
+
+ Wise men of the East, 127.
+
+ Wool, of the camel, 30, 32, 124, 153, 249;
+ of the goat, 30, 31, 142, 241, 245, 249;
+ of sheep, 30, 31;
+ of the yak, 30, 33;
+ spinning, 33;
+ washing, 33, 36.
+
+
+ X
+
+ Xenophon, 99, 140, 181.
+
+ Xerxes, 115.
+
+
+ Y
+
+ Yak's hair. _See_ Wool.
+
+ Yaprak, 175.
+
+ Yarkand, 247.
+
+ Yarkand rugs, 234, 265, 282, 293.
+ Rugs described, 247, 248;
+ border stripes, 251.
+
+ Yarn, 35.
+
+ Yerkes sale, 15, 82, 86, 304, 306.
+
+ Yezd, 110, 115, 222.
+
+ Yezd rugs described, 115.
+
+ Yomud rugs, 205, 233, 235, 293, 304;
+ colour scheme of Beshires similar to that of, 243.
+ Rugs described, 241, 242;
+ border stripes, 250, 251;
+ saddle-bags, 242.
+
+ Yomud tribes, 235;
+ robbed of their land by Tekkes, 231, 241.
+
+ Yuan dynasty, 266.
+
+ Yung-ching, 269.
+
+ Yung-ching rugs described, 269, 270;
+ border stripes, 274;
+ medallions, 273.
+
+ Yuruk rugs, 289, 290, 304;
+ technicalities in weave of, 51.
+ Rugs described, 191, 192;
+ border stripes, 194.
+
+ Yuruk tribes, 155, 163, 191, 220.
+
+
+ Z
+
+ Zabalpur rugs, 101.
+
+ Zagros Mts., 21, 103, 140.
+
+ Zarafshan river, 245.
+
+ Zoroaster, 18, 58, 210.
+
+ Zoroastrians, 69.
+
+
+
+
+
+End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Oriental Rugs, by Walter A. Hawley
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