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+<pre>
+
+The Project Gutenberg EBook of Oriental Rugs, by Walter A. Hawley
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+Title: Oriental Rugs
+       Antique and Modern
+
+Author: Walter A. Hawley
+
+Release Date: May 20, 2012 [EBook #39740]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ASCII
+
+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK ORIENTAL RUGS ***
+
+
+
+
+Produced by Juliet Sutherland, Turgut Dincer and the Online
+Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net
+
+
+
+
+
+
+</pre>
+
+  <div class="figcenter" style="width: 550px;">
+    <a name="cover" id="cover"></a><img src="images/cover.jpg"
+    width="550" height="570" alt="cover" title="cover" />
+
+  <h4><i>COLOUR PLATE I</i></h4>
+
+  <p><i>Section of the Holy Carpet of the Mosque of Ardebil, in the
+  Royal Victoria and Albert Museum, South Kensington, London.
+  Described on Pages 83 and 84.</i></p></div>
+
+  <div class="figcenter" style="width: 550px;">
+    <a name="frontis" id="frontis"></a><a href="images/frontisz.jpg">
+    <img src="images/frontis.jpg" width="550" height="303" alt="SECTION OF THE HOLY CARPET OF THE MOSQUE AT ARDEBIL" title="" /></a>
+  </div>
+
+  <h4>SECTION OF THE HOLY CARPET OF THE MOSQUE AT ARDEBIL,<br />
+  Size: 34 ft. 6 in. by 17 ft. 6 in.</h4>
+
+  <div class="poem">
+    <div class="stanza">
+      <span class="i4"><span class="smcap">Translation of
+      Inscription.</span></span> <span class="i0">&nbsp;</span>
+      <span class="i0">I have no refuge in the world other than thy
+      threshold,</span> <span class="i0">My head has no protection
+      other than this porchway;</span> <span class="i0">The work of
+      the Slave of this Holy Place.</span> <span class=
+      "i10">Maksoud of Kashan.</span> <span class="i13">946 A. H. =
+      1540 A. D.</span>
+    </div>
+  </div>
+
+  <h4>FORMERLY IN THE POSSESSION OF VINCENT ROBINSON &amp; CO.,
+  <span class="smcap">Ltd.</span>,<br />
+  <small><span class="smcap">34 Wigmore Street, London</span>,
+  W.,</small></h4>
+
+  <h4><small>And Sold by them in 1892 to</small><br />
+  THE ROYAL VICTORIA AND ALBERT MUSEUM, SOUTH KENSINGTON,
+  LONDON.</h4>
+
+  <hr />
+
+  <h1>ORIENTAL RUGS</h1>
+
+  <h3>ANTIQUE AND MODERN</h3>
+
+  <h5>BY</h5>
+
+  <h3>WALTER A. HAWLEY</h3>
+
+  <h5><i>WITH ELEVEN FULL-PAGE PLATES IN COLOUR<br />
+  EIGHTY HALF-TONE ENGRAVINGS<br />
+  AND FOUR MAPS</i></h5>
+
+  <h5>NEW YORK<br />
+  DODD, MEAD AND COMPANY<br />
+  1927</h5>
+
+  <h5><span class="smcap">Copyright, 1913<br />
+  By John Lane Company</span></h5>
+
+  <h5>Printed in U. S. A.</h5>
+  <hr />
+
+  <p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_v" id=
+  "Page_v">v</a></span></p>
+
+  <h3>PREFACE</h3>
+
+  <p><span class="floatLeft"><img src="images/s.jpg" width="110" height="110" alt="S"
+  title="S" /></span>INCE the appearance, in 1900, of the excellent work of Mr.
+  John Kimberly Mumford on Oriental Rugs, the public interest in
+  these fabrics has so largely increased that the author feels
+  warranted in offering this monograph, which aims to treat the
+  subject in a way that will not only appeal to the general reader
+  but be of value to the student.</p>
+
+  <p>In the chapter entitled &ldquo;Rug Weaving Before the XVIII
+  Century&rdquo; is a brief review of some of the notable
+  achievements in this branch of art; and in order that the public
+  may as far as possible have access to the masterpieces described,
+  the carpets on exhibition in the Metropolitan Museum of Art in
+  New York have been given unusual prominence. The chapters on
+  &ldquo;How to Distinguish Rugs&rdquo; and on &ldquo;Purchasing
+  Rugs&rdquo; should prove serviceable to those who are collecting
+  or are buying for use; and the chapter on &ldquo;Weaving&rdquo;
+  contains many details which have not previously received from
+  connoisseurs the consideration they deserve.</p>
+
+  <p>The descriptions of all but the least important classes of
+  rugs in the Persian, Asia Minor, Caucasian, and Central Asiatic
+  groups include not only a general statement of their most
+  striking features, but also a technical analysis that is termed
+  &ldquo;Type Characteristics.&rdquo; It should be understood,
+  however, that these characteristics are not invariable, but are
+  remarkably constant. They may interest chiefly those who aim to
+  acquire expert information, yet they will doubtlessly prove
+  valuable to every owner of a rug as a means for its
+  identification.</p>
+
+  <p>It would be difficult to acknowledge all the assistance
+  received by the author since he began the study of rugs; for
+  sometimes a mere suggestion has started a line of investigation
+  resulting in interesting discoveries. He has freely consulted
+  well-known authorities, who are quoted in the body of the work;
+  and has received valuable suggestions and assistance from Messrs.
+  T. S. Hawley, of Santa Barbara, Cal., George Harootunian and
+  Frank Loftus, of<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_vi" id=
+  "Page_vi">vi</a></span> Los Angeles, Cal.; George Stevenson, of
+  New York; G. Graf, of the Persische Teppiche Gesellschaft, of
+  Tabriz; and P. de Andrea &amp; Co., of Constantinople. He
+  gratefully acknowledges the permission of Messrs. C. F. Williams,
+  of Norristown, Penn., and James F. Ballard, of St. Louis, Mo., to
+  study their valuable collections; and the permission of Dr.
+  Wilhelm R. Valentiner, Curator of Decorative Arts in the
+  Metropolitan Museum in New York, to examine the carpets of the
+  museum and to take photographs of them. He also wishes
+  particularly to mention the kindness of the following collectors
+  and firms who have allowed their rugs to be used for
+  illustrations: Miss Emily Davis, of Buffalo, N. Y.; the Misses
+  Palache, and Messrs. Nathan Bentz and T. S. Hawley, of Santa
+  Barbara, Cal.; Mr. R. Y. Struble, of Fredericktown, Ohio; Mr. E.
+  L. Pierce, of Syracuse, N.Y.; Mr. H. C. Merritt, of Pasadena,
+  Cal.; Mr. J. F. Ballard, of St. Louis, Mo.; Mr. C. F. Williams,
+  of Norristown, Penn.; Major L. B. Lawton, U.S.A., of Seneca
+  Falls, N.Y.; Messrs. Mihran &amp; Co., of Los Angeles, Cal.;
+  Messrs. B. Altman &amp; Co., Benguiat &amp; Keresey, Wm.
+  Baumgarten &amp; Co., Jones &amp; Brindisi, Jos. Wild &amp; Co.,
+  W. &amp; J. Sloane, and the Tiffany Studios, of New York City. He
+  is also indebted to Vincent Robinson &amp; Co., Ltd., of London,
+  for the use of the colour plate of the Royal Garden Carpet, now
+  owned by them, and to the Royal Victoria and Albert Museum, South
+  Kensington, London, for permission to obtain a colour plate of
+  the Holy Carpet of the Mosque of Ardebil.</p>
+
+  <p class="name"><span class="smcap">Walter A. Hawley.</span></p>
+
+  <p><span class="smcap">New York</span>, June, 1913.</p>
+
+  <p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_vii" id=
+  "Page_vii">vii</a></span></p>
+
+  <h3>CONTENTS</h3>
+
+  <table width="100%" summary="TOC">
+    <tr>
+      <td class="right10"><small>CHAPTER</small></td>
+
+      <td class="left80">&nbsp;</td>
+
+      <td class="right10"><small>PAGE</small></td>
+    </tr>
+
+    <tr>
+      <td class="right10">I</td>
+
+      <td class="left80"><span class=
+      "smcap">Introduction</span></td>
+
+      <td class="right10"><a href="#Page_15">15</a></td>
+    </tr>
+
+    <tr>
+      <td class="right10">II</td>
+
+      <td class="left80"><span class="smcap">Physical Features and
+      History of Rug-producing Lands</span></td>
+
+      <td class="right10"><a href="#Page_20">20</a></td>
+    </tr>
+
+    <tr>
+      <td class="right10">III</td>
+
+      <td class="left80"><span class="smcap">Materials</span></td>
+
+      <td class="right10"><a href="#Page_30">30</a></td>
+    </tr>
+
+    <tr>
+      <td class="right10">IV</td>
+
+      <td class="left80"><span class="smcap">Dyeing</span></td>
+
+      <td class="right10"><a href="#Page_37">37</a></td>
+    </tr>
+
+    <tr>
+      <td class="right10">V</td>
+
+      <td class="left80"><span class="smcap">Weaving</span></td>
+
+      <td class="right10"><a href="#Page_44">44</a></td>
+    </tr>
+
+    <tr>
+      <td class="right10">VI</td>
+
+      <td class="left80"><span class="smcap">Designs and
+      Symbols</span></td>
+
+      <td class="right10"><a href="#Page_58">58</a></td>
+    </tr>
+
+    <tr>
+      <td class="right10">VII</td>
+
+      <td class="left80"><span class="smcap">Rug Weaving before the
+      Eighteenth Century</span></td>
+
+      <td class="right10"><a href="#Page_74">74</a></td>
+    </tr>
+
+    <tr>
+      <td class="right10">VIII</td>
+
+      <td class="left80"><span class="smcap">Classification of
+      Modern Rugs</span></td>
+
+      <td class="right10"><a href="#Page_97">97</a></td>
+    </tr>
+
+    <tr>
+      <td class="right10">IX</td>
+
+      <td class="left80"><span class="smcap">Persian
+      Rugs</span></td>
+
+      <td class="right10"><a href="#Page_102">102</a></td>
+    </tr>
+
+    <tr>
+      <td class="right10">X</td>
+
+      <td class="left80"><span class="smcap">Asia Minor
+      Rugs</span></td>
+
+      <td class="right10"><a href="#Page_163">163</a></td>
+    </tr>
+
+    <tr>
+      <td class="right10">XI</td>
+
+      <td class="left80"><span class="smcap">Caucasian
+      Rugs</span></td>
+
+      <td class="right10"><a href="#Page_197">197</a></td>
+    </tr>
+
+    <tr>
+      <td class="right10">XII</td>
+
+      <td class="left80"><span class="smcap">Central Asiatic
+      Rugs</span></td>
+
+      <td class="right10"><a href="#Page_233">233</a></td>
+    </tr>
+
+    <tr>
+      <td class="right10">XIII</td>
+
+      <td class="left80"><span class="smcap">Indian
+      Rugs</span></td>
+
+      <td class="right10"><a href="#Page_253">253</a></td>
+    </tr>
+
+    <tr>
+      <td class="right10">XIV</td>
+
+      <td class="left80"><span class="smcap">Chinese
+      Rugs</span></td>
+
+      <td class="right10"><a href="#Page_263">263</a></td>
+    </tr>
+
+    <tr>
+      <td class="right10">XV</td>
+
+      <td class="left80"><span class="smcap">Kilims</span></td>
+
+      <td class="right10"><a href="#Page_276">276</a></td>
+    </tr>
+
+    <tr>
+      <td class="right10">XVI</td>
+
+      <td class="left80"><span class="smcap">How to Distinguish
+      Rugs</span></td>
+
+      <td class="right10"><a href="#Page_282">282</a></td>
+    </tr>
+
+    <tr>
+      <td class="right10">XVII</td>
+
+      <td class="left80"><span class="smcap">Purchasing
+      Rugs</span></td>
+
+      <td class="right10"><a href="#Page_295">295</a></td>
+    </tr>
+     <tr>
+      <td class="right10">&nbsp;</td>
+
+      <td class="left80">&nbsp;</td>
+
+      <td class="right10">&nbsp;</td>
+    </tr>
+
+    <tr>
+      <td class="right10">&nbsp;</td>
+
+      <td class="left80"><span class="smcap">Index</span></td>
+
+      <td class="right10"><a href="#Page_309">309</a></td>
+    </tr>
+  </table>
+
+  <p>&nbsp;<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_viii" id=
+  "Page_viii">viii</a></span></p>
+<hr />
+  <p>&nbsp;<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_ix" id=
+  "Page_ix">ix</a></span></p>
+
+  <h3>ILLUSTRATIONS</h3>
+
+  <p class="center"><span class="smcap">Coloured Plates</span></p>
+
+  <table width="100%" summary="TOC">
+    <tr>
+      <td class="right10"><span class="smcap">Plate</span></td>
+
+      <td class="left80">&nbsp;</td>
+
+      <td class="right10">&nbsp;</td>
+    </tr>
+
+    <tr>
+      <td class="right10">I</td>
+
+      <td class="left80">The Holy Carpet of the Mosque of
+      Ardebil</td>
+
+      <td class="right10"><a href=
+      "#frontis"><i>Frontispiece</i></a><br />
+      <span class=
+      "smcap"><small>Opposite&nbsp;Page</small></span></td>
+    </tr>
+
+    <tr>
+      <td class="right10">II</td>
+
+      <td class="left80">Oushak Carpet</td>
+
+      <td class="right10"><a href="#pii">40</a></td>
+    </tr>
+
+    <tr>
+      <td class="right10">III</td>
+
+      <td class="left80">Mosul Rug</td>
+
+      <td class="right10"><a href="#piii">66</a></td>
+    </tr>
+
+    <tr>
+      <td class="right10">IV</td>
+
+      <td class="left80">Bergamo Rug</td>
+
+      <td class="right10"><a href="#piv">102</a></td>
+    </tr>
+
+    <tr>
+      <td class="right10">V</td>
+
+      <td class="left80">Ghiordes Prayer Rug</td>
+
+      <td class="right10"><a href="#pv">130</a></td>
+    </tr>
+
+    <tr>
+      <td class="right10">VI</td>
+
+      <td class="left80">Royal Persian Garden Carpet</td>
+
+      <td class="right10"><i>Between&nbsp;pages&nbsp;<a href=
+      "#pvi">160&nbsp;and&nbsp;161</a></i></td>
+    </tr>
+
+    <tr>
+      <td class="right10">VII</td>
+
+      <td class="left80">Ladik Prayer Rug</td>
+
+      <td class="right10"><a href="#pvii">190</a></td>
+    </tr>
+
+    <tr>
+      <td class="right10">VIII</td>
+
+      <td class="left80">Soumak Rug</td>
+
+      <td class="right10"><a href="#pviii">210</a></td>
+    </tr>
+
+    <tr>
+      <td class="right10">IX</td>
+
+      <td class="left80">Samarkand Rug</td>
+
+      <td class="right10"><a href="#pix">240</a></td>
+    </tr>
+
+    <tr>
+      <td class="right10">X</td>
+
+      <td class="left80">Kang-hi Rug</td>
+
+      <td class="right10"><a href="#px">270</a></td>
+    </tr>
+
+    <tr>
+      <td class="right10">XI</td>
+
+      <td class="left80">Keen-lung Rug</td>
+
+      <td class="right10"><a href="#pxi">300</a></td>
+    </tr>
+  </table>
+
+  <h4><span class="smcap">Halftone Engravings</span></h4>
+
+  <table width="100%" summary="Halftone Engravings" border="0">
+    <tr>
+      <td class="right5">Plate</td>
+      <td class="right5">1</td>
+
+      <td class="left80">Khorassan Rug</td>
+
+      <td class="right10"><a href="#p01">22</a></td>
+    </tr>
+
+    <tr>
+      <td class="right5 padr1">&rdquo;</td>
+      <td class="right5">2</td>
+
+      <td class="left80">Meshed Rug</td>
+
+      <td class="right10"><a href="#p02">26</a></td>
+    </tr>
+
+    <tr>
+      <td class="right5 padr1">&rdquo;</td>
+      <td class="right5">3</td>
+
+      <td class="left80">Kirman Rug</td>
+
+      <td class="right10"><a href="#p03">30</a></td>
+    </tr>
+
+    <tr>
+      <td class="right5 padr1">&rdquo;</td>
+
+      <td class="right5">4</td>
+
+      <td class="left80">Shiraz Rug</td>
+
+      <td class="right10"><a href="#p04">34</a></td>
+    </tr>
+
+    <tr>
+      <td class="right5 padr1">&rdquo;</td>
+
+      <td class="right5">5</td>
+
+      <td class="left80">Niris Rug</td>
+
+      <td class="right10"><a href="#p05">36</a></td>
+    </tr>
+
+    <tr>
+      <td class="right5 padr1">&rdquo;</td>
+
+      <td class="right5">6</td>
+
+      <td class="left80">Feraghan Rug</td>
+
+      <td class="right10"><a href="#p06">42</a></td>
+    </tr>
+
+    <tr>
+      <td class="right5 padr1">&rdquo;</td>
+
+      <td class="right5">7</td>
+
+      <td class="left80">Feraghan Rug</td>
+
+      <td class="right10"><a href="#p07">46</a></td>
+    </tr>
+
+    <tr>
+      <td class="right5 padr1">&rdquo;</td>
+
+      <td class="right5">8</td>
+
+      <td class="left80">Hamadan Rug</td>
+
+      <td class="right10"><a href="#p08">52</a></td>
+     </tr>
+
+    <tr>
+      <td class="right5 padr1">&rdquo;</td>
+
+      <td class="right5">9</td>
+
+      <td class="left80">Sarouk Rug</td>
+
+      <td class="right10"><a href="#p09">56</a></td>
+    </tr>
+
+    <tr>
+      <td class="right5 padr1">&rdquo;</td>
+
+<td class="right5">10</td>
+
+      <td class="left80">Sarabend Rug</td>
+
+      <td class="right10"><a href="#p10">58</a></td>
+    </tr>
+
+    <tr>
+      <td class="right5 padr1">&rdquo;</td>
+
+<td class="right5">11</td>
+
+      <td class="left80">Carpet from Northwestern Persia</td>
+
+      <td class="right10"><a href="#p11">64</a></td>
+    </tr>
+
+    <tr>
+      <td class="right5 padr1">&rdquo;</td>
+
+<td class="right5">12</td>
+
+      <td class="left80">Carpet from Northwestern Persia</td>
+
+      <td class="right10"><a href="#p12">68</a></td>
+    </tr>
+
+    <tr>
+      <td class="right5 padr1">&rdquo;</td>
+
+<td class="right5">13</td>
+
+      <td class="left80">Compartment Carpet</td>
+
+      <td class="right10"><a href="#p13">70</a></td>
+    </tr>
+
+    <tr>
+      <td class="right5 padr1">&rdquo;</td>
+
+      <td class="right5">14</td>
+
+      <td class="left80">Persian Animal Carpet</td>
+
+      <td class="right10"><a href="#p14">72</a></td>
+    </tr>
+
+    <tr>
+      <td class="right5 padr1">&rdquo;</td>
+
+<td class="right5">15</td>
+
+      <td class="left80">Persian Animal Carpet</td>
+
+      <td class="right10"><a href="#p15">76</a></td>
+    </tr>
+
+    <tr>
+      <td class="right5 padr1">&rdquo;</td>
+
+<td class="right5">16</td>
+
+      <td class="left80">Persian Animal Carpet</td>
+
+      <td class="right10"><a href="#p16">78</a></td>
+    </tr>
+
+    <tr>
+      <td class="right5 padr1">&rdquo;</td>
+
+<td class="right5">17</td>
+
+      <td class="left80">So-called Polish or Polonaise Carpet</td>
+
+      <td class="right10"><a href="#p17">80</a></td>
+    </tr>
+
+    <tr>
+      <td class="right5 padr1">&rdquo;</td>
+
+<td class="right5">18</td>
+
+      <td class="left80">So-called Ispahan</td>
+
+      <td class="right10"><a href="#p18">84</a></td>
+    </tr>
+
+    <tr>
+      <td class="right5 padr1">&rdquo;</td>
+
+<td class="right5">19</td>
+
+      <td class="left80">Armenian Carpet</td>
+
+      <td class="right10"><a href="#p19">86</a></td>
+    </tr>
+
+    <tr>
+      <td class="right5 padr1">&rdquo;</td>
+
+<td class="right5">20</td>
+
+      <td class="left80">Asia Minor Dragon and Ph&oelig;nix
+      Carpet</td>
+
+      <td class="right10"><a href="#p20">88</a></td>
+    </tr>
+
+    <tr>
+      <td class="right5 padr1">&rdquo;</td>
+
+<td class="right5">21</td>
+
+      <td class="left80">Portrait of Georg Gyze by Hans
+      Holbein</td>
+
+      <td class="right10"><a href="#p21">92</a></td>
+    </tr>
+
+    <tr>
+      <td class="right5 padr1">&rdquo;</td>
+
+<td class="right5">22</td>
+
+      <td class="left80"><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_x" id=
+      "Page_x">x</a></span>Oushak Carpet</td>
+
+      <td class="right10"><a href="#p22">94</a></td>
+    </tr>
+
+    <tr>
+      <td class="right5 padr1">&rdquo;</td>
+
+     <td class="right5">23</td>
+
+      <td class="left80">Sehna Rug</td>
+
+      <td class="right10"><a href="#p23"> 98</a></td>
+    </tr>
+
+    <tr>
+     <td class="right5">&nbsp;</td>
+
+     <td class="right5">&nbsp;</td>
+
+      <td class="left80">Map of Persia</td>
+
+      <td class="right10"><a href="#m1">104</a></td>
+    </tr>
+
+    <tr>
+      <td class="right5 padr1">&rdquo;</td>
+
+<td class="right5">24</td>
+
+      <td class="left80">Bijar Rug</td>
+
+      <td class="right10"><a href="#p24">106</a></td>
+    </tr>
+
+    <tr>
+      <td class="right5 padr1">&rdquo;</td>
+
+<td class="right5">25</td>
+
+      <td class="left80">Kermanshah Rug</td>
+
+      <td class="right10"><a href="#p25">110</a></td>
+    </tr>
+
+    <tr>
+      <td class="right5 padr1">&rdquo;</td>
+
+<td class="right5">26</td>
+
+      <td class="left80">Kurdistan Rug with Mina Khani Pattern</td>
+
+      <td class="right10"><a href="#p26">114</a></td>
+    </tr>
+
+    <tr>
+      <td class="right5 padr1">&rdquo;</td>
+
+<td class="right5">27</td>
+
+      <td class="left80">Gorevan Rug</td>
+
+      <td class="right10"><a href="#p27">118</a></td>
+    </tr>
+
+    <tr>
+      <td class="right5 padr1">&rdquo;</td>
+
+<td class="right5">28</td>
+
+      <td class="left80">Bergamo Prayer Rug</td>
+
+      <td class="right10"><a href="#p28">122</a></td>
+    </tr>
+
+    <tr>
+      <td class="right5 padr1">&rdquo;</td>
+
+<td class="right5">29</td>
+
+      <td class="left80">Ghiordes Prayer Rug</td>
+
+      <td class="right10"><a href="#p29">126</a></td>
+    </tr>
+
+    <tr>
+      <td class="right5 padr1">&rdquo;</td>
+
+<td class="right5">30</td>
+
+      <td class="left80">Ghiordes Rug</td>
+
+      <td class="right10"><a href="#p30">132</a></td>
+    </tr>
+
+    <tr>
+      <td class="right5 padr1">&rdquo;</td>
+
+<td class="right5">31</td>
+
+      <td class="left80">Kulah Prayer Rug</td>
+
+      <td class="right10"><a href="#p31">136</a></td>
+    </tr>
+
+    <tr>
+      <td class="right5 padr1">&rdquo;</td>
+
+<td class="right5">32</td>
+
+      <td class="left80">Melez Prayer Rug</td>
+
+      <td class="right10"><a href="#p32">140</a></td>
+    </tr>
+
+    <tr>
+      <td class="right5 padr1">&rdquo;</td>
+
+<td class="right5">33</td>
+
+      <td class="left80">Melez Rug</td>
+
+      <td class="right10"><a href="#p33">144</a></td>
+    </tr>
+
+    <tr>
+      <td class="right5 padr1">&rdquo;</td>
+
+<td class="right5">34</td>
+
+      <td class="left80">Rhodian Rug</td>
+
+      <td class="right10"><a href="#p34">148</a></td>
+    </tr>
+
+    <tr>
+      <td class="right5 padr1">&rdquo;</td>
+
+<td class="right5">35</td>
+
+      <td class="left80">Konieh Prayer Rug</td>
+
+      <td class="right10"><a href="#p35">152</a></td>
+    </tr>
+
+    <tr>
+      <td class="right5 padr1">&rdquo;</td>
+
+<td class="right5">36</td>
+
+      <td class="left80">Kir-Shehr Prayer Rug</td>
+
+      <td class="right10"><a href="#p36">154</a></td>
+    </tr>
+
+    <tr>
+
+      <td class="right5 padr1">&rdquo;</td>
+
+      <td class="right5">E</td>
+
+      <td class="left80">Primary Border-Stripes of Persian
+      Rugs</td>
+
+      <td class="right10"><a href="#pe">156</a></td>
+    </tr>
+
+    <tr>
+
+      <td class="right5 padr1">&rdquo;</td>
+
+      <td class="right5">F</td>
+
+      <td class="left80">Secondary Border-Stripes of Persian
+      Rugs</td>
+
+      <td class="right10"><a href="#pf">158</a></td>
+    </tr>
+
+    <tr>
+      <td class="right5">&nbsp;</td>
+
+      <td class="right5">&nbsp;</td>
+
+      <td class="left80">Map of Asia Minor</td>
+
+      <td class="right10"><a href="#m2">164</a></td>
+    </tr>
+
+    <tr>
+      <td class="right5 padr1">&rdquo;</td>
+
+<td class="right5">37</td>
+
+      <td class="left80">Anatolian Prayer Rug</td>
+
+      <td class="right10"><a href="#p37">166</a></td>
+    </tr>
+
+    <tr>
+      <td class="right5 padr1">&rdquo;</td>
+
+<td class="right5">38</td>
+
+      <td class="left80">Mudjar Prayer Rug</td>
+
+      <td class="right10"><a href="#p38">168</a></td>
+    </tr>
+
+    <tr>
+      <td class="right5 padr1">&rdquo;</td>
+
+<td class="right5">39</td>
+
+      <td class="left80">Daghestan Prayer Rug</td>
+
+      <td class="right10"><a href="#p39">172</a></td>
+    </tr>
+
+    <tr>
+      <td class="right5 padr1">&rdquo;</td>
+
+<td class="right5">40</td>
+
+      <td class="left80">Kabistan Rug</td>
+
+      <td class="right10"><a href="#p40">176</a></td>
+    </tr>
+
+    <tr>
+      <td class="right5 padr1">&rdquo;</td>
+
+<td class="right5">41</td>
+
+      <td class="left80">Kuba Rug</td>
+
+      <td class="right10"><a href="#p41">180</a></td>
+    </tr>
+
+    <tr>
+      <td class="right5 padr1">&rdquo;</td>
+
+<td class="right5">42</td>
+
+      <td class="left80">Chichi Rug</td>
+
+      <td class="right10"><a href="#p42">184</a></td>
+    </tr>
+
+    <tr>
+      <td class="right5 padr1">&rdquo;</td>
+
+<td class="right5">43</td>
+
+      <td class="left80">Tcherkess Rug</td>
+
+      <td class="right10"><a href="#p43">188</a></td>
+    </tr>
+
+    <tr>
+<td class="right5 padr1">&rdquo;</td>
+      <td class="right5">G</td>
+
+      <td class="left80">Primary Border-Stripes of Asia Minor
+      Rugs</td>
+
+      <td class="right10"><a href="#pg">192</a></td>
+    </tr>
+
+    <tr>
+<td class="right5 padr1">&rdquo;</td>
+      <td class="right5">H</td>
+
+      <td class="left80">Secondary Border-Stripes of Asia Minor
+      Rugs</td>
+
+      <td class="right10"><a href="#ph">194</a></td>
+    </tr>
+
+    <tr>
+      <td class="right5">&nbsp;</td>
+
+      <td class="right5">&nbsp;</td>
+
+      <td class="left80">Map of Caucasia</td>
+
+      <td class="right10"><a href="#m3">198</a></td>
+    </tr>
+
+    <tr>
+      <td class="right5 padr1">&rdquo;</td>
+
+      <td class="right5">44</td>
+
+      <td class="left80">Baku Rug</td>
+
+      <td class="right10"><a href="#p44">200</a></td>
+    </tr>
+
+    <tr>
+      <td class="right5 padr1">&rdquo;</td>
+
+<td class="right5">45</td>
+
+      <td class="left80">Shirvan Rug</td>
+
+      <td class="right10"><a href="#p45">202</a></td>
+    </tr>
+
+    <tr>
+      <td class="right5 padr1">&rdquo;</td>
+
+<td class="right5">46</td>
+
+      <td class="left80">Soumak Rug</td>
+
+      <td class="right10"><a href="#p46">204</a></td>
+    </tr>
+
+    <tr>
+      <td class="right5 padr1">&rdquo;</td>
+
+<td class="right5">47</td>
+
+      <td class="left80">Kazak Prayer Rug</td>
+
+      <td class="right10"><a href="#p47">208</a></td>
+    </tr>
+
+    <tr>
+      <td class="right5 padr1">&rdquo;</td>
+
+<td class="right5">48</td>
+
+      <td class="left80">Kazak Rug</td>
+
+      <td class="right10"><a href="#p48">212</a></td>
+    </tr>
+
+    <tr>
+      <td class="right5 padr1">&rdquo;</td>
+
+<td class="right5">49</td>
+
+      <td class="left80">Karabagh Prayer Rug</td>
+
+      <td class="right10"><a href="#p49">214</a></td>
+    </tr>
+
+    <tr>
+      <td class="right5 padr1">&rdquo;</td>
+
+<td class="right5">50</td>
+
+      <td class="left80">Gengha Prayer Rug</td>
+
+      <td class="right10"><a href="#p50">218</a></td>
+    </tr>
+
+    <tr>
+      <td class="right5 padr1">&rdquo;</td>
+
+<td class="right5">51</td>
+
+      <td class="left80">Royal Bokhara Rug</td>
+
+      <td class="right10"><a href="#p51">222</a></td>
+    </tr>
+
+    <tr>
+      <td class="right5 padr1">&rdquo;</td>
+
+<td class="right5">52</td>
+
+      <td class="left80">Princess Bokhara Rug</td>
+
+      <td class="right10"><a href="#p52">224</a></td>
+    </tr>
+
+    <tr>
+      <td class="right5 padr1">&rdquo;</td>
+      <td class="right5">I</td>
+
+      <td class="left80">Primary Border-Stripes of Caucasian
+      Rugs</td>
+
+      <td class="right10"><a href="#pi">226</a></td>
+    </tr>
+
+    <tr>
+
+      <td class="right5 padr1">&rdquo;</td>
+      <td class="right5">J</td>
+
+      <td class="left80">Primary Border-Stripes of Caucasian
+      Rugs</td>
+
+      <td class="right10"><a href="#pj">228</a></td>
+    </tr>
+
+    <tr>
+       <td class="right5 padr1">&rdquo;</td>
+      <td class="right5">K</td>
+
+      <td class="left80">Secondary Border-Stripes of Caucasian
+      Rugs</td>
+
+      <td class="right10"><a href="#pk">230</a></td>
+    </tr>
+
+    <tr>
+      <td class="right5">&nbsp;</td>
+
+      <td class="right5">&nbsp;</td>
+
+      <td class="left80">Map of Turkestan</td>
+
+      <td class="right10"><a href="#m4">234</a></td>
+    </tr>
+
+    <tr>
+      <td class="right5 padr1">&rdquo;</td>
+
+<td class="right5">53</td>
+
+      <td class="left80">Turkoman Rug with Katchli Pattern</td>
+
+      <td class="right10"><a href="#p53">236</a></td>
+    </tr>
+
+    <tr>
+      <td class="right5 padr1">&rdquo;</td>
+
+<td class="right5">54</td>
+
+      <td class="left80">Turkoman Rug with Pind&eacute;
+      Pattern</td>
+
+      <td class="right10"><a href="#p54">238</a></td>
+    </tr>
+
+    <tr>
+      <td class="right5 padr1">&rdquo;</td>
+
+<td class="right5">55</td>
+
+      <td class="left80"><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_xi"
+      id="Page_xi">xi</a></span>Turkoman Rug of the Salor
+      Tribes</td>
+
+      <td class="right10"><a href="#p55">244</a></td>
+    </tr>
+
+    <tr>
+      <td class="right5 padr1">&rdquo;</td>
+
+<td class="right5">56</td>
+
+      <td class="left80">Yomud Rug</td>
+
+      <td class="right10"><a href="#p56">248</a></td>
+    </tr>
+
+    <tr>
+      <td class="right5 padr1">&rdquo;</td>
+      <td class="right5">L</td>
+
+      <td class="left80">Primary and Secondary Border-Stripes of
+      Central Asiatic Rugs</td>
+
+      <td class="right10"><a href="#pl">250</a></td>
+    </tr>
+
+    <tr>
+      <td class="right5 padr1">&rdquo;</td>
+
+<td class="right5">57</td>
+
+      <td class="left80">Beshire Prayer Rug</td>
+
+      <td class="right10"><a href="#p57">254</a></td>
+    </tr>
+
+    <tr>
+      <td class="right5 padr1">&rdquo;</td>
+
+<td class="right5">58</td>
+
+      <td class="left80">Beshire Rug</td>
+
+      <td class="right10"><a href="#p58">258</a></td>
+    </tr>
+
+    <tr>
+      <td class="right5 padr1">&rdquo;</td>
+
+<td class="right5">59</td>
+
+      <td class="left80">Afghan Rug</td>
+
+      <td class="right10"><a href="#p59">260</a></td>
+    </tr>
+
+    <tr>
+      <td class="right5 padr1">&rdquo;</td>
+
+<td class="right5">60</td>
+
+      <td class="left80">Beluchistan Prayer Rug</td>
+
+      <td class="right10"><a href="#p60">264</a></td>
+    </tr>
+
+    <tr>
+      <td class="right5 padr1">&rdquo;</td>
+
+<td class="right5">61</td>
+
+      <td class="left80">Turkoman Saddle-bags</td>
+
+      <td class="right10"><a href="#p61">268</a></td>
+    </tr>
+
+    <tr>
+<td class="right5 padr1">&rdquo;</td>
+      <td class="right5">M</td>
+
+      <td class="left80">Medallions in Chinese Rugs</td>
+
+      <td class="right10"><a href="#pm">272</a></td>
+    </tr>
+
+    <tr>
+<td class="right5 padr1">&rdquo;</td>
+      <td class="right5">N</td>
+
+      <td class="left80">Primary and Secondary Border-Stripes of
+      Chinese Rugs. 274</td>
+
+      <td class="right10"><a href="#pn">272</a></td>
+    </tr>
+
+    <tr>
+      <td class="right5 padr1">&rdquo;</td>
+
+<td class="right5">62</td>
+
+      <td class="left80">Srinagar Rug</td>
+
+      <td class="right10"><a href="#p62">278</a></td>
+    </tr>
+
+    <tr>
+      <td class="right5 padr1">&rdquo;</td>
+
+<td class="right5">63</td>
+
+      <td class="left80">XVIII Century Chinese Rug</td>
+
+      <td class="right10"><a href="#p63">282</a></td>
+    </tr>
+
+    <tr>
+      <td class="right5 padr1">&rdquo;</td>
+
+<td class="right5">64</td>
+
+      <td class="left80">Keen-lung Rug</td>
+
+      <td class="right10"><a href="#p64">286</a></td>
+    </tr>
+
+    <tr>
+      <td class="right5 padr1">&rdquo;</td>
+
+<td class="right5">65</td>
+
+      <td class="left80">Keen-lung Rug</td>
+
+      <td class="right10"><a href="#p65">292</a></td>
+    </tr>
+
+    <tr>
+      <td class="right5 padr1">&rdquo;</td>
+
+<td class="right5">66</td>
+
+      <td class="left80">Kurdish Prayer Kilim</td>
+
+      <td class="right10"><a href="#p66">296</a></td>
+    </tr>
+  </table>
+
+  <h4><span class="smcap">Black and White Engravings</span></h4>
+
+  <table width="100%" summary="Black and White Engravings">
+    <tr>
+      <td class="right10"></td>
+
+      <td class="left80">&nbsp;</td>
+
+      <td class="right10"><span class="smcap">Page</span></td>
+    </tr>
+
+    <tr>
+      <td class="right10">Plate A</td>
+
+      <td class="left80">An Upright Loom</td>
+
+      <td class="right10"><a href="#pa">45</a></td>
+    </tr>
+
+    <tr>
+      <td class="right10">Plate B</td>
+
+      <td class="left80">Technicalities of Weaving</td>
+
+      <td class="right10"><a href="#pb">49</a></td>
+    </tr>
+
+    <tr>
+      <td class="right10">Plate C</td>
+
+      <td class="left80">Prayer Arches of Persian, Caucasian, and
+      Central Asiatic Rugs</td>
+
+      <td class="right10"><a href="#pc">61</a></td>
+    </tr>
+
+    <tr>
+      <td class="right10">Plate D</td>
+
+      <td class="left80">Prayer Arches of Asia Minor Rugs</td>
+
+      <td class="right10"><a href="#pd">63</a></td>
+    </tr>
+
+    <tr>
+      <td class="right10">Plate O</td>
+
+      <td class="left80">General Designs</td>
+
+      <td class="right10"><a href="#po">291</a></td>
+    </tr>
+  </table>
+
+  <h4><span class="smcap">Charts</span></h4>
+
+  <table width="100%" summary="Charts">
+    <tr>
+      <td class="left90">Periods when Antique Carpets were
+      made</td>
+
+      <td class="right10"><a href="#c1">96</a></td>
+    </tr>
+
+    <tr>
+      <td class="left90">Technicalities in the weave of Persian
+      Rugs</td>
+
+      <td class="right10"><a href="#Page_161">161</a></td>
+    </tr>
+
+    <tr>
+      <td class="left90">Technicalities in the weave of Persian
+      Rugs</td>
+
+      <td class="right10"><a href="#Page_162">162</a></td>
+    </tr>
+
+    <tr>
+      <td class="left90">Technicalities in the weave of Asia Minor
+      Rugs</td>
+
+      <td class="right10"><a href="#Page_196">196</a></td>
+    </tr>
+
+    <tr>
+      <td class="left90">Technicalities in the weave of Caucasian
+      Rugs</td>
+
+      <td class="right10"><a href="#Page_232">232</a></td>
+    </tr>
+
+    <tr>
+      <td class="left90">Technicalities in the weave of Central
+      Asiatic Rugs</td>
+
+      <td class="right10"><a href="#Page_252">252</a></td>
+    </tr>
+  </table>
+  <hr />
+
+  <p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_15" id=
+  "Page_15">15</a></span></p>
+
+  <h2>ORIENTAL RUGS</h2>
+
+  <h3>CHAPTER I</h3>
+
+  <h4>INTRODUCTION</h4>
+
+  <p><span class="floatLeft"><img src="images/i.jpg" width="110" height="110" alt="I"
+  title="I" /></span>T is not altogether surprising that in a most
+  materialistic age many of a race distinguished more for its
+  utilitarian than artistic accomplishments should fail to see in
+  Oriental carpets high artistic expression; yet during the last
+  twenty years choice specimens have been sold for sums which not
+  only are very large, but show a tendency to increase with each
+  succeeding year. In 1893 a woollen rug, known as the Ardebil
+  carpet and regarded, on account of its beautiful designs and
+  exquisite colours, as one of the finest products of Oriental art,
+  was purchased for the South Kensington Museum. Since it had a
+  length of thirty-four and a half feet with a breadth of seventeen
+  and a half, the price of &pound;2500, which was the sum paid, was
+  at the rate of twenty dollars per square foot. At an auction sale
+  in New York in 1910,<a name="FNanchor_1" id=
+  "FNanchor_1"></a><a href="#Footnote_1" class="fnanchor">1</a> a
+  woollen rug five and a half feet long by three and three quarters
+  wide was sold for the sum of $10,200, or at the rate of four
+  hundred and ninety-one dollars per square foot; and a silk rug
+  seven feet and two inches long by six feet and four inches wide
+  was sold for the sum of $35,500, or at the rate of nine hundred
+  and thirty dollars per square foot. As it was the general opinion
+  of connoisseurs that the prices paid for these two rugs were low,
+  and as it is well known that these rugs are not more valuable
+  than some others of equal size, it is not unreasonable to assume
+  that many of the best judges of Oriental rugs would declare that
+  at the present time the sum of five hundred dollars per square
+  foot is a fair price for some antique woollen rugs, and the sum
+  of one thousand dollars per square foot a fair price for some
+  antique silk rugs.</p>
+
+  <p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_16" id=
+  "Page_16">16</a></span></p>
+
+  <p>If these judges were asked on what they based their opinion of
+  the value of these old pieces, which are less serviceable for
+  wear than new rugs that can be bought of an American factory at
+  twenty cents per square foot, they might with reason reply that
+  they are works of art, woven in those days when Michelangelo,
+  Titian, Rubens, and Rembrandt were busy in their studios; that
+  they are as scarce as the paintings of these masters; and that
+  they might justly be compared with them in beauty and artistic
+  execution. Though granting that the technique of weaving makes it
+  impossible to represent a design as perfectly as can be done with
+  a brush, they would claim that the drawing of dainty vines,
+  scrolls, and arabesques was often represented by lines that in
+  abstract beauty of form are unsurpassed, and that no artist had
+  ever produced from his palette colours which equalled in
+  brilliant sheen and marvellously changing hue those of the woven
+  masterpieces.</p>
+
+  <p>Whoever is inclined to disagree with these judges and with
+  those art critics of Europe and America who assert that in an
+  aesthetic sense the people of the Orient are cultured to a
+  standard beyond the comprehension of the Western world, should
+  remember that the taste for any kind of art is based on
+  convention and is largely a matter of cultivation. The
+  Occidental, who for generations has cultivated the taste for
+  paintings and statuary, looks to the painter and sculptor for the
+  highest expression of artistic genius; but the Oriental takes
+  greater delight in his marvellous creations of porcelain or woven
+  fabrics. There is, too, a marked difference in treatment. The
+  Occidental demands that in art &ldquo;everything should be stated
+  with the utmost fullness of a tedious realism before he can grasp
+  its meaning&rdquo;<a name="FNanchor_2" id=
+  "FNanchor_2"></a><a href="#Footnote_2" class="fnanchor">2</a> and
+  fails to recognise the more subtle beauty of various forms of
+  Oriental art. The Oriental, on the other hand, is far less
+  realistic and is better satisfied if his subject suggests
+  abstract qualities that depend for their fullest appreciation on
+  those quickening experiences that at different times have touched
+  the soul of the observer. Moreover, as Buddhism, which prevails
+  in many of the countries of Asia, teaches that a universal spirit
+  is manifested in each form of nature, determining its character,
+  and a similar idea pervades other religions of the East, the
+  highest aim of Asiatic art is to express that inner spirit. It is
+  largely this difference in artistic cultivation that accounts for
+  the difference in taste. Whoever then would fully appreciate
+  these rugs must view <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_17" id=
+  "Page_17">17</a></span>them not only with an eye trained to see
+  the beautiful harmonies of colour and design, but with the
+  artistic temperament of the Oriental.</p>
+
+  <p>By study and cultivation the European as well as the American
+  is growing to value more highly the products of Oriental art.
+  When the old sea captains carried on trade with Japan, they
+  imported into Europe large quantities of Imari ware, which the
+  Japanese purposely decorated with crude and vulgar colours to
+  meet the less refined taste of the Europeans, who regarded many
+  of them as fine specimens of ceramic art and studiously copied
+  them in their factories. But so great has been the change in
+  artistic taste since then that now they are valued principally as
+  objects of curiosity. Likewise, many beautiful Japanese
+  Makimonos, in which a few strong lines gave but a hint of the
+  essential thought, formerly passed before the eyes of Europeans
+  as the paintings of semi-barbarians. But now we begin to see, as
+  did Whistler, that they are often the products of great genius
+  and that they express thought and feeling with marvellous power.
+  There has been a similar growth in the appreciation of Oriental
+  rugs. Even within the last generation this growth has been
+  apparent, so that the few who wisely bought those old worn pieces
+  which thirty years ago hung at doors of little shops where
+  dark-faced foreigners invited acquaintance, are now the envy of
+  the many who, too late, have learned that to-day they can
+  scarcely be bought at any price.</p>
+
+  <p>The more we study the several fields of art in the Orient, the
+  better we realise the wonderful creative genius of its people and
+  learn to value the products of any one field. Japan has awakened
+  the admiration of the highest art critics for its bronzes, some
+  of which exceed in size any other castings in the world, and for
+  its netsuk&eacute;s, which are the smallest of carvings. Its
+  blades of steel are superior to those of Damascus and Toledo; and
+  its lacquer, which is the most wonderful of its artistic
+  products, displays genius of a very high order. To China, a
+  country that we often regard as barbarous, we owe the invention
+  of silks, the printing press, and gunpowder; yet it is in
+  porcelain, that was manufactured even in those days when Caesar
+  was marching with his legions against the barbarous races of
+  Central and Northern Europe, that China has surpassed the world
+  and set a standard that probably will never again be reached. In
+  the land where glide the Indus and the Ganges stand temples,
+  erected by the descendants of the house of Tamerlane,
+  be<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_18" id=
+  "Page_18">18</a></span>fore which the beholder, even if familiar
+  with the wonders of St. Peter&rsquo;s, is lost in admiration of
+  the intricate delicacy of detail, the majesty of proportions, and
+  the gorgeous splendour of colour with which some of the spirit of
+  the East is expressed in material form. When we realise that in
+  these different lines of artistic effort the genius of Asia has
+  rivalled and surpassed that of Europe and America, we become the
+  better prepared to believe that choice specimens of woven
+  fabrics, in weaving which every class of every country of Asia
+  has been engaged from time immemorial, are to be regarded as
+  works of the highest art.</p>
+
+  <p>However pleasing the design or elaborate the detail, it is
+  principally in the colouring that these rugs claim our interest
+  and admiration. The colours which are derived from vegetable or
+  animal dyes grow more mellow and beautiful with passing years,
+  and applied to wools of finest texture acquire a lustre and
+  softness which in the choicest specimens are like the radiant
+  throat of a humming bird, or tints at the close of an autumn day.
+  The different shades have different moods, expressing peace, joy,
+  pensiveness, sorrow, the deep meaning of which the Oriental mind
+  with its subtle and serious imagination has grasped as has none
+  other. Moreover, in all truly fine pieces there is perfect
+  harmony of tone. It is in this richness, suggestiveness, and
+  harmony that the greatest artistic value lies.</p>
+
+  <p>That all do not appreciate these qualities is not because they
+  do not exist; for the keen perception of colour, like the keen
+  perception of music, is a faculty granted to one person but
+  denied to another. Even to those who take delight in colour there
+  are different degrees of appreciation. &ldquo;The fact is,&rdquo;
+  said John Ruskin, &ldquo;we none of us enough appreciate the
+  nobleness and sacredness of colour.&rdquo; But as the ear can be
+  cultivated to a higher taste for music, so can the eye be
+  cultivated to a higher taste for colour; and to fully appreciate
+  the beauties of Oriental rugs it is necessary to develop this
+  faculty to its fullest extent.</p>
+
+  <p>And yet it is not alone as works of art that Oriental rugs
+  interest us. They suggest something of the life and religious
+  thought of the people who made them. Some seem redolent with the
+  fragrance of flowers, others reflect the spirit of desert wastes
+  and wind-swept steppes. So, too, in the colours and designs of
+  some appear the symbols of that mysticism with which the minds of
+  the followers of Zoroaster in their effort to commune with the
+  unseen<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_19" id=
+  "Page_19">19</a></span> forces of the universe were imbued; and
+  though the original meaning of many of these symbols has been
+  forgotten, the study of others leads to a better understanding of
+  the life-thought of the weavers.</p>
+
+  <p>Realising, then, that Asia has been the cradle from which has
+  come the highest expression of many forms of artistic
+  achievement, and that the Western mind is now assigning to its
+  woven fabrics their proper place in the galleries of art, we may
+  begin the study of Oriental rugs with the assurance that the
+  further it is pursued the greater will be the appreciation and
+  delight. It will take us among strange and interesting people,
+  and over fields that were historic grounds before the walls of
+  Rome were built. It will lead beyond the dome of St. Sophia to
+  the land of the Arabian tales, where the splendour of former days
+  is reflected in tomb and mosque, and where, perhaps, when the
+  Western world grows old, there will rise again from crumbling
+  ruins another nation that will revive the poetic and artistic
+  genius of the East with all the majesty and creative power of the
+  past.</p>
+  <hr />
+
+  <p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_20" id=
+  "Page_20">20</a></span></p>
+
+  <h3>CHAPTER II</h3>
+
+  <h4>PHYSICAL FEATURES AND HISTORY OF THE RUG-PRODUCING LANDS</h4>
+
+  <p><span class="floatLeft"><img src="images/t.jpg" width="110" height="110" alt="T"
+  title="T" /></span>HE artistic character of Oriental rugs, like
+  every other artistic impulse, is subject to the influence of
+  physical environment. This influence is not alone that to which
+  an individual weaver has been subjected, but is the transmitted
+  effect of the accumulated experiences of many generations. It
+  appears in the colours which simulate tones displayed by varying
+  phases of nature, and also in the designs or symbols which,
+  derived from older types by a long process of evolution,
+  partially reflect feelings engendered in a people of highly
+  imaginative and poetic temperament by long contact with elemental
+  forces. Moreover, the quality of material used depends almost
+  exclusively on the climate and physical conditions of countries
+  where it is produced. Accordingly, the artistic and essential
+  characteristics of rugs are better understood by a knowledge of
+  the salient physical features of the countries where they are
+  woven.<a name="FNanchor_3" id="FNanchor_3"></a><a href=
+  "#Footnote_3" class="fnanchor">3</a></p>
+
+  <p>The principal Oriental countries that continue to produce rugs
+  are China, India, Afghanistan, Beluchistan, Persia, Turkestan,
+  Caucasia, and Asia Minor. As all of them are contiguous, they may
+  be regarded as a geographic unit; and though there is much
+  diversity of detail, there is also much in common. From near the
+  western boundary of Asia Minor a vast plateau stretches eastward
+  into Central Asia, increasing in altitude towards the east.</p>
+
+  <p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_21" id=
+  "Page_21">21</a></span></p>
+
+  <p>Its mean elevation in Asia Minor is from two thousand to three
+  thousand feet, and as it extends beyond the Zagros Mountains and
+  crosses the northern half of Persia, it rises from four thousand
+  to five thousand feet. Continuing eastward through Southern
+  Turkestan and Afghanistan it increases in altitude until it has
+  risen to nearly twelve thousand feet in the lofty table-lands of
+  Central Asia, where it begins to descend as it extends farther
+  into the desert of Gobi. From the western part of this plateau a
+  spur extends northward between the Black and Caspian seas, to
+  form the high table-land of Caucasia, which has a mean elevation
+  of about seven thousand feet.</p>
+
+  <p>The general topographic features of this plateau include great
+  stretches of comparatively level land, broad tracts from which
+  there is no drainage to the sea, and sandy desert wastes. On
+  almost every side it is bounded by mountain chains and is
+  intersected by transverse ridges that lift still higher peaks
+  where rests the perpetual snow. Throughout the deserts and large
+  parts of the table-lands the rainfall is slight, so that there
+  are but few important river courses.</p>
+
+  <p>The cultivated portions of this vast area are relatively
+  small, and consist largely of strips of land in fertile valleys,
+  through which flow perennial streams. From time immemorial these
+  streams have been used for irrigation, and the inhabitants of the
+  districts have prospered by abundant harvests. In one or another
+  of these valleys have been built the principal cities, within the
+  walls of which were imposing temples that stimulated religious
+  fervour, schools of learning to quicken the intellect, and
+  gardens where perfumed flowers and the songs of birds delighted
+  the aesthetic senses. In these cities science, philosophy,
+  religion, and art received their highest development. In them
+  lived the most skilled artisans and artists of the Orient; and
+  the products of the loom were of the finest quality.</p>
+
+  <p>Beyond these valleys are great stretches of uncultivated
+  tracts consisting of plains, hills, and mountains. Some of these
+  tracts are naturally fertile and could be made productive, but at
+  present are used only for pasturage, and over them numberless
+  tribes of fierce nomads drive their flocks of sheep. On the other
+  hand, where the land has no drainage to the sea, so that the
+  streams and rivers that flow into it empty into small lakes or
+  are finally absorbed, the soil becomes impregnated with alkali
+  deposited from the waters, and the grass is<span class=
+  'pagenum'><a name="Page_22" id="Page_22">22</a></span> scanty.
+  There are also sandy wastes of great extent where scarcely any
+  animal life can exist. Moreover in many parts of the country the
+  rain falls only during a few months of the year, and more
+  abundantly in the higher altitudes, so that the nomads are
+  constantly searching for fresh pasturage, and moving from the
+  lowlands, where the grass dies after the rainy season, to the
+  higher altitudes, from which they return again at the approach of
+  winter. So numerous are the flocks that in the struggle for
+  pasture the weaker tribes are driven to the poorer land.</p>
+
+  <p>The pastoral life, the necessity of moving from place to
+  place, the strife resulting from the difference in quality of
+  pasture, have affected the temperament and character of the
+  people. The boundless stretches of land, the clear atmosphere,
+  the burning desert sands, the delicate mirage, and the starry
+  heavens, have made men hospitable, thoughtful, devotional;
+  constant wanderings have made them independent; the struggle for
+  pasturage has made them lawless and cruel. These qualities are
+  reflected to some extent in their woven fabrics, which lack the
+  high artistic finish of those woven in cities. A large proportion
+  of them are prayer rugs and contain symbols of the sun and fire
+  worship. The designs are barbaric, and many are doubtless the
+  same as those used hundreds of years ago. The colours of the old
+  pieces, woven on upland plains or in mountain fastnesses, blend
+  less harmoniously than those woven by more cultured weavers; but
+  they frequently possess rich, pure tones, which are no longer
+  seen in the modern rugs. As even a partial expression of the
+  thoughts and feelings of a people, there are no rugs from the
+  Orient more worthy of study than the rare old pieces woven by
+  nomadic tribes.</p>
+
+  <p>Not only physical environment but the conquests of foreign
+  enemies, as well as political struggles at home, have had an
+  important influence on all art. It will be of interest,
+  therefore, to briefly review the histories of Central and
+  Southwestern Asia, where rugs have been made for over three
+  thousand years, in order to understand the different racial
+  influences which have affected their artistic development.</p>
+
+  <div class="figcenter" style="width: 550px;">
+    <a name="p01" id="p01"></a><img src="images/plate01.jpg"
+    width="550" height="871" alt="Khorassan Rug" title="" />
+
+    <p class="center"><span class="smcap">Plate 1. Khorassan
+    Rug</span></p>
+  </div>
+
+  <p>In the rich valleys near the mouths of the Tigris and
+  Euphrates dwelt in the remote past a race of unknown origin
+  called Sumerians, and to the north of them lived another people
+  known as the Accadians. These races built canals, cultivated the
+  soil, established towns, and invented the cuneiform writing. They
+  lived in harmony <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_23" id=
+  "Page_23">23</a></span>with one another, and continued to prosper
+  until about 3000 <span class="smcap">b.c.</span>, when the
+  Semitic race of the Chaldees, appearing from an unknown land,
+  subdued them. The Chaldees, however, allowed the conquered races
+  to retain part of their lands, adopted their civilisation, and
+  about the year 2500 <span class="smcap">b.c.</span> built the
+  city of Babylon, the foundation of which biblical students claim
+  was laid by the mighty hunter Nimrod. By cultivating the
+  surrounding country, by developing its trade and commerce, the
+  Babylonians became a wealthy and powerful nation; and by
+  encouraging manufactures, art, and science, they became noted for
+  their delicate fabrics, magnificent temples, and knowledge of
+  mathematics and astronomy.</p>
+
+  <p>About the year 2000 <span class="smcap">b.c.</span> a number
+  of tribesmen, among whom was Abraham, migrated with their flocks
+  to the upper valleys of the Tigris and founded Nineveh. A century
+  later the land occupied by colonists who settled about Nineveh
+  was known as Assyria. It increased in numbers and in power until,
+  in 1300 <span class="smcap">b.c.</span>, it gained its first
+  victory over Babylon; and during the next four hundred years,
+  though meeting with occasional reverses, it extended its rule
+  over Babylonia, Asia Minor, and Assyria, and received tribute
+  even from Egypt. It thus became the first great conquering power
+  in Southwestern Asia. In their magnificent palaces of Nineveh,
+  surrounded by luxury, the rulers of Assyria were resting in
+  supposed security when a powerful and unexpected enemy appeared
+  from the land now known as Persia.</p>
+
+  <p>When the valleys of the Tigris and the Euphrates were
+  inhabited by Sumerians and Accadians, Iran, which included modern
+  Persia, was similarly inhabited by races of unknown origin.
+  Subsequently, but at an exceedingly remote period, from the
+  region about the Oxus river in Western Asia two branches of the
+  great Aryan family migrated to Iran. One of these, which settled
+  in the northern part, was known as the Medes; the other, which
+  settled in the southern part, was known as the Persians. Both
+  Medes and Persians subdued the native races and in the course of
+  centuries constructed powerful empires. The former were the first
+  to extend their conquests, and forming an alliance with the
+  viceroy of Babylon they attacked Nineveh in the year 606
+  <span class="smcap">b.c.</span> and destroyed it. Babylon now
+  became the mistress of all Mesopotamia, and under Nebuchadnezzar
+  it was enlarged to cover an area of one hundred square miles, and
+  surrounded by walls three hundred feet high. These walls enclosed
+  parks, orchards, gardens, and a city that soon be<span class=
+  'pagenum'><a name="Page_24" id="Page_24">24</a></span>came famous
+  for its palaces, its temple of Bel, and its Hanging Gardens.</p>
+
+  <p>While Babylon was rising in power changes were occurring in
+  Iran. Cyrus, leader of the Persians, instigated a revolt against
+  the Medes and conquered them. But not satisfied with making the
+  Persians rulers of Iran he extended his conquests westward, and
+  in the year 538 <span class="smcap">b.c.</span>, by diverting the
+  waters of the Euphrates, surprised Belshazzar in his banquet hall
+  and became master of Babylonia. The complete subjection of all
+  Asia Minor followed, and for the next two centuries the warlike
+  Persians were the dominant power in Western Asia. But in the year
+  331 <span class="smcap">b.c.</span>, when Alexander the Great
+  defeated their armies under Darius, the Persian Empire melted
+  away.</p>
+
+  <p>Whether in Egypt or China or by the Tigris the art of weaving
+  first took definite form, it was in this land of Babylon and
+  Nineveh, of the Medes and the Persians, of Abraham, Belshazzar,
+  and Cyrus, where a few remaining monuments attest the delicate
+  textiles of those early days, that in more recent ages have been
+  woven the most perfect carpets of which there is any
+  knowledge.</p>
+
+  <p>During the succeeding five hundred years Persia, Asia Minor,
+  Caucasia, and Syria became the prey of the Parthians, Greeks, and
+  Romans, to whom petty tribes, recognising no sovereign power and
+  secure in their mountain fastnesses, bade occasional defiance.
+  About the year 226 <span class="smcap">a. d.</span> an able
+  leader of one of the Persian tribes founded the dynasty of the
+  Sassanides, which during the reign of Chosroes (531-579
+  <span class="smcap">a. d.</span>) and his grandson Chosroes II
+  (590-628 <span class="smcap">a. d.</span>) ruled over the country
+  from the Oxus on the north to Arabia and Egypt on the south, and
+  from India on the east to Assyria on the west. This was a period
+  of prosperity and luxury, the glory of which continued until the
+  middle of the VII Century, when it was overthrown by a new power
+  rising from a most unexpected quarter.</p>
+
+  <p>In the inhospitable land of Arabia, noted for its coffee,
+  dates, and myrrh, for its dreary, sandy, waterless wastes, a land
+  hitherto almost unknown in history, Mohammed promulgated the
+  religion which, suited to the temperament and desires of the
+  Bedouins, united them into a fanatic, militant body of
+  conquerors. After his death his successors, known as the Caliphs,
+  extended his conquests. Their successful armies quickly overran
+  Persia and overthrew the Sassanian rule; then marching northward
+  into Turkestan and as far east as the Indus they overcame all
+  resistance.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_25" id=
+  "Page_25">25</a></span> From the Greeks, by whom they were known
+  as the Saracens, they snatched Palestine and Syria, and invading
+  Egypt, conquered it after the long stubborn siege of Alexandria.
+  A little later the Arabs became masters of Northern Africa, and
+  settling there intermarried with the native races. Near the
+  Straits of Gibraltar their African descendants, known as the
+  Moors, crossed to Spain, where in the year 711 they vanquished a
+  powerful army that opposed them. During the following year they
+  subdued all of that country and began an invasion of Northern
+  Europe. But on the rich pasture lands near Tours, where the
+  infantry of Charles Martel met the Mussulman cavalry in one of
+  the most decisive battles of history, they were defeated with
+  terrible slaughter and Christian Europe was saved.</p>
+
+  <p>These conquests of the Mohammedans had not only a political
+  and religious significance, but also an important influence on
+  art at a time when Europe was sunk in ignorance and barbarism.
+  Fond of magnificence and luxury, the Caliphs founded great
+  capitals in Assyria, Egypt, and Spain, and built palaces that
+  have histories which sound like fairy tales. Bagdad on the banks
+  of the Tigris, with its sixteen hundred canals, one hundred and
+  five bridges, and nearly a million people, with its countless
+  baths, its many thousand mosques, and its royal palace, where was
+  collected the best of Asiatic taste, elegance, and splendour,
+  possessed more grandeur than any other city in the world. Gibbon
+  states that within the palace, furnished with Oriental luxury,
+  hung thirty-eight thousand pieces of tapestry, one third of which
+  were of silk embroidered with gold, and that on the floors lay
+  twenty-two thousand carpets. In Cairo and in Cordova, likewise,
+  the Caliphs surrounded themselves with similar splendour, of
+  which, unfortunately, but few traces now exist; but the Castle of
+  the Alhambra still remains as a powerful reminder of their taste
+  and artistic genius. It is largely to the influence of this race
+  that were due many of the beautiful Spanish rugs such as Queen
+  Eleanor in the XIII Century took to England from Cordova and
+  Granada, as well as those of other periods. Moreover, in some of
+  the choicest pieces of Asia Minor and Persia, woven during the
+  XVI and XVII Centuries, are traces of this early Saracenic
+  art.</p>
+
+  <p>For about five centuries the militant power of these
+  Mohammedans was dominant in Southwestern Asia when another
+  conquering race appeared. The great wall of China, which was
+  built over two<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_26" id=
+  "Page_26">26</a></span> hundred years before Christ by the famous
+  Che-Hwang-te, to protect it against the invasions of the Tartars,
+  turned westward many wandering hordes from the more fertile
+  pastures and valleys of Southeastern Asia. One of these hordes
+  was of Turks, who, leaving their homes near the sources of the
+  Irtish and Yenisei rivers in the Altai Mountains, settled in
+  Turkestan. Many centuries afterwards, to escape from other hordes
+  pressing westward and to reach fresh pastures, different branches
+  of them migrated southward and westward. About the year 1000
+  <span class="smcap">a. d.</span> one of these branches known as
+  the Seljukian Turks gained a foothold in Persia, and under Malek
+  Shah, in 1072, made Ispahan its capital. About the same time it
+  extended its power over Asia Minor and overran Georgia, where it
+  destroyed the capital Tiflis after slaughtering the inhabitants.
+  To this Turkoman race should probably be accredited the earliest
+  Mongolian influence on Persian textile art.</p>
+
+  <p>Somewhat later a people numbering forty thousand tents were
+  ranging that part of Mongolia which lies north of the desert of
+  Gobi in search of pasture and water. One of their number gathered
+  about him a few followers, and by his own genius gained the
+  ascendency over his tribes. He then allied himself with another
+  powerful tribe, and reducing to obedience all the Mongolians who
+  dwelt north of the desert of Gobi, in 1206, in the presence of
+  his chiefs, he assumed the title of Genghis Khan. After becoming
+  the ruler of millions of nomads of the great central plateau of
+  Asia and conquering part of China, which was then enjoying a
+  period of great wealth and prosperity, he invaded Western Asia.
+  Bokhara offered no resistance and might have been spared, but
+  learning that some of the Sultan&rsquo;s garrison were concealed
+  he ordered the city to be burned. Samarkand, which surrendered
+  after three days&rsquo; siege, was pillaged and the inhabitants
+  were slaughtered. Herat appeased his anger by opening its gates.
+  Even his death did not stop the ravages of the Mongol horde that
+  captured and sacked Bagdad, and, crossing the Tigris and
+  Euphrates, pillaged all Asia Minor. In 1258, Hulaku Khan,
+  grandson of Genghis, conquered Persia and established his capital
+  in the province of Azerbijan, where his descendants ruled for
+  over a century.</p>
+
+  <div class="figcenter" style="width: 550px;">
+    <a name="p02" id="p02"></a><img src="images/plate02.jpg"
+    width="550" height="641" alt="Meshed Rug" title="" />
+
+    <p class="center"><span class="smcap">Plate 2. Meshed
+    Rug</span></p>
+  </div>
+
+  <p>With these invasions another wave of Mongolian influence was
+  felt in Western Asia. Whatever may have been the effect on local
+  art by the settlement of the Seljukian Turks in Persia and Asia
+  Minor during the early part of the XI Century, it was
+  <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_27" id=
+  "Page_27">27</a></span>inappreciable as compared with that of
+  Genghis Khan and his followers. For the influence of Bagdad over
+  Southwestern Asia was like that of Rome over the empire of the
+  C&aelig;sars, and when in the middle of the XIII Century it was
+  plundered for forty days, and other important cities of Asia
+  Minor and Persia similarly treated, there was no longer the same
+  incentive to work, so that art for a time languished. But in some
+  cities the artistic spirit of the people prevailed over the loss
+  of independence, and the more skilled workmen were encouraged by
+  their new masters, who, recognising the beauty of the Persian
+  carpets, sent many Persian artists to China and brought many
+  Chinese artists to Persia, that the different races might derive
+  advantages from the instruction of one another. It is therefore
+  not surprising that from this time the influence of Chinese art
+  has been recognised in the woven fabrics and metal work made in
+  the southwestern part of Asia. In fact, the Chinese motive known
+  as the &ldquo;key pattern,&rdquo; as well as other less familiar
+  designs of distinctly Mongolian origin, appeared for the first
+  time in some of the carpets and metal work of this period.</p>
+
+  <p>Like Turkestan, Asia Minor has been one of the great
+  battle-grounds of the world. During parts of the XI, XII, and
+  XIII Centuries not only Seljukian Turks, but Mongols and Ottoman
+  Turks under Murad and Bajazet, rose in influence until all Asia
+  Minor, as well as Thrace and Macedonia, was subject to them. But
+  still another power from the far East was to overrun Asia and
+  divert Bajazet from the walls of Constantinople.</p>
+
+  <p>Under Tamerlane, the descendant of Genghis Khan, the Mongol
+  hordes were again united and again attempted the conquest of the
+  world. From the walls of China to the Mediterranean Sea, and from
+  the Steppes of Turkestan to the Arabian deserts, his victorious
+  armies overcame all opposition. Never was conqueror more
+  rapacious, more bloodthirsty. At Ispahan, seventy thousand
+  inhabitants were slain. Georgia was laid waste and the people
+  were massacred. In 1401, Bagdad was besieged and, when taken, a
+  pyramid of ninety thousand human victims was raised as a monument
+  to the Tartar conqueror. In the following year, when the armies
+  of Bajazet and Tamerlane met on the plains near Angora, the Turks
+  were defeated and Bajazet was captured. But now the tide of
+  Mongol invasion receded; and laden with spoils Tamerlane returned
+  to his capital at Samarkand, where he enjoyed the remaining years
+  of his life by surrounding himself with a brilliant court
+  and<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_28" id=
+  "Page_28">28</a></span> by building palaces and temples, which he
+  adorned with royal splendour. With all his atrocious barbarities
+  he had a higher appreciation of art than his Mongolian
+  predecessors. At his capital were assembled skilled artisans from
+  Eastern and Western Asia; and there at the beginning of the XIV
+  Century European travellers saw innumerable art treasures,
+  including carpets of wonderful workmanship and beauty.</p>
+
+  <p>The Mongol power also gained an important foothold in India.
+  This country, like Iran, had been subjugated by a branch of the
+  Aryan race, which conquered the native Dravidians, and remained
+  dominant until the VII and VIII Centuries. Then the Mohammedans
+  invaded it, and were still in ascendency when Tamerlane crossed
+  the mountains and attacked Delhi. After the lapse of more than a
+  hundred years his descendants, Baber, Akbar, and Shah Jahan, rose
+  to power. The magnificence of their courts and the splendour of
+  the temples which they built stimulated Indian art; and under the
+  instruction of Persian artisans, who were induced to settle in
+  that country, the natives attained their highest skill in
+  weaving.</p>
+
+  <p>With the death of Tamerlane, in 1405, the Ottoman power in
+  Persia and Asia Minor rose again, and Turkish victories followed
+  in quick succession until in 1453 Constantinople fell and the
+  church of St. Sophia became a mosque.</p>
+
+  <p>After the lapse of half a century Shah Ismael of the family of
+  the Safavids defeated the Turkomans in 1502, and founded a new
+  dynasty in Persia. With his rise began one of the most splendid
+  periods in its history. Within a few years victories extended his
+  empire from the Euphrates river to Afghanistan and from the Oxus
+  to the Persian gulf. This was the land of ancient Iran, over
+  which from his court at Ardebil he ruled until his death. In the
+  early part of the reign of Shah Tamasp, which lasted from 1524 to
+  1576, the new dynasty was threatened by the Turkish ruler,
+  Soliman the Magnificent, after he had taken Rhodes from the
+  Knights of St. John and invaded Southern Europe. In 1534 he
+  captured Bagdad and Tabriz, as well as conquered Shirvan and
+  Georgia.<a name="FNanchor_4" id="FNanchor_4"></a><a href=
+  "#Footnote_4" class="fnanchor">4</a> But the lost territory was
+  soon regained and the new Persian capital was established at
+  Tabriz where, as will be seen later, were woven many of the
+  greatest masterpieces of Persian textile fabrics. Much as these
+  <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_29" id=
+  "Page_29">29</a></span>monarchs had accomplished, it was Shah
+  Abbas the Great who, after ten years of internal strife,
+  succeeded by expelling the Turks from Persia, restoring
+  tranquillity, and establishing commerce, in elevating his country
+  from one of devastation and confusion to one of greatness such as
+  it had not known for many ages. He transferred his court to
+  Ispahan, where, while adding to the magnificence of the city, he
+  encouraged art even to the extent of sending to Italy, for study,
+  a number of the most skilled artists of Persia. These in time
+  returned and exerted an influence that appeared in the more
+  elaborate designs of carpets of a subsequent period. It is also
+  probable that he rendered valuable assistance to Akbar of India
+  in founding carpet-weaving in that country. He ruled from 1586 to
+  1628. This period, during which America was a wilderness and
+  England under Queen Elizabeth was still struggling with the
+  feudal system, was the golden age of Persian history and Persian
+  art; but with his death the Safavid dynasty declined and art
+  decadence began.</p>
+
+  <p>In 1722, the Afghans conquered Persia and for a number of
+  years ruled it with horrible cruelty; but they were finally
+  defeated by Nadir Shah, who captured Herat in 1731, extended his
+  dominion into Georgia, and recovered some of the lost territory
+  from the Turkish Empire in the West. After his death the
+  sovereignty of Persia again waned, until in time it was confined
+  to its present limits.</p>
+
+  <p>It thus appears that from the earliest times recorded in
+  history the southwestern part of Asia has been subject to
+  invasion, and to constant struggles between the different races
+  of the East for supremacy. Even from the desert of Gobi, the
+  flanks of the Altai Mountains, and the deserts of Arabia have
+  poured forth armies to devastate the land. One victorious power
+  after another has extended its sway from the banks of the Indus
+  to the shores of the Mediterranean. The result is that the
+  present Oriental textile art is of a composite character, which
+  can be understood only by taking into consideration the value of
+  these racial influences that have contributed to it some of its
+  most interesting and subtle charms.</p>
+  <hr />
+
+  <p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_30" id=
+  "Page_30">30</a></span></p>
+
+  <h3>CHAPTER III</h3>
+
+  <h4>THE MATERIALS</h4>
+
+  <p><span class="floatLeft"><img src="images/a.jpg" width="110" height="110" alt="A"
+  title="A" /></span>S was the case with the earliest shepherd
+  weavers, many nomads living in unfrequented parts of Asia spin
+  the wool taken from their own flocks, then colour it with dyes
+  brewed from roots and herbs that they have personally gathered,
+  and finally weave it according to well-known patterns into
+  fabrics. But in large, enlightened communities the manufacture of
+  an Oriental rug involves a division of labour. From the shepherds
+  the professional dyers obtain the wool, which, after colouring,
+  they sell to weavers; and these in turn often receive their
+  patterns from others. A knowledge of these separate steps
+  involving the industries of producing the different materials and
+  the crafts of dyeing, weaving, and designing is essential to a
+  full understanding of any Oriental woven fabric.</p>
+
+  <p>The materials that were formerly used in weaving were
+  generally of animal origin, such as the wool of sheep, goats, and
+  camels. To a more limited extent silk and cotton also were used,
+  and occasionally hair of the yak, cow, and even human hair. In
+  later years, when there arose a western demand for eastern
+  fabrics so that the aim of the weaver was to produce an article
+  as cheaply as possible, flax, hemp, jute, and larger quantities
+  of cotton were sometimes substituted. Since all of these
+  materials are indigenous to the country where they are used, and
+  are affected by its climate, altitude, humidity, and fertility,
+  they acquire qualities that frequently give to rugs a distinctly
+  local character.</p>
+
+  <div class="figcenter" style="width: 300px;">
+    <a name="p03" id="p03"></a><img src="images/plate03.jpg"
+    width="300" height="600" alt="Plate 3. Kirman Rug" title="" />
+
+    <p class="center"><span class="smcap">Plate 3. Kirman
+    Rug</span></p>
+  </div>
+
+  <p>The wool of sheep constitutes the warp and weft of at least
+  half the Oriental rugs and the pile of over ninety per cent. To
+  be sure, in Japan the pile is largely jute and cotton; in a few
+  of the districts of Asia Minor and Persia it is mercerised cotton
+  or silk; and in districts where the camel is still a beast of
+  burden its wool and fine hair are often substituted for other
+  kinds; but throughout all the rug-weaving <span class=
+  'pagenum'><a name="Page_31" id="Page_31">31</a></span>countries
+  of the East the wool of the sheep has been and still is preferred
+  to all other materials for the pile of rugs. This is due not
+  alone to its warmth, to the facility with which it can be spun
+  and twisted into knots, but also to the fact that from the
+  remotest times the inhabitants of these districts, like Abraham
+  of old, have been shepherds, who followed their calling because
+  over the steppes of Tartary and the great plateaus that extend
+  through Asia Minor, Persia, Afghanistan, and Turkestan spread
+  vast pasture lands that seem better suited than any other parts
+  of the world for the nourishment of sheep with fine fleeces. In
+  fact, a part of these districts seems to be the natural habitat
+  of the sheep; for among the crags of some of the lofty mountain
+  chains of Central Asia, and farther west where Eastern and
+  Western Turkestan meet in the lofty plateau of Pamir, called the
+  &ldquo;Roof of the World,&rdquo; still wander great bands of
+  magnificent native sheep with enormous horns and brownish grey
+  wool, from which it is believed sprang the vast flocks that now
+  browse on every hill and mountain slope of Western Asia.</p>
+
+  <p>Centuries of care have effected an important evolution in this
+  native stock, for in no other part of the world are there sheep
+  with longer and more silky fleeces. Nevertheless there are
+  different grades, as the quality depends in a measure on the
+  climate and pasturage as well as on the care of the sheep. Thus
+  in the hot, sandy lands the wool shows some deterioration; but in
+  the cold, dry climates of the many high lands of Western Asia and
+  in the pastures of particular localities the wool is long, fine,
+  and lustrous. For instance, in parts of Khorassan, on the flanks
+  of high mountains near Kirman and Shiraz, on the shores of Lake
+  Niris in Farsistan, among the rolling uplands of Asia Minor, are
+  produced uncommonly fine and beautiful fleeces. When, moreover,
+  the sheep of these localities receive the care that is given by
+  some of the nomadic tribes, as the Uzbeck Tartars, who not only
+  shelter them but cover them with blankets, the wool acquires a
+  soft and silky quality that is unsurpassed. The wool produced in
+  many parts of India, on the other hand, is poor; for not only are
+  the serrations, on which largely depends its value for textile
+  purposes, less numerous than in better varieties, but it is harsh
+  and contains many long hairs that do not well unite with it and
+  that take up very little dye.</p>
+
+  <p>The wool of the goat is much less extensively used, yet
+  appears in some rugs, not only as warp and weft, but also as
+  pile. The<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_32" id=
+  "Page_32">32</a></span> goats of Kashmir, which live in the cold
+  climate of a table-land three miles above the ocean level,
+  produce the finest and most beautiful wool; but as it grows near
+  the skin, and beneath wiry hairs from which it can be removed
+  only with tedious care, it is too precious to be used excepting
+  for the most beautiful shawls and choicest carpets. Of next
+  importance and finest texture is the wool of the Angora goat,
+  known to commerce as mohair. Formerly there was not much demand
+  for it, but now, on account of the consideration that it has
+  received in the carpet factories of recent Sultans, it is found
+  in many of the rugs of Asia Minor. As it grows to an average
+  length of five to six inches it is easily spun; and its soft,
+  lustrous sheen gives to the rugs in which it is used a silky and
+  brilliant appearance. Some of the Bokhara goats, also, yield fine
+  wool that is used in rugs. Yet, as a rule, yarn made from the
+  fleece of the goat is not regarded with favour by weavers, since
+  it is apt to be coarse and to pack closely. Nor does the wool of
+  the goat mix well with the wool of the sheep. There is, however,
+  a much finer grade growing next to the skin, which may be removed
+  with a knife when it is exposed by combing the longer fleece in a
+  direction reverse to that in which it lies. The tougher grades
+  are preferred to any other material by weavers of the
+  Afghanistan, Beluchistan, and some Turkoman rugs for selvages at
+  the sides, as they afford excellent protection against hard
+  usage. Goat&rsquo;s hair is also sometimes used in these rugs for
+  warp. Unless mixed with wool it is very rarely used for weft, as
+  it is not sufficiently pliable.</p>
+
+  <p>Of more frequent use than the wool of the goat is the wool of
+  the camel which grows close to the skin beneath the long hair. In
+  the tropical countries, as in Soudan, the camel has no wool, but
+  in more northern latitudes it yields a crop which increases in
+  quantity and improves in quality as the climate grows colder.
+  Thus in Arabia, Asia Minor, and in most of Persia and Turkestan
+  the yield is small, in the table-lands of Eastern Persia and
+  Afghanistan it is much larger, and on the lofty plateaus of
+  Turkestan and Chinese Tartary as much as ten pounds of wool is
+  obtained yearly from each beast. The clip is taken at the usual
+  moulting season during the spring of the year. The wool of the
+  older camels is coarse and dark, what is taken from the young is
+  finer and lighter, and the most silky and valuable of all is what
+  is obtained from the unborn. The best grade has been more highly
+  esteemed than the wool of any other animal, and rugs in which it
+  constitutes the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_33" id=
+  "Page_33">33</a></span> pile are more valuable than those in
+  which the wool of sheep is used. It is seldom woven in modern
+  rugs, but dyed wool or goats&rsquo; hair of similar colour is
+  often substituted for it.</p>
+
+  <p>The wool or underhair of the yak is used only among the
+  mountain tribes of Tartary, and is never found in any of the
+  choicer grades of rugs. Occasionally the hair of the horse or cow
+  is employed to a limited extent in the pile of nomadic rugs,
+  where it may be distinguished by its coarse and wiry character.
+  In old rugs of which the pile is much worn cows&rsquo; hair will
+  now and then protrude like the hairs of small bristle brushes.
+  Only very rarely is human hair seen in a rug.</p>
+
+  <p>Natural colours of the several kinds of wool, which have made
+  it possible to dispense with their dyeing, have always been taken
+  advantage of by weavers. The only black yarn on which the wear of
+  time has left no impress is from the fleece of the proverbially
+  despised black sheep. Shades of white, ivory, brown, grey, rufus,
+  and even a plum are obtained from different varieties. Likewise a
+  wide range of rich chestnut colours are furnished by the
+  camel.</p>
+
+  <p>It is but natural that the nomad should depend on the wool of
+  his flocks and herds for warp, weft, and pile; but people of
+  fixed habitations have employed other kinds of material also.
+  Where the sensuous luxury of the East called for magnificent
+  carpets, they were often woven almost entirely of silk, which was
+  easily obtained, as silkworms thrive on the mulberry trees that
+  grow wild on the plains of Central and Southwestern Asia. Silk
+  rugs are still woven in a few cities of Asia Minor and Persia.
+  For the cheaper grades of rugs flax, hemp, and jute have been
+  sparingly used; and during recent years cotton has been widely
+  adopted, particularly in Persian, Indian, and Chinese rugs, on
+  account of its cheapness as compared with wool. It is, however,
+  almost entirely as warp and weft and rarely as pile that it is
+  used. Though much less durable than wool, its white colour is far
+  less likely to darken with age; yet there is a poorer variety
+  which, after being thoroughly wet, acquires a dark colour.</p>
+
+  <p>In the preparation of these different textile materials wool
+  requires the greatest care. In some parts of the Orient it is not
+  washed, and the lustrous hues of the pile are attributed to the
+  fact that it is dyed in its naturally greasy state; but in other
+  parts the grease and dirt are carefully removed. This cleansing
+  is a craft that has been transmitted from parent to child, and is
+  practised<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_34" id=
+  "Page_34">34</a></span> according to different methods in
+  different parts of the country. One of the chief essentials is an
+  abundance of clear running water free from alkali; for when the
+  water is hard, as is often the case in the more arid parts of the
+  country, it loses some of its cleansing properties, and potash or
+  other chemicals are required to counter-act this unfavourable
+  quality. After the wool has been thoroughly washed it is
+  carefully dried in the sun and open air.</p>
+
+  <p>The next important step is the proper sorting, picking, and
+  combing. The sorting consists of the separation of black and
+  light wool, or of an inferior from a better grade; and the
+  picking consists of the removal of burrs or foreign particles.
+  The object of combing is to effect an orderly arrangement of the
+  wool so that it is ready for spinning. One method, corresponding
+  to carding, is to draw the wool repeatedly between rows of
+  upright spikes set in a wooden frame until every matted particle
+  has been separated and all the fibres are disentangled. The older
+  method, still employed in nearly every part of the Orient,
+  consists of &ldquo;teasing&rdquo; with the cord of a heavy bow,
+  which is suspended or held firmly by the left hand over the wool,
+  while with the right hand the cord is made to vibrate either by
+  striking it with a wooden instrument or plucking it, so that the
+  fibres of wool are separated and assorted by the vibrations.</p>
+
+  <p>When the wool has thus been prepared, it is wound about the
+  distaff and then spun into yarn. In many parts of the Orient the
+  common spinning-wheel has been introduced and adopted for both
+  wool and cotton; in other parts are crudely made spinning-wheels
+  of different design and about the height of a man. The natives of
+  districts more remote from civilisation still cling to the
+  primeval spindle, which sometimes consists of no more than a
+  rounded stick half an inch in diameter and a foot in length with
+  a ball of clay at one end. Many of the nomadic tribes of Asia
+  Minor and Mesopotamia use in place of it a small stone of
+  convenient shape, to which is tied a strip of linen a few inches
+  in length. A few fibres of wool are attached to the end of the
+  linen by twisting them about it, and a few more fibres are
+  similarly attached to these when the stone is suspended and
+  twirled. As the fibres become closely twisted together more
+  fibres are added until on account of the length of the thread
+  thus formed the stone reaches the ground. The thread is then
+  wound about the stone and secured by a couple of loops so as to
+  leave a piece only a few inches in length, to which more wool is
+  attached in continuing the spinning. When a large ball of thread
+  <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_35" id=
+  "Page_35">35</a></span>has been spun, it is removed from the
+  stone and the process begun again.</p>
+
+  <div class="figcenter" style="width: 550px;">
+    <a name="p04" id="p04"></a><img src="images/plate04.jpg"
+    width="550" height="740" alt="Plate 4. Shiraz Rug" title="" />
+
+    <p class="center"><span class="smcap">Plate 4. Shiraz
+    Rug</span></p>
+  </div>
+
+  <p>One advantage of these simple devices is that they can easily
+  be carried anywhere. Even to-day a not unusual sight is a half
+  barbaric shepherd following his flock, while he spins with simple
+  distaff and spindle or stone, as did his ancestors thousands of
+  years ago. On the end of the distaff, that rests beneath his left
+  arm, is the ball of wool from which he selects and twists the
+  fibres, while he deftly turns the short spindle or twirls the
+  stone with thumb and forefinger of the right hand. The threads
+  spun by professional spinners on spinning-wheels are of small
+  diameter and are the most regular in size and texture, those spun
+  with the small spindle are of larger diameter and less regular,
+  and those spun by twirling a stone are made of the coarsest
+  diameter in order to insure sufficient stoutness, since they are
+  the most irregular in size and texture; yet yarn so made is the
+  most highly valued by all weavers.</p>
+
+  <p>Only very rarely, indeed, is one of these single threads used
+  for yarn, since it would be apt to part. Two of them, therefore,
+  are twisted together to form a double thread. A simple device
+  used by many nomadic tribes for this purpose consists of two
+  short sticks crossing at right angles, and another piece with end
+  like a crochet needle perpendicular to them. The threads which
+  are attached to this piece pass through a hole at the
+  intersection of the crossed sticks and are twisted by twirling
+  them. It is very seldom that three single threads are twisted to
+  make a triple thread, and when such is the case it is the work of
+  a professional spinner who uses a large spinning-wheel, and never
+  the work of a nomad. For the weft of many rugs, and for the pile
+  of a few rugs such as Sarouks and Kashans, a double thread alone
+  is used; whilst for the pile of most rugs the double thread is
+  again doubled, trebled, or quadrupled, so as to form yarn of two,
+  three, or four ply, and even yarn of six ply is sometimes used. A
+  distinction also exists in the manner of twisting together double
+  threads to make yarn of two or more ply, since according to the
+  custom of different tribes they may be twisted so loosely that in
+  the length of an inch they do not describe more than a single
+  revolution or so tightly as to describe several.</p>
+
+  <p>Until the introduction of the modern spinning-wheel wool was
+  spun in the Orient exactly as it was ages ago. It is this almost
+  incredible disposition to adhere as with religious fanaticism to
+  methods transmitted from father to son and to resist as
+  pernicious <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_36" id=
+  "Page_36">36</a></span> every attempt at innovation that makes a
+  precise analysis of rugs possible. Accordingly, the evenness or
+  unevenness of single threads, the looseness or tightness with
+  which double threads are twisted together to form yarn of
+  different ply, as well as the number of the ply used, are a few
+  of the important indices for distinguishing between rugs of
+  different districts.</p>
+
+  <p>Even after the yarn is spun it is not always ready for the
+  dyer, and in order that it may properly absorb the dye it is
+  often washed and rewashed. In some parts of the Orient it is
+  first soaked in warm water and carefully rinsed in cold water. It
+  is then placed in a copper pot or vat containing boiling water to
+  which has been added carbonate or sulphate of soda and potash,
+  and stirred for about an hour. After this thorough cleansing it
+  is again washed very carefully in soft water and thoroughly dried
+  in the sun.</p>
+
+  <p>The wonderful sheen of many old rugs is due almost entirely to
+  the materials of which they are made. This material, as a rule,
+  is unsurpassed by similar products of any other part of the
+  world, and is prepared by patient races who know little of the
+  value of time. The simple labour required is in itself prosaic
+  enough, yet without a doubt the earlier spinners and weavers,
+  while following their flocks with minds free from all conventions
+  and limitations of art, discerned the elemental forces of nature
+  in all their freshness and power, and from them drew inspiration
+  that bore fruit in the exquisite colouring and delicate tracery
+  of the woven carpets.</p>
+
+  <div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;">
+    <a name="p05" id="p05"></a><img src="images/plate05.jpg"
+    width="500" height="868" alt="Plate 5. Niris Rug" title="" />
+
+    <p class="center"><span class="smcap">Plate 5. Niris
+    Rug</span></p>
+  </div>
+  <hr />
+
+  <p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_37" id=
+  "Page_37">37</a></span></p>
+
+  <h3>CHAPTER IV</h3>
+
+  <h4>DYEING</h4>
+
+  <p><span class="floatLeft"><img src="images/h.jpg" width="110" height="110" alt="H"
+  title="H" /></span>OWEVER remarkable the achievements of Oriental
+  art in any field, their most pleasing effect has always been
+  associated with colour. Without it the beauty of the lustre tiles
+  of Persia, the marvellous porcelains of China, and the delicate
+  textiles of Western Asia would fade into insignificance. It is
+  indeed the wonderful harmonies of exquisite tints chosen by the
+  touch of genius from a palette of many thousand pigments that
+  awaken the appreciation of the luxurious splendour of the East.
+  This love for colour is inherent in every rug-producing race of
+  Asia and is older than history. It is but natural, then, that the
+  earliest carpets should be radiant with glorious tints, which in
+  a lesser measure are reflected in modern fabrics.</p>
+
+  <p>If high praise is due to the artist who, by a skilful
+  association of different colours of co-ordinate tones, creates
+  the picture that delights the sense, a fair measure is also due
+  to the artisan who not only controls the secrets of the dyes, but
+  has mastered the difficult knowledge of their proper application;
+  for the beauty of the finished woven product depends on the
+  judicious dyeing of the yarn more than on anything else. From
+  father to son for many generations has been transmitted a
+  knowledge of those particular vegetable and animal products of
+  root, leaf, fruit, and insect, and the manner of their use, by
+  which the imperishable lustrous sheen and colour of the finest
+  woven fabrics are produced. Indeed, this art requires to-day more
+  technical knowledge than any other branch of rug weaving, since
+  modern designs are no longer more than the imitation of those in
+  older carpets; and so important is it regarded that a successful
+  dyer is a man of distinction in his tribe.</p>
+
+  <p>The sources from which are obtained many of the dyes that give
+  the innumerable carpet colours are recorded. A few of them are
+  received from remote countries, but most of the plants from
+  which<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_38" id=
+  "Page_38">38</a></span> they are extracted grow in marshes and on
+  hills and plains where the nomads wander with their flocks. Many
+  of them are used without blending, but even some of the seven
+  primary colours are derived by proper blending; and from a number
+  of dyes of different strengths and qualities are produced an
+  infinite number of rich and delicate shades.</p>
+
+  <p>The principal blues of Oriental rugs are obtained from indigo.
+  This is derived from colouring matter in the leaves of plants of
+  the genus <i>Indigofera</i>, that grow to a height of four to six
+  feet in the East Indies, when they are cut and placed in a vat
+  containing water. In about twelve hours fermentation ensues; and
+  after this subsides the liquid is drawn off into another vat,
+  where after one or two hours of agitation the indigo forms as a
+  precipitate. Many different species of this plant grow wild
+  throughout Asia, and from the earliest times have been used to
+  produce dye-stuff. Indigo is one of the most valuable of all
+  dyes, as by using it in conjunction with others an infinite
+  variety of shades result.</p>
+
+  <p>Some reds are obtained from the plant madder (<i>Rubia
+  tinctorum</i>), that grows abundantly in Central and Southwestern
+  Asia, Its colouring properties were known to the ancients; and
+  for a long period it has been cultivated in Asia Minor, where the
+  succulent roots of the second and third years&rsquo; growth are
+  regularly dried and prepared for use. Other reds are derived from
+  the insect cochineal (<i>Coccus ilicis</i>) that lives on oaks of
+  the countries bordering the Mediterranean, and was known among
+  the Arabs as &ldquo;kermes,&rdquo; signifying Red Dye. After the
+  discovery of America another species (<i>Coccus cacti</i>) was
+  found that was more productive of dyeing qualities. The females,
+  which alone are valuable, are plucked from the trees and killed
+  by exposing them to vapours of acetic acid, or placing them in
+  hot water, or in an oven. From their dried bodies, of which over
+  fifty thousand are necessary to make a pound, the dye is
+  produced. As both these dyes are noted for their fastness, they
+  are constantly used, but when silk or wool is to be dyed
+  cochineal is preferable to madder.</p>
+
+  <p>The yellow dyes are obtained from several sources. Some are
+  from the berries of plants of Western Asia. Others are from the
+  leaves of the sumach bushes, that are indigenous to nearly every
+  part of the world. An orange tinge is derived from the turmeric
+  extracted from the short root stocks of a plant of the genus
+  <i>Curcuma</i>. From time immemorial a beautiful yellow has been
+  obtained from<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_39" id=
+  "Page_39">39</a></span> saffron. It is the product of the stigmas
+  of the fragrant crocus, which are so small that over four
+  thousand are necessary to furnish an ounce of dried saffron; yet
+  the dye is so powerful that it will give a distinct tint to seven
+  hundred thousand times its weight of water. As saffron has
+  something of a stimulating effect on the human system, it has
+  been taken by the Persians when mixed with their rice.</p>
+
+  <p>With none of these three basic colours was any national
+  feeling associated, yet the Persians excelled in the use of
+  blues. The Turkomans of Turkestan and Asia Minor produced better
+  reds than any other colour, and the best yellows, even if
+  generally inferior in positiveness to blues and reds, were those
+  of the Chinese.</p>
+
+  <p>Though other primary and secondary colours sometimes result
+  from the application of a single dye, the many thousand different
+  tints can only be produced by the blending of two or more.
+  Moreover, the qualities of the same dye vary greatly, as they
+  depend on the soil where the plant grew, the time of year when it
+  was removed, and the weather and other conditions prevailing
+  during the dyeing.</p>
+
+  <p>In nature green is one of the most pleasing colours, but in
+  carpets it is most unsatisfactory, as it has generally a faded
+  appearance, due probably to the fact that one of the dyes of
+  which it is formed by blending is less permanent than the other.
+  The Chinese greens obtained from the buckthorns are generally the
+  best.</p>
+
+  <p>Greys and browns are sometimes derived from gall nuts, and
+  reddish brown from henna. For very dark browns and black, iron
+  pyrites has been largely used in both old and modern rugs; but
+  unfortunately the dye has a corrosive effect on the wool, so that
+  the black knots of old rugs are often worn to the warp.</p>
+
+  <p>In parts of India flowers of the bastard teak (<i>Butea
+  frondosa</i>) make a favourite dye, from which are produced, by
+  blending with other dyes, a large number of shades ranging from
+  deep yellow to brownish copper tones. Another well known dye is
+  <i>Butti lac</i>, obtained from an insect, <i>Coccus lacca</i>,
+  that lives on the twigs of trees. It is a substitute for
+  cochineal and produces different shades of red, crimson, terra
+  cotta, and purple, according to the other dyes and the mordants
+  with which it is blended.</p>
+
+  <p>Besides these few dyes are innumerable others that are used
+  either singly or in combination. Furthermore, different colour
+  effects are produced by the application of different mordants,
+  which it is necessary to use for the reason that without them
+  many<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_40" id=
+  "Page_40">40</a></span> fibrous materials are unable to absorb a
+  large number of the dyes. The most valuable of all mordants is
+  alum; and the sulphate of iron and tin are largely employed in
+  the case of red colours. Of the vegetable mordants, pomegranate
+  rind, which contains some yellow colouring matter, is the best
+  known. Valonia also is sometimes used, as well as limes, lemons,
+  the fruit of the tamarind, and the mango.</p>
+
+  <p>In the monograph of Mr. Harris on the &ldquo;Carpet Weaving
+  Industry of Southern India&rdquo; are a number of directions from
+  an old manuscript owned by a dyer who stated that he was the
+  descendant of twenty generations of dyers who originally came
+  from Tabriz, and that he had made his copy from a Persian book of
+  dyes which had belonged to his grandfather. A few of these are
+  given below, because they show not only the dyes and mordants,
+  but also the methods employed.</p>
+
+  <p>&ldquo;Birbuls Blue. Take cinnabar, indigo, and alum, grind
+  and sift lighter than the light dust of the high hills; soak for
+  ten hours; keep stirring it; put in the wool and soak for many
+  hours. Boil for three hours; wash in kurd water, water in which
+  kurds and whey have been well beaten up; leave for three hours,
+  and then wash and beat again in water.</p>
+
+  <p>&ldquo;A Fine Indigo Blue. Take indigo, soak it in water for
+  twelve hours, grind it to a fine paste in a mortar, add some
+  <i>Terminalia citrina</i>, pomegranate peel, and alum; and mix
+  thoroughly. Boil; put the water into the hot bath and keep
+  stirring till cold. Now mix in some iron-filings water, and boil
+  steadily for another two and a half to three hours; wash with a
+  beating and dry.</p>
+
+  <p>&ldquo;Ruddy Brown Grey. Take sulphate of iron, <i>Terminalia
+  citrina</i>, oak galls, and alum; mix well; dry; then steep for
+  twenty-four hours. Put in the wool; soak it for twenty-four
+  hours, then boil for two or three hours. Dip in a soda-bath,
+  wash, and dry.</p>
+
+  <p>&ldquo;Cinnamon. Take oak galls, acacia bark, cinnabar, and
+  alum, and steep for a night. Put in the wool, and soak for twenty
+  or thirty hours; boil the water for two or three hours and give a
+  soda-bath wash; dip in acidulated water; and wash again with
+  beating.</p>
+
+  <p>&ldquo;Crimson. Take lac colour and cochineal. Steep for from
+  four to six days in the sun, in hot weather for the lesser time,
+  stirring constantly till a rich deep colour comes where some has
+  stood for a few minutes in a thin glass bottle and settled. Then
+  strain through two cloths, and put in pomegranate rind and good
+  iron-filings water. <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_41" id=
+  "Page_41">41</a></span>Add mineral acid; steep wool for
+  thirty-six hours, then boil for three hours, wash well, and
+  dry.</p>
+
+  <h4><i>COLOUR PLATE II&mdash;OUSHAK CARPET</i></h4>
+
+  <p><i>The colours and pattern of this antique Oushak are similar
+  to those of the best examples that remain of the carpets woven in
+  Asia Minor during the XV and XVI Centuries. The deep blue of the
+  central field, the rich red of the medallions, and the golden
+  yellow of the leaves are entirely unlike the more subdued hues
+  found in Persian rugs. Strongly contrasting with them are the
+  more delicate tones of the tendrils and leaves, which display in
+  their drawing a keen sense of refinement. In the formal pattern
+  of the field are stateliness and elegance; in the narrow borders
+  are simplicity and grace. Such colours and drawing show that the
+  early Asia Minor weavers had an intense appreciation of the
+  ennobling qualities of beauty and harmony.</i></p>
+
+  <p class="name"><i>Loaned by Mr. James F. Ballard</i></p>
+
+  <div class="figcenter" style="width: 550px;">
+    <a name="pii" id="pii"></a><img src="images/plate_ii.jpg"
+    width="550" height="774" alt="" title="" />
+  </div>
+
+  <p>&ldquo;Pale Greyish Green. Take copper rust, asburg,<a name=
+  "FNanchor_5" id="FNanchor_5"></a><a href="#Footnote_5" class=
+  "fnanchor">5</a> and alum. Mix well with any hot water, not
+  boiling; soak wool for eighteen hours, then boil for three hours.
+  Give a bath with water acidulated with some limes, and dry in
+  shade.</p>
+
+  <p>&ldquo;Old Gold and Rich Yellow. Take turmeric and asburg,
+  cinnabar and alum. Soak all night. Steep wool for twenty-four
+  hours, boil for four and a half hours, wash with a beating, and
+  dry in shade.</p>
+
+  <p>&ldquo;Dark Grey. Take of the fruit of <i>Cupressus
+  sempervirens</i>, seeds and seed pods of babul (<i>Acacia
+  arabica</i>), iron-filings water, and alum. Steep over night. Now
+  add the water and let it soak for twenty-four hours, then boil
+  for two or three hours, until the colour is right, then wash and
+  dry in the sun.</p>
+
+  <p>&ldquo;Rose Colour. Take ratanjot (<i>Onosma echioides</i>), a
+  thought of cochineal, manjit (<i>Rubia cordifolia</i>) or lac
+  colour a very little, and cinnabar. Add water, soak them for
+  twelve hours, put in wool, and steep for thirty-six hours; cook
+  it for three hours, then bathe the wool in alum and wash nicely;
+  afterward dry in the shade.</p>
+
+  <p>&ldquo;Persian Scarlet. Take lac colour, and if you choose a
+  little cochineal for richness, and soak from four to six days;
+  strain it in two cloths and add alum and a little turmeric; let
+  it stand for three hours. Put wool in and steep for twenty-four
+  hours, then boil for two hours. Take out the wool and add mineral
+  acid; re-enter wool and boil an hour more. Wash fifteen minutes
+  when cold, and dry in the shade.</p>
+
+  <p>&ldquo;Saffron Yellow. Take turmeric, cinnabar, and soda, add
+  water and keep for a full day. Then add some alum, make the dip,
+  and soak the wool for thirty hours. Cook it for several hours,
+  and dry in the shade after beating and good washing.</p>
+
+  <p>&ldquo;Rich Yellow. Take asburg and turmeric, soak for a night
+  in water, steep the wool for twenty-four hours, add alum, shake
+  out, and dry in shade.&rdquo;</p>
+
+  <p>Identical shades of a number of colours are not produced in
+  all parts of the Orient, not only for the reason that soil,
+  moisture, and climate affect the colour values of dye-stuff, but
+  because each family of dyers preserve inviolable the craft
+  secrets transmitted from their forefathers. Thus it happens that
+  different parts of the <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_42"
+  id="Page_42">42</a></span>rug-producing countries adhere to
+  particular tones that help to identify the locality where the
+  fabrics were woven.</p>
+
+  <p>Unfortunately the Western aniline dyes, which were introduced
+  about the year 1860 and quickly adopted because they are cheaper
+  and less complicated in their application, have to such an extent
+  transplanted some of these fine old vegetable dyes that a number
+  of the richest and most delicate colours found in the rugs of a
+  former century are no longer produced. Thus the superb blue of
+  the fine old Ispahans, as well as of lustre tiles and illuminated
+  manuscripts, belongs to a lost art. The disadvantages of the
+  aniline dyes are several: they have a tendency to make the fibres
+  of the textile fabric brittle, and when it is wet the colours
+  will frequently run. Some dyes also fade more readily than
+  others, so that if a colour be the product of two or more dyes,
+  the resultant tint may be totally unlike the original. On the
+  other hand, not all vegetable dyes are fast; but as they fade
+  they mellow into more pleasing shades. Efforts have been made to
+  encourage the use of old vegetable dyes; but unless the laws
+  which have been enacted in parts of Asia to restrict the
+  importation of aniline dyes be more stringently enforced than in
+  the past, the cultivation in the garden patch of the
+  dye-producing herbs and plants will soon cease to be the
+  time-honoured occupation it was in days gone by.</p>
+
+  <p>Almost as important as the art of preparing the dyes is that
+  of properly applying them to the yarns. It is an art that demands
+  infinite pains in its technique, as well as a lifetime to
+  acquire. It is in itself a separate profession practised by
+  artisans who guard with jealousy the sacred secrets that
+  transmitted from generation to generation occupy their thoughts
+  to the exclusion of almost everything else. The homes of these
+  professional dyers in the larger villages and cities are located
+  on a stream of water which possesses mineral properties that long
+  experience has proven especially suitable as solvents for the
+  different kinds of colouring matter. Ranged about the walls of
+  their low dwellings are jars or vats containing liquid dye of
+  various colours. Suspended above them, from hooks driven into
+  beams, are the yarns from which, after immersion in the proper
+  vats, the liquids are allowed to drain. After this the yarns are
+  exposed for the proper length of time to the dry air and burning
+  sun. It is, therefore, the suitable mordants, the preparation of
+  the proper dyes for the vats, the immersion of the yarn in
+  correct sequence and for the correct length of time, as well
+  <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_43" id=
+  "Page_43">43</a></span>as the exposure to the glare and heat of
+  the sun for a definite period to be gauged to the exact moment,
+  on which the colour results depend. This complicated process by
+  which, for instance, the infinitely different shades of a red, a
+  blue, or a brown may be conveyed to yarn by using the same dyes
+  but by slightly modifying the steps requires the greatest
+  precision, for which no rule but an experience amounting almost
+  to instinct is the guide.</p>
+
+  <div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;">
+    <a name="p06" id="p06"></a><img src="images/plate06.jpg"
+    width="500" height="826" alt="Plate 6. Feraghan Rug" title=
+    "" />
+
+    <p class="center"><span class="smcap">Plate 6. Feraghan
+    Rug</span></p>
+  </div>
+
+  <p>There was a time when the Oriental had not learned the meaning
+  of <i>tempus fugit</i> or seen the glitter of Western gold, when
+  his dyeing and weaving were proud callings, in which entered his
+  deepest feelings. Then the old vegetable dyes that mellow, grow
+  softer and more lustrous, were almost exclusively used; but now
+  throughout all weaving countries the dyer has deteriorated so
+  that he can no longer produce some of the rich colours in use
+  half a century ago. Yet remote from the principal lines of
+  travel, on the edges of the desert, in lonely valleys, among
+  rugged mountains, half-tamed tribes are still dyeing their
+  hand-spun yarn as did their fathers&rsquo; fathers.</p>
+  <hr />
+
+  <p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_44" id=
+  "Page_44">44</a></span></p>
+
+  <h3>CHAPTER V.</h3>
+
+  <h4>WEAVING</h4>
+
+  <p><span class="floatLeft"><img src="images/n.jpg" width="110" height="110" alt="N"
+  title="N" /></span>EAR the tents of some nomadic tribes may
+  occasionally be seen crude looms on which are woven some of the
+  most interesting rugs that now reach the Western markets. In all
+  probability they are not dissimilar to what were used thousands
+  of years ago, for it would be impossible to construct a simpler
+  loom. Where two trees suitably branching are found growing a few
+  feet apart, all of the upper branches are removed excepting two,
+  which are so trimmed as to leave a crotch at the same height in
+  each tree. In each crotch is rested the end of a pole or beam,
+  and parallel to it is placed another extending at a short
+  distance above the ground from trunk to trunk. Or, as is more
+  frequently the case, roughly hewn posts are firmly implanted in
+  the ground and horizontal beams are stretched between them. In
+  the upper one is a groove with a rod to which one end of the
+  warp, consisting of strong threads of yarn numbering from ten to
+  thirty to the inch, is attached, while the other end is tightly
+  stretched and firmly secured to the lower horizontal beam.
+  Sometimes the beams to which the warp is attached are placed
+  perpendicularly, so that the weaver may stand and move sideways
+  as the work progresses. But among a very large number of those
+  tribes that are constantly wandering in search of new pastures
+  for their flocks and herds, it is customary to let the loom lie
+  flat on the ground, while the weaver sits on the finished part of
+  the rug.</p>
+
+  <p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_45" id=
+  "Page_45">45</a></span></p>
+
+  <div class="figcenter" style="width: 550px;">
+    <a name="pa" id="pa"></a>
+    <img src="images/platea.jpg" width="550" height="1076" alt="Plate A.--An Upright Loom." title="" />
+
+    <p class="center"><span class="smcap">Plate A.&mdash;An Upright
+    Loom.</span></p>
+  </div>
+
+  <p>Under more favourable circumstances, when the tribes live in
+  villages or cities, the looms are so made that the weavers are
+  not compelled to bend in order to tie the first row of knots or
+  stand erect to finish the last rows of a long rug. Of the several
+  devices by which the weaver may remain seated while at work, the
+  crudest consists of a plank used as a seat, which rests on the
+  rungs of two ladders placed parallel to each other at the sides
+  of the rug. As <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_46" id=
+  "Page_46">46</a></span>the work progresses, the plank is raised
+  and rested upon the higher rungs. More frequently, however, both
+  upper and lower beams of the frame have the shape of cylinders of
+  small diameter, which revolve between the upright posts. The
+  lower ends of the threads of warp are attached to the lower beam,
+  and the other ends may either be wound several times around the
+  upper one or else pass over it and be kept taut by weights
+  attached to them. Such a loom is generally used for weaving very
+  large rugs, which are rolled up on the lower beam as the work
+  progresses.</p>
+
+  <p>In Plate <a href="#pa">A</a> (Page 45) is represented a loom
+  commonly used in many parts of the Orient. When preparing it for
+  weaving two stakes are driven in the ground at a suitable
+  distance apart, and about them the warp is wound in the way a
+  figure eight is formed. The warp is then carefully transferred to
+  two rods that are attached to the upper and lower beams. If it
+  has been carefully wound, none of the threads should be slack;
+  but if desired the tension may be further increased by different
+  devices. Two other rods, known as &ldquo;Healds,&rdquo; are then
+  attached to the front and back threads of warp; or in the case of
+  a single rod, it is attached to the back threads, as shown in the
+  Plate. A lease rod is next inserted between the threads of warp
+  that cross below the upper beam, and another is placed below it
+  where, if necessary, it is supported in position by loops. When
+  the weaving begins, a short web is generally woven at the lower
+  end to protect the knots from wear. After the first row has been
+  tied, the shuttle carrying the thread of weft is passed between
+  the front and back threads of warp; the heald rod attached to
+  these back threads is then pulled forward, so that they are now
+  in front of the others, and the shuttle is passed back. If the
+  rug is narrow, only one shuttle is used; but if the rug is wide,
+  or if the weft consists of two threads of unequal thickness, a
+  shuttle is passed across from each side. Every thread of warp is
+  in this way completely encircled by the thread of weft as it
+  passes and repasses. When weaving large rugs, there is an
+  advantage in having two heald rods, as by their use the distance
+  between the front and back threads of warp may be increased. The
+  object of the lease rod is to prevent any slack caused by drawing
+  forward the threads of warp, and is accomplished in a very simple
+  manner, as will be seen by studying the drawing; since when the
+  tension of the back threads is increased by drawing them forward,
+  the tension of the front threads is also increased by displacing
+  the lease rods which thereby stretches them.</p>
+
+  <div class="figcenter" style="width: 550px;">
+    <a name="p07" id="p07"></a><img src="images/plate07.jpg"
+    width="550" height="824" alt="Plate 7. Feraghan Rug" title=
+    "" />
+
+    <p class="center"><span class="smcap">Plate 7. Feraghan
+    Rug</span></p>
+  </div>
+
+  <p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_47" id=
+  "Page_47">47</a></span></p>
+
+  <p>The products of the loom are divided according to their weave
+  into three separate classes. The simplest of these are the
+  kilims, which are without pile and consist only of warp and weft
+  to which a few embroidered stitches representing some symbol are
+  occasionally added.</p>
+
+  <p>A more elaborately made class are the Soumaks. They consist of
+  warp covered by flat stitches of yarn and of a thread of weft
+  which extends across and back between each row of stitches in the
+  old rugs and between each second and third row of stitches in the
+  new rugs. In the narrow, perpendicular lines that define both
+  borders and designs the stitch is made by the yarn encircling two
+  adjacent threads of warp; but in other parts of the rug it is
+  made by the yarn passing across two adjacent threads of warp at
+  the front, and after encircling them at the back, recrossing them
+  again at the front. It is then continued across the next pair of
+  adjacent threads of warp. The result is that at the back of these
+  rugs each of the two threads of warp encircled by the yarn
+  appears as a separate cord, while at the front the yarn passes
+  diagonally across four threads of warp. As this diagonal movement
+  is reversed in each succeeding row, the surface has an uneven
+  appearance sometimes termed &ldquo;herring bone&rdquo; weave.</p>
+
+  <p>By far the largest class of rugs are those with a pile. When
+  making them, the weaver begins at the bottom and ties to each
+  pair of adjacent threads of warp a knot of yarn so as to form a
+  horizontal row. A thread of weft is then passed, as often as
+  desired, between the threads of warp and pressed more or less
+  firmly with a metal or wooden comb upon the knots, when they are
+  trimmed with a knife to the desired length. Another horizontal
+  row of knots is tied to the threads of warp; again the yarn of
+  weft is inserted; and so the process continues until the pile is
+  completed. In tying the knots, work almost invariably proceeds
+  from left to right and from the bottom to the top. It is but
+  rarely that the warp is stretched horizontally and that the knots
+  are tied in rows parallel to the sides. It is still more
+  infrequently that a rug is found in which the knots are tied by
+  working from the centre to the right and left, and to the top and
+  bottom. These interesting exceptions may easily be discovered by
+  rubbing the hand over the pile, when it will be noticed that the
+  knots lie on one another so as to face the same direction, which
+  is the opposite to that in which the work of tying advanced, or
+  as is generally the case, from top to bottom.</p>
+
+  <p>The compactness, durability, and value of a rug depend
+  somewhat <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_48" id=
+  "Page_48">48</a></span> on the number of knots in any particular
+  area. Yet if the yarn is coarse, the rug may be compact even
+  though the number of knots be small; and if the yarn is fine, the
+  rug may be loosely woven, either because the rows of knots have
+  not been firmly pressed down, or because there are several
+  &ldquo;filling threads&rdquo; of weft, and still the number of
+  knots be large. A square inch is a convenient size for
+  measurement; but since all parts of a rug are not woven with
+  equal compactness, the measurement should be made in several
+  places if exactness be required. In loosely woven pieces, such as
+  the Oushaks and some of the Genghas, there may be less than
+  twenty knots to the square inch; but among the more closely
+  woven, as the Kirmans and Bokharas, are frequently several
+  hundred.</p>
+
+  <p>These knots are of two classes, the Ghiordes and the Sehna.
+  The Ghiordes are found in all rugs of Asia Minor and Caucasia, in
+  some of the rugs of India, and in most of the rugs of Persia.
+  They are named after the town of Ghiordes in Asia Minor, where
+  some of the finest Asiatic pieces were made, and which tradition
+  states was once the ancient Gordion, noted even in the days of
+  Alexander. In tying the knot, the two ends of yarn appear
+  together at the surface included between two<a name="FNanchor_6"
+  id="FNanchor_6"></a><a href="#Footnote_6" class="fnanchor">6</a>
+  adjacent threads of warp around which they have been passed, so
+  that the tighter the yarn is drawn the more compact the knot
+  becomes. The three different ways of tying this knot are shown in
+  Plate <a href="#pb">B</a>, Figs. 1, 2, and 3 (Page 49), of which
+  the second is known as a &ldquo;right hand&rdquo; and the third
+  as a &ldquo;left hand&rdquo; knot. The Sehna knots, which are
+  used in the Turkoman, Chinese, many of the Persian, and in some
+  of the Indian rugs, take their name from the city of Sehna in
+  Persia. In tying them, a piece of yarn encircles a thread of warp
+  and is twisted so that its ends appear at the surface, one at
+  each side of the adjacent thread of warp, as is shown in Plate
+  <a href="#pb">B</a>, Figs. 4, 5, and 6. According as this thread
+  of warp is to the right or the left of the one they encircle, the
+  knots are known as &ldquo;right-hand&rdquo; or
+  &ldquo;left-hand&rdquo; knots,<a name="FNanchor_7" id=
+  "FNanchor_7"></a><a href="#Footnote_7" class="fnanchor">7</a> but
+  in the appearance of the carpet there is no distinction. If the
+  pile of a rug is carefully parted, the two ends of yarn forming a
+  Sehna knot can be separated; but with the Ghiordes knot this is
+  impossible, as will be understood by studying Plate <a href=
+  "#pb">B</a>, in which Figs. 1, 2, 3, 7, 8, and 9 are Ghiordes
+  knots, and Figs. 4, 5, 6, and 10 are Sehna knots. As a rule, the
+  Sehna knots, which permit of closer weaving and clearer
+  definition of pattern, appear in rugs of shorter nap.</p>
+
+  <p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_49" id=
+  "Page_49">49</a></span></p>
+
+  <div class="figcenter" style="width: 550px;">
+    <a name="pb" id="pb"></a><img src="images/plateb.jpg"
+    width="550" height="792" alt="Ghiordes knots." title="" />
+
+    <p class="indent"><span class="smcap">Plate
+    B</span>.&mdash;Nos. 1, 2, 3, 7, 8, 9, Ghiordes knots. Nos. 4,
+    5, 6, 10, Sehna knots. No. 11, Weft-overcasting. No. 12,
+    Double-overcasting. No. 13, Weft-selvage. No. 14,
+    Double-selvage. Nos. 15, 16, 17, illustrate one, two, and three
+    threads of weft passing between two rows of knots.</p>
+  </div>
+
+  <p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_50" id=
+  "Page_50">50</a></span>The nice distinctions in the technique of
+  weaving are rarely understood even by those who are familiar with
+  Oriental rugs. The general pattern, which next to colour is the
+  characteristic that most quickly arrests the attention, is often
+  the sole guide by which novices guess the class. The more
+  experienced will observe if the knot be Ghiordes or Sehna, and
+  examine the finish at the sides and ends; but few give the
+  peculiarities of the weave the consideration they deserve. This,
+  perhaps, is because only those who have made a special study
+  would believe the constancy with which members of a tribe or
+  locality have followed the same method of tying the knot and
+  inserting the weft. The different methods of treatment by
+  separate tribes are sometimes only slight, but they afford a most
+  important clue for determining the place of origin of doubtful
+  classes. In fact, nearly every class has a typical weave
+  differentiating it from all other classes. To be sure, there are
+  exceptions to the established type which are inevitable; since,
+  for instance, a man from the Feraghan district might marry a
+  woman from the adjoining Hamadan district, who, to please her
+  husband, might weave a rug with pattern common to his district
+  but follow the style of weaving that she has been familiar with
+  from childhood. Nevertheless, weavers of a particular district
+  adhere more closely to a typical style of weaving than they do to
+  any other characteristic of a rug. Nor is this surprising, since
+  weaving is learned in earliest childhood; and as it contains no
+  elements calculated to stimulate the imagination, it is
+  mechanically followed with stereotyped precision. An innovation
+  in pattern, by copying some strange designs that strike the
+  fancy, is far more likely. These distinctions in weaving may be
+  conveniently divided into those that affect the knot, the warp,
+  and the weft.<a name="FNanchor_8" id="FNanchor_8"></a><a href=
+  "#Footnote_8" class="fnanchor">8</a></p>
+
+  <p><span class="smcap">The Knot.</span>&mdash;Not only may a knot
+  be tied as a Ghiordes or a Sehna knot, but it may have other
+  distinguishing peculiarities; as, for instance, it may be of fine
+  or coarse wool. This is most conveniently observed at the back,
+  where it will be seen that the knots of rugs such as the Bokhara,
+  Kirman, Joshaghan, and Bergamo are tied with fine yarn; while the
+  knots of other rugs, as the Samarkand, <span class=
+  'pagenum'><a name="Page_51" id="Page_51">51</a></span> Bijar,
+  Gorevan, Kurdistan, Yuruk, and Kazak are tied with coarse yarn.
+  Whether the yarn be fine, medium, or coarse, all specimens of any
+  class will show a remarkable conformity. Also in some rugs the
+  knots are drawn very tight against the warp, while in others the
+  yarn encircles the warp loosely. Any one who has examined the
+  back of many Sarouks, Kashans, Kirmans, or Daghestans, and rubbed
+  the finger-nail against them, could not possibly mistake them for
+  a Shiraz, Kulah, Yuruk, or Karabagh, which are less tightly
+  woven. Again, as a result of using yarn in which the double
+  thread that forms two or more ply has been very loosely or very
+  tightly twisted together, there is some difference in the
+  direction or slant of the strands forming the yarn, where it
+  shows at the back, though this feature is not pronounced. For
+  example, in most Afghans, Yuruks, Bijars, and others the strands
+  of yarn where it crosses the warp in forming the knot lie for the
+  most part in a direction parallel to the weft; while in other
+  rugs, as Mosuls, Kurdistans, and Kazaks, the strands of yarn
+  slant irregularly. Furthermore, in some rugs, as the Melez and
+  Yuruks, as a result of the threads of yarn being strung rather
+  far apart, each half of a knot encircling a thread of warp stands
+  out at the back distinctly from the other with clear cut edges;
+  while in many rugs, as the Shiraz or Sehna, each half is very
+  closely pressed together. Also in some rugs, as Sarabends and
+  Afshars, each of these half knots where they show at the back
+  have the same length, measured in a direction parallel to the
+  warp, as width, measured in a direction parallel to the weft;
+  while in such rugs as the Kazaks, since the yarn generally
+  consists of several ply, the length exceeds the width; and in a
+  few rugs the length is less than the width.</p>
+
+  <p><span class="smcap">The Warp.</span>&mdash;The appearance of
+  the back of a rug is partly due to the relative positions of the
+  two threads of warp encircled by a knot. If, for instance, in any
+  Kazak a pin be thrust through the nap wherever a single
+  perpendicular line of one colour appears at the surface, it will
+  be seen that each of the two threads of warp encircled by a
+  single knot lie side by side with equal prominence. This is shown
+  in Plate <a href="#pb">B</a>, Figs. 7 and 7a (Page 49), in which
+  the former represents a section of a rug cut transversely to the
+  threads of warp, and the latter the appearance of the rug at the
+  back. The same will be found true of Beluchistans, Feraghans,
+  Yuruks, and many others. If, however, a Kulah, Persian-Kurdish,
+  or Karabagh be similarly examined, it will be seen that one
+  thread of warp to<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_52" id=
+  "Page_52">52</a></span> each knot is depressed, so that the back
+  has a slightly corrugated appearance (as in Plate <a href=
+  "#pb">B</a>, Figs. 8 and 8a). And in the case of a Bijar or
+  Sarouk it will be seen that one thread of warp, included in every
+  knot, has been doubled under so as to be entirely concealed from
+  view; with the result that the foundation of warp has a double
+  thickness, which makes the rug much stronger, as in Plate
+  <a href="#pb">B</a>, Fig. 9, representing a Ghiordes knot, and
+  Fig. 10 representing a Sehna knot. To be sure, it occasionally
+  happens that in rugs of a particular class some may have each
+  thread of warp included in a knot equally prominent and others
+  may have one slightly depressed; or that in rugs of another class
+  some may have one thread of warp depressed and others may have it
+  entirely concealed; but as a rule these tribal features show a
+  remarkable constancy. These relative positions of the two threads
+  of warp encircled by a knot are partly due to the degree of
+  closeness with which the threads of warp are strung, also partly
+  to the method of inserting the threads of weft or
+  &ldquo;filling&rdquo; between the rows of knots; but more than
+  all else they are due to the way one end of the knots is pulled
+  when they are tied.</p>
+
+  <p><span class="smcap">The Weft.</span>&mdash;In the character
+  and arrangement of weft are technical differences that are more
+  serviceable than any other feature for distinguishing between the
+  rugs of different tribes and districts. So subtle are some of
+  them that they can be learned only by long and painstaking study,
+  and are appreciated by few except native weavers. Nevertheless,
+  to any one who will carefully examine almost any well-known
+  classes, it will be apparent that these differences in the weave
+  are real, and that they are sufficiently constant to
+  differentiate one class from another. The fine brown weft of the
+  Bokhara, or equally fine bluish weft of a Sarouk that is almost
+  concealed between firmly tied knots; the fine thread of cotton
+  weft passing but once between two rows of knots and covered only
+  by the transverse warp of the Sehna; the coarse thread of cotton
+  weft similarly passing but once between two rows of knots in the
+  Hamadan; the coarse thread of cotton weft that once crossing and
+  recrossing appears irregularly between appressed rows of knots in
+  Kermanshahs; the bead-like appearance of the threads of weft
+  that, as a rule, pass many times between two rows of knots in
+  Genghas; the crudely spun weft of coarse diameter crossing and
+  recrossing once between the rows of knots in modern Mosuls; the
+  very fine reddish brown weft that entirely conceals from view the
+  warp in old Bergamos, &mdash;are features peculiar to these
+  separate classes with which <span class='pagenum'><a name=
+  "Page_53" id="Page_53">53</a></span>every rug expert is familiar.
+  The weft of many other classes is equally distinctive, though
+  there are exceptions to the types. It should be remembered,
+  however, that the weave of many rugs woven over a hundred and
+  fifty years ago is different from the weave of rugs woven only
+  fifty years ago; and that many modern pieces cheaply made for
+  commercial purposes are more crudely woven than were the same
+  classes thirty years ago.</p>
+
+  <div class="figcenter" style="width: 450px;">
+    <a name="p08" id="p08"></a><img src="images/plate08.jpg"
+    width="450" height="835" alt="Plate 8. Hamadan Rug" title="" />
+
+    <p class="center"><span class="smcap">Plate 8. Hamadan
+    Rug</span></p>
+  </div>
+
+  <p>These distinctions in the weft relate to the material of which
+  it is made, its colour, the size of the diameter, the way in
+  which it is spun, to its loose or compressed condition between
+  separate rows of knots, as well as to the number of times it
+  crosses the warp between them, and to whether it is inserted with
+  much or little slack. Most rugs are woven with woollen weft of a
+  natural colour, but occasionally it has a reddish brown, a blue,
+  or a yellow tint. When cotton, jute, or hemp are used, they are
+  almost invariably of natural colour; only in a very few pieces,
+  as some of the Kulahs, are both wool and jute ever used in the
+  same piece. The weft of some classes, as Bokharas, Sarouks, and
+  Bergamos, is of a very small diameter, and of others, as the
+  Hamadans and Kurdistans, it is of relatively large diameter. In
+  some classes, as the Karajes and Genghas, the weft is tightly
+  spun like twine; while in the Beluchistans, Mosuls, and
+  Kurdistans it is loosely spun, so that the projecting fibres of
+  wool give a rough appearance to its surface.</p>
+
+  <p>Also the weavers of some districts invariably compress very
+  firmly the yarn of weft between every two rows of knots, while
+  other weavers compress it only to a slight degree; as, for
+  instance, in the Afghan, Tabriz, and Kirman the rows of knots are
+  pressed down so firmly that the weft is almost concealed at the
+  back and the transverse threads of warp are entirely covered;
+  whilst, on the other hand, in the Karabagh or Kazak between every
+  two rows of knots the weft and part of the transverse threads of
+  warp are exposed to view. According as the rows of knots are
+  pressed down upon the threads of weft or not, one of the two
+  halves of each separate knot, as shown at the back, may extend
+  slightly or very much beyond the other in the direction of the
+  length of the rug, or each of them may lie in a straight line at
+  right angles to the warp. Comparing Kazak, Kutais, and Tiflis
+  rugs, for example, it will be noticed that as a rule the line
+  thus formed in Tiflis rugs is nearly an even, clear cut line at
+  right angles to the warp, that in the Kutais part of one knot
+  extends beyond the other, while in Kazaks this unevenness is even
+  more <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_54" id=
+  "Page_54">54</a></span> conspicuous. Or again, if typical
+  Shirvans, Kabistans, and Daghestans be compared, it will be
+  noticed that in Shirvans the half-knots, or parts of the knot
+  encircling the two adjacent threads of warp, are often inclined
+  at an angle of at least thirty degrees to the line of weft so as
+  to present a serrated appearance, but that the alignment formed
+  by knots of Daghestans is nearly even, and that of Kabistans is
+  intermediate. To be sure, there are exceptions to this rule, but
+  these features are remarkably constant.</p>
+
+  <p>The number of times that a thread of weft is inserted between
+  two rows of knots varies with the practice of different
+  localities, but is almost constant in each locality. Weavers of
+  Sehna rugs insert only a single thread of weft between every two
+  rows of knots, which winds in front of and behind alternate
+  threads of warp, with the result that the back of these rugs have
+  a checkered or quincunx appearance, caused by minute portions of
+  exposed warp and weft crossing each other at right angles. In
+  Hamadans a much heavier thread of weft passes only once before
+  and behind alternate threads of warp, so that the appearance of
+  the weave is very similar to that of Sehnas.<a name="FNanchor_9"
+  id="FNanchor_9"></a><a href="#Footnote_9" class="fnanchor">9</a>
+  In almost all other rugs the weft crosses twice, that is, across
+  and back once, between every two rows of knots so as to
+  completely encircle each thread of warp. The weave of a few rugs,
+  as some Anatolians, shows the weft crossing three times, that is,
+  twice in one direction and once in the opposite direction. In the
+  Genghas, Tcherkess, Bergamos, and in many rugs over one hundred
+  and fifty years old, the threads of weft frequently cross many
+  times; and it is not unusual for the number to vary in different
+  parts of the same rug. In Plate <a href="#pb">B</a>, Figs. 15,
+  16, and 17 (Page 49), is illustrated the appearance of the back
+  of rugs in which a thread of weft crosses once, twice, and three
+  times between two adjacent rows of knots. There are likewise rugs
+  in which the number varies with methodical regularity; for
+  instance, in Khorassans it is usual to find an extra thread of
+  weft inserted at intervals of every few rows of knots; in many
+  Herats the threads of weft cross twice between several successive
+  rows of knots, then three times between the following several
+  rows, and so continue to alternate; and in some of the Kulahs a
+  thread of woollen weft that crosses twice alternates with a
+  single coarser thread of jute.</p>
+
+  <p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_55" id=
+  "Page_55">55</a></span>As the shuttle passes back and forth, the
+  thread of weft may be allowed considerable slack, so that when it
+  is pressed down by the comb it will fit about the sides of the
+  warp; or it may be drawn tightly across, so that it has a
+  tendency to displace the threads of warp. If, for instance, a
+  Hamadan and one of the Feraghans which, unlike the majority of
+  them, has only one thread of weft crossing between the rows of
+  knots, be examined, it will be seen that in the Hamadan the weft
+  crosses with hardly any slack, so that the warp stands out
+  clearly and well defined at the back; but that in the Feraghan
+  the weft crosses with much slack, so that it folds about the
+  warp, which accordingly seems slightly imbedded in it at the
+  back. In some rugs the weft is passed across once with very
+  slight slack, and as it recrosses it is allowed much slack. These
+  features of the weave, which are followed with remarkable
+  constancy in the same class, can be observed to advantage in a
+  fragment of a rug cut transversely to the direction of the warp.
+  If, for instance, the weft which crosses and recrosses between
+  the rows of knots be carefully removed so as not to disturb its
+  mould, it will be noticed in the case of many rugs that each
+  thread of yarn has a similar shape of moderately deep
+  undulations, which show how it conformed to the warp and indicate
+  how slack it was when inserted. In the case of a few rugs, as the
+  Luristans, each thread will likewise have similar undulations,
+  but they will be very prominent. If, on the other hand, the weft
+  be removed from some classes, as the Tabriz, Sarouk, and Kashan,
+  one of the two threads will be almost straight or have slight
+  undulations, while the other thread will have deep undulations.
+  The weft of the Herez, Herats, old Khorassans, and Koniehs have
+  the same peculiarities, excepting that the thread with very
+  slight undulations is of three or four ply, while the other is of
+  a single ply.</p>
+
+  <p>The only instruments employed in weaving are the knife, comb,
+  and scissors. The first is used, after each row of knots has been
+  tied, to cut the ends of yarn to nearly the proper length; the
+  second, to press firmly each row of knots; and the last, to trim
+  the nap with care, so that the finished product may present an
+  even and compact appearance.</p>
+
+  <p><span class="smcap">Finish of Sides.</span>&mdash;As the sides
+  are constantly exposed to wear weavers of different districts
+  strengthen them in different ways, which may be designated as
+  Weft Overcasting, Double Overcasting, Weft Selvage, Double
+  Selvage, and Added Selvage. Each of these terms, though not
+  euphonious, suggests the method employed. <span class=
+  'pagenum'><a name="Page_56" id="Page_56">56</a></span> In Weft
+  Overcasting (Plate <a href="#pb">B</a>, Fig. 11, Page 49) the
+  thread of weft, after encircling the threads of warp to which the
+  knots are tied, is wound about a much heavier cord that is strung
+  at the side of the rug for a space equal to the thickness of the
+  knots. It then partly encircles the threads of warp between the
+  next two rows of knots as it passes to the other side, when it is
+  wound about the heavy cord there. As this process continues, the
+  cords at the sides are completely overcast with the thread of
+  weft. When the sides have a Double Overcasting (Plate <a href=
+  "#pb">B</a>, Fig. 12), heavy yarn is wound about the cord that
+  has previously been encircled by the weft. Frequently several
+  threads of yarn take the place of a single heavy cord. Weft
+  Selvage (Plate <a href="#pb">B</a>, Fig. 13) is made by placing
+  two or more heavy cords instead of a single one at the side of
+  the warp, and encircling them by the weft in figure-eight
+  fashion. As they extend beyond the rows of knots they form a
+  plain flat selvage. The Double Selvage (Plate <a href=
+  "#pb">B</a>, Fig. 14) is used among nomadic tribes such as the
+  Beluches and Afghans, whose rugs receive an unusual amount of
+  hard wear, so that an extra selvage is necessary. In adding this
+  extra selvage the threads of weft are carried about the heavy
+  cords, as in weft selvage, and then the extra yarn is wound over
+  it in figure-eight fashion so as again to encircle the heavy
+  cords. In Added Selvage the heavy cords are not encircled by the
+  weft, but are attached to the side of the rug by the extra yarn
+  that winds about them figure-eight fashion, and also encircles
+  two or more adjoining threads of warp. Sometimes also the selvage
+  is &ldquo;Mixed,&rdquo; or made by the weft encircling only one
+  or two of the heavy cords, and then an extra yarn is wound about
+  these and the remaining cord or cords. Moreover, the Double
+  Overcasting and Double Selvage may be &ldquo;attached&rdquo; more
+  firmly to the sides of the rug by the yarn passing in
+  figure-eight fashion about the adjacent thread or threads of warp
+  between the two rows of knots. When a Double Overcasting is thus
+  &ldquo;attached,&rdquo; it is somewhat similar to a two-cord
+  Double Selvage.</p>
+
+  <p>These are the principal methods of finishing the sides, though
+  they are sometimes modified by tribal customs. Simple as they
+  seem, skill is required in both overcasting and making the
+  selvage; for if carelessly done the sides are frequently made to
+  curl. This is occasionally found to be the defect of old rugs,
+  the worn sides of which have been recently overcast by
+  inexperienced weavers. When such is the case, removing the
+  stitches and overcasting with more care will remove the
+  defect.</p>
+
+  <div class="figcenter" style="width: 550px;">
+    <a name="p09" id="p09"></a><img src="images/plate09.jpg"
+    width="550" height="856" alt="Plate 9. Sarouk Rug" title="" />
+
+    <p class="center"><span class="smcap">Plate 9. Sarouk
+    Rug</span></p>
+  </div>
+
+  <p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_57" id=
+  "Page_57">57</a></span><span class="smcap">Finish of
+  Ends.</span>&mdash;The ends, which receive more attention than
+  the sides, are treated in several different ways; and in many
+  rugs a distinction exists between the treatment of each end. The
+  simplest finish is where the warp and weft are woven like the
+  threads of a kilim, and extend beyond the pile as a web, which
+  may be exceedingly short, or, as in Beluches and Afghans, several
+  inches long. Frequently the ends are finished by a selvage formed
+  by cords heavier than the weft braided into the warp; or the
+  upper end may be doubled back and hemmed. It is not unusual to
+  find both web and selvage; but though the finish be web, selvage,
+  or web and selvage, the warp of the end finished last generally
+  forms a fringe, and often each end will have a fringe. Sometimes
+  each separate thread of warp hangs loose; sometimes a number a
+  foot or more in length are twisted together in cords; and again
+  they are knotted or are tied to one another diagonally so as to
+  form a network from which hang the loose ends. Very frequently
+  the loops formed by the warp that encircled the rod extend beyond
+  the web at the lower end of the rug, or else are braided about
+  the ultimate thread of weft in the web. Though the warp and weft
+  are generally undyed in the body of the rug, the web of the ends
+  is very frequently coloured. Some of the webs, particularly those
+  of the Beluches, are embroidered; and through others, as the
+  Kurdistans, a parti-coloured cord runs transversely; still
+  others, as Bergamos, are adorned with shells, beads, or other
+  articles to avert the evil eye.</p>
+
+  <p>In the study of rugs it should be remembered that the effect
+  of rough usage is so considerable that in old pieces the webs of
+  the ends have frequently disappeared, leaving short fringes
+  composed of the ends of warp from which some rows of knots have
+  been removed, and that recent overcasting of the sides may take
+  the place of former selvage.</p>
+
+  <p>The many characteristics of knot, warp, weft, sides, and ends,
+  with all the variations made by innumerable tribes, remarkably
+  constant in their methods, are technical peculiarities that are
+  uninteresting to those who feel only an aesthetic interest in
+  rugs, yet they demand the most careful consideration of whoever
+  would learn to differentiate accurately between the many classes.
+  Though admitting of exceptions, these peculiarities are real and
+  definite, yet their analyses often require the subtlest
+  perception of small though exact distinctions, without which
+  expert understanding would be impossible.</p>
+  <hr />
+
+  <p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_58" id=
+  "Page_58">58</a></span></p>
+
+  <h3>CHAPTER VI</h3>
+
+  <h4>DESIGNS AND SYMBOLS</h4>
+
+  <p><span class="floatLeft"><img src="images/h.jpg" width="110" height="110" alt="H"
+  title="H" /></span>OWEVER well woven, however resplendent in rich
+  modulations of colour, Oriental rugs would quickly lose their
+  fascination if in patterns and designs there were not at least
+  some partial expression of the simple lives of the people, of
+  their religious feelings, and of that veiled mysticism which
+  pervades the thought of every Eastern race.</p>
+
+  <p>In all nomadic rugs as well as in many others are innumerable
+  reminders of common life. It may be only crude outlines of the
+  goat or camel, or realistically drawn rose and lily; but even
+  these are suggestive of associations.</p>
+
+  <p>Religion, too, exercised on the character of rugs an important
+  influence, which is expressed in the symbolism of both designs
+  and colour. Without a doubt, some of these well-known designs
+  have been transmitted from the earliest times, and were once
+  associated with different forms of idolatry. Thus, among the old
+  Babylonians the sun and moon, which are sometimes seen in the old
+  pieces, represented particular deities; and very many of the
+  oldest Chinese rugs that remain also contain symbols of their
+  deities. In the early religion of Iran, which over 1000 years
+  <span class="smcap">b.c.</span> was reduced to a system by
+  Zoroaster, the elements were worshipped, so that designs
+  representing these elements would likewise represent the divine
+  forces they personified. This ancient fire worship of the
+  Parsees, which even to-day has a few devotees in parts of Persia,
+  and the kindred sun worship have added much to the symbolism of
+  Oriental rugs. Buddhism also has contributed its share; and with
+  the spread of Mohammedanism appeared a Saracenic influence that
+  is frequently recognised. Even the two great sects of Mohammedan
+  followers, the Shiites and Sunnites, have had distinct effects in
+  the use of designs, as the former employed animal figures and the
+  latter prohibited them.</p>
+
+  <div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;">
+    <a name="p10" id="p10"></a><img src="images/plate10.jpg"
+    width="500" height="790" alt="Plate 10. Sarabend Rug" title=
+    "" />
+
+    <p class="center"><span class="smcap">Plate 10. Sarabend
+    Rug</span></p>
+  </div>
+
+  <p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_59" id=
+  "Page_59">59</a></span>There was, moreover, a symbolism that in a
+  manner expressed the vague philosophic teachings of the ancient
+  races. It was but natural that the early weaver engaged in
+  tedious sedentary work, often requiring many months of constant
+  application to complete, should endeavour to express therein not
+  only artistic taste, but also the spirit of his innermost
+  thoughts. So as he wove he sometimes left the result, though
+  poorly defined and little understood to-day, of that struggle to
+  interpret the great mysteries of the visible and unseen universe,
+  from which arose the crude beginnings of philosophy.<a name=
+  "FNanchor_10" id="FNanchor_10"></a><a href="#Footnote_10" class=
+  "fnanchor">10</a></p>
+
+  <p>The patterns, however, of many Oriental rugs are chiefly
+  decorative. Even a casual examination shows that in all of them
+  the coloured knots of the surface represent a border surrounding
+  a central field. The former serves much the same function to the
+  latter as a frame to a picture; yet its office is in no wise
+  subordinate. Nor is there any part of the pattern more useful in
+  determining the place of its origin. For this reason it is well
+  to clearly define the special names which in this work are
+  applied to its different parts. The lineal divisions are
+  designated &ldquo;Stripes,&rdquo; though they are frequently
+  spoken of as separate borders. At or near the centre of the
+  border is the main stripe, which is generally accompanied by a
+  much narrower pair, one on each side, known as &ldquo;Guard
+  stripes.&rdquo; Very narrow stripes are sometimes called
+  &ldquo;Ribbon stripes,&rdquo; and those of only one or two knots
+  in width are called &ldquo;Lines.&rdquo; The latter are of solid
+  colour or have the simplest geometric device. The decoration of
+  the ribbon stripes is also necessarily simple; but in the main
+  stripe of artistic rugs the patterns are often exceedingly
+  elaborate, of exquisite colours, and co-ordinate in character
+  with those of the field.</p>
+
+  <p>The fields display even greater diversity of pattern than the
+  <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_60" id=
+  "Page_60">60</a></span>borders. Frequently they are covered with
+  a heterogeneous mass of detached and unrelated figures, as in
+  many of the nomadic rugs; or, on the other hand, are entirely
+  covered with repetitive patterns, as in the Turkomans; or with
+  intricate and correlated designs, as in the diaper and floral
+  patterns of so many of the Persian and Indian rugs. Others
+  consist of a background of solid colour on which appear isolated
+  formal designs, as in some of the Khorassans, or medallions on
+  which are represented smaller figures, as in some of the old
+  Sehnas and Feraghans. Occasionally the medallions are so large as
+  to extend to the sides and ends of the fields, and thus separate
+  the corners into nearly triangular shaped sections, such as are
+  characteristic of a number of Persian and one or two Caucasian
+  rugs. In a few of the latter, also, the fields are covered with
+  large geometric figures suggesting the medallions. It is only
+  within comparatively modern times that weavers have used solid
+  colours for large portions of the fields. The intent no doubt was
+  a saving in labour and pains, but the effect is frequently most
+  gratifying; as when, for instance, the space beneath the arch of
+  Asia Minor prayer rugs is of a uniform red, blue, or cream,
+  relieved only by a gracefully suspended lamp, the tree of life,
+  or some other emblem of immortality.</p>
+
+  <p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_61" id=
+  "Page_61">61</a></span></p>
+
+  <div class="figcenter" style="width: 550px;">
+    <a name="pc" id="pc"></a><img src="images/platec.jpg"
+    width="550" height="851" alt="Plate C.--Prayer Arches of Persian, Caucasian, and Central Asiatic Rugs"
+    title="" />
+
+    <p class="center"><span class="smcap">Plate C.&mdash;Prayer
+    Arches of Persian, Caucasian, and Central Asiatic
+    Rugs</span></p>
+
+    <p class="center3">No. 1, Antique silk. No. 2, Kermanshah. No.
+    3, Khorassan. No. 4, Sarouk. No. 5, Persian, XVI Century. No.
+    6, Kashan. No. 7, Feraghan. No. 8, Shiraz. No. 9, Daghestan,
+    Kabistan, Shirvan, Chichi, Kazak, Karabagh. No. 10, Kazak. No.
+    11, Shirvan. No. 12, Karabagh (not usual). No. 13, Beluchistan.
+    No. 14, Bokhara, Tekke. No. 15, Khiva. No. 16, Beshire.</p>
+  </div>
+
+  <p>The patterns of prayer rugs are not only pleasing, but have a
+  peculiar importance, as weavers of certain sections of the
+  country adhere so strictly to time-honoured traditions that the
+  shape of the arch, or mihrab, which is the principal feature,
+  often denotes the class, as well as the group, to which they
+  belong. Some of these arches are illustrated in Plates <a href=
+  "#pc">C</a> and <a href="#pd">D</a> (Pages 61 and 63), from which
+  it will be seen that in Persian rugs they are formed by
+  gracefully curving lines, but that in rugs of other groups, with
+  the exception of a very few old Ghiordes pieces, they are
+  geometric. The peculiarities of the arches of the several
+  classes, also, are observable; as those of the Beluchistans,
+  which are rectilinear and relatively high, and those of the
+  Bokharas, which are tent-shaped, flat, and small. In the
+  Caucasian group they have a marked resemblance to one another and
+  also to those of the Turkoman rugs, but are larger than the
+  latter. Again, the arch of almost all Asia Minor rugs rises
+  higher than those of any others, excepting the Persian, and
+  extends from one side of the field to the other. In many of them
+  a panel is placed above the spandrel, and occasionally a second
+  panel is placed beneath the field. Above the niche of some Asia
+  Minor and Caucasian prayer rugs <span class='pagenum'><a name=
+  "Page_62" id="Page_62">62</a></span>is woven a small rhomboidal
+  figure, where the suppliant plants the pebble or bit of earth
+  that he has brought from Mecca; and at the sides of a few arches
+  are crude figures, where are placed the hands during the act of
+  worship. More than one arch is the exception; but now and then
+  are seen two and even four, one above the other, or several
+  parallel to one another. These and other special features
+  associated with prayer rugs will be considered more fully in
+  subsequent chapters.</p>
+
+  <p>The smaller designs that appear in rugs and compose the
+  general pattern are distinguished as geometric and floral
+  ornamentation. The former is adopted in those countries where the
+  population is principally nomadic; and the latter is the accepted
+  style in countries where exist numerous towns and cities in which
+  the arts have been cultivated and where a large percentage of the
+  population have enjoyed an advanced state of society. Thus in
+  Caucasia, Turkestan, Afghanistan, and Beluchistan geometric
+  designs are characteristic of the rugs; but in China, India,
+  Persia, and part of Asia Minor floral designs prevail. Sir George
+  Birdwood, an eminent authority on Oriental rugs, has made the
+  statement that the geometric designs are found among the lower
+  Turanian and the floral among the higher Aryan. But it seems most
+  probable that the adoption of the geometric or floral style of
+  ornamentation is due not so much to racial distinctions as to the
+  state to which the textile art had advanced among the different
+  peoples and to the waves of influence that at times spread over
+  the countries. Thus the early rugs of Asia Minor had patterns
+  that were more geometric than those of later times, and during
+  the period when the Mongols ruled in Persia geometric patterns
+  were more frequently employed in the rugs of that country than
+  subsequently.</p>
+
+  <p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_63" id=
+  "Page_63">63</a></span></p>
+
+  <div class="figcenter" style="width: 550px;">
+    <a name="pd" id="pd"></a><img src="images/plated.jpg"
+    width="550" height="866" alt="Plate D.--Prayer Arches of Asia Minor Rugs" title=
+    "" />
+
+    <p class="center"><span class="smcap">Plate D.&mdash;Prayer
+    Arches of Asia Minor Rugs</span></p>
+
+    <p class="center3">Nos. 1, 2, 3, 4, Ghiordes. Nos. 5, 6, 7,
+    Kulah. No. 8, Ladik. Nos. 9, 10, Bergamo. Nos. 11, 12, Melez.
+    No. 13, Kir-shehr, Mudjar. Nos. 14, 15, Konieh. No. 16,
+    Anatolian.</p>
+  </div>
+
+  <p>In all rugs, however, some trace of the floral design appears.
+  Even in the Turkoman weavings, the pattern of which is strictly
+  geometric, some vestige of the tree of life is manifest. In the
+  fields of Caucasian rugs, in which are represented squares,
+  octagons, triangles, diagonals, lozenges, stars, etc., the
+  weavers have depicted designs that are almost as geometric as
+  those of the Turkoman rugs by which they have been influenced;
+  but, on the other hand, large numbers of the border designs are
+  distinctly floral. In the rugs of China and Asia Minor are found
+  both geometric and floral ornamentation, the latter predominating
+  in pieces woven during the last two centuries, and the former in
+  those of earlier date. Among &gt;<span class='pagenum'><a name=
+  "Page_64" id="Page_64">64</a></span> the woven fabrics of India
+  and Persia, however, few traces of the geometric pattern remain;
+  but vines, leaves, and flowers form the favourite theme for
+  decoration.</p>
+
+  <p>The floral patterns are the result of many centuries of
+  growth, that reached its highest development in the Persian
+  carpets of the XVI and XVII Centuries; and since then till the
+  present time they have continued as the most characteristic
+  features of the rugs of that country and India. They represent
+  the highest technique of the weaver. In the borders are generally
+  represented vines from which are pendant rosettes, palmettes, or
+  flowers; and in the fields, particularly those of the fine
+  antique rugs, are a profusion of floral forms realistically
+  portrayed. On long, gracefully twining and intertwining stems is
+  often the rose, pink, violet, lotus, crocus, narcissus, or daisy.
+  But if the rug is more modern, in its field of uniform colour may
+  be represented a central medallion covered with delicate tracings
+  enriched by bright-coloured conventionalised flowers.</p>
+
+  <p>In the general pattern of all rugs are interwoven particular
+  designs or motives that give them a distinctive character and
+  render the greatest assistance in distinguishing the groups and
+  classes. Thus the serrated leaf and wine cup (Plate <a href=
+  "#pi">I</a>, Fig. 1, opp. Page 226) is found only in Caucasian
+  and old Armenian rugs; and the design represented in Plate
+  <a href="#ph">H</a>, Fig. 10 (opp. Page 194), suggestive of some
+  Chinese character, is found almost exclusively in Kulahs. Not
+  only are all designs important as aids in classification, but
+  they have a special interest, as it is maintained by writers of
+  the highest authority that when employed by the earliest weavers
+  each had a symbolic meaning. To be sure, the origin of many has
+  been lost in the remote past and is unknown even to those who now
+  employ them; but others still represent definite ideas, as they
+  did centuries ago, and portray to some extent the thought of the
+  weaver. They therefore deserve the most careful study.</p>
+
+  <div class="figcenter" style="width: 550px;">
+    <a name="p11" id="p11"></a><img src="images/plate11.jpg"
+    width="550" height="779" alt="Plate 11. Carpet from Northwestern Persia" title="" />
+
+    <p class="center"><span class="smcap">Plate 11. Carpet from
+    Northwestern Persia</span></p>
+
+    <p class="center">Loaned by C. F. Williams, Esq., to the
+    Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York</p>
+  </div>
+
+  <p>Few of these designs have been transmitted from a more remote
+  past or have been more universally employed than has been the
+  figure <img class="floatInsert" src="images/ssign.jpg" width="22" height="27" alt=
+  "Symbol: S" /> or <img class="floatInsert" src=
+  "images/hssign.jpg" width="22" height="28" alt="Symbol: horizontal S" />. It appears in
+  each of the groups of Oriental rugs excepting the Chinese; and
+  two of the forms it assumes are exceedingly like the arms of the
+  swastika and parts of the fret as occasionally seen in Chinese
+  designs. In Indian rugs it is rarely found except in the borders,
+  which may have been copied from those of other countries. It is
+  very commonly seen in the Beluchistans, <span class=
+  'pagenum'><a name="Page_65" id="Page_65">65</a></span>Tekkes, and
+  Beshires, of the Central Asiatic group; and in the rugs of the
+  Persian group that show nomadic influences. There is probably not
+  a single class of the Caucasian group, nor any of the Asia Minor
+  group, with the exception of the old Ghiordes, in which it is not
+  sometimes represented. It may be seen near the corner of the Asia
+  Minor &ldquo;Dragon and Ph&oelig;nix&rdquo; carpet of the XIV
+  Century, illustrated in Plate <a href="#p20">20</a> (opp. Page
+  88); and appears in some of the old Armenian carpets, which are
+  believed to be even older. That it was associated with sun
+  worship and regarded as an emblem of light and the deity is the
+  accepted belief. It is possible, however, that it was intended by
+  some weavers to represent the serpent, which among many different
+  races is emblematic of superhuman knowledge.</p>
+
+  <p>Probably no other design has been more universally employed
+  than the swastika, which appears in the textile fabrics of North
+  American Indians, on the Maya ruins of Yucatan, among the
+  monuments of the Nile, and on the temples of India. Widely as is
+  its distribution, its most usual form of intersecting right
+  angles is found in each of these countries. It is not improbable
+  that it originated in China, where it is a most common decorative
+  motive, and was almost invariably represented in the borders and
+  in many of the medallions of rugs woven before the beginning of
+  the XVIII Century. It is also very frequently seen in the rugs of
+  Samarkand, and occasionally in those of Caucasia. It seldom
+  appears in the rugs of Persia, Asia Minor, or Turkestan. The
+  universality of the design indicates its great antiquity, yet its
+  primitive symbolic meaning of abundance, fertility, and
+  prosperity has never been lost. Some of its different forms are
+  shown in Plate <a href="#po">O</a>, Figs. 5a, 5b, 5c, 5d, 5e, and
+  5f (Page 291).</p>
+
+  <p>The reciprocal trefoil (Plate <a href="#pf">F</a>, Fig. 17,
+  opp. Page 158) is a very usual design in Caucasian and Persian
+  rugs; it is often found in some of the rugs of India and in
+  Beluchistans, but is very rarely seen in other classes of the
+  Central Asiatic or in the Chinese and Asia Minor groups. Its
+  origin is uncertain, but since it appears in the &ldquo;Polish
+  Carpets&rdquo; and other antique Persian carpets of strictly
+  floral pattern, where its drawing is more elaborate than in
+  modern rugs, it is not improbable that it is the conventionalised
+  form of the lily or a spray bearing three leaves, and that it has
+  the emblematic significance of the tree form.</p>
+
+  <p>Among all primitive races the sun, moon, and stars have been
+  associated with their religion, so that it is surprising that so
+  few<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_66" id=
+  "Page_66">66</a></span> emblems of them are recognised in rugs.
+  In the theology of the Chaldees, from which the earliest weavers
+  must have received inspiration, the sun was regarded as one of
+  their principal deities and the moon as another. The sun is
+  generally represented by a plain circle, a circle with diameters
+  intersecting at right angles, or a circle with small ovals
+  intersecting at right angles; the moon is represented by the
+  crescent. Of much more frequent occurrence is the eight-pointed
+  star, another inheritance of those ancient times when all
+  primitive races worshipped the heavenly bodies. It represented
+  the female principle of the Chaldean sun god; and it is believed,
+  too, that it represented the deity to the Medes, ancestors of
+  many of the present Persians. There is a tradition among some
+  Eastern races that King Solomon wore a ring of diamonds arranged
+  in the form of an eight-pointed star, and also a crown containing
+  a large star of which the eight points and centre were composed
+  of precious stones of different colour. A star now and then seen
+  in rugs with colours so arranged is known as
+  &ldquo;Mohammedan&rsquo;s jewel design.&rdquo; The six-pointed
+  star, a Jewish symbol for the &ldquo;shield of David,&rdquo; was
+  adopted as a talisman by some of the Moslems. All of these stars
+  are chiefly nomadic symbols, they rarely if ever are seen in the
+  rugs of China or India, they are only occasionally found in those
+  of Persia, and are of most frequent occurrence in the Caucasian
+  pieces.</p>
+
+  <p>Another design is an octagonal-shaped disc (Plate <a href=
+  "#po">O</a>, Fig. 10, Page 291), usually about two and a half
+  inches in diameter, on the face of which and extending the full
+  width are figures somewhat like hour-glasses placed at right
+  angles to one another. It seems not improbable that it is of the
+  same origin as the large designs that appear in the field of the
+  Holbein rug of the XV Century, illustrated in Plate <a href=
+  "#p21">21</a> (opp. Page 92). It is a very old motive, and is
+  sometimes regarded as a dial symbolising the diurnal motion of
+  the earth. It is of very frequent occurrence in nomadic rugs; and
+  is found in Beluchistans, in nearly all Caucasians, in some rugs
+  from Asia Minor, and in only a very few from Persia.</p>
+
+  <p>The zigzag line, known as the water motive, is found in many
+  of the rugs of China, India, Persia, Caucasia, and Asia Minor, as
+  well as in the Beluchistans and Beshires of the Central Asiatic
+  group, though in some instances it appears as little more than a
+  serrated line. It is represented in the narrow guard-stripes of
+  some of the Western Asia Minor carpets of the XV Century.
+  According to Mr. <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_67" id=
+  "Page_67">67</a></span> John Mumford, &ldquo;even in the oldest
+  Egyptian symbolism a zigzag line stood for water and by
+  implication for eternity; and a succession of these arranged to
+  represent the sea has long been a recognised carpet design in
+  India, China, and Persia.&rdquo;</p>
+
+  <h4><i>COLOUR PLATE III&mdash;MOSUL RUG</i></h4>
+
+  <p><i>Long before the commercial instinct had been felt among the
+  weavers of the Orient, one or more of them dwelling in the
+  Mesopotamian valley tied the knots of this old Mosul. The central
+  field is of camel&rsquo;s hair that shades from a rich dark
+  chestnut at one end to lighter tones at the other, and is
+  enlivened by bright flowers representing those found on the
+  river&rsquo;s banks. This variation of ground colour, the small
+  geometric designs at the extreme ends of the fields, the
+  eight-pointed stars of the main stripe of the border, and some of
+  the drawing are nomadic characteristics. The dainty vine and
+  flower of the narrow guard stripes, on the other hand, show
+  Persian influence. This piece represents a type of which few now
+  remain.</i></p>
+
+  <p class="name"><small><i>Property of the Author</i></small></p>
+
+  <div class="figcenter" style="width: 300px;">
+    <a name="piii" id="piii"></a><img src="images/plate_iii.jpg"
+    width="300" height="853" alt="" title="" />
+  </div>
+
+  <p>One of the most common designs is what has been called the
+  &ldquo;latch-hook.&rdquo; When there is a long succession of
+  latch-hooks with the straight ends resting on a line and the
+  hooked ends inclined in the same direction, as in Plate <a href=
+  "#pk">K</a>, Fig. 20 (opp. Page 230), they are called
+  &ldquo;running latch-hooks.&rdquo; Since they appear in the
+  Dragon and Ph&oelig;nix rug (opp. Page 88), that was probably
+  woven about the end of the XIV Century, they are evidently a very
+  old design, which not improbably was derived from the Chinese
+  fret. The hook is of different shapes, and is sometimes
+  perpendicular, sometimes inclined. Its particular function is to
+  shade or subdue the harsh effect of a sudden transition from one
+  colour to another that is entirely different. As such a device is
+  unnecessary in artistic rugs of intricate designs, it is rarely
+  seen in any Indian or Persian piece, excepting the modern Shiraz
+  that frequently adopts geometric patterns; but it is found in all
+  the rugs of Caucasia, Central Asia, and in most of those of Asia
+  Minor. It is in fact as universal as the reciprocal trefoil.</p>
+
+  <p>In rugs of geometric patterns are occasionally found both
+  Greek and Roman crosses. The latter are represented in most of
+  the Soumak rugs, and appear profusely in old Asia Minor or
+  Armenian rugs, in which they were probably woven with the intent
+  to convey a religious significance; but in many instances crosses
+  are not used symbolically.</p>
+
+  <p>The design of a comb (Plate <a href="#po">O</a>, Fig. 11, Page
+  291) is a Mohammedan emblem suggestive of cleanliness, yet it is
+  not improbable that it is sometimes intended to represent the
+  instrument employed in pressing the threads of weft closely
+  against the knots. It is found mostly in Caucasian rugs, and
+  rarely in those of other groups.</p>
+
+  <p>In a large number of the finest carpets woven in Persia three
+  or four centuries ago was represented what is known as the
+  Chinese cloud-band (Plate <a href="#po">O</a>, Fig. 7). It
+  appeared in Persia about the middle of the XV Century, and was
+  conspicuous in the carpets of Herat, Tabriz, and Gilan, as well
+  as in many of the &ldquo;Polish Carpets.&rdquo; Later it was
+  introduced into Asia Minor, but was never represented in any of
+  the strictly nomadic weavings. It appears in only a very few of
+  the modern rugs, and these are mostly Persian. Nor is
+  it<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_68" id=
+  "Page_68">68</a></span> recognised in its usual form in any of
+  the Chinese rugs that now exist; though without a doubt it
+  originated with the Chinese, since their early mythology placed
+  the abode of the Supreme Ruler in the Constellation of Ursa
+  Major, of which the stars of the Big Dipper were represented in
+  early art as enveloped in a band of clouds; but in more
+  conventionalised ornamentation the stars are omitted and the band
+  remains. As a motive, then, it is symbolic of heaven and the
+  deity.</p>
+
+  <p>In almost all rugs are found expressions of vegetable life, as
+  a twig, vine, flower, or tree. Sometimes they are most
+  naturalistic, again they are partly conventionalised, or so
+  disguised, as in nomadic rugs of geometric designs, that only by
+  study and comparison of many forms in a series can their origin
+  be established. This universal adoption of floral form was due to
+  something more than an aesthetic love for the beautiful, since in
+  every country of the East some part of the tree or plant was
+  emblematic. Moreover, a tree form known as the Tree of Life had a
+  religious significance among many races. The Jews were told that
+  in the Garden of Eden grew the &ldquo;Tree of Knowledge of Good
+  and Evil;&rdquo; and in the Book of Revelation the Apostle John
+  speaks of &ldquo;The Tree of Life which bore twelve manner of
+  fruits and yielded her fruit every month, and the leaves of the
+  tree were for the healing of the nations.&rdquo; From this
+  passage may have been borrowed the belief of the Mohammedans in
+  the Tree of Life which grew in Paradise, and spread its branches
+  that true believers might rest beneath them and enjoy its fruits
+  and the companionship of beautiful houri. In the ancient lore of
+  China is the Taoist tradition of the Tree of Life, growing by the
+  Sea of Jade, that confers immortality on the fortunate who may
+  gather and eat its fruits; also the tradition of the mountain top
+  where grows the sacred tree on which the elect may climb and
+  mount to heaven. Even among the ancient Chaldees was a story of a
+  tree that grew to heaven and sheltered the earth. In different
+  countries the Tree of Life is represented by different kinds; in
+  Yarkand of Eastern Turkestan it takes the form of a cedar; in
+  Persia it is generally the cypress. Wherever employed it is
+  symbolic of knowledge, resurrection, immortality.</p>
+
+  <div class="figcenter" style="width: 550px;">
+    <a name="p12" id="p12"></a><img src="images/plate12.jpg"
+    width="550" height="805" alt="Plate 12. Carpet from Northwestern Persia" title="" />
+
+    <p class="center"><span class="smcap">Plate 12. Carpet from
+    Northwestern Persia</span></p>
+
+    <p class="center2">Loaned by C. F. Williams, Esq., to the
+    Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York</p>
+  </div>
+
+  <p>No other form of vegetable life was so universally employed in
+  Oriental symbolism as the lotus flower (Plate <a href=
+  "#po">O</a>, Figs. 16a, b, and c), since the Egyptian, Assyrian,
+  Indian, Chinese, and Persian alike did it reverence. It was,
+  perhaps, first employed emblematically<span class=
+  'pagenum'><a name="Page_69" id="Page_69">69</a></span> in the
+  valley of the Nile, but later it was held in high esteem by the
+  inhabitants of India where the floating blossom is regarded as an
+  emblem of the world. It was inseparately associated with Buddha,
+  and its religious significance must have extended with the spread
+  of Buddhism. Professor Goodyear regards a large number of designs
+  that apparently are not related in form as derived from it
+  through a long series of evolutions. During the highest
+  development of the textile art in Persia it appears most
+  realistically drawn in a large number of the carpets, especially
+  the so-called Ispahans, or Herats, and the so-called Polish. It
+  is also most artistically represented in the fabrics of India,
+  and is a favourite design for Chinese weavers. But in other
+  modern rugs it is seldom used as a motive, and is so
+  conventionalised as often to escape notice.</p>
+
+  <p>If the lotus was the first flower to be represented in early
+  woven fabrics, as seems not improbable, several others have met
+  with greater favour among modern weavers. Of these the rose,
+  which is cultivated extensively in the gardens of the East,
+  appears in a large number of the rugs of Persia and Asia Minor.
+  Moreover, a pattern frequently seen in many old Persian rugs is
+  an all-over pattern of small bushes with flowering roses. Almost
+  equally popular is the lily, which is characteristic of many of
+  the rugs of India and of a few of Western Asia Minor. The
+  &ldquo;Euphrates flower,&rdquo; which grows by the river banks of
+  the Mesopotamian valley, is also occasionally found as an
+  all-over pattern in some of the rugs of Western Iran and Southern
+  Caucasia. Less frequently seen and still less frequently
+  recognised, as they are generally woven in small figures, are the
+  daisy, anemone, crocus, narcissus, pink, and violet. All are
+  depicted chiefly on account of their associations and beauty, and
+  whatever emblematic meaning they are intended to convey is
+  generally no more than that of their colours. There are, however,
+  in a few old Persian carpets designs of sunflowers, which were
+  accepted by the Zoroastrians and the earlier sun and fire
+  worshippers as symbols of the sun and emblems of light.</p>
+
+  <p>Of the fruits of the earth none is more highly esteemed than
+  the pomegranate, which was sculptured in temples of Mesopotamia
+  and embroidered on the robes of Assyrian and Jewish priests. In
+  the days of King Solomon it was cultivated in Palestine, where
+  the Israelites, like modern Persians, made a sherbet by mixing
+  its juice with sugar and spices. At the time of Homer it was
+  cultivated in Phrygia. Now it grows wild over vast tracts of
+  Syria, Persia, and Asia<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_70"
+  id="Page_70">70</a></span> Minor. Yet it rarely appears
+  conspicuously in any woven fabrics excepting the Ladik prayer
+  rugs, in which it is invariably seen. Since the weavers of these,
+  whether Christian or Moslem, would probably be familiar with many
+  of the old Jewish and Assyrian rites, it is not unlikely that it
+  refers emblematically to its religious associations rather than
+  symbolises, as has been suggested, the idea of fruitfulness as
+  expressed in the Turkish wedding custom where the bride throws a
+  pomegranate at her feet that the scattered seed may fore-tell the
+  number of her children.</p>
+
+  <p>In almost every rug of Persia, India, and Asia Minor there is
+  in some part of the border a vine with pendant leaves, flowers,
+  rosettes, or palmettes; and even in many Caucasian rugs of
+  geometric pattern the vine with its appendages is seen in
+  conventionalised form. In a few of the more sumptuous carpets,
+  where the drawing is elaborate, delicate tendrils bearing flowers
+  or the more formal designs of the Herati border take the place of
+  the vine, from which they were evolved. In such borders the
+  designs generally convey no symbolic meaning, but the simpler
+  vine encircling the field without beginning or end represents
+  symbolically the continuity of purpose and permanency.</p>
+
+  <p>One of the most interesting designs (Plate <a href=
+  "#po">O</a>, Fig. 6, Page 291) is known as the Cone, Palm, Mango,
+  Almond, River Loop, and Pear. By some it is believed to represent
+  no more than the closed palm of the hand, since there is an old
+  tradition in Persia that a weaver once asked his little son to
+  devise for him a new design, whereupon the boy thrust his hand
+  into a pot of dye, then placed it sidewise upon a piece of white
+  linen, on which became impressed the &ldquo;palm&rdquo; design
+  formed by the hand and incurving small finger. By some it is
+  regarded as a cluster of old Iranian crown jewels. To others, who
+  point to the well-known pattern of the Kashmir weaving, it
+  denotes the bend of the river Jhelum above Srinagar in the valley
+  of Kashmir; and to Sir George Birdwood it symbolises the flame
+  sacred to ancient fire worshippers. In this work it will be
+  called the Pear, the name now generally applied to it. In the
+  course of the many centuries that have elapsed since its origin,
+  and in its migration through India, Persia, Turkestan, Caucasia,
+  and Asia Minor, it has adopted more strange shapes than any other
+  device. In the rugs of Sarabend it is represented in its
+  best-known form of simple curving lines, in the Bakus its
+  identity is almost lost on account of its geometric appearance,
+  and in the fabrics of India it is often very <span class=
+  'pagenum'><a name="Page_71" id="Page_71">71</a></span>ornate.
+  Though its origin is hidden in the mists of the past, when its
+  antiquity is considered, and also the devotion of the early races
+  to the glowing orb of the sun and to terrestrial fires, it is not
+  surprising that it has been regarded as a relic of the
+  Zoroastrian faith of old Iran, symbolising the eternal flames
+  before which the Parsees worshipped.</p>
+
+  <div class="figcenter" style="width: 550px;">
+    <a name="p13" id="p13"></a><img src="images/plate13.jpg"
+    width="550" height="786" alt="Plate 13. Compartment Carpet in the Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York"
+    title="" />
+
+    <p class="center"><span class="smcap">Plate 13. Compartment
+    Carpet in the Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York</span></p>
+  </div>
+
+  <p>If the floral designs are more beautiful, others are more
+  truly symbolic, and when appearing in rugs of barbaric patterns
+  they are more interesting. Of these the creeping things are
+  represented by the serpent, scorpion, turtle, crab, and
+  tarantula. Among a few races of Asia the serpent, which is found
+  in a few old Persian carpets, has been regarded as emblematic of
+  immortality, but has been more frequently considered as the
+  symbol of knowledge. The scorpion, also, was supposed to
+  represent the idea of knowledge. It does not often appear in
+  woven design, but is sometimes drawn with careful precision in
+  Caucasian fabrics. The turtle or tortoise stands for constancy.
+  What is called the &ldquo;turtle border&rdquo; (Plate <a href=
+  "#pe">E</a>, Fig. 3, opp. Page 156), which was probably derived
+  from interlacing arabesques, occurs most frequently in Feraghans
+  and also in some other Persian rugs, as Muskabads, Sarabends,
+  Serapis, and even the Sehnas. The tarantula and crab designs are
+  found exclusively in borders of Caucasian rugs. As their
+  resemblance to the animals they are supposed to represent is
+  remote, it is most probable that they are simply the
+  conventionalised forms of the star and palmette.</p>
+
+  <p>Among the designs seen in Chinese rugs are several not found
+  in any others. Of these the dragon, originally intended as a
+  symbol of the infinite, denotes imperial power; the stork, long
+  life; the duck, conjugal felicity; the bat, happiness; and the
+  butterfly, a spirit. These designs will be noticed in the chapter
+  on Chinese rugs.</p>
+
+  <p>With few exceptions the only modern rugs in which birds are
+  represented are the Persian. The drawing as a rule is far from
+  natural; but in the fine old carpets it is often so accurate as
+  to show unmistakably the order to which they belong. Several of
+  them were used symbolically, as the bird of paradise, suggestive
+  of felicity; the peacock, symbol of fire; the eagle, emblem of
+  power. The attitude, to be sure, in which they appear, affects in
+  a measure their symbolic meaning; as an eagle in flight denotes
+  good fortune, but one in the act of descending denotes ill
+  luck.</p>
+
+  <p>As the Mohammedan religion interdicts portraying birds and
+  beasts as well as human forms, they are rarely seen in any rug
+  of<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_72" id=
+  "Page_72">72</a></span> Western Asia Minor, which is inhabited by
+  the Sunnites, the strict conformists to the law of the Koran; but
+  in Mohammedan countries lying farther to the east, where the
+  Shiites or nonconformists live, animal designs are very common.
+  In modern rugs of Persia and Caucasia, dogs, goats, and camels
+  are the most popular animal subjects, but the drawing is often so
+  poor that the identity is in doubt. In the old carpets, on the
+  other hand, animals and human beings were most realistically
+  drawn, and were intended to represent symbolically the
+  weaver&rsquo;s thought. In fact, those masterpieces of Persian
+  art known as the &ldquo;Hunting Carpets&rdquo; would lose much of
+  their interest if their many forms of animal life were without
+  symbolic meaning. In them the lion is a symbol of victory, power,
+  the sun, and the day; the antelope and unicorn are symbols of
+  restfulness and the moon. The lion destroying an antelope would
+  mean, then, the victory of day over night, or of a powerful over
+  a weak foe. Leopards and hounds likewise symbolise success and
+  fame. There are also mythological creatures, as the ph&oelig;nix,
+  emblematic of life and resurrection, and the winged <i>djinni</i>
+  or Persian spirits, that often adorn the fields and borders of
+  some of the elaborate antique carpets of Iran.</p>
+
+  <p>Not only the forms of vegetable and animal life and their
+  relative attitudes to one another were intended to convey a
+  symbolic meaning, but among almost all ancient races colours had
+  a special significance. To the Moslems no colour was more sacred
+  than the green, which, though difficult to produce in beautiful
+  tones, they have placed in the fields of many of their prayer
+  rugs. To them, also, blue was the emblem of eternity, and in the
+  spandrels above the arches it was the symbol of the sky. Though
+  to the Hindoo it denotes ill luck, it was the chosen colour of
+  the Persians, as well as one of the imperial colours of the
+  Chinese. Among all nations yellow, another imperial colour of
+  China, and red are suggestive of joy and happiness. Such colours,
+  when used in conjunction with other emblems, expressed not only
+  beauty, but also different shades of thought.</p>
+
+  <div class="figcenter" style="width: 450px;">
+    <a name="p14" id="p14"></a><img src="images/plate14.jpg"
+    width="450" height="820" alt="Plate 14. Persian Animal Carpet in the Metropolitan Museum Of Art, New York"
+    title="" />
+
+    <p class="center"><span class="smcap">Plate 14. Persian Animal
+    Carpet in the Metropolitan Museum Of Art, New York</span></p>
+  </div>
+
+  <p>These are but a few of the many motives that are employed by
+  the weaver. Some of them represent objects intimately associated
+  with his daily life. Some of them reflect his thoughts and
+  emotions. Others are the still unsolved hieroglyphics of his
+  craft. When, then, we examine some old worn rug, we may see only
+  an exquisite pattern resplendent in the deep rich colours of an
+  art <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_73" id=
+  "Page_73">73</a></span>now lost; but if to an &aelig;sthetic
+  taste be added an interest in a symbolism that expresses
+  something of the thought and life of the weaver, we may find in
+  the study of the various designs another charm that increases
+  with the discovery of any previously hidden meaning.</p>
+  <hr />
+
+  <p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_74" id=
+  "Page_74">74</a></span></p>
+
+  <h3>CHAPTER VII</h3>
+
+  <h4>RUG WEAVING BEFORE THE XVIII CENTURY</h4>
+
+  <p><span class="floatLeft"><img src="images/t.jpg" width="110" height="110" alt="T"
+  title="T" /></span>HERE are no records to definitely indicate in
+  what land the art of rug weaving originated, or to disprove that
+  it developed independently in different lands. It would be
+  unreasonable, then, to assume that rugs were not woven in
+  northern regions as early as in southern. In fact, during the
+  Neolithic age the Lake-dwellers of Switzerland grew and spun
+  flax, and it is believed that they had looms. Moreover, it is
+  probable that the savages of cold climates soon learned to weave
+  garments with the long wool of their sheep or goats; and the
+  similar process of weaving mats for the floors of their huts
+  would naturally follow. Nevertheless, such evidence as now
+  remains points to the civilisations of the Euphrates or the Nile,
+  as the birthplace of this art.</p>
+
+  <p>Though we do not know when the first rugs were made, without a
+  doubt they existed before the pyramids of Egypt or the palaces of
+  Babylon had risen from the plains. Among the rock-cut tombs of
+  Beni-Hassan in Egypt, that date from about 2500 B. C. are
+  pictures of men with spindles, of looms and weavers. There is
+  also unmistakable evidence of the antiquity of a high state of
+  the textile art among the ruins in the valleys of the Tigris and
+  the Euphrates. On carved walls of the palaces of Nineveh, where
+  dwelt the rulers of Assyria over three thousand years ago, are
+  elaborate drawings indicating that carpets of remarkable
+  workmanship were then in use. In the borders of some of the robes
+  worn by the rulers are designs of rosettes and latch-hooks, and
+  on one is depicted the tree of life, similar to what may be seen
+  in modern rugs. Nor are ancient writers silent. In the Old
+  Testament are frequent references to woven fabrics. Homer, also,
+  speaks of them in his Odyssey. Herodotus, Diodorus, Pliny,
+  Strabo, in fact almost all classic writers have mentioned them.
+  Moreover, designs on pot<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_75"
+  id="Page_75">75</a></span>tery, bowls, tiles, and walls, similar
+  in appearance to those found in the oldest existing carpets,
+  carry contributory evidence to their antiquity and character.</p>
+
+  <p>This art, that necessity created, comfort nourished, and
+  luxury matured, has been a process of slow development. To the
+  mind of some dark tribeswoman of the desert contemplating the
+  rushes gathered from a sluggish stream and strewn upon the floor
+  of her master&rsquo;s hut several thousand years ago, may have
+  been suggested the first idea of a mat. Indeed, from earliest
+  times mats of reeds, straw, bamboo, or other pliable material
+  have been constantly made. At first they were doubtless without
+  ornament; later they were coloured with dyes obtained from roots
+  and herbs to increase their attractiveness; finally designs
+  symbolic of nature or the deity were embroidered on them. As
+  wealth and luxury increased the ornamentation became more
+  elaborate, until during the rule of the Caliphs the mats rivalled
+  in beauty the carpets for which, during the summer months, they
+  were substituted. &ldquo;On these mats,&rdquo; wrote the eminent
+  authority, Dr. F. R. Martin, &ldquo;the artist found free scope
+  for displaying as much artistic skill as on the real carpets, and
+  gold threads were intertwined to make them as precious as the
+  most expensive silk and gold carpets.&rdquo; Long, however,
+  before they had reached such a high state of perfection, they
+  would have suggested the idea of making warmer and more durable
+  floor coverings. The first of these was a simple web of warp and
+  woof; later they assumed a character not dissimilar to the kilims
+  now made in the lands of their origin. With further advance, more
+  elaborate carpets and tapestries were made; but it was not until
+  the art had been developing for a great many centuries, that
+  there appeared those most perfect products of knotted pile that
+  were similar in kind but superior in quality to the modern
+  pieces.</p>
+
+  <p>Slow as was this development, as early as the Christian era,
+  the work of the most skilled weavers of the Orient deserved to be
+  classed as a fine art. During the time of the Sassanian kingdom
+  (extending from about 226 <span class="smcap">a. d.</span> to 632
+  <span class="smcap">a. d.</span>) carpets of elaborate design and
+  finish were produced in Mesopotamia and Syria. Most of them were
+  of the wool of sheep or goats; and in them were represented
+  designs of trees, birds, animals, and other figures. Other pieces
+  were made of silk richly embroidered with silver and gold.
+  Moreover, authentic evidence from the VI Century <span class=
+  "smcap">a. d.</span> not only gives us positive knowledge of the
+  marvellous workmanship of that time,<span class=
+  'pagenum'><a name="Page_76" id="Page_76">76</a></span> but
+  enables us to conjecture through what a long period of
+  progression the artisans had been labouring to arrive at such
+  results. Dr. Karabacek, director of the Imperial Library of
+  Vienna, in his monograph &ldquo;Die Persische Nadelmalerei
+  Susandschird,&rdquo; gave the following description of the
+  &ldquo;Spring of Chosroes&rdquo; carpet:</p>
+
+  <p>&ldquo;When Ctesiphon, the residence of the Sassanides, fell
+  into the hands of the Arabs in the year 637 <span class=
+  "smcap">a. d.</span>, they found in the royal palace, the ruins
+  of which still remain, a colossal carpet of 1051 square
+  metres,<a name="FNanchor_11" id="FNanchor_11"></a><a href=
+  "#Footnote_11" class="fnanchor">11</a> which was originally made
+  for Chosroes I. His successor, Anoschar (531-579 <span class=
+  "smcap">a. d.</span>), used it also, but only during the stormy
+  weather, when remaining in the gardens was impracticable. The
+  festivities were then transferred to the palace, where a garden
+  with the beauty of springtime was represented by the pattern of
+  the carpet. This was the Winter Carpet that was called in Persia
+  the Spring of Chosroes. Its material, which was marvellous and
+  costly, consisted of silk, gold, silver, and precious stones. On
+  it was represented a beautiful pleasure ground with brooks and
+  interlacing paths, with trees and flowers of springtime. On the
+  wide borders surrounding it were represented flower-beds in which
+  precious stones coloured blue, red, yellow, white, and green
+  denoted the beauty of the flowers. Gold imitated the
+  yellow-coloured soil and defined the borders of the brooks, where
+  the water was represented by crystals. Gravel paths were
+  indicated by stones of the size of pearls. The stalks of trees
+  were of gold and silver, the leaves and flowers of silk, the
+  fruits of many-coloured stones.&rdquo;</p>
+
+  <p>As the value of this carpet was estimated at about three
+  quarters of a million dollars, it was regarded as too precious to
+  fall to the lot of a single captor, and was accordingly divided
+  into segments to be distributed as booty among the soldiers. Even
+  if during this period there was no other fabric so valuable and
+  elaborate, it represented the importance of the textile art
+  during the dynasty of the Sassanides.</p>
+
+  <div class="figcenter" style="width: 550px;">
+    <a name="p15" id="p15"></a><img src="images/plate15.jpg"
+    width="550" height="738" alt="Plate 15. Persian Animal Carpet in the Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York"
+    title="" />
+
+    <p class="center"><span class="smcap">Plate 15. Persian Animal
+    Carpet in the Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York</span></p>
+  </div>
+
+  <p>During the Caliphate (632 to 1258 <span class="smcap">a.
+  d.</span>) the Moslem rulers, devoted to luxury, preserved the
+  art treasures of their conquered subjects and encouraged them to
+  renewed efforts. This is particularly true of the Caliphs and
+  sultans of Syria and Egypt. A carpet that adorned the banquet
+  hall of the Caliph Hisham of Egypt, who died 743 A. D., was of
+  silk interwoven with strands of gold, and had a length of three
+  hundred feet and a breadth of one hundred and <span class=
+  'pagenum'><a name="Page_77" id="Page_77">77</a></span>fifty feet.
+  All of the rooms of the Egyptian palaces, occupied by the
+  sultans, contained carpets of silk and satin; and the mosques of
+  Syria were similarly furnished. In the year 1067 <span class=
+  "smcap">a. d.</span> one of the Caliphs was forced to sell his
+  accumulated treasures, which consisted, besides jewels and works
+  of art, of about four thousand bales of carpets. Dr. Martin
+  states that a single one of these bales contained several hundred
+  perfect carpets, which were woven in silk and gold, and that some
+  of them contained portraits of entire royal families. One of
+  them, valued at about $300,000, was made for the Caliph el Mirz
+  li alla in the year 964 <span class="smcap">a. d.</span> It was
+  of blue silk, on which were represented the heavens and the
+  earth, seas and rivers, as well as the holy cities Mecca and
+  Medina. Such was the character of some of the carpets woven
+  during the days of the Caliphs.</p>
+
+  <p>As the imperfect records which have been left us indicate that
+  the finest carpet collections of this period were in the mosques
+  and palaces of Syria and Egypt, it has been assumed that they
+  were woven by the native artisans. To some extent this is
+  doubtless true, as rug weaving was one of the oldest industries
+  of these countries. But it is more probable that most of them
+  were made elsewhere and were acquired as presents or by purchase.
+  Some were made in Armenia, Assyria, and Turkestan; but the
+  largest number, as well as the most costly and elaborate,
+  doubtless came from the same hills and towns of Persia where many
+  of the finest pieces are woven to-day. In several of these towns
+  as many as three or four hundred looms were constantly at work;
+  and since the carpets consisted of warp and weft only, it is
+  probable that they were produced far more rapidly than modern
+  rugs in which knots are tied to the warp. But if they lacked the
+  richness of deep, heavy pile, they were elaborately woven with
+  threads of gold and silver, and were often embellished with
+  precious stones.</p>
+
+  <h4>ANTIQUE PERSIAN CARPETS</h4>
+
+  <p>To the tendency of overestimating the age of art objects to
+  which antiquity adds value, there is no exception in the case of
+  Oriental rugs, yet there is good reason to believe that a few
+  pieces still exist that were woven in Persia as early as the XIII
+  or XIV Century. Indeed, we cannot positively affirm that there
+  may not be religiously preserved some relic of the Seljukian
+  dynasty, which ruled in Persia till about 1150 <span class=
+  "smcap">a. d.</span>, for we have little knowledge <span class=
+  'pagenum'><a name="Page_78" id="Page_78">78</a></span> of what
+  some of the old mosques which no Christian has ever entered may
+  contain; but it is more probable that the oldest remaining pieces
+  belong to the Mongolian period, which began with the invasion of
+  the armies of Genghis Khan in the first half of the XIII Century.
+  This conclusion is based partly on the facts that their archaic
+  patterns indicate a very remote period, and that they suggest
+  early Mongolian influences. Moreover, as the age of rugs of a
+  somewhat later period can be determined by the evidence of
+  similarity of their designs with those of early tiles, metal
+  work, pottery, and miniatures, of established age, it is possible
+  to infer the relative age of these older pieces by comparison of
+  patterns showing a progressive development.</p>
+
+  <p>One of the oldest Persian pieces now existing, the property of
+  C. F. Williams, Esq., of Norristown, Pa., is in the Metropolitan
+  Museum of Art of New York (Plate <a href="#p11">11</a>, opp. Page
+  64). It is also one of the most interesting. In it are found
+  Persian, Armenian, Caucasian, and Mongolian characteristics,
+  which serve to determine the district where it was woven and to
+  suggest its age. Its Sehna knot, cotton warp and weft, as well as
+  much of the drawing, are typical of Persia. The tri-cleft leaf
+  and stem seen in the two lower corners, in the main stripe, and
+  in parts of the field are found in almost all Armenian rugs. The
+  reciprocal sawtooth of the outer border stripe and the geometric
+  inner stripe are Caucasian features. Certain colour tones, the
+  octagonal discs at each end of the large central palmettes, and
+  more particularly the tendrils or scrolls of the main stripe of
+  the border which resemble the foliate forms as they appear in
+  Chinese rugs and porcelains of the late Ming and Kang-hi periods,
+  are Mongolian. The combination of these characteristics indicates
+  that it was made in the most northwesterly part of Persia where
+  in 1258 Hulaku Khan established his capital, and his successors
+  ruled for over a century. Here undoubtedly the craft of weaving
+  flourished for a long period, and exercised an important
+  influence on the surrounding countries. To judge by the colours;
+  the formal character of the border; the rigid lines of the large
+  palmette motives of the field, which are not seen in carpets of a
+  much later period; and the stiff, archaic character of the bushes
+  with foliage and blossoms arranged mechanically on the thick
+  trunks, it is not unreasonable to place this piece as early as
+  the middle of the XIV Century, during the interval between the
+  overthrow of the Seljukian dynasty by the followers of Genghis
+  Khan and the later invasion of the <span class='pagenum'><a name=
+  "Page_79" id="Page_79">79</a></span>Timurids. In fact, it may be
+  even older, since those graceful lines that belong to the highest
+  art of a subsequent period are entirely lacking. But in the
+  drawing is strength, and in the colours, a few of which have
+  faded, are beauty and harmony.</p>
+
+  <div class="figcenter" style="width: 550px;">
+    <a name="p16" id="p16"></a><img src="images/plate16.jpg"
+    width="550" height="797" alt="Plate 16. Persian Animal Carpet in the Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York"
+    title="" />
+
+    <p class="center"><span class="smcap">Plate 16. Persian Animal
+    Carpet in the Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York</span></p>
+  </div>
+
+  <p>Such old pieces are very rare, yet a similar one, belonging to
+  Prof. W. Bode, is in the Kaiser Friedrich Museum at Berlin. Its
+  drawing is more regular, and the trunks of the trees are broader.
+  These two carpets represent the art of weaving at a very early
+  period.</p>
+
+  <p>Of equal interest and higher artistic merit is another carpet
+  (Plate <a href="#p12">12</a>, opp. Page 68), belonging to C. F.
+  Williams, Esq., and at present in the Metropolitan Museum of Art
+  but formerly in the possession of J. B&ouml;hler of Munich. It
+  has a length of nearly seventeen feet and a breadth of nearly
+  twelve. There are about three hundred knots to the square inch.
+  Though much of that stiffness of drawing found in the earlier
+  pieces remains, the more pliant branches and less regular setting
+  of the flowers indicate a later date; so that it is not
+  improbable that it was woven about the first of the XV Century.
+  Dr. Martin regards this piece as one of the oldest of the Timurid
+  period if not from the Mongolian, and says that the trees
+  resemble those in a Mongolian miniature in the Mus&eacute;e des
+  Arts Decoratifs in Paris, and in a manuscript from the year 1396.
+  At any rate, they display more formal drawing than the trees of
+  more recent carpets. The character of pattern and the colouring
+  suggest that it was woven in Northwestern Persia.</p>
+
+  <p>The field is skilfully divided into three subfields by beds of
+  flowers, from which slender trees rise and partly screen from
+  view more stately cypresses. The subdivisions are further
+  indicated by pairs of palmettes, of which the upper pair mark a
+  transition between the lower pair and those more elegant forms
+  commonly seen two centuries later. There are likewise palmettes
+  of simpler form in the two guard stripes. But the principal
+  ornamentation of the rich border is the interlacing arabesques of
+  three different colours, which are decorated with a slender
+  wreath of leaf and flower. There is, moreover, a particular
+  interest in the grouping of the arabesques since they form a
+  design which may be the prototype of the so-called turtle borders
+  so frequently seen in Feraghans and Gorevans, and is itself
+  derived, according to Dr. Martin, from a still older form in
+  which branching arabesques extend across the whole field. It may
+  not be unreasonable to assume that this pattern has<span class=
+  'pagenum'><a name="Page_80" id="Page_80">80</a></span> been
+  handed down from that earlier period when a Saracenic influence
+  was felt in all the weavings.</p>
+
+  <p>If the chief interest in this piece is centred in the pattern,
+  its greatest charm lies in its soft, dainty colours, some of
+  which are exquisitely beautiful. They are expressed in delicate
+  shades of orange, ivory, light green, sable brown, and light and
+  dark blue on a background of pinkish red. This pattern and
+  colouring suggest an Eastern wood when the first frost of autumn
+  has left its touch on the leaves. The border contains the same
+  colours as the field but is strong and effective, since the soft
+  tones are in the narrow guard stripes and the deeper colours
+  appear in the broad central stripe in larger masses and in
+  immediate contact.</p>
+
+  <p>If this carpet was woven about 1400 <span class="smcap">a.
+  d.</span>, as seems not improbable, the drawing of the trees,
+  palmettes, and border designs becomes by comparison an important
+  guide for determining the age of other antique Persian
+  carpets.</p>
+
+  <p>Very different, indeed, from the preceding is a woollen piece
+  (Plate <a href="#p13">13</a>, opp. Page 70), sixteen feet four
+  inches long by eleven feet two inches wide, that was formerly in
+  the collection of Mr. Vincent Robinson of London, but is now in
+  the Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York, which bought it at the
+  Yerkes sale in 1910, for $19,600. It has about six hundred knots
+  to the square inch, and is woven with warp of cotton and silk,
+  and with weft of silk. The pile is velvety, and the texture,
+  drawing, and colouring display a high grade of artistic
+  craftsmanship. Another of similar character is represented in the
+  Vienna Publication of Oriental Carpets of 1889, at which time it
+  belonged to the Countess Clotilde Clam-Gallas of Vienna; and a
+  third belongs to the Palais de Commerce at Lyons.</p>
+
+  <p>In no other rugs from Iran is the effect of Mongolian
+  tradition on design more noticeable; but that this was due to the
+  Timurid invasion at the end of the XIV Century is doubtful, and
+  it is not improbable that more immediate intervention with China
+  determined the motives. Nor is the Saracenic influence obscured,
+  since in every part of the field and border is seen the perfect
+  rhythm of graceful arabesques. Such carpets represent, in fact,
+  the transition from those earlier pieces to the higher products
+  of Persian looms.</p>
+
+  <div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;">
+    <a name="p17" id="p17"></a><img src="images/plate17.jpg"
+    width="500" height="833" alt="Plate 17. So-called Polish Or Polonaise Carpet in the Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York"
+    title="" />
+
+    <p class="center"><span class="smcap">Plate 17. So-called
+    Polish Or Polonaise Carpet in the Metropolitan Museum of Art,
+    New York</span></p>
+  </div>
+
+  <p>One of the simplest ways of studying the pattern is to regard
+  it as consisting of a number of units formed by a large rounded
+  octagon encircled by eight heart-shaped escutcheons, and with a
+  <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_81" id=
+  "Page_81">81</a></span>smaller rounded octagon at the centre of
+  the diagonal lines connecting them. On the large octagons, which
+  are of dark blue crossed by narrow bands of sable brown, is
+  represented the fight of dragon and ph&oelig;nix so common in the
+  ornamentation of the Ming dynasty; and in the smaller octagons,
+  which are plum colour, are four running lions in red, blue, and
+  green. The eight escutcheons alternate in crimson and blue, and
+  have arabesques and Chinese ducks. The large pentagonal-shaped
+  areas of the ivory field are covered with a most symmetrically
+  drawn tracery of tendrils and flowers in red, yellow, and blue;
+  and in the smaller hexagonal-shaped areas are cloud bands of
+  similar colours.</p>
+
+  <p>The border shows a marked advance over that of the preceding
+  piece. The main stripe, which follows a pattern that with slight
+  modification is adopted in many of the carpets of this and a
+  later period, consists of a chain-like series of octagons similar
+  to those of the field, separating elongated panels with crenated
+  edges. The latter are adorned with cloud bands in yellow
+  interlaced with delicate tendrils supporting flowers in red,
+  yellow, green, and white, on a dark blue field; and surrounding
+  them on a red ground is also a delicate tracery of leaves and
+  flowers. The outer and inner stripes have arabesques and tendrils
+  bearing flowers in red, green, and blue on a ground of golden
+  yellow. All the colours of both field and border have mellowed
+  into rich, beautiful hues in which is the most perfect
+  harmony.</p>
+
+  <p>The intricacy and character of design, the delicacy of
+  drawing, and the tones of colour indicate that this piece was
+  woven near the beginning of the Safavid dynasty, in the early
+  part of the XVI Century. Mr. Robinson ascribes its origin to
+  Bagdad; but it seems far more probable that it came from the
+  northwestern part of Persia, which was an important centre of
+  textile art only a few years later. This piece and the two others
+  described on the pages just preceding are among the most
+  interesting carpets now existing; for they represent not only a
+  very high standard of the textile craft, but also most important
+  steps in its development.</p>
+
+  <p>There is no evidence to indicate how early animal carpets were
+  woven in Persia. Dr. Martin found a piece with archaic drawing,
+  that from its resemblance to an old tile of established age, he
+  placed at about the year 1300 <span class="smcap">a. d.</span>;
+  but it was about the beginning of the XVI Century that were woven
+  the first of those masterly pieces which displayed animals
+  surrounded by a maze of floral life. Lions,<span class=
+  'pagenum'><a name="Page_82" id="Page_82">82</a></span> leopards,
+  boars, deer, and hounds were the principal motives. To each of
+  these was ascribed some principle or quality, so that it has been
+  assumed that the aim of the weaver was to give expression to some
+  theme of interest.</p>
+
+  <p>A number of these carpets represent the chase and are called
+  &ldquo;Hunting Carpets.&rdquo; The best of them are regarded by
+  Dr. Martin as belonging to the latter half of the XVI Century for
+  reasons indicated in the following extract from his work:
+  &ldquo;The manuscript of Nizami, one of the pearls of the British
+  Museum, which was executed in Tabriz 1539-1542 for the Shah
+  Tamasp, has the most wonderful designs on the margins. Although
+  the manuscripts and the miniatures are signed by Persia&rsquo;s
+  most renowned masters, there is nothing to give a hint as to who
+  has drawn these magnificent borders. This manuscript, which at
+  the time it was written, was considered one of the most
+  remarkable &lsquo;the like of which the eye of time never
+  beheld,&rsquo; plainly proves that the large carpets with hunting
+  scenes must be relegated to a later time or to about 1560-1570.
+  Both animals and trees are of a far more stately and earlier
+  character in the manuscript.&rdquo;</p>
+
+  <p>One of the best of these pieces with animals (Plate <a href=
+  "#p14">14</a>, opp. Page 72) is in the Metropolitan Museum of
+  Art, in New York, by which it was purchased at the Yerkes sale in
+  1910, for $15,200. It has a length of ten feet eleven inches with
+  a breadth of five feet ten inches, and an average of four hundred
+  and eighty knots to the square inch. Both warp and weft are of
+  silk, and the pile is of wool. As it was confidently believed by
+  Mr. Edward Stebbing<a name="FNanchor_12" id=
+  "FNanchor_12"></a><a href="#Footnote_12" class="fnanchor">12</a>
+  that this piece belonged for a long time to the Mosque of
+  Ardebil, where Ismael had established his capital, and from which
+  Tamasp subsequently moved; it is not improbable that it belongs
+  to the early period, between the closing years of Ismael&rsquo;s
+  reign and the first part of the reign of Tamasp.<a name=
+  "FNanchor_13" id="FNanchor_13"></a><a href="#Footnote_13" class=
+  "fnanchor">13</a> Nor is there anything in the technique of
+  colour or design to convey a different impression, as the general
+  colour of the field is a claret red, and that of the border a
+  dark blue characteristic of this period.</p>
+
+  <p>The most noticeable feature of the carpet is the display of
+  animal life amid the carefully balanced arrangement of floral
+  figures. Four-fifths of the field can be divided into two perfect
+  squares with sides equal to the breadth of the field; and the
+  remainder will be equiva<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_83"
+  id="Page_83">83</a></span>lent to one-half of one of these
+  squares. Each quarter of a square contains animals, probably
+  intended to represent a lion, leopard, and boar, that are
+  perfectly balanced with those of the adjacent and alternating
+  quarters. Moreover, the same balance exists in the case of the
+  smaller animals and floral forms. Thus it appears that each
+  square forms a perfect unit in which is shown a remarkable
+  relation between all parts. Such mathematical exactness indicates
+  the highest artistic skill. The repetition of pattern also
+  accentuates the predominant idea of animal life, which is
+  rendered even more noticeable by the strong golden yellow of some
+  of the group. Whoever has studied the early Iranian monuments
+  remembers with how slight variation some of the drawing has been
+  copied during subsequent generations; so that it is not
+  surprising that Mr. Stebbing should call attention to the
+  resemblance of some of the animals in this carpet to those of the
+  rock-carved sculptures of Tak-i-Bostan near Kermanshah.</p>
+
+  <p>As is the case with most modern Persian rugs, there is no
+  correspondence between the size of the animals and the flowers.
+  Nevertheless the lack of harmony is not felt, as the animal and
+  the floral life are intended to be regarded separately. The
+  principal flowers of the field are peonies, some of which are
+  woven with silver threads. They also appear in the border
+  arranged with perfect precision within the folds of symmetrical
+  cloud-bands and interlacing arabesques. The latter form a
+  well-executed repetitive figure that suggests an origin for the
+  reciprocal trefoil or lily pattern, as it is sometimes called,
+  which received its highest development in the silk rugs of a
+  later century.</p>
+
+  <p>On the whole, this piece is not far short of the highest
+  sumptuary standard of a subsequent period, and is an excellent
+  example of the artistic development of the earliest part of the
+  Safavid dynasty. In few other carpets is combined such intricacy
+  of design with richness and simplicity of colour.</p>
+
+  <p>Of still greater interest than the last is the Arbedil Carpet,
+  now in the South Kensington Museum. It has a length of
+  thirty-four and a half feet with a breadth of seventeen and a
+  half; the texture shows about three hundred and twenty-five knots
+  to the square inch; and the pile is of wool tied to warp and weft
+  of silk. It has been very carefully studied by Mr. Edward
+  Stebbing, from whose description the following extracts are
+  taken:</p>
+
+  <p>&ldquo;The body ground is blue, covered with a floral tracery
+  of<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_84" id=
+  "Page_84">84</a></span> exquisite delicacy and freedom of
+  treatment. A central medallion of pale yellow terminates on its
+  outer edge in sixteen minaret-shaped points from which spring
+  sixteen cartouches; four green, four red, and eight light cream;
+  and from two of these again, as it were, suspended and hanging in
+  the direction of the respective ends of the carpet, two of the
+  sacred lamps of the mosque.</p>
+
+  <p>&ldquo;Quarter sections of the central medallion also on a
+  pale yellow ground, relieved by tracery, form the angles; while a
+  broader border completes the glorious design, a border of the
+  alternate elongated and rounded cartouches filled with floral and
+  other tracery, the former on a base of red, the latter on a rich
+  brown ground flanked on the inner side by a broad band of cream
+  seven inches wide, relieved by a variation of a so-called cloud
+  pattern, and a narrower band of crimson near the body of the
+  carpet; and on the outer side by a single broad band, also seven
+  inches wide, of tawny hue, shading from dark to light, and
+  relieved by a bold design in blue.&rdquo;</p>
+
+  <p>But however exquisite the tracery, however delicate the
+  colouring, the greatest interest centres in the fact that in a
+  panel adjoining the border of the upper end is the following
+  inscription:</p>
+
+  <div class="poem2">
+    <div class="stanza2">
+      <span class="i02">&ldquo;I have no refuge in the world other
+      than thy threshold;</span> <span class="i02">&ldquo;My head
+      has no protection other than thy porchway;</span>
+      <span class="i02">&ldquo;The work of the slave of the holy
+      place, Maksoud of Kashan, in the year 946.&rdquo;</span>
+    </div>
+  </div>
+
+  <p>Here is revealed the age of the carpet, which not only
+  determines the character of workmanship of a particular period,
+  but affords a standard for determining by comparison the relative
+  age of other pieces. The year 946 corresponds with our year 1540
+  A. D., and the position of the date indicates that it was
+  inscribed a little before the completion of the fabric.
+  Accordingly, it would not be unreasonable to assume that the
+  carpet was begun during the closing years of the reign of Ismael,
+  who died at Ardebil in 1524, and that it was finished during the
+  reign of Tamasp I.</p>
+
+  <p>To infer that at this period were many such carpets would be a
+  mistake; since this was doubtless woven by the order of the
+  court, and by one of the most skilled artisans, who may have made
+  it the crowning labour of his life. It indicates the highest
+  technique acquired in the early part of the Safavid dynasty.</p>
+
+  <div class="figcenter" style="width: 550px;">
+    <a name="p18" id="p18"></a><img src="images/plate18.jpg"
+    width="550" height="768" alt="Plate 18. So-called Ispahan in the Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York"
+    title="" />
+
+    <p class="center"><span class="smcap">Plate 18. So-called
+    Ispahan in the Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York</span></p>
+  </div>
+
+  <p>Besides the mosque carpets, other pieces such as small prayer
+  rugs were used for devotional purposes. When the first of them
+  were made is unknown, though they existed in the days of the
+  <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_85" id=
+  "Page_85">85</a></span>Caliphs, when the words of the Prophet
+  were still fresh in the memories of his followers; and they were
+  also used at an early period among Turkomans. The oldest that
+  remain belong to the early part of the Safavid rule. One that was
+  formerly in the collection of Stefano Bardini of Florence and is
+  now owned by Mr. Benjamin Altman, appeared at the exhibit of the
+  Metropolitan Museum of Art in 1910. It is a woollen piece with a
+  length of nearly five and a half feet and a breadth of three and
+  a quarter. In the central field is a prayer arch resembling some
+  of a later period, with outlines gracefully recurving near the
+  base and broken on each side by a pentagonal-shaped flower. All
+  parts of each of the two trees that rise from the bottom of the
+  field are reversely duplicated in the other. Some of the
+  stiffness of drawing of the earlier carpets remains, but the
+  blossoms are clustered more naturally and the whole treatment is
+  more skilful. The effect of the scroll-work on the red ground of
+  the spandrel; of the suspended lamp with its bright flowers of
+  red, yellow, and pink; and of the blossoming trees beneath, is
+  most pleasing; but the chief interest centres in the outer border
+  stripe, where appear features that are more interesting than
+  harmonious, features derived from Persia, Assyria, Mongolia, and
+  Arabia. The rounded octagons have Cufic lettering that recalls
+  early Mesopotamian civilisation; the cartouches at the bottom
+  with their cloud-bands suggest Mongolian conquests; and the upper
+  cartouches contain the following verses from the Koran:</p>
+
+  <div class="poem2">
+    <div class="stanza">
+      <span class="i02">&ldquo;Iman the victorious and expected
+      Mahdi, the Lord of the Age.</span> <span class="i02">Zalsi
+      and Hason; and bless the standing proof.</span> <span class=
+      "i02">Oh Lord bless Mohammed the chosen one. Ali, the elect,
+      Fatimeh the Immaculate.</span> <span class="i02">Jofer Sadik,
+      Mooza Kazin, Ali Riza Mohammed Taki, Mohammed Nakee,
+      Ali.</span> <span class="i02">The two branches Harson and
+      Hussein Bless Ali Zaimulubbad Mohammed
+      Bak&rsquo;r.&rdquo;</span>
+    </div>
+  </div>
+
+  <p>These verses, the archaic lamp, and the green of the field, a
+  colour sacred to Moslems, all indicate the religious character of
+  the carpet. Similar features also appear in another antique piece
+  of about the same age, but the Cufic characters of the border are
+  within squares surrounded by circles that resemble Chinese seals
+  as they appear in early manuscripts. Both of these pieces were
+  probably woven in Northwestern Persia about the middle of the XVI
+  Century. Few such prayer carpets remain, though without doubt
+  they were used<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_86" id=
+  "Page_86">86</a></span> by devotees during succeeding periods,
+  and it is not unusual to see, even in modern Kermanshahs, prayer
+  arches of the same pattern.</p>
+
+  <p>Of totally different character but of about the same age is an
+  animal rug (Plate <a href="#p15">15</a>, opp. Page 76) that
+  belongs to the Metropolitan Museum of Art. It was bought at the
+  Yerkes sale in 1910, for $5,600, and had previously belonged to
+  the collection of Vincent Robinson of London. It has a length of
+  about seven and a half feet with a breadth of about five and a
+  half, and consists of woollen pile tied to cotton warp crossed by
+  woollen weft. The weave is not unlike what is seen in many modern
+  Sarouks; as the knot is Sehna, one thread of warp is doubled
+  under the other in each knot, and the coloured thread of weft,
+  which crosses twice, is partly exposed at the back.</p>
+
+  <p>Like so many of the old Persian pieces, the ground colour of
+  red appears in the main field, and is strongly contrasted with
+  the dark blue of the medallion and dark green of the corners. Red
+  and green also appear in the border contrasted with yellow. This
+  association of colour is not usual, nor is the repetitive pattern
+  of the border with its sharp cusps at many of the angles, nor the
+  trapeziform corners, and the nearly rectangular medallion.
+  Likewise the mechanically formed bushes with their quince-like
+  fruit, on which sit birds of disproportionate size, show a
+  departure from the accepted traditions of the Safavid schools.
+  Yet these very features awaken new interest, and suggest that it
+  was probably woven in some part of Northern or Western Persia
+  where the influence of the court was not paramount. Nevertheless
+  the accurate balance of the different halves, and the drawing of
+  the palmettes show that it is distinctly Iranian.</p>
+
+  <p>If this last piece be compared with the animal rug (Plate
+  <a href="#p16">16</a>, opp. Page 78) that was presented to the
+  Metropolitan Museum of Art by Mr. Cochran, the wide contrast will
+  at once be noticeable. As the latter has a length of about eight
+  and two-thirds feet with a breadth of nearly six, the difference
+  in size and proportions is not great; nor is there any particular
+  difference in the number of animals; nor in the balanced relation
+  of upper and lower, right and left halves; nor in the red ground
+  of the main fields. But here the resemblance ends. Whereas in the
+  former the animals are one of the most prominent features, in the
+  latter they are subordinate to the rich assemblage of floral and
+  palmette forms, that occupy not only the field but also the
+  border. It is, indeed, a piece that marks <span class=
+  'pagenum'><a name="Page_87" id="Page_87">87</a></span>a
+  transition from the animal rugs, so prominent in the early part
+  of the XVI Century but rarely woven later than its end, to the
+  more elegant pieces, so characteristic of the court of Ispahan,
+  which belong almost exclusively to the XVII Century. It
+  accordingly seems not without reason to assign it to about the
+  year 1600.</p>
+
+  <div class="figcenter" style="width: 400px;">
+    <a name="p19" id="p19"></a><img src="images/plate19.jpg"
+    width="400" height="788" alt="Plate 19. Armenian Carpet in the Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York"
+    title="" />
+
+    <p class="center"><span class="smcap">Plate 19. Armenian Carpet
+    in the Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York</span></p>
+  </div>
+
+  <p>Not only do these different elements that denote a transition
+  add interest; they also give a most pleasing effect. The main
+  border stripe of a rich green with its well-drawn palmettes
+  surrounded by vines and foliated stalks, on which rest naturally
+  drawn birds of handsome plumage, and the chaste floral designs of
+  the narrow guards, serve as a tasteful frame to the central
+  picture. Here again the outer field, with artistic effect, brings
+  into greater relief the central medallion, where on a ground of
+  greenish yellow, standing and seated amidst blossoming shrubs in
+  red, blue, and green, as in a garden, are richly dressed human
+  forms. Apart from these, yet perhaps intended in some way to
+  reflect the tenor of their thoughts, are four ducks, emblematic
+  of matrimonial happiness. Whatever may have been the original
+  shade of the central medallion, it is now slightly out of harmony
+  with the surrounding colours, and is perhaps the only jarring
+  note in this exquisite piece of workmanship. Not improbably the
+  present shade is due to the unfriendly hand of time, since the
+  artistic genius of the weaver is fully displayed in the masterly
+  arrangement of other colours and in the delicacy and precision of
+  the drawing of the perfectly balanced floral and animal
+  forms.</p>
+
+  <p>The difficulty of determining the locality where the antique
+  carpets were woven is often greater than in the case of modern
+  rugs, but this piece was probably one of the last of those fine
+  old animal carpets that were woven in the northwestern part of
+  Persia.</p>
+
+  <p>Though modern silk rugs fail to awaken the interest of woollen
+  pieces, the old silk carpets were formerly regarded as the
+  choicest products of weaving. As a rule, they were the work of
+  the most skilled artists employed in the imperial factory under
+  the direction and patronage of the court. It was during the reign
+  of Shah Tamasp that they received special attention. Following a
+  custom that had been in vogue of sending carpets as presents to
+  foreign courts, in 1566 he sent to the Sultan of Constantinople a
+  number of pieces on which flowers, birds, and animals were woven
+  with silk on threads of gold. But it was doubtless after his
+  successor Shah Abbas I had begun to embellish his capital at
+  Ispahan, that were<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_88" id=
+  "Page_88">88</a></span> made the famous &ldquo;Polish&rdquo; silk
+  or &ldquo;Polonaise&rdquo; carpets about which there has been so
+  much controversy. It is true that Mr. Robinson in his
+  &ldquo;Eastern Carpets&rdquo; claims that they were woven in
+  Poland by Persians taken there by a Pole named Mersherski; but it
+  seems far more probable that they were woven under the
+  supervision of the Persian court and were either sent as presents
+  to European sovereigns or purchased by wealthy connoisseurs of
+  art.</p>
+
+  <p>How many of these pieces may be hidden away in the palaces and
+  mosques of the far East it is impossible to determine, but two
+  hundred would be a very conservative estimate of the number owned
+  by the different courts of Europe and by private collectors of
+  that country and America. One of them was presented to the Danish
+  court as late as 1639; and it is believed that all that reached
+  Europe arrived there between the years 1604 and 1650.</p>
+
+  <p>Their beauty is exquisite and chaste. To the threads of silver
+  and gold is tied silken nap that often displays a striking
+  brilliancy. Unlike the earlier Persian carpets which had more
+  subdued hues, these pieces have light tones such as salmon, rose,
+  and green, which are arranged with perfect harmony. Moreover,
+  there is an elegance of design representing the highest types of
+  Iranian, Saracenic, and Mongolian influences combined. Here in
+  perfection are dainty floral forms, the rhythmic tracery of
+  arabesques, and delicate cloud-bands. In them the textile art of
+  the East reached a perfection that probably has never been
+  surpassed.</p>
+
+  <p>One of these (Plate <a href="#p17">17</a>, opp. Page 80), that
+  has a length of about nine feet and a breadth of five and a half,
+  belongs to the Metropolitan Museum of Art. In many respects it is
+  typical of its class, though threads of yellow and grey are
+  substituted for the usual gold and silver of the foundation. On a
+  field of rose are outlined palmettes, leaves, and scrolls in
+  green, blue, brown, and salmon, that harmonise with the light
+  blue of the border. All of these colours blend with pleasing
+  effect and soften lines that in a print seem harsh. Furthermore
+  with all its complexity of detail, every part of the pattern is
+  arranged with mathematical precision. That a carpet with such
+  perfect balance of every part, such intricacy of elaborate
+  detail, such graceful curves of the heavy foliate leaves should
+  be woven without copying some older pattern or a carefully
+  executed drawing, seems improbable.</p>
+
+  <div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;">
+    <a name="p20" id="p20"></a><img src="images/plate20.jpg"
+    width="500" height="836" alt="Plate 20. Asia Minor Dragon and Phoenix Carpet in the Kaiser Friedrich Museum, Berlin"
+    title="" />
+
+    <p class="center"><span class="smcap">Plate 20. Asia Minor
+    Dragon and Phoenix Carpet in the Kaiser Friedrich Museum,
+    Berlin</span></p>
+  </div>
+
+  <p>In this piece and in others of the same class can be
+  recognised what is probably the prototype of more
+  conventionalised and less <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_89"
+  id="Page_89">89</a></span>elegant designs so often seen in modern
+  Persian pieces, since the palmette with encircling lancet leaves
+  in its borders is most suggestive of the borders of modern
+  Herats; and the rhomboidal-shaped figure connecting four
+  palmettes at the centre is equally suggestive of the Herati or
+  fish pattern seen in the field of innumerable Feraghans.</p>
+
+  <p>It was also during the reign of Shah Abbas<a name=
+  "FNanchor_14" id="FNanchor_14"></a><a href="#Footnote_14" class=
+  "fnanchor">14</a> and his immediate successors that most of the
+  so-called Ispahans were woven, though some of them appeared as
+  early as the XV and some as late as the close of the XVII
+  Century. As in the case with the Polish silk carpets, within
+  recent years some difference of opinion has existed regarding the
+  place of their manufacture. After careful research, Dr. Martin
+  believes that they came from Herat and with this idea some other
+  authorities concur. It is true that Herat belonged to the Persian
+  Empire during the reign of the Safavid dynasty, and that even in
+  the days of Shah Ismael magnificent carpets were woven there. It
+  is also true that during the time of Tamasp and Abbas it was as
+  important an art centre as Tabriz, and that the weaving of
+  carpets was a leading industry there. Furthermore, there has not
+  been found the same evidence to show that Ispahan was at this
+  period an equally important centre of weaving. On the other hand,
+  it is well known that the splendid industrial and art products of
+  this period were largely due to the direct encouragement and
+  favour of the court, and that the court was for most of the time
+  at Ispahan. It is also known that skilled artisans were
+  repeatedly removed from one district to another at the command of
+  a sovereign, so that carpets of similar character might be woven
+  contemporaneously in remote parts of Persia. It accordingly seems
+  not improbable that the original type of these carpets was
+  evolved at Herat and that many of them at least were made at
+  Herat, but that others were also made at Ispahan. At any rate
+  they were made to a great extent under the influence that
+  emanated from Ispahan.</p>
+
+  <p>Almost without exception they are pieces of large size and
+  oblong shape. The ground colour of the field is usually red, the
+  border blue; but blue is occasionally used in the field and green
+  in the border. Their distinguishing feature is the use of the
+  palmette, that was probably derived from the lotus, so frequently
+  associated with the Buddhist cult of India and China. In the
+  field it generally <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_90" id=
+  "Page_90">90</a></span> occurs in pairs that slightly vary in
+  size. Of almost equal importance are the Chinese cloud-bands and
+  the scrolls or arabesques. These three designs were constant
+  motives in almost all the Ispahans; but they were subject to
+  modifications in size and shape, which appearing in chronological
+  order furnish some guide to the time when the carpets were woven.
+  For instance, the palmettes were at first small and distributed
+  plentifully over the field; later they became larger, until in a
+  few instances they were a yard in diameter. Dr. Martin says that
+  in the first part of the XVII Century the palmettes began to be
+  very large and the richness of the interior design to disappear;
+  until at the end of the XVII Century only a few were sufficient
+  to cover the ground that one hundred years before was almost
+  hidden by innumerable designs of small palmettes, cloud-bands,
+  and scroll work. He also states that towards the middle of the
+  XVII Century the borders began to lose their importance and that
+  the palmettes were surrounded by two long, narrow leaves.</p>
+
+  <p>Though most of the antique Iranian carpets that remain were
+  woven in the Northern provinces, it is well known that even from
+  earliest times carpets of elaborate design and skilful technique
+  were also woven in Southern Persia. In fact, many of the
+  wonderful pieces that adorned the palaces and mosques of the
+  Fatimid Caliphs of Egypt came from the districts of Fars and
+  Kirman. The latter, notwithstanding invasions of Seljukian Turks,
+  Mongolians, and Afghans, has continued almost uninterruptedly as
+  a centre of the textile industry; yet comparatively few pieces
+  exist that were woven there three or four centuries ago. Their
+  colour scheme harmonises more with that of the carpets of Western
+  Persia than with the more sombre tones of the old animal carpets
+  and Ispahans, or with the brighter hues of the so-called Polish.
+  Their patterns also show a distinction from those of northern
+  textile fabrics. The fields are often artificially divided, by
+  foliate stalks or lance-shaped leaves with serrated edges, into
+  rhomboidal figures that contain mechanically drawn shrubs,
+  palmettes, or flowers. In the main stripe of the border are
+  generally represented interlacing arabesques adorned with
+  flowering vines or arabesques and a sub-pattern of vines.
+  Mongolian designs are rarely seen in any of these pieces, which
+  probably represent more closely than any other Persian carpets
+  native art unaffected by foreign influences. Almost all of them
+  are now owned in Europe.</p>
+
+  <p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_91" id=
+  "Page_91">91</a></span>Of the early rugs, those woven in Armenia
+  are far less known than those from Persia. Nevertheless, it may
+  reasonably be assumed that the high culture that was manifested
+  in Bagdad and Ctesiphon during the sway of the Caliphs was felt
+  among the mountainous districts to the north; and that the
+  Seljukian rulers, who left such artistic monuments in the old
+  Armenian capitals, appreciated and encouraged the manufacture of
+  fine woollen fabrics. In fact, Marco Polo, who travelled through
+  that region during the latter part of the XIII Century, referred
+  to them as being remarkably handsome.</p>
+
+  <p>Probably the oldest remaining pieces are the so-called Dragon
+  carpets, which, it is believed, were produced from the XIV to the
+  XVII Century and possibly even earlier. Not infrequently the
+  length is at least twice the breadth; the very narrow border
+  occasionally consists of only a single stripe; and the field is
+  occupied by a trellis-like pattern of narrow, conventionalised
+  leaves, within which are designs containing archaic flowers and
+  dragons. The ground colour of the field is generally some shade
+  of red, that of the border white, and the leaves are yellow,
+  blue, or green. In the borders of many of them appear an S motive
+  from which undoubtedly was derived the design so frequently seen
+  in panels of more recent Asia Minor prayer rugs.</p>
+
+  <p>In the Metropolitan Museum of Art of New York is a XV Century
+  carpet (Plate <a href="#p19">19</a>, opp. Page 86), which, though
+  widely differing from these pieces in general pattern, so closely
+  resembles them in the essential characteristics of weave and
+  colour that it is unquestionably of the same class. The field is
+  occupied by concentric diamonds with stepped sides. The
+  encircling bands, that are mostly red, yellow, and violet, and
+  the corners, that are white, contain numerous archaic forms,
+  including palmettes, trees, birds, and animals. There are also
+  numerous small designs of the tri-cleft leaf so common to the
+  Circassian and Soumak rugs; and the ray-like edges of the central
+  lozenge, as well as the four palmettes that rest upon it, suggest
+  the origin of the effulgent stars of old Daghestans and
+  Kabistans. An effort has been made to balance similar designs in
+  corresponding parts of the field, though its centre is at one
+  side of the geometric centre of the diamonds. The palmettes show
+  distinctly a strong Persian influence and the animal forms
+  likewise show that it was not woven by a sectarian Sunnite of
+  Western Asia Minor.</p>
+
+  <p>Part of a very unusual carpet (Plate <a href="#p20">20</a>,
+  opp. Page 88), from a<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_92" id=
+  "Page_92">92</a></span> district in Eastern Asia Minor, is in the
+  Kaiser Friedrich Museum at Berlin. Its principal interest lies in
+  the fact that it is very old and that its approximate age has
+  been determined. In the hospital at Siena, Italy, a similar rug
+  is represented in a fresco called the &ldquo;Wedding of the
+  Foundling,&rdquo; painted by Domenico di Bartolo about the year
+  1440, so that it is reasonable to conclude that this particular
+  piece was woven not much later. In fact, its character would
+  indicate that it or some other from which it has been copied was
+  much older. Each of the nearly square compartments contain
+  octagons, within which on a yellow field are represented the
+  mythical fight of the dragon and ph&oelig;nix that was adopted as
+  the Ming coat of arms. It is interesting to note that the chain
+  pattern of the brownish-black main border stripe is not unlike
+  what is seen in modern pieces, but the running latch hooks of the
+  corners and the small S designs are unusually stiff. This
+  disposition to formal drawing, which is conspicuous in all parts
+  of the rug, shows an archaic style noticeable only in the very
+  earliest carpets.</p>
+
+  <p>In the celebrated painting of Georg Gyze (Plate <a href=
+  "#p21">21</a>, opp. Page 92) which hangs in the Berlin Gallery,
+  is represented a rug of a class so frequently seen in the
+  paintings of Hans Holbein that they are known as &ldquo;Holbein
+  rugs.&rdquo; Their marked dissimilarity to those previously
+  described indicates that they were woven under different
+  circumstances if not in different regions. Neither in the fields
+  nor borders is any trace of Mongolian or Persian influences; and
+  the absence of all floral, leaf, and animal forms so usual in
+  most antique carpets is noticeable. Indeed, the fact that animal
+  forms rarely appear in the art of the Sunni Mohammedans aids in
+  determining the place of their origin. They came from Asia Minor
+  or Western Armenia.</p>
+
+  <p>It has generally been assumed that they were woven in Western
+  Asia Minor, because they were purchased there in former centuries
+  and taken thence to Europe; but they possess many features that
+  indicate they may have been woven farther to the east, whence
+  many could easily have been transported westward in caravans.
+  Their borders contain the well-known pattern derived from Cufic
+  letters which, more conventionalised, appears in later years only
+  in such rugs as the Kabistans and Daghestans of Eastern Caucasia.
+  Most of them also contain the small octagonal discs and larger
+  octagonal figures with Greek crosses at the centre that suggest
+  forcibly the designs of Southeastern Caucasia. The narrow stripes
+  <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_93" id=
+  "Page_93">93</a></span>of ribbon and chain pattern found in many
+  of them also are very common in Caucasian rugs; so that it seems
+  not improbable that these Holbein rugs were made within the
+  boundaries of that greater Armenia which, embracing the upper
+  Mesopotamian valley, extended over the eastern part of Asia Minor
+  and the southern part of modern Caucasia.</p>
+
+  <div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;">
+    <a name="p21" id="p21"></a><img src="images/plate21.jpg"
+    width="500" height="577" alt="Plate 21. Portrait of Georg Gyze by Hans Holbein, Showing a Holbein Rug With Cufic Border"
+    title="" />
+
+    <p class="center"><span class="smcap">Plate 21. Portrait of
+    Georg Gyze by Hans Holbein, Showing a Holbein Rug With Cufic
+    Border</span></p>
+  </div>
+
+  <p>These rugs claim the attention not only because they have
+  borders of such interesting origin, but by the fact that the age
+  when they were woven is ascertainable. As Holbein lived between
+  the years 1497 and 1543, and some other rugs of this type appear
+  in the works of early Flemish and Italian painters, it may
+  reasonably be assumed that some of them were made before the end
+  of the XV Century.</p>
+
+  <p>A very excellent example of this class, owned by Mr. C. F.
+  Williams, is now in the Metropolitan Museum of Art. It has a
+  length of about five feet with a breadth of three and a half. The
+  ground colour of the field is an olive green and that of the main
+  stripe of the border is red. The prevailing colours of the
+  designs, which are entirely geometric, are blue, green, and
+  ivory. All of these rugs are small or of moderate size, and are
+  slightly oblong. Some of them have a ground colour of green; and
+  yellow is frequently found in the pattern. The weaving is rather
+  loose; and compared with Persian rugs they have fewer knots to
+  the square inch.</p>
+
+  <p>Another carpet from Asia Minor that also belongs to Mr. C. F.
+  Williams appears in Plate <a href="#p22">22</a>, opp. Page 94. It
+  is the only entire rug with this pattern that is known, though a
+  piece of a similar rug is in the Victoria and Albert Museum at
+  London. On fields of blue and red are outlined three large
+  four-pointed stars separated by smaller diamonds. Within these
+  figures and in the surrounding field is a network of tracery
+  supporting conventionalised leaf and floral forms. Between the
+  field and the main stripe of the narrow border is a close
+  co-ordination of pattern, but the simple ribbon of the inner
+  guard seems alien. It appears without modification in many later
+  Asia Minor and Caucasian rugs.</p>
+
+  <p>An important feature are the double knots at the corners of
+  the stars, since they are identical with designs found in a
+  manuscript made for one of the Shahs in 1435, and thus assist to
+  determine the age of the rug. For this reason and on account of
+  its general character, it seems not unreasonable to place it as
+  early as the middle of the XV Century.</p>
+
+  <p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_94" id=
+  "Page_94">94</a></span>Similar carpets were woven during a long
+  period, and it is probable that in the latter half of the
+  following century they were largely influenced by the weavers
+  that Solyman the Magnificent, after capturing Tabriz in 1534,
+  transported to his own country. The same general features still
+  remained, but the detail was more elaborate and ornate.
+  Arabesques, palmettes, and floral forms, both of field and
+  border, resembled more nearly the Iranian character. But at a
+  later period, after the beginning of the general decadence to
+  which every industry and art were subject, the patterns became
+  much simpler, and the colours were reduced almost exclusively to
+  red and blue with a little green. At length, both pattern and
+  colours assumed the type of modern Oushaks, that by a slow
+  process of devolution originated from these antique pieces.</p>
+
+  <p>In Armenia and Asia Minor it is probable that weaving existed
+  before the Christian era, and that the earliest carpets which
+  remain, though affected by more eastern influences, are largely
+  the product of an indigenous art. But in India it was otherwise.
+  It is true that Sir George Birdwood is authority for the
+  statement that the Saracens introduced carpet-weaving there; but
+  it is most probable that at the time of the invasion of the
+  armies of Tamerlane and during the lives of many of his
+  successors, whatever carpets were woven were very crude. Even
+  when the Moguls began to build and embellish palaces, they
+  obtained their carpets from Persia. But at length Shah Akbar
+  established manufacturies at Lahore about the year 1580, and
+  invited Persian weavers to settle there. From them the native
+  workmen acquired much of their knowledge of patterns and
+  technique.</p>
+
+  <p>It was during the reign of Shah Jahan (1628-1658), builder of
+  the famous peacock throne and Taj Mahal, that most of the
+  choicest pieces that now remain were woven. In delicacy of
+  texture they rival those of any other country, and it is not
+  unusual to find pieces with nearly eight hundred knots to the
+  square inch; moreover, all their designs are depicted with
+  remarkable clearness of definition. One of the most noted of
+  these carpets is the woollen piece, about eight yards long by two
+  and a half wide, that was made at the royal factory at Lahore and
+  presented to the Girdlers Company of London in 1634. The mingling
+  of leaf and floral forms, as well as the Herati designs of
+  rosette and crumpled leaf, on a field of red, shows unmistakably
+  its relation to Persian carpets. At the same period were woven
+  large numbers of others with fields covered <span class=
+  'pagenum'><a name="Page_95" id="Page_95">95</a></span>with an
+  imposing display of superbly drawn flowers, of which every part
+  from root to leaf tips was represented with astonishing realism.
+  Another class included the animal or hunting carpets, which
+  unlike their Persian prototypes seem intended not so much to
+  portray symbolically some historic event or abstract idea, as to
+  convey a correct impression of an actual event.</p>
+
+  <div class="figcenter" style="width: 350px;">
+    <a name="p22" id="p22"></a><img src="images/plate22.jpg"
+    width="350" height="789" alt="Plate 22. Oushak Carpet" title="" />
+
+    <p class="center"><span class="smcap">Plate 22. Oushak
+    Carpet</span></p>
+
+    <p class="center2">Loaned by C. F. Williams, Esq., to the
+    Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York</p>
+  </div>
+
+  <p>One of these, a woollen piece with a length of eight and a
+  quarter feet and a breadth of five and a quarter, is in the
+  Boston Museum of Fine Arts. The inspiration was from some old
+  Persian piece, but the rendering is peculiarly Indian. In this
+  representation of an Oriental jungle is a strange mingling of the
+  real and unreal. The struggle of a monster bird with a winged
+  beast, half lion, half elephant, and the demoniac faces of the
+  border suggest the inspiration of early pagan mythology; but the
+  movements of the running gazelles and the stealthily creeping
+  tiger, the attitude of the driver of the cart and his attendant,
+  are most natural. The drawing as a whole is exceedingly delicate.
+  The ground colour of the field is the red of most Ispahans and
+  Herats of this period, but the border is a cream colour, a
+  combination not in accord with Persian tradition. The other
+  colours are fawn, blue, pink, grey and brown. It is probably the
+  only Indian hunting carpet of its kind.</p>
+
+  <p>Few strictly antique carpets from other countries of the
+  Orient are known. Of the innumerable pieces that were surely
+  woven in Caucasia and Western Turkestan before the end of the
+  XVII Century, scarcely a vestige can be found. Nor are there many
+  from the looms of Syria, though in the days of the Caliphs every
+  mosque was adorned with magnificent carpets. It is true a few
+  sterling pieces of Saracenic character, that have been ascribed
+  to the region about Damascus, still exist. There are also a few
+  rare and beautiful pieces that have come to light in
+  China.<a name="FNanchor_15" id="FNanchor_15"></a><a href=
+  "#Footnote_15" class="fnanchor">15</a> But of the countless
+  thousands that in almost every country of the Orient once covered
+  floors of palaces and mosques, representing one of the most
+  refined arts, now nearly lost, only an insignificant fraction
+  remains.</p>
+
+  <p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_96" id=
+  "Page_96">96</a></span></p>
+
+  <h4>CHART INDICATING PERIODS WHEN ANTIQUE CARPETS WERE MADE</h4>
+
+  <div class="figcenter" style="width: 550px;">
+    <a name="c1" id="c1"></a><img src="images/chart1.jpg"
+    width="550" height="859" alt="CHART INDICATING PERIODS WHEN ANTIQUE CARPETS WERE MADE"
+    title="" />
+  </div>
+  <hr />
+
+  <p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_97" id=
+  "Page_97">97</a></span></p>
+
+  <h3>CHAPTER VIII</h3>
+
+  <h4>CLASSIFICATION OF MODERN RUGS</h4>
+
+  <p><span class="floatLeft"><img src="images/r.jpg" width="110" height="110" alt="R"
+  title="R" /></span>UGS contribute to the comfort of the nomad
+  more than any other fabric. With them he closes the entrance to
+  his tent or covers the floor and couches on which he sits and
+  sleeps. Thrown over other objects they form the table, made into
+  saddle bags they take the place of trunks. The followers of Islam
+  when at prayer kneel on a rug, and in token of affection spread
+  one over the grave of a friend. To dwellers in cities, also, rugs
+  contribute largely to the comfort and luxury of the home. Indeed,
+  without them the splendour of Oriental life would seem
+  incomplete, since they are the principal furnishings of every
+  house, where stout woven pieces with long pile are spread as
+  floor coverings, and lighter ones are hung as porti&egrave;res
+  and tapestries. Yet it is in the assembly or dining hall that the
+  finest rugs are used, though here the most valued are exposed
+  only on great occasions.</p>
+
+  <p>In the East a rug receives a particular name according to
+  which of these special purposes it is adapted. The large, almost
+  square piece that is used to cover the centre of the assembly
+  hall is known as the &ldquo;Khali;&rdquo; and the narrow strips
+  or &ldquo;runners&rdquo; that are placed at its sides and ends
+  are known as the &ldquo;Kenares.&rdquo; It is on the Kenares that
+  the servants are required to walk and the less honoured guests to
+  stand, for they are rarely of such fine quality as the former.
+  Before the divan, that generally surrounds three walls and is
+  covered with fine cloth and velvet, are seats on which are placed
+  carpets called &ldquo;Sedjadeh.&rdquo; They are nearly twice as
+  long as broad, and since they are of moderate size and excellent
+  quality they are frequently used for many other purposes. The
+  hearth rug, termed &ldquo;Odjalik,&rdquo; can generally be
+  distinguished from others, as each end of the field is of
+  triangular shape with the apex at the extremity. However much any
+  of these may be valued, the one that to every<span class=
+  'pagenum'><a name="Page_98" id="Page_98">98</a></span> worshipper
+  of Allah has the most sacred association is the
+  &ldquo;Namazlik,&rdquo; or prayer rug, at one end of which is an
+  arch in token of the mosque. At call for prayer the faithful
+  Moslem spreads his rug with arch directed towards Mecca, and
+  kneeling with the palms of his hands at each side of the centre
+  he bows his head till it touches the rug. As the Mohammedans of
+  Persia are unwilling that a Namazlik be trampled by the foot of
+  an infidel, few from there can be bought; but the Mohammedans of
+  other countries are less scrupulous, so that many of the prayer
+  rugs sold in America have been made solely for trade and have
+  never been used in worship. They may be beautiful, but special
+  interest attaches to old pieces of which the well-worn nap shows
+  where the knees of both father and son for over half a century
+  have often pressed. In addition to these are other rugs with
+  technical names, but a classification of much greater importance
+  is that which depends on the country or district where they are
+  woven.</p>
+
+  <p>When the Oriental rugs first appeared in the market of the
+  United States, they were spoken of as &ldquo;Turkish,&rdquo; for
+  the reason that importers purchased them from Turkish merchants
+  of Constantinople. But when it became known that they had been
+  taken there by caravans from countries farther to the east, and
+  that large numbers of them came from Persia, the name
+  &ldquo;Persian,&rdquo; that to the mind of many conveys ideas of
+  splendour, was at once applied; even to-day all classes of
+  Oriental rugs are often spoken of as Persian. As objects of
+  ornament or utility, their value is independent of their place of
+  origin; yet it is known that the wool of the nap and the dyes
+  used in some districts are superior to those in others, and that
+  in consequence the beauty of some rugs will improve with age far
+  more than that of others. It is also known that because in
+  certain districts the material of warp and weft, as well as the
+  workmanship, is of a superior quality, the rugs made there will
+  wear better than others. The knowledge, then, of where a rug is
+  made is important in determining the quality and value, which
+  otherwise only a critical examination, that few people are able
+  to make, would show.</p>
+
+  <div class="figcenter" style="width: 550px;">
+    <a name="p23" id="p23"></a><img src="images/plate23.jpg"
+    width="550" height="778" alt="Plate 23. Sehna Rug" title="" />
+
+    <p class="center"><span class="smcap">Plate 23. Sehna
+    Rug</span></p>
+  </div>
+
+  <p>Furthermore, the knowledge of where a rug is made, suggesting
+  the class of people who wove it, adds immeasurably to our
+  interest. When, for instance, we look at an old piece of Kurdish
+  weave with its nomadic designs and shaggy nap, on which a Moslem
+  savage as an Apache often rested fully half a century ago, there
+  is called up a picture of the dark-visaged tribesman, fearless
+  and untamed <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_99" id=
+  "Page_99">99</a></span>as were his ancestors who contested the
+  march of Xenophon over two thousand years ago. We see him
+  wandering with his flocks over the hills while he watches for a
+  chance to fall upon an unsuspecting stranger. We picture to
+  ourselves the hut of brush upon the mountain side where a slender
+  barbaric girl bends to tie, with wonderful patience, the knots
+  one by one. So if we would enjoy our Oriental rugs, we should
+  know what people made them, and whence and how they journeyed,
+  before they reached our fireside.</p>
+
+  <p>At the request of a purchaser the vendor is ever ready to
+  classify a rug, but his statements are not always reliable. This
+  is partly due to the fact that even the great importing houses
+  are often deceived. Throughout Asia Minor, Persia, Turkestan,
+  even farther east, great fairs are regularly held. Here gather
+  the representatives of tribes from far distant quarters to enjoy
+  for a few days or weeks the gay life and abandon of the East
+  while bartering the products of their different crafts. Here come
+  the purchasing agents looking for rugs; and the pieces that may
+  be brought from afar are bought and shipped by camel and rail to
+  such great marts as Tabriz, Tiflis, and Constantinople, where the
+  bales are unpacked and the rugs assorted, classified and
+  labelled, before they are resold to the importing houses of
+  Europe and America. Thus both in the buying from the itinerant
+  agent of rugs assembled from different quarters and in the
+  reassortment at the exporting cities there is frequent
+  opportunity for errors of classification.</p>
+
+  <p>The characteristics of the different groups and classes of
+  rugs are given in later chapters, but it should not be presumed
+  that these are infallible guides to the locality where they were
+  made. Often a ruler, by fostering art, has drawn to his capital
+  artists and artisans from other districts. Thus designs and
+  quality of workmanship characteristic of one district would be
+  adopted in another. So, too, the great caravans that pass along
+  regular routes eastward and westward, and the annual pilgrimages
+  to Meshed and Mecca, have been most potent influences for the
+  dissemination of designs. Yet taking into consideration the
+  general pattern and smaller designs; the material of warp, weft,
+  and pile; the knot; the dyes; the finish of sides and ends, and
+  the peculiarities of the weave, it is possible with a reasonable
+  amount of certainty to determine in what districts almost all
+  Oriental rugs are woven.</p>
+
+  <p>It should be borne in mind, however, that the names by which
+  some of the rugs are known in America are not the same as
+  those<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_100" id=
+  "Page_100">100</a></span> by which they are known in Asia. For
+  instance, the rugs made by some of the tribes of the Tekke
+  Khanate are known in the Orient as &ldquo;Tekkes;&rdquo; but as
+  the great depot for Turkestan carpets was formerly the city of
+  Bokhara, they are generally known in this country as
+  &ldquo;Bokharas.&rdquo; On the other hand, there are local
+  distinctions in the eastern countries not known in the western.
+  The accompanying classification, therefore, is slightly
+  arbitrary, but should be convenient for reference; since the
+  classes represent the cities or districts where are woven the
+  several different kinds, excepting the Chinese, which are divided
+  chronologically. The names of the groups are not in each instance
+  entirely satisfactory, but are probably the best that can be
+  chosen. The fourth group, for example, has frequently been called
+  the &ldquo;Turkoman;&rdquo; but as it includes some of the rugs
+  of Afghanistan, and also those of Beluchistan, which is remote
+  from Turkestan, that name is not sufficiently comprehensive. The
+  district where these rugs are made is, strictly speaking, the
+  western and southwestern part of Central Asia; but the term here
+  employed has the authority of some German writers of note. So,
+  too, the rugs of Herat, though it is now a city of Afghanistan,
+  are included with the Persian group; but it should be remembered
+  that Herat, as well as the districts of Mosul and Kurdistan, was
+  once part of the old Persian Empire.</p>
+
+  <h4>GROUP I. PERSIAN.</h4>
+
+  <table width="100%" summary="GROUP I. PERSIAN." border="0">
+    <tr>
+      <td class="left85c" colspan="2">
+        <p class="indent2">(<i>a</i>) Khorassan district:</p>
+      </td>
+    </tr>
+
+    <tr>
+      <td class="left15c">&nbsp;</td>
+
+      <td class="left85c">
+        <p class="indent2">Herat, Khorassan, Meshed.</p>
+      </td>
+    </tr>
+
+    <tr>
+      <td class="left85c" colspan="2">
+        <p class="indent2">(<i>b</i>) Shiraz district:</p>
+      </td>
+    </tr>
+
+    <tr>
+      <td class="left15c">&nbsp;</td>
+
+      <td class="left85c">
+        <p class="indent2">Ispahan, Kirman, Yezd, Shiraz,
+        Niris.</p>
+      </td>
+    </tr>
+
+    <tr>
+      <td class="left85c" colspan="2">
+        <p class="indent2">(<i>c</i>) Feraghan district:</p>
+      </td>
+    </tr>
+
+    <tr>
+      <td class="left15c">&nbsp;</td>
+
+      <td class="left85c">
+        <p class="indent2">Feraghan, Hamadan, Kara-Geuz, Bibikabad,
+        Iran, Sarouk, Kashan, Sarabend, Burujird, Sultanabad,
+        Muskabad, Mahal, Joshaghan, Gulistan, Teheran.</p>
+      </td>
+    </tr>
+
+    <tr>
+      <td class="left85c" colspan="2">
+        <p class="indent2">(<i>d</i>) Sehna district, or Adelan
+        province:</p>
+      </td>
+    </tr>
+
+    <tr>
+      <td class="left15c">&nbsp;</td>
+
+      <td class="left85c">
+        <p class="indent2">Sehna, Bijar, Kermanshah, Persian
+        Kurdistan, Karaje.</p>
+      </td>
+    </tr>
+
+    <tr>
+      <td class="left85c" colspan="2">
+        <p class="indent2">(<i>e</i>) Tabriz district:</p>
+      </td>
+    </tr>
+
+    <tr>
+      <td class="left15c">&nbsp;</td>
+
+      <td class="left85c">
+        <p class="indent2">Tabriz, Gorevan, Bakshis, Serapi, Herez,
+        Suj-Bulak, Karadagh, Afshar.</p>
+      </td>
+    </tr>
+
+    <tr>
+      <td class="left85c" colspan="2">
+        <p class="indent2">(<i>f</i>) Kurdistan district:</p>
+      </td>
+    </tr>
+
+    <tr>
+      <td class="left15c">&nbsp;</td>
+
+      <td class="left85c">
+        <p class="indent2">Western Kurdistan, Mosul, Gozene.</p>
+      </td>
+    </tr>
+  </table>
+
+  <p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_101" id=
+  "Page_101">101</a></span></p>
+
+  <h4>GROUP II. ASIA MINOR OR TURKISH.</h4>
+
+  <table width="100%" summary="GROUP I. PERSIAN." border="0">
+    <tr>
+      <td class="left85c" colspan="2">
+        <p class="indent2">(<i>a</i>) West Asia Minor district:</p>
+      </td>
+    </tr>
+
+    <tr>
+      <td class="left15c">&nbsp;</td>
+
+      <td class="left85c">
+        <p class="indent2">Bergamo, Ghiordes, Kulah, Oushak,
+        Ak-Hissar, Demirdji, Kutayah, Smyrna, Melez, Isbarta,
+        Rhodian, Broussa, Hereke.</p>
+      </td>
+    </tr>
+
+    <tr>
+      <td class="left85c" colspan="2">
+        <p class="indent2">(<i>b</i>) Central Asia Minor
+        district:</p>
+      </td>
+    </tr>
+
+    <tr>
+      <td class="left15c">&nbsp;</td>
+
+      <td class="left85c">
+        <p class="indent2">Konieh, Ladik, Kir-Shehr, Anatolian,
+        Karaman, Sivas, Mudjar, Nigde, Tuzla, Kaisariyeh, Zile,
+        Yuruk.</p>
+      </td>
+    </tr>
+  </table>
+
+  <h4>GROUP III. CAUCASIAN.</h4>
+
+  <table width="100%" summary="GROUP I. PERSIAN." border="0">
+    <tr>
+      <td class="left85c" colspan="2">
+        <p class="indent2">(<i>a</i>) North Caucasian:</p>
+      </td>
+    </tr>
+
+    <tr>
+      <td class="left15c">&nbsp;</td>
+
+      <td class="left85c">
+        <p class="indent2">Daghestan, Kabistan, Kuba, Derbend,
+        Lesghian, Chichi, Tcherkess.</p>
+      </td>
+    </tr>
+
+    <tr>
+      <td class="left85c" colspan="2">
+        <p class="indent2">(<i>b</i>) Trans Caucasian:</p>
+      </td>
+    </tr>
+
+    <tr>
+      <td class="left15c">&nbsp;</td>
+
+      <td class="left85c">
+        <p class="indent2">Baku, Shirvan, Soumak, Shemakha, Tiflis,
+        Kutais, Kazak, Karabagh, Shusha, Gengha.</p>
+      </td>
+    </tr>
+  </table>
+
+  <h4>GROUP IV. CENTRAL ASIATIC.</h4>
+
+  <table width="100%" summary="GROUP IV. CENTRAL ASIATIC." border=
+  "0">
+    <tr>
+      <td class="left85c" colspan="2">
+        <p class="indent2">(<i>a</i>) West Turkoman sub-group,
+        Western influence:</p>
+      </td>
+    </tr>
+
+    <tr>
+      <td class="left15c">&nbsp;</td>
+
+      <td class="left85c">
+        <p class="indent2">Royal Bokhara, Princess Bokhara, Tekke,
+        Yomud, Khiva, Afghan, Beshir.</p>
+      </td>
+    </tr>
+
+    <tr>
+      <td class="left85c" colspan="2">
+        <p class="indent2">(<i>b</i>) East Turkoman sub-group,
+        Eastern influence:</p>
+      </td>
+    </tr>
+
+    <tr>
+      <td class="left15c">&nbsp;</td>
+
+      <td class="left85c">
+        <p class="indent2">Samarkand, Kashgar, Yarkand.</p>
+      </td>
+    </tr>
+
+    <tr>
+      <td class="left85c" colspan="2">
+        <p class="indent2">(<i>c</i>) Beluchistan.</p>
+      </td>
+    </tr>
+  </table>
+
+  <h4>GROUP V. INDIAN.</h4>
+
+  <table width="100%" summary="GROUP V. INDIAN." border="0">
+    <tr>
+      <td class="left85c" colspan="2">
+        <p class="indent2">(<i>a</i>) Northern India:</p>
+      </td>
+    </tr>
+
+    <tr>
+      <td class="left15c">&nbsp;</td>
+
+      <td class="left85c">
+        <p class="indent2">Srinagar, Amritsar, Lahore, Multan,
+        Agra, Allahabad, Mirzapur, Zabalpur, Patna, Jaipur.</p>
+      </td>
+    </tr>
+
+    <tr>
+      <td class="left85c" colspan="2">
+        <p class="indent2">(<i>b</i>) Southern India:</p>
+      </td>
+    </tr>
+
+    <tr>
+      <td class="left15c">&nbsp;</td>
+
+      <td class="left85c">
+        <p class="indent2">Madras, Mysore, Bangalore, Warangal,
+        Malabar, Hyderabad, Marsulipatam.</p>
+      </td>
+    </tr>
+  </table>
+
+  <h4>GROUP VI. CHINESE.<a name="FNanchor_16" id=
+  "FNanchor_16"></a><a href="#Footnote_16" class=
+  "fnanchor">16</a></h4>
+
+  <table width="100%" summary="GROUP VI. CHINESE." border="0">
+    <tr>
+      <td class="left85c" colspan="2">
+        <p class="indent2">(<i>a</i>) XVII Century:</p>
+      </td>
+    </tr>
+
+    <tr>
+      <td class="left15c">&nbsp;</td>
+
+      <td class="left85c">
+        <p class="indent2">Late Ming 1600-1643 and Early Kang-hi
+        (1662-1700).</p>
+      </td>
+    </tr>
+
+    <tr>
+      <td class="left85c" colspan="2">
+        <p class="indent2">(<i>b</i>) XVIII Century:</p>
+      </td>
+    </tr>
+
+    <tr>
+      <td class="left15c">&nbsp;</td>
+
+      <td class="left85c">
+        <p class="indent2">1. Late Kang-hi (1700-1722). 2.
+        Yung-ching (1722-1736). 3. Keen-lung (1736-1795).</p>
+      </td>
+    </tr>
+
+    <tr>
+      <td class="left85c" colspan="2">
+        <p class="indent2">(<i>c</i>) Early and Middle XIX
+        Century.</p>
+      </td>
+    </tr>
+
+    <tr>
+      <td class="left85c" colspan="2">
+        <p class="indent2">(<i>d</i>) Late XIX Century or
+        Modern.</p>
+      </td>
+    </tr>
+  </table>
+  <hr />
+
+  <p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_102" id=
+  "Page_102">102</a></span></p>
+
+  <h3>CHAPTER IX</h3>
+
+  <h4>PERSIAN RUGS</h4>
+
+  <p><span class="floatLeft"><img src="images/i.jpg" width="110" height="110" alt="I"
+  title="I" /></span>N the grouping of Oriental rugs, it is not
+  always desirable to follow the present political divisions of
+  territory, since great and frequent changes in national
+  boundaries have occurred without corresponding changes in the
+  traditional style of weaving. Thus it happens that with the rugs
+  made in Persia, which is still called Iran by its inhabitants, it
+  is desirable to group those made within that former Iran that
+  included the valley of Mesopotamia on the west and part of
+  Afghanistan on the east. The woven products of all this territory
+  have characteristics that are similar to one another and that
+  differentiate them from those of other countries. Their patterns
+  are distinctly floral, representing leaf, bud, and flower, and
+  show a tendency to naturalistic drawing with graceful and often
+  intricate lines. Moreover, their colour schemes of delicate tones
+  are not only beautiful but in perfect harmony. In marked contrast
+  with them are the rugs of Caucasia, Asia Minor, and Central Asia,
+  which have patterns of geometric shape or highly conventionalised
+  flower forms, and colours that often appear in bold contrast. In
+  the Chinese rugs, also, is generally less harmony of colour, as
+  well as less co-ordination of design, than in the Persian. The
+  scroll and floral patterns appear on the field in isolated
+  figures, or else imitate with more formal drawing the diaper
+  pattern of some Iranian carpets. Only in the rugs of India is
+  there a similarity to the patterns and colour tones of those of
+  Persia; but the designs are more realistically drawn, less
+  artistically arranged, and less profuse.</p>
+
+  <h4><i>COLOUR PLATE IV&mdash;BERGAMO RUG</i></h4>
+
+  <p><i>The weaver of this interesting Bergamo followed the early
+  Asia Minor traditions in the use of rich, deep blue and red of
+  field and border, yet in respect to pattern showed his freedom
+  from conventionality by departing from types peculiar to his
+  district and adopting many nomadic designs prevalent throughout
+  Anatolia. Reciprocal latch-hooks form the background of the
+  central field, on which are three upright panels containing
+  octagonal discs; and latch-hooks surrounding lozenges and forming
+  what may originally have been intended to represent the tree of
+  life appear almost as conspicuously in the border. There are also
+  combs, knots of destiny, and innumerable S-forms. The panels at
+  the upper and lower ends of the field and the reciprocal vandykes
+  are most suggestive of Ladiks, but in the place of pomegranates
+  at the ends of the upright stalks are small checquered squares.
+  Bergamos with such patterns are now rarely seen.</i></p>
+
+  <p class="name"><i>Loaned by Mr. Hulett C. Merritt</i></p>
+
+  <div class="figcenter" style="width: 550px;">
+    <a name="piv" id="piv"></a><img src="images/plate_iv.jpg"
+    width="550" height="698" alt="COLOUR PLATE IV--BERGAMO RUG" title="" />
+  </div>
+
+  <p>The similarity in the rugs of the Persian group is due to past
+  political influences as well as to common ties of race and
+  religion. From the time when Ctesiphon and Babylon vied with the
+  cities of Persia in the splendour of their capitals, all of this
+  territory was repeatedly under one and the same dominant power,
+  which at different<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_103" id=
+  "Page_103">103</a></span> times was held by Saracens, Seljukian
+  Turks, Timurids, and Safavids; and even after the end of the
+  Safavid dynasty the influence of Nadir Shah was felt over
+  Mesopotamia as well as Western Afghanistan. A still stronger
+  influence is that of race; for Aryans, Arabs, Armenians, and
+  Turks have blended with the early people of the whole territory,
+  until not only do all resemble one another, but their
+  craftsmanship is similar. Furthermore, with the exception of a
+  few rapidly disappearing Parsees, who still cling to the early
+  Zoroastrian faith, all are Mohammedans; and in their frequent
+  pilgrimages to the same shrines is a constant interchange of
+  ideas and exchange of fabrics. It is true Asia Minor, Caucasia,
+  and India have shared to some extent the same influences, but to
+  a much less degree.</p>
+
+  <p>A resemblance, also, exists between many of the physical
+  features of the entire country that affect the habits and
+  industries of the people. To be sure the Euphrates and Tigris,
+  that wind sluggishly through the great Mesopotamian valley, and
+  the great ranges of the Elburz and Zagros, that extend from Mt.
+  Ararat easterly and southeasterly through Persia, have no
+  counterpart; but on the other hand in Mesopotamia, Persia, and
+  Western Afghanistan are great stretches of sandy wastes where
+  there is little vegetation, high table-lands where during
+  rainless summer months the earth is parched, and little valleys
+  of fertile soil that are watered by streams from the encircling
+  mountain ridges. Throughout this territory, wherever physical
+  conditions are similar, the people follow similar pursuits. In
+  the deserts the impoverished Bedouins live; in the higher lands
+  some two millions of nomads follow their sheep and goats,
+  pitching their tents wherever there is pasture; in the valleys
+  are several millions of people, who, with the placid contentment
+  of the East, irrigate their garden patches, fashion simple
+  articles of metal, and weave artistic rugs.</p>
+
+  <p>A general decadence in social, political, and industrial life
+  pervades the whole country; yet due partly to the inheritance of
+  a past associated with the glories of Persepolis and Ecbatana,
+  Babylon and Nineveh, Bagdad and Ctesiphon, and to the more
+  immediate influence of the textile masterpieces of three
+  centuries ago, rugs are still produced that in delicacy of weave,
+  beauty of design, and harmony of colours surpass those of any
+  other part of the world. In the weave of the best examples is
+  displayed a technical skill only approached by a few of the Royal
+  Bokharas. In the fine<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_104" id=
+  "Page_104">104</a></span> rhythm of lines and in the colour
+  scheme of harmonious and delicate tones, with which a few of the
+  best products of India alone compare, is united the touch of both
+  artist and artisan. The fields of the old pieces are lavishly
+  covered with intricate designs of buds and blossoms supported by
+  vines or tendrils, and frequently encircled by arabesques that
+  interlace so as to form an harmonious whole. The fields of the
+  modern pieces are frequently of solid colour, with central
+  medallions and triangular corners defined by graceful lines.
+  Again, the ground colour of the field, which is either uniform or
+  slightly shading from one end to the other, is covered with
+  realistically drawn or conventionalised floral designs that are
+  arranged with studied precision, and are now and then relieved by
+  some nomadic design. Surrounding the fields are borders of
+  several stripes, some of which contain an undulating vine with
+  pendent flowers or palmettes co-ordinate in drawing and colouring
+  with the main pattern. It is, however, principally in the
+  colours, which are delicate yet rich, subdued yet lustrous, that
+  these rugs surpass all others. Their most distinctive tones are
+  blues, reds, browns, and greens, so arranged that the ground
+  colours of border and field generally contrast yet remain in
+  perfect harmony; as where there is some moss green in border and
+  wine colour in field, each being subordinated to other
+  superimposed colours representing floral detail.</p>
+
+  <div class="figcenter" style="width: 550px;">
+    <a name="m1" id="m1"></a><a href="images/map1z.jpg">
+    <img src="images/map1.jpg" width="550" height="353" alt="MAP OF PERSIA"
+    title="" /></a>
+
+    <p class="center">MAP OF PERSIA</p>
+  </div>
+
+  <p>The best known of the floral patterns, repeated with formal
+  precision throughout the field, is the Herati pattern, which is
+  of uncertain antiquity and origin. It consists of a central
+  figure that generally represents a rose, but sometimes a peony or
+  rosette, about which are grouped other figures like crumpled or
+  lance-shaped leaves. Probably both the central and encircling
+  figures are of Persian origin, though the latter have been
+  regarded by some authorities as representing fish and attributed
+  to Egypt or to China; in fact, they are occasionally drawn so as
+  distinctly to show eyes and fins. Very frequently four of these
+  figures are arranged about a lattice-shaped design with pendants
+  and a central rosette, as in Plate <a href="#po">O</a>, Fig. 4
+  (Page 291). This Herati or Fish Pattern, as it is frequently
+  called, appears in many of the old Persian rugs and in most of
+  the modern pieces, particularly the Feraghans and Herats. A less
+  frequently seen floral pattern, which has been used from a very
+  remote time and is still represented in modern rugs, is the Guli
+  Hinnai, or Flower of Hinnai (Plate <a href="#po">O</a>, Fig. 3).
+  Of this plant Mohammed was so fond that he called it the
+  &ldquo;chief of this world and the next.&rdquo; <span class=
+  'pagenum'><a name="Page_105" id="Page_105">105</a></span> It
+  occurs as a formal pattern in many of the Feraghans, and in
+  several other rugs in which its bright five-petalled flowers are
+  scattered informally over the field. Another floral pattern
+  frequently seen is the Mina Khani, illustrated in Plate <a href=
+  "#po">O</a>, Fig. 2, that was named after Mina Khan, a former
+  Persian ruler. It is particularly characteristic of Persian
+  Kurdish pieces in which a dark blue field is covered by a network
+  of intersecting olive-coloured vines. At the intersections are
+  placed large flowers that alternate in regular series according
+  to their different designs and colours; and between them often
+  appear other flowers, such as the smaller and brighter coloured
+  Hinnai, so as to destroy too great stiffness of design. As the
+  flowers are relatively large and sufficiently separate to show
+  the intervening blue field, this is one of the most effective of
+  the formal repetitive floral patterns. A still more formal
+  pattern (Plate O, Fig. 1), which appeared in some of the Persian
+  rugs of the XVI and XVII centuries, was named after Shah Abbas.
+  It is not unlikely that it was suggested by the Mina Khani
+  design, to which it bears a slight resemblance; but the principal
+  motive is so conventionalised that it has lost much of the floral
+  character. Between the large and formal palmettes, that are
+  arranged with mathematical precision, are grouped with similar
+  regularity smaller palmettes, connected by angular vines and
+  leafy branches.</p>
+
+  <p>Only a few Persian rugs have the formal repetitive patterns,
+  such as the Herati, Guli Hinnai, Mina Khani, and Shah Abbas.
+  Others have the repetitive pattern of bushes, flowers, or the
+  pear, on a field of rich colour. The remainder have patterns
+  consisting largely of scrolls, vines, or tendrils, drawn with
+  exquisite art and decorated with leaves, flowers, and buds in
+  beautiful profusion; also birds, beasts, human beings, demons,
+  and other imaginary shapes, sometimes associated with the foliage
+  but frequently bearing no apparent relation to it, appear as
+  special motives. Since many of these forms, which originated in
+  the remote past, have been transplanted from one country to
+  another, and conventionalised to meet the new environment, it is
+  interesting to observe the designs in the different classes of
+  rugs and trace as far as possible the influences to which they
+  are due.</p>
+
+  <p class="tb"><span class="smcap">Herats.</span>&mdash;On great
+  lines of travel between India, Turkestan, and Persia, the city of
+  Herat in Northwestern Afghanistan for centuries occupied
+  commercially a most important position, so<span class=
+  'pagenum'><a name="Page_106" id="Page_106">106</a></span> that
+  its people long since became familiar with the best fabrics of
+  the surrounding countries. During the XV Century it reached its
+  greatest prosperity, and exerted an important influence on the
+  art and culture of Western Asia. Before the art decadence that
+  followed the capture of the city by Nadir Shah in 1731, and the
+  removal of many of its artisans to Persia, its looms were
+  producing some of the best rugs of the Orient, which excelled in
+  delicacy of drawing and in perfect harmony of colours. The fields
+  contained patterns of serrated leaves entwined with flowing
+  arabesques, scrolls, and Chinese cloud-bands. Conspicuous among
+  this tracery were palmettes and such flowers as the lotus and
+  peony, which were often most realistically drawn.<a name=
+  "FNanchor_17" id="FNanchor_17"></a><a href="#Footnote_17" class=
+  "fnanchor">17</a> These rugs are of further interest, as they
+  contained in field and border the design that, slightly changed,
+  appears in many of the later rugs of Persia as the Herati
+  pattern.</p>
+
+  <p>The modern rugs are as unlike other Afghans as were the
+  antique pieces and show a close relationship to those of Persia.
+  Nor is this surprising, as the weavers, though falling far short
+  of the high standards of the time when Herat was part of Persia,
+  are still mindful of the early traditions. Moreover, many of the
+  rugs are made across the border in Khorassan, and have the silky
+  pile peculiar to the rugs of that province; but their tones of
+  colour, consisting principally of red or blue in the field, and
+  light green, yellow, and ivory in the border, as well as most of
+  the patterns, are dissimilar. In one type the fields are covered
+  with pear designs; but their bent narrow ends always turn in the
+  same direction, whilst those of other rugs turn in different
+  directions in alternate rows. Another type suggests the
+  Feraghans, because their fields are covered with the Herati or
+  Fish pattern; but the borders of the Feraghans usually have the
+  well-known turtle pattern, while the borders of these adhere to
+  the traditional Herati design. It is also not unusual to see a
+  large central medallion, in which blue or red predominates,
+  separated by a field of lighter colour from the triangular
+  patterns of the corners. Now and then, a nomadic influence is
+  seen in the small adventitious figures of the field.</p>
+
+  <div class="figcenter" style="width: 400px;">
+    <a name="p24" id="p24"></a><img src="images/plate24.jpg"
+    width="400" height="808" alt="Plate 24. Bijar Rug" title="" />
+
+    <p class="center"><span class="smcap">Plate 24. Bijar
+    Rug</span></p>
+  </div>
+
+  <p>One of the most characteristic features of this class are the
+  borders, that generally have three stripes, of which the central
+  <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_107" id=
+  "Page_107">107</a></span>consists of a continuous vine of
+  crumpled leaves so conventionalised as to be merely bent, thorny
+  stalks partly enveloping formal rosettes. The other stripes are
+  narrow, and have some simple undulating vine. This typical
+  border, the stout, closely woven warp and weft of cotton, their
+  large, almost square shapes and rather coarse weave, are
+  important aids in distinguishing this class from all others. Some
+  of the rugs recently made are coarse; but the older rugs have
+  excellent dyes, lustrous nap, and matured tones of well-blended
+  colours.</p>
+
+  <p><i>Type Characteristics.</i><a name="FNanchor_18" id=
+  "FNanchor_18"></a><a href="#Footnote_18" class="fnanchor">18</a>
+  <i>Colours</i>, principally red and blue with minor quantities of
+  green, yellow, and ivory. <i>Knot</i>, Ghiordes, rarely Sehna.
+  Knots to inch horizontally, eight to eleven; perpendicularly,
+  nine to twelve. A half knot, as it appears at back, is about as
+  long, measured in direction of length of rug, as wide.<a name=
+  "FNanchor_19" id="FNanchor_19"></a><a href="#Footnote_19" class=
+  "fnanchor">19</a> The rows of knots are firmly pressed down so
+  that the warp is concealed at back. <i>Warp</i>, of cotton,
+  rarely wool; one of the two threads encircled by a knot is
+  generally doubled under the other, sometimes it is only
+  depressed. <i>Weft</i>, wool, occasionally cotton; of coarse
+  diameter. For a short space a thread of weft crosses twice, that
+  is across and back once, between every two rows of knots, then
+  three times, and so alternates every several rows. <i>Pile</i>,
+  wool of medium length, soft, and silky. <i>Border</i>, three to
+  five stripes, and frequently an outer edging of uniform colour.
+  <i>Sides</i>, a double overcasting. <i>Both ends</i>, narrow web
+  and loose warp fringe. <i>Texture</i>, stout and firm.
+  <i>Weave</i> at back is of coarse grain. <i>Usual length</i>,
+  eight to twenty feet. <i>Usual width</i>, three fifths to three
+  quarters length.</p>
+
+  <p class="tb"><span class="smcap">Khorassans.</span>&mdash;Among
+  Iranians, Khorassan is often spoken of as the Land of the Sun. In
+  its northern part are long ranges of mountains where herds and
+  flocks find excellent pastures, and intervening valleys where the
+  soil is cultivated. But the remainder of the province, with the
+  exception of scattered oases, where small towns and villages are
+  located, is almost entirely a desert, from which in classic times
+  the Parthians advanced to harass the armies of Greece and Rome,
+  then retreated to seek the protection of its vast salt marshes
+  and inhospitable wastes.</p>
+
+  <p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_108" id=
+  "Page_108">108</a></span></p>
+
+  <p>Nevertheless, in the little villages surrounded by a dreary
+  wilderness have been produced as beautiful rugs as in those more
+  favoured spots where prevailed cultured influences that could
+  develop an Omar Khayyam and produce the sacred shrine of Meshed.
+  Even before the Mongolian invasion several hundred looms, each
+  employing four or five women, were busy in the town of Toon in
+  Central Khorassan. Lying farther to the east is the district of
+  Kain, which was once renowned for its beautiful rugs of Herati
+  pattern, but of later years has produced coarser pieces with
+  inferior designs and bad colours. Still better known was Birjand,
+  in the southeastern part of the province, where formerly were
+  woven pieces of superior workmanship that contained from two
+  hundred to three hundred knots to the square inch. Their colours
+  were of delicate shades; and it was not unusual to employ ivory
+  or other light tones for the ground, with which was contrasted
+  the darker tones of the Herati or pear patterns. Over a century
+  ago many such towns in Khorassan were weaving rugs of artistic
+  design and beautiful colours, but as a rule the present products
+  fall far below the early standards.</p>
+
+  <p>Most of the Khorassans now seen were made almost fifty years
+  or more ago and rival the best of modern Persian rugs. As a rule,
+  they are of large size and have closely woven texture. They can
+  be distinguished from most others by the silkiness of their
+  moderately long nap, which is often due to the fact that it is
+  from the fleece of a yearling lamb as well as because it is cut
+  long and unevenly. Another characteristic is the use of some
+  shade of red, as a pink, rose, or wine colour. Very frequently it
+  is magenta or even purple, which are rarely found in other
+  Persian rugs. Blue and cream are also largely employed. Their
+  colours are generally softened by age, yet are warm, and at times
+  brilliant, as when a large field of bright rose red or blue
+  surrounds a central medallion.</p>
+
+  <p>The diversity of pattern in Khorassans is partly due to
+  copying designs of rugs brought from other provinces by the
+  pilgrims who yearly visit Meshed, and to the remoteness from one
+  another of different centres of weaving in a province occupying
+  one fourth of all Persia. One pattern, however, based upon the
+  treatment of the pear design, which is employed in many of these
+  pieces, at once distinguishes them from rugs of other districts.
+  It consists of large pears arranged in regular order on a field
+  of dark colour with their principal axes inclined diagonally in
+  the same direction, and<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_109"
+  id="Page_109">109</a></span> of two or three much smaller pears
+  partly resting on them and partly projecting beyond their edges.
+  Unlike the pear designs in other Persian rugs, which are oval,
+  these are elongated like those of Indian rugs; and within them,
+  as well as in the field, are often small floral figures. This
+  distinctive pattern is rendered more effective by the colour
+  scheme; since frequently pears of red or magenta, defined by
+  lines of yellow and containing white petalled flowers, rest upon
+  a ground of dark blue. The Herati design is also frequently
+  employed, and in very old pieces are occasionally represented
+  birds and animals naturalistically drawn. It is not unusual to
+  see a central medallion or large vase of flowers surrounded by a
+  field of bright uniform colour, and in some rugs are two
+  medallions. When the centre contains a medallion, the
+  triangular-shaped corners are set off by lines that are much
+  simpler than those in Sarouks and Kermanshahs.</p>
+
+  <p>Few other rugs have more noticeable borders; for not only are
+  they very wide, but in the main stripe, which is as wide as
+  several guard stripes, is some characteristic pattern.
+  Occasionally it contains the Herati design, but more frequently
+  it consists of a heavy undulating vine with incipient flower
+  forms, that at times almost assume the appearance of a
+  bird&rsquo;s head resting on a sub-pattern of double floral vine.
+  This stripe, illustrated in Plate <a href="#pe">E</a>, Fig. 2,
+  (opp. Page 156) is so frequently met with in Khorassans as to be
+  characteristic of them. The narrow guard stripes usually contain
+  some simple vine or ornate reciprocal figure.</p>
+
+  <p><i>Type Characteristics.</i> <i>Colours</i>, principally rose,
+  blue, and ivory, with minor quantities of yellow and green.
+  <i>Knot</i>, Sehna. Many are &ldquo;left-hand.&rdquo; Knots to
+  inch horizontally, eight to thirteen; perpendicularly, twelve to
+  twenty. The rows of knots are firmly pressed down, so that the
+  warp is concealed and the weft is partly hidden at back.
+  <i>Warp</i>, cotton; one of the two threads encircled by a knot
+  is doubled under the other. A few short lengths of threads of
+  warp hang loose at the back of some pieces. <i>Weft</i>, almost
+  always cotton, occasionally wool of fine diameter and usually
+  dyed blue. A thread of weft crosses twice between two rows of
+  knots, excepting at intervals of every six or eight rows of
+  knots, where it crosses three or more times. <i>Pile</i>, wool of
+  medium length, silky and unevenly clipped. <i>Border</i>, three
+  to six stripes, and generally an outer edging of uniform colour.
+  <i>Sides</i>, a double overcasting of same colour as edging.
+  <i>Both ends</i>, a narrow web and short warp fringe.
+  <i>Texture</i>, moderately firm. <i>Weave</i> at back is of
+  moderately fine grain. <i>Usual<span class='pagenum'><a name=
+  "Page_110" id="Page_110">110</a></span> length</i>, five to
+  twelve feet. <i>Usual width</i>, three fifths to three quarters
+  length.</p>
+
+  <p class="tb"><span class="smcap">Mesheds.</span>&mdash;In few
+  parts of the East have the weavers received greater inspiration
+  from sacred and historic association than those of Meshed. To
+  Shiite Mohammedans it contains the most holy spot in Persia; for
+  within a mosque resplendent with fa&ccedil;ade of blue and white
+  tiles, and with gilded minarets of exquisite design, lie the
+  remains of Ali Riza, the eighth Imam or Moslem priest, in a tomb
+  that is viewed yearly by nearly one hundred thousand pilgrims. It
+  was for a short time the capital of Shah Abbas, who beautified
+  its mosques; and here Nadir Shah, whose remains lie in the
+  mausoleum, held his court after the capture of Delhi. Within its
+  walls was born Firdousi, the Homer of Persia; and not far away,
+  among the mountains to the west, was the home of the poet and
+  astronomer, Omar Khayyam. Not only devotees but large numbers of
+  merchants regularly visit the city in the caravans from Khiva,
+  Bokhara, Herat, Yezd, and Teheran, so that it is also a city of
+  commercial importance.</p>
+
+  <p>It is possible that a few of those matchless pieces which were
+  attributed to Herat before its destruction by Nadir Shah were
+  made in the district near Meshed, since according to an Arabian
+  traveller<a name="FNanchor_20" id="FNanchor_20"></a><a href=
+  "#Footnote_20" class="fnanchor">20</a> who visited it during the
+  XIV Century many fine carpets then lay on the floor of its
+  mosque. It is also believed that within the shrine, which has
+  never been entered by an unbeliever, still remain some of the
+  most magnificent carpets of the Orient. But for more than a
+  century the textile industry has been declining, and the rugs now
+  seen are generally of recent manufacture.</p>
+
+  <p>As a rule, these rugs are of the Khorassan type, and have the
+  same silky appearance of nap, though it is shorter and more
+  evenly clipped. The pattern, however, is generally different, as
+  seldom is the field completely covered with the pear design, but
+  whenever used, it is of elaborate drawing and frequently very
+  large. Nor is the characteristic Khorassan border stripe,
+  illustrated in Plate <a href="#pe">E</a>, Fig. 2 (opp. Page 156),
+  employed. On the other hand, it is not usual to see large central
+  medallions, with floral designs in tones of rose or pink on
+  fields of blue or ivory, and borders with undulating floral
+  vines, in which appears evidence of Herati influence. Most of the
+  rugs that now exist were made within the last fifty years, and
+  are of large <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_111" id=
+  "Page_111">111</a></span>size and almost square shape. The colour
+  scheme inclines to light and often brilliant tones, which at
+  times are strongly contrasted with small masses of much darker
+  shades. The wool is excellent, and the warp and weft are rarely
+  coarse.</p>
+
+  <div class="figcenter" style="width: 550px;">
+    <a name="p25" id="p25"></a><img src="images/plate25.jpg"
+    width="550" height="701" alt="Plate 25. Kermanshah Rug" title="" />
+
+    <p class="center"><span class="smcap">Plate 25. Kermanshah
+    Rug</span></p>
+  </div>
+
+  <p><i>Type Characteristics.</i> <i>Colours</i>, principally rose
+  or pink, blue and white, with minor quantities of yellow and
+  green. <i>Knot</i>, generally Sehna, rarely Ghiordes. Knots to
+  inch horizontally, eight to fifteen; perpendicularly, twelve to
+  seventeen. The rows of knots are pressed down, so that the warp
+  is concealed and the weft is partly hidden at back. <i>Warp</i>,
+  generally cotton, occasionally wool; one of the two threads
+  encircled by a knot is doubled under the other. <i>Weft</i>, wool
+  or cotton, of fine diameter and usually dyed blue. A thread of
+  weft crosses twice between every two rows of knots. <i>Pile</i>,
+  wool of fine quality and medium length. <i>Border</i>, usually
+  from three to six stripes, occasionally as many as eight, and
+  generally an outer edging of uniform colour. <i>Sides</i>, a
+  double overcasting of same colour as edging. <i>Lower end</i>, a
+  narrow web and warp fringe. <i>Upper end</i>, a web and warp
+  fringe. <i>Texture</i>, moderately firm. <i>Weave</i> at back is
+  of slightly coarse grain. <i>Usual length</i>, six to fourteen
+  feet. <i>Usual width</i>, two thirds to seven eighths length.</p>
+
+  <p class="tb"><span class="smcap">Ispahans.</span>&mdash;Still
+  imposing in the ruins of its former splendour, surrounded by
+  orchards, vineyards, and groves of trees that shade a broad,
+  well-watered plain, is the ancient city of Ispahan. Under the
+  Caliphs it became the capital of Persia; and though sacked by
+  Tamerlane, who slew seventy thousand of its inhabitants, it rose
+  to such importance that in the XVII Century it contained within
+  its walls several palaces, one hundred and sixty mosques, over
+  two score of colleges, nearly two thousand caravansaries, and
+  about three quarters of a million people. Now the population has
+  dwindled to about sixty thousand; and the few stately mosques and
+  colleges that remain amid miles of deserted streets, abandoned
+  bazaars, and ruined homes but feebly reflect the magnificence of
+  the former capital.</p>
+
+  <p>Here was the royal court of Shah Abbas, who sent to Italy, for
+  the purpose of studying decorative art, a number of the most
+  experienced artisans, to whom are accredited some of the
+  gracefully drawn designs of many of the early carpets. Here, in
+  the days of its greatest prosperity, were founded many
+  industries, and on its looms were undoubtedly woven some of the
+  best of old Persian carpets.<span class='pagenum'><a name=
+  "Page_112" id="Page_112">112</a></span> Though Herat is now
+  regarded by some authorities as the centre where the so-called
+  Ispahan rugs were made, it is improbable, as previously pointed
+  out, that all of them came from there. But after the death of
+  Shah Abbas the rug industry began to decline; and with the
+  removal of the capital to Shiraz, in 1760, Ispahan ceased to be a
+  rug-producing centre of consequence. There may be a doubt whether
+  such enormous carpets, as the one with length of sixty feet and
+  breadth of thirty that Sir Purdon Clark in his monograph on
+  Oriental Carpets mentions as lying in the hall of Chehel Sutoon
+  at Ispahan, were made there or were imported from other cities;
+  but the weaving of rugs has never entirely ceased; and so great
+  is the fame of the former glory of the city that even now
+  Oriental dealers will often apply to rugs the term
+  &ldquo;Ispahan&rdquo; as an epithet of superiority.</p>
+
+  <p>The few modern pieces which reach the western markets bear
+  little resemblance to their prototypes; and even among themselves
+  show little similarity of pattern, though the pear and Herati
+  designs are not uncommon. In some rugs a century old the field is
+  almost covered with what is known as the Persian crown jewel, and
+  in others the field contains diamond-shaped medallions arranged
+  in regular order with small foliate and floral forms placed
+  between them. Small figures of animals are also occasionally
+  represented. The border is generally narrow and lacking in
+  impressive individuality, so that the character of the rugs
+  depends largely on the pattern of the field and the well-seasoned
+  colours, which are always rich and harmonious. Some shade of red
+  or blue is usually chosen for the ground; and in the designs are
+  green, yellow, and white. The weave has variations rarely found
+  in other rugs; for the warp, which is usually cotton, may also be
+  wool, or wool and cotton twisted together; and the weft may
+  likewise be wool or cotton, and may cross between the rows of
+  knots either once or twice in different rugs, or even once or
+  twice in the same rug.</p>
+
+  <p><i>Type Characteristics.</i><a name="FNanchor_21" id=
+  "FNanchor_21"></a><a href="#Footnote_21" class="fnanchor">21</a>
+  <i>Colours</i>, principally red and blue, with minor quantities
+  of green and yellow. <i>Knot</i>, Ghiordes. Knots to inch
+  horizontally six to nine; perpendicularly, eight to fourteen. The
+  rows of knots are firmly pressed down. <i>Warp</i>, usually
+  cotton, occasionally wool; in a few pieces wool or cotton are
+  twisted together. Each thread of warp is equally prominent at
+  back. <i>Weft</i>, wool or cotton. A thread of weft crosses once
+  or twice between two rows of <span class='pagenum'><a name=
+  "Page_113" id="Page_113">113</a></span>knots. If it is wool, it
+  generally crosses twice; if of cotton, two threads are generally
+  placed side by side and cross together once as a single thread.
+  <i>Pile</i>, wool, of short or medium length. <i>Sides</i>, a
+  double selvage of two or three chords. <i>Lower end</i>, a web.
+  <i>Upper end</i>, a web and fringe. Occasionally the web is
+  turned back and hemmed. <i>Texture</i>, firm. <i>Weave</i> at
+  back is moderately coarse. <i>Usual length</i>, six to fourteen
+  feet. <i>Usual width</i>, two fifths to two thirds length.</p>
+
+  <p class="tb"><span class="smcap">Kirmans.</span>&mdash;On
+  account of the isolated position of Kirman in Southeastern
+  Persia, where the almost impassable saline and sandy deserts by
+  which it is surrounded on the north and east, and the mountain
+  ridges that separate it from the fertile valleys of Persia on the
+  west, in a measure protected it from the repeated invasions that
+  disturbed the political and industrial conditions of Northern
+  Persia, it has continuously for over a thousand years been an
+  important centre for the manufacture of rugs. Moreover, during
+  all this period it has been noted for the excellence of their
+  quality. As early as the Mohammedan conquests its fabrics were
+  taken to furnish the floors and divans of Caliphs&rsquo; palaces.
+  When Marco Polo visited Persia in 1270 he wrote of the beautiful
+  shawls and carpets made by the women of Kirman; and the noted
+  French traveller Chardin, who lived in that country during part
+  of the XVII Century, also spoke most favourably of them. Even
+  after Nadir Shah removed many of the most skilled weavers to the
+  northern part of Persia subsequent to ascending the throne in
+  1739, and Aga Mohammed Khan pillaged the city and massacred many
+  of the inhabitants in 1794, the rug industry continued to
+  prosper, and to-day that district is producing the best of modern
+  pieces.</p>
+
+  <p>To this isolation is also largely due the excellence of the
+  weave and dyes, since the artisans have in a measure escaped the
+  pernicious influences of market demands and aniline colours. And
+  to it must be attributed the fact that the old Iranian textile
+  art appears nowhere else in greater purity; for of all the rugs
+  on the market to-day these conform more nearly in texture,
+  colour, and design to the masterpieces of earlier times, and show
+  none of the foreign influences appearing in pieces woven in the
+  north. And yet in Kirman is complexity of race as well as
+  religion; for the Beluches who have wandered across the desert
+  mingle with the Persians; and the Guebres, still practising in
+  secret their fire worship, meet with the Mohammedans.</p>
+
+  <p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_114" id=
+  "Page_114">114</a></span>For long ages silkworms have been
+  cultivated in the district about Kirman and fed on the mulberry
+  trees that grow wild among its hills, so that it is not
+  surprising that small quantities of silk are sometimes used in
+  the rugs; but as a rule the pile is entirely of wool, yet of such
+  fine quality and so well woven that many of the old pieces have a
+  lustrous and silky appearance. This wool, which is white and of
+  unusually fine texture, is partly the product of the native sheep
+  and partly the product of a variety of goats that live among the
+  ridges and yield fleeces almost as fine as those of Kashmir.</p>
+
+  <p>It is probably because of the fondness of the people of Kirman
+  for roses, which they cultivate for the attar, that they depict
+  them so profusely in their rugs. Sometimes they represent them as
+  filling vases set in rows, or again as formal bouquets arranged
+  in regular order upon the field. They also weave them in the
+  borders among green leaves, as placed there tenderly and not
+  hanging from such stiffly formed vines as are seen in other
+  Persian rugs. Nor are they conventionalised like the flowers of
+  most modern rugs; but petal, leaf, and stem are drawn with a
+  precision that suggests the work of Indian weavers. Usually they
+  are red contrasting with a ground colour of soft, ashy grey in
+  the field, and of golden yellow in the rich, harmonious border.
+  Sometimes, instead of a profusion of roses, there are other
+  flowers, such as the sunflower, suggesting the old Zoroastrian
+  faith, the cypress, or the sacred &ldquo;cocos.&rdquo; Again, the
+  general design may be modified from one strictly floral, and amid
+  the foliage may be introduced birds, animals, or human beings;
+  but the naturalistic drawing is always noticeable. In modern
+  pieces the central medallion is often adopted, yet the general
+  resemblance to older pieces is evident. As a rule the border has
+  five stripes, of which the main one is twice the width of any
+  other, and surrounding the outer is a narrow edging that is
+  usually pinkish red; though now and then, according to the
+  general colour scheme, a very pleasing effect is obtained by
+  substituting an edging of moss green.</p>
+
+  <div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;">
+    <a name="p26" id="p26"></a><img src="images/plate26.jpg"
+    width="500" height="797" alt="Plate 26. Kurdistan Rug with Mina Khani Pattern" title="" />
+
+    <p class="center"><span class="smcap">Plate 26. Kurdistan Rug
+    with Mina Khani Pattern</span></p>
+  </div>
+
+  <p><i>Type Characteristics.</i> <i>Colours</i>, principally grey
+  or ivory, with minor quantities of faun, yellow, rose, and blue.
+  <i>Knot</i>, Sehna. Knots to inch horizontally eleven to twenty;
+  perpendicularly, eleven to twenty. The rows of knots are pressed
+  down so that the warp is concealed and the weft is partly hidden
+  at back. <i>Warp</i>, cotton; one of the two threads encircled by
+  knot is doubled under the other. <i>Weft</i>, generally wool of
+  fine diameter, occasionally cotton, and frequently dyed blue. A
+  thread of weft crosses twice between every <span class=
+  'pagenum'><a name="Page_115" id="Page_115">115</a></span>two rows
+  of knots. <i>Pile</i>, wool, short, soft, and silky.
+  <i>Border</i>, usually of five stripes and an outer edging of
+  uniform colour that is generally pink but sometimes green.
+  <i>Sides</i>, a double overcasting of the same colour as edging.
+  <i>Both ends</i>, a narrow web and short warp fringe.
+  <i>Texture</i>, very firm. <i>Weave</i> at back is of moderately
+  fine grain. <i>Usual length</i>, five to seven feet. <i>Usual
+  width</i>, three fifths to two thirds length.</p>
+
+  <p class="tb"><span class="smcap">Yezd.</span>&mdash;In the
+  centre of a sandy plain, midway between Kirman and Kashan, is the
+  city of Yezd, where almost the last of the Iranian
+  fire-worshippers, now a small part of the total population, still
+  follow the ancient faith. Though partly shut off from the great
+  desert of Khorassan by a mountain range, the city is only an
+  oasis, where the drifting sands that buried the old city ever
+  suggest to the inhabitants the dread spirit of desolation which
+  finds an echo in ruined walls within. At the present time very
+  few piled rugs are woven there and they are rarely seen in
+  Western markets; yet on account of the historic interest in its
+  people, the name is sometimes applied to modern products made in
+  other districts. At one time it was noted for its silk rugs, and
+  also for its felt &ldquo;namads,&rdquo; which are generally too
+  heavy to be transported, since some of them have a thickness of
+  two inches and a superficial area of ten thousand square
+  feet.</p>
+
+  <p class="tb"><span class="smcap">Shiraz.</span>&mdash;Near the
+  centre of a small, well-cultivated valley encircled by mountains
+  is Shiraz, capital of Farsistan. During the reign of Kerim Khan,
+  from 1760 to 1779, it was the capital of Persia; but since then
+  it has suffered from earthquakes and neglect until now much of
+  its former glory has departed. And yet there still remain
+  associations to kindle the imagination, for without the gates are
+  the gardens that Persian poets have extolled in verse; the tombs
+  of Saadi and Hafiz; and not far away are the spots where Cyrus,
+  Darius, and Xerxes lived, and the ruined palaces that Alexander
+  destroyed in a night of drunken revelry.</p>
+
+  <p>As early as the time of the Caliphs this district produced
+  large numbers of carpets; though few, if any, remain that were
+  woven before the XV Century. As is the case with modern pieces,
+  all of them were distinguished for their soft and beautiful wool,
+  which is to be attributed to the climate and pasture of the
+  surrounding mountains and valleys. One of the oldest
+  existing<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_116" id=
+  "Page_116">116</a></span> rugs of this district which displays
+  the characteristic wool is referred to by Dr. F. R. Martin in the
+  following words:<a name="FNanchor_22" id=
+  "FNanchor_22"></a><a href="#Footnote_22" class="fnanchor">22</a>
+  &ldquo;As soon as I had touched it, I was certain that we had to
+  deal with a very rare kind of carpets which were made at Shiraz,
+  or at least with the brilliant Shiraz wool. Most of the carpets
+  made of that wool are lost, because the material was such a soft
+  one that it was easily worn out. I know of very few which are
+  older than the eighteenth century. No wool in all Persia takes
+  such rich and deep colour as the Shiraz wool. The deep blue and
+  the dark ruby red are equally extraordinary, and that is due to
+  the brilliancy of the wool, which is firmer and, so to say, more
+  transparent than silk, and makes one think of translucent enamel.
+  As a piece of colour this carpet is certainly one of the finest,
+  and there are very few carpets that have greater charm, which
+  even the best reproduction could not give. In its colours there
+  is something of an early Gothic stained-glass window, where the
+  dust of ages has so covered the design that it has become
+  obscured and the imagination of the spectator must complete it.
+  Certainly the Persians for whom this carpet was made used to sit
+  and dream for hours over the beauty of its colours, beautiful as
+  the wonderful landscape surrounding Shiraz.&rdquo;</p>
+
+  <p>On account of the design and workmanship of this remarkable
+  piece it is referred by Dr. Martin to the XV Century. During the
+  two following centuries the carpets of Shiraz attained the high
+  standard of excellence prevalent in the principal cities of
+  Persia; but most of those pieces are now extremely rare, as they
+  were woven chiefly for imperial use or for exchange with foreign
+  rulers. This city experienced the art decadence that began with
+  the XVIII Century, yet under the patronage of Kerim Khan imperial
+  factories for weaving were again established there.</p>
+
+  <p>Though some of the rugs made eighty or even sixty years ago
+  are certainly beautiful, these modern pieces, as a rule, lack the
+  excellent qualities of early rugs, and those more recently woven
+  are still poorer. On a few of them are depicted designs that are
+  strictly Persian; but they generally depart widely from the early
+  traditions, and floral forms are very much conventionalised. In a
+  large number of this class the field is covered with pear designs
+  which are described by straight lines and angles. Sometimes they
+  are as small as in the Sarabends, <span class='pagenum'><a name=
+  "Page_117" id="Page_117">117</a></span> occupying the whole field
+  as the principal motive; or they may be placed less prominently
+  within diagonal or perpendicular stripes. Again, they may be as
+  large as in Khorassans and grouped with other designs. Another
+  very common pattern, known as the &ldquo;pole-medallion,&rdquo;
+  consists of a narrow perpendicular bar connecting two or more
+  large diamond-shaped figures on which are grouped
+  conventionalised floral forms and geometric designs. In other
+  pieces the pattern is as geometric as that of any Caucasian rug,
+  and it is not unusual to see both field and border profusely
+  adorned with latch-hooks enclosed within and surrounding
+  geometric figures. Nor is it unusual to see small figures of men
+  and animals scattered through the field. Indeed, there is no
+  other Persian rug in which the pattern is so heterogeneous. The
+  borders usually consist of a number of narrow stripes, or a wide
+  one with narrow guard stripes. One of them, at least, almost
+  invariably contains some form of vine and leaves, and not
+  infrequently the row of small X figures that also appear in
+  Shirvans. In fact, the rugs are sometimes mistaken for Shirvans
+  on account of the resemblance in geometric designs.</p>
+
+  <p>Though there is such variety in the patterns, these rugs are
+  not difficult to recognise. There is something distinctive about
+  the dark blues and reds contrasted with smaller areas of ivory
+  and yellow. They are, as a rule, loosely woven, and many of them
+  have a trait of lying unevenly on the floor. Not infrequently an
+  extra band of pile is woven between the border and the broad
+  embroidered webs of the ends, from which hang a loose fringe. The
+  sides are overcast with heavy strands of wool varied like a
+  barber-pole at regular intervals; and, as is not the case with
+  any other class, they are often ornamented at intervals with
+  coloured tassels.</p>
+
+  <p>There are also large numbers of Shiraz saddle-bags, which are
+  superior to any others made. They resemble the Caucasian, as the
+  patterns are geometric; but they may be distinguished from them
+  by the finer wool and a slightly different colour scheme.</p>
+
+  <p>Not infrequently the term &ldquo;Mecca&rdquo; is applied to
+  Shiraz rugs, and the impression is conveyed that they were made
+  there. Nor is the statement always entirely devoid of truth; for
+  each year caravans aggregating some two hundred thousand souls
+  enter that city to make their devotions to Allah, to walk around
+  the sacred stone within the Kaaba, and leaving behind their
+  forgotten sins to return homeward with a bit of sacred earth or a
+  strip of the temple&rsquo;s covering. Each of these pilgrims
+  bears offerings for propi<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_118"
+  id="Page_118">118</a></span>tiation, of which a large proportion
+  are rugs; and whatever their size, they are invariably the
+  choicest the devotee can offer. Since the Mohammedan priests
+  regard the best interests of their religion and themselves as
+  conserved by a disposition of all articles not directly available
+  for their use, they sell large quantities of such rugs, that find
+  their way to Cairo, Damascus, and Constantinople. Furthermore,
+  the pilgrims carry many pieces which are sold or exchanged along
+  the routes of the caravans or at Mecca, and ultimately reach the
+  same markets. Such a large number of the pieces that years ago
+  came from these sources were of the well-known type of Shiraz
+  rugs that they and similar pieces which had never left Persia
+  were called Mecca rugs. This deception is still encouraged by
+  some dealers, because for many buyers a special interest is
+  attached to a piece that they are persuaded has been carried on
+  this pilgrimage as an offering.</p>
+
+  <p><span class="smcap">Type Characteristics.</span>
+  <i>Colours</i>, principally blue, red, and ivory, with minor
+  quantities of yellow and green. <i>Knot</i>, generally Sehna,
+  frequently Ghiordes. Knots to inch horizontally seven to twelve;
+  perpendicularly, eight to twelve. At back one of the half knots
+  is generally smaller than the other and pressed to one side. The
+  other half knot is about as long as wide, and the yarn is not
+  drawn tight against the warp. The rows of knots are pressed down,
+  so that their alignment is slightly irregular, and the warp is
+  concealed at back. <i>Warp</i>, almost always wool; in a few
+  modern rugs goats&rsquo; hair is used. Each of the threads
+  encircled by a knot is almost equally prominent at back, or
+  occasionally one to each knot is depressed. <i>Weft</i>, wool of
+  medium diameter, frequently coloured red. A thread of weft
+  crosses twice between every two rows of knots. <i>Pile</i>, wool,
+  short to medium, and silky. <i>Border</i>, three to five stripes.
+  Beyond the borders, at each end, is frequently a narrow band of
+  pile. <i>Sides</i>, a heavy double overcasting in a barber-pole
+  stripe or in short lengths of different colours, which generally
+  consist of two of the following colours: red, yellow, green, and
+  blue. In some pieces small tufts of wool protrude from the sides
+  at regular intervals of one or more feet. <i>Lower end</i>, a
+  broad web of coloured stripes, through which may run a dovetailed
+  coloured cord, and warp loops. <i>Upper end</i>, a broad web of
+  coloured stripes, through which may run a dovetailed coloured
+  cord, and warp fringe. <i>Texture</i>, loose. <i>Weave</i> at
+  back is of slightly coarse grain. <i>Usual length</i>, five to
+  nine feet. <i>Usual width</i>, three fifths to four fifths
+  length.</p>
+
+  <div class="figcenter" style="width: 550px;">
+    <a name="p27" id="p27"></a><img src="images/plate27.jpg"
+    width="550" height="750" alt="Plate 27. Gorevan Rug" title="" />
+
+    <p class="center"><span class="smcap">Plate 27. Gorevan
+    Rug</span></p>
+  </div>
+
+  <p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_119" id=
+  "Page_119">119</a></span></p>
+
+  <p class="tb"><span class="smcap">Niris.</span>&mdash;A
+  resemblance exists between the rugs that take their name from
+  Lake Niris and those of Shiraz, which is distant only fifty miles
+  to the westward; for many of each class are woven with the same
+  silky wool, obtained from sheep that graze in the intervening
+  mountain ranges, and the shepherd weavers about the lake have
+  acquired ideas from the old capital. This resemblance exists
+  mostly in the soft, floccy appearance of the nap, and in the
+  barber-pole or parti-coloured overcasting of the sides. The webs
+  of each end are broad and have long fringes; but generally those
+  of the Shiraz are embroidered and crossed with one or more
+  parti-coloured cords, whilst those of Niris pieces are, as a
+  rule, flatly woven in stripes of different colours. There is also
+  an occasional resemblance in pattern, but the best known pattern
+  of the Niris is rarely seen in the Shiraz. On the other hand,
+  they are more firmly woven; and there is a slight difference in
+  the character of their weave, since one of the two threads of
+  warp encircled by a knot is depressed below the other, and the
+  weft is of wool coloured red, whereas in the Shiraz it is
+  frequently of cotton.</p>
+
+  <p>The pears are the favourite design, and, like those in
+  Sarabends, extend over the field in orderly array; but they are
+  much larger and consist of an assemblage of bright colours
+  isolated from one another, yet grouped gracefully in a way that
+  might readily suggest the origin of crown jewels sometimes
+  ascribed to them. Frequently the ground is a dark blue, and the
+  pears are of red, blue, green, and ivory. Violet and yellow are
+  also employed. In other types, less usually seen, the field is
+  covered with a lattice-work pattern containing small figures. The
+  typical border has a broad central stripe of vine and flower,
+  with narrow guards of simpler vine or reciprocal trefoil.
+  Barber-pole stripes are also characteristic of the borders.</p>
+
+  <p><i>Type Characteristics.</i> <i>Colours</i>, principally blue,
+  red, yellow, green, and ivory. <i>Knot</i>, Ghiordes. Knots to
+  inch horizontally six to eleven; perpendicularly, seven to
+  fifteen. The rows of knots are not closely pressed down, so that
+  at the back the warp is noticeable and the weft conspicuous.
+  <i>Warp</i>, wool; one of the two threads encircled by a knot is
+  depressed below the other at back and frequently doubled under
+  the other. <i>Weft</i>, wool of medium diameter, generally dyed
+  red. A thread of weft crosses twice between every two rows of
+  knots. <i>Pile</i>, wool, of medium length. <i>Border</i>,
+  generally of three stripes, sometimes as many as seven.
+  <i>Sides</i>, a heavy double overcasting in a barber-pole stripe
+  or in short lengths of different<span class='pagenum'><a name=
+  "Page_120" id="Page_120">120</a></span> colours, such as red,
+  blue, green, yellow, and black. <i>Both</i> ends, a broad web of
+  coloured stripes, one row of knots, and loose warp fringe.
+  <i>Texture</i>, loose. <i>Weave</i> at back is of slightly coarse
+  grain. <i>Usual length</i>, four to seven feet. <i>Usual
+  width</i>, three quarters to four fifths length.</p>
+
+  <p class="tb"><span class=
+  "smcap">Feraghans.</span>&mdash;Stretching eastward from the base
+  of Mt. Elwund is the plain of Feraghan. Its length does not
+  exceed forty-five miles, nor its breadth ten or fifteen, yet here
+  are clustered several hundred villages. On account of its
+  altitude of seven thousand feet, the ground is covered with snow
+  in winter, and the people are then huddled in their low mud
+  houses, and the flocks and herds are gathered within the village
+  walls. But in the spring the men are cultivating the fields, and
+  the sheep are grazing on the banks of numerous streams. It is a
+  plain of fertility and industry. For generations it has been
+  productive of large numbers of fine rugs, and it is still
+  possible among its villages to find some of those old pieces that
+  have been regarded by the Persians themselves as the best
+  examples of the textile art.</p>
+
+  <p>When the characteristic patterns of Feraghans have once been
+  carefully observed, they are never forgotten; yet it is
+  surprising to note the many distinctions observable in a large
+  collection. These patterns may conveniently be divided into two
+  groups, namely: one in which the field is entirely covered with
+  diaper designs, and the other in which the field contains a
+  central medallion surrounded by uniform colour. Probably nine
+  tenths of these rugs fall within the first group, which is
+  divisible into three sub-groups: those in which the field is
+  covered with the Herati design; those in which the field is
+  covered with the Guli Hinnai design; and those in which the field
+  is covered with some other small diaper design.</p>
+
+  <p>The Herati design is the one most frequently seen, and is
+  found in the very oldest of existing Feraghans. As a rule, the
+  crumpled leaf does not exceed a length of four or five inches,
+  and the rosettes are proportionally small, so that the ground
+  colour is almost entirely concealed, and at a short distance is
+  not distinguishable; but there are other pieces in which the leaf
+  is over a foot in length, and the figures less closely clustered,
+  so that the ground enters prominently into the colour scheme. The
+  prevailing colour of the leaf and rosette is generally rose red,
+  which gives a distinctly reddish tone to the rug; though the
+  small designs have shades of green, yellow,<span class=
+  'pagenum'><a name="Page_121" id="Page_121">121</a></span> white,
+  and light blue. The ground is usually a rich, dark blue; but
+  occasionally red or even ivory is used. In very few other rugs
+  are the corners separated from the field, unless there is a
+  central medallion; but in almost all Feraghans small
+  triangular-shaped corners, with colours contrasting with those of
+  the field, are separated from it by lines bearing teeth or
+  serrated edges.</p>
+
+  <p>Surrounding the field is a border that has from five to seven
+  stripes. The main stripe is about three times as wide as any
+  other, and may have a ground colour of red, blue, or ivory white;
+  but in many of the best pieces it is moss green, with blue,
+  yellow, or red appearing in the overlying pattern. Of different
+  but corresponding shades is the colour of the ground and designs
+  of other stripes. Probably three fourths of the Feraghans now
+  seen have the well-known turtle design in the main stripe; but it
+  is sometimes replaced by the rose design shown in Plate <a href=
+  "#pe">E</a>, Fig. 12 (opp. Page 156), or by an undulating vine
+  with rosette or palmettes. On the innermost stripe, which is very
+  narrow, is invariably represented some reciprocal figure, as the
+  trefoil or sawtooth; and on the other stripes are undulating
+  vines, with floral or quasi-floral figures.</p>
+
+  <p>The Feraghans with fields covered with Guli Hinnai designs
+  instead of the Herati show a difference in both drawing and
+  colouring, though the general effect is much the same. In place
+  of crumpled leaves and rosettes of reddish hue are the star-like
+  flowers of the Hinnai plants that brighten the mountains
+  surrounding the Feraghan plain with their large yellow or ivory
+  coloured petals. The pattern, as a whole, is slightly more
+  prominent, and the prevailing colour tone, which is rich, is less
+  red and more yellow. There is, however, a very noticeable
+  difference in the pattern of the third sub-group, though
+  specimens are not frequently seen. In these the small figures of
+  conventionalised flowers sometimes have geometric shapes and are
+  arranged in diagonal or perpendicular rows. Moreover, they
+  generally lack the rich colouring of the preceding
+  sub-groups.</p>
+
+  <p>The central medallion is found not only in modern but also in
+  old Feraghans. It is generally of diamond or hexagonal shape,
+  with serrated edges and with pendants. Almost invariably Herati
+  figures cover its surface, and not infrequently some lattice-work
+  design with small conventionalised leaves or flowers appear
+  faintly on the field of uniform colour surrounding it. As a rule,
+  pieces of this group are of a more striking and handsome
+  appearance than those<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_122" id=
+  "Page_122">122</a></span> in which the entire field is covered
+  with numerous minute figures of equally rich hues that blend and
+  produce, when viewed at a distance, an undefined colour. The
+  border designs are similar to those of the other group. All of
+  the old pieces were stoutly woven; and though the nap was short,
+  many of those that remain are still serviceable.</p>
+
+  <p><i>Type Characteristics.</i> <i>Colours</i>, principally red
+  and dark blue, with minor quantities of yellow, light blue,
+  green, and white. <i>Knot</i>, Sehna, rarely Ghiordes. Knots to
+  inch horizontally eight to thirteen; perpendicularly, seven to
+  eighteen. The rows of knots are pressed down, so that the warp is
+  usually concealed at back. <i>Warp</i>, cotton; each of the two
+  threads encircled by a knot is equally prominent at back.
+  <i>Weft</i>, cotton, occasionally dyed blue or pink. A thread of
+  weft of fine or medium diameter crosses twice between every two
+  rows of knots, or occasionally a thread of coarse diameter with
+  much slack crosses only once, so that the transverse warp
+  produces a quincunx effect. <i>Pile</i>, wool, clipped short.
+  <i>Border</i>, three stripes. <i>Sides</i>, a double overcasting
+  in dark colour. <i>Lower end</i>, a web. <i>Upper end</i>, a web
+  and warp fringe. <i>Texture</i>, firm. <i>Weave</i> at back is of
+  slightly coarse grain. <i>Usual length</i>, four to twelve feet.
+  <i>Usual width</i>, three fifths to two thirds length.</p>
+
+  <p class="tb"><span class="smcap">Hamadans.</span>&mdash;A little
+  to the northeast of Elwund and at an altitude that overlooks a
+  small, well-cultivated valley adjacent to the Feraghan plain is
+  the city of Hamadan. On this site was the ancient city of
+  Ecbatana, capital of Media; and here guarded by Jews is a tomb,
+  which tradition declares is the burial place of Esther and
+  Mordecai. Within the encircling walls are gardens, bazaars, and
+  mosques; yet the present city of forty thousand inhabitants with
+  its general misery and squalor has little to remind one of the
+  magnificence of that former capital which for a short period was
+  mistress of the world.</p>
+
+  <div class="figcenter" style="width: 550px;">
+    <a name="p28" id="p28"></a><img src="images/plate28.jpg"
+    width="550" height="668" alt="Plate 28. Bergamo Prayer Rug"
+    title="" />
+
+    <p class="center"><span class="smcap">Plate 28. Bergamo Prayer
+    Rug</span></p>
+  </div>
+
+  <p>Like Yezd, Hamadan is famous for its namads; and like Yezd it
+  once produced, according to tradition, most beautiful silk
+  carpets, though no longer are any woven there. But its looms have
+  been busy for the last few generations weaving rugs of wool and
+  camels&rsquo; hair, which have such marked individuality that
+  they bear unmistakably on their face the stamp of identification.
+  The few old rugs that remain are sterling pieces, which are
+  stoutly woven and of excellent dyes. They come in many sizes;
+  some are simply mats, <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_123"
+  id="Page_123">123</a></span>others sedjadehs, and an unusually
+  large number are runners. The typical pattern of the mats and
+  smaller sedjadehs consists of a central diamond-shaped medallion,
+  surrounded by a field of contrasting colour, from which are set
+  off the triangular-shaped corners. In the large sedjadehs and in
+  the runners, which are sometimes twenty feet or more in length,
+  are often three or more pole medallions, though the pole device
+  may be omitted. These medallions and corners are covered with
+  small, carefully drawn geometric figures, or more frequently with
+  floral designs such as appear in Feraghans, and as a rule are
+  defined by serrated lines or are fringed with hooks or comb-like
+  teeth. The colour of the surrounding field is unobtrusive. In
+  some pieces it is void of pattern, and its monotonous tone is
+  broken only by slight variations of shade; yet not infrequently
+  it is marked with faint lines of slightly darker or lighter tint,
+  like a delicate tracery. Not only are the borders wide, but a
+  broad edging, which is at least one half and sometimes two thirds
+  as wide as all the coloured stripes combined, surrounds them. As
+  it is usually of camels&rsquo; hair and without pattern, it is a
+  very noticeable characteristic. The main stripe has an undulating
+  vine with conventionalised flowers, and the two guard stripes
+  have a simpler vine, or, more frequently, the reciprocal
+  trefoils.</p>
+
+  <p>To this general type, however, are many exceptions. Sometimes
+  the figures of the medallion and corners are more geometric;
+  sometimes the corners are omitted; the outside edging may be
+  decorated with large conventionalised floral or geometric
+  figures; and occasionally a camel or some other animal is
+  represented in the field or border. A few of the old rugs were
+  strikingly handsome. Dr. George Birdwood refers to a large
+  Hamadan that formerly hung in the India Museum in these
+  words:<a name="FNanchor_23" id="FNanchor_23"></a><a href=
+  "#Footnote_23" class="fnanchor">23</a> &ldquo;An irregular
+  lozenge form, a little island of bright clustering flowers, of
+  which the prevailing colours are red and blue, adorns the centre;
+  while the wide extended ground of yellow, in irregular shades,
+  surrounds it with a rippling amber sea; and there are blue pieces
+  in the corners, within the broad blue border worked in
+  arabesques. It is a carpet not to be laid on a floor, but to be
+  hung in a gallery, to be looked at like a golden sunset. It was a
+  sacrilege to remove it from the mosque where it evidently was
+  once spread under the great dome. <i>Beati
+  possidentes.</i>&rdquo;</p>
+
+  <p>Most of the old pieces have disappeared, and in their places
+  are <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_124" id=
+  "Page_124">124</a></span>modern products with pile of wool or
+  goat&rsquo;s hair often dyed in garish colours. There are also
+  many nondescript rugs, which were gathered from wandering tribes
+  or surrounding villages and taken to Hamadan, since for a long
+  time it has been one of the great rug markets of Persia. When
+  exported from there they were often classed as products of that
+  city.</p>
+
+  <p>Moderately old Hamadans contain more camel&rsquo;s hair than
+  any other class of rugs, since in very many of them it forms the
+  pile of both field and outer edging, where its soft tones of pale
+  chestnut colour contrast with the bright shades of blue, red, and
+  yellow yarn used in other parts of the field and border. This
+  lavish use of camel&rsquo;s hair, the broad encircling edging,
+  the cotton warp, and a single thread of coarse weft passing once
+  between two rows of knots, distinguish them from all other
+  rugs.</p>
+
+  <p><i>Type Characteristics.</i> <i>Colours</i>, principally the
+  chestnut of camel&rsquo;s hair with red and blue. <i>Knot</i>,
+  Ghiordes. Knots to inch horizontally, six to nine;
+  perpendicularly, eight to twelve. The rows of knots are firmly
+  pressed down. <i>Warp</i>, cotton; each of the two threads
+  encircled by a knot is equally prominent at back. <i>Weft</i>,
+  generally cotton, frequently wool; of coarse diameter. A thread
+  of weft crosses only once without slack between every two rows of
+  knots, so that the white spots of transverse cotton warp exposed
+  at back have a quincunx appearance. <i>Pile</i>, in old rugs,
+  mostly camel&rsquo;s hair and some wool; in recent rugs, mostly
+  wool clipped short. <i>Border</i>, wide, generally of three or
+  four stripes, and a broad outer edging of camel&rsquo;s hair.
+  <i>Sides</i>, overcast, generally in brown or red. <i>Lower
+  end</i>, a narrow web and warp loops. <i>Upper end</i>, a narrow
+  web turned back and hemmed. <i>Texture</i>, very firm.
+  <i>Weave</i>, at back is of moderately coarse grain.
+  <i>Length</i>, three to twenty-four feet. <i>Width</i>, two
+  fifths to three quarters length.</p>
+
+  <p class="tb"><span class="smcap">Irans.</span>&mdash;Although
+  neither a city nor district of Persia is called Iran, a
+  well-defined class of rugs is known to the trade by that name.
+  They are woven by some of the old Iranian stock dwelling
+  principally in the province of Irak-Ajemi. These people follow no
+  particular pattern or colour scheme of their own, but to a large
+  extent copy those of a few well-known Persian classes; yet in
+  other respects their rugs have a noticeable individuality. They
+  are woven with a Ghiordes knot and so loosely that if the rug be
+  observed from the front, as it is bent backward in a plane
+  parallel to the direction<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_125"
+  id="Page_125">125</a></span> of the weft, the foundation threads
+  of warp and weft, which are of cotton, will show distinctly
+  between the knots. Each of the two threads of warp encircled by a
+  single knot are equally prominent at the back. Ordinarily the
+  threads of weft cross twice between the rows of knots, but
+  occasionally they cross only once, as in Hamadans. Many of the
+  fabrics regarded as Sarabends, Feraghans, and even Hamadans are
+  in reality Irans, which on account of their inferior workmanship
+  are much less valuable.</p>
+
+  <p><i>Type Characteristics.</i> <i>Colours</i>, principally blue
+  and red, with minor quantities of ivory, yellow, green, and
+  brown. <i>Knot</i>, Ghiordes. Knots to inch horizontally, six to
+  eleven; perpendicularly, seven to eleven. A half knot as it
+  appears at back is frequently longer, measured in the direction
+  of the length of the rug, than wide. The rows of knots are not
+  pressed down closely, so that the warp is noticeable at back.
+  <i>Warp</i>, cotton; each of the two threads encircled by a knot
+  is equally prominent at back; they are not closely strung, so
+  that each half knot stands out distinctly. <i>Weft</i>, cotton; a
+  thread of weft of coarse diameter as a rule crosses twice between
+  each two rows of knots, and only rarely crosses but once. The
+  weft is conspicuous between the knots at front when the rug is
+  bent backwards. <i>Pile</i>, wool of medium length.
+  <i>Border</i>, generally four to six stripes. <i>Sides</i>, a
+  heavy double overcasting that is generally brown or black, but
+  sometimes red. <i>Lower end</i>, a narrow web. <i>Upper end</i>,
+  a narrow web and loose warp fringe. <i>Texture</i>, loose.
+  <i>Weave</i> at back is of coarse grain. <i>Usual length</i>,
+  five to ten feet. <i>Usual width</i>, two fifths to three
+  quarters length.</p>
+
+  <p class="tb"><span class="smcap">Sarouks.</span>&mdash;Towards
+  the western end of the Feraghan plain and at an altitude of
+  seventy-five hundred feet is the mud-walled village of Sarouk.
+  Here, shaded by poplars, are clustered one hundred and fifty
+  houses, with floors, roofs, and sides of mud that has dried and
+  cracked until it admits the wind. The sun and light enter through
+  the open doors, for there are no windows. Nor are there chimneys,
+  but simply openings between the rafters to permit the escape of
+  smoke from the open fireplace in the floor below and the entrance
+  of more wind. At times the atmosphere is not only oppressive with
+  smoke, but is laden with odours that arise from the pens beneath
+  and beside the houses, where fowls, sheep, and goats are huddled.
+  During the winter and early spring snow lies on the ground; a
+  little later a hot summer follows. Yet amid these de<span class=
+  'pagenum'><a name="Page_126" id="Page_126">126</a></span>pressing
+  surroundings and under these adverse conditions lived weavers who
+  gave the name of their little village to some of the most
+  beautiful rugs made in all the East.</p>
+
+  <p>Now and then is seen an old piece with surface like velvet and
+  with mellowed tones of perfect harmony that has come from these
+  huts or surrounding hills; but probably not one in a score,
+  perhaps not one in a hundred, of the Sarouks now offered for sale
+  in this country was woven there, as most of them are made in the
+  workhouses of larger cities, though they follow essentially the
+  general appearance and technique of old and genuine pieces, even
+  if lacking some of their best qualities. Nevertheless, the modern
+  pieces are of handsome colour, of graceful pattern, and are well
+  woven. Some of them, which were made two or three decades ago,
+  had large designs of the cypress, willow, or the tree of life, as
+  well as realistically drawn animals represented in the fields;
+  but the great majority of those now seen invariably follow a
+  pattern consisting of a large medallion with pendants, or of two
+  or more concentric medallions resting on the field, from which
+  are set off the four corners. Defining the edges of both
+  medallions and corners are lines that are most artistically
+  irregular, yet correspond with one another.</p>
+
+  <p>Between each part is the greatest co-ordination, for the
+  designs of field, corners, medallions, and borders are similar.
+  On long delicate stems that bend and interlock like carved
+  tracery are leaves, buds, and flowers, suggesting the
+  craftsmanship of the best days of old Iran. The borders generally
+  have only three stripes: a broad main stripe on which appears an
+  elaborately drawn undulating vine with pendent flowers, and a
+  narrow guard stripe on each side. Sometimes the guards are
+  ornamented with only a simple vine, but more frequently with a
+  reciprocal pattern, which, however, is so well drawn as to
+  conflict in no wise with the harmony of the floral forms. In the
+  drawing of the borders the weavers exercise greater latitude than
+  in any other part of the rug; for occasionally they add a narrow
+  outer edging of dark colour, place the reciprocal figure next to
+  the innermost stripe as a fringe to the field, or increase the
+  number of stripes to seven. Rarely is the medallion wanting in
+  modern pieces, but now and then the pendants are replaced by
+  bunches of flowers, and in some pieces the corners extend along
+  the sides in undulating lines until they meet near the
+  centre.</p>
+
+  <div class="figcenter" style="width: 550px;">
+    <a name="p29" id="p29"></a><img src="images/plate29.jpg"
+    width="550" height="701" alt="Plate 29. Ghiordes Prayer Rug"
+    title="" />
+
+    <p class="center"><span class="smcap">Plate 29. Ghiordes Prayer
+    Rug</span></p>
+  </div>
+
+  <p>All of these pieces are so closely woven that the fine bluish
+  weft is hardly discernible at the back. Very few other rugs have
+  <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_127" id=
+  "Page_127">127</a></span>such short-cut wool, which has a velvety
+  appearance, rendered more effective by the soft, rich colours
+  that are always in perfect harmony and excellent taste. As a rule
+  they are dark. Ever present in the ground colours are deep blues
+  and reds, suggestive of the hues of the so-called
+  &ldquo;Ispahans;&rdquo; while olives, delicate greens, and ivory
+  represent with consummate dignity of tone and design a lavish
+  tracery of leaves and foliage motives.</p>
+
+  <p><i>Type Characteristics.</i> <i>Colours</i>, principally dark
+  blue and red, with minor quantities of green, olive, buff, and
+  ivory. <i>Knot</i>, Sehna. Knots to inch horizontally twelve to
+  eighteen; perpendicularly, twelve to twenty. The rows of knots
+  are pressed down, so that the warp is concealed and the weft is
+  partly hidden at back. <i>Warp</i>, cotton, rarely linen; one of
+  the two threads encircled by a knot is almost always doubled
+  under the other; in a few pieces it is only depressed.
+  <i>Weft</i>, cotton, of small diameter, dyed blue. A thread of
+  weft of fine diameter crosses twice between every two rows of
+  knots. <i>Pile</i>, wool, short and velvety. <i>Border</i>,
+  generally of three stripes but sometimes as many as seven.
+  Occasionally there is an outer edging of dark colour.
+  <i>Sides</i>, a tightly wound double overcasting of red, blue, or
+  black wool. <i>Both ends</i>, a narrow web, or web and short warp
+  fringe. <i>Texture</i>, very firm. <i>Weave</i> at back is of
+  fine grain. <i>Length</i>, four to twelve feet. <i>Width</i>, two
+  thirds to three quarters length.</p>
+
+  <p class="tb"><span class="smcap">Kashans.</span>&mdash;Near the
+  centre of the province of Irak-Ajemi, on the ancient and
+  well-travelled highway between Ispahan and Teheran, is the city
+  of Kashan, from which, according to an old tradition, the three
+  Wise Men of the East followed the Star of Bethlehem. Like many of
+  the cities of Persia it is now largely in ruins; its homes are
+  infested with scorpions; for many months of the year the heat,
+  which in a measure is due to the proximity of the great salt
+  desert that extends far into Khorassan, is unendurable; yet in
+  spite of these inconveniences, for which perhaps familiarity has
+  in a measure lent contempt, forty thousand people live there. In
+  the past it has produced some of the greatest artists and
+  artisans of weaving. It was once the home of Maksoud, whom Shah
+  Ismael I ordered to weave the famous carpet of the Mosque of
+  Ardebil, which, ranking among the greatest woven products that
+  still exist, bears unmistakable evidence of the wonderful
+  technique and artistic skill then practised in Kashan. Without a
+  doubt other textile<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_128" id=
+  "Page_128">128</a></span> masterpieces of the XVI and XVII
+  Centuries were woven there, for it would be unreasonable to
+  believe that the city where Maksoud had learned his art was not
+  at that time a prominent rug-producing centre.</p>
+
+  <p>According to Persian tradition many of the antique silk
+  carpets came from Kashan. At any rate, it has been for a long
+  time customary to take the raw silk from other places to be spun
+  and dyed there. Some of it is woven into rugs, which are
+  considered among the best of modern pieces, though the demand for
+  them is small.</p>
+
+  <p>On the other hand, the woollen pieces are now found in every
+  market, though it is only within recent years that they have been
+  generally known. Occasionally they are defined as a higher grade
+  of Sarouks, on account of the striking resemblance in texture,
+  colours, and designs; yet there are certain distinctions: the
+  warp is often linen, the nap is a little shorter, the texture
+  slightly firmer, and there are a great number of border stripes.
+  A feature that is more frequently found in these two classes than
+  in any other is the fringe of hooks or short comb-like teeth that
+  border the innermost stripe and extend into the field. Without
+  doubt Kashans are among the most perfect as well as the most
+  expensive woollen products of the modern Persian looms. Their
+  velvet-like surface and rich sheen give them an appearance that
+  to those unfamiliar with rugs seems like that of silken pieces.
+  The fine wool is dyed with rich, deep tones of blue, olive, red,
+  and brown; the perfectly balanced pattern is artistic as well as
+  ornate; and on account of the very short nap the drawing of each
+  minute detail is clear. In place of bold designs accentuated by
+  masses of colour are delicate tracings of floral and foliage
+  motives, of graceful arabesques and foliated stalks, so expressed
+  in rhythmic lines and harmonious tones as to give a sense of the
+  greatest refinement. Even though these rugs be modern and
+  chemically washed, their wealth of artistic workmanship and
+  exquisite colour make them exceedingly handsome.</p>
+
+  <p><i>Type Characteristics.</i> <i>Colours</i>, principally dark
+  blue, red, and yellowish brown, with minor quantities of light
+  blue and green. <i>Knot</i>, Sehna. Knots to inch horizontally
+  sixteen to twenty; perpendicularly, sixteen to twenty-four. The
+  rows of knots are firmly pressed down so that the warp is
+  concealed and the weft almost hidden at back. <i>Warp</i>,
+  generally cotton, rarely linen; one of the two threads encircled
+  by a knot is doubled under the other. <i>Weft</i>, generally
+  cotton, of small diameter, dyed blue; rarely linen. A<span class=
+  'pagenum'><a name="Page_129" id="Page_129">129</a></span> thread
+  of weft crosses twice between every two rows of knots.
+  <i>Pile</i>, wool, very short and velvety. <i>Border</i>,
+  generally of seven stripes. <i>Sides</i>, a tightly wound double
+  overcasting in dark red, blue, or brown. <i>Lower end</i>, a
+  narrow web. <i>Upper end</i>, a narrow web and short warp fringe.
+  <i>Texture</i>, very firm. <i>Weave</i> at back is of very fine
+  grain. <i>Usual length</i>, six to ten feet. <i>Usual width</i>,
+  three fifths to three quarters length.</p>
+
+  <p class="tb"><span class=
+  "smcap">Sababends.</span>&mdash;Standing on the top of lofty
+  Elwund, that rises on the boundary between the provinces of
+  Ardelan and Irak-Ajemi, in Northwestern Persia, one would see
+  within a radius of ninety miles as prolific a centre of rug
+  weaving as anywhere exists. Just within this distance to the
+  northwest are Sehna and Bijar, to the southeast is Sultanabad, to
+  the southwest is Kermanshah; and skirting the mountain on the
+  eastern side are the high plains where lie the districts of
+  Hamadan, Feraghan, and Sarawan, as well as the village of Sarouk
+  and less important centres of weaving.</p>
+
+  <p>Among the valleys of the Sarawan district, that lies on the
+  northern flanks of mountain ranges extending as far as Ispahan,
+  are made the rugs which, by a corruption of the word Sarawan, are
+  known as the Sarabends. No other rugs of Persia have a pattern
+  that is so simple, and that for generations has been followed
+  with so little variation. Nor are there any other modern rugs
+  that have changed less from the old styles in respect to colour
+  and quality. The typical pattern of the field consists of rows of
+  pear designs arranged in transverse lines, with the smaller ends
+  pointing in different directions in alternate lines. The pears of
+  the field show great diversity of shape, but those of the borders
+  are long, narrow, and most angular; yet they never assume the
+  rectilinear figures found in Baku rugs. Only very rarely is there
+  any departure from this pattern; though in a few old pieces is an
+  adaptation of the Herati design, and now and then is seen a
+  geometric figure, or human form, or the date when the piece was
+  woven.</p>
+
+  <p>The ground colour of the field may be blue, red, or white. If
+  blue, it is so largely covered with pinkish or rose-coloured
+  pears that the prevailing hue, when the pieces are viewed from a
+  distance, is light red. If, on the other hand, the field is red,
+  the pears are mostly blue; and if the field is ivory white, the
+  pears are red and blue. In all old pieces the blue has rich, deep
+  tones, the red has mellowed into soft rose or delicate pink, and
+  the white has turned<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_130" id=
+  "Page_130">130</a></span> to ivory. This pleasing effect is
+  increased by shades of yellow and green, which are added to the
+  other colours of the pears.</p>
+
+  <p>With few exceptions the borders have a large number of narrow
+  stripes, of which the central is about one third the aggregate
+  width. Its ground colour is ivory white, but the angular vine and
+  pendent, narrow pears have the same colours as those of the
+  field. On each side of it is usually a stripe with ground colour
+  corresponding to that of the field and with an undulating vine
+  and rosette. Almost invariably there is an outer stripe of
+  reciprocal trefoil in red and blue, which may be balanced by a
+  reciprocal sawtooth adjoining the field. It is not unusual to see
+  large pieces with two white stripes, and very rarely one is seen
+  with three.</p>
+
+  <p>The best of these pieces are made in the town of Mirabad,
+  which signifies the &ldquo;city of Mir,&rdquo; and are
+  accordingly called Mir-Sarabends. They can be distinguished from
+  others, known to the trade as Royal Sarabends, by the fact that
+  in tying the knots the yarn is so twisted that one thread of warp
+  is doubled under the other; and in the latter each of the two
+  threads appear with equal prominence at the back. Neither of them
+  should ever be mistaken for Iran imitations, in which the pile is
+  of much looser texture and is tied with the Ghiordes knot. For
+  durability, there are very few modern pieces that will give the
+  satisfaction of Sarabends; for as a rule they are stoutly and
+  closely woven, and though there is monotony in the pattern, those
+  coloured with vegetable dyes will grow more beautiful with
+  age.</p>
+
+  <p><i>Type Characteristics.</i> <i>Colours</i>, principally red
+  or blue, with minor quantities of ivory, yellow, and green.
+  <i>Knot</i>, Sehna. Knots to inch horizontally eight to thirteen;
+  perpendicularly, nine to thirteen. The rows of knots are firmly
+  pressed down, so that the warp does not show at back.
+  <i>Warp</i>, cotton. In Mir-Sarabends one of the two threads
+  encircled by a knot is doubled under the other at back. In Royal
+  Sarabends each is equally prominent. <i>Weft</i>, cotton, of fine
+  diameter, and dyed red or blue. A thread of weft crosses twice
+  between every two rows of knots. <i>Pile</i>, wool of short or
+  medium length. <i>Border</i>, five to seven stripes, and
+  occasionally even more. <i>Sides</i>, a red double overcasting.
+  <i>Lower end</i>, a web, or web and short warp fringe. <i>Upper
+  end</i>, a web and short warp fringe. <i>Texture</i>, firm.
+  <i>Weave</i> at back is of moderately fine grain. <i>Length</i>,
+  five to eighteen feet. <i>Usual width</i>, two fifths to two
+  thirds length.</p>
+
+  <h4><i>COLOUR PLATE V&mdash;GHIORDES PRAYER RUG</i></h4>
+
+  <p><i>Only now and then is seen a prayer Ghiordes that represents
+  such a high type of artistic skill. The weaving follows more
+  closely the fine technique of the Persian than that of the Asia
+  Minor weaver. Yet it is the drawing and colouring that claim
+  attention. The delicate tracery of the spandrel, the minute
+  delineation of tendril and leaf in the border, and the perfect
+  balance of every part of one side with a corresponding part in
+  the other, resemble the finest workmanship of old Iran. Not only
+  so, but the beautiful border pattern of rosette and leaf is so
+  suggestive of the well-known Herati design that it seems not
+  improbable that here is shown the influence of those Persian
+  weavers that Solyman the Magnificent took with him to Asia Minor
+  after his capture of Tabriz. The colour also displays dainty
+  tones and careful shading found in no other class of Asia Minor
+  rugs. Such pieces are usually regarded as products of the XVI
+  Century.</i></p>
+
+  <p class="name"><i>Property of the Author</i></p>
+
+  <div class="figcenter" style="width: 550px;">
+    <a name="pv" id="pv"></a><img src="images/plate_v.jpg" width="550" height="698" alt="COLOUR PLATE V--GHIORDES PRAYER RUG" title="" />
+  </div>
+
+  <p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_131" id=
+  "Page_131">131</a></span></p>
+
+  <p class="tb"><span class="smcap">Burujirds</span>.&mdash;About
+  sixty miles to the west of Sultanabad and forty to the south of
+  the Sarawan district is the city of Burujird. It is in a rich,
+  well-watered valley and is surrounded by numerous hamlets. Most
+  of the population are engaged in agriculture; and only a small
+  part, who are stimulated by the increased prices occasioned by
+  the rug industry of Sultanabad, are weavers. They produce pieces
+  that resemble closely the Sarabend rugs, as the field is
+  generally occupied with pear designs; but on account of the
+  Ghiordes knot and cotton warp and weft, they might be mistaken
+  for Iran rugs.</p>
+
+  <p class="tb"><span class=
+  "smcap">Sultanabads</span>.&mdash;Southeastward from the plain of
+  Feraghan is the city of Sultanabad, which in recent years has
+  become important as the centre of a great rug industry controlled
+  by Europeans and Americans. Higher prices, resulting from the
+  constantly increasing Western demand for Persian rugs, have
+  stimulated the native weavers to more persistent efforts. Those
+  who are too poor to purchase wool and dyes<a name="FNanchor_24"
+  id="FNanchor_24"></a><a href="#Footnote_24" class=
+  "fnanchor">24</a> are supplied by the companies. Others, who are
+  more dependent, are paid regular wages. Thus it happens that not
+  only large numbers of looms are constantly at work in the city,
+  but a hundred hamlets and villages that lie within a day&rsquo;s
+  journey produce rugs that are marketed there. But while the
+  output has been increased the true artistic spirit has been
+  suppressed, and patterns favoured or supplied by foreign
+  purchasers only are in demand. Most of the rugs are well woven,
+  though there is a difference in grades. Some take the name of the
+  city, others are called Savalans, from a range of mountains that
+  lie to the north, and others are known as Mahals. Most of them
+  are large pieces, rather coarsely woven.</p>
+
+  <p class="tb"><span class="smcap">Muskabads</span>.&mdash;In the
+  district of Muskabad, a short distance to the northwest of
+  Sultanabad, are produced rugs very similar to the Mahals. They
+  come in the same large carpet sizes and nearly square shapes;
+  they have almost the same harmonious colour scheme of unobtrusive
+  red, yellow, blue, green, and ivory; they have the same cotton
+  warp and weft, the same finish of sides and ends; but as a rule
+  they are less closely woven. The patterns are varied.
+  Occasionally they have large figures such as are seen in
+  Gorevans, <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_132" id=
+  "Page_132">132</a></span> though these are more usual in Mahals.
+  In some of them the field is covered with conventionalised leaf
+  and floral form. But the usual type has two or more concentric
+  medallions of different colours covered with the small Herati
+  designs so distinctive of the Feraghans. When such is the case,
+  the border has usually the turtle pattern in the main stripe and
+  some stiffly drawn vine and floral pattern in the smaller
+  stripes. But the velvety appearance, the elegant finish of old
+  Feraghans, is always lacking. The nap is of soft wool of medium
+  length, but the surface of the back displays coarse texture.
+  These pieces lack the artistic qualities of most Persian rugs;
+  but on account of their excellent quality of material and
+  stoutness of weave they are very serviceable.</p>
+
+  <p><i>Type Characteristics.</i> <i>Colours</i>, principally red,
+  blue, and ivory, with minor quantities of green and brown.
+  <i>Knot</i>, Ghiordes or Sehna. Knots to inch horizontally seven
+  to fourteen; perpendicularly, eight to twelve. The rows of knots
+  are not firmly pressed down. <i>Warp</i>, cotton; one of the two
+  threads encircled by a knot is generally depressed at back, and
+  frequently nearly doubled under the other. <i>Weft</i>, cotton,
+  of medium to coarse diameter. A thread of weft crosses twice
+  between every two rows of knots. <i>Pile</i>, wool, of medium
+  length. <i>Border</i>, three to five stripes, with a narrow outer
+  edging. <i>Sides</i>, a double overcasting. <i>Lower end</i>, a
+  very narrow web and short warp fringe. <i>Upper end</i>, short
+  warp fringe. <i>Texture</i>, moderately firm. <i>Weave</i> at
+  back is of very coarse grain. <i>Length</i>, ten to eighteen
+  feet. <i>Width</i>, two thirds to seven eighths length.</p>
+
+  <p class="tb"><span class="smcap">Joshaghans</span>.&mdash;Lying
+  to the southeast of Sultanabad and to the north of Ispahan is a
+  district where a century ago were woven some of the best carpets
+  of Persia, known as Joshaghans or Djushghans. Even long before
+  then it was noted for its textile fabrics; but during the reign
+  of Nadir Shah, who removed many of the best artisans from the
+  central to the northwestern part of Persia, the carpet weaving
+  received a new impulse, and continued to flourish there until
+  nearly the middle of the last century. Since that time it has
+  almost ceased, so that the genuine Joshaghans of rich, deep
+  colour and skilfully drawn pattern are all sixty or more years of
+  age. They may still be found scattered throughout the country,
+  and should be carefully preserved; for they merit the high esteem
+  accorded to them by the Persians themselves.</p>
+
+  <div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;">
+    <a name="p30" id="p30"></a><img src="images/plate30.jpg"
+    width="500" height="789" alt="Plate 30. Ghiordes Rug" title="" />
+
+    <p class="center"><span class="smcap">Plate 30. Ghiordes
+    Rug</span></p>
+  </div>
+
+  <p>In a few of these pieces are seen the Shah Abbas pattern. In
+  other <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_133" id=
+  "Page_133">133</a></span>pieces the field is covered with
+  scrolls, or with a lattice-work pattern in which small floral
+  forms are the motives. Again it is occupied by pear designs
+  encircled by small rounded figures, which combined form the
+  outlines of a larger pear, while in the intervening spaces are
+  small floral forms. The principal border stripe generally
+  consists of floral designs, which not infrequently are some form
+  of the Herati pattern. The secondary stripes often contain floral
+  vines.</p>
+
+  <p>Whatever the pattern of the field, the effect is always
+  striking and beautiful; for the lines are never harsh, and the
+  colours are rich. The ground is very frequently a rose tint, but
+  is sometimes dark blue; and the overlying designs are rose,
+  yellow, green, and ivory. The colours of the border are generally
+  the same as those of the smaller designs, so that the effect is
+  always harmonious. These rugs are excellently woven; and the soft
+  lustrous wool of the pile, which is usually longer than that of
+  Sarabends and Feraghans, has often an appearance like plush.</p>
+
+  <p><i>Type Characteristics.</i> <i>Colours</i>, principally red
+  and blue, with lesser quantities of yellow, green, brown, and
+  ivory. <i>Knot</i>, Ghiordes. Knots to inch horizontally seven to
+  eleven; perpendicularly, eight to thirteen. The rows of knots are
+  not always firmly pressed down, so that the warp may be seen at
+  back. <i>Warp</i>, usually cotton, occasionally wool; one of the
+  two threads encircled by a knot is usually depressed below the
+  other at the back. <i>Weft</i>, wool, sometimes dyed red, brown,
+  or reddish brown, but frequently of natural colour. A thread of
+  weft generally crosses twice, but sometimes three times between
+  every two rows of knots. <i>Pile</i>, wool of short or medium
+  length. <i>Border</i>, usually three stripes. <i>Sides</i>, a
+  double overcasting that is generally brown or black. <i>Lower
+  end</i>, a web. <i>Upper end</i>, a web and warp fringe.
+  <i>Texture</i>, moderately firm. <i>Weave</i> at back is of
+  moderately fine grain. <i>Usual length</i>, eight to sixteen
+  feet. <i>Usual width</i>, two fifths to two thirds length.</p>
+
+  <p class="tb"><span class="smcap">Sehnas.</span>&mdash;Seldom has
+  prophecy been more precisely fulfilled than the one made a decade
+  ago that the old Persian rugs would rapidly disappear from the
+  market. Nor is it better exemplified than in the case of those
+  woven before the middle of the last century in Sehna, capital of
+  Ardelan, for to-day it is exceedingly difficult to obtain any of
+  them. Nevertheless, there are still many looms among the four or
+  five thousand families of the city, where true to early
+  traditions are woven modern fabrics that maintain the
+  same<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_134" id=
+  "Page_134">134</a></span> floral Persian patterns, the same
+  colour, the same general character of weave; but they lack the
+  fine technique of the older pieces. It is, indeed, surprising
+  that these modern pieces so closely resemble the old in all save
+  quality, when it is considered that Sehna is distant only fifty
+  miles from the western border of Persia; that it is surrounded by
+  Kurdish tribes who for generations have woven rugs with nomadic
+  features; and that it is not far distant from other important rug
+  centres.</p>
+
+  <p>To one familiar with the leading characteristics it is
+  possible at once to distinguish these rugs. Their nap is
+  exceedingly short, and the weave is so distinctive that with eyes
+  closed an expert will generally recognise them after rubbing the
+  hand across the front and back. Their patterns, also, conform to
+  well-established types, yet have sufficient variety to be always
+  interesting. They may be conveniently divided into two groups:
+  one represents the entire field covered with floral designs, and
+  the other represents a field of uniform colour with a medallion
+  at the centre, or with two or more concentric medallions. The
+  former, which is undoubtedly the older group, has generally a
+  small diaper pattern of the Herati design or floral figures
+  daintily drawn. To obviate too great monotony, a number of the
+  old pieces have the leaves and flowers so adjusted that the
+  ground conveys the effect of lattice work, or less often have
+  small trees of cypress regularly placed amid the other floral
+  designs. Again, the field may be covered with large pear designs
+  placed in rows. Of modern pieces the most beautiful pattern, as a
+  rule, consists of a field of rich, uniform colour, as ivory or
+  red, containing at its centre a single medallion of contrasting
+  ground colour, which is generally dark blue or even black. The
+  four corners of the field have serrated edges and are covered
+  with floral designs similar to those of the medallion. The
+  borders, which are invariably narrow, usually consist of three
+  stripes, but sometimes of only two. With very few exceptions they
+  are floral, and in the main one, that has a ground colour of
+  yellow or red, are represented designs which are also similar to
+  those of the medallion. Some of the old Sehnas had borders that
+  were less floral than more modern pieces, and the turtle design
+  so common to Feraghans was often used. Isolated and adventitious
+  designs, such as are seen in all nomadic rugs, are never found in
+  these pieces, nor are the floriated scrolls that are peculiar to
+  Sarouks, Kashans, and Kermanshahs.</p>
+
+  <p>As is seldom the case with modern rugs, occasionally both
+  linen<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_135" id=
+  "Page_135">135</a></span> and silk are used for the warp, and
+  silk for overcasting, but generally the warp is cotton and the
+  overcasting is of wool. The city of Sehna has given its name to
+  the kind of knot with which almost all the rugs of China and
+  Turkestan as well as many of the rugs of India and Persia are
+  tied; yet strange as it may seem, its own weavers have been
+  inconsistent in its use. To be sure, most of its rugs have the
+  Sehna knot, but a surprisingly large proportion of both recent
+  and comparatively old pieces have the Ghiordes knot. Only a few
+  other rugs ever adopt the same style of weaving; for a thread of
+  weft passes between two rows of knots but once, so that at the
+  back only alternate threads of white cotton warp appear between
+  these knots and thus give to the weave a checkered appearance or
+  quincunx effect. Moreover, the yarn of the knots is not drawn
+  tightly against the warp, so that in whatever direction the hand
+  is rubbed the surface feels like a file. Very few other rugs are
+  so closely woven, as four hundred knots to the square inch are
+  not uncommon; and in very old pieces nearly double that number
+  are now and then met with. Since both warp and weft are of fine
+  threads and the nap is very short, these rugs are exceedingly
+  thin and, accordingly, are not well adapted for floor use.</p>
+
+  <p>Some old saddle-bags are still to be found, rich in their
+  fields of deep blues and floral forms of brighter tones, but
+  unfortunately they are somewhat marred by the long slit in the
+  centre made to fit the saddle.</p>
+
+  <p><i>Type Characteristics.</i> <i>Colours</i>, principally dark
+  blue, red, and ivory, with lesser quantities of green, light
+  blue, and yellow. <i>Knot</i>, Sehna, often Ghiordes. Knots to
+  inch horizontally eleven to twenty; perpendicularly, twelve to
+  twenty-four. The rows of knots are closely pressed down, but the
+  yarn of knots is not drawn tight against the warp. <i>Warp</i>,
+  generally cotton, occasionally linen, rarely silk. Each of the
+  two threads encircled by a knot is equally prominent at back.
+  <i>Weft</i>, generally cotton, occasionally wool or linen, rarely
+  silk. A single thread of small diameter crosses only once between
+  every two rows of knots, so that the white spots of transverse
+  warp exposed at back have a quincunx appearance. <i>Pile</i>,
+  wool clipped very short. <i>Border</i>, three stripes.
+  <i>Sides</i>, a tightly wound double overcasting. <i>Lower
+  end</i>, a short web, or web and warp loops, or web and short
+  warp fringe. <i>Upper end</i>, short web and fringe.
+  <i>Texture</i>, very firm. <i>Weave</i> at back is of fine grain
+  but very rough. <i>Length</i>, three to seven feet. <i>Width</i>,
+  two thirds to three quarters length.</p>
+
+  <p class="tb"><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_136" id=
+  "Page_136">136</a></span><span class=
+  "smcap">Bijars.</span>&mdash;One hundred miles beyond Hamadan, on
+  the road to Tabriz, is the city of Bijar, capital of the district
+  of Gehrous. It is surrounded by barren mountains that rise out of
+  high table-lands, where for miles scarcely a habitation or bush
+  breaks the monotony, and where not even a blade of grass or
+  flower brightens the cracked and sun-parched earth, except for a
+  short season of the year. As is the case throughout nearly all
+  Persia, the spirit of desolation has crept into the city; the
+  grapevine climbs over ruined walls; the shade of poplars and
+  willows falls alike on decaying palace and crumbling houses. Yet
+  there still remain caravansaries, schools, and mosques, as well
+  as a population of five thousand people. Without doubt the
+  importance of the city is partly due to the regiment of soldiers
+  that the governor maintains to keep in subjection the bands of
+  robbers and fierce Kurds who, in large numbers, live throughout
+  the surrounding country. Nor are they the only tribes of fierce
+  foreign blood dwelling in this region; for it is stated that
+  during the invasions of the Timurids, a body of Turkomans from
+  the fortress town of old Saraks, where the corners of Persia and
+  Afghanistan meet Turkestan, followed the conqueror westward and
+  settled here. After them is named a small river that flows a
+  short distance to the north and finally empties into Lake
+  Urumiah; and it is not unusual to apply the name Saraks to the
+  rugs woven about Bijar, though they have none of the Turkoman
+  characteristics.</p>
+
+  <p>By adopting some of the best qualities of both Persian and
+  Kurdish rugs, the Bijar weavers have produced pieces of unusual
+  merit. The foundation is generally of wool; but unlike almost all
+  other rugs with nomadic features one thread of warp to each knot
+  is doubled beneath the other in the process of weaving, so that
+  it is almost or entirely concealed. Bijars are accordingly pieces
+  of great firmness and durability. Moreover, their threads of warp
+  and weft are of coarse diameter, so that they are invariably
+  thick even when the nap is not long. They are also distinctive in
+  the effective massing of bright and strong colours. Perhaps the
+  association with ranges of treeless hills, with salt wastes, with
+  vast plains where rainless months leave the grass parched and the
+  flowers withered, has deadened the Persian love for the
+  brilliant, joyous colours so acutely cherished in other parts of
+  Asia; but by the weavers of Bijar it is not unusual to discard
+  many of the Persian colours, which, however rich, are subdued and
+  sombre, and adopt the brighter hues <span class=
+  'pagenum'><a name="Page_137" id="Page_137">137</a></span>seen in
+  some of the rugs of Asia Minor. Yet, as is not always the case
+  with the latter, there is no sense of outraged taste; and though
+  crimson reds, deep blues, or tawny camel&rsquo;s hair be brought
+  in relief against a field of strongly contrasting colour, the
+  effect, except in modern pieces of poor dyes, is never
+  displeasing.</p>
+
+  <div class="figcenter" style="width: 550px;">
+    <a name="p31" id="p31"></a><img src="images/plate31.jpg"
+    width="550" height="788" alt="Plate 31. Kulah Prayer Rug"
+    title="" />
+
+    <p class="center"><span class="smcap">Plate 31. Kulah Prayer
+    Rug</span></p>
+  </div>
+
+  <p>In the pattern much latitude is exercised, but only in the
+  oldest pieces are found the gracefully flowing lines suggestive
+  of the highest Persian art. In many pieces a central medallion
+  and triangular-shaped corners, separated by a field of plain or
+  slightly shaded colour, is a favourite pattern. But the defining
+  lines are severe, and lack the delicate drawing characteristic of
+  Kermanshahs and Sarouks. Or the field may be covered with a
+  lattice-work pattern that contains small repetitive forms,
+  consisting of slender stems supporting one or more flowers.
+  Frequently a rug is covered with a medley of designs composed of
+  conventionalised flowers, crudely drawn trees, as well as birds,
+  animals, or human beings. The borders generally consist of an
+  outer edging of plain colour, and three stripes, on which are
+  often represented purely geometric forms, but more frequently the
+  undulating vine and pendent leaves, such as are common to most
+  Persian rugs. Fortunately many sterling pieces still remain that
+  have none of the earmarks of factory-made rugs, but are beautiful
+  with their soft wool and lustrous colours, as well as interesting
+  with their blending of Persian and Kurdish features.</p>
+
+  <p><i>Type Characteristics.</i> <i>Colours</i>, principally red,
+  also blue, ivory, green, yellow, and chocolate. <i>Knot</i>,
+  Ghiordes. Knots to inch horizontally six to ten; perpendicularly,
+  eight to twelve. The rows of knots are pressed down, so that the
+  warp is concealed at back and the weft partly hidden.
+  <i>Warp</i>, wool; one of the two threads encircled by a knot is
+  doubled under the other. <i>Weft</i>, wool, of medium or coarse
+  diameter, frequently dyed red. A thread of weft crosses twice
+  between every two rows of knots. <i>Pile</i>, of medium length,
+  usually wool, but frequently partly of camel&rsquo;s hair.
+  <i>Border</i>, of three stripes, often with an outer edging.
+  <i>Sides</i>, a double overcasting in red or purple. <i>Lower
+  end</i>, a web that is occasionally coloured or a narrow braided
+  selvage. <i>Upper end</i>, a web with loose warp fringe and
+  sometimes a braided selvage. The webbing is occasionally turned
+  back and hemmed. <i>Texture</i>, very firm. <i>Weave</i> at back
+  is of coarse grain. <i>Length</i>, six to sixteen feet.
+  <i>Width</i>, one quarter to three fifths length.</p>
+
+  <p class="tb"><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_138" id=
+  "Page_138">138</a></span><span class=
+  "smcap">Kermanshahs.</span>&mdash;On an ancient highway between
+  Bagdad and Teheran is the city of Kermanshah. As it is situated
+  near the frontiers of northwestern Persia, facing the Turkish
+  provinces, and is surrounded by mountains where once wandered
+  bands of homeless marauding Kurds who recognised no government,
+  it was formerly a most important stronghold of defence. A century
+  ago Robert Kerr Porter, who visited the city, referred to the
+  luxurious gardens and orchards that surrounded it, and to the
+  villages of the vicinity in which were made &ldquo;carpets of
+  most beautiful colour and fabric.&rdquo; Within later years the
+  moat has filled with rubbish, the encircling walls have crumbled,
+  and the deserted bazaars and caravansaries show that its present
+  population of about twelve thousand is but a small part of what
+  it has been. With its decline in political importance followed a
+  decline in industrial activities; yet for a long time it remained
+  a rug-producing centre of importance. In 1880 Sir George Birdwood
+  wrote that &ldquo;the finest Oriental rugs of our time, which at
+  the Vienna Exhibition astonished all beholders, are those made in
+  the palace of the Governor of Kermanshah, in Kurdistan, and are
+  only disposed of as presents.&rdquo;<a name="FNanchor_25" id=
+  "FNanchor_25"></a><a href="#Footnote_25" class="fnanchor">25</a>
+  And in 1890 a traveller<a name="FNanchor_26" id=
+  "FNanchor_26"></a><a href="#Footnote_26" class="fnanchor">26</a>
+  spoke of the weaving as follows: &ldquo;It is a process carried
+  on in homes, hovels, and tents by women and children.... The
+  vegetable dyes used are soft and artistic, especially a wonderful
+  red and the various shades of indigo. The dull, rich tints, even
+  when new, are quite beautiful. The women pursue their work
+  chiefly in odds and ends of time, and in some cases make it much
+  of a pastime.&rdquo;</p>
+
+  <p>From this city and the surrounding hills are still obtained
+  large quantities of rugs, which follow the same patterns that for
+  years have been characteristic of this district. Yet most of the
+  modern Kermanshahs are made elsewhere in the workhouses of
+  exporting companies. So noticeable is the resemblance in drawing
+  and colouring of some of them to the Kirmans of Southeastern
+  Persia, that they are offered now and then by dealers as real
+  Kirmans, though they lack the fine technique and artistic merit
+  of the latter. They possess, however, the same wealth of floral
+  expression, for throughout border and field are sprays of flowers
+  on delicate vines and foliate stalks. Most of the pieces now seen
+  contain at the centre of the field a large medallion, which may
+  have serrated or lobed edges, be oval or of diamond shape, and
+  with or without pendants. The corners are</p>
+
+  <p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_139" id=
+  "Page_139">139</a></span></p>
+
+  <p>defined by lines that do not always conform to those of the
+  medallion; and the borders have always several stripes, of which
+  the main one is usually but little wider than the others. In all
+  these different parts are floral and foliage motives that find
+  expression in sunflowers, roses, tulips, daisies, and many
+  simpler forms, supported by delicate branching sprays and
+  vines.</p>
+
+  <p>There are, however, other patterns less frequently met with,
+  as it is not unusual to see elaborate pear designs, and sometimes
+  the cypress or the palm tree naturalistically drawn. Covering the
+  field of a rare old Kermanshah recently seen were thirty large
+  panels, which like so many small rugs contained central fields
+  that were alternately coloured blue and ivory. Surrounding each
+  of these little fields, on which were represented the arch of a
+  temple and the tree of life, were borders wherein were woven
+  verses from the Koran, and at the intersections of the borders
+  were floral designs like roses. Encircling all the panels was a
+  wide border containing escutcheons in which were woven other
+  verses. Without doubt this rug was used for sacred purposes. In
+  fact, a larger proportion of Kermanshahs than almost any other
+  Persian rugs have prayer arches as well as verses from the Koran
+  inscribed in some part of them, but with very few exceptions they
+  are recently woven and bear no evidence of devotional usage.</p>
+
+  <p>The general colour scheme is distinctive, for the tones are
+  much lighter than those of most other Persian rugs. Frequently a
+  field of ivory surrounds the central medallion, though sometimes
+  a light rose red is used. Other colours are light blue, green,
+  and buff, which are softened by the floccy quality of the
+  excellent and moderately short-clipped wool. One feature common
+  to almost all of them is the narrow edging of pinkish red that
+  surrounds the border. This edging, the foliate scrolls, the soft
+  light tones, and the rather coarse weaving, that leaves the white
+  or sometimes pinkish weft exposed at the back, are
+  characteristics by which these rugs may readily be distinguished.
+  As they come in all sizes from small mats to large carpets, and
+  have tones that harmonise with almost any surroundings, they are
+  a most popular class with those who care little for association
+  and ignore the fact that they are chemically washed.</p>
+
+  <p><i>Type Characteristics.</i> <i>Colours</i>, principally light
+  rose and ivory, also blue, green, and buff. <i>Knot</i>, Sehna.
+  Knots to inch horizontally twelve to eighteen, perpendicularly
+  eleven to eighteen. The rows<span class='pagenum'><a name=
+  "Page_140" id="Page_140">140</a></span> of knots are pressed
+  down, so that the warp is concealed at back, but the weft is
+  conspicuous. <i>Warp</i>, cotton; one of the two threads
+  encircled by a knot is doubled under the other. <i>Weft</i>,
+  cotton, of medium diameter, sometimes dyed pink. A thread of weft
+  crosses twice between every two rows of knots. <i>Pile</i>, wool,
+  soft and of medium length. <i>Border</i>, frequently of three
+  stripes of almost equal width, but sometimes many stripes; also
+  an outer edging that is generally red, but occasionally blue.
+  <i>Sides</i>, a double overcasting in same colour as edging.
+  <i>Lower end</i>, a narrow web and warp loops, or short warp
+  fringe. <i>Upper end</i>, a narrow web and short warp fringe.
+  <i>Texture</i>, firm. <i>Weave</i> at back is of moderately
+  coarse grain. <i>Usual length</i>, four to fourteen feet.
+  <i>Usual width</i>, three fifths to four fifths length.</p>
+
+  <p class="tb"><span class="smcap">Western
+  Kurdistans.</span>&mdash;Within the land lying between the
+  Anti-Taurus and Zagros mountains, where the Euphrates and Tigris
+  rivers have their sources, dwell a people almost as untamed as
+  when in the dawn of history they were designated the
+  &ldquo;Warriors;&rdquo; or centuries later, under the name
+  &ldquo;Carduchis,&rdquo; opposed the retreat of Xenophon and his
+  ten thousand Greeks. Now they are known as &ldquo;Kurds,&rdquo;
+  of whom large numbers, wild, brave, and hospitable, live a
+  nomadic life among table-lands partly covered with sycamores and
+  oaks, or follow their sheep over lofty pine-crowned mountains,
+  that for long months are enveloped in snow. Doubtless the
+  cheering influence of green hillsides and the rich vegetation of
+  innumerable valleys, where streams flow perennially, is in a
+  measure responsible for their more sprightly aspect when
+  contrasted with that of the Persians. They recognise no law but
+  the will of their chief, to whom they maintain strictest fealty.
+  &ldquo;There was up to a recent period no more picturesque or
+  interesting scene to be witnessed in the East than the court of
+  one of these great Kurdish chiefs, where, like another Saladin,
+  the bey ruled in patriarchial state, surrounded by his clansmen
+  with reverence and affection, and attended by a body-guard of
+  young Kurdish warriors, clad in chain armor, with flaunting
+  silken scarfs, and bearing javelin, lance, and sword, as in the
+  time of the Crusades.&rdquo;<a name="FNanchor_27" id=
+  "FNanchor_27"></a><a href="#Footnote_27" class=
+  "fnanchor">27</a></p>
+
+  <div class="figcenter" style="width: 550px;">
+    <a name="p32" id="p32"></a><img src="images/plate32.jpg"
+    width="550" height="880" alt="Plate 32. Melez Prayer Rug" title="" />
+
+    <p class="center"><span class="smcap">Plate 32. Melez Prayer
+    Rug</span></p>
+  </div>
+
+  <p>Large numbers, also, are settled in Persia, where they
+  cultivate the soil of small tracts of land, or live in villages
+  of stone houses. Many of them are scattered around Lake Urumiah.
+  Others have made their homes in the district of Kermanshah, and
+  not a few have <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_141" id=
+  "Page_141">141</a></span>wandered as far as Khorassan. But
+  wherever they may be, they are distinguished by their appearance;
+  for the men are bold and handsome, and the young women, whom
+  custom permits to appear unveiled in public, are beautiful as
+  well as graceful.</p>
+
+  <p>There is no racial distinction between the Kurds who live the
+  pastoral life and those who dwell in villages, or between the
+  Kurds of Asiatic Turkey and those of Persia; yet environment has
+  produced a marked difference in their textile fabrics. Those
+  woven by the tribes that live among the mountains that encircle
+  Lake Van and extend to the north of Diarbekr embody the wild
+  characteristics of the weavers. They are strong and coarse, with
+  close weave, long nap, and bold patterns, that suggest Caucasian
+  influence devoid of artistic feeling. In some of them is a large
+  central diamond or lozenge surrounded by latch-hooks, as well as
+  floral forms so conventionalised as to be purely geometric; now
+  and then Arabic symbols and letters are scattered over the field.
+  Moreover, the colours lack the delicate shades of Persian rugs,
+  but possess rich, strong hues obtained from native dyes that
+  applied to the excellent wool give it a warm, lustrous
+  appearance. Brown is very largely used. There are also dark reds
+  and blues brightened by dashes of white and yellow. Only the
+  Kazaks, Tcherkess, and one or two Asia Minor weaves are trimmed
+  with such long nap, which, together with the deep colours and
+  long shaggy fringe, give these pieces a semi-barbaric appearance
+  possessed by no other rugs. Sometimes they are confused with the
+  Mosuls; but as a rule the pile is longer, and they are more
+  coarsely woven. In fact, the yarn is so coarse that it is not
+  unusual to see pieces with only thirty or forty knots to the
+  square inch. Like the Persian-Kurdish rugs, they rarely come in
+  large, almost square shapes, and are frequently decidedly oblong.
+  They may, however, easily be distinguished from them by their
+  cruder patterns, darker colours, coarser texture, and the fact
+  that each of the two threads of warp encircled by a knot is
+  equally prominent at the back.</p>
+
+  <p><i>Type Characteristics.</i> <i>Colours</i>, principally
+  brown, red, and blue, with minor quantities of yellow, green, and
+  white, and the natural colour of the undyed wool. <i>Knot</i>,
+  Ghiordes. Knots to inch horizontally four to seven;
+  perpendicularly, six to nine. A half knot, as it appears at back,
+  is as long as, or longer than, wide. The rows of knots are
+  closely pressed down. <i>Warp</i>, wool; each of the two threads
+  encircled by a knot is equally prominent at back.
+  <i>Weft</i>,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_142" id=
+  "Page_142">142</a></span> wool, of coarse diameter, and often
+  dyed a reddish colour. A thread of weft crosses twice between
+  every two rows of knots. <i>Pile</i>, wool, occasionally
+  camel&rsquo;s or goat&rsquo;s hair clipped long. <i>Border</i>,
+  generally of three stripes. <i>Sides</i>, a heavy double
+  overcasting, usually in brown or black, occasionally in several
+  different colours. <i>Lower end</i>, a narrow web, through which
+  runs a coloured cord, and warp loops. <i>Upper end</i>, a narrow
+  web, one or more rows of knots and long, coarse warp fringe.
+  <i>Texture</i>, very stout. <i>Weave</i> at back is of very
+  coarse grain. <i>Length</i>, five to sixteen feet. <i>Width</i>,
+  two fifths to two thirds length.</p>
+
+  <p class="tb"><span class="smcap">Persian
+  Kurdistans.</span>&mdash;Nowhere is the influence of association
+  among weavers more evident than in the Kurdish rugs woven by the
+  tribes settled in the rich valleys of Northwestern Persia, as is
+  apparent in weave, colours, and pattern, which differ widely from
+  those seen in the Kurdish rugs of Asiatic Turkey. The warp is
+  only rarely of coarse goats&rsquo; hair, and is generally soft,
+  brown wool. The pile is much shorter, so that the drawing is
+  clearly defined. Likewise, the colours are more varied and of
+  more delicate tones so as to include lighter shades of green,
+  rose, and ivory with the darker reds, blues, and browns. But the
+  chief distinction consists of the more artistic pattern. The
+  medallion in the centre of the field with corner pieces in which
+  appear some form of repetitive pattern is most common. Instead of
+  large figures are often the more dainty Herati designs borrowed
+  from the Feraghans and the Sehnas, or the pear design from the
+  Sarabends. Now and then is seen a rare old piece with field
+  completely covered with drawings of the tree of life and strange
+  floral conceits; but the pattern that is pre-eminently typical of
+  this type of Kurdish pieces is the Mina Khani, though it is
+  occasionally adopted in other rugs. The white and yellowish
+  flowers, connected by a lattice work sub-pattern of brown or
+  olive, rests on a ground of dark blue, that in accordance with a
+  feature peculiar to rugs of Kurdish weaves varies from one end of
+  the field to the other, so as to suggest that their wandering
+  life often made it difficult to obtain the roots and herbs
+  necessary to produce similar shades. As is rarely the case with
+  other patterns, the naturalistic flowers that are pendent from
+  the undulating vine of the main stripe and the flowers of the
+  field have nearly the same drawing. The two remaining stripes of
+  the narrow border have most simple vines.</p>
+
+  <p>Almost without exception rugs of this class are stoutly
+  woven.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_143" id=
+  "Page_143">143</a></span> To assure firmness, one thread of warp
+  is depressed below the other in tying the knots; and the weft
+  that is thrown across for filling is of fair quality. On account
+  of the firm texture, excellent wool, and good colours it is still
+  possible to obtain moderately old pieces, that as objects of
+  utility as well as ornament are desirable for their sterling
+  qualities.</p>
+
+  <p>A similarity exists between the Persian-Kurdish, Mosul, and
+  Bijar rugs; but a precise, even if easily overlooked, difference
+  in the weave serves to distinguish one from the other. As may be
+  seen by examining the backs of typical specimens, in Mosuls every
+  thread of warp lies in the same plane parallel with the surface
+  of the pile; in the Persian Kurdistans one of the two threads of
+  warp encircled by a knot is depressed at an acute angle to that
+  plane; and in Bijars one of the two threads of warp encircled by
+  a knot is doubled under the other so as to be at right angles to
+  that plane.</p>
+
+  <p><i>Type Characteristics.</i> <i>Colours</i>, principally red
+  and blue, also yellow, green, and white. <i>Knot</i>, Ghiordes.
+  Knots to inch horizontally seven to ten; perpendicularly, eight
+  to twelve. A half knot, as it appears at back, is no longer than
+  wide and is frequently not so long. The yarn is loosely woven, so
+  that each separate ply is distinct. The rows of knots are pressed
+  down, so that the warp is largely concealed and the weft partly
+  hidden at back. <i>Warp</i>, wool; one of the two threads
+  encircled by a knot is generally much depressed below the other
+  at back; but sometimes each is equally prominent. <i>Weft</i>,
+  wool, of medium diameter. A thread of weft usually crosses twice
+  between every two rows of knots, only rarely once. <i>Pile</i>,
+  wool, and occasionally some camel&rsquo;s hair of medium length.
+  <i>Border</i>, three to four stripes. <i>Sides</i>, a heavy
+  double overcasting in dark colour. <i>Lower end</i>, web crossed
+  by a parti-coloured cord, and warp loops. <i>Upper end</i>, web
+  crossed by a parti-coloured cord, and loose warp fringe.
+  <i>Texture</i>, very firm. <i>Weave</i> at back is of coarse
+  grain. <i>Usual length</i>, six to twelve feet. <i>Usual
+  width</i>, five eighths to two thirds length.</p>
+
+  <p class="tb"><span class="smcap">Karajes.</span>&mdash;Dwelling
+  near Hamadan, in the northwestern part of Persia, are tribes who
+  weave rugs that are known in the markets as Karajes. In their
+  colour scheme, length of nap, and texture they resemble many of
+  the Kurdistans; but in the technicalities of weave they show a
+  marked difference. As a rule, a single thread of weft crosses
+  only once between two rows of knots, or in a few pieces
+  two<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_144" id=
+  "Page_144">144</a></span> threads of weft pass side by side as
+  though one. In this particular they resemble Hamadans; but the
+  alignment of their knots at the back is more regular, their weft
+  is inserted with some slack, their warp is of wool, and their
+  weft is almost always of wool. They are generally runners, with
+  long nap of soft, lustrous wool, with rich colours, and with
+  border of three stripes. The pattern is Iranian, and very often
+  consists of a small bush or sprig of leaf and flower disposed in
+  formal array throughout the field. Sometimes the floral forms are
+  placed within the diamonds formed by a trellis pattern, but more
+  frequently they are arranged in rows like the pear designs of
+  Sarabends. In some pieces they are very much conventionalised and
+  suggest similar figures seen in rugs of Southern Caucasia; and in
+  others stem, leaf, and flower are very realistic. Another pattern
+  frequently followed consists of three or four large
+  diamond-shaped medallions extending from one end of the field to
+  the other. The borders are moderately narrow, and an undulating
+  vine of well-known Persian character generally appears in one or
+  more of the stripes. As these pieces are almost always
+  comparatively old, the vegetable dyes that were used for
+  colouring have mellowed, and have a richness of tone that is
+  accentuated by the depth of pile and softness of wool. The
+  prevailing tone of many is a deep plum colour.</p>
+
+  <p><i>Type Characteristics.</i> <i>Colours</i>, principally dark
+  blue or plum and red, with minor quantities of yellow, brown, and
+  white. <i>Knot</i>, Ghiordes. Knots to inch horizontally six to
+  twelve; perpendicularly, seven to twelve. A half knot, as it
+  appears at back, is as long as wide, and occasionally is longer.
+  The rows of knots, which have even alignment at back, are not
+  firmly pressed down. <i>Warp</i>, wool, rarely cotton; each of
+  the two threads encircled by a knot is equally prominent at back.
+  <i>Weft</i>, wool, rarely cotton; a single thread of medium
+  diameter crosses once between every two rows of knots; but in
+  parts of the same rug two, three, or even four threads of small
+  diameter will cross side by side as a single coarse thread.
+  Occasionally a thread of weft crosses three or four times. The
+  filling of weft stands up as high as the knots at the back,
+  giving an even surface. <i>Pile</i>, wool, of medium length or
+  moderately long. <i>Border</i>, of three stripes. <i>Sides</i>, a
+  heavy double overcasting. <i>Lower end</i>, web and warp loops.
+  <i>Upper end</i>, web and short fringe. <i>Texture</i>,
+  moderately loose. <i>Weave</i> at back is of coarse grain.
+  <i>Usual length</i>, eight to fourteen feet. <i>Usual width</i>,
+  three eighths to one half length.</p>
+
+  <div class="figcenter" style="width: 550px;">
+    <a name="p33" id="p33"></a><img src="images/plate33.jpg"
+    width="550" height="868" alt="Plate 33. Melez Rug" title="" />
+
+    <p class="center"><span class="smcap">Plate 33. Melez
+    Rug</span></p>
+  </div>
+
+  <p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_145" id=
+  "Page_145">145</a></span></p>
+
+  <p class="tb"><span class="smcap">Tabriz.</span>&mdash;Although
+  Tabriz, capital of the province of Azerbijan, is situated in a
+  remote corner of Persia, from the earliest times it has been one
+  of the most important centres in the Orient for the production of
+  carpets. They were well known in the days of the Caliphs; and
+  some of the earliest masterpieces that now remain were woven
+  there during the reign of Shah Tamasp, who extended to this
+  industry his royal patronage. This city has been for a long
+  period on the great routes of caravans passing to Trebizond and
+  Tiflis from the country to the south and east, so that it has
+  become the principal mart of Persia for the export of rugs
+  gathered from surrounding regions. Nevertheless, it still
+  continues to produce its own pieces; but the weavers are in the
+  employ of foreign companies who prescribe the character of
+  workmanship. As a consequence, the rugs are of good material,
+  excellently woven; and though many of the old dyes are no longer
+  used, the colours as a rule are fair; yet on account of the
+  mathematical exactness of their formal patterns the truly
+  Oriental spirit is largely lacking.</p>
+
+  <p>Since the rugs are made solely to meet the requirements of
+  Western buyers, the patterns are various. Most of them consist of
+  a large central medallion surrounded by a broad field of ivory,
+  blue, or red that extends to the sides and ends. In others, a
+  small diamond occupies the centre and is surrounded by a series
+  of concentric medallions. Although in these respects they
+  correspond with Kermanshahs, Sarouks, and Kashans, the patterns
+  of their fields lack the long scrolls and interlacing branches,
+  and consist frequently of short, slender stems supporting fronds,
+  leaves, flowers, or the pear designs arranged so as to present
+  almost the appearance of lace-work. Sometimes the drawing is a
+  delicate tracery representing intertwining arabesques. A field
+  completely covered with the small designs peculiar to Sehnas, or
+  containing the disjunct forms of nomadic rugs, is never seen; and
+  yet it is not improbable that many of the early Tabriz weavers
+  were Kurds. Sometimes the flowers are similar to the roses of
+  Kirmans, or are realistically drawn composit&aelig; surrounded by
+  delicate leaves on graceful stems; some times the small designs
+  are as formal as the palmettes of old Ispahans, from which they
+  were doubtless copied; again, the naturalistic and conventional
+  may be blended together in an harmonious whole. But whatever the
+  pattern, the different parts show the perfect balance so
+  frequently seen in the antique pieces of three or four centuries
+  ago. Nevertheless, to these types are many excep<span class=
+  'pagenum'><a name="Page_146" id="Page_146">146</a></span>tions,
+  since the weavers will produce for hire any class of rug or copy
+  any coloured drawing.</p>
+
+  <p>The borders differ from those of Kermanshahs, with which these
+  rugs are frequently compared, in the fact that in their central
+  stripe the continuous vine of leaf and flower is less
+  conspicuous; and in its place are often palmettes, pears, shrubs,
+  or formal trees separated by foliated scrolls. Not infrequently
+  the smaller stripes, also, have a repetitive pattern of leaf and
+  flower, though in some of the many stripes is usually a
+  well-drawn vine. Again, the border may consist of a series of
+  cartouches that have been copied from much older rugs and contain
+  verses of the Koran or of Persian poets. Within recent years this
+  tendency among the Tabriz and Kermanshah weavers to imitate not
+  only borders but also fields of old masterpieces is
+  increasing.</p>
+
+  <p>A feature peculiar to a very large number of these rugs is the
+  adoption of very finely spun linen for the warp; though cotton,
+  which is used for the weft, is sometimes substituted. The knots
+  are carefully tied, and the closely woven texture presents an
+  appearance at the back similar to that of Sarouks; but the almost
+  concealed weft is generally either white or pink. The weave
+  compared with that of Kermanshahs is finer, but the wool of the
+  closely shorn nap is neither so soft to the touch nor so silky,
+  the colours are harsher, and the patterns more formal. These rugs
+  are made in all sizes, though most are large and almost
+  square.</p>
+
+  <p><i>Type characteristics.</i> <i>Colours</i>, principally red,
+  blue, and ivory. <i>Knot</i>, Ghiordes. Knots to inch
+  horizontally twelve to twenty; perpendicularly, ten to
+  twenty-two. The rows of knots are pressed down, so that the warp
+  is hidden and the weft partly concealed at back. <i>Warp</i>,
+  generally cotton, frequently linen; one of the two threads
+  encircled by a knot is doubled under the other. <i>Weft</i>, as a
+  rule, is cotton, occasionally it is wool or linen, of fine
+  diameter, and frequently dyed pink. A thread of weft crosses
+  twice between every two rows of knots. <i>Pile</i>, wool, clipped
+  short and harsh to the touch. <i>Border</i>, from five to eight
+  stripes and an outer edging. <i>Sides</i>, a two-cord selvage.
+  <i>Both ends</i>, a narrow web and loose warp fringe.
+  <i>Texture</i>, firm. <i>Weave</i> at back is of fine texture.
+  <i>Usual length</i>, nine to eighteen feet. <i>Usual width</i>,
+  two thirds to four fifths length.</p>
+
+  <p class="tb"><span class="smcap">Gorevans.</span>&mdash;Of the
+  many rugs now made in Persia and designed primarily for use, few
+  are of such moderate price as the Gorevans,<span class=
+  'pagenum'><a name="Page_147" id="Page_147">147</a></span> which,
+  during recent years, have been imported in large numbers from the
+  province of Azerbijan in Northwestern Persia. A hasty glance
+  suggests Occidental craftsmanship, but in every essential they
+  are distinctly Oriental. Their stout weave, large size, and
+  nearly square shape place them in the class of Persian pieces
+  often called carpets, to which belong the Kermanshahs, Muskabads,
+  Mesheds, and rugs of Tabriz. Yet they are frequently larger than
+  any of these, and are readily distinguished from them by their
+  colours and patterns. It is true that they have the same light
+  shades, but the tones are in a distinctly different scale,
+  consisting principally of dull brick-red, light terra cotta,
+  buff, dark blue, dull green, yellow, and ivory, which, when once
+  recognised, are rarely mistaken for those of any other rugs. Nor
+  are the colours distributed in patches so small as to blend when
+  viewed at a short distance, but are of sufficient masses to be
+  separately observed and analysed.</p>
+
+  <p>The patterns are equally distinctive. The field is generally
+  covered with a number of concentric hexagonal-shaped medallions,
+  of which the longer sides of the largest are often marked with
+  conspicuous indentations such as are not seen in classes made in
+  other districts. All of the medallions are covered with large
+  designs, in which the artist has departed from the usual forms of
+  vine, leaf, and flower, that poorly imitate the splendid examples
+  of so-called &ldquo;Ispahans,&rdquo; and in many instances has
+  represented them in the archaic drawing of the oldest remaining
+  Persian carpets. Hard, straight lines with angles replacing
+  graceful curves define the medallions, corners, stems, leaves,
+  and flowers. And not infrequently the formal treatment shows a
+  European influence, as when all semblance of leaf and flower has
+  disappeared in the extremely conventionalised forms that are
+  placed with set regularity in the field. A very noticeable
+  feature of these rugs is the manner in which the designs are
+  coloured, as it is not unusual to represent a large figure in two
+  strongly contrasting colours, as blue and pink separated by a
+  stiffly drawn line.</p>
+
+  <p>The designs of the corners are similar to those of the central
+  medallions, but the designs of the borders are dissimilar. The
+  small stripes are marked with Persian vines of well-known floral
+  and leaf forms that show nothing of the drawing characteristic of
+  the field. The main stripe occasionally has cartouches and star
+  medallions, but in most instances has the turtle pattern, though
+  its treatment differs from the usual form seen in Feraghans.
+  A<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_148" id=
+  "Page_148">148</a></span> co-ordination in colour exists between
+  field and border. The ground of both the main stripe and one of
+  the medallions is often a dark blue or a red, while the ground of
+  the other stripes corresponds with those of other medallions.</p>
+
+  <p>All of the Gorevans are modern pieces, and so lack the
+  interest of those that follow traditional patterns; but their
+  stout weave, warm colours, and archaic designs make them both
+  serviceable and pleasing.</p>
+
+  <p><i>Type Characteristics.</i> <i>Colours</i>, principally dull
+  red, dark blue, and buff, with minor quantities of green, yellow,
+  and white. <i>Knot</i>, Ghiordes. Knots to inch horizontally six
+  to eight; perpendicularly, six to ten. The most conspicuous half
+  of a knot, as it appears at the back, is, as a rule, longer than
+  wide. The rows of knots are somewhat pressed down, but the warp
+  is rarely entirely concealed at back. <i>Warp</i>, cotton; one of
+  the two threads encircled by a knot is usually depressed below
+  the other at back; sometimes both threads are equally prominent.
+  <i>Weft</i>, cotton, of coarse diameter, sometimes dyed blue. A
+  thread of weft crosses only once between every two rows of knots,
+  or frequently twice. <i>Pile</i>, wool, of medium length.
+  <i>Border</i>, generally of three stripes, occasionally four or
+  five. <i>Sides</i>, a two-cord double selvage. <i>Both ends</i>,
+  a short warp fringe. <i>Texture</i>, rather loose. <i>Weave</i>
+  at back is of very coarse grain. <i>Usual length</i>, ten to
+  sixteen feet. <i>Usual width</i>, three fifths to three quarters
+  length.</p>
+
+  <p class="tb"><span class="smcap">Bakshis.</span>&mdash;A close
+  relationship exists between the Gorevans, which are a
+  comparatively modern product, and several other less known
+  sub-classes of earlier origin that are woven in small towns in
+  the east central part of the province of Azerbijan. One of these
+  towns, located fifty miles to the southeast of Tabriz, is
+  Bakshis, which formerly produced rugs that were highly esteemed
+  by the Persians, before the weavers were corrupted by a spirit of
+  commercialism. Those which are exported to-day are of little
+  artistic value, are poorly coloured, and carelessly woven. The
+  patterns are inferior copies of other well-known classes.</p>
+
+  <div class="figcenter" style="width: 550px;">
+    <a name="p34" id="p34"></a><img src="images/plate34.jpg"
+    width="550" height="696" alt="Plate 34. Rhodian Rug" title="" />
+
+    <p class="center"><span class="smcap">Plate 34. Rhodian
+    Rug</span></p>
+  </div>
+
+  <p class="tb"><span class="smcap">Serapis.</span>&mdash;The rugs
+  known as Serapis are named after the village of Sirab in the
+  mountainous district between Tabriz and Ardebil; but they are
+  made not only there, but also in the country farther to the east.
+  The large sizes are frequently mistaken for Gorevans, as
+  <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_149" id=
+  "Page_149">149</a></span>they are of similar shape and have
+  similar finish of sides and ends, yet as a rule they are better
+  woven. Many of them follow the same patterns of concentric
+  medallions, but the lines of others are more artistically drawn.
+  Although the borders lack the gracefully symmetric vines of old
+  Iranian pieces, the drawing is interesting in its individuality
+  and is in harmony with that of the field. All the colours are
+  cheerful. A field of ivory or some light shade of buff usually
+  surrounds the central medallions, on which appear soft and
+  pleasing tones of smaller designs. Yet on the whole there is a
+  tendency to employ richer and deeper tones than those of
+  Gorevans. The smaller pieces often contain more elaborate
+  patterns, but there are always the same pleasing and unobtrusive
+  shades of colour.</p>
+
+  <p><i>Type Characteristics.</i> <i>Colours</i>, principally red,
+  blue, and ivory, with minor quantities of green and yellow.
+  <i>Knot</i>, generally Sehna, frequently Ghiordes. Knots to inch
+  horizontally six to ten; perpendicularly, seven to twelve. The
+  rows of knots are firmly pressed down, so that the warp does not
+  show at back. <i>Warp</i>, cotton; one of the two threads
+  encircled by a knot is generally much depressed below the other
+  at back, and frequently doubled under the other. <i>Weft</i>,
+  cotton, of coarse diameter. A thread of weft crosses twice
+  between every two rows of knots. <i>Pile</i>, wool of medium
+  length. <i>Border</i>, three stripes. <i>Sides</i>, a double
+  selvage of two cords, or double overcasting attached figure-eight
+  fashion to the sides. The selvage or overcasting is usually in
+  red or buff. <i>Lower end</i>, a narrow web and warp loops or
+  short warp fringe. <i>Upper end</i>, a narrow web and warp
+  fringe. <i>Texture</i>, stout. <i>Weave</i> at back is of coarse
+  grain. <i>Usual length</i>, ten to eighteen feet. <i>Usual
+  width</i>, two thirds to three quarters length.</p>
+
+  <p class="tb"><span class="smcap">Herez.</span>&mdash;The city of
+  Herez is in the extreme eastern part of the province of
+  Azerbijan, where for a long time the weavers steadily adhered to
+  the sterling values of early fabrics and produced pieces that
+  were followed with slight modification in many of the former
+  Gorevans. In a measure the rugs of Tabriz also are reflected in
+  the medallion pattern of some of these pieces, but for their
+  gracefully flowing lines are substituted more rectangular ones;
+  and in place of many colours are few, of which blue and a reddish
+  copper are particularly noticeable. Another well-known and
+  interesting type consists of a field of white, on which, with
+  formal precision, are represented, in delicate shades of red,
+  blue, yellow, and green,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_150"
+  id="Page_150">150</a></span> archaic leaves and flowers supported
+  by stems and tendrils that are so conventionalised as to form
+  geometric lines and angles. At regular intervals the branching
+  tendrils assume the shape of arches, of which in larger pieces
+  there are frequently one or two dozen; and so closely do they
+  resemble prayer arches that these rugs are sometimes mistaken for
+  namazliks. The borders usually consist of three stripes. The
+  outer and inner are narrow guards containing some simple floral
+  figure, and the broad central stripe has often a continuous vine
+  with formal leaves and a conspicuous design suggestive of the
+  cloud-band. The tones are never harsh; many of the pieces are
+  large and almost square, and the wool of the pile is generally
+  excellent.</p>
+
+  <p><i>Type Characteristics.</i> <i>Colours</i>, principally
+  ivory, light blue, and reddish brown, also some yellow and green.
+  <i>Knot</i>, Ghiordes. Knots to inch horizontally five to ten;
+  perpendicularly, six to twelve. The most conspicuous half of a
+  knot, as it appears at the back, is longer than wide. The rows of
+  knots are only slightly pressed down, so that the weft is
+  noticeable at back. <i>Warp</i>, cotton; one of the two threads
+  encircled by a knot is depressed below the other at back, or each
+  thread is equally prominent. <i>Weft</i>, of cotton, seldom of
+  wool, of moderately coarse diameter. A thread of weft crosses
+  twice between every two rows of knots. <i>Pile</i>, wool of
+  medium length. <i>Border</i>, generally of three stripes.
+  <i>Sides</i>, a two-cord double selvage. <i>Lower end</i>, a very
+  narrow web and short warp fringe. <i>Upper end</i>, a short warp
+  fringe. <i>Texture</i>, loose. <i>Weave</i> at back is of very
+  coarse grain. <i>Usual length</i>, nine to fifteen feet. <i>Usual
+  width</i>, two thirds to seven eighths length.</p>
+
+  <p class="tb"><span class="smcap">Suj-Bulaks.</span>&mdash;About
+  fifty miles to the south of Lake Urumiah and the same distance
+  from the western boundary of Persia is the old Kurdish capital of
+  Suj-Bulak. Kurds still largely predominate in the district and
+  comprise most of the population of the city, to the discomfort of
+  the much smaller number of Persians, for whose protection a large
+  garrison was formerly maintained. Accordingly, the rugs made in
+  this vicinity are strongly characteristic of Kurdish pieces in
+  the strong texture, the excellent quality of wool, the rich, dark
+  colours, the finish of sides and ends. The patterns also are
+  largely Kurdish, but frequently show the influence of Persian
+  association.</p>
+
+  <p>In typical old pieces deep reds and blues are largely used.
+  One<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_151" id=
+  "Page_151">151</a></span> of them is generally the ground colour
+  of the central field, and shows the Kurdish influence by a
+  gradual shading from end to end; the other appears in the
+  overlying pattern, which partakes of a floral character. The
+  drawing sometimes represents flowering plants, such as the rose
+  bush, arranged in perpendicular rows and brightened by tints of
+  white, green, or yellow. Detached flowers not infrequently line
+  the edges of the field. The wide borders also, as a rule, have
+  vines and floral forms.</p>
+
+  <p><i>Type Characteristics.</i> <i>Colours</i>, principally dark
+  red and blue, with minor quantities of brown, green, yellow, and
+  ivory. <i>Knot</i>, Ghiordes. Knots to inch horizontally seven to
+  ten; perpendicularly, eight to twelve. The rows of knots are, as
+  a rule, pressed down, so that the alignment of each half knot is
+  very uneven; but frequently this feature is not regularly
+  maintained in all parts of the same rug, so that here and there
+  the warp is noticeable at back. <i>Warp</i>, wool; each of the
+  two threads encircled by a knot is generally equally prominent at
+  back, but occasionally one is depressed below the other.
+  <i>Weft</i>, wool, of medium diameter. A thread of weft crosses
+  twice between every two rows of knots. <i>Pile</i>, wool of
+  medium length. <i>Border</i>, of three to four stripes.
+  <i>Sides</i>, a double selvage of two or three cords in blue,
+  red, or brown. <i>Lower end</i>, a web through which runs a
+  parti-coloured cord, and a warp fringe. Frequently there is a
+  braided selvage in addition to the web. <i>Upper end</i>, the
+  same as lower, excepting that the web is occasionally turned back
+  and hemmed. <i>Texture</i>, moderately loose. <i>Weave</i> at
+  back is of slightly coarse grain. <i>Usual length</i>, six to
+  seven feet. <i>Usual width</i>, two fifths to three fifths
+  length.</p>
+
+  <p class="tb"><span class="smcap">Karadaghs.</span>&mdash;In the
+  extreme northwestern part of Persia, between the city of Tabriz
+  and the river Aras, is a mountain range called Kara Dagh, which
+  signifies the &ldquo;Black Mountain,&rdquo; On its slopes and in
+  the adjoining valleys rugs have been woven for at least several
+  hundred years, and at one time were well known in Europe, but few
+  have reached this country. Most of them are produced for home
+  use, so that they are, as a rule, well woven, of good material,
+  and of vegetable dyes. They resemble in colour scheme, weave, and
+  finish of sides and ends the rugs of Karabagh, which immediately
+  adjoins this district on the north. Indeed, in no other rugs of
+  Persia are the traditions of Iranian weavers so much disregarded
+  and Caucasian ideas so closely followed.</p>
+
+  <p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_152" id=
+  "Page_152">152</a></span>The field of many of these rugs is
+  completely covered with conventionalised flowers of several
+  different colours, so arranged that diagonal lines are of similar
+  colours. Sometimes it is covered with a pattern of
+  hexagonal-shaped figures containing geometric forms or
+  conventionalised floral designs. Again, it may contain the Herati
+  pattern or one similar to the Mina-Khani. In fact, some
+  repetitive pattern of small design is the usual type; but now and
+  then some form of pole medallion, which the weavers have learned
+  from their more southern neighbours, is substituted. The patterns
+  of the borders are either mechanically drawn vines or contain
+  geometric figures characteristic of Caucasian pieces. For guard
+  stripes the reciprocal trefoil is constantly used.</p>
+
+  <p>The colour scheme is generally bright and pleasing. A
+  favourite colour for the field is blue or a camel&rsquo;s hair
+  yellow; sometimes rose is seen. The nap of modern pieces is
+  medium long and of old pieces is short. The weave of the latter
+  is excellent, so that the closely pressed knots and stout threads
+  of weft make at the back an even surface unlike the coarse
+  appearance of many rugs.</p>
+
+  <p><i>Type Characteristics.</i> <i>Colours</i>, principally blue,
+  red, yellow, green, and white. Knot, Ghiordes. <i>Knots</i> to
+  inch horizontally seven to eleven; perpendicularly, seven to
+  eleven. The rows of knots are not firmly pressed down, so that
+  the warp appears at back, and the weft is prominent. <i>Warp</i>,
+  wool; each of the threads encircled by a knot is equally distinct
+  at back. <i>Weft</i>, wool, of coarse diameter, occasionally
+  dyed. A thread of weft crosses twice between every two rows of
+  knots. <i>Pile</i>, wool, of moderate length. <i>Border</i>,
+  three to six stripes. <i>Sides</i>, a double selvage of two or
+  three cords. <i>Both ends</i>, a narrow web and short warp
+  fringe. <i>Texture</i>, moderately firm. <i>Weave</i> at back is
+  of rather coarse grain. <i>Usual length</i>, five to nine feet.
+  <i>Usual width</i>, two fifths to two thirds length.</p>
+
+  <p class="tb"><span class="smcap">Mosuls.</span>&mdash;Near the
+  ruins of ancient Nineveh, on the bank of the Tigris, is the city
+  of Mosul. Once it was not only an important mart for wares
+  carried up and down the river, and for vast caravans from east
+  and west, but it became noted for its textiles from which was
+  derived the name &ldquo;muslin.&rdquo; At length on account of
+  pestilence, misrule, and the sack of armies its population and
+  industries have dwindled; though it is still the capital and
+  commercial centre of a district that lies between the high
+  table-lands surrounding Lake Van and the low plains of Bagdad,
+  and that extends across the Mesopotamian<span class=
+  'pagenum'><a name="Page_153" id="Page_153">153</a></span> valley
+  to the mountain ridges bordering Western Persia. Within this
+  extensive area are large stretches of rich pasture, where Abraham
+  once fed his flocks, and where each year Kurdish nomads from the
+  north drive their sheep when the winter snows cover their own
+  hillsides. Arabs, Turks, Armenians, Jews, and Christians likewise
+  mingle with the natives, so that the population is as mixed as
+  can be found anywhere in the Orient.</p>
+
+  <div class="figcenter" style="width: 550px;">
+    <a name="p35" id="p35"></a><img src="images/plate35.jpg"
+    width="550" height="879" alt="Plate 35. Konieh Prayer Rug"
+    title="" />
+
+    <p class="center"><span class="smcap">Plate 35. Konieh Prayer
+    Rug</span></p>
+  </div>
+
+  <p>Thus it happens that the rugs marketed in the city of Mosul
+  are made by different races and show great diversity of
+  character. It would, indeed, be often difficult to distinguish
+  them if the weave were disregarded; for though they are prone to
+  yellow and russet hues, and the long wool is floccy as well as
+  lustrous, there is no pattern that can be considered truly
+  typical. Many of them borrow Caucasian designs, such as stars,
+  latch-hooks, diagonal bands, and barber-pole stripes. Others have
+  patterns adopted almost bodily from Kurdish pieces. But however
+  much the nomadic rugs are copied, a Persian influence is always
+  shown by the way in which the severer features are softened. In
+  fact, a very large percentage of rugs that come from Mosul are
+  made by the tribes that wander as far east as the great mountain
+  divides along the borders of Western Persia, and adopt patterns
+  and colour schemes current in Azerbijan and Ardelan. It
+  accordingly happens that medallion patterns resembling those of
+  Bijars, but with bolder and less graceful outlines, are seen.
+  More frequently the field is covered with small figures common to
+  Feraghans, as well as with the well-known pear designs; but the
+  former are coarsely drawn, and the latter lack the gracefully
+  rounded lines seen in Sarabends and are often as geometric as
+  those of the Baku rugs. Somewhere in almost all these pieces
+  appears evidence of some conventionalised floral form; but now
+  and then a rare old piece is found which was woven in the plains
+  of Mesopotamia, with field completely covered with a
+  naturalistically drawn tulip that grows on the banks of the
+  Tigris and Euphrates. Its bright flowers and leaves, supported by
+  a delicate stalk, constitute one of the most beautiful designs
+  seen in any rug.</p>
+
+  <p>The borders are rarely wide, and generally consist of three
+  stripes, one of which usually has some simple vine, and the
+  others some well-known geometric pattern. It is, also, not
+  unusual to find an outer edging surrounding the border. In a few
+  of these pieces camel&rsquo;s hair is used even to the extent of
+  occupying the whole field; and goat&rsquo;s<span class=
+  'pagenum'><a name="Page_154" id="Page_154">154</a></span> hair or
+  sheep&rsquo;s wool, dyed to a similar colour, is constantly
+  employed. One of the most usual colours is some shade of yellow.
+  Reddish hues also prevail. These rugs frequently have the same
+  pleasing effect of slightly graduated changes so common in the
+  ground colour of Kurdistans, but as a whole the colour scheme is
+  lighter. On the other hand, they follow the shading adopted in
+  Persian rugs, which in a measure eliminates the sudden transition
+  between adjacent areas of strongly contrasting colour so
+  noticeable in nomadic pieces. On account of the present
+  remoteness of the Mosul district from important highways of
+  travel, many excellent pieces, which with careful use should
+  acquire the rich tones of those now old, are still woven
+  there.</p>
+
+  <p><i>Type Characteristics.</i> <i>Colours</i>, principally
+  yellow and brownish red, with minor quantities of blue, green,
+  and white. <i>Knot</i>, Ghiordes. Knots to inch horizontally five
+  to seven; perpendicularly, seven to nine. A half knot, as it
+  appears at back, is as long as wide and frequently longer. The
+  yarn is not drawn tightly against the warp. The rows of knots are
+  firmly pressed down, so that the warp is concealed at back.
+  <i>Warp</i>, almost always wool, rarely cotton; each of the two
+  threads encircled by a knot is equally prominent at back.
+  <i>Weft</i>, generally of wool, of coarse diameter and frequently
+  dyed red or orange, but occasionally of cotton. As a rule, a
+  thread of weft crosses twice between two rows of knots, but
+  sometimes crosses only once; or two or three threads cross side
+  by side, as in Karajes. <i>Pile</i>, wool and occasionally
+  camel&rsquo;s hair, of medium length. <i>Border</i>, of three
+  stripes with frequently an outer edging of solid colour.
+  <i>Sides</i> are generally a heavy double overcasting, but in a
+  few pieces there is a two-cord weft selvage or double selvage.
+  <i>Lower end</i>, a web. <i>Upper end</i>, a web and warp fringe;
+  occasionally there is a heavy braided selvage, or the web is
+  turned back and hemmed. <i>Texture</i>, moderately firm.
+  <i>Weave</i> at back is of coarse grain. <i>Usual length</i>, six
+  to ten feet. <i>Usual width</i>, two fifths to three quarters
+  length.</p>
+
+  <p class="tb">Now and then are seen comparatively scarce rugs,
+  such as the Teheran, Gulistan, Kara-Geuz, Bibikabad, Afshar, and
+  Gozene, that were woven within the Iranian boundaries. Some of
+  them are no longer produced, and others are woven in such small
+  numbers that but few are exported.</p>
+
+  <div class="figcenter" style="width: 550px;">
+    <a name="p36" id="p36"></a><img src="images/plate36.jpg"
+    width="550" height="844" alt="Plate 36. Kir-shehr Prayer Rug"
+    title="" />
+
+    <p class="center"><span class="smcap">Plate 36. Kir-shehr
+    Prayer Rug</span></p>
+  </div>
+
+  <p>The Teherans were formerly made in the present capital of
+  Persia. The typical pattern consists of the Herati design or some
+  floral <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_155" id=
+  "Page_155">155</a></span>form occupying the central field, which
+  is two or three times as long as wide. The weave resembles that
+  of Irans, since the knot is Ghiordes, each of the two threads of
+  warp that it encircles is equally prominent at the back, and both
+  warp and weft are cotton. The borders are wide, and the sides are
+  finished with a two-cord selvage.</p>
+
+  <p>Gulistan is the Persian name for a flower garden, and the rugs
+  known by that name were once made in a district not far from
+  Kashan, where rose bushes bloomed profusely. The fields may be
+  covered with conventionalised floral and leaf patterns, or again
+  they may contain roses naturalistically drawn with extended
+  petals, as if viewed from above. The most striking characteristic
+  is the opulence of colour, such as red, blue, and yellow softened
+  by shades of brown and green. Even the weft and the webs of the
+  ends are red, blue, or brown. The sides have a two-cord selvage,
+  warp and weft are usually of cotton, and one thread of warp to
+  each knot is depressed at the back. These rugs, which formerly
+  came in large sizes, are no longer made.</p>
+
+  <p>Only a short distance to the northeast of Hamadan is the
+  district of Kara-Geuz, which is occupied by a large tribe, who in
+  the past have furnished some of the best of Persian cavalry. The
+  people are industrious, and not only cultivate the land but
+  engage in weaving. Some of their rugs closely resemble the
+  Kurdish pieces, and others correspond with the Irans. In the
+  technique of weave they often follow the Hamadans. On the
+  outskirts of this district is the town of Bibikabad, where, also,
+  rugs are woven for market.</p>
+
+  <p>For a number of generations the country adjoining Lake Urumiah
+  on the west and stretching into the Turkish domain has been
+  partly occupied by a powerful race of brave and active people who
+  are known as Afshars. They are regarded as a branch of the Yuruks
+  of Asia Minor, and the rugs of both tribes have many points of
+  similarity. The wool of the nap is generally the coarse product
+  of the mountain sheep. The patterns incorporate some of the
+  floral features of Persian rugs, though they display many
+  Caucasian characteristics. These Afshars bear a close resemblance
+  to the Kazaks, from which they may be distinguished by observing
+  a fold as they are bent backwards, which will show the fibres of
+  the yarn of a knot standing out at front as a unit, while in
+  Kazaks they have a greater tendency to blend. Also at the back,
+  each half of a knot is no longer than wide, nor is it drawn
+  closely against the warp, while in Kazaks each half of a knot is
+  often double its width and is drawn closer.</p>
+
+  <p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_156" id=
+  "Page_156">156</a></span>In the country about Gozene, in the
+  watershed of the Euphrates river, are made a few rugs for local
+  use, though they occasionally reach Western markets. The pattern,
+  which is very simple, usually consists of some small diaper
+  figure of brown or grey colour, or of dull tones of maroon. Many
+  of this class have a double foundation of warp; and frequently,
+  at the back, the knots do not form regular lines parallel with
+  the length, as is the case with other rugs. This is due to the
+  fact that any thread of warp may be encircled by both the left
+  half of some knots and the right half of others. Occasionally,
+  also, a knot is tied about four threads of warp. In other rugs of
+  this class which have a single foundation of warp the weave
+  resembles that of Mosuls.</p>
+
+  <h4>BORDER STRIPES</h4>
+
+  <p>The most noticeable feature of Persian border stripes is their
+  floral character, which is very frequently represented by a vine
+  winding from side to side with pendent flowers marking each
+  flexure. Some of these vines have been evolved from arabesques,
+  and others from naturalistic tendrils, but all are graceful. In a
+  few pieces the stripes contain rows of detached flowers,
+  rosettes, or pears, expressed in rich yet unobtrusive colours,
+  that are always in perfect harmony with those of the field.
+  Rarely is the pattern geometric. Accordingly, with the exception
+  of the Indian and some of the Chinese, they are the most elegant,
+  pleasing, and artistic of all border stripes. Moreover, some of
+  them follow almost the same patterns that were in use centuries
+  ago.</p>
+
+  <p class="tb"><i>Primary Stripes.</i>&mdash;In Plate <a href=
+  "#pe">E</a>, Fig. 1 (opp. Page 156), is represented a typical
+  Herat stripe derived from some of the XV and XVI Century carpets.
+  It shows close relationship to the pattern of conventional
+  rosette and pair of attendant leaves so frequently seen on the
+  fields of such rugs as the Feraghans and Sehnas. In this stripe
+  the angular and serrated leaves are extended to form a vine.</p>
+
+  <p>One of the best known Khorassan stripes, shown in Plate
+  <a href="#pe">E</a>, Fig. 2, bears a resemblance to the Herat
+  stripe; and it is not unlikely that they had a common origin,
+  since they were designed in adjoining and freely communicating
+  districts. The enlargements of the vine at the centre of each
+  flexure are doubtless leaves, but they occasionally resemble the
+  heads of birds.</p>
+
+  <div class="figcenter" style="width: 550px;"> <a name="pe" id="pe"></a>
+  <img src="images/platee.jpg" width="550" height="786" alt= "Plate E. Primary Border-Stripes of Persian Rugs" title="" />
+    <p class="center"><span class="smcap">Plate E. Primary
+    Border-Stripes of Persian Rugs</span></p>
+  </div>
+
+  <p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_157" id=
+  "Page_157">157</a></span></p>
+
+  <p>The so-called turtle pattern, Plate <a href="#pe">E</a>, Fig.
+  3, has probably been derived from the interlacing arabesques that
+  appeared in rugs at least as early as the beginning of the XV
+  Century, as is indicated on Page 79. The rosette and attendant
+  leaves between adjacent &ldquo;turtles&rdquo; suggest the Herati
+  pattern. This stripe is found principally in Feraghans, Irans,
+  Sehnas, and Muskabads. One that is similar, but more mechanically
+  drawn and with wider spreading arms, is typical of Gorevans and
+  Serapis.</p>
+
+  <p>A stripe found in Joshaghans, representing a row of floral
+  bushes, is shown in Plate <a href="#pe">E</a>, Fig. 4. It is also
+  seen in some of the old rugs of Northwestern Persia. Another
+  Joshaghan stripe, which also suggests the Herati pattern, is
+  represented in Fig. 5.</p>
+
+  <p>A single row of pears (Plate <a href="#pe">E</a>, Fig. 6) is a
+  characteristic Luristan stripe.</p>
+
+  <p>The dainty pattern of Plate <a href="#pe">E</a>, Fig. 7, in
+  which the vine has been abandoned and serrated leaves nearly
+  surround a floral device, shows a not unusual Herez stripe.</p>
+
+  <p>As a rule the drawing of Persian-Kurdish stripes is never
+  crowded, and represents a simple vine with bright pendent
+  flowers. A stripe commonly seen in this class is represented in
+  Plate <a href="#pe">E</a>, Fig. 8. It is also seen in the
+  Bijars.</p>
+
+  <p>On account of the geographic position of the Karadagh
+  district, which is separated only by the Aras river from
+  Caucasia, its stripes show a combination of floral and geometric
+  design not usual in other Persian pieces. Plate <a href=
+  "#pe">E</a>, Fig. 9, represents one of these stripes with a
+  rosette, and the serrated leaf so common among the Shirvans.
+  Plate <a href="#pe">E</a>, Fig. 10, represents another stripe of
+  the same class with eight-petalled star-shaped flowers pendent
+  from an angular vine.</p>
+
+  <p>A beautiful stripe, representing a vine and pendant flower,
+  which is frequently seen in some of the Persian-Kurdish rugs, is
+  shown in Plate <a href="#pe">E</a>, Fig. 11.</p>
+
+  <p>In Plate <a href="#pe">E</a>, Fig. 12, is illustrated a very
+  dainty pattern of vine and roses that now and then is seen in old
+  Feraghans; and in Fig. 13 are also represented vine and roses as
+  they occasionally appear in old rugs of Northwestern Persia.</p>
+
+  <p>The very mechanically drawn double vine shown in Plate
+  <a href="#pe">E</a>, Fig. 14, is sometimes seen in stripes of
+  Hamadans. In fact, simplicity of border is a characteristic of
+  this class.</p>
+
+  <p>Mosul and Kurdish stripes show a similarity, but the former
+  are often more mechanically drawn than the latter. In Plate
+  <a href="#pe">E</a>, Fig. 15,<span class='pagenum'><a name=
+  "Page_158" id="Page_158">158</a></span> is a stripe from an old
+  and beautiful Mosul with conventionalised vine and King
+  Solomon&rsquo;s eight-pointed star.</p>
+
+  <p>Undoubtedly the most typical of any class of Persian stripes
+  is the well-known Sarabend pattern of formal vine with pendent
+  pear on white ground. It is very rarely that a rug of this class
+  is without this stripe (Plate <a href="#pe">E</a>, Fig. 16). Its
+  presence at once indicates that the piece is either a Sarabend or
+  an Iran copy.</p>
+
+  <p>In Plate <a href="#pe">E</a>, Fig. 17, is the well-known pear
+  pattern of a Meshed stripe. The graceful form, resembling in a
+  measure the Indian drawing, is peculiar to these stripes.</p>
+
+  <p>The Kirman stripe (Plate <a href="#pe">E</a>, Fig. 18)
+  invariably contains red roses naturalistically drawn, surrounded
+  by a profusion of leaves and stems. This is one of the most
+  beautiful of Persian border patterns.</p>
+
+  <p>Somewhat similar, but far more formal, is the Kermanshah
+  stripe, one of which appears in Plate <a href="#pe">E</a>, Fig.
+  19, with mechanically drawn flowers, leaves, and vines.</p>
+
+  <p>The formal pattern (Plate <a href="#pe">E</a>, Fig. 20) of
+  octagons surrounded by latch-hooks is now and then found in
+  borders of Shiraz rugs, and indicates how great a concession
+  their weavers at times make to nomadic influences.</p>
+
+  <p>The main stripe of Sehnas is always narrow and contains some
+  floral form, though frequently much conventionalised. One of
+  these stripes is shown in Plate <a href="#pe">E</a>, Fig. 21.</p>
+
+  <p>Very few Persian rugs have such wealth of floral ornamentation
+  in the borders as the Sarouks and Kashans. A stripe typical of
+  the former is represented in Plate <a href="#pe">E</a>, Fig.
+  22.</p>
+
+  <p class="tb"><i>Secondary and Tertiary Stripes.</i>&mdash;The
+  ornamentation of a large proportion of secondary stripes of
+  Persian rugs consists of running vines, which fall within two
+  divisions, according to the absence or presence of pendants.</p>
+
+  <p>Plate <a href="#pf">F</a>, Fig. 1 (opp. Page 158), taken from
+  an inner stripe of a Kermanshah, shows one of the simplest vines
+  with budding tendrils at each flexure.</p>
+
+  <p>In Plate <a href="#pf">F</a>, Fig. 2, is a simple stripe seen
+  in such rugs as Gorevans. Similar stripes are very common. As
+  there is no pendant, the character of the vine depends upon the
+  form it assumes in alternating flexures, one of which in this
+  instance is an eight-petalled star.</p>
+
+  <p>In many of the Karadaghs is seen the Caucasian stripe (Plate
+  <a href="#pf">F</a>, Fig. 3) consisting of an angular vine, from
+  each flexure of which spring small designs like three-leaf
+  clover.</p>
+
+  <p class="center"><span class="smcap">Plate F. Secondary
+  Border-Stripes of Persian Rugs</span></p>
+
+  <div class="figcenter" style="width: 550px;">
+    <a name="pf" id="pf"></a><img src="images/platef.jpg" width="550" height="714" alt="" title="" />
+  </div>
+
+  <p class="center"><span class="smcap">Plate F. Secondary
+  Border-Stripes of Persian Rugs</span></p>
+
+  <p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_159" id=
+  "Page_159">159</a></span></p>
+
+  <p>Another type peculiar to some rugs of Northwestern Persia, as
+  the Bijars and even Sehnas, is shown in Plate <a href=
+  "#pf">F</a>, Fig. 4. Here one flexure is a serrated leaf, and the
+  other is a small rosette with short curving tendrils.</p>
+
+  <p>A simple vine of somewhat similar order appears in Plate
+  <a href="#pf">F</a>, Fig. 5. At each flexure is a flower of four
+  petals, and from alternating flexures spring tendrils of colour
+  different from that of the vine. Stripes of similar drawing
+  appeared in Persian carpets as early as 1350 <span class=
+  "smcap">a. d.</span> A further stage in the development of the
+  same pattern is illustrated in Plate <a href="#pf">F</a>, Fig.
+  6.</p>
+
+  <p>One of the simplest forms of a vine with pendant is shown in
+  <a href="#pf">Plate F</a>, Fig. 7. It appears in Asia Minor
+  carpets woven during the XIII Century, and also in some of the
+  earliest Iranian carpets. Now and then it is seen in modern
+  Persian rugs.</p>
+
+  <p>A very common form of a vine with pendant is shown in <a href=
+  "#pf">Plate F</a>, Fig. 8. This pattern is seen in a large number
+  of Persian rugs, such as Mosuls, Bijars, Kurdistans, and
+  Hamadans. Each flexure of the vine is enlarged to almost the form
+  of a leaf, and between them is a branching pendant.</p>
+
+  <p>In another stripe (Plate <a href="#pf">F</a>, Fig. 9), taken
+  from a Feraghan, there is no particular enlargement to the vine,
+  and the alternating pendants are buds and flowers of four
+  petals.</p>
+
+  <p>A more geometric form that appears in such rugs as Muskabads
+  is shown in Plate <a href="#pf">F</a>, Fig. 10. In this the vine
+  represents serrated leaves, and suggests one of the Shirvan
+  patterns.</p>
+
+  <p>A very similar stripe (Plate <a href="#pf">F</a>, Fig. 11),
+  taken from a Sehna, should be compared with those of Figs. 8 and
+  10, as it serves to illustrate the evolution of vine patterns. In
+  fact, if a very large number of stripes were arranged in proper
+  order, they would show almost imperceptible gradations from one
+  type to another.</p>
+
+  <p>One of the simplest vines with pendant, adopted by the Kurdish
+  tribes, is shown in Plate <a href="#pf">F</a>, Fig. 12; and in
+  Fig. 13 is another vine with pendent pear alternating with a
+  rosette.</p>
+
+  <p>Not all the patterns, however, are vines. In Plate <a href=
+  "#pf">F</a>, Figs. 14 and 15, for instance, is represented the
+  same secondary stripe as it appears at the sides and the ends of
+  some moderately old Persian rugs. The former pattern bears a
+  resemblance to the one in Fig. 5, and each illustrates a series
+  of connecting links.</p>
+
+  <p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_160" id=
+  "Page_160">160</a></span>A graceful pattern that is seen in
+  Bijars, Hamadans, and other rugs of Northwestern Persia is
+  represented in Plate <a href="#pf">F</a>, Fig. 16. It was
+  probably derived from an old form of leaf and tendril.</p>
+
+  <p>The reciprocal trefoil (Plate <a href="#pf">F</a>, Fig. 17)
+  which is constantly used in a tertiary stripe, is probably a
+  degenerate form of an ornate floral design. It is more widely
+  used for a border stripe than any other pattern, as it is found
+  not only in such Persian rugs as Sarabends, Bijars, Sarouks, and
+  Kashans, but in many of the Indian and Beluchistan rugs, and in
+  almost all of the Caucasian group. It was commonly used in
+  Persian rugs as early as the year 1500.</p>
+
+  <p>In many of the rugs of Persia and Asia Minor is seen as a
+  tertiary stripe the simple ribbon pattern (Plate <a href=
+  "#pf">F</a>, Fig. 18). Its origin is lost in the dim past, and it
+  is not improbable that once it had a symbolic meaning.</p>
+
+  <p>A very interesting tertiary stripe, because of its
+  well-authenticated age, contains the &ldquo;Y&rdquo; pattern
+  shown in Plate <a href="#pf">F</a>, Fig. 19. It is found in some
+  Persian carpets that were woven as early as 1550.</p>
+
+  <p>One of the simplest guard stripes, shown in Plate <a href=
+  "#pf">F</a>, Fig. 20, is frequently found in modern Persian rugs,
+  as well as in Iranian carpets woven six centuries ago.</p>
+
+  <div class="figcenter" style="width: 550px;">
+    <a name="pvi" id="pvi"></a><img src="images/plate_vi.jpg"
+    width="550" height="1322" alt="Colour Plate VI. Persian Garden Carpet" title="" />
+
+    <p class="center"><span class="smcap">Colour Plate VI. Persian
+    Garden Carpet</span></p>
+  </div>
+
+  <p class="center">This carpet and the one at the Naesby House,
+  Sweden, which it resembles in pattern but not in colouring, are,
+  so far as known, the only complete carpets of this type. The
+  Naesby carpet has been assigned to the middle of the XVIII.
+  Century; this is undoubtedly much older.</p>
+
+  <p class="center">A 16TH CENTURY PERSIAN ROYAL
+  &ldquo;GARDEN&rdquo; CARPET</p>
+
+  <p class="center2">(Reputed to have been made for Shah
+  &rsquo;Abb&#257;s for Sefavi Palace.) Date 1587-1628.</p>
+
+  <p class="center">31 ft. 0 in. x 12 ft. 3 in.</p>
+
+  <p class="center"><i>Statement of the owner</i></p>
+
+  <p class="center">ORIGINALLY IMPORTED BY VINCENT ROBINSON &amp;
+  CO., LTD., LONDON.</p>
+
+  <p class="center3">The pattern represents a Persian garden
+  divided into four sections by two intersecting streams, which are
+  bordered by rows of cypress trees, alternating with bushes on
+  which are birds. These sections are similarly divided by smaller
+  streams, that meet at the four pavilions of each side, into plots
+  containing trees and flowering bushes. Four peacocks rest above
+  the central basin. The colours are harmonious, and show the
+  mellowing influence of time.</p>
+
+  <p>&nbsp;<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_161" id=
+  "Page_161">161</a></span></p>
+
+  <h4>TECHNICALITIES IN THE WEAVE OF PERSIAN RUGS</h4>
+
+  <p>Legend:<br />
+  <br />
+  KNOT&mdash;<br />
+  <span style="margin-left: 1em;">H = Horizontally</span><br />
+  <span style="margin-left: 1em;">P = Perpendicularly</span><br />
+  WARP&mdash;<br />
+  <span style="margin-left: 1em;">g = goat&rsquo;s
+  hair</span><br />
+  <span style="margin-left: 1em;">l = linen</span><br />
+  <span style="margin-left: 1em;">e = each equally
+  prominent</span><br />
+  <span style="margin-left: 1em;">d = 1 to the knot
+  depressed</span><br />
+  <span style="margin-left: 1em;">h = 1 to the knot doubled
+  under</span><br />
+  WEFT&mdash;<br />
+  <span style="margin-left: 1em;">s = silk</span><br />
+  <span style="margin-left: 1em;">l = linen</span><br />
+  <span style="margin-left: 1em;">No. = No. times crossing bet. two
+  round knots</span><br />
+  SIDES&mdash;<br />
+  <span style="margin-left: 1em;">O = overcast</span><br />
+  <span style="margin-left: 1em;">S = selvage</span><br />
+  LOWER END<br />
+  <span style="margin-left: 1em;">W = web</span><br />
+  <span style="margin-left: 1em;">S = Selvage</span><br />
+  <span style="margin-left: 1em;">K = Rows knots</span><br />
+  <span style="margin-left: 1em;">L = warp loops</span><br />
+  <span style="margin-left: 1em;">F = fringe</span><br />
+  UPPER END<br />
+  <span style="margin-left: 1em;">W = web</span><br />
+  <span style="margin-left: 1em;">S = selvage</span><br />
+  <span style="margin-left: 1em;">K = Rows knots</span><br />
+  <span style="margin-left: 1em;">T = turned back and
+  hemmed</span><br />
+  <span style="margin-left: 1em;">F = fringe</span><br /></p>
+
+  <table width="100%" summary="TECHNICALITIES" border="1">
+    <tr>
+      <td class="center20" rowspan="3">PERSIAN</td>
+
+      <td class="center12" colspan="4">KNOT</td>
+
+      <td class="center8" colspan="6">WARP</td>
+    </tr>
+
+    <tr>
+      <td class="center12" rowspan="2">G =<br />
+      Ghiordes</td>
+
+      <td class="center8" rowspan="2">S =<br />
+      Sehna</td>
+
+      <td class="center8" colspan="2">Number to<br />
+      Inches</td>
+
+      <td class="center8" rowspan="2">w=<br />
+      wool</td>
+
+      <td class="center12" rowspan="2">c=<br />
+      cotton</td>
+
+      <td class="center6" rowspan="2">s/l</td>
+
+      <td class="center6" colspan="3">At back</td>
+    </tr>
+
+    <tr>
+      <td class="center8">H</td>
+
+      <td class="center8">P</td>
+
+      <td class="center6">e</td>
+
+      <td class="center6">d</td>
+
+      <td class="center6">h</td>
+    </tr>
+
+    <tr>
+      <td class="left20">Bijar<br />
+      Feraghan<br />
+      Gorevan<br />
+      Hamadan<br />
+      Herat<br />
+      Herez<br />
+      Iran<br />
+      Mod.&nbsp;Ispahan<br />
+      Joshaghan<br />
+      Kashan<br />
+      Karadagh<br />
+      Karaje<br />
+      Kermanshah<br />
+      Khorassan<br />
+      Kirman</td>
+
+      <td class="center12">G<br />
+      [G]<br />
+      G<br />
+      G<br />
+      G<br />
+      G<br />
+      G<br />
+      G<br />
+      G<br />
+      &nbsp;<br />
+      G<br />
+      G<br />
+      &nbsp;<br />
+      &nbsp;<br />
+      &nbsp;</td>
+
+      <td class="center8">&nbsp;<br />
+      S<br />
+      &nbsp;<br />
+      &nbsp;<br />
+      [S]<br />
+      &nbsp;<br />
+      &nbsp;<br />
+      &nbsp;<br />
+      &nbsp;<br />
+      S<br />
+      &nbsp;<br />
+      &nbsp;<br />
+      S<br />
+      S<br />
+      S</td>
+
+      <td class="center8">6-10<br />
+      8-13<br />
+      6-8<br />
+      6-9<br />
+      8-11<br />
+      5-10<br />
+      6-11<br />
+      6-9<br />
+      7-11<br />
+      16-20<br />
+      7-11<br />
+      6-11<br />
+      12-18<br />
+      8-13<br />
+      11-20</td>
+
+      <td class="center8">8-12<br />
+      7-18<br />
+      6-10<br />
+      8-12<br />
+      6-12<br />
+      6-12<br />
+      7-11<br />
+      8-11<br />
+      8-13<br />
+      16-24<br />
+      7-11<br />
+      7-12<br />
+      11-18<br />
+      12-20<br />
+      11-20</td>
+
+      <td class="center8">w&nbsp;<br />
+      &nbsp;<br />
+      &nbsp;<br />
+      [w]<br />
+      &nbsp;<br />
+      &nbsp;<br />
+      w<br />
+      [w]<br />
+      &nbsp;<br />
+      &nbsp;<br />
+      w<br />
+      w<br />
+      &nbsp;<br />
+      &nbsp;<br />
+      &nbsp;</td>
+
+      <td class="center12">&nbsp;<br />
+      c<br />
+      c<br />
+      c<br />
+      c<br />
+      c<br />
+      c<br />
+      c<br />
+      c<br />
+      c<br />
+      &nbsp;<br />
+      [c]<br />
+      c<br />
+      c<br />
+      c</td>
+
+      <td class="center6">&nbsp;<br />
+      &nbsp;<br />
+      &nbsp;<br />
+      &nbsp;<br />
+      &nbsp;<br />
+      &nbsp;<br />
+      &nbsp;<br />
+      &nbsp;<br />
+      &nbsp;<br />
+      [1]<br />
+      &nbsp;<br />
+      &nbsp;<br />
+      &nbsp;<br />
+      &nbsp;<br />
+      &nbsp;</td>
+
+      <td class="center6">e<br />
+      [e]<br />
+      e<br />
+      &nbsp;<br />
+      [e]<br />
+      e<br />
+      e<br />
+      e<br />
+      &nbsp;<br />
+      e<br />
+      e<br />
+      &nbsp;<br />
+      &nbsp;<br />
+      &nbsp;</td>
+
+      <td class="center6">&nbsp;<br />
+      &nbsp;<br />
+      d&nbsp;<br />
+      [d]<br />
+      d<br />
+      &nbsp;<br />
+      &nbsp;<br />
+      &nbsp;<br />
+      &nbsp;<br />
+      &nbsp;<br />
+      &nbsp;<br />
+      &nbsp;<br />
+      &nbsp;<br />
+      &nbsp;</td>
+
+      <td class="center6">h<br />
+      &nbsp;<br />
+      &nbsp;<br />
+      &nbsp;<br />
+      h<br />
+      &nbsp;<br />
+      &nbsp;<br />
+      &nbsp;<br />
+      &nbsp;<br />
+      h<br />
+      &nbsp;<br />
+      &nbsp;<br />
+      h<br />
+      h<br />
+      h</td>
+    </tr>
+  </table>
+
+  <p>&nbsp;</p>
+
+  <table width="100%" summary="TECHNICALITIES" border="1">
+    <tr>
+      <td class="center20" rowspan="2">PERSIAN</td>
+
+      <td class="center8" colspan="4">WEFT</td>
+
+      <td class="center6" colspan="2">SIDES</td>
+
+      <td class="center8" colspan="4">LOWER END</td>
+    </tr>
+
+    <tr>
+      <td class="center8">w =<br />
+      wool</td>
+
+      <td class="center12">c =<br />
+      cotton</td>
+
+      <td class="center8">s/l</td>
+
+      <td class="center8">P</td>
+
+      <td class="center6">O</td>
+
+      <td class="center6">S</td>
+
+      <td class="center6">W/S</td>
+
+      <td class="center6">K</td>
+
+      <td class="center6">L</td>
+
+      <td class="center6">F</td>
+    </tr>
+
+    <tr>
+      <td class="left20">Bijar<br />
+      Feraghan<br />
+      Gorevan<br />
+      Hamadan<br />
+      Herat<br />
+      Herez<br />
+      Iran<br />
+      Mod.&nbsp;Ispahan<br />
+      Joshaghan<br />
+      Kashan<br />
+      Karadagh<br />
+      Karaje<br />
+      Kermanshah<br />
+      Khorassan<br />
+      Kirman</td>
+
+      <td class="center8">w<br />
+      &nbsp;<br />
+      &nbsp;<br />
+      [w]<br />
+      w<br />
+      [w]<br />
+      &nbsp;<br />
+      w<br />
+      w<br />
+      &nbsp;w<br />
+      w<br />
+      &nbsp;<br />
+      [w]<br />
+      W</td>
+
+      <td class="center12">&nbsp;<br />
+      c<br />
+      c<br />
+      c<br />
+      [c]<br />
+      c<br />
+      c<br />
+      c<br />
+      &nbsp;<br />
+      c<br />
+      &nbsp;<br />
+      [c]<br />
+      c<br />
+      c<br />
+      [c]</td>
+
+      <td class="center8">&nbsp;<br />
+      &nbsp;<br />
+      &nbsp;<br />
+      &nbsp;<br />
+      &nbsp;<br />
+      &nbsp;<br />
+      &nbsp;<br />
+      [1]<br />
+      &nbsp;<br />
+      &nbsp;<br />
+      &nbsp;<br />
+      &nbsp;<br />
+      &nbsp;<br />
+      &nbsp;</td>
+
+      <td class="center8">2<br />
+      2<br />
+      1-2<br />
+      1<br />
+      2/[3-4]<br />
+      2<br />
+      2/[1]<br />
+      1-2<br />
+      2<br />
+      2<br />
+      2<br />
+      1<br />
+      2<br />
+      2/[6-8]<br />
+      2</td>
+
+      <td class="center6">O<br />
+      O&nbsp;<br />
+      O<br />
+      O<br />
+      &nbsp;<br />
+      &nbsp;<br />
+      O<br />
+      O<br />
+      O<br />
+      O<br />
+      &nbsp;<br />
+      O<br />
+      O<br />
+      O<br />
+      &nbsp;O</td>
+
+      <td class="center6">&nbsp;<br />
+      &nbsp;<br />
+      S<br />
+      &nbsp;<br />
+      &nbsp;<br />
+      S<br />
+      &nbsp;<br />
+      &nbsp;<br />
+      &nbsp;<br />
+      &nbsp;<br />
+      S<br />
+      &nbsp;<br />
+      &nbsp;<br />
+      &nbsp;<br />
+      &nbsp;</td>
+
+      <td class="center8">W/[S]<br />
+      W<br />
+      &nbsp;<br />
+      W<br />
+      W<br />
+      W<br />
+      W<br />
+      W<br />
+      W<br />
+      W<br />
+      W<br />
+      W<br />
+      W<br />
+      W<br />
+      W</td>
+
+      <td class="center6">&nbsp;<br />
+      &nbsp;<br />
+      &nbsp;<br />
+      &nbsp;<br />
+      &nbsp;<br />
+      &nbsp;<br />
+      &nbsp;<br />
+      &nbsp;<br />
+      &nbsp;<br />
+      &nbsp;<br />
+      &nbsp;<br />
+      &nbsp;<br />
+      &nbsp;<br />
+      ;&nbsp;<br />
+      &nbsp;</td>
+
+      <td class="center6">&nbsp;<br />
+      &nbsp;<br />
+      &nbsp;<br />
+      L<br />
+      L<br />
+      &nbsp;<br />
+      &nbsp;<br />
+      &nbsp;<br />
+      &nbsp;<br />
+      &nbsp;<br />
+      &nbsp;<br />
+      L<br />
+      [L]<br />
+      &nbsp;<br />
+      &nbsp;</td>
+
+      <td class="center6">&nbsp;<br />
+      &nbsp;<br />
+      F<br />
+      &nbsp;<br />
+      &nbsp;<br />
+      &nbsp;<br />
+      F<br />
+      &nbsp;<br />
+      &nbsp;<br />
+      F<br />
+      &nbsp;<br />
+      F<br />
+      F<br />
+      &nbsp;<br />
+      F</td>
+    </tr>
+  </table>
+
+  <p>&nbsp;</p>
+
+  <table width="100%" summary="TECHNICALITIES" border="1">
+    <tr>
+      <td class="center20" rowspan="2">PERSIAN</td>
+
+      <td class="center8" colspan="4">UPPER END</td>
+
+      <td class="center18">NAP</td>
+
+      <td class="center18">WEAVE</td>
+
+      <td class="center18">TEXTURE</td>
+    </tr>
+
+    <tr>
+      <td class="center8">W/S</td>
+
+      <td class="center6">K</td>
+
+      <td class="center6">T</td>
+
+      <td class="center6">F</td>
+
+      <td class="left18">l = long<br />
+      m = medium<br />
+      s = short</td>
+
+      <td class="left18">f = fine<br />
+      m = medium<br />
+      c = coarse</td>
+
+      <td class="left18">l = loose<br />
+      m = medium<br />
+      f = firm</td>
+    </tr>
+
+    <tr>
+      <td class="left20">Bijar<br />
+      Feraghan<br />
+      Gorevan<br />
+      Hamadan<br />
+      Herat<br />
+      Herez<br />
+      Iran<br />
+      Mod.&nbsp;Ispahan<br />
+      Joshaghan<br />
+      Kashan<br />
+      Karadagh<br />
+      Karaje<br />
+      Kermanshah<br />
+      Khorassan<br />
+      Kirman</td>
+
+      <td class="center8">W/[S]<br />
+      W<br />
+      &nbsp;<br />
+      W<br />
+      W<br />
+      &nbsp;<br />
+      W<br />
+      W<br />
+      W<br />
+      W<br />
+      W<br />
+      W<br />
+      W<br />
+      W<br />
+      W</td>
+
+      <td class="center6">W&nbsp;<br />
+      W&nbsp;<br />
+      W&nbsp;<br />
+      W&nbsp;<br />
+      W&nbsp;<br />
+      W&nbsp;<br />
+      W&nbsp;<br />
+      K</td>
+
+      <td class="center6">&nbsp;<br />
+      &nbsp;<br />
+      &nbsp;<br />
+      T&nbsp;<br />
+      &nbsp;<br />
+      &nbsp;<br />
+      T</td>
+
+      <td class="center6">F<br />
+      F<br />
+      F<br />
+      &nbsp;<br />
+      F<br />
+      F<br />
+      F<br />
+      F<br />
+      F<br />
+      F<br />
+      F<br />
+      F<br />
+      F<br />
+      F<br />
+      F</td>
+
+      <td class="center18">m<br />
+      s<br />
+      m<br />
+      m/s<br />
+      m<br />
+      m<br />
+      m<br />
+      m/s<br />
+      m<br />
+      s<br />
+      m<br />
+      m/l<br />
+      m<br />
+      m<br />
+      s</td>
+
+      <td class="center18">m<br />
+      m<br />
+      c<br />
+      m<br />
+      c<br />
+      c<br />
+      c<br />
+      m<br />
+      f<br />
+      f<br />
+      m/c<br />
+      c<br />
+      c<br />
+      m/f<br />
+      f</td>
+
+      <td class="center18">f<br />
+      m<br />
+      l<br />
+      f<br />
+      f<br />
+      l<br />
+      l<br />
+      f<br />
+      m<br />
+      f<br />
+      m/f<br />
+      l<br />
+      f<br />
+      m/f<br />
+      f</td>
+    </tr>
+  </table>
+  <hr />
+
+  <p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_162" id=
+  "Page_162">162</a></span></p>
+
+  <table width="100%" summary="TECHNICALITIES" border="1">
+    <tr>
+      <td class="center20" rowspan="3">PERSIAN</td>
+
+      <td class="center12" colspan="4">KNOT</td>
+
+      <td class="center8" colspan="6">WARP</td>
+    </tr>
+
+    <tr>
+      <td class="center12" rowspan="2">G =<br />
+      Ghiordes</td>
+
+      <td class="center8" rowspan="2">S =<br />
+      Sehna</td>
+
+      <td class="center8" colspan="2">Number to<br />
+      Inches</td>
+
+      <td class="center8" rowspan="2">w=<br />
+      wool</td>
+
+      <td class="center12" rowspan="2">c=<br />
+      cotton</td>
+
+      <td class="center6" rowspan="2">s/l</td>
+
+      <td class="center6" colspan="3">At back</td>
+    </tr>
+
+    <tr>
+      <td class="center8">H</td>
+
+      <td class="center8">P</td>
+
+      <td class="center6">e</td>
+
+      <td class="center6">d</td>
+
+      <td class="center6">h</td>
+    </tr>
+
+    <tr>
+      <td class="left20">Persian&nbsp;Kurdistan<br />
+      Western&nbsp;Kurdistan<br />
+      Mahal<br />
+      Meshed<br />
+      Mosul<br />
+      Muskabad<br />
+      Niris<br />
+      Sarabend<br />
+      Sarouk<br />
+      Sehna<br />
+      Serapi<br />
+      Shiraz<br />
+      Suj-Bulak<br />
+      Tabriz</td>
+
+      <td class="center12">G<br />
+      G<br />
+      G<br />
+      [G]<br />
+      G<br />
+      G<br />
+      G<br />
+      &nbsp;<br />
+      &nbsp;<br />
+      G<br />
+      [G]<br />
+      [G]<br />
+      G<br />
+      G</td>
+
+      <td class="center8">&nbsp;<br />
+      &nbsp;<br />
+      S<br />
+      S<br />
+      &nbsp;<br />
+      S<br />
+      &nbsp;<br />
+      S<br />
+      S<br />
+      S<br />
+      S<br />
+      S<br />
+      &nbsp;<br />
+      &nbsp;</td>
+
+      <td class="center8">5-9<br />
+      4-17<br />
+      7-12<br />
+      8-15<br />
+      5-7<br />
+      6-11<br />
+      6-11<br />
+      8-13<br />
+      12-20<br />
+      12-24<br />
+      7-12<br />
+      8-12<br />
+      6-12<br />
+      10-22</td>
+
+      <td class="center8">6-13<br />
+      6-9<br />
+      6-12<br />
+      12-17<br />
+      7-9<br />
+      6-11<br />
+      7-15<br />
+      9-13<br />
+      12-20<br />
+      12-24<br />
+      7-12<br />
+      8-12<br />
+      6-12<br />
+      10-22</td>
+
+      <td class="center8">w<br />
+      w<br />
+      &nbsp;<br />
+      [w]<br />
+      w<br />
+      &nbsp;<br />
+      w&nbsp;<br />
+      &nbsp;<br />
+      &nbsp;<br />
+      &nbsp;<br />
+      w<br />
+      w<br />
+      &nbsp;</td>
+
+      <td class="center12">&nbsp;<br />
+      &nbsp;<br />
+      c<br />
+      c<br />
+      [c]<br />
+      c<br />
+      &nbsp;<br />
+      c<br />
+      c<br />
+      c<br />
+      c<br />
+      &nbsp;<br />
+      &nbsp;<br />
+      c</td>
+
+      <td class="center6">&nbsp;<br />
+      &nbsp;<br />
+      &nbsp;<br />
+      &nbsp;<br />
+      &nbsp;<br />
+      &nbsp;<br />
+      &nbsp;<br />
+      &nbsp;<br />
+      [l]<br />
+      [l]<br />
+      &nbsp;<br />
+      [g]<br />
+      &nbsp;<br />
+      [l]</td>
+
+      <td class="center6">e<br />
+      e<br />
+      e<br />
+      &nbsp;<br />
+      e<br />
+      &nbsp;<br />
+      &nbsp;<br />
+      e<br />
+      &nbsp;<br />
+      e<br />
+      &nbsp;<br />
+      e<br />
+      e<br />
+      &nbsp;</td>
+
+      <td class="center6">d<br />
+      &nbsp;<br />
+      d<br />
+      &nbsp;<br />
+      &nbsp;<br />
+      d<br />
+      d<br />
+      &nbsp;<br />
+      [d]<br />
+      &nbsp;<br />
+      d<br />
+      [d]<br />
+      [d]<br />
+      &nbsp;</td>
+
+      <td class="center6">&nbsp;<br />
+      &nbsp;<br />
+      &nbsp;<br />
+      h<br />
+      &nbsp;<br />
+      [h]<br />
+      [h]<br />
+      h<br />
+      h<br />
+      &nbsp;<br />
+      [h]<br />
+      &nbsp;<br />
+      &nbsp;<br />
+      h</td>
+    </tr>
+  </table>
+
+  <p>&nbsp;</p>
+
+  <table width="100%" summary="TECHNICALITIES" border="1">
+    <tr>
+      <td class="center20" rowspan="2">PERSIAN</td>
+
+      <td class="center8" colspan="4">WEFT</td>
+
+      <td class="center6" colspan="2">SIDES</td>
+
+      <td class="center8" colspan="4">LOWER END</td>
+    </tr>
+
+    <tr>
+      <td class="center8">w =<br />
+      wool</td>
+
+      <td class="center12">c =<br />
+      cotton</td>
+
+      <td class="center8">s/l</td>
+
+      <td class="center8">P</td>
+
+      <td class="center6">O</td>
+
+      <td class="center6">S</td>
+
+      <td class="center6">W/S</td>
+
+      <td class="center6">K</td>
+
+      <td class="center6">L</td>
+
+      <td class="center6">F</td>
+    </tr>
+
+    <tr>
+      <td class="left20">Persian&nbsp;Kurdistan<br />
+      Western&nbsp;Kurdistan<br />
+      Mahal<br />
+      Meshed<br />
+      Mosul<br />
+      Muskabad<br />
+      Niris<br />
+      Sarabend<br />
+      Sarouk<br />
+      Sehna<br />
+      Serapi<br />
+      Shiraz<br />
+      Suj-Bulak<br />
+      Tabriz</td>
+
+      <td class="center8">w<br />
+      &nbsp;<br />
+      &nbsp;<br />
+      [w]<br />
+      w<br />
+      [w]<br />
+      &nbsp;<br />
+      w<br />
+      w<br />
+      &nbsp;w<br />
+      w<br />
+      &nbsp;<br />
+      [w]<br />
+      W</td>
+
+      <td class="center12">&nbsp;<br />
+      &nbsp;<br />
+      c<br />
+      c<br />
+      [c]<br />
+      c<br />
+      &nbsp;<br />
+      c<br />
+      c<br />
+      c<br />
+      c<br />
+      &nbsp;<br />
+      &nbsp;<br />
+      c</td>
+
+      <td class="center8">&nbsp;<br />
+      &nbsp;<br />
+      &nbsp;<br />
+      &nbsp;<br />
+      &nbsp;<br />
+      &nbsp;<br />
+      &nbsp;<br />
+      &nbsp;<br />
+      &nbsp;<br />
+      &nbsp;[1]</td>
+
+      <td class="center8">2<br />
+      2<br />
+      2<br />
+      2<br />
+      2/[1]<br />
+      2<br />
+      2<br />
+      2<br />
+      2<br />
+      1<br />
+      2<br />
+      2<br />
+      2<br />
+      2</td>
+
+      <td class="center6">O<br />
+      O<br />
+      O<br />
+      O<br />
+      O<br />
+      O<br />
+      O<br />
+      O<br />
+      O<br />
+      O<br />
+      &nbsp;<br />
+      O<br />
+      &nbsp;<br />
+      &nbsp;</td>
+
+      <td class="center6">&nbsp;<br />
+      S<br />
+      &nbsp;<br />
+      &nbsp;<br />
+      S<br />
+      &nbsp;<br />
+      &nbsp;<br />
+      &nbsp;<br />
+      &nbsp;<br />
+      S<br />
+      &nbsp;<br />
+      &nbsp;<br />
+      &nbsp;<br />
+      &nbsp;</td>
+
+      <td class="center8">W<br />
+      W<br />
+      W<br />
+      W<br />
+      W<br />
+      W<br />
+      W<br />
+      [W]<br />
+      W<br />
+      [W]<br />
+      W<br />
+      W<br />
+      W<br />
+      W</td>
+
+      <td class="center6">&nbsp;<br />
+      [K]<br />
+      &nbsp;<br />
+      &nbsp;<br />
+      &nbsp;<br />
+      &nbsp;<br />
+      [K]<br />
+      &nbsp;<br />
+      &nbsp;<br />
+      &nbsp;<br />
+      &nbsp;<br />
+      &nbsp;<br />
+      &nbsp;<br />
+      &nbsp;</td>
+
+      <td class="center6">L<br />
+      [L]<br />
+      &nbsp;<br />
+      &nbsp;<br />
+      &nbsp;<br />
+      &nbsp;<br />
+      &nbsp;<br />
+      &nbsp;<br />
+      &nbsp;<br />
+      &nbsp;<br />
+      L<br />
+      L<br />
+      &nbsp;<br />
+      &nbsp;</td>
+
+      <td class="center6">&nbsp;<br />
+      &nbsp;<br />
+      F<br />
+      F<br />
+      &nbsp;<br />
+      F<br />
+      F<br />
+      F<br />
+      F<br />
+      F<br />
+      [F]<br />
+      &nbsp;<br />
+      F<br />
+      F</td>
+    </tr>
+  </table>
+
+  <p>&nbsp;</p>
+
+  <table width="100%" summary="TECHNICALITIES" border="1">
+    <tr>
+      <td class="center20" rowspan="2">PERSIAN</td>
+
+      <td class="center8" colspan="4">UPPER END</td>
+
+      <td class="center18">NAP</td>
+
+      <td class="center18">WEAVE</td>
+
+      <td class="center18">TEXTURE</td>
+    </tr>
+
+    <tr>
+      <td class="center8">W/S</td>
+
+      <td class="center6">K</td>
+
+      <td class="center6">T</td>
+
+      <td class="center6">F</td>
+
+      <td class="left18">l = long<br />
+      m = medium<br />
+      s = short</td>
+
+      <td class="left18">f = fine<br />
+      m = medium<br />
+      c = coarse</td>
+
+      <td class="left18">l = loose<br />
+      m = medium<br />
+      f = firm</td>
+    </tr>
+
+    <tr>
+      <td class="left20">Persian&nbsp;Kurdistan<br />
+      Western&nbsp;Kurdistan<br />
+      Mahal<br />
+      Meshed<br />
+      Mosul<br />
+      Muskabad<br />
+      Niris<br />
+      Sarabend<br />
+      Sarouk<br />
+      Sehna<br />
+      Serapi<br />
+      Shiraz<br />
+      Suj-Bulak<br />
+      Tabriz</td>
+
+      <td class="center8">W<br />
+      W<br />
+      [W]<br />
+      W/[S]<br />
+      [W]<br />
+      W<br />
+      W<br />
+      W<br />
+      W<br />
+      W<br />
+      W<br />
+      W<br />
+      W</td>
+
+      <td class="center6">&nbsp;<br />
+      [K]<br />
+      &nbsp;<br />
+      &nbsp;<br />
+      &nbsp;<br />
+      &nbsp;<br />
+      K<br />
+      &nbsp;<br />
+      &nbsp;<br />
+      &nbsp;<br />
+      &nbsp;<br />
+      &nbsp;<br />
+      &nbsp;<br />
+      &nbsp;</td>
+
+      <td class="center6">&nbsp;<br />
+      T<br />
+      &nbsp;<br />
+      &nbsp;<br />
+      [T]<br />
+      &nbsp;<br />
+      &nbsp;<br />
+      &nbsp;<br />
+      &nbsp;<br />
+      &nbsp;<br />
+      &nbsp;<br />
+      &nbsp;<br />
+      [T]<br />
+      &nbsp;</td>
+
+      <td class="center6">F<br />
+      F<br />
+      F<br />
+      F<br />
+      F<br />
+      F<br />
+      F<br />
+      F<br />
+      F<br />
+      F<br />
+      F<br />
+      F<br />
+      F<br />
+      F</td>
+
+      <td class="center18">l<br />
+      l<br />
+      m<br />
+      m<br />
+      m<br />
+      m<br />
+      m<br />
+      m/s<br />
+      s<br />
+      s<br />
+      m<br />
+      m<br />
+      m<br />
+      s</td>
+
+      <td class="center18">c<br />
+      c<br />
+      c<br />
+      m<br />
+      c<br />
+      c<br />
+      m<br />
+      m/f<br />
+      f<br />
+      m<br />
+      c<br />
+      m<br />
+      m/c<br />
+      f</td>
+
+      <td class="center18">f<br />
+      f<br />
+      m/f<br />
+      m/f<br />
+      m/f<br />
+      m/f<br />
+      l<br />
+      f<br />
+      f<br />
+      m<br />
+      f<br />
+      l<br />
+      m/l<br />
+      f</td>
+    </tr>
+  </table>
+
+  <p>[] indicates the less frequent condition.</p>
+  <hr />
+
+  <p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_163" id=
+  "Page_163">163</a></span></p>
+
+  <h3>CHAPTER X</h3>
+
+  <h4>ASIA MINOR RUGS</h4>
+
+  <p><span class="floatLeft"><img src="images/a.jpg" width="110" height="110" alt="A"
+  title="A" /></span>LL rugs that are woven in the Turkish
+  provinces of Asia are frequently grouped together and called
+  &ldquo;Turkish&rdquo; rugs; but a more natural classification is
+  to distinguish between those made to the east and those made to
+  the west of a line drawn from the Gulf of Iskenderoon to
+  Trebizond, deflecting slightly in its course so as to follow the
+  ridges that divide the watershed of the western forks of the
+  Euphrates river from the plateau of Anatolia. With the exception
+  of the very few pieces that come from Syria or other southerly
+  districts, those woven in the Turkish provinces east of this line
+  show such a relationship to those of Persia that they are more
+  properly classed with them; while on the other hand, with the
+  exception of the rugs of the wandering Yuruks, those woven to the
+  west of this line and in the neighbouring islands of the
+  Mediterranean conform so closely to a common type that they fall
+  naturally into a separate group. It is better, therefore, to
+  treat them separately and to call them the Asia Minor Rugs.</p>
+
+  <p>Though a certain glamour attaches to all that comes from
+  Persia, the Indes, or Far Cathay, in no part of the Orient are
+  rugs woven on more classic ground than are the Asia Minor pieces.
+  They are still made in the shadow of the walls where Cro[es]us
+  lived and among villages where Homer trod. Their yarn is spun
+  with crude distaff by the shepherd who still drives his flock
+  along the same road where Artaxerxes marched, across the bridges
+  that Roman legions built, and over the green slopes of Mt. Ida.
+  In fact the names of some of them call to mind pictures of the
+  Crusades, the journey of Paul, the march of Alexander&rsquo;s
+  conquering army, and of cities founded before the beginning of
+  history.</p>
+
+  <p>When analysing the rugs of Asia Minor, it is necessary to make
+  a distinction that has been previously noticed in the case of
+  Persian<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_164" id=
+  "Page_164">164</a></span> rugs, though with them it is less
+  important. From the time when there arose a large demand in the
+  markets of Europe and America for the rugs of the East the
+  natural supply decreased, and, as a consequence, the price of
+  those that remained increased. To meet this deficiency, and
+  because of the higher prices, there was established a system by
+  which large numbers of women and children were constantly
+  employed; although many worked in their own homes, using such
+  material as was furnished by their employers and receiving fixed
+  daily wages. In the western and southern parts of Asia Minor,
+  which are connected by railroads with seaports, are a number of
+  communities where this system is in vogue. One of these is at
+  Demirdji in the province of Smyrna, where there are a small
+  number of looms; others are in the districts of Ghiordes and
+  Kulah, which together have about one thousand looms; and Oushak,
+  the principal rug-weaving centre of Asia Minor, has as many
+  more.<a name="FNanchor_28" id="FNanchor_28"></a><a href=
+  "#Footnote_28" class="fnanchor">28</a> Almost all rugs produced
+  at such places are now shipped to Smyrna, which itself has but
+  very few looms, or to Constantinople, whence they are reshipped
+  to Western markets. These products lack much of the oldtime
+  artistic spirit and individuality of character, on account of the
+  dependence of the weavers on their employers, who demand the
+  largest output consistent with fair quality. Furthermore, the
+  weavers are frequently required to reproduce Western patterns.
+  The result is that most of these rugs possess little of the
+  firmness of texture, the harmonious relations of designs, and the
+  excellent colour of old fabrics. Since, then, they represent in a
+  measure European influences, and are subject to further changes
+  to meet the demands of a fluctuating foreign taste, it would be
+  of little use to describe them, especially as all their original
+  characteristics exist in the old pieces.</p>
+
+  <p>The striking features of Asia Minor rugs woven over fifty
+  years ago are the colour schemes, main patterns, and the separate
+  designs, which may be either independent of the pattern or
+  constitute part of it. The colour effect of Asia Minor rugs is as
+  a rule brighter than that of the Central Asian, Indian, or
+  Persian groups; for the reds, blues, and yellows are less
+  subdued. Some of their tones never appear in Chinese rugs, and on
+  the whole they most closely resemble those of the Caucasian
+  pieces; yet it is not unusual to see such colours as mauve,
+  lavender, and canary yellow, that rarely appear even among these.
+  Moreover, in a few of them masses of strongly
+  contrasting<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_165" id=
+  "Page_165">165</a></span> colours are placed beside one another
+  without the customary shading of Persian rugs or the artificial
+  device of Caucasian latch-hooks to soften the effect of harsh
+  combinations.</p>
+
+  <div class="figcenter" style="width: 550px;">
+    <a name="m2" id="m2"></a><a href="images/map2z.jpg"><img src="images/map2.jpg" width="550" height="350" alt="MAP OF ASIA MINOR" title="" /></a>
+
+    <p class="center">MAP OF ASIA MINOR</p>
+  </div>
+
+  <p>The difference, nevertheless, between the Asia Minor rugs and
+  those of other groups is less apparent in the colour schemes than
+  in the main patterns, for in the Asia Minor rugs is evidence of
+  an independent inspiration and development. There are lacking the
+  rigid octagonal figures of the Central Asian groups; the frets
+  and floral sprays distinctive of Chinese; the naturalistic floral
+  treatment of the Indian; the delicate tracings, rhythm of
+  movement, and wealth of foliage motives that characterise the
+  Persian; as well as the severely geometric forms and
+  conventionalised motives of the Caucasian. Instead of gracefully
+  flowing lines we find strong rectangular ones; instead of flowers
+  realistically balanced on interlacing, foliate stalks, they are
+  arranged separately in formal rows. But if their patterns lack
+  the fertility of invention or the refinement of Persian and
+  Indian pieces, they excel them in the strength of their clear
+  definition, accentuated by massing of colour. It is, however, in
+  the prayer patterns, which appear in the majority of Asia Minor
+  rugs, that the weavers attain their best results; for in such
+  work they have the inspiration of a high religious as well as
+  artistic spirit. In these patterns, which differ from those of
+  any other group of rugs, is often manifest singular beauty and
+  grace, as well as delicate sentiment derived from worship in
+  Moslem chapels; for in many is represented the burning lamp that,
+  projected against a background of sacred green, hangs from the
+  column-supported arch, above which is spread a spandrel of blue
+  typifying the vaulted heavens.</p>
+
+  <p>Likewise many of the small designs that are found in other
+  groups of rugs are rarely, if ever, seen in this one; as, for
+  instance, animals, birds, fishes, and human beings are never
+  employed, on account of the religious prejudice of the Sunnite
+  Mohammedans, who prevail in the country. Nor, with very few
+  exceptions, is the Herati design, so characteristic of Persian
+  rugs, nor the pear design, so characteristic of both Persian and
+  Indian rugs, ever seen. Furthermore, the reciprocal trefoil, that
+  is used as a motive for a small border stripe in all Caucasian
+  and many Persian rugs, is very rarely found in Asia. Minor pieces
+  woven during the last two centuries, though it appears in some of
+  an earlier era. But in its place are the water motive and ribbon,
+  which are less frequently employed by the weavers of
+  any<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_166" id=
+  "Page_166">166</a></span> other country. There are also many
+  small floral motives that appear only in Asia Minor rugs, and
+  that will be noticed in connection with the separate classes.</p>
+
+  <p>These characteristics of colour, pattern, and design are not
+  the result of a spontaneous growth unalloyed by foreign
+  influences; for a natural art never existed in Asia Minor, which
+  has never enjoyed a national existence; but they are the results
+  of artistic movements that at different times have swept over
+  that country. Thus, as an heirloom of dynasties that once
+  flourished farther east, are the Cufic characters that appear in
+  some of the early border patterns; and as a relic of the Mongol
+  and Timurid invasions are the dragon and other designs found in
+  the oldest pieces. In Oushaks, as well as others, are seen the
+  evidences of Persian treatment; while the drawing and colour
+  schemes of the prayer rugs forcibly suggest Saracenic, Grecian,
+  and Christian ideas. In fact, the rugs of Asia Minor, while
+  possessing co-ordination of colour and design, are in a measure
+  composite. They never reach the high artistic development of
+  Persian rugs, because the latter were produced under the
+  fostering care of great kings whose royal magnificence could
+  secure from years of patient labour suitable furnishings for
+  palaces and mosques; yet they are none the less interesting
+  subjects for speculation and study.</p>
+
+  <p class="tb"><span class="smcap">Bergamos</span>.&mdash;In the
+  valley of the Ca&iuml;cus and twenty miles from the &AElig;gean
+  Sea is the city of Pergamus, that gives its name to the Bergamo
+  rugs. It is of unknown antiquity, and may have stood when
+  Agamemnon was warring with the house of Priam before the walls of
+  that other city of the same name. In turn, Persians, Macedonians,
+  Thracians, Syrians, and Romans had taken possession of it before
+  the Apostle Paul founded there one of the seven churches of Asia.
+  Greek sculptors chiselled its monuments, philosophers taught
+  beneath the shade of its trees, and scholars gathered there the
+  library that rivalled that of Alexandria. Partly encircled by
+  mountains and enclosed by the wall of this old city, that was
+  wellnigh destroyed during the Turkish wars, is the modern city of
+  some fifteen thousand inhabitants. It is to-day one of the
+  flourishing cities of the Levant, yet only in the surrounding
+  ruins is there any reminder of its former greatness and
+  splendour. But in these crumbling relics of the past and in the
+  excellence of its woven fabrics of more recent times are traces
+  of the artistic spirit that once prevailed there.</p>
+
+  <div class="figcenter" style="width: 550px;">
+    <a name="p37" id="p37"></a><img src="images/plate37.jpg"
+    width="550" height="739" alt="Plate 37. Anatolian Prayer Rug"
+    title="" />
+
+    <p class="center"><span class="smcap">Plate 37. Anatolian
+    Prayer Rug</span></p>
+  </div>
+
+  <p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_167" id=
+  "Page_167">167</a></span></p>
+
+  <p>It is still possible to obtain many good specimens of Bergamos
+  representing the craftsmanship of fifty or more years ago, when
+  aniline dyes and European patterns were unknown east of the
+  Hellespont. Almost without exception they are sterling fabrics
+  that glory in a wealth of colour accentuated by depth of pile and
+  sheen of soft lustrous wool. An observer is at once impressed by
+  the tones of deep blue and madder red that a few lines or patches
+  of ivory white bring out more clearly, and forms a favourable
+  estimate of the value of these pieces independently of the
+  drawing, which seems subservient to the part of giving spirit and
+  quality to the colour scheme. In fact, it is to the genius of the
+  dyer who applies his knowledge to the tinting of carefully
+  selected wool, and to the pains of the weaver in constructing the
+  foundation of warp and weft rather than to his skill in arranging
+  artistic designs, that these pieces command as high a price as
+  old Kirmans of similar age.</p>
+
+  <p>In two particulars Bergamos differ from most Asia Minor rugs:
+  in shape they are nearly square, and prayer rugs are the
+  exception rather than the rule. Nor do all the prayer rugs follow
+  the same general pattern, as is usually the case with other
+  classes. They may have low tent-shaped arches like those of
+  Daghestans, high triangular arches with stepped sides and a panel
+  above the spandrels as in the Kir-Shehrs, or they may have shapes
+  unlike those of any other class. Moreover, the pieces not used as
+  prayer rugs also have great diversity of pattern; but as a rule
+  some large figure, as a medallion, occupies the centre of the
+  field. Very frequently it is of hexagonal shape, with the sides
+  at upper and lower ends of the rug serrated or fringed with
+  latch-hooks. As is not the case with many of the Persian rugs,
+  the field surrounding the medallion is almost always covered with
+  small designs, arranged with careful precision so as to show a
+  perfect balance with reference to the centre. Eight-pointed stars
+  and other geometric figures are frequently used, but there is a
+  leaning to floral designs, which, however, are often so
+  conventionalised as almost to lose their identity. Most prominent
+  of these is the Rhodian lily and the pomegranate; but the lily
+  never shows such graceful drawing or such dainty colouring as in
+  the Kulahs, and in some pieces even loses all resemblance to a
+  floral form. The pomegranate, which suggests the Ladik, is more
+  frequently seen in the main border stripe. Undulating vines do
+  not find favour among the Bergamo weavers, and small isolated
+  geometric designs are largely employed in the narrow border
+  stripes, while<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_168" id=
+  "Page_168">168</a></span> larger, more complex figures often
+  replace the floral in the main stripe.</p>
+
+  <p>In no other class of rugs are so many and such painstaking
+  devices to avert the spell of the evil eye. Should an unexpected
+  visitor surprise the weaver while at work, he may be required to
+  part with a bit of his frock, which is then attached to the wide
+  web of the end; should a similar occurrence of ill omen follow,
+  another bit of different material and colour may be sewn upon
+  this; and as a crowning talisman, a button may be affixed to
+  both. Small cowrie shells from the &AElig;gean shores are often
+  used for such purposes; and now and then may be seen a woollen
+  tassel dangling from the centre or from one of the ends of the
+  rug.</p>
+
+  <p><i>Type Characteristics.</i> <i>Colours</i>, principally red
+  and blue, with minor quantities of yellow, white, and green.
+  <i>Knot</i>, Ghiordes. Knots to inch horizontally five and one
+  half to nine; perpendicularly, seven to eleven. The rows of knots
+  are pressed down, so that the warp is concealed at back.
+  <i>Warp</i>, wool; each of the two threads encircled by a knot is
+  equally prominent at back. <i>Weft</i>, wool of fine diameter,
+  dyed red. A thread of weft crosses from two to six times between
+  every two rows of knots. <i>Pile</i>, wool; generally of medium
+  length but frequently long. <i>Border</i>, from one to four
+  stripes; most frequently of three. <i>Sides</i>, a weft selvage
+  of two, three, or four cords, coloured red or blue, with
+  occasionally some green or yellow. <i>Both ends</i>, a web, that
+  is sometimes six or seven inches wide, coloured red and crossed
+  by broad longitudinal stripes, which are generally blue, but may
+  be black, white, brown, or yellow. Some device to avert the evil
+  eye is frequently attached to the webs. Beyond the web is a
+  tasselled warp fringe. <i>Texture</i>, moderately firm.
+  <i>Weave</i> at back is of fine grain. <i>Usual length</i>, three
+  to seven feet. <i>Usual width</i>, three quarters to nine tenths
+  length.</p>
+
+  <p class="tb"><span class="smcap">Ghiordes</span>.&mdash;Whether,
+  as has been maintained, the town of Ghiordes, that lies a
+  day&rsquo;s journey to the east of Pergamus, is on the site of
+  the ancient Gordium where tradition says the father of Midas
+  dedicated his chariot to Jupiter, and Alexander severed the bark
+  which bound the pole to the yoke, it claims attention from the
+  fact that the rugs woven there one and two centuries ago not only
+  excelled similar products in all other parts of Asia Minor, but
+  equalled the best fabrics woven in Persia during the same period.
+  Indeed, a few connoisseurs would rank them still higher; yet with
+  reference <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_169" id=
+  "Page_169">169</a></span>to technique of weave and delicacy of
+  colour and drawing, very few should be classed with those woven
+  in the previous century by the prot&eacute;g&eacute;s of Tamasp
+  and Shah Abbas.</p>
+
+  <div class="figcenter" style="width: 550px;">
+    <a name="p38" id="p38"></a><img src="images/plate38.jpg"
+    width="550" height="706" alt="Plate 38. Mudjar Prayer Rug"
+    title="" />
+
+    <p class="center"><span class="smcap">Plate 38. Mudjar Prayer
+    Rug</span></p>
+  </div>
+
+  <p>So essentially do the modern rugs of the Ghiordes district
+  differ from the old pieces in weave, colour, and pattern, and so
+  great is their inferiority, that they have little interest; but
+  fortunately it is still possible to purchase pieces from
+  seventy-five to one hundred and fifty years of age, and others
+  still older are in the hands of collectors or in museums. In
+  determining their age the colours and drawing, as well as weave
+  and pattern, are important indices. For instance, the reddish
+  tones of the fields of pieces less than a century old have a
+  pinkish or even magenta tinge, while in the oldest the red is of
+  rich, deep colour. Similarly, in the case of blues, greens,
+  yellows, and even the ivories that rarely occupy the field, a
+  riper and richer colour marks the greater age. Likewise with the
+  drawing, greater painstaking and higher artistic skill are
+  apparent in the older rugs; though in some of the oldest the
+  designs are less ornate than in those of a subsequent period.
+  This is also true of the patterns as a whole; since the best
+  types are found in rugs that are probably from one hundred and
+  fifty to two hundred and fifty years old, whereas in the
+  extremely old pieces there is an approach to archaic forms.</p>
+
+  <p>The difference between the odjaliks and namazliks, which are
+  the kinds most frequently seen, is most noticeable. The colours,
+  to be sure, are much the same, though as a rule lighter and
+  duller tones predominate in the odjaliks. Their borders show a
+  greater tendency to use geometric figures, some of which are
+  profusely fringed with latch-hooks suggestive of Caucasian
+  influences. They also contain archaic designs believed to be
+  associated with sun worship, as well as many floral forms common
+  to the prayer rugs. It is, however, in the fields that the
+  distinction is most noticeable; since the large masses of uniform
+  colour that make the namazliks so effective are wanting, and
+  instead are frequently seen hexagonal-shaped medallions that are
+  fringed with large rounded latch-hooks and contain a lozenge or
+  other geometric design in the centre. At both ends of the fields
+  are sometimes narrow panels containing quasi-floral forms, and
+  stiff conventions occupy the intervening corner spaces.</p>
+
+  <p>In striking contrast to these odjaliks are the old Ghiordes
+  prayer rugs, with the rich tones of solid colour in the fields
+  and the delicate drawing of the borders. No doubt they were made
+  with unusual care, since they were intended for religious
+  purposes. The pattern<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_170" id=
+  "Page_170">170</a></span> represents an entrance into a mosque;
+  and it is not improbable that some of the earliest rugs were
+  copied directly from archways, many of which still exist in
+  Mohammedan countries.<a name="FNanchor_29" id=
+  "FNanchor_29"></a><a href="#Footnote_29" class="fnanchor">29</a>
+  Near the base of all Ghiordes arches, at each side, is a
+  shoulder, which in old pieces was supported by a single pilaster
+  or a pair. Sometimes these were ornamented with scroll work or
+  floral forms, but finally many of them degenerated into floral
+  devices that bore slight resemblance to columns, and in other
+  rugs they have entirely disappeared. In some very old pieces the
+  shoulders and the mihrab were rounded, but as a rule the
+  shoulders are flattened at a very obtuse angle; and the mihrab is
+  either plain or has stepped sides that culminate in a blunted
+  apex. To further suggest the sacred purposes of the rug a lamp is
+  often suspended from the niche, though floral forms may take its
+  place, and not infrequently these too are wanting. Almost without
+  exception some reminder of the tree of life, such as the small
+  floral sprig or the Rhodian lily, is projected from the inner
+  side of the arch and from all sides of the border against the
+  field. In the spandrel, also, is almost invariably some floral or
+  leaf form; though these may be very much conventionalised or even
+  supplanted by geometric figures. Above the spandrel is a panel,
+  which may contain some floral form, scroll device, or verse from
+  the Koran; and another panel, though generally with different
+  design, is almost invariably placed beneath the field. A scroll
+  resembling a large S (Plate <a href="#po">O</a>, Fig. 9, Page
+  291) frequently appears in these panels. Its resemblance to forms
+  found in Armenian dragon carpets of earlier centuries is very
+  noticeable.</p>
+
+  <p>The border surrounding the field is as characteristic of this
+  class as is the prayer arch. There are invariably a number of
+  stripes, which generally consist of a wide central one, two
+  secondary, and two or more small guard stripes. The drawing is
+  distinctly floral, yet is widely different from the Persian. A
+  design (Plate <a href="#pg">G</a>, Fig. 1, opp. Page 192)
+  frequently seen in the central stripe represents a large palmette
+  or rosette partly surrounded by leaves, suggestive of the Herati
+  <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_171" id=
+  "Page_171">171</a></span> design, and connected by tendrils with
+  more delicate flowers or leaves. But the more usual design (Plate
+  <a href="#pg">G</a>, Fig. 3) consists of flowers and fruits that
+  are arranged in quadrangular shape, so that the alternate units
+  face in different directions as they extend around the border.
+  Though it is far from naturalistic, its delicate lace-like
+  drawing with clear definition and its tones in harmony with the
+  central field, contribute largely to the beauty of the rug. The
+  secondary stripes have generally repetitive leaf forms; and
+  running through the guard stripes is a simple vine, ribbon, or
+  wave design. Occasionally, however, the typical Ghiordes border
+  is replaced by one borrowed from the near district of Kulah, and
+  instead of the broad central stripe are several narrow parallel
+  stripes studded by perpendicular rows of small floral figures
+  (Plate <a href="#pg">G</a>, Fig. 12). An unusual feature of these
+  rugs is the linen nap which is sometimes used in the field
+  instead of wool, for the reason that it retains its colour while
+  wool darkens with age; and another is the silken fringe which is
+  often seen at the corners of fine specimens. The nap is always
+  short, and the rugs are closely woven.</p>
+
+  <p><i>Type Characteristics.</i> <i>Colours</i>, principally red,
+  blue, yellow, and white. <i>Knot</i>, Ghiordes. Knots to inch
+  horizontally seven to twelve; perpendicularly, eight to sixteen.
+  The rows of knots are pressed down, so that the warp is concealed
+  and the weft is partly hidden at back. <i>Warp</i>, wool or
+  cotton and in a few pieces raw silk. One of the two threads
+  encircled by a knot is usually slightly depressed below the other
+  at the back. <i>Weft</i>, wool or cotton. A thread of weft
+  crosses twice between every two rows of knots. <i>Pile</i>, wool,
+  and occasionally some cotton, clipped very short so as to be
+  harsh to the touch. <i>Border</i>, six to nine stripes.
+  <i>Sides</i>, a weft selvage of two or three cords, or only
+  infrequently an added selvage of silk. <i>Both ends</i>, a narrow
+  web and warp fringe. A few pieces have an added silk fringe at
+  the corners. <i>Texture</i>, firm. <i>Weave</i> at back is of
+  very fine grain, but slightly rough. <i>Usual length</i>, five to
+  seven feet. <i>Usual width</i>, two thirds to three quarters
+  length.</p>
+
+  <p class="tb"><span class="smcap">Kulahs</span>.&mdash;About
+  fifty miles from Ghiordes, in a southeasterly direction, is the
+  Turkish village of Kulah. Both places are surrounded by the same
+  general character of hills and plains, and for the last several
+  centuries the people of each have been subject to the same
+  influences of race and religion. They have undoubtedly visited,
+  intermarried, and become familiar with the arts and crafts of
+  one<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_172" id=
+  "Page_172">172</a></span> another. It is not, therefore,
+  surprising that some of their rugs should have similar technique
+  of weave, and that a few resemble one another in general pattern
+  and small designs. Moreover, such a close correspondence exists
+  between many of the old rugs of both districts, that even the
+  most experienced are sometimes at a loss to distinguish between
+  them. In fact it is surprising that there is so marked a
+  distinction between most of them. In the Kulahs the border
+  designs are not so elaborately drawn, nor are the prayer arches
+  so high. They have rarely the fringe that adorns the corners of
+  some Ghiordes rugs, or more than one panel. The field usually
+  contains floral figures, arranged in formal order; the spandrel
+  is almost always extended in two narrow stripes, one at each side
+  of the field; and the colours are always subdued. These and other
+  characteristics of each class make it possible to distinguish
+  between most of them.</p>
+
+  <p>As is the case with Ghiordes rugs, sedjadehs are almost
+  unknown; but it is not unusual to see odjaliks. These resemble
+  prayer rugs in the following respects: the borders are almost
+  identical; the central fields contain the same floral figures
+  resting on a similarly coloured ground; both ends of the
+  hexagonal-shaped field resemble a mihrab; and the space between
+  the field and border is covered with designs peculiar to the
+  spandrels of the prayer rugs.</p>
+
+  <p>On account of their artistic drawing and soft colours the
+  prayer rugs are favourite pieces with all collectors. It is true
+  that the arch is flatter than that of any other rug of this
+  group, and is defined either by plain sloping lines, or more
+  frequently by stepped edges, so that it lacks the classic beauty
+  of the Ghiordes type; but on the other hand the Rhodian lily and
+  other floral forms characteristic of these pieces are delineated
+  with a realism and graceful delicacy that are unequalled in any
+  other Asia Minor rugs. Arranged on slender sprays along each side
+  of the field, hanging as long clusters from the niche in place of
+  a lamp, or placed on the panel in formal rows, they accentuate
+  with their bright tones the subdued richness of the ground
+  colours. Sometimes, however, these simple field designs are
+  replaced by more formal drawings that represent a plat of land
+  with a tomb shaded by a tall cypress and other trees with many
+  leafy branches. Rugs with these designs are not uncommon in
+  Germany, whither large quantities of Asia Minor prayer rugs were
+  shipped many years ago, and where they are known as
+  &ldquo;Friedhofteppiche,&rdquo; or &ldquo;Grave Rugs,&rdquo;</p>
+
+  <div class="figcenter" style="width: 550px;">
+    <a name="p39" id="p39"></a><img src="images/plate39.jpg"
+    width="550" height="557" alt="Plate 39. Daghestan Prayer Rug"
+    title="" />
+
+    <p class="center"><span class="smcap">Plate 39. Daghestan
+    Prayer Rug</span></p>
+  </div>
+
+  <p>The most pleasing features are in the fields, but the most
+  distinguishing<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_173" id=
+  "Page_173">173</a></span> features are in the borders,
+  which are invariably of several stripes. Instead of the large
+  central stripe with floral and repetitive designs common to most
+  rugs is a series of parallel bands, from five to ten in number
+  and about an inch in width, that contain rows of minute floral
+  forms. These narrow bands are a distinguishing feature of the
+  Kulahs, though they have occasionally been copied by the Ghiordes
+  weavers. Nevertheless, they are sometimes replaced by the broad
+  stripe containing rows of geometric-shaped designs, as in Plate
+  <a href="#pg">G</a>, Fig. 13 (opp. Page 192), which also are
+  peculiar to these rugs. Strange as it may seem, these designs
+  have doubtless been derived from leaf forms by successive
+  degradation, as will be seen by comparing Figs. 13a, 13b, 13c,
+  and 13d of Plate <a href="#po">O</a> (Page 291). There is still
+  another border design that is so constantly found in the
+  secondary stripe of these pieces and so rarely in any others that
+  it might well be designated the &ldquo;Kulah stripe&rdquo; (Plate
+  <a href="#ph">H</a>, Fig. 10, opp. Page 194). The design consists
+  of a repetitive figure suggestive of some Chinese device, but is
+  in reality a degraded form of a vine, as will be seen by
+  observing some of the very old border stripes. Between the inner
+  secondary stripe and the field is usually a narrow stripe
+  containing a continuous ribbon design, or a simple vine-like
+  form, as in Plate <a href="#pf">F</a>, Fig. 18 (opp. Page 158).
+  Often a part of each succeeding undulation of the vine has been
+  omitted and the remaining parts have been compressed, so as to
+  leave small detached figures like a row of
+  &ldquo;f&rsquo;s,&rdquo; as in Plate <a href="#ph">H</a>, Fig. 2.
+  It is not unusual to see both vine and detached figures in the
+  same rug.</p>
+
+  <p>Diversity prevails in the colours of field, spandrel, panel,
+  and borders. In the field is generally a mellowed red, or a
+  yellow tint that is described both as golden brown and apricot;
+  blue also is occasionally seen, and white is very rare. But
+  whatever the colour of the field, that of the spandrel is
+  generally a light blue, indicative of the sky, and the overlying
+  panel is frequently a dark blue. Green and brown often appear in
+  the border, as well as a canary yellow peculiar to Asia Minor
+  rugs. Moreover, a few of these pieces have a single small area of
+  red or blue, that was doubtless inserted to avert the evil eye,
+  since it shows no more relation to the surrounding colours than
+  spilt ink might have; yet in spite of these contrasts and the
+  fact that the nap lacks the lustre peculiar to many other
+  classes, some of them are as beautiful as Ghiordes.</p>
+
+  <p>Between these old fabrics and the modern, which factory-like
+  are produced in large quantities to meet the demands of a
+  Western<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_174" id=
+  "Page_174">174</a></span> market and taste, is the most
+  noticeable difference, for the latter are inferior to the former
+  in patterns, weave, and dyes. Furthermore, with the wool of many
+  is mixed mohair, so that rapid deterioration follows slight
+  usage.</p>
+
+  <p><i>Type Characteristics.</i> <i>Colours</i>, principally red,
+  brownish yellow, and blue, with minor quantities of green, dark
+  brown, and white. <i>Knot</i>, Ghiordes, Knots to inch
+  horizontally five to ten; perpendicularly, seven to twelve. The
+  rows of knots are not firmly pressed down. <i>Warp</i>, wool; one
+  of the two threads encircled by a knot is noticeably depressed at
+  the back. <i>Weft</i>, in most rugs, of wool of medium diameter,
+  sometimes dyed yellow. A thread of weft crosses twice between
+  every two rows of knots. In other rugs, even very old, the weft
+  consists of a coarse thread of jute crossing once between two
+  rows of knots and alternating with a small thread of jute and
+  another of wool crossing side by side once between the next two
+  rows of knots. <i>Pile</i>, wool, of short or medium length.
+  <i>Border</i>, six to nine stripes. <i>Sides</i>, a coloured
+  mixed selvage of two, three, or four cords. <i>Both ends</i>, a
+  coloured web and warp fringe. <i>Texture</i>, loose. <i>Weave</i>
+  at back is of moderately coarse grain. <i>Usual length</i>, five
+  to seven feet. <i>Usual width</i>, three fifths to three quarters
+  length.</p>
+
+  <p class="tb"><span class="smcap">Oushaks</span>.&mdash;Fifty
+  miles eastward from Kulah is the city of Oushak, famous during
+  the XV and XVI Centuries for the carpets exported thence to
+  Europe to adorn the halls of cathedrals and thrones of monarchs.
+  But with the subsequent decadence in Asiatic art its glory ebbed,
+  so that half a century ago it was but a small mud-housed city
+  known for the excellence of its dyes and the wool which was taken
+  there from the interior to be washed, spun, and then sold to the
+  weavers of the surrounding country. Since then, however, its
+  population has steadily grown, and the weaving industry has
+  thrived, until now it is one of the most populous cities of Asia
+  Minor, with looms more numerous than those of any other city. The
+  weaving is done entirely by women and girls, most of whom are
+  Mohammedans. Though they live principally in private houses, they
+  are under the direction of large firms, who furnish the wool as
+  well as the patterns, which are in accordance with European and
+  American demands.</p>
+
+  <p>Important distinctions exist between the different grades of
+  these rugs. Some are known as &ldquo;Turkish Kirmans,&rdquo; in
+  which Persian designs are frequently introduced, others are of
+  still finer workman<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_175" id=
+  "Page_175">175</a></span>ship, but the oldest and coarsest pieces
+  were formerly known as &ldquo;Yapraks.&rdquo; These are
+  distinguishable by their strong colours of red, green, and blue,
+  of which only two as a rule are seen in a single rug, and are
+  massed to produce striking effects. Their foundation of warp and
+  weft, which are dyed in the same colours, is loosely woven and
+  often of an inferior grade of wool. Many of them are too large
+  and heavy for domestic use, but are well adapted for salons and
+  public halls.</p>
+
+  <p>With such slight variations in pattern and none in colour,
+  Oushaks would be of little interest were it not that their
+  prototypes were striking pieces woven by artisans whom Sultan
+  Solyman the Magnificent brought from the northwestern part of
+  Persia, when he conquered it in the XVI Century. Some of them
+  appear in the paintings of old masters, and when contrasted with
+  the modern fabrics indicate how great is the decline in the
+  craftsmanship of the weavers. Of the beautiful well-balanced
+  designs once represented in the fields, only large stars and
+  diamonds, defined by less pleasing lines and placed with less
+  regularity, remain. All of the graceful arabesques and dainty
+  floral motives that appeared as sub-patterns are omitted. As
+  works of art, the modern products are little esteemed; but their
+  durability, depth of pile, and wealth of colour make them
+  excellent objects of utility.</p>
+
+  <p><i>Type Characteristics.</i> <i>Colours</i>, principally red,
+  blue, and green. <i>Knot</i>, Ghiordes. Knots to inch
+  horizontally four to eight; perpendicularly, four to nine. A half
+  knot, as it appears at back, is longer than wide. The rows of
+  knots are not closely pressed down. <i>Warp</i>, wool. Each of
+  the two threads encircled by a knot is equally prominent at back,
+  or one is slightly depressed below the other. <i>Weft</i>, wool
+  of medium diameter and generally dyed red. A thread of weft
+  crosses twice between every two rows of knots. <i>Pile</i>, wool,
+  clipped long. <i>Border</i>, usually of three stripes.
+  <i>Sides</i>, generally a double overcasting, occasionally a
+  selvage. <i>Both ends</i>, generally a web coloured red and a
+  warp fringe. <i>Texture</i>, very loose. <i>Weave</i> at back is
+  of moderately coarse grain. <i>Length</i>, carpet sizes. <i>Usual
+  width</i>, two thirds to four fifths length.</p>
+
+  <p class="tb"><span class="smcap">Ak-hissar</span>.&mdash;Almost
+  seventy-five miles by rail from Smyrna and a short distance to
+  the west of Ghiordes is the Turkish town of Ak-Hissar, the White
+  Citadel. Even before the building of the railroad rugs were woven
+  in this district; and in recent years the<span class=
+  'pagenum'><a name="Page_176" id="Page_176">176</a></span>
+  work-house system has been established, and large quantities,
+  that bear some resemblance to the modern products of Kulah and
+  Oushak, have been exported.</p>
+
+  <p class="tb"><span class="smcap">Demirdji</span>.&mdash;Half a
+  century ago the town of Demirdji was almost uninhabited; but as a
+  result of the Occidental demand for Oriental rugs and the
+  disappearance of old pieces, it has grown to be an important
+  manufacturing centre. Many of its weavers learned their trade at
+  the historic Ghiordes, which is about twenty-five miles distant;
+  but the fabrics are more closely woven and the wool is more
+  carefully selected than is the case with the modern Ghiordes.</p>
+
+  <p class="tb"><span class="smcap">Kutayah</span>.&mdash;On the
+  main railroad that will eventually connect the Bosphorus with the
+  Euphrates is the town of Kutayah. As it is on the edge of the
+  Anatolian plateau, wool and goat&rsquo;s hair have been for a
+  long period important articles in its trade. Both of them are now
+  used in the local manufacture of rugs, which in a measure
+  resemble the products of Oushak.</p>
+
+  <p class="tb"><span class="smcap">Smyrna</span>.&mdash;The
+  location of Smyrna on a magnificent harbour and its connection by
+  rail with all the important rug districts of the interior, have
+  made it the principal centre for the export trade in Asia Minor
+  rugs. Many of the people are also largely engaged in the industry
+  of weaving, but almost all weavers are now in the employ of large
+  companies who furnish the materials and patterns. As a result,
+  the Smyrna rugs are mere copies of well-known types of other
+  Turkish pieces, or, as is generally the case, of stereotyped
+  patterns that have been evolved to meet the requirements of
+  European and American tastes. Many of the rugs, to be sure, are
+  well woven and serviceable, but they lack individuality of
+  character.</p>
+
+  <p class="tb"><span class="smcap">Melez</span>.&mdash;About
+  seventy-five miles to the south of Smyrna and twenty from the
+  Mediterranean Sea is the town of Melassa, or Melez. It is now
+  little known, but was once the market place of an important
+  rug-producing district, which included a large part of the
+  classic province of Caria. Accordingly, the pieces that came from
+  there were sometimes called Carian, but are more generally known
+  as Melez.</p>
+
+  <div class="figcenter" style="width: 400px;">
+    <a name="p40" id="p40"></a><img src="images/plate40.jpg"
+    width="400" height="823" alt="Plate 40. Kabistan Rug" title="" />
+
+    <p class="center"><span class="smcap">Plate 40. Kabistan
+    Rug</span></p>
+  </div>
+
+  <p>On their face they show a close relationship to the
+  Anatolians, <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_177" id=
+  "Page_177">177</a></span>and also, though in a less degree, to
+  many other Asia Minor rugs; yet as is to be expected of the
+  products from one corner of the country, they have a distinct
+  individuality in both pattern and colour. Occasionally an old
+  piece is seen, in which the border is very narrow and the whole
+  field is covered with parallel stripes on which are
+  systematically arranged geometric and semi-floral forms; but as a
+  rule the fields are not much wider, and often less wide, than
+  each of the adjacent borders. Within this central space are
+  frequently arranged prominent designs, which are widely different
+  from the designs of any other rugs, and are suggestive of Chinese
+  ornament, but were doubtless derived from floral or tree forms
+  (Plate <a href="#po">O</a>, Fig. 12, Page 291). Moreover,
+  projecting in regular order from the alternate sides of the
+  narrow border stripe, next to the field, are sometimes seen
+  thumb-like figures, that fit against one another like the cogs of
+  a wheel (Plate <a href="#ph">H</a>, Fig. 15, opp. Page 194). Each
+  of these features, though not always present, is peculiar to this
+  class.</p>
+
+  <p>Of the several border stripes, the central is generally as
+  wide as the remainder and not altogether dissimilar to that of
+  the Ladiks. Very frequently it consists of a row of palmettes
+  between which are conventionalised leaves and flowers on slender
+  stems; but now and then the palmettes are replaced by
+  eight-pointed stars or other geometric figures, and the
+  intervening spaces filled with corresponding designs. The
+  secondary stripes are of a pronounced Caucasian type; and almost
+  invariably in a smaller tertiary stripe is represented a waving
+  line or the reciprocal sawtooth.</p>
+
+  <p>The prayer rugs are equally characteristic. In typical
+  examples the lines defining the mihrab descend from the niche to
+  meet the sides of the narrow field at an angle of forty-five
+  degrees, and are then deflected towards its centre, to return
+  again to its sides. The resulting drawing shows two equilateral
+  triangles on each side of the field at the base of the mihrab,
+  which in conjunction with the upper sides of the triangles has
+  the appearance of an incomplete diamond. This effect, moreover,
+  is frequently accentuated by a perpendicular row of diamonds
+  extending from just below the niche to the base of the field. The
+  sides of mihrab, field, and central designs are, as a rule,
+  fringed with small geometric or conventionalised floral forms;
+  and in the spacious spandrel are more realistic floral designs
+  arranged on a trellis-like sub-pattern.</p>
+
+  <p>This individuality of pattern is accompanied by a less marked
+  yet noticeable individuality of colour scheme. As is the case
+  with<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_178" id=
+  "Page_178">178</a></span> many Bergamos, the principal tone is a
+  dark red, which generally appears in the central field, and is
+  also used almost without exception in the broad end webs, the
+  side selvages, and the threads of weft. Ivory white for the
+  spandrel, some yellow and green for the borders, are common
+  colours; but the one that rarely appears in any appreciable
+  quantity in other rugs is a characteristic tone of lavender or
+  mauve, which is present in almost every old Melez. Not always are
+  these tones pleasing, as many of the rugs have been poorly dyed;
+  but there are other pieces, now rapidly growing scarce, of which
+  the colours are exceedingly rich and harmonious.</p>
+
+  <p><i>Type Characteristics.</i> <i>Colours</i>, principally red,
+  with minor quantities of blue, yellow, white, and some mauve.
+  <i>Knot</i>, Ghiordes. Knots to inch horizontally five to eight;
+  perpendicularly, six to eleven. A half knot, as it appears at
+  back, is as long as wide or slightly longer. The rows of knots
+  are not closely pressed down, yet the warp does not show at back.
+  <i>Warp</i>, wool; each of the two threads encircled by a knot is
+  equally prominent at back. <i>Weft</i>, wool of small diameter,
+  dyed blue or red. A thread of weft generally crosses four times
+  between every two rows of knots. <i>Pile</i>, wool, of medium
+  length and sometimes short. <i>Border</i>, wide, from three to
+  seven stripes. <i>Sides</i>, a selvage of two to four cords,
+  usually coloured red. <i>Lower end</i>, a red web and loose warp
+  fringe. <i>Upper end</i>, a red web, a braided selvage, and loose
+  warp fringe. <i>Texture</i>, moderately loose. <i>Weave</i> at
+  back is of slightly coarse grain. <i>Usual length</i>, four and
+  one half to six feet. <i>Usual width</i>, three fifths to three
+  quarters length.</p>
+
+  <p class="tb"><span class="smcap">Isbarta.</span>&mdash;In the
+  town of Isbarta in the southern part of the province of Konieh
+  are woven rugs which are sometimes known to the trade as
+  &ldquo;Spartas.&rdquo; Like many other pieces made to meet the
+  Western demand, they lack spontaneous individuality, but are
+  often of excellent quality and coloured in delicate tones,
+  arranged harmoniously.</p>
+
+  <p class="tb"><span class="smcap">Rhodian.</span>&mdash;Even at a
+  very early period the people of the islands bordering the
+  southwestern coast of Asia Minor produced textile fabrics that
+  rivalled many of the best products of the mainland. None of them
+  were more beautiful or more interesting than those which came
+  from the Island of Rhodes, where were blended the vigorous
+  Grecian and the more subtle Oriental arts. Here was the
+  inspi<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_179" id=
+  "Page_179">179</a></span>ration of the sea, cloudless skies,
+  luxuriant vegetation. Here was felt the deep influence of the
+  Mohammedan and Christian religions, as well as an early pagan
+  mythology; and there is little doubt that the cathedral walls and
+  picturesque church of the valiant knights of St. John made an
+  impression on the weavers. It is not surprising, therefore, that
+  the fabrics should be of deep, rich colour full of suggestion,
+  and that the drawing of the long central panels should remind one
+  of cathedral windows.</p>
+
+  <p>Of the many beautiful rugs formerly woven in Rhodes only a few
+  now remain, and these are generally in the hands of collectors.
+  Some are odjaliks, some namazliks, some sedjadehs; but all, with
+  the exception of a few crude and coarsely woven pieces, have
+  colours and weave that bespeak a ripe age, amounting in many
+  instances to one hundred years or more. On the field of odjaliks
+  are represented as a rule the usual hexagonal figure with two
+  sides at each end forming a triangle; and on the fields of the
+  namazliks are prayer arches which, though characteristic, never
+  equal the graceful drawing seen in Ghiordes rugs. It is the
+  sedjadehs that awaken the greatest interest, as they have some
+  striking peculiarities rarely seen in rugs of the mainland.</p>
+
+  <p>Their field is divided into two or three panels that extend
+  almost the full length of the field, and terminate at one end in
+  flat and often serrated arches. The spandrels are small; and
+  placed transversely above them is a low panel, that contains
+  designs of mechanically drawn leaves, vandykes resembling those
+  of Ladiks, and other figures common to Asia Minor rugs. In fact,
+  these pieces at once suggest prayer rugs containing two or more
+  prayer arches, but the pattern is generally regarded as a
+  representation of cathedral windows. Both colouring and designs
+  give force to this idea. In each of the principal panels is a
+  different ground colour, as red, blue, or green, which is never
+  gaudy, yet exceedingly rich on account of the depth of pile; and
+  in the overlying figures there is often a strangely contrasting
+  splendour of brighter colouring. Furthermore, one of the most
+  usual of these designs, arranged like pole medallions, consists
+  of large eight-pointed stars with effulgent rays of brilliant
+  hues. As we look at some of the rare old pieces with this
+  pattern, cathedral windows almost appear before us with bright
+  sunshine streaming in golden rays through the stained glass and
+  brightening the interior with its more sombre tones of &ldquo;dim
+  religious light.&rdquo; Sometimes the pole design is modified so
+  as to suggest a<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_180" id=
+  "Page_180">180</a></span> tree of life extending from one end of
+  the panel to the other. An equally common design represents six
+  very mechanically drawn leaves assembled in the form of a
+  medallion (Plate <a href="#po">O</a>, Fig. 15, Page 291). Each of
+  these leaves has two straight edges meeting at right angles and
+  containing at the corner a small rectangular spot; but the
+  remaining sides that form the circumference of the medallion are
+  deeply serrated, so as to produce much the same effect as the
+  rays of effulgent stars. In the fields are also frequently seen
+  latch-hooks, and occasionally checkerboards with different
+  colours for separate squares.</p>
+
+  <p>Between field and border is a close correspondence in both
+  colours and small designs. The latter consist principally of
+  geometric and semi-floral forms, as eight-pointed stars, the
+  octagonal disc, and the geometric leaf that is typical of Kulah
+  rugs. No other design is more prevalent than the last, which may
+  be found in all parts of these rugs. Sometimes it is drawn most
+  realistically so as to resemble the flower forms so common in
+  spandrels of Kulahs; but again the outlines are most conventional
+  with square-like projections at the edges and a bar of underlying
+  field of contrasting colour crossing the face diagonally, as in
+  the border stripe of Plate <a href="#pg">G</a>, Fig. 13, (opp.
+  Page 192), which shows the foliate origin of the latter.</p>
+
+  <p>The name &ldquo;Makri&rdquo; is frequently applied to these
+  rugs, since they were often bought in the city of that name,
+  which is one of the harbours of Southwestern Asia Minor nearest
+  to Rhodes.</p>
+
+  <p><i>Type Characteristics.</i> <i>Colours</i>, principally red
+  and blue, also considerable yellow, green, and white.
+  <i>Knot</i>, Ghiordes. Knots to inch horizontally five to eight;
+  perpendicularly, seven to nine. The rows of knots are not firmly
+  pressed down, so that the warp shows in places at back.
+  <i>Warp</i>, wool; each of the two threads encircled by a knot is
+  equally prominent at back, occasionally one to each knot is
+  slightly depressed below the other. <i>Weft</i>, wool, of medium
+  diameter, coloured red. A thread of warp usually crosses twice
+  between every two rows of knots, rarely only once, and sometimes
+  as many as four times. <i>Pile</i>, wool, clipped long.
+  <i>Border</i>, two to three stripes. <i>Sides</i>, a double
+  selvage of two, three, or four cords, usually coloured red or
+  blue. <i>Lower end</i>, a web, either red or of several colours,
+  and long warp fringe hanging loose or braided. <i>Upper end</i>,
+  a web, either red or of several colours, beyond which is often a
+  heavy braided selvage; also a long warp fringe hanging loose or
+  braided. <i>Texture</i>, moderately loose. <i>Weave</i> at back
+  is of slightly <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_181" id=
+  "Page_181">181</a></span>coarse grain. <i>Length</i>, four to
+  seven feet. <i>Width</i>, three fifths to four fifths length.</p>
+
+  <div class="figcenter" style="width: 350px;">
+    <a name="p41" id="p41"></a><img src="images/plate41.jpg"
+    width="350" height="786" alt="Plate 41. Kuba Rug" title="" />
+
+    <p class="center"><span class="smcap">Plate 41. Kuba
+    Rug</span></p>
+  </div>
+
+  <p class="tb"><span class="smcap">Broussa.</span>&mdash;At the
+  base of Mt. Olympus and distant only twenty-five miles from the
+  Sea of Marmora, with which it is connected by rail, is the city
+  of Broussa. By reason of this location and its proximity to
+  Constantinople, it is an important commercial centre; and on
+  account of the excellence of the wool and silk obtained in the
+  surrounding country, rugs are woven here for foreign markets. The
+  fabrics are stoutly made and compare favourably with those of
+  Smyrna.</p>
+
+  <p class="tb"><span class="smcap">Hereke.</span>&mdash;In the
+  town of Hereke, on the Sea of Marmora, is a Turkish factory,
+  where large numbers of silk rugs are manufactured. Most of the
+  silk is obtained in the immediate neighbourhood and from the
+  country about Mt. Olympus. As the early weavers were brought from
+  Kirman to instruct the artisans of the Sultan, and the patterns
+  have been largely copied from old Persian and Asia Minor pieces,
+  it is not surprising that many of the fabrics compare favourably
+  with the silk rugs of Persia.</p>
+
+  <p class="tb"><span class="smcap">Koniehs.</span>&mdash;At the
+  base of Mt. Taurus and overlooking the salt desert of Central
+  Asia Minor is the city of Konieh. Within its present walls is all
+  that is left of the ancient Iconium that opened its gates to
+  Xenophon, Cyrus, and Alexander, but drove forth the Apostle Paul.
+  Finally it surrendered to Seljukian conquerors, who, realising
+  the importance of its situation on one of the great highways
+  between east and west and in an oasis of well-watered fields,
+  orchards, and gardens which face a great barren plain,
+  established there a Mussulman capital, that became noted for its
+  opulence and culture. In later years it successfully resisted the
+  assault of Frederic Barbarossa; but subsequently it declined,
+  until now the only remaining vestiges of its former importance
+  are several colleges, one hundred mosques, and the famous green
+  tower surmounting the tomb of the whirling dervishes.</p>
+
+  <p>In few other cities of Asia Minor were greater inducements
+  offered to the rug weavers. Surrounding them lay hills and plains
+  that produced sheep with soft, fine fleeces. On the oaks that
+  grew not far to the north lived the kermes, from which were
+  obtained the vermilion dyes famous even through Persia. The
+  political and com<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_182" id=
+  "Page_182">182</a></span>mercial importance of the city, as well
+  as the religious fanaticism of the people, aided them.
+  Accordingly a great many choice pieces were formerly woven there,
+  but on account of the remoteness of the city from the markets
+  that supplied Europe, few found their way into channels of
+  trade.</p>
+
+  <p>Large numbers were used solely for religious purposes, but
+  other kinds are as frequently seen. All of them contain both
+  geometric and floral forms. The geometric forms resemble designs
+  prevalent in Eastern Anatolia and in Caucasia, such as
+  latch-hooks, eight-pointed stars, and barber-pole stripes; and
+  the floral forms consist of mechanically drawn palm leaves and
+  the tree-of-life design.</p>
+
+  <p>Probably in no other Asia Minor rug is such latitude in the
+  drawing of the prayer arch. Sometimes it begins below the middle
+  of the field and rises at a sharp angle to a point near the upper
+  end; again it may be exceedingly flat; but generally it has the
+  same pitch as the arches of Kulahs, and, like them, the sides, as
+  a rule, are stepped or serrated. Furthermore, it is not unusual
+  to see latch-hooks projecting from each step or serration into
+  the spandrel, which is filled with small floral and geometric
+  forms. From the niche is occasionally suspended a lamp; and
+  arranged against the border, on each side of the field, is a row
+  of conventionalised flowers, or small sprigs which resemble three
+  triangular-shaped petals at the end of a straight stem. These
+  floral or foliate designs are one of the most constant features
+  of this class. The borders are more geometric than those of
+  almost any other Asia Minor rugs, and even when vines are
+  represented they are drawn with stiff formality.</p>
+
+  <p>Whatever may be lacking in artistic drawing is frequently
+  atoned for by the excellence of the colour scheme, which
+  occasionally rivals that of the Ghiordes and Kulahs. Rich reds or
+  blues are almost invariably found in the fields, where there is
+  sufficient depth of nap to enhance their richness; and the
+  borders are brightened by attractive tones of yellow, green, and
+  white. Contrasted with these old pieces, the modern rugs of
+  Konieh have little artistic merit, but are large pieces desirable
+  solely for their durability.</p>
+
+  <p><i>Type Characteristics.</i> <i>Colours</i>, principally red
+  and blue, with minor quantities of yellow, green, and white.
+  <i>Knot</i>, Ghiordes. Knots to inch horizontally five to eight;
+  perpendicularly, six to ten. The rows of knots are not very
+  firmly pressed down. <i>Warp</i>, wool; each of the two threads
+  encircled by a knot is equally prominent at back. <i>Weft</i>,
+  wool, of medium diameter, dyed red. A thread of weft
+  crosses<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_183" id=
+  "Page_183">183</a></span> twice between every two rows of knots.
+  <i>Pile</i>, wool, of medium length. <i>Border</i>, from two to
+  five stripes, with frequently an outer edging. <i>Sides</i>,
+  generally a selvage of two or three cords, but occasionally an
+  overcasting. <i>Both ends</i>, a web and warp fringe.
+  <i>Texture</i>, only moderately firm. <i>Weave</i> at back is of
+  slightly coarse grain. <i>Usual length</i>, four and one half to
+  six feet. <i>Usual width</i>, three fifths to three quarters
+  length.</p>
+
+  <p class="tb"><span class="smcap">Ladiks.</span>&mdash;On the
+  ruins of ancient Laodicea is the mud-walled town of the village
+  of Ladik, once the centre of an important rug industry. Among the
+  surrounding hills are still woven pieces which resemble in
+  pattern, though they poorly imitate in weave and colour, the
+  early prototypes that have been classed among the masterpieces of
+  Asia Minor. Few of these old rugs remain, and they are often
+  badly worn in spots; yet they display tones mellowed by the touch
+  of more than a century, and rival the Ghiordes in beauty of
+  design.</p>
+
+  <p>As is the case with other classes of rugs woven in Turkish
+  countries, the sedjadehs and odjaliks lack the interesting
+  details of the namazliks, from which they widely differ. On the
+  central fields of many of them are oblong hexagonal-shaped
+  medallions, often three in number, that contain designs of stars
+  or other geometric figures. Between the fields and the borders of
+  the ends are generally spacious panels, on which are represented
+  rows of vandykes. These figures are one of the most permanent
+  characteristics of this class of rugs; and though their origin is
+  uncertain, it is not improbable that they are derived from
+  arrowheads, which were one of the emblems of the Chaldean deity
+  Hoa, the reputed inventor of Cufic writing. The borders are also
+  geometric, consisting, as a rule, of three stripes, of which the
+  central contains an angular vine that in different pieces may be
+  very simple or very ornate. One of the central stripes often
+  adopted is represented in Plate <a href="#pg">G</a>, Fig. 10
+  (opp. Page 192) and shows a vine with conventionalised leaf.
+  Latch-hooks are common in the sedjadehs, and when floral forms
+  are present the fact is generally disguised by the harsh,
+  mechanical drawing.</p>
+
+  <p>In contrast with these pieces, the namazliks with their
+  interesting arches and dainty drawing are most pleasing. In a
+  large number of them the central fields occupy about one half the
+  space within the border, the spandrels extend for a considerable
+  distance above the arch, and the panels are larger than in any
+  other prayer rug. Occasionally arches resembling those of the
+  Ghiordes or Kir-Shehrs<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_184"
+  id="Page_184">184</a></span> are seen; but they are to be
+  regarded merely as copies, since the typical arch differs widely
+  from any other and gives to this class one of its greatest
+  charms. Instead of rising to the apex in lines of many
+  serrations, each side of the arch rises from the border and falls
+  in one large serration, then rises again to form the niche. The
+  arch is often fringed with latch-hooks, and extending above the
+  apex of each serration and the niche are perpendicular devices
+  that may, also, be a development of the latch-hook, since they
+  have not been traced to any other satisfactory origin. But
+  whatever their origin may be, their shape as well as that of the
+  arch at once suggests Saracenic mosques. In the spandrel are
+  constantly seen serrated leaves, rosettes, and designs peculiar
+  to the Ladik. The large panel is equally typical, and consists of
+  reciprocally drawn vandykes, from which rise perpendicular stems
+  supporting leaves and pomegranates. These are generally five in
+  number, and are so gracefully and naturalistically drawn that it
+  seems surprising that the vandykes, from which they spring, are
+  ornamented with a profusion of latch-hooks. The central fields
+  are sometimes without ornament, but as a rule they contain some
+  suggestions of the tree of life either in the central design or
+  in the three-leaf sprigs arranged about the borders. The latter
+  are as characteristic as any other part of the rug, and consist
+  of four stripes separated by dotted lines. The main stripe most
+  frequently contains a row of delicately drawn lilies alternating
+  with rosettes, though occasionally a very formal vine with
+  conventionalised leaf is substituted for it. In the stripes at
+  each side are very angular vines with three-cleft leaves, and in
+  the narrow innermost stripe is generally a ribbon pattern.</p>
+
+  <p>All of the drawing has clear definition accentuated by rich
+  and strongly contrasting colours. The fields of the namazliks,
+  like those of the Ghiordes, are entirely occupied by masses of
+  unshaded blue, red, or brown, that are relieved only by the
+  colours of superimposed designs. But as is not the case with
+  Ghiordes, there is often a strong contrast between the colours of
+  centre and ends; yet the tones are always in perfect harmony.
+  Other rugs may have more delicate drawing or more exquisite
+  finish; but in the barbaric arrangement of strong colour and in
+  the uniqueness of graceful designs, none exceed the old prayer
+  Ladiks.</p>
+
+  <div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;">
+    <a name="p42" id="p42"></a><img src="images/plate42.jpg"
+    width="500" height="787" alt="Plate 42. Chichi Rug" title="" />
+
+    <p class="center"><span class="smcap">Plate 42. Chichi
+    Rug</span></p>
+  </div>
+
+  <p><i>Type Characteristics.</i> <i>Colours</i>, principally red
+  and blue, with minor quantities of green, yellow, and brown.
+  <i>Knot</i>, Ghiordes. Knots to inch horizontally nine to twelve;
+  perpendicularly, ten to <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_185"
+  id="Page_185">185</a></span>thirteen. A half knot as it appears
+  at back is longer than wide. The rows of knots are pressed down
+  so that the warp is concealed at back. <i>Warp</i>, wool. One of
+  the two threads encircled by a knot is generally depressed below
+  the other at the back. <i>Weft</i>, wool of fine diameter,
+  generally dyed red. A thread of weft crosses twice between every
+  two rows of knots. <i>Pile</i>, wool, of medium length.
+  <i>Border</i>, three to five stripes. <i>Sides</i>, a red added
+  selvage of two or three cords. <i>Both ends</i>, a narrow web and
+  warp fringe. <i>Texture</i>, moderately firm. <i>Weave</i> at
+  back is of medium grain. <i>Usual length</i>, four and one half
+  to seven feet. <i>Usual width</i>, three fifths to two thirds
+  length.</p>
+
+  <p class="tb"><span class="smcap">Kir-Shehrs.</span>&mdash;To the
+  north of the great salt desert and in the southern part of the
+  province of Angora is the town of Kir-Shehr. It stands between
+  two mountain ranges, on which are raised sheep with fine fleeces,
+  and is on the branch of the Kizil Irmak, whose waters are well
+  suited for preparing wool for the dyes obtained in the
+  surrounding country. On account of the excellence of wool, water,
+  and natural dyes, as well as the remoteness of the town from main
+  highways of travel, many of the old rugs were excellent pieces,
+  free from the taint of Western influences, and possessing the
+  charm of individuality. It was due, moreover, to the fact that
+  its three or four thousand inhabitants, and the Turkomans who
+  roamed the surrounding country, rarely felt the influence of
+  larger cities that they were so untrammelled by
+  conventionalities. Unhesitatingly they grouped together large
+  spaces of red, yellow, and blue, as well as grass-coloured green,
+  for which they had a particular fondness and employed to a
+  greater extent than almost any other weavers; yet in the case of
+  these old pieces the artistic sense is rarely shocked, since the
+  individual colours are good and the tones are harmonious.
+  Furthermore, the patterns show an unusual blending of floral and
+  geometric forms.</p>
+
+  <p>Most of the pieces come in moderate sizes; some are mats,
+  others small sedjadehs, but the choicest are the prayer rugs. The
+  serrated sides of the arch, which rise at a steep angle from the
+  centres of each side of the rather narrow fields, are formed of
+  several parallel lines of different colour. In a not unusual rug,
+  for instance, eight narrow lines separating the spandrel of
+  grass-green from the inner field of brick-red appeared in the
+  following order: red, black, white, yellow, lavender, yellow,
+  red, and blue. The inmost line is fre<span class=
+  'pagenum'><a name="Page_186" id="Page_186">186</a></span>quently
+  fringed with tri-cleft floral forms, which, as in Koniehs, extend
+  in a row along the sides of the field. From the niche is usually
+  suspended the design of an inverted tree of life, and above it
+  are projected latch-hooks or similar devices. It is not unusual
+  to see two arches, and there are sometimes as many as four,
+  placed one within the other. The spacious spandrel that is
+  continued in narrow stripes along the borders to the bottom of
+  the field is covered with geometric or conventionalised floral
+  forms; and the horizontal panel, which may be placed at either
+  end of the field, contains designs in harmony with the remaining
+  parts.</p>
+
+  <p>On the whole, the wide borders have some of the most
+  characteristic features; for, as a rule, not only are one or two
+  of the stripes of a peculiar cherry red and one a rich yellow,
+  but three or four of the narrow stripes next to the field are
+  similar in width and ornamentation to those of the Kulah. When
+  contrasted with them the broad central stripe and the outer one
+  seem lacking in harmony, for they are distinctly floral and
+  suggestive of Persian influences.</p>
+
+  <p>On account of the quality of their wool and weave, these rugs
+  are soft and flexible. They resemble in some minor details others
+  of the Anatolian plateau, yet they can be distinguished by the
+  presence of grass-green colour and the shape of the prayer arch.
+  The nap of these old pieces, like that of Kulahs and Ladiks, is
+  of medium length; though in modern pieces it is often longer, and
+  the weft and webs are coloured as are those of Bergamos.</p>
+
+  <p><i>Type Characteristics.</i> <i>Colours</i>, principally red
+  and green, also some blue, brown, and white. Knot, Ghiordes.
+  <i>Knots</i> to inch horizontally five to nine; perpendicularly,
+  five to ten. A half knot as it appears at back is as long as, or
+  longer than, wide. The rows of knots are not firmly pressed down,
+  so that in places the warp shows. <i>Warp</i>, wool; each of the
+  two threads encircled by a knot is equally prominent at back, or
+  occasionally one is slightly depressed. <i>Weft</i>, wool, of
+  medium or coarse diameter and generally of different colours in
+  the same rug. A thread of weft crosses from two to six times
+  between two rows of knots, varying in the same rug. <i>Pile</i>,
+  wool, of medium length. <i>Border</i>, from five to eight
+  stripes. <i>Sides</i>, a weft selvage of two, three, or four
+  cords of different colours. <i>Lower end</i>, web and warp loops.
+  <i>Upper end</i>, a web and warp fringe. <i>Texture</i>, loose.
+  <i>Weave</i> at back is of coarse grain. <i>Usual length</i>,
+  four to six feet. <i>Usual width</i>, two thirds to four fifths
+  length.</p>
+
+  <p class="tb"><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_187" id=
+  "Page_187">187</a></span><span class=
+  "smcap">Anatolians.</span>&mdash;To all of Asia Minor was once
+  applied the term &ldquo;Anatolia,&rdquo; which signifies the Land
+  of the Rising Sun; so that any product of this country might well
+  be called Anatolian, just as any product of Persia might be
+  called Iranian. In fact, many of the less known classes, as the
+  Nigde, Tuzla, Mudjar, and even the Kir-Shehr, Melez, and Konieh,
+  are often called Anatolian. But as there is a special type of
+  rugs known as Iranians, so is there a special type known as
+  Anatolians. They are, however, a mixed lot, that come from parts
+  of a wide stretch of territory, extending over the interior
+  table-land to the home of the Kurds, and incorporating ideas
+  received from many districts. It is, accordingly, difficult to
+  define them as a type; but, as a rule, they are small pieces that
+  are often used for mats and pillows, with moderately long nap of
+  soft, floccy wool, with narrow borders, and a colour scheme that
+  inclines to bright and sometimes garish colours.</p>
+
+  <p>Doubtless the best of them come from the provinces of Angora
+  and Konieh, lying within a radius of one hundred miles of Lake
+  Tuz Gul. Here can be obtained the best of wool and dyes; and in
+  some of the old pieces appears the artistic drawing of the more
+  important rug centres farther to the west, but with a strange
+  blending of geometric and floral forms. Eight-pointed stars as
+  well as latch-hooks are seen everywhere, and a very old design
+  with the shape of ram&rsquo;s horns is frequently used. In many
+  of the prayer rugs the arches are of the Kir-Shehr order, though
+  the panels may contain vandykes suggestive of Ladiks. There is
+  the greatest latitude in the width of the borders, which
+  occasionally are their most noticeable feature and again are most
+  insignificant; but in either case they rarely contain more than
+  three stripes, and not infrequently only one. Red, blue, green,
+  and brown are the usual colours, but pink and canary yellow are
+  sometimes used.</p>
+
+  <p>Farther to the east, among the foot-hills of the Anti-Taurus
+  mountains, is woven a coarser type by the Kurdish tribes. With
+  the exception of wool and dyes they have little to their credit;
+  for their usual unsymmetric shapes, crude geometric designs, long
+  uneven nap, and braided fringe of warp at the ends are lacking in
+  all elegance.</p>
+
+  <p><i>Type Characteristics.</i> <i>Colours</i>, principally red,
+  blue, green, brown, and white. <i>Knot</i>, Ghiordes. Knots to
+  inch horizontally five to nine; perpendicularly, six to twelve. A
+  half knot, as it appears at back, is generally as long as wide,
+  or longer. The rows of knots are not firmly pressed down, yet the
+  warp is frequently concealed<span class='pagenum'><a name=
+  "Page_188" id="Page_188">188</a></span> at back. <i>Warp</i>,
+  wool; each of the two threads encircled by a knot is equally
+  prominent at back. <i>Weft</i>, wool, of medium or coarse
+  diameter and usually dyed, A thread of weft crosses two, three,
+  and four times between two rows of knots frequently varying in
+  the same piece. <i>Pile</i>, wool, of medium length.
+  <i>Border</i>, one to three stripes, and occasionally an edging.
+  <i>Sides</i>, a weft selvage of two or three cords. <i>Both
+  ends</i>, a web and warp fringe. <i>Texture</i>, loose.
+  <i>Weave</i> at back is of coarse grain. <i>Usual length</i>, two
+  and one half to six feet. <i>Usual width</i>, one half to two
+  thirds length.</p>
+
+  <p class="tb"><span class="smcap">Karamans.</span>&mdash;At the
+  foot of Mt. Taurus and overlooking the plain that stretches
+  northward into the heart of Asia Minor is the city of Karaman.
+  Before its subjection in the XV Century by Bajazet II and the
+  removal of the capital to Konieh, that lies sixty miles to the
+  northwest, it was the seat of a Turkish government extending to
+  the Mediterranean Sea; but to-day the only reminder of its early
+  importance are several Saracenic mosques covered with rich
+  arabesques. Of the rugs woven there during the early period
+  almost nothing is known, but, on account of the former importance
+  of the city, it is not improbable that they compared favourably
+  with the rugs of other parts of the Turkish Empire. On the other
+  hand, some of the modern products are among the poorest rugs of
+  the East, and contain little artistic merit. A feature peculiar
+  to many of them is the use of natural wool of reddish brown
+  colour, obtained from sheep which live on the mountain ranges to
+  the south of Karaman. The pile is long, the weave is never very
+  firm, and at each end is a coloured web.</p>
+
+  <p class="tb"><span class="smcap">Sivas.</span>&mdash;In the city
+  of Sivas, at the eastern end of Anatolia, and in the villages of
+  the surrounding plain, girls and women have woven rugs from time
+  immemorial; but on account of the difficulties of transportation
+  few of them reach this country. The carefully finished sides and
+  ends, the formal character of the pattern, and the almost harsh
+  effect of the strongly contrasting colours of many of them are
+  unlike what are found in the nomadic rugs made farther to the
+  east and west. In the weave is a hint of Persian influence; for
+  not only are both warp and weft of cotton, but the warp is of
+  small diameter and well spun, and one of the two threads to which
+  a knot is tied is depressed below the other. The pattern, on the
+  other hand, is distinctly Turkish. One of the best known types
+  consists <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_189" id=
+  "Page_189">189</a></span>of a large hexagon that reaches to the
+  sides and ends, and contains within it a medallion on which are
+  designs similar to those seen in Bergamos. On the white field
+  surrounding the medallion are often small rosettes and floral
+  figures. The corners of the field may be fringed with running
+  latch-hooks or a row of formal T&rsquo;s, and contain a rosette
+  at their centre. The borders are rarely wide, and often consist
+  of a single stripe that contains some conventionalised floral
+  form. Although these rugs are well woven, their crude blending of
+  floral and geometric figures, as well as their formality of
+  drawing, which is accentuated by the shortness of the nap, are
+  most suggestive of Occidental conventions.</p>
+
+  <div class="figcenter" style="width: 550px;">
+    <a name="p43" id="p43"></a><img src="images/plate43.jpg"
+    width="550" height="759" alt="Plate 43. Tcherkess Rug" title="" />
+
+    <p class="center"><span class="smcap">Plate 43. Tcherkess
+    Rug</span></p>
+  </div>
+
+  <p><i>Type Characteristics.</i> <i>Colours</i>, principally red
+  and white; also dull blue, green, and light yellow. <i>Knot</i>,
+  Ghiordes. Knots to inch horizontally seven to eleven;
+  perpendicularly, nine to fifteen. A half knot, as it appears at
+  back, is not as long as wide. The rows of knots are pressed down,
+  so that the warp does not show at back. <i>Warp</i>, cotton, well
+  spun and of small diameter. One of the two threads encircled by a
+  knot is depressed below the other at back and sometimes doubled
+  under the other. <i>Weft</i>, cotton, of medium diameter. A
+  thread of weft crosses twice between every two rows of knots.
+  <i>Pile</i>, wool of short to medium length. <i>Border</i>,
+  narrow, one to three stripes. <i>Sides</i>, an added selvage of
+  four or five cords attached in places, and with weft encircling
+  inner cord of selvage. <i>Both ends</i>, narrow web and loose
+  warp fringe. <i>Texture</i>, firm. <i>Weave</i> at back is only
+  slightly coarse. <i>Usual length</i>, three and one half to six
+  and one half feet. <i>Usual width</i>, two thirds to four fifths
+  length.</p>
+
+  <p class="tb"><span class="smcap">Mudjars.</span>&mdash;Near the
+  river Kizil Irmak in Central Asia Minor is the city of Mudjar,
+  which produces rugs that occasionally reach this country. They
+  are often classed as Anatolians, but their colour scheme covers a
+  wider range, including red, yellow, green, blue, mauve, and pink,
+  all of which may be seen in the same piece. In fact no other rug
+  of Asia Minor contains as a rule so many colours, which appear in
+  the broad borders of old, well-woven pieces with glistening wool
+  almost like mosaic work. Many of this class are namazliks with
+  arches very similar to the arches in the rugs of Kir-Shehr, which
+  is distant only twenty-five miles to the north; and in the panels
+  above the spandrel are not infrequently designs of vandykes
+  borrowed from the Ladiks. Some suggestion of the tree of life
+  often appears in the field, and again rows of flowers
+  may<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_190" id=
+  "Page_190">190</a></span> extend into it from the sides. Some of
+  the best examples are very handsome.</p>
+
+  <p><i>Type Characteristics.</i> <i>Colours</i>, principally red,
+  yellow, blue, green, and ivory, also mauve and pink. <i>Knot</i>,
+  Ghiordes. Knots to inch horizontally six to nine;
+  perpendicularly, seven to twelve. <i>Warp</i>, wool. Each of the
+  two threads of warp encircled by a knot is frequently equally
+  prominent at the back, but generally one is depressed below the
+  other. <i>Weft</i>, wool, of medium to coarse diameter dyed red
+  or brown. A thread of weft crosses twice between every two rows
+  of knots. <i>Pile</i>, wool of medium length. <i>Border</i>,
+  broad, of three to four stripes. <i>Sides</i>, a three-cord
+  selvage, frequently red. <i>Both ends</i>, coloured webs and
+  fringe. <i>Texture</i>, loose. <i>Weave</i>, moderately coarse.
+  <i>Usual length</i>, four to six feet. <i>Usual width</i>, two
+  thirds to three quarters length.</p>
+
+  <p class="tb"><span class="smcap">Nigdes.</span>&mdash;Near the
+  base of the Anti-Taurus mountains in the eastern part of the
+  province of Konieh is the city of Nigde, which is little known in
+  this country as a rug-producing centre, though its fabrics reach
+  Europe. Many of them are namazliks, that are distinguished by
+  their high geometric arches. The borders often show the influence
+  of the Kurdish tribes, and contain patterns common in the
+  Mesopotamian valley; but their colour scheme of red, blue, and
+  yellow more closely resembles the Anatolian. Most of them are of
+  small size and are poorly woven.</p>
+
+  <p class="tb"><span class="smcap">Tuzlas.</span>&mdash;Another
+  class of Asia Minor rugs rarely seen are the Tuzlas. They are
+  generally regarded as Anatolians, but are made by people who live
+  about Lake Tuz Gul in the province of Konieh. Some of them are
+  well woven, and have soft woollen pile and attractive patterns.
+  The prayer arch of the namazliks bears some resemblance to the
+  arch of the Kir-Shehrs; the panel is relatively high; and not
+  infrequently the borders have rosettes similar to those of
+  Bergamos. The principal colours are red, blue, green, and
+  ivory.</p>
+
+  <p class="tb"><span class="smcap">Kaisariyeh.</span>&mdash;One of
+  the few Asia Minor centres for the manufacture of silk textiles
+  is the city of Kaisariyeh, the ancient C&aelig;sarea, near the
+  eastern part of Anatolia. Formerly rugs of excellent quality were
+  made there; but the modern products are, as a rule, inferior both
+  in workmanship and material to those of Hereke. Frequently their
+  dyes are aniline and the colours garish. Many of them are
+  <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_191" id=
+  "Page_191">191</a></span> prayer rugs with arches resembling the
+  Ghiordes pattern, but their borders are more conventional.
+  Woollen rugs which are copies of other well-known Asia Minor
+  pieces are also woven there.</p>
+
+  <p class="center"><i>COLOUR PLATE VII&mdash;LADIK PRAYER
+  RUG</i></p>
+
+  <p><i>The rug here represented conforms in every particular to
+  one of the best types of Ladik prayer rugs. It contains the
+  beautiful border stripe of Rhodian lilies, the pomegranates and
+  vandykes in the panel below the central field, and the queer
+  designs of scrolls and serrated leaves so peculiar to these rugs.
+  It is interesting to see how the pattern of the innermost stripe,
+  which consists of a row of S-forms at the top and sides, is
+  changed so as to resemble a ribbon at the bottom, to note the
+  eight-pointed stars resting on octagons in the lower panel, so
+  suggestive of nomads, and also the designs which have been placed
+  near the two corners on the left, between the rosettes and
+  Rhodian lilies of the main stripe, as if to divert the spell of
+  the &ldquo;evil-eye.&rdquo; Such irregularities, denoting the
+  idiosyncrasies of the weaver, add to the charm of Oriental
+  rugs.</i></p>
+
+  <p class="name"><i>Loaned by Mr. Hulett C. Merritt</i></p>
+
+  <div class="figcenter" style="width: 556px;">
+    <a name="pvii" id="pvii"></a><img src="images/plate_vii.jpg"
+    width="556" height="819" alt="COLOUR PLATE VII--LADIK PRAYER RUG" title="" />
+  </div>
+
+  <p class="tb"><span class="smcap">Yuruks.</span>&mdash;Suggestive
+  of gipsies, yet widely unlike them, are the tribes of Turkoman
+  descent known as Yuruks. This term means &ldquo;Wanderers;&rdquo;
+  and they are well named, since throughout the western part of
+  Asia Minor they follow their sheep, cattle, and camels from the
+  rich pastures among the mountain tops of the interior, where they
+  live in summer, to the fertile, sunny plains bordering the
+  seashore in winter. Even near Smyrna and the slopes of Mt.
+  Olympus may be seen their black goat&rsquo;s-hair tents, where
+  the unexpected guest is always welcome.</p>
+
+  <p>In their rugs is the reflection of their untrammelled lives,
+  unaffected by the refinements of cities; and as their lives are
+  different from those of all other inhabitants of Asia Minor, so
+  are these rugs entirely distinct, resembling more than anything
+  else the work of the wild Kazaks of the Caucasus. In them will be
+  recognised the same long nap, the same massing of colour, the
+  same profusion of latch-hooks, and other simple designs. The
+  colours, however, are less brilliant, bright reds and yellows
+  being more sparingly used; but on the other hand the depth of
+  floccy nap gives a subdued richness to the dark metallic madder,
+  blue, green, and brown, such as is rarely seen in any Kazak. The
+  patterns show the usual diversity of nomadic rugs. The fields may
+  contain crude, unrelated figures, or diagonal stripes on which
+  are small geometric designs. Again from the Kurdish tribes to the
+  east may be adopted the pear designs as well as floral forms, but
+  the drawing is always far from realistic.</p>
+
+  <p>Most of the modern rugs have fine wool coloured with vegetable
+  dyes, and stout warp and weft woven to give flexibility; but
+  their patterns show a want of all artistic feeling. Now and then,
+  however, comes to light a piece that has stood the wear of more
+  than a century, showing the touch of a higher craftsmanship, and
+  with colours softened by each succeeding year.</p>
+
+  <p><i>Type Characteristics.</i> <i>Colours</i>, principally
+  brown, red, and blue, with minor quantities of yellow, green, and
+  white. <i>Knot</i>, Ghiordes. Knots to inch horizontally five to
+  seven; perpendicularly, six to nine. The rows of knots are not
+  closely pressed down, yet the warp does not show at back.
+  <i>Warp</i>, wool or goat&rsquo;s hair; each of the two
+  threads<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_192" id=
+  "Page_192">192</a></span> encircled by a half knot is equally
+  prominent at back. <i>Weft</i>, wool of medium diameter. A thread
+  of weft crosses two, three, or four times between every two rows
+  of knots, varying in the same rug. <i>Pile</i>, wool, clipped
+  long. <i>Border</i>, from four to six stripes, occasionally with
+  an outer edging. <i>Sides</i>, generally a heavy double
+  overcasting, but occasionally a double selvage of two or three
+  cords. <i>Lower end</i>, a coloured web through which generally
+  runs a parti-coloured cord, and warp loops; or the warp threads
+  may be knotted and hang loose. <i>Upper end</i>, a coloured web
+  through which generally runs a parti-coloured cord, a braided
+  selvage, and a warp fringe; or the warp ends may be braided
+  together at short intervals. <i>Texture</i>, loose. <i>Weave</i>
+  at back is of moderately coarse grain. <i>Usual length</i>, four
+  to nine feet. <i>Usual width</i>, two fifths to two thirds
+  length.</p>
+
+  <h4>ASIA MINOR BORDER STRIPES</h4>
+
+  <p>Regarded as a whole, the borders of Asia Minor rugs show but
+  slight relationship to either the geometric patterns of the
+  Caucasian, or the floral patterns of the Persian; for as a rule
+  the geometric features either are subordinate or suggest an
+  origin by degradation from floral designs, and the floral
+  features generally are represented by an orderly arrangement of
+  disjunct forms rather than by continuous vines with pendent
+  flowers. Yet there is no doubt that some were copied by Caucasian
+  weavers, and that many were derived from Persian patterns. They
+  are frequently, however, more artistic than the former, more
+  interesting than the latter, and rival both in beautiful
+  colouring and delicate drawing.</p>
+
+  <p><i>Primary Stripes.</i>&mdash;Several different stripes
+  peculiar to Ghiordes prayer rugs are illustrated in Plate
+  <a href="#pg">G</a>, Figs. 1, 2, 3, 4, and 5 (opp. Page 192). The
+  first of these is probably the oldest. It is so strikingly
+  suggestive of the Herati design of rosette and attendant leaves
+  that there can be little doubt of its Persian origin. The
+  seed-like processes of the alternate rosettes are noticeable. The
+  second, which is found in many of the Ghiordes rugs, shows the
+  same pattern more conventionalised, with the rosette resembling
+  an open pod and with the leaves almost octagonal-shaped. The
+  third is a still greater evolution of the same pattern in which
+  leaves and rosettes of nearly equal shape and size are placed at
+  three angles of a quadrangular space. The last, which is a very
+  elaborate pattern somewhat similar to the first, is found in a
+  few old rugs. Besides these, a number of parallel lines similar
+  to those of Kulah rugs (Plate <a href="#pg">G</a>, Fig. 12) are
+  sometimes seen in the Ghiordes.</p>
+
+  <div class="figcenter" style="width: 550px;">
+    <a name="pg" id="pg"></a><img src="images/plateg.jpg" width="550" height="795" alt="Plate G. Primary Border-Stripes of Asia Minor Rugs" title="" />
+
+    <p class="center"><span class="smcap">Plate G. Primary
+    Border-Stripes of Asia Minor Rugs</span></p>
+  </div>
+
+  <p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_193" id=
+  "Page_193">193</a></span></p>
+
+  <p>One of the best known Ghiordes stripes found in odjaliks and
+  sedjadehs is shown in Plate <a href="#pg">G</a>, Fig. 6. It is a
+  broad stripe with wide, vine-like bands covered with rows of
+  small flecks or flowers. Between each flexure of the band are
+  designs probably symbolic of early sun worship.</p>
+
+  <p>In Plate <a href="#pg">G</a>, Fig. 7, is represented the most
+  usual and beautiful stripe of the Ladik prayer rugs. The
+  principal motives are Rhodian lilies, and rosettes identical with
+  Persian forms, that are probably conventionalised roses. Another
+  stripe, in which the lily is replaced by a conventionalised vine,
+  is shown in Plate <a href="#pg">G</a>, Fig. 8. Both these stripes
+  are found only in Ladik rugs. Other stripes seen now and then in
+  Ladik and Melez sedjadehs are illustrated in Plate <a href=
+  "#pg">G</a>, Figs. 9, 10, and 11, each of which shows a
+  conventionalised leaf.</p>
+
+  <p>One of the most typical Kulah stripes is seen in Plate
+  <a href="#pg">G</a>, Fig. 12. It might in fact be regarded as a
+  number of parallel stripes, but as will be evident by observing a
+  large series of Kulahs it serves the function of a single broad
+  stripe. Often the separate bands are replaced by a ground of
+  uniform colour marked by parallel rows of minute flowers of
+  regularly varying colour. Occasionally this stripe is copied by
+  Ghiordes weavers.</p>
+
+  <p>In Plate <a href="#pg">G</a>, Fig. 13, is a well-known stripe
+  that appears both in Kulah and Rhodian rugs. As previously
+  explained, its origin is probably floral, though the drawing is
+  geometric. A formal stripe found in Bergamos, and consisting
+  largely of diamonds and eight-pointed stars, is represented in
+  Plate <a href="#pg">G</a>, Fig. 14.</p>
+
+  <p>Figs. 15 and 16 of Plate <a href="#pg">G</a> illustrate the
+  border stripes of Melez rugs. Each contains regularly spaced
+  rosettes, separated by conventionalised leaf forms. A much more
+  geometric Melez border, in which the rosettes are replaced by
+  eight-pointed stars and the leaves by discs, is shown in
+  Plate <a href="#pg">G</a>, Fig. 17.</p>
+
+  <p>A geometric stripe of uncertain origin that is found in some
+  Koniehs is shown in Plate <a href="#pg">G</a>, Fig. 18.</p>
+
+  <p>In Plate <a href="#pg">G</a>, Figs. 19 and 20, are represented
+  two stripes characteristic of Kir-Shehrs. The former is a dainty
+  pattern consisting of a row of bushes separated by the lily
+  design. It is occasionally found in the Melez also.</p>
+
+  <p>A typical Mudjar stripe in which the geometric patterns are
+  sub<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_194" id=
+  "Page_194">194</a></span>divided into small and richly coloured
+  mosaic work is seen in <a href="#pg">Plate G</a>, Fig. 21.</p>
+
+  <p>In Plate <a href="#pg">G</a>, Fig. 22, is illustrated a Yuruk
+  border stripe such as is frequently seen in modern pieces.</p>
+
+  <p><i>Secondary and Tertiary Stripes.</i>&mdash;In Plate <a href=
+  "#ph">H</a>, Figs. 1 and 2 (opp. Page 194), are illustrated two
+  secondary stripes frequently seen in Ghiordes and Kulah rugs. The
+  first is most suggestive of a running vine, and the second has
+  doubtless been derived from it.</p>
+
+  <p>A more ornate pattern, which generally accompanies the broad
+  band of perpendicular lines peculiar to Ghiordes and Kulah rugs,
+  is shown in Plate <a href="#ph">H</a>, Fig. 3. The arrangement of
+  three leaves in angles of quadrangular spaces suggests
+  relationship to the primary stripe of Plate <a href="#pg">G</a>,
+  Fig. 3 (opp. Page 192).</p>
+
+  <p>Two other secondary stripes found in Ghiordes rugs are seen in
+  Plate <a href="#ph">H</a>, Figs. 4 and 5. The former, which is
+  also found in Kulahs is a vine and flower subject to many
+  modifications.</p>
+
+  <p>A tertiary stripe containing a ribbon-like vine is very usual
+  in Ghiordes and Kulah pieces. One of these, which is very
+  graceful, is shown in Plate <a href="#ph">H</a>, Fig. 6.</p>
+
+  <p>Another angular vine with pendent flower, that appears as a
+  secondary stripe of a large number of Ladik prayer rugs, is
+  illustrated in Plate <a href="#ph">H</a>, Fig. 7. This resembles
+  a few Persian stripes, but the drawing of the pendent leaf is
+  characteristic of Asia Minor.</p>
+
+  <p>Figs. 8 and 9 of Plate <a href="#ph">H</a> represent two
+  tertiary stripes often seen in Ladiks and Kulahs. They illustrate
+  the evolution of patterns; for in the same stripe of a rug will
+  sometimes be seen the first of these and the simple ribbon
+  pattern of Plate <a href="#pf">F</a>, Fig. 18 (opp. Page 158),
+  and also in the same stripe of another rug will sometimes be seen
+  the second of these and a continuous row of
+  &ldquo;<i>ff</i>&rdquo; designs, as in Plate <a href="#ph">H</a>,
+  Fig. 2.</p>
+
+  <p>The most typical of all Kulah secondary stripes, though it is
+  also seen in Rhodian rugs and occasionally in an old Ghiordes, is
+  illustrated in Plate <a href="#ph">H</a>, Fig. 10. A somewhat
+  similar stripe is shown in Plate <a href="#ph">H</a>, Fig. 11.
+  The design looks like a Chinese motive, but that it is evolved
+  from a vine will be seen by comparing these stripes with those in
+  Figs. 4 and 12. All of them are Asia Minor border stripes.</p>
+
+  <div class="figcenter" style="width: 550px;">
+    <a name="ph" id="ph"></a><img src="images/plateh.jpg" width="550" height="717" alt="Plate H. Secondary and Tertiary Border-Stripes of Asia Minor Rugs"
+    title="" />
+
+    <p class="center"><span class="smcap">Plate H. Secondary and
+    Tertiary Border-Stripes of Asia Minor Rugs</span></p>
+  </div>
+
+  <p>In Figs. 13 and 14 of Plate <a href="#ph">H</a> are
+  illustrated the swastika and <span class='pagenum'><a name=
+  "Page_195" id="Page_195">195</a></span>S stripe, which are seen
+  now and then in Asia Minor rugs, such as Kulahs, and also in
+  Caucasian rugs.</p>
+
+  <p>One of the most typical of Melez secondary stripes,
+  representing processes like cogs projecting in a row from
+  alternating sides of the stripe, is shown in Plate <a href=
+  "#ph">H</a>, Fig. 15. The stripes shown in Figs. 16 and 17 of
+  Plate <a href="#ph">H</a>, representing a row of small rosettes
+  and a row of octagonal discs, are also occasionally seen in Melez
+  rugs.</p>
+
+  <p>The very angular vine shown in Plate <a href="#ph">H</a>, Fig.
+  18, is sometimes seen in Koniehs.</p>
+
+  <p>A very unusual secondary stripe (Plate <a href="#ph">H</a>,
+  Fig 19), found in a few Anatolians, represents a fret pattern,
+  which was probably copied from some monument.</p>
+
+  <p>The chain pattern (Plate <a href="#ph">H</a>, Fig. 20) is
+  occasionally seen as a tertiary stripe in the Ghiordes. It
+  appeared in Asia Minor rugs of several centuries ago, and has
+  been copied by the weavers of Caucasia. Sometimes the lines are
+  angular, and again the S&rsquo;s are separated by small round or
+  square dots.</p>
+
+  <p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_196" id=
+  "Page_196">196</a></span></p>
+
+  <h4>TECHNICALITIES IN THE WEAVE OF ASIA MINOR RUGS</h4>
+
+  <p>Legend:<br />
+  <br />
+  KNOT&mdash;<br />
+  <span style="margin-left: 1em;">H = Horizontally</span><br />
+  <span style="margin-left: 1em;">P = Perpendicularly</span><br />
+  WARP&mdash;<br />
+  <span style="margin-left: 1em;">g = goat&rsquo;s
+  hair</span><br />
+  <span style="margin-left: 1em;">s = silk</span><br />
+  <span style="margin-left: 1em;">e = each equally
+  prominent</span><br />
+  <span style="margin-left: 1em;">d = 1 to the knot
+  depressed</span><br />
+  <span style="margin-left: 1em;">h = 1 to the knot doubled
+  under</span><br />
+  WEFT&mdash;<br />
+  <span style="margin-left: 1em;">s = silk</span><br />
+  <span style="margin-left: 1em;">j = jute</span><br />
+  <span style="margin-left: 1em;">No. = No. times crossing bet. two
+  round knots</span><br />
+  SIDES&mdash;<br />
+  <span style="margin-left: 1em;">O = overcasting</span><br />
+  <span style="margin-left: 1em;">S = selvage</span><br />
+  LOWER END<br />
+  <span style="margin-left: 1em;">W = web</span><br />
+  <span style="margin-left: 1em;">S = Selvage</span><br />
+  <span style="margin-left: 1em;">K = Rows knots</span><br />
+  <span style="margin-left: 1em;">L = warp loops</span><br />
+  <span style="margin-left: 1em;">F = fringe</span><br />
+  UPPER END<br />
+  <span style="margin-left: 1em;">W = web</span><br />
+  <span style="margin-left: 1em;">S = selvage</span><br />
+  <span style="margin-left: 1em;">K = Rows knots</span><br />
+  <span style="margin-left: 1em;">T = turned back and
+  hemmed</span><br />
+  <span style="margin-left: 1em;">F = fringe</span><br /></p>
+
+  <table width="100%" summary="TECHNICALITIES" border="1">
+    <tr>
+      <td class="center20" rowspan="3">ASIA MINOR</td>
+
+      <td class="center12" colspan="4">KNOT</td>
+
+      <td class="center8" colspan="6">WARP</td>
+    </tr>
+
+    <tr>
+      <td class="center12" rowspan="2">G =<br />
+      Ghiordes</td>
+
+      <td class="center8" rowspan="2">S =<br />
+      Sehna</td>
+
+      <td class="center8" colspan="2">Number to<br />
+      Inches</td>
+
+      <td class="center8" rowspan="2">w=<br />
+      wool</td>
+
+      <td class="center12" rowspan="2">c=<br />
+      cotton</td>
+
+      <td class="center6" rowspan="2">s/l</td>
+
+      <td class="center6" colspan="3">At back</td>
+    </tr>
+
+    <tr>
+      <td class="center8">H</td>
+
+      <td class="center8">P</td>
+
+      <td class="center6">e</td>
+
+      <td class="center6">d</td>
+
+      <td class="center6">h</td>
+    </tr>
+
+    <tr>
+      <td class="left20">Anatolian<br />
+      Bergamo<br />
+      Ghiordes<br />
+      Karaman<br />
+      Kir-Shehr<br />
+      Konieh<br />
+      Kulah<br />
+      Ladik<br />
+      Meles<br />
+      Rhodian<br />
+      Sivas<br />
+      Youruk</td>
+
+      <td class="center12">G<br />
+      G<br />
+      G<br />
+      G<br />
+      G<br />
+      G<br />
+      G<br />
+      G<br />
+      G<br />
+      G<br />
+      G<br />
+      G</td>
+
+      <td class="center8">&nbsp;<br />
+      &nbsp;<br />
+      &nbsp;<br />
+      &nbsp;<br />
+      &nbsp;<br />
+      &nbsp;<br />
+      &nbsp;<br />
+      &nbsp;<br />
+      &nbsp;<br />
+      &nbsp;<br />
+      &nbsp;<br />
+      &nbsp;</td>
+
+      <td class="center8">5-9<br />
+      5-9<br />
+      7-12<br />
+      6-9<br />
+      5-9<br />
+      5-8<br />
+      5-10<br />
+      9-12<br />
+      5-8<br />
+      5-8<br />
+      7-11<br />
+      5-7</td>
+
+      <td class="center8">6-12<br />
+      7-10<br />
+      8-16<br />
+      8-13<br />
+      5-10<br />
+      6-10<br />
+      7-12<br />
+      10-13<br />
+      6-11<br />
+      7-9<br />
+      9-15<br />
+      6-9</td>
+
+      <td class="center8">w<br />
+      w<br />
+      w<br />
+      w<br />
+      w<br />
+      w<br />
+      w<br />
+      w<br />
+      w<br />
+      w<br />
+      &nbsp;<br />
+      w</td>
+
+      <td class="center12">&nbsp;<br />
+      &nbsp;<br />
+      c<br />
+      &nbsp;<br />
+      &nbsp;<br />
+      &nbsp;<br />
+      &nbsp;<br />
+      &nbsp;<br />
+      &nbsp;<br />
+      &nbsp;<br />
+      c<br />
+      &nbsp;</td>
+
+      <td class="center6">&nbsp;<br />
+      &nbsp;<br />
+      [s]<br />
+      &nbsp;<br />
+      &nbsp;<br />
+      &nbsp;<br />
+      &nbsp;<br />
+      &nbsp;<br />
+      &nbsp;<br />
+      &nbsp;<br />
+      &nbsp;<br />
+      [g]</td>
+
+      <td class="center6">e<br />
+      e<br />
+      e<br />
+      &nbsp;<br />
+      e<br />
+      e<br />
+      [e]<br />
+      [e]<br />
+      e<br />
+      e<br />
+      &nbsp;<br />
+      e</td>
+
+      <td class="center6">&nbsp;<br />
+      &nbsp;<br />
+      [d]<br />
+      d<br />
+      [d]<br />
+      &nbsp;<br />
+      d<br />
+      d<br />
+      &nbsp;<br />
+      [d]<br />
+      d<br />
+      &nbsp;</td>
+
+      <td class="center6">&nbsp;<br />
+      &nbsp;<br />
+      &nbsp;<br />
+      &nbsp;<br />
+      &nbsp;<br />
+      &nbsp;<br />
+      &nbsp;<br />
+      &nbsp;<br />
+      &nbsp;<br />
+      &nbsp;<br />
+      [h]<br />
+      &nbsp;</td>
+    </tr>
+  </table>
+
+  <p>&nbsp;</p>
+
+  <table width="100%" summary="TECHNICALITIES" border="1">
+    <tr>
+      <td class="center20" rowspan="2">ASIA MINOR</td>
+
+      <td class="center8" colspan="4">WEFT</td>
+
+      <td class="center6" colspan="2">SIDES</td>
+
+      <td class="center8" colspan="4">LOWER END</td>
+    </tr>
+
+    <tr>
+      <td class="center8">w =<br />
+      wool</td>
+
+      <td class="center12">c =<br />
+      cotton</td>
+
+      <td class="center8">s/j</td>
+
+      <td class="center8">No.</td>
+
+      <td class="center6">O</td>
+
+      <td class="center6">S</td>
+
+      <td class="center6">W/S</td>
+
+      <td class="center6">K</td>
+
+      <td class="center6">L</td>
+
+      <td class="center6">F</td>
+    </tr>
+
+    <tr>
+      <td class="left20">Anatolian<br />
+      Bergamo<br />
+      Ghiordes<br />
+      Karaman<br />
+      Kir-Shehr<br />
+      Konieh<br />
+      Kulah<br />
+      Ladik<br />
+      Meles<br />
+      Rhodian<br />
+      Sivas<br />
+      Youruk</td>
+
+      <td class="center8">w<br />
+      w<br />
+      w<br />
+      w<br />
+      w<br />
+      w<br />
+      w<br />
+      w<br />
+      w<br />
+      w<br />
+      w<br />
+      w</td>
+
+      <td class="center12">&nbsp;<br />
+      &nbsp;<br />
+      c<br />
+      &nbsp;<br />
+      &nbsp;<br />
+      &nbsp;<br />
+      &nbsp;<br />
+      &nbsp;<br />
+      &nbsp;<br />
+      &nbsp;<br />
+      c<br />
+      &nbsp;</td>
+
+      <td class="center8">&nbsp;<br />
+      &nbsp;<br />
+      [s]<br />
+      &nbsp;<br />
+      &nbsp;<br />
+      &nbsp;<br />
+      [j]<br />
+      &nbsp;<br />
+      &nbsp;<br />
+      &nbsp;<br />
+      &nbsp;<br />
+      &nbsp;</td>
+
+      <td class="center8">2-4<br />
+      2-6<br />
+      2<br />
+      2<br />
+      2-6<br />
+      2<br />
+      2/[1]<br />
+      2<br />
+      4<br />
+      2/[1-4]<br />
+      2<br />
+      2-4</td>
+
+      <td class="center6">&nbsp;<br />
+      &nbsp;<br />
+      &nbsp;<br />
+      O<br />
+      &nbsp;<br />
+      &nbsp;<br />
+      &nbsp;<br />
+      &nbsp;<br />
+      &nbsp;<br />
+      &nbsp;<br />
+      &nbsp;<br />
+      O</td>
+
+      <td class="center6">S<br />
+      S<br />
+      S<br />
+      S<br />
+      S<br />
+      S<br />
+      S<br />
+      S<br />
+      S<br />
+      S<br />
+      S<br />
+      [S]</td>
+
+      <td class="center8">W<br />
+      W<br />
+      W<br />
+      [W]<br />
+      W<br />
+      W<br />
+      W<br />
+      W<br />
+      W<br />
+      W<br />
+      W<br />
+      W</td>
+
+      <td class="center6">&nbsp;<br />
+      &nbsp;<br />
+      &nbsp;<br />
+      &nbsp;<br />
+      &nbsp;<br />
+      &nbsp;<br />
+      &nbsp;<br />
+      &nbsp;<br />
+      &nbsp;<br />
+      &nbsp;<br />
+      &nbsp;<br />
+      [K]</td>
+
+      <td class="center6">&nbsp;<br />
+      &nbsp;<br />
+      &nbsp;<br />
+      L<br />
+      L<br />
+      &nbsp;<br />
+      &nbsp;<br />
+      &nbsp;<br />
+      &nbsp;<br />
+      &nbsp;<br />
+      &nbsp;<br />
+      L</td>
+
+      <td class="center6">F<br />
+      F<br />
+      F<br />
+      &nbsp;<br />
+      &nbsp;<br />
+      F<br />
+      F<br />
+      F<br />
+      F<br />
+      F<br />
+      F<br />
+      F</td>
+    </tr>
+  </table>
+
+  <p>&nbsp;</p>
+
+  <table width="100%" summary="TECHNICALITIES" border="1">
+    <tr>
+      <td class="center20" rowspan="2">ASIA MINOR</td>
+
+      <td class="center8" colspan="4">UPPER END</td>
+
+      <td class="center18">NAP</td>
+
+      <td class="center18">WEAVE</td>
+
+      <td class="center18">TEXTURE</td>
+    </tr>
+
+    <tr>
+      <td class="center8">W/S</td>
+
+      <td class="center6">K</td>
+
+      <td class="center6">T</td>
+
+      <td class="center6">F</td>
+
+      <td class="left18">l = long<br />
+      m = medium<br />
+      s = short</td>
+
+      <td class="left18">f = fine<br />
+      m = medium<br />
+      c = coarse</td>
+
+      <td class="left18">l = loose<br />
+      m = medium<br />
+      f = firm</td>
+    </tr>
+
+    <tr>
+      <td class="left20">Anatolian<br />
+      Bergamo<br />
+      Ghiordes<br />
+      Karaman<br />
+      Kir-Shehr<br />
+      Konieh<br />
+      Kulah<br />
+      Ladik<br />
+      Meles<br />
+      Rhodian<br />
+      Sivas<br />
+      Youruk</td>
+
+      <td class="center8">W<br />
+      W<br />
+      W<br />
+      W/[S]<br />
+      W<br />
+      W<br />
+      W<br />
+      W<br />
+      W/S<br />
+      W/S<br />
+      W<br />
+      W</td>
+
+      <td class="center6">&nbsp;<br />
+      &nbsp;<br />
+      &nbsp;<br />
+      &nbsp;<br />
+      &nbsp;<br />
+      &nbsp;<br />
+      &nbsp;<br />
+      &nbsp;<br />
+      &nbsp;<br />
+      &nbsp;<br />
+      &nbsp;<br />
+      K</td>
+
+      <td class="center6">&nbsp;<br />
+      &nbsp;<br />
+      &nbsp;<br />
+      T<br />
+      &nbsp;<br />
+      &nbsp;<br />
+      &nbsp;<br />
+      &nbsp;<br />
+      &nbsp;<br />
+      &nbsp;<br />
+      &nbsp;<br />
+      [T]</td>
+
+      <td class="center6">F<br />
+      F<br />
+      F<br />
+      F<br />
+      F<br />
+      F<br />
+      F<br />
+      F<br />
+      F<br />
+      F<br />
+      F<br />
+      F</td>
+
+      <td class="center18">m<br />
+      m/l<br />
+      s<br />
+      l<br />
+      m<br />
+      m<br />
+      m/s<br />
+      m<br />
+      m/[s]<br />
+      l<br />
+      m/s<br />
+      l</td>
+
+      <td class="center18">c<br />
+      f<br />
+      f<br />
+      c<br />
+      c<br />
+      m/c<br />
+      m/c<br />
+      m<br />
+      m/c<br />
+      m/c<br />
+      m/c<br />
+      c</td>
+
+      <td class="center18">l<br />
+      m<br />
+      m<br />
+      l<br />
+      l<br />
+      m/f<br />
+      l<br />
+      m/f<br />
+      l<br />
+      m/l<br />
+      f<br />
+      l</td>
+    </tr>
+  </table>
+
+  <p>[] indicates the less frequent condition.</p>
+  <hr />
+
+  <p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_197" id=
+  "Page_197">197</a></span></p>
+
+  <h3>CHAPTER XI</h3>
+
+  <h4>CAUCASIAN RUGS</h4>
+
+  <p><span class="floatLeft"><img src="images/a.jpg" width="110" height="110" alt="A"
+  title="A" /></span>SIDE from the facts that the Caucasus is
+  rugged, that during the Middle Ages it was ruled by the
+  illustrious Tamara, and that till recently the physical charms of
+  its women made them favourites in the slave markets of
+  Constantinople, the character and history of that country are
+  to-day almost as unknown to the average reader as they were when
+  the bards of ancient Greece bound Prometheus to its rocks and
+  hung the Golden Fleece from its oaken boughs. Yet it is a country
+  of wonderful interest. Above its gorges, rivalling those of the
+  Himalayas, rise mountains higher than the Alps. On the
+  southwestern slope are combined the luxuriant vegetation of
+  tropical lowlands with virgin forests of fir and pine, and in
+  meadows and beside shaded brooks grow flowers of strange beauty.
+  Beneath the ground is undeveloped wealth of ores and mineral oil.
+  The river Phasis is the natural home of the pheasant; the crags
+  are the resorts of ibex; and in secluded glens sharing solitude
+  with bear, wolf, and boar are hidden the wild aurochs.</p>
+
+  <p>Moreover, the philologist, ethnologist, and historian can here
+  follow his favourite pursuit with as much zest as the Alpine
+  climber, botanist, mineralogist, and sportsman; for within the
+  confines of this region are spoken some seventy languages by as
+  many distinct clans, each of remote origin. Some are the
+  descendants of the early dwellers; some are the Aryan stock that
+  found its way to Europe before the beginning of history; still
+  others are but the offspring of the flotsam and jetsam which
+  recurring waves of Asiatic conquerors, surging westward in
+  ancient times, left stranded here. Nevertheless, for so many
+  generations have the present inhabitants remained among their
+  mountain strongholds, unabsorbed and unassimilating, that they
+  have been regarded as a type sufficiently pure and characteristic
+  to give its name to the great Caucasian race.</p>
+
+  <p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_198" id=
+  "Page_198">198</a></span>Though enjoying greater isolation than
+  surrounding countries, the Caucasus at different times and in
+  different ways has felt their influences. During the Augustan age
+  of Tamara&rsquo;s rule she attracted by her brilliancy, taste,
+  and industry foreign courtiers and artisans. Hardly was she dead
+  before Genghis Khan&rsquo;s horde of conquering Mongols poured
+  over the land; and rival suitors, enraptured by her
+  daughter&rsquo;s beauty, pressed their claims by invading it with
+  their Mohammedan armies. For long succeeding years Persia
+  struggled with Turkey for the mastery of the country, and was
+  about to take it when Russia grasped the prize, but only after
+  Shamyl with a few brave thousands had defeated vast armies.</p>
+
+  <p>Each of these foreign guests or foes left some impression on
+  the native art; so that Caucasian rugs show traces of Turkoman,
+  Turkish, and Persian influences. It is rarely, excepting in a few
+  small geometric figures, that there is any evidence of the
+  Turkoman influence; but it is not unusual to see border stripes
+  and field designs adopted from the Turkish rugs. Some of these
+  stripes represent both geometric and floral patterns, either
+  copied directly or derived with slight modifications from rugs
+  woven three or four centuries ago in Asia Minor or Armenia. The
+  Persian influence is apparent only in the floral forms. It
+  doubtless inspired the stripe of dainty carnations so common in a
+  large number of Caucasian pieces, the pear design inseparable
+  from Baku rugs, as well as many other figures that first appeared
+  in the rugs of Persia.</p>
+
+  <p>Nevertheless, these rugs have their own distinct
+  characteristics, which have a boldness and virility that are to
+  be attributed in a measure to grand and rugged scenery as well as
+  to centuries of struggle for independence, since in art the
+  influence of environment is most apparent. They lack something of
+  the sobriety, artistic drawing, and delicate colouring of those
+  woven in vast deserts, amid the monuments of fallen empires, and
+  in the gardens of the East; they contain on the other hand, both
+  in line and colour, the forceful expression of untrammelled
+  thought. The patterns are largely geometric; the tones of colour,
+  in which clear red, blue, green, and yellow predominate, are
+  strong. On the whole, they possess an individuality of character
+  that is not surpassed by the rugs of any other group.</p>
+
+  <div class="figcenter" style="width: 550px;">
+    <a name="m3" id="m3"></a><a href="images/map3z.jpg">
+    <img src="images/map3.jpg" width="550" height="353" alt="MAP OF CAUCASIA"
+    title="" /></a>
+
+    <p class="center">MAP OF CAUCASIA</p>
+  </div>
+
+  <p class="tb"><span class="smcap">Daghestans.</span>&mdash;In no
+  part of Caucasia have better rugs been woven than in Daghestan,
+  &ldquo;the mountain country.&rdquo; Nor is it sur<span class=
+  'pagenum'><a name="Page_199" id="Page_199">199</a></span>prising
+  that this province should produce distinctive types, when it is
+  considered that it has a length of over two hundred miles; that
+  its topography is diversified by glaciated mountains, barren
+  steppes, and fertile valleys; and that it is occupied by numerous
+  clans, many of whom differ in origin as well as religion. Some of
+  the rugs come from the city of Derbend on the Caspian Sea; some
+  come from Kuba in the southeastern corner; others, called
+  Kabistans, are produced in the country about Kuba; a few are made
+  by the Lesghians who live among the lofty mountains; and in other
+  parts of the province are woven pieces which formerly were sent
+  in large numbers to Europe and America, where they soon became
+  known as Daghestans.</p>
+
+  <p>Though their resemblance to the Kabistans is so great that it
+  is often difficult to distinguish between them, the rugs which
+  acquired the trade name of Daghestans are different from almost
+  all other Caucasian pieces. This is largely because the province
+  is bounded on three sides by a sea and a nearly impassable
+  mountain range, which render communication with surrounding
+  territory difficult, and create a natural isolation, where in the
+  course of many generations a distinct type was developed.
+  Moreover, these same physical conditions have impeded both the
+  introduction of aniline dyes, so that even among modern pieces
+  spurious colours are not frequently seen; and also the adoption
+  of new designs, so that the patterns of two or three centuries
+  ago are still largely used.</p>
+
+  <p>It is among the oldest rugs of the Daghestan weave that are
+  found many of the best examples of Caucasian textile art. The
+  dark, rich reds and blues of the fields, which are brightened by
+  the ivory, light blue, green, and yellow of the small designs,
+  resemble the fine colouring of choice Persian carpets. But the
+  patterns are totally dissimilar; for it is only in a few rare old
+  pieces, in which are copied some designs such as the lotus, or
+  the running vine with leaf and bud, that there is any likeness to
+  the realism of Persian floral ornamentation.</p>
+
+  <p>The drawing, however, is never crude, and on account of the
+  short nap and strongly contrasting colours always appears with
+  clear definition. With the exception of conventionalised pears,
+  the three-leaf sprig, which is commonly seen in the field, and
+  the narrow border stripes of carnations, almost all of the
+  figures are geometric; and are so carefully drawn, so closely
+  clustered, that they represent an appearance frequently compared
+  to mosaic work.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_200" id=
+  "Page_200">200</a></span> Even when the patterns represent large
+  medallions or stars, they contain smaller concentric forms, or
+  are divided and redivided into smaller stars, diamonds, or
+  tessellated figures, so that the effect is the same. In some form
+  or other the latch-hook is seen in almost all these pieces. Of
+  small designs, the octagonal disc is almost invariably found; and
+  animals, human beings, and the pear are not infrequently
+  seen.</p>
+
+  <p>As the population of the province is largely Mohammedan,
+  namazliks as well as sedjadehs are made; but with the exception
+  of the unobtrusive arch of the namazlik, which is represented in
+  Plate C, Fig. 9 (Page 61), there is little difference between
+  them. There is never any panel as in Asia Minor rugs; nor is
+  there a noticeable spandrel, since the space above the arch
+  contains designs similar to those on the rest of the field.</p>
+
+  <p>As a rule, the borders consist of three or four stripes
+  separated by coloured lines. Only in the secondary stripes are
+  any floral forms employed; and these, with the exception of the
+  carnation design, are rare. The reciprocal trefoil is most
+  characteristic as an outer stripe; the serrated line is also
+  employed; and it is not unusual to find next to the field a broad
+  stripe of diagonal barber-pole bars, on which are small dotted
+  lines.</p>
+
+  <p><i>Type Characteristics.</i> <i>Colours</i>, principally blue,
+  red, and ivory, with minor quantities of green and yellow.
+  <i>Knot</i>, Ghiordes. Knots to inch horizontally seven to
+  twelve; perpendicularly, eight to fifteen. A half knot, as it
+  appears at back, is as long as wide and occasionally longer. The
+  rows of knots are not firmly pressed down, so that their
+  alignment is even and the warp shows at back. <i>Warp</i>, wool;
+  each of the two threads encircled by a knot is equally prominent
+  at the back; occasionally in old pieces one thread is slightly
+  depressed below the other. <i>Weft</i>, wool of medium diameter.
+  A thread of weft crosses twice between every two rows of knots.
+  <i>Pile</i>, wool, clipped short. <i>Border</i>, three to five
+  stripes. <i>Sides</i>, a selvage of two, three, or four cords, or
+  occasionally a weft-overcasting. <i>Both ends</i>, a web, one row
+  of knots or more, and loose warp fringe. Occasionally there is
+  also a narrow braided selvage. <i>Texture</i>, moderately firm.
+  <i>Weave</i> at back is of fine grain. <i>Usual length</i>, five
+  to ten feet. <i>Usual width</i>, one half to two thirds
+  length.</p>
+
+  <div class="figcenter" style="width: 550px;">
+    <a name="p44" id="p44"></a><img src="images/plate44.jpg"
+    width="550" height="803" alt="Plate 44. Baku Rug" title="" />
+
+    <p class="center"><span class="smcap">Plate 44. Baku
+    Rug</span></p>
+  </div>
+
+  <p class="tb"><span class="smcap">Kabistans.</span>&mdash;Within
+  recent years most of the rugs shipped from the southern part of
+  Daghestan have become known in Western <span class=
+  'pagenum'><a name="Page_201" id="Page_201">201</a></span>markets
+  as Kabistans, though the distinction between them and the type
+  that takes the name of the province is so slight that it is
+  determinable only by the strictest analysis. In fact, Kabistans
+  are merely a variety of Daghestans. Both have short nap and
+  occasionally adopt the same colour scheme and patterns, so that
+  many of each class are indistinguishable from one another.</p>
+
+  <p>On the other hand, there are a few interesting points of
+  difference between the best types, which are largely attributable
+  to geographic environment. As the only easy access to this
+  province from the south is by the shore of the Caspian, where the
+  great mountain wall that forms an almost impassable barrier
+  between Northern and Southern Caucasia descends to the plain, the
+  district adjacent to this entrance on the line of travel would
+  naturally feel and show a foreign influence, while the remote and
+  more inaccessible parts of the province would be unaffected.
+  Accordingly, the designs of Kabistans are more varied, and it is
+  not surprising to find in them evidences of Persian influence not
+  so apparent in the Daghestans. In some, for instance, are pear
+  designs, like those occasionally seen in Shiraz pieces; and the
+  rich tones, that are usually more subdued than those of the
+  Daghestans, suggest the finest dyes of the Feraghans. There is
+  also a slight difference in weave. Both display the two threads
+  of warp encircled by each knot with equal prominence at the back;
+  but in the Daghestans the alignment of the two halves of the
+  knot, as they appear at the back, is more regular; while in the
+  Kabistans one extends beyond the other in the direction of the
+  length of the rug, as is the case with the Shirvans woven in the
+  adjoining country to the south. Frequently the weft of Kabistans
+  is of cotton; and the filling is not as wide as that of
+  Daghestans, which is of wool. Moreover, the Kabistans may be
+  either overcast or have a selvage at the sides, but the
+  Daghestans have almost always a narrow selvage. Among the modern
+  pieces there is a tendency for both classes to follow the side
+  finish of the Shirvans.</p>
+
+  <p>A well-known type of old Kabistans, that is also sometimes
+  repeated in Daghestans, has a dark blue field on which are spaced
+  in regular order white bracket-like designs, in which the
+  perpendicular arms are usually connected (Plate <a href=
+  "#po">O</a>, Figs. 18-a and 18-b, Page 291). Their origin is
+  unknown; but when their shape and their position in reference to
+  the rosettes or effulgent stars that are placed near them are
+  considered, the thought is at once suggested that in them is
+  reproduced after a long process of slow change a
+  conven<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_202" id=
+  "Page_202">202</a></span>tionalised form of the Herati design.
+  Other small harmonious designs are properly spaced throughout the
+  fields, and in the main stripe of the border, on a cream-coloured
+  ground, is frequently seen the beautiful pattern of Cufic origin
+  represented in Plate <a href="#pj">J</a>, Fig. 19 (opp. Page
+  228). Old pieces of this pattern, which are now growing rare,
+  represent in weave, colour, and design the masterpieces of
+  Caucasian textile art.</p>
+
+  <p>Another pattern consists of diagonal stripes with small
+  geometric figures, or of small floral forms arranged in rows, so
+  that those of similar colour fall in diagonal lines. Again, the
+  entire field may be covered with rectangular pears like those of
+  Baku rugs. Oblong odjaliks are often seen with fields of dark
+  colour, at each end of which are large geometric figures
+  symmetrically balanced with reference to the centre. But they are
+  so fringed with latch-hooks and so subdivided into smaller
+  devices, which are accentuated by the shortness of the nap, that
+  they have the effect of an assemblage of smaller designs.</p>
+
+  <p><i>Type Characteristics.</i> <i>Colours</i>, principally blue,
+  also some red, ivory, green, and brown. Knot, Ghiordes.
+  <i>Knots</i> to inch horizontally seven to twelve;
+  perpendicularly, eight to sixteen. A half knot, as it appears at
+  back, is as long as wide and occasionally longer. The rows of
+  knots are not firmly pressed down; their alignment is less even
+  than in Daghestans, yet the warp may be seen at back.
+  <i>Warp</i>, wool; each of the two threads encircled by a knot is
+  equally prominent at back. <i>Weft</i>, wool or cotton, of medium
+  diameter. A thread of weft crosses twice between every two rows
+  of knots and occasionally three times. <i>Pile</i>, wool, of
+  medium length. <i>Border</i>, three to five stripes.
+  <i>Sides</i>, generally a weft-overcasting, or a two-cord weft
+  selvage; occasionally a double overcasting or selvage. <i>Lower
+  end</i>, a narrow web, not infrequently a fine braided selvage
+  and warp loops. <i>Upper end</i>, a narrow web, occasionally a
+  fine braided selvage and warp fringe. <i>Texture</i>, moderately
+  firm. <i>Weave</i> at back is of medium grain. <i>Usual
+  length</i>, five to twelve feet. <i>Usual width</i>, one half to
+  three quarters length.</p>
+
+  <div class="figcenter" style="width: 550px;">
+    <a name="p45" id="p45"></a><img src="images/plate45.jpg"
+    width="550" height="793" alt="Plate 45. Shirvan Rug" title="" />
+
+    <p class="center"><span class="smcap">Plate 45. Shirvan
+    Rug</span></p>
+  </div>
+
+  <p class="tb"><span class="smcap">Kubas.</span>&mdash;Not far
+  from the southeast corner of the province of Daghestan, in a
+  plain watered by streams that debouch from the Caucasus, is the
+  small town of Kuba. It is on the site of an old Persian fort,
+  about which in the course of time sprang up a town sufficiently
+  important to be the residence of a Khan. For a long <span class=
+  'pagenum'><a name="Page_203" id="Page_203">203</a></span>period
+  previous to the treaty of Gulistan, in 1813, the influence of the
+  Persians had been predominant in this part of the country; and it
+  is not improbable that some of the oldest Kuba rugs now existing
+  are the work of their weavers. Many, on the other hand, have few
+  foreign characteristics either of weave or design, and show a
+  relationship to the work of the Shemakha tribes, who inhabit an
+  adjoining district in Shirvan.</p>
+
+  <p>In some of this class the floral form receives more elaborate
+  treatment than in any other Caucasian rug. One of the patterns of
+  undoubted Iranian inspiration represents a large oval panel or
+  medallion, with graceful outlines resting on a field of deep blue
+  and sable brown, streaked with waving lines of gold. Within the
+  medallion is a lavish display of large flowers <i>en masse</i>,
+  and not detached from one another or arranged in set form, as is
+  the case with most floral patterns. In each corner is a rose with
+  spreading petals that equals the largest seen in nature, and with
+  colour that suggests the beauty of a Duchess or Marechal Niel.
+  Surrounding all is a narrow dainty border of some well-known
+  Persian vine. The most recent copies of this pattern, that has
+  been followed for at least a century and a half, are so crude as
+  to resemble but slightly the oldest, which suggest the work of
+  some early Kirman weaver and are unsurpassed in beauty and
+  artistic elegance by any other Caucasian rug.</p>
+
+  <p>Other patterns are more distinctly representative of the
+  native art. The field of some is occupied by large, irregular,
+  octagonal-shaped figures defined by serrated edges and subdivided
+  by mosaic work, at the centre of which is some well-known design.
+  One of the most pleasing patterns consists of a field on which
+  with mathematical precision are placed large effulgent stars. At
+  their centre is often a much smaller star enclosed by a diamond
+  from which extend broad rays directed towards the eight principal
+  points of the compass. When softened by time the different
+  shades, such as light blue, ivory, and deep red of the enveloping
+  rays, contrasted with other shades at the centre and with a dark
+  blue of the ground, are exceedingly beautiful.</p>
+
+  <p>The Kubas and Shemakhas have similar tones of colour,
+  consisting principally of blues, reds, sable brown, and yellow,
+  to which the soft, velvety character of the wool of the best
+  examples gives a quality of richness that is distinctive. The
+  finish of their sides and ends, which is usually similar to that
+  of the Soumaks, is also identical, so that they are frequently
+  mistaken for one another, and can<span class='pagenum'><a name=
+  "Page_204" id="Page_204">204</a></span> only be distinguished by
+  a difference of pattern and a slight difference of weave.</p>
+
+  <p><i>Type Characteristics.</i> <i>Colours</i>, principally blue,
+  red, and brown, occasionally some green. <i>Knot</i>, Ghiordes.
+  Knots to inch horizontally six to nine; perpendicularly, seven to
+  thirteen. The rows of knots are pressed down, so that the warp is
+  almost hidden at back. <i>Warp</i>, fine wool; the two threads
+  encircled by a knot are equally prominent at back. <i>Weft</i>,
+  wool of fine or medium diameter. A thread of weft crosses twice
+  between every two rows of knots. <i>Pile</i>, wool of medium
+  length. <i>Border</i>, one to three stripes. <i>Sides</i>, a blue
+  double selvage of two or three cords. <i>Both ends</i>, a narrow
+  blue web of &ldquo;herring-bone&rdquo; weave, a knotted selvage
+  or several rows of knots, and short warp fringe. <i>Texture</i>,
+  slightly loose. <i>Weave</i> at back is of moderately fine grain.
+  <i>Usual length</i>, four to nine feet. <i>Usual width</i>, one
+  half to two thirds length.</p>
+
+  <p class="tb"><span class="smcap">Derbends.</span>&mdash;Near the
+  great walls built by Alexander on the Caspian Sea, where
+  mountains rise abruptly so as to leave only a narrow pass, is one
+  of the oldest cities of Caucasia. It was known by the Romans as
+  Albana, and was renamed by the Persians of the VI Century
+  &ldquo;Derbend,&rdquo; which in their language signifies a
+  gateway. No other city of Caucasia has been visited by more
+  foreign foes. Tartar tribes passed that way when entering Europe;
+  Mongolians captured it as late as the XIII Century; Russians and
+  Persians in turn held it. Moreover, the sea has offered an easy
+  approach to the Turkoman tribes dwelling to the east. It is
+  therefore somewhat surprising that there is so little evidence of
+  artistic foreign influence in the weavings; but this is due,
+  perhaps, to the fact that pieces with an authentic age of over
+  two centuries no longer exist, and such old rugs as remain are
+  very scarce; whilst the modern pieces are derived largely from
+  the mountainous districts that find a market in the city.</p>
+
+  <p>Occasionally, however, there comes to light a very old piece
+  that reaches the standard of the finest Kabistan. The field of
+  such a one may be filled with elaborately drawn pears like those
+  seen in many of the Niris rugs. Again, it may be covered with a
+  checkered or lattice-work pattern that contains within the
+  diamonds geometric or semi-floral mosaic designs. Surrounding
+  this field are three or four stripes, of which the outer has a
+  reciprocal pattern. The nap is of fine wool of moderate length.
+  At the back of these older rugs <span class='pagenum'><a name=
+  "Page_205" id="Page_205">205</a></span>is sometimes displayed
+  finely spun reddish dyed threads of woollen weft pressed closely
+  together between lines of knots carefully tied to brownish
+  threads of woollen warp; but not infrequently cotton is used for
+  both warp and weft. Such designs and technique suggest the rugs
+  woven much farther to the south.</p>
+
+  <div class="figcenter" style="width: 550px;">
+    <a name="p46" id="p46"></a><img src="images/plate46.jpg"
+    width="550" height="633" alt="Plate 46. Soumak Rug" title="" />
+
+    <p class="center"><span class="smcap">Plate 46. Soumak
+    Rug</span></p>
+  </div>
+
+  <p>In contrast with these beautiful but rare pieces, the modern
+  products are sad commentaries on the retrogression in weaving;
+  for those that are ordinarily found in the market are like poor
+  imitations of inferior Daghestans. They are of slightly larger
+  size, and have longer nap, looser weave, and cruder colours.
+  Moreover, they show evidences of Turkoman influences; for not
+  infrequently the warp is of brown goat&rsquo;s hair, and at each
+  end is a reddish brown web like what may be seen in the rugs of
+  Yomud tribes living on the eastern shores of the Caspian. Still
+  other nomadic characters, resembling the workmanship of Kazak
+  tribes, appear in the large star-like or diamond-shaped figures
+  which, fringed with latch-hooks and coloured with bright tones of
+  red, blue, or green, are often placed in simple array on a field
+  of strongly contrasting colour. There is nothing, however,
+  offensive in the colour scheme, excepting when aniline dyes are
+  used. With wear the nap of many of them acquires the soft and
+  pleasing effect of Beluchistans. Furthermore, they are both
+  flexible and durable, though entirely lacking in artistic
+  qualities.</p>
+
+  <p><i>Type Characteristics.</i> <i>Colours</i>, principally blue,
+  red, and ivory, with minor quantities of green, yellow, and
+  brown. <i>Knot</i>, Ghiordes. Knots to inch horizontally five to
+  nine; perpendicularly, six to twelve. Each half knot is about as
+  long as wide, and occasionally longer. The rows of knots are
+  generally pressed down, so that the warp is concealed at back.
+  <i>Warp</i>, generally wool, occasionally cotton. The separate
+  threads are not strung closely together. Each of the two threads
+  encircled by a knot is equally prominent at the back.
+  <i>Weft</i>, generally wool, but often cotton. In some pieces a
+  thread of weft of medium diameter crosses twice between every two
+  rows of knots; not infrequently it crosses both twice and three
+  times in the same piece; rarely a thread of coarse diameter
+  crosses only once. <i>Pile</i>, wool of medium length.
+  <i>Border</i>, three stripes. <i>Sides</i>, a double selvage of
+  two or three cords, or occasionally a double overcasting. <i>Both
+  ends</i> have a web, frequently a knotted selvage, and a warp
+  fringe. <i>Texture</i>, moderately loose. <i>Weave</i> at back is
+  of medium grain. <i>Usual length</i>, five to seven feet.
+  <i>Usual width</i>, one half to two thirds length.</p>
+
+  <p class="tb"><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_206" id=
+  "Page_206">206</a></span><span class=
+  "smcap">Lesghians.</span>&mdash;On the northern flank of the high
+  mountain ranges that extend eastward from Kazbek into the
+  province of Daghestan, live the numerous tribes classed as
+  Lesghians. Their different dialects and languages would indicate
+  unrelated origins; but their common religion, mode of life, and
+  struggle for liberty have established between all of them strong
+  bonds of sympathy. They are nominally Christians, but essentially
+  Mohammedans. Most of them live in almost inaccessible spots,
+  beneath the snow covered, glaciated ridges, and beside fierce
+  flowing torrents, where on occasions they have converted their
+  homes into almost impregnable fortresses. These are the people
+  who united with the Circassians in the long-continued struggle
+  against the Russian Empire, and followed Shamyl to repeated
+  victory among the mountain defiles.</p>
+
+  <p>It might naturally be expected that the rugs of such people
+  would partake of a character totally distinct from those woven in
+  the sunny atmosphere of Kirman, amid the sacred influences of
+  Meshed, or among the peaceful hills of Ghiordes. Such, in fact,
+  is the case, since both patterns and colouring display extreme
+  simplicity, as well as strength and beauty. Large numbers of
+  these rugs are of moderate size and slightly oblong; and are
+  flexible yet stout. Both warp and weft are of fine brown wool;
+  and as is rarely the case with any other Caucasian rugs excepting
+  the Shushas, one of the two threads of warp encircled by a knot
+  is often almost doubled beneath the other. The knotted fringe of
+  the ends suggests the work of tribes living further westward, but
+  the selvage of the sides shows relationship to the
+  Daghestans.</p>
+
+  <p>The patterns of some of these rugs are not unlike those of
+  rugs woven south of the Caucasus; and not infrequently the fields
+  contain unrelated designs such as the lozenge fringed with hooks,
+  the octagonal disc, eight-pointed stars, and S forms. The borders
+  usually consist of two or three stripes, on which is some
+  geometric pattern. The colours are few and characteristic. Blue
+  and yellow are generally present, and frequently red and brown.
+  On the whole, these pieces have an interesting individuality
+  unlike that of any other rugs.</p>
+
+  <p><i>Type Characteristics.</i> <i>Colours</i>, blue, yellow,
+  red, brown, and ivory. <i>Knot</i>, Ghiordes. Knots to inch
+  horizontally six to nine; perpendicularly, six to eleven. The
+  rows of knots are firmly pressed down, so that the warp is almost
+  hidden at back. <i>Warp</i>, brown wool;<span class=
+  'pagenum'><a name="Page_207" id="Page_207">207</a></span> one of
+  the two threads encircled by a knot is depressed below the other
+  at back, or doubled under the other. <i>Weft</i>, wool of medium
+  diameter. A thread of weft crosses twice between every two rows
+  of knots. <i>Pile</i>, wool of medium length. <i>Border</i>,
+  usually three stripes. <i>Sides</i>, an added selvage, which is
+  generally wool but occasionally cotton, of two, three, or four
+  cords. Both ends, a web, two or three rows of knots, and a warp
+  fringe. In some pieces there is also a braided selvage.
+  <i>Texture</i>, firm. <i>Weave</i> at back is of slightly coarse
+  grain. <i>Usual length</i>, five to eight feet. <i>Usual
+  width</i>, one half to two thirds length.</p>
+
+  <p class="tb"><span class="smcap">Chichis.</span>&mdash;On the
+  lower slope of the Caucasus, extending down into the valley of
+  the Terek are the homes of the Tchechens, the weavers of pieces
+  so often spoken of as Chichis. Beyond them to the north are great
+  stretches of Russian steppes, and to the south is the land of the
+  hardy Lesghians. Nevertheless, their rugs show little
+  relationship to the work of the latter or of any other tribes to
+  the north of the mountain chain; but resemble more closely the
+  work of the Shirvans in the valley of the Kur, so that not
+  infrequently they are mistaken for them. Indeed, their general
+  character is remote from anything barbaric, and is more in
+  keeping with the pleasing effect of the Persian sense of harmony.
+  All floral forms are conventionalised, but the geometric designs
+  have a delicacy of drawing, a refinement of detail, from which
+  every jarring note is eliminated.</p>
+
+  <p>Like almost all weavers, the Tchechens adopt different
+  patterns. On the field of some of the rugs is a plentiful array
+  of small devices surrounding two or three large geometric
+  figures; or again the field may be covered with pear designs
+  arranged in regular order; but most of the rugs now seen follow a
+  common type. In this the field resembles a floor inlaid with
+  beautiful mosaic work, formed of carefully cut stones of various
+  hues, studiously arranged in the form of small diamonds,
+  eight-pointed stars, or rosettes. Not infrequently the rosettes
+  are outlined by a fret device surrounding a central star. They
+  are invariably arranged in lines parallel to the ends of the
+  rugs, and this horizontal effect is sometimes accentuated by
+  inserting between each row narrow bands composed of
+  conventionalised leaves. The colours of these small designs are
+  generally ivory, light blue, pale yellow, or red; and appear more
+  pronounced by contrast with the underlying ground of light blue.
+  Now and then the nomadic instinct of the Tchechen tribes, who
+  lead their flocks<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_208" id=
+  "Page_208">208</a></span> regularly from the green pastures of
+  the ridges to the valley of the Terek, crops out in unrelated
+  devices such as combs and S forms, which they weave in the field.
+  But they usually arrange them so as to harmonise with the main
+  pattern, or else place them near the sides and ends, which are
+  almost invariably fringed with either a serrated line or a row of
+  reciprocal trefoils projecting from the border into the field.
+  This feature of a reciprocal trefoil employed as a fringe to the
+  edges of a field independently of the lines of a stripe, is seen
+  in very few other classes.</p>
+
+  <p>Often the borders, which contain a large number of stripes,
+  are as wide as the central field, with which they harmonise both
+  in colour and design. There is something chaste in the simplicity
+  of the geometric figures of the secondary stripes and of the
+  conventionalised floral drawing of the main stripe. The latter,
+  as represented in the type generally seen (Plate <a href=
+  "#pi">I</a>, Fig. 6, opp. Page 226), consists of a row of about
+  eight rosettes, connected by an angular vine drawn with such
+  breadth and regularity as to resemble a number of parallel bars
+  diagonal to the sides. In fact, this pattern would be entirely
+  geometric were it not for the three-cleft leaves, which spring
+  from opposite sides of the rosettes. Of the secondary stripes,
+  the outer almost invariably has the reciprocal trefoil, and one
+  has frequently a continuous line of eight-pointed stars. The arch
+  of the prayer rugs is similar to that of Daghestans.</p>
+
+  <p><i>Type Characteristics.</i> <i>Colours</i>, principally
+  ivory, blue, and red, with minor quantities of green and brown.
+  <i>Knot</i>, Ghiordes. Knots to inch horizontally seven to ten;
+  perpendicularly, eight to twelve. The rows of knots are not
+  firmly pressed down, so that the warp may be seen at back.
+  <i>Warp</i>, wool; each of the two threads encircled by a knot is
+  equally prominent at back. <i>Weft</i>, wool, of medium diameter.
+  A thread of weft crosses twice between every two rows of knots.
+  <i>Pile</i>, wool, of short or medium length. <i>Border</i>,
+  three to five stripes. <i>Sides</i>, generally a double
+  overcasting, but occasionally a double selvage of two or three
+  cords. <i>Both ends</i>, a web, one row of knots or more, and a
+  warp fringe. <i>Texture</i>, moderately firm. <i>Weave</i> at
+  back is of medium grain. <i>Usual length</i>, four and one half
+  to six and one half feet. <i>Usual width</i>, five eighths to
+  three quarters length.</p>
+
+  <div class="figcenter" style="width: 550px;">
+    <a name="p47" id="p47"></a><img src="images/plate47.jpg"
+    width="550" height="724" alt="Plate 47. Kazak Prayer Rug"
+    title="" />
+
+    <p class="center"><span class="smcap">Plate 47. Kazak Prayer
+    Rug</span></p>
+  </div>
+
+  <p class="tb"><span class="smcap">Tcherkess.</span>&mdash;The
+  narrow strip of fertile and beautiful country that reaches from
+  the Kuban valley southward along the shore of the Black Sea for a
+  distance of two hundred miles is occupied by a <span class=
+  'pagenum'><a name="Page_209" id="Page_209">209</a></span>people
+  known to the western world as Circassians. In their own land they
+  are called &ldquo;Tcherkesses,&rdquo; a Tartar term for
+  &ldquo;cutter of roads&rdquo; or highwaymen; and they have been
+  in the habit of speaking of themselves as &ldquo;Adighies&rdquo;
+  or Nobles. In fact, there has been no prouder Caucasian race,
+  even though their homes were often log huts and their daughters
+  were sold in the markets of Constantinople. These are the people,
+  who half a century ago finally yielded after a long, fierce
+  struggle for independence; but a hundred thousand families,
+  preferring exile to submission to the Czar, migrated to Armenia
+  and Asia Minor, where they intermarried with other races, and are
+  rapidly losing their identity.</p>
+
+  <p>Very few of the Circassian or Tcherkess rugs have been woven
+  by those who left their country. The best were made before the
+  exodus; and on account of the hardships and poverty of the
+  people, many that have come to the market within recent years are
+  greatly inferior to the excellent pieces of former times and are
+  often mistaken for the work of nomadic tribes. Not only so, but
+  crude and foreign devices have crept into some of them. It is,
+  therefore, to the older pieces that we must turn for a better
+  understanding of this class.</p>
+
+  <p>Something of the ruggedness of lives spent in struggles with
+  men and nature found expression in the fabrics, which show
+  firmness of texture, boldness of design, richness of colour. In
+  fact they resemble the Kazaks so closely in their long nap, and
+  finish of sides and ends that they are constantly mistaken for
+  them; yet they may be distinguished from all classes by the large
+  amount of brownish red or tawny colour of the field and their
+  stereotyped patterns. These usually consist of diamond-shaped
+  figures sometimes called &ldquo;sun-bursts,&rdquo; that are often
+  regarded as crude copies of the Russian coat of arms; but there
+  is little doubt that they have been derived from the medallions
+  of some old Armenian rugs of the XIV and XV Centuries, in which
+  also appear the same tri-cleft leaves so common in both this
+  class and the Soumaks. These patterns are sufficiently large to
+  occupy the full breadth of the field; and there are seldom less
+  than two and occasionally as many as four or five extending from
+  one end to the other. The strong contrast between the blue and
+  ivory of the figures and the red or tawny colour of the ground is
+  softened by the depth of pile, which in turn adds warmth and
+  richness. The borders are always of three stripes. The main one
+  almost invariably has the tarantula design and is enclosed by
+  guards with the serrated sawtooth design. Many of these old
+  pieces are ex<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_210" id=
+  "Page_210">210</a></span>cellently woven and have a dignity of
+  pattern and wealth of harmonious colour rarely seen in nomadic
+  rugs.</p>
+
+  <p><i>Type Characteristics.</i> <i>Colours</i>, principally red
+  and tawny yellow, with minor quantities of blue and white.
+  <i>Knot</i>, Ghiordes. Knots to inch horizontally six to nine;
+  perpendicularly, seven to ten. A half knot, as it appears at
+  back, is as long as wide or longer. The rows of knots are firmly
+  pressed down, so that the warp does not show at back.
+  <i>Warp</i>, wool; generally each of the two threads encircled by
+  a knot is equally prominent at back, occasionally one is
+  depressed below the other. <i>Weft</i>, wool of medium diameter.
+  A thread of weft usually crosses only twice between every two
+  rows of knots, but in some pieces as many as four or six times.
+  <i>Pile</i>, wool of medium length. <i>Border</i>, three stripes.
+  <i>Sides</i>, a two-cord double selvage. <i>Both ends</i>, as a
+  rule have a web, a heavy braided selvage, and knotted warp
+  fringe; occasionally either web or selvage may be omitted.
+  <i>Texture</i>, very firm. Weave at back of medium grain.
+  <i>Usual length</i>, five to ten feet. <i>Usual width</i>, one
+  half to two thirds length.</p>
+
+  <p class="tb"><span class="smcap">Bakus.</span>&mdash;No other
+  rugs of Caucasia have greater individuality of colour and design
+  than the Bakus. This, perhaps, is partly due to the fact that the
+  district from which they come is dissimilar to any other. It
+  consists largely of the peninsula of scanty vegetation, where the
+  great mountain chain extends to the dreary Caspian, leaving at
+  its base the narrow strip of land now famous for its immense
+  accumulations of mineral oil. Hither, during the past, the
+  followers of Zoroaster have come from all directions to worship
+  in the temple of the Guebres, where day and night the priests
+  watched the blue flame that rose perpetually from the ground, and
+  once in long intervals spread over the waters like a sea of fire.
+  This sacred spot has been owned in turn by Saracens, Persians,
+  Turks, Russians, and the Princes of Shirvan; so that the
+  influences of different religions and different races have been
+  felt here.</p>
+
+  <p>The most noticeable feature of many of these rugs is their
+  dull colours, that give the impression of being partly bleached
+  or having faded. There are subdued tones of light blue, tan, pale
+  ocherous yellow, and black, as well as light, medium, and dark
+  brown colours of natural wool; but in the rugs woven a century
+  ago the colours were much richer. None of them are used in large
+  masses excepting for the underground; nor are there striking
+  contrasts, so that the effect is somewhat monotonous.</p>
+
+  <h4><i>COLOUR PLATE VIII&mdash;SOUMAK RUG</i></h4>
+
+  <p><i>The shape, colouring, and particularly the pattern of this
+  interesting Soumak, which was probably woven seventy-five or more
+  years ago, not only are unusual but belong to a higher type than
+  is often seen. Arranged in diagonal rows on a field of red are
+  flowering bushes, that for the most part are blue and pink, but
+  at one end are green, yellow, and brown. The accurate drawing of
+  these bushes and of the reciprocal trefoils of the guard stripes,
+  the care with which the stitches have been inserted, and the fine
+  texture of the wool, as is shown even in the cream-white warp at
+  the knotted ends, alike proclaim the excellent quality of this
+  rare piece.</i></p>
+
+  <p class="name"><i>Loaned by Mr. Theodore S. Hawley</i></p>
+
+  <div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;">
+    <a name="pviii" id="pviii"></a>
+    <img src="images/plate_viii.jpg" width="500" height="873" alt="COLOUR PLATE VIII--SOUMAK RUG" title="" />
+  </div>
+
+  <p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_211" id=
+  "Page_211">211</a></span></p>
+
+  <p>An equally important characteristic is the large number of
+  pear designs, which are unlike those of any other rug. These
+  designs (Plate <a href="#po">O</a>, Fig. 6b, Page 291) are so
+  rectangular that they have lost all resemblance to floral
+  drawing; and to add to their formality, each is placed in the
+  field with studied regularity and often surrounded by a delicate
+  hexagonal shaped sub-pattern giving a diaper effect. Sometimes,
+  also, they appear in the border between an array of other
+  designs, to which they show no relation; but they never
+  constitute the sole feature of the rug as they do in
+  Sarabends.</p>
+
+  <p>At the centre of the field is often a star-shaped design
+  surrounded by a large diamond or other figure fringed with
+  radiating lines. These lines suggest the effulgence of light; and
+  it is not improbable that their origin lay in the mysticism of
+  fire worship. In sedjadehs the corners are set off by quadrants
+  of octagons, of which the diagonal sides are serrated and
+  frequently fringed with radiating lines like the central
+  medallions. Throughout both corners and fields often appear
+  eight-pointed and effulgent stars, the three-cleft leaf, S
+  designs, crude human and animal forms, and other small geometric
+  devices like those seen in Daghestans and Shirvans. But more
+  noticeable than any of these are the realistic but mechanically
+  drawn birds, which are represented in larger numbers and more
+  frequently than in any other rugs woven within the last
+  century.</p>
+
+  <p>The borders contain from three to five stripes, of which one
+  at least is always geometric; and another, as a rule, has some
+  suggestion of floral form. Often it is only the carnation in
+  profile; but now and then it is a running vine with leaf or
+  flower, adopted without modification from Persian rugs. This is
+  not, however, surprising, when it is remembered that during the
+  reign of Shah Abbas, Baku belonged to Persia, which for centuries
+  had been the home of devout Parsees, some of whom undoubtedly
+  made pilgrimages to the sacred temple.</p>
+
+  <p>These rugs can at once be recognised by their short nap, and
+  their characteristic colours and designs. They are always
+  interesting on account of their marked individuality and the
+  still unsolved symbols of Zoroastrian mysticism they may contain;
+  but in spite of the careful delineation of the design and the
+  delicate mosaic effect of the central medallions, very few,
+  excepting the old pieces, are handsome.</p>
+
+  <p><i>Type Characteristics.</i> <i>Colours</i>, principally
+  brown, tan, blue, yellow, and black. <i>Knot</i>, Ghiordes. Knots
+  to inch horizontally<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_212" id=
+  "Page_212">212</a></span> six to nine; perpendicularly, seven to
+  eleven. The rows of knots are firmly pressed down, so that the
+  warp does not show at back. <i>Warp</i>, wool; each of the two
+  threads encircled by a knot is generally equally prominent at
+  back, occasionally one is depressed slightly below the other.
+  <i>Weft</i>, usually cotton, sometimes wool, of medium diameter.
+  A thread of weft crosses twice between every two rows of knots.
+  <i>Pile</i>, wool, clipped short. <i>Border</i>, three to five
+  stripes. <i>Sides</i>, a weft overcasting or a narrow weft
+  selvage. <i>Both ends</i>, a web, one row of knots or more, and a
+  warp fringe. <i>Texture</i>, moderately firm. <i>Weave</i> at
+  back is of slightly coarse grain. <i>Usual length</i>, six to
+  nine feet. <i>Usual width</i>, one half to two thirds length.</p>
+
+  <p class="tb"><span class="smcap">Shirvans.</span>&mdash;Between
+  the rugs of Shirvan and Daghestan is a relationship easily
+  accounted for by the fact that they are adjoining provinces, and
+  that almost the only approach to Daghestan for the Asiatic races
+  among whom the art of weaving reached its highest development was
+  through Shirvan. Both districts, therefore, received ideas from
+  the same sources; but since Shirvan has been at times more
+  completely under the sway of Persia, it has yielded more readily
+  to the influence of the Persian weavers, as is observable in the
+  flower and foliate forms which are used more frequently and are
+  drawn more realistically in its rugs than in those of Daghestan.
+  On the other hand, the technique of weave as well as finish of
+  sides and ends in the Shirvans lacks something of the refinement
+  observable in the Daghestans.</p>
+
+  <p>The oldest existing Shirvans are absorbingly interesting. In
+  them the foliate forms are more noticeable than in almost any
+  other Caucasian rugs, though they may in a measure be disguised
+  by formal treatment. Sometimes they appear as large figures
+  covering a great part of the field and acting as sub-patterns for
+  superimposed smaller devices; but they are most frequently found
+  in the borders. Other old pieces contain lattice-work of
+  hexagonal-shaped diaper patterns, within which may be designs
+  abounding in latch-hooks and figures strongly suggestive of
+  Chinese devices. Such patterns, however, are unusual; as the
+  fields of most old Shirvans are covered with large medallions,
+  stars, and diamonds similar to those of Daghestans, although the
+  drawing inclines to greater simplicity of outline and detail; and
+  they have greater diversity of colour, as tones of blue, red,
+  green, and brown in a field of ivory are not unusual.</p>
+
+  <div class="figcenter" style="width: 400px;">
+    <a name="p48" id="p48"></a><img src="images/plate48.jpg"
+    width="400" height="827" alt="Plate 48. Kazak Rug" title="" />
+
+    <p class="center"><span class="smcap">Plate 48. Kazak
+    Rug</span></p>
+  </div>
+
+  <p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_213" id=
+  "Page_213">213</a></span></p>
+
+  <p>The patterns of the more modern rugs have become corrupted
+  into a mere mechanical copying of conventional forms lacking all
+  artistic spirit. Some of them resemble those found in both
+  Daghestans and Kabistans, but generally the designs are drawn
+  less clearly in Shirvans. This is partly because, as a rule, they
+  are not so closely woven and the nap is not quite so short. Now
+  and then the large medallions so common to Soumaks are seen; and
+  not infrequently the field is covered with diagonal parallel
+  stripes on which are small geometric devices.</p>
+
+  <p>There is, however, one pattern peculiar to Shirvans that
+  rarely, if ever, is adopted in any other class. It has somewhat
+  the appearance of pole medallions and consists of a panel that
+  occupies nearly the whole field and contains broad incisions at
+  each side, which nearly divide it into three or four rectangular
+  sections. Within each of them are octagonal figures, and an
+  octagonal shape is given to both ends of the panel so as to leave
+  small corners to the field. Each part often contains small
+  designs such as latch-hooks, octagonal discs, S forms,
+  eight-pointed stars, and combs, as well as crudely drawn dogs and
+  other animal or human forms. With slight modifications this
+  pattern is sometimes repeated in the prayer rugs (Plate <a href=
+  "#pc">C</a>, Fig. 11, Page 61), but the section at one end is
+  more completely an octagon, and the remainder is an oblong
+  rectangle. A more usual pattern for prayer rugs has the same form
+  of arch that is common in Daghestans.</p>
+
+  <p>Whatever the fields of these rugs may lack in delicacy of
+  drawing is amply compensated for by the diversity and beauty of
+  some of their borders, which have a well balanced harmony of
+  colours. They have seldom less than three, nor more than five
+  stripes, of which the secondary are often as interesting as the
+  primary. The best known is the one with serrated leaf and wine
+  glass, represented in Plate <a href="#pi">I</a>, Fig. 1, opp.
+  Page 226, which is found in such a large percentage of Shirvans
+  that it is almost typical of them. If the figures of the field
+  contain latch-hooks, they are very apt to be expressed in some
+  form in the primary stripe. Such a one appears in Plate <a href=
+  "#pi">I</a>, Fig. 2; and the beautiful Georgian pattern (Plate
+  <a href="#pj">J</a>, Fig. 9, opp. Page 228) is also occasionally
+  seen. A very much rarer stripe, which is shown in Plate <a href=
+  "#pj">J</a>, Fig. 8, is only used when the field has a large
+  central panel with a corresponding pattern. Now and then appears
+  a stripe with no other ornamentation than a formal row of pear
+  designs. Of the secondary stripes, the one with the designs of
+  carna<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_214" id=
+  "Page_214">214</a></span>tions (Plate <a href="#pk">K</a>, Fig.
+  1, opp. Page 230) is very frequently seen, but its beauty depends
+  largely upon the delicacy of its drawing and colour scheme. On
+  the whole, the Shirvan dyer displays a wider scope in the
+  selection of colours than his Daghestan neighbour, but the tones
+  are not always so rich or harmonious.</p>
+
+  <p><i>Type Characteristics.</i> <i>Colours</i>, principally blue,
+  red, and ivory. <i>Knot</i>, Ghiordes. Knots to inch horizontally
+  seven to twelve; perpendicularly, eight to twelve. The rows of
+  knots are firmly pressed down, so that the transverse warp does
+  not show at back. <i>Warp</i>, wool; each of the two threads
+  encircled by a knot is equally prominent at back. <i>Weft</i>,
+  generally wool, occasionally cotton, of medium or coarse
+  diameter. A thread of weft crosses twice between every two rows
+  of knots. <i>Pile</i>, wool, of short or medium length.
+  <i>Border</i>, three to five stripes. <i>Sides</i>, generally a
+  weft selvage of two or three cords or a double selvage,
+  occasionally a double overcasting. <i>Both ends</i>, a web, one
+  row of knots or more, and a warp fringe. <i>Texture</i>, slightly
+  loose. <i>Weave</i> at back is moderately coarse. <i>Usual
+  length</i>, four to six feet. <i>Usual width</i>, one half to
+  four fifths length.</p>
+
+  <p class="tb"><span class="smcap">Soumaks.</span>&mdash;Seventy
+  miles to the northwest of Baku, and about the same distance to
+  the south of Kuba, where the high ranges of the Caucasus begin to
+  descend to the sea, is the city of Shemakha. It was almost
+  destroyed by Nadir Shah, but recovered sufficiently within the
+  last century to become the capital of Shirvan and a manufacturing
+  centre of silks. It is the market place for many tribes from the
+  mountains of Daghestan and the valley of the Kur, who take
+  thither their rugs, from which its own weavers often borrow
+  patterns. By a corruption of the name of the city, their fabrics
+  are called Soumaks, though they are more popularly known as
+  Kashmirs, because ends of yarn hang loosely at the back, as is
+  the case with the beautiful shawls of the noted valley of
+  India.</p>
+
+  <div class="figcenter" style="width: 550px;">
+    <a name="p49" id="p49"></a><img src="images/plate49.jpg"
+    width="550" height="731" alt="Plate 49. Karabagh Prayer Rug"
+    title="" />
+
+    <p class="center"><span class="smcap">Plate 49. Karabagh Prayer
+    Rug</span></p>
+  </div>
+
+  <p>It is, of course, the finish at the back and the absence of
+  pile that make them so different from all other rugs and place
+  them in a class by themselves; but even apart from these
+  characteristics, they are as distinct a type as any in Caucasia.
+  On the fields of most of them are three or four diamond-shaped
+  medallions, that occupy nearly the full width of the field and
+  extend from one end to the other. Almost without exception they
+  are slightly hexagonal, and are incised on the diagonal sides to
+  represent crosses. These patterns are doubtless derived from very
+  old Armenian rugs; and it is possible <span class=
+  'pagenum'><a name="Page_215" id="Page_215">215</a></span>that
+  once the crosses had a religious significance, as it is claimed
+  that the earlier weavers of this type were a Christian sect; but
+  the present weavers are mostly Mohammedans. At the centre of the
+  medallions and in the triangular spaces at the sides are
+  flattened octagons, which are generally ornamented with some
+  star-shaped devices. Superimposed on these larger patterns and
+  surrounding them on the field, are also many small designs, which
+  as a rule are grouped with a regularity suggestive of the mosaic.
+  Some are common to other Caucasian pieces; but a few are more
+  frequently seen in this class than in any other, as for instance,
+  the knot of destiny (Plate <a href="#po">O</a>, Fig. 17, Page
+  291), and the tri-cleft leaf, drawn like a bird&rsquo;s claw,
+  which appeared in Armenian rugs at least five centuries ago.
+  Sometimes the medallions and octagons are replaced by smaller and
+  more ornate figures, but the geometric character is seldom
+  entirely lost.</p>
+
+  <p>There are also some old pieces with a totally different
+  pattern, and with fine colours that are most pleasing in the rich
+  harmony of tones. They may contain geometric, foliate, or floral
+  designs. One recently examined had a field of rose red completely
+  covered with diagonal rows of innumerable dainty figures, which
+  were evidently the conventionalised forms of small flower bushes.
+  Not a single other design appeared in the field, yet the richness
+  of colour and chasteness of pattern made it exceedingly
+  beautiful.</p>
+
+  <p>The patterns of the border stripes, that number from two to
+  five, are generally distinctive; though occasionally they follow
+  well known Caucasian drawing. The outer one has so frequently the
+  running latch-hook that it is almost typical. As a rule, it has
+  the simple form shown in Plate <a href="#pk">K</a>, Fig. 20 (opp.
+  Page 230); but now and then the more elaborate drawing of the
+  Georgian stripe (Plate <a href="#pj">J</a>, Fig. 9, opp. Page
+  228) is followed. Sometimes this is replaced by the reciprocal
+  trefoil, which is used also for the inner stripe; and a running
+  vine and rosette, such as the one in Plate <a href="#pk">K</a>,
+  Fig. 4, is not infrequently used for a secondary stripe. The
+  primary stripes, on the other hand, although most dissimilar to
+  those of other rugs, differ so widely among themselves, that no
+  one is typical. Separating these primary and secondary parts of
+  the border are frequently narrow lines with the barber-pole
+  device.</p>
+
+  <p>The old pieces are of fine texture and excellent wool, which
+  even in the warp displays a silky character. The dyes are
+  faultless, though the colours never acquire a lustre. Red and
+  blue are largely em<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_216" id=
+  "Page_216">216</a></span>ployed, but they are partly replaced by
+  brown in the more modern pieces; and in both old and modern is
+  usually an orange yellow that rarely appears in other Caucasian
+  rugs.</p>
+
+  <p><i>Type Characteristics.</i> <i>Colours</i>, principally red,
+  blue, brown, some yellow, and white. <i>Knot</i>, flat stitch.
+  Knots to inch horizontally eight to fourteen; perpendicularly,
+  six to sixteen. <i>Warp</i>, wool; each thread is equally
+  prominent at the back. <i>Weft</i>, wool, of fine or medium
+  diameter. A thread of weft crosses twice between every two rows
+  of knots in old rugs, and between every second and third row in
+  modern rugs. <i>Border</i>, two to five stripes. <i>Sides</i>,
+  generally a double selvage of several cords, occasionally an
+  overcasting. <i>Both ends</i>, narrow web, one or more rows of
+  knots and fringe; sometimes heavy added selvage. <i>No nap.</i>
+  <i>Usual length</i>, five and one half to twelve feet. <i>Usual
+  width</i>, one half to three quarters length.</p>
+
+  <p class="tb"><span class="smcap">Shemakhas.</span>&mdash;Flatly
+  woven Soumaks are not the only rugs of the Shemakha tribes. Some
+  of the same people, who dwell among the ranges of the Caucasus a
+  short distance to the north, make rugs of pile that occasionally
+  surpass in quality of material and beauty of colour scheme the
+  best of Daghestans, and are sometimes spoken of by dealers as
+  &ldquo;Royal Daghestans;&rdquo; yet they are seldom seen and
+  little known. In fact, they are frequently mistaken for Persian
+  fabrics on account of the subdued richness of their deep reds,
+  blues, greens, yellows, and browns, and the patterns which are
+  largely floral.</p>
+
+  <p>Very often the principal border stripe is the well-known
+  Georgian pattern, that occurs in so many Soumaks, even though the
+  secondary stripe be some Persian pattern. These rugs also
+  resemble the Soumaks in the coloured woollen selvage of the
+  sides, and in the narrow coloured web of
+  &ldquo;herring-bone&rdquo; weave and knotted fringe of the ends.
+  In some, the field is divided by diagonal bars into large
+  diamond-shaped figures containing conventionalised flowers; in
+  others, it is merely a background over which are strewn more
+  realistically drawn floral forms; and in all is expressed an
+  artistic perception of design and colour not frequently found in
+  Caucasian pieces.</p>
+
+  <p><i>Type Characteristics.</i> <i>Colours</i>, principally blue,
+  red, and brown. <i>Knot</i>, Ghiordes. Knots to inch horizontally
+  seven to eleven; perpendicularly, seven to thirteen. The rows of
+  knots are pressed down, so that the warp is almost hidden.
+  <i>Warp</i>, wool; one of the two threads encircled by a knot is
+  depressed below the other at back.<span class='pagenum'><a name=
+  "Page_217" id="Page_217">217</a></span> <i>Weft</i>, wool, of
+  fine or medium diameter. A thread of weft crosses twice between
+  every two rows of knots. <i>Pile</i>, wool, of medium length.
+  <i>Border</i>, two to three stripes. <i>Sides</i>, a blue selvage
+  of two or three cords. <i>Both ends</i>, a narrow blue web of
+  &ldquo;herring-bone&rdquo; weave, a knotted selvage or several
+  rows of knots, and short warp fringe. <i>Texture</i>, slightly
+  firm. <i>Weave</i> at back is of moderately fine grain. <i>Usual
+  length</i>, four to eight feet. <i>Usual width</i>, two fifths to
+  two thirds length.</p>
+
+  <p class="tb"><span class="smcap">Tiflis.</span>&mdash;When it is
+  considered that for centuries Tiflis has been the Georgian
+  capital, where culture and art received more encouragement than
+  in the provinces; that it was in constant communication with the
+  rug-producing countries on all sides; and was on one of the great
+  highways between Persia and Europe, it is surprising that what
+  has been written hitherto about Caucasian rugs has contained
+  almost no reference to a type peculiar to this city and district.
+  This is undoubtedly due to the fact that within recent years
+  hardly any rugs have been produced there, and that the old pieces
+  are few and but little known.</p>
+
+  <p>Nevertheless, now and then come to light beautiful old rugs
+  which are dissimilar to those of all other classes. The wool of
+  their moderately long nap has a silkiness that suggests a Shiraz
+  or a Meshed; the colour scheme includes a very wide range of
+  bright and positive tones, such as blue, green, rose, and ivory;
+  the weave of delicate and fine threads is as close as that of old
+  Bergamos. A glance at the ends and back helps to determine the
+  type; for the warp is occasionally of cotton, which is a
+  peculiarity not seen in many other Caucasian classes; the weft
+  which crosses from three to five times is of very finely spun
+  wool mostly dyed a brown or dull red, and strung with great
+  exactness; and the knots are tied with care. There is also
+  something distinctive in many of the patterns; for however
+  interesting they may be, precision of drawing is often combined
+  with discordance of detail. One part of the field, for instance,
+  may consist of a well executed diaper pattern; another part may
+  represent a number of stiff, perpendicular, parallel bars,
+  occupying the full width of the field; and still another part may
+  be entirely occupied by hexagonal-shaped pear designs. Adjoining
+  these may be other pear designs of totally dissimilar shape as
+  well as mystic symbols and other strange devices. Likewise, many
+  different colours may be placed in close relation, yet the wool
+  is so soft and the tones so delicate that the effect is not
+  harsh. Some<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_218" id=
+  "Page_218">218</a></span> sort of tree-form is not unusual; but
+  on the whole, the designs of both field and border are
+  geometric.</p>
+
+  <p><i>Type Characteristics.</i> <i>Colours</i>, principally blue
+  and red, with minor quantities of yellow, green, and brown.
+  <i>Knot</i>, Ghiordes. Knots to inch horizontally six to ten;
+  perpendicularly, six to ten. A half knot, as it appears at back,
+  is as long as wide or longer. The rows of knots are firmly
+  pressed down, so that the warp does not show at back.
+  <i>Warp</i>, generally wool, occasionally cotton; each of the two
+  threads encircled by a knot is equally prominent at back.
+  <i>Weft</i>, wool, of fine diameter, usually dyed red or brown. A
+  thread of weft crosses from three to five times between every two
+  rows of knots. <i>Pile</i>, soft wool of medium length.
+  <i>Border</i>, three to five stripes. <i>Sides</i>, a double
+  overcasting or narrow selvage. <i>Both ends</i>, a web and warp
+  fringe. <i>Texture</i>, firm. <i>Weave</i> at back is of
+  moderately fine grain. <i>Usual length</i>, six to eleven feet.
+  <i>Usual width</i>, three eighths to two thirds length.</p>
+
+  <p class="tb"><span class="smcap">Kutais.</span>&mdash;Among a
+  large assortment of Caucasian rugs are occasionally seen a few
+  pieces from Kutais, once famed as the home of Media, and now the
+  capital of Imeritia. The gardens surrounding its homes, that line
+  both banks of the river Rion, are fragrant with lilacs and roses;
+  in the valley beyond the city, pink rhododendrons and yellow
+  azaleas blossom beneath the oaks. Here is woodland scenery not
+  found in other parts of Caucasia, and it might be expected that
+  the weavings of the people would have a striking individuality of
+  their own; but they are little known as a distinct class. In
+  fact, they bear such a resemblance to the Kazaks that they are
+  constantly mistaken for them; though as a rule they have a more
+  oblong shape and somewhat shorter nap; they are less stoutly
+  woven, less barbaric, and contain fewer crude, nomadic devices.
+  Moreover, as this district was producing rugs before the Cossacks
+  had settled permanently in Southern Caucasia, it is not
+  improbable that some of its patterns were copied by them.</p>
+
+  <div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;">
+    <a name="p50" id="p50"></a><img src="images/plate50.jpg"
+    width="500" height="846" alt="Plate 50. Gengha Rug" title="" />
+
+    <p class="center"><span class="smcap">Plate 50. Gengha
+    Rug</span></p>
+  </div>
+
+  <p>A peculiarity of this class is the drawing of the pear
+  designs, which are found in a very large number of the rugs. The
+  extension of the narrower end, instead of being a short, curved
+  hook, is generally more developed, so that it may be as long as
+  the major axis of the pear and frequently stands almost at right
+  angles to it. Also attached to the sides of the pear are
+  rectangular bead-like processes (Plate <a href="#po">O</a>, Fig.
+  6c, Page 291). In many of these rugs, the field is di<span class=
+  'pagenum'><a name="Page_219" id="Page_219">219</a></span>vided
+  into a number of bands parallel with the sides; and through them
+  run vines, from which the pears are suspended. Or the pears may
+  be arranged in regular order on the field without the bands and
+  vines. Sometimes the field is reduced to a very small space by a
+  broad border consisting of a number of stripes, some of which are
+  often of striking patterns. One of them is represented in Plate
+  <a href="#pi">I</a>, Fig. 15 (opp. Page 226), which suggests the
+  grape vine common to the gardens of Kutais. Some form of the tree
+  of life and floral forms are also seen in old pieces.</p>
+
+  <p>A resemblance exists between the weave of Kutais and Tiflis
+  rugs, as in each the weft usually crosses several times; it is
+  generally coloured blue or red, and is formed of fine threads of
+  yarn. The wool of the nap is of the same fine quality; but the
+  warp of the Kutais rugs, which is almost invariably of wool,
+  frequently consists of a brown and white thread twisted together;
+  and the knots are tied less evenly, so that the alignment at the
+  back is a little more irregular, yet less so than in Kazaks.</p>
+
+  <p><i>Type Characteristics.</i> <i>Colours</i>, principally red,
+  blue, and white, with minor quantities of yellow, brown, and
+  black. <i>Knot</i>, Ghiordes. Knots to inch horizontally five to
+  nine; perpendicularly, six to eleven. A half knot, as it appears
+  at back, is as long as wide or longer. The rows of knots are
+  slightly pressed down. The alignment is more even than in Kazaks.
+  <i>Warp</i>, generally wool, occasionally cotton; each of the two
+  threads encircled by a knot is equally prominent at the back.
+  <i>Weft</i>, wool, of fine or medium diameter. A thread of weft
+  usually crosses three times, occasionally only once, and again
+  four or five times. <i>Pile</i>, wool, of medium length or long.
+  <i>Border</i>, three to five stripes. <i>Sides</i>, either a
+  double overcasting, or a double selvage of two or three cords.
+  <i>Both ends</i>, a web and warp fringe. <i>Texture</i>,
+  moderately firm. <i>Weave</i> at back, generally of medium fine
+  grain but occasionally coarse. <i>Usual length</i>, six to twelve
+  feet. <i>Usual width</i>, one third to two thirds length.</p>
+
+  <p class="tb"><span class="smcap">Kazaks.</span>&mdash;Of the
+  warlike Cossack tribes, which were once stationed along the
+  southeastern border of Russia to protect it from the depradations
+  of Caucasians, a number settled permanently in Circassia, and a
+  few crossed the mountains to the high plateau lying between Lake
+  Gotcha and Mt. Ararat. Here they adopted more sedentary lives;
+  but there still lingers the inherited spirit that generations ago
+  won for them the name Kazaks, which denotes<span class=
+  'pagenum'><a name="Page_220" id="Page_220">220</a></span> to the
+  Tartars, from whom many have doubtless sprung, a Marauder. All of
+  these tribes weave; but the rugs seen in this country come
+  principally from the southern district, where may also be found
+  the fabrics of other races such as Armenians, Tartars, and the
+  native people. Nevertheless, the Kazak weavings are of a most
+  distinct type, to which even the smaller Kazakjes conform. They
+  have bright, rich colours, of which a liberal amount of green is
+  almost invariably present, though sparingly used in other
+  Caucasian rugs. Only the Tcherkess vie with them in the length of
+  the nap; and no other class has such noticeable patterns of
+  incongruous sizes and shapes. They have, in fact, the most
+  nomadic, unconventional patterns of all this northern group; and
+  in their barbaric characteristics, they bear much the same
+  relation to other Caucasian rugs as those of Western Kurdish and
+  Yuruk tribes bear to Persian and Asia Minor pieces.</p>
+
+  <p>In marked contrast to the almost mosaic drawing of Chichis and
+  many Daghestans, the Kazaks show a tribal fondness for large
+  patterns. Sometimes the field is divided into three horizontal
+  panels, which may be entirely plain except for a simple design
+  fringing the edges; or as is more frequently the case, it may be
+  occupied by large, slightly elongated octagons, within which are
+  represented smaller figures. Occupying almost the entire field of
+  other pieces are large patterns like medallions, perfectly
+  balanced with reference to the centre and subdivided into small
+  sections, each of which contains individual motives. A few of
+  this class, also, have the &ldquo;sunburst&rdquo; pattern, so
+  characteristic of the Tcherkess.</p>
+
+  <p>At least half the pieces now seen are without any formal
+  pattern, but contain a heterogeneous lot of geometric designs
+  characteristic of nomadic weavings; but even these are generally
+  arranged with the idea of symmetrical balance. For instance, at
+  the centre may be a large geometric figure surrounded at equal
+  distances by pairs of smaller and similar figures. Not
+  infrequently the drawing of the upper and lower half, or of the
+  right and left side, shows an almost perfect correspondence,
+  notwithstanding the many separate designs. The most common of
+  these are eight-pointed stars, lozenges fringed with latch-hooks,
+  and what are known as the &ldquo;tarantula&rdquo; device. Of the
+  innumerable small figures, the octagonal discs and S forms are
+  the most common; crude animal and human figures are also
+  seen.</p>
+
+  <p>Excepting the addition of the arch, there is little
+  distinction<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_221" id=
+  "Page_221">221</a></span> between namazliks and sedjadehs. It is
+  small and less graceful than that of Asia Minor pieces, and
+  follows stiff lines in harmony with the general pattern. It is,
+  however, drawn in two different ways. Generally it has the shape
+  of half an octagon, or of a wall-tent with apex flattened; but
+  not infrequently it is square or slightly oblong. The narrow
+  bands that form the arch are extended transversely from each side
+  of the base to the borders; and occasionally they are continued
+  down the sides of the field to form at the bottom a figure
+  similar to the square-shaped arch. Now and then a comb, or small
+  figure of diamond shape, on which to place the bit of sacred
+  earth from Mecca, is outlined within the mihrab; and now and then
+  crude palm-like figures, indicating where the hands are to be
+  rested in the act of devotion, are represented at the sides.</p>
+
+  <p>However many stripes the border may contain, rarely are there
+  more than one of any consequence; since the guard stripes have
+  generally only the reciprocal sawtooth or trefoil patterns, the
+  barber-pole or dotted lines. The absence of important secondary
+  stripes, however, brings out more prominently the drawing and
+  colouring of the main one. The most common pattern is what is
+  known as the &ldquo;tarantula&rdquo; represented in Plate
+  <a href="#pi">I</a>, Fig. 8 (opp. Page 226). Very similar is the
+  crab pattern (Plate <a href="#pi">I</a>, Fig. 7), which was
+  undoubtedly derived from the double vine of some Persian rug, as
+  the crab-like figure may be resolved into a rosette to which are
+  attached four conventionalised leaves. Another pattern, which is
+  also seen in Kutais rugs, is the crude but striking vine shown in
+  Plate <a href="#pi">I</a>, Fig. 15, which, when represented in
+  bold, rich colours on an ivory field, makes a most effective and
+  beautiful border stripe. Other border stripes frequently employed
+  in these rugs appear in Plate <a href="#pi">I</a>.</p>
+
+  <p>Unfortunately, during recent years, many inferior rugs of
+  other tribes have been sold as Kazaks, which in a measure they
+  often resemble though they lack their spirit and character. The
+  very modern Kazaks, also, are often of poor quality, but those
+  made two generations or more ago were carefully and stoutly
+  woven, with silky wool dyed with the best of vegetable colours.
+  There is always something interestingly barbaric in their long,
+  almost shaggy nap, their masses of rich red and green, their bold
+  designs surrounded by smaller nomadic figures, all of which
+  collectively find no counterpart in any other Caucasian rugs.</p>
+
+  <p><i>Type Characteristics.</i> <i>Colours</i>, principally red,
+  green, and yellow, also some blue, white, and brown. <i>Knot</i>,
+  Ghiordes. Knots to inch<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_222"
+  id="Page_222">222</a></span> horizontally six to nine;
+  perpendicularly, seven to ten. The rows of knots are pressed
+  down, so that the warp is hidden at back. <i>Warp</i>, wool; each
+  of the two threads encircled by a knot is equally prominent at
+  back. <i>Weft</i>, wool, of coarse diameter, usually dyed red or
+  brown. A thread of weft generally crosses only twice between
+  every two rows of knots, but occasionally three or four times.
+  <i>Pile</i>, wool, clipped long. <i>Border</i>, three to five
+  stripes. <i>Sides</i>, a double overcasting attached in
+  figure-eight fashion to the sides, or a double selvage having
+  from three to five cords. <i>Lower end</i>, a red or brown web
+  and warp loops, or a braided selvage and fringe. <i>Upper
+  end</i>, a red or brown web, occasionally a braided selvage or
+  several rows of knots, and a warp fringe. <i>Texture</i>, stout.
+  <i>Weave</i> at back is of very coarse grain. <i>Usual
+  length</i>, five to twelve feet. <i>Usual width</i>, one third to
+  three quarters length.</p>
+
+  <p class="tb"><span class="smcap">Karabaghs.</span>&mdash;To the
+  southeast of Lake Gotcha and north of the river Aras, that
+  divides Caucasia from Persia, is the district of Karabagh, a name
+  signifying &ldquo;Black Vineyard.&rdquo; On account of its
+  geographic position, it has been subject to the Shahs for long
+  periods, during the many struggles between the two countries. It
+  is, moreover, separated from the rug-producing district of
+  Karadagh by the river only; and its southern border is less than
+  eighty miles distant from the city of Tabriz, to which many of
+  its rugs are taken. For these reasons it would be only natural to
+  expect that the weavings of Karabagh would show more of the
+  Persian influence than those of any other part of Caucasia. Such,
+  indeed, is true, when applied to the oldest pieces; but it is not
+  at all true in the case of a large percentage of the modern
+  products.</p>
+
+  <p>Within recent years large numbers of these coarsely made and
+  wretchedly dyed rugs have reached the Western markets. Some of
+  them resemble Kazaks in their geometric figures; but differ from
+  them in their workmanship, since one of the two threads encircled
+  by a knot is depressed; they are much more loosely woven; they
+  are not so large; nor for the most part are they so heavy. Other
+  pieces often lack the symbolic and other small designs that
+  render nomadic rugs so interesting. Occasionally the central
+  field is almost figureless, or there may be large expanses of
+  white or some raw colour such as startling red, yellow, or blue,
+  on which appear stiffly and crudely drawn nondescript
+  devices.</p>
+
+  <div class="figcenter" style="width: 550px;">
+    <a name="p51" id="p51"></a><img src="images/plate51.jpg"
+    width="550" height="738" alt="Plate 51. Royal Bokhara Rug"
+    title="" />
+
+    <p class="center"><span class="smcap">Plate 51. Royal Bokhara
+    Rug</span></p>
+  </div>
+
+  <p>It is a relief to turn from these poor pieces to those woven
+  half <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_223" id=
+  "Page_223">223</a></span>a century ago, with less obtrusive
+  colouring and more chaste patterns. Many of the old pieces are
+  oblong sedjadehs, which have often a length almost twice the
+  breadth; though the more modern pieces incline to smaller and
+  nearly square sizes. There are also namazliks that do not always
+  religiously follow the usual pattern; for now and then one is
+  seen with an arch of several steps, rising from near the middle
+  of the sides, and with a diamond for the sacred earth or pebble
+  from Mecca, as is shown in Plate <a href="#pc">C</a>, Fig. 12
+  (Page 61). The particular piece from which this was drawn was
+  over fifty years old and was three fourths as wide as long.
+  Scattered over the main field, which was yellowish brown, and the
+  spandrels, which were white, were geometrically shaped flowers
+  with long angular stems tinted with blue, green, and pinkish
+  red.</p>
+
+  <p>The borders show as great diversity as the fields, but one
+  stripe usually contains a concession to the Persian and another
+  to the Caucasian tradition. For instance, the primary stripe may
+  be of Iranian character flanked by the running latch-hook; or it
+  may be the well-known crab pattern, while the adjacent stripe may
+  be a running vine of simple form.</p>
+
+  <p>Many of these old pieces are very handsome and equal in
+  artistic finish the best of Caucasian rugs; the drawing is
+  carefully executed; the colours are rich; the weave is fair; but
+  like the rare old rugs of Daghestan and Tiflis, are now seldom
+  seen.</p>
+
+  <p><i>Type Characteristics.</i> <i>Colours</i>, principally red,
+  blue, yellow, and white. <i>Knot</i>, Ghiordes. Knots to inch
+  horizontally six to ten; perpendicularly, seven to ten. The rows
+  of knots are only slightly pressed down, yet the warp is
+  generally concealed at back. <i>Warp</i>, wool; one of the two
+  threads encircled by a half knot is depressed below the other at
+  back. <i>Weft</i>, wool, of medium or coarse diameter, sometimes
+  dyed red. A thread of weft crosses twice between every two rows
+  of knots. <i>Pile</i>, wool, of short or medium length.
+  <i>Border</i>, three stripes. <i>Sides</i>, generally a double
+  selvage of two or three cords, in lengths of different colours;
+  occasionally a double overcasting attached figure-eight fashion.
+  <i>Lower end</i>, a web and warp loops, or a braided selvage, one
+  row of knots or more, and a warp fringe. <i>Upper end</i>, a web,
+  a web turned back and hemmed, or a braided selvage, one row of
+  knots or more, and a warp fringe. <i>Texture</i>, loose.
+  <i>Weave</i> at back is of coarse grain. <i>Usual length</i>,
+  four to nine feet. <i>Usual width</i>, one half to three quarters
+  length.</p>
+
+  <p class="tb"><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_224" id=
+  "Page_224">224</a></span><span class=
+  "smcap">Shushas.</span>&mdash;About seventy miles to the
+  southeast of Lake Gotcha is Shusha, capital of Karabagh. Nearly
+  two centuries ago, it was built by Nadir Shah on an almost
+  inaccessible mountain side to guard the northern boundary of
+  Persia, which had been extended to the Caucasus. It has now about
+  twelve thousand inhabitants, and is the market place for numerous
+  tribes that are scattered over the dry plains as far as the Aras
+  river. In this city and in the suburbs are woven rugs that are
+  frequently imported to this country and sold under several names,
+  yet are of a distinct type. They resemble the Karabaghs of the
+  surrounding country but differ from them in their richer and more
+  subdued colours as well as in the stoutness of weave. One thread
+  of warp to each knot is doubled beneath the other, whereas in the
+  rugs of the desert tribes it is only depressed.</p>
+
+  <p><i>Type Characteristics.</i> <i>Colours</i>, principally dark
+  blue, red, and brown, with minor quantities of green and yellow.
+  <i>Knot</i>, Ghiordes. Knots to inch horizontally seven to
+  twelve; perpendicularly, six to eleven. The rows of knots are
+  only slightly pressed down, so that the warp shows at back.
+  <i>Warp</i>, wool; one of the two threads encircled by a knot is
+  much depressed below the other at back, and frequently doubled
+  under the other. <i>Weft</i>, wool, of medium diameter, generally
+  dyed red. A thread of weft crosses twice between every two rows
+  of knots. <i>Pile</i>, wool of medium length. <i>Border</i>,
+  three stripes. <i>Sides</i>, a double selvage of two or three
+  cords, often attached to the sides in figure-eight fashion.
+  <i>Lower end</i>, a narrow web and warp loops. <i>Upper end</i>,
+  a web that is sometimes turned back and hemmed, and a warp
+  fringe. <i>Texture</i>, moderately firm. <i>Weave</i> at back is
+  of slightly coarse grain. <i>Usual length</i>, four to nine feet.
+  <i>Usual width</i>, one half to three quarters length.</p>
+
+  <p class="tb"><span class="smcap">Genghas.</span>&mdash;Over the
+  land lying between lakes Gotcha, Van, and Urumiah, in Caucasia,
+  Armenia, and Persia, tribes of mixed origin wander back and
+  forth, but frequently gather at the yearly fair of Elizabethpol.
+  During the period when the Persian rule extended over the
+  country, it was the residence of a Khan and an important centre
+  of trade. As it was then known as Ganja or Gengha, the weavings
+  of these nomads, which were marketed there, acquired that
+  name.</p>
+
+  <div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;">
+    <a name="p52" id="p52"></a><img src="images/plate52.jpg"
+    width="500" height="680" alt="Plate 52. Princess Bokhara Rug"
+    title="" />
+
+    <p class="center"><span class="smcap">Plate 52. Princess
+    Bokhara Rug</span></p>
+  </div>
+
+  <p>Naturally they are a heterogeneous lot containing ideas
+  incorporated from many sources; but they resemble the Kazaks more
+  <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_225" id=
+  "Page_225">225</a></span>than anything else, and are frequently
+  mistaken for them. Yet some of the distinctions are very marked:
+  they have a more oblong shape; the nap is shorter; and they are
+  less stoutly woven. In the Kazaks a thread of weft, as a rule,
+  crosses only twice between two rows of knots, which are firmly
+  pressed down; but in these rugs a thread of weft crosses from
+  four to eight times between two rows of knots, which are not
+  firmly pressed down, so that the narrow filling of weft is
+  sometimes even four times as wide as a row of knots and presents
+  a bead-like appearance. In the colour scheme of numerous pieces,
+  which in many respects resembles that of Karabaghs, is often a
+  preponderance of ivory white. There is no characteristic pattern.
+  The field may be covered with diagonal stripes as in some
+  Shirvans; it may consist largely of lozenges fringed with
+  latch-hooks and tarantula devices; again, it may have some large
+  central figure surrounded by a motley lot of emblematic as well
+  as apparently meaningless devices, or crudely drawn human,
+  animal, or floral forms. The borders, likewise, include a wide
+  scope of patterns. It is, therefore, largely by the character of
+  the weave, quality of material, and finish of sides and ends,
+  that these pieces can be distinguished from other nomadic
+  products.</p>
+
+  <p><i>Type Characteristics.</i> <i>Colours</i>, principally blue,
+  red, and white, with minor quantities of green, yellow, and
+  brown. <i>Knot</i>, Ghiordes. Knots to inch horizontally six to
+  eight; perpendicularly, six to nine. A half knot, as it appears
+  at back, is longer than wide. The rows of knots are not firmly
+  pressed down, so that the warp shows at the back. <i>Warp</i>,
+  generally wool, occasionally goat&rsquo;s hair; each of the two
+  threads encircled by a knot is equally prominent at the back.
+  <i>Weft</i>, wool, of medium diameter and usually dyed red. A
+  thread of weft crosses twice between every two rows of knots, but
+  generally three and frequently as many as six or eight times.
+  <i>Pile</i>, wool of medium length. <i>Border</i>, three or four
+  stripes. <i>Sides</i>, a double selvage of two, three, or four
+  cords. <i>Lower end</i>, a web, usually coloured red, and warp
+  loops. <i>Upper end</i>, a web to which a braided selvage is
+  often added, and a warp fringe. <i>Texture</i>, very loose.
+  <i>Weave</i> at back is of coarse grain. <i>Usual length</i>,
+  five to nine feet. <i>Usual width</i>, two fifths to two thirds
+  length.</p>
+
+  <h4>BORDER STRIPES</h4>
+
+  <p>Disregarding a very few floral secondary stripes that have
+  been derived from Persian rugs, the Caucasian borders are
+  characterised<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_226" id=
+  "Page_226">226</a></span> by geometric patterns, which
+  distinguish them from other groups. But were it possible to trace
+  them to their origin, it would doubtless be found that a very
+  large number that are now strictly geometric have degenerated
+  from leaf and flower patterns. Of the remainder, some are
+  symbolic and others are crude copies of familiar objects. The
+  more artistic and realistically drawn floral patterns appear in
+  the less conspicuous secondary stripes; but on the other hand the
+  primary stripes contain a number of unusually interesting
+  patterns, which have been copied for centuries.</p>
+
+  <p class="tb"><span class="smcap">Primary
+  Stripes.</span>&mdash;The cup and serrated leaf pattern (Plate
+  <a href="#pi">I</a>, Fig. 1, opp. Page 226) appears so frequently
+  in Shirvans as to be almost typical. It is also occasionally seen
+  in Daghestans and Kabistans; but probably originated in Southern
+  Caucasia or Armenia, since it is found similarly drawn in rugs
+  woven in that district about 1500 <span class="smcap">a.
+  d.</span> It is a pattern that scarcely varies with time or
+  locality except in the number of serrations to the leaf and in
+  the shape of the cup.</p>
+
+  <p>Serrated leaf patterns, represented in Figs. 2 and 3, Plate
+  <a href="#pi">I</a>, are sometimes seen in Kazak and other
+  nomadic rugs. It is not improbable that they have a common origin
+  with the Shirvan cup and leaf pattern.</p>
+
+  <p>In the stripe represented in Plate <a href="#pi">I</a>, Fig.
+  4, is a series of wine cup rosettes that are occasionally seen in
+  the old rugs from the Shirvan district. In fact, the wine cup
+  design is a favourite there.</p>
+
+  <p>Another stripe, in which a somewhat similar cup appears, is
+  shown in Plate <a href="#pi">I</a>, Fig. 5. This is an old
+  nomadic pattern not frequently seen.</p>
+
+  <p>Fig. 6 of Plate <a href="#pi">I</a>, represents the well-known
+  Chichi border stripe, composed of rosettes separated by
+  diagonally drawn ribbon-like bars. To the rosettes are attached
+  tri-cleft leaves. This stripe suggests at once some Persian vine
+  and flower.</p>
+
+  <p>What is known as the crab pattern (Plate <a href="#pi">I</a>,
+  Fig. 7), is seen in Kazaks and other Caucasian nomadic rugs, as
+  well as in a few very modern Asia Minor pieces. Though its
+  resemblance to a crab is noticeable, it is really a rosette to
+  which are attached four crudely drawn leaves, that frequently
+  contain smaller designs at their centres.</p>
+
+  <div class="figcenter" style="width: 550px;">
+    <a name="pi" id="pi"></a><img src="images/platei.jpg" width="550" height="793" alt=
+    "Plate I. Primary Border-Stripes of Caucasian Rugs" title="" />
+
+    <p class="center"><span class="smcap">Plate I. Primary
+    Border-Stripes of Caucasian Rugs</span></p>
+  </div>
+
+  <p>Slightly resembling the last is the so-called tarantula
+  pattern (Plate <a href="#pi">I</a>, Fig. 8), that was possibly
+  derived from the stripe with an eight-pointed star (Plate
+  <a href="#pk">K</a>, Fig. 12, opp. Page 230); but it seems more
+  <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_227" id=
+  "Page_227">227</a></span>probable that the inspiration is Iranian
+  and that it is intended for rosette and double vine. This stripe
+  is found in Kazaks, Genghas, Tcherkess, and other nomadic
+  rugs.</p>
+
+  <p>Somewhat like the last is the stripe of Plate <a href=
+  "#pi">I</a>, Fig. 9, that is now and then seen in old Tiflis and
+  other rugs of Southern Caucasia. It suggests a geometric rosette
+  and double vine.</p>
+
+  <p>Occasionally the dainty clover-leaf design, represented in
+  Plate <a href="#pi">I</a>, Fig. 10, is used by the nomadic
+  weavers. It is almost the only reciprocal pattern found in a
+  Caucasian primary stripe.</p>
+
+  <p>The repetitive urn-shaped pattern of Plate <a href=
+  "#pi">I</a>, Fig. 11 is once in a while seen in old rugs of the
+  Daghestan country.</p>
+
+  <p>On account of the resemblance between the stripes shown in
+  Plate <a href="#pi">I</a>, Figs. 12 and 13, they have probably a
+  common origin. Both are found in rugs of the Daghestan and
+  Shirvan districts, and the former is occasionally seen in rugs of
+  Asia Minor. Sometimes smaller adventitious devices are placed at
+  the sides of the stripes between the rosettes.</p>
+
+  <p>Resembling the last is the pattern shown in Plate <a href=
+  "#pi">I</a>, Fig. 14, which is commonly seen in Shirvan rugs and
+  kilims. It is purely geometric and resembles one used in Western
+  Asia Minor rugs of the XV Century, from which it may have been
+  derived.</p>
+
+  <p>Though greatly conventionalised, the pattern represented in
+  Plate <a href="#pi">I</a>, Fig. 15 is a vine and leaf derived
+  from much more ornate forms, which may be seen in a XVI Century
+  Asia Minor piece that is in the British Museum. It is now seldom
+  copied, but was once a popular pattern for the Kazak and Kutais
+  weavers.</p>
+
+  <p>Some form of the latch-hook appears in a large number of
+  Caucasian stripes, but mostly in nomadic pieces. Figs. 16, 17,
+  18, 19, and 20 of Plate <a href="#pi">I</a>, represent patterns
+  found mostly in old Kazaks and kindred rugs. The last one is also
+  occasionally used as a secondary stripe. The patterns shown in
+  Plate <a href="#pi">I</a>, Figs. 21 and 22 are from stripes
+  sometimes seen in the Daghestan and Shirvan districts.</p>
+
+  <p>A much more interesting stripe because of its well
+  authenticated antiquity, is the one shown in Plate <a href=
+  "#pj">J</a>, Fig. 1 (opp. Page 228). It is found in rugs made in
+  Southern Caucasia two centuries ago, and according to Dr. Martin
+  has been used since the XII Century. Probably as the result of
+  copying, the design appears reversed in many old rugs.<a name=
+  "FNanchor_30" id="FNanchor_30"></a><a href="#Footnote_30" class=
+  "fnanchor">30</a> These stripes are seen in comparatively recent
+  pieces, but principally</p>
+
+  <p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_228" id=
+  "Page_228">228</a></span></p>
+
+  <p>in those of the Daghestan and Shirvan districts. Though the
+  latch-hook is suggested by the small triangular parts, it is more
+  probable that originally they were intended for leaves. In a few
+  stripes the design is elongated, and in place of a single
+  crossbar there are several, forming a figure that slightly
+  resembles a poinsetta, which is the term occasionally applied to
+  it by weavers.</p>
+
+  <p>The stripe shown in Plate <a href="#pj">J</a>, Fig. 2, which
+  is found in Kazak and other nomadic rugs, is interesting as
+  representing a vine of which the pendant flower is replaced by a
+  T formed by latch-hooks.</p>
+
+  <p>In Figs. 3 and 4 of Plate <a href="#pj">J</a>, are patterns of
+  stripes found in rugs of the Shirvan and Daghestan districts. As
+  they are several centuries old, they may be derived from Armenian
+  patterns, to which they show kinship. Both patterns are at times
+  reversed as the result of copying.<a name="FNanchor_31" id=
+  "FNanchor_31"></a><a href="#Footnote_31" class="fnanchor">31</a>
+  A stripe also used in the same districts and probably of similar
+  origin is seen in Plate <a href="#pj">J</a>, Fig. 5.</p>
+
+  <p>Differing from any of these because of their utilitarian
+  origin, are the separate designs, which arranged in perpendicular
+  rows, form the &ldquo;churn&rdquo; stripe of Plate <a href=
+  "#pj">J</a>, Fig. 6. Each of them represents crude machines for
+  churning milk, which were formerly used by the nomadic tribes of
+  Southern Caucasia and Armenia, who constructed them out of logs
+  with a length of about five feet, and placed the sharpened base
+  in the ground. Then hanging a goat&rsquo;s skin filled with milk
+  over each of the sides, and seating themselves in the middle,
+  they turned first one then the other. As might be expected, these
+  stripes belong entirely to nomadic rugs.</p>
+
+  <p>Figs. 7 and 8 of Plate <a href="#pj">J</a>, represent stripes
+  sometimes seen in Shirvans. The latter is undoubtedly derived
+  from the prayer patterns that are often used in these rugs.</p>
+
+  <p>What is known as the Georgian stripe is shown in Plate
+  <a href="#pj">J</a>, Fig. 9. It is found in Daghestans,
+  Kabistans, Shirvans, Soumaks, Shemakhas, and Kubas. Though a
+  primary stripe, it is rarely placed at the centre of the border,
+  but at the outer or the inner side, or at both sides with a less
+  ornate stripe between. As a rule it accompanies only the more
+  artistic rugs.</p>
+
+  <p>Generally the primary stripes of Soumaks are different from
+  those of other rugs. A few appear in Figs. 10, 11 and 12 of Plate
+  <a href="#pj">J</a>. The last is interesting on account of the
+  leaf-like forms of the octagonal designs.</p>
+
+  <div class="figcenter" style="width: 550px;">
+    <a name="pj" id="pj"></a><img src="images/platej.jpg" width=
+    "550" height="794" alt=
+    "Plate J. Primary Border-Stripes of Caucasian Rugs" title=
+    "Plate J. Primary Border-Stripes of Caucasian Rugs" />
+
+    <p class="center"><span class="smcap">Plate J. Primary
+    Border-Stripes of Caucasian Rugs</span></p>
+  </div>
+
+  <p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_229" id=
+  "Page_229">229</a></span></p>
+
+  <p>The stripes seen in Plate <a href="#pj">J</a>, Figs. 13, 14
+  and 15 are found only in nomadic rugs. The last is interesting
+  principally on account of the swastikas.</p>
+
+  <p>And old form now and then seen in the Daghestan-Shirvan
+  classes appear in Plate <a href="#pj">J</a>, Fig. 16. It is an
+  archaic pattern copied from a most interesting Daghestan prayer
+  rug.</p>
+
+  <p>The stripe shown in Plate <a href="#pj">J</a>, Fig. 17 is
+  sometimes adopted in rugs of Southern Caucasia, such as the
+  Kutais and Kazak.</p>
+
+  <p>Another very old pattern found in the borders of the
+  Daghestan-Shirvan classes is shown in Plate <a href="#pj">J</a>,
+  Fig. 18. Though it suggests the narrow tertiary stripes known as
+  &ldquo;barber-poles,&rdquo; it differs from them by being very
+  much wider, and by containing bars of many different colours, as
+  red, yellow, cream, blue, green, and brown, which generally
+  contain short, oblong dashes.</p>
+
+  <p>A very interesting stripe, found almost exclusively in rugs
+  from the districts of Daghestan and Shirvan, is the Cufic pattern
+  of Plate <a href="#pj">J</a>, Fig. 19. It is particularly
+  characteristic of old Daghestans and Kabistans, but must have
+  been introduced through Shirvan from Armenia, as it can be traced
+  through a gradation of changes to stripes of Cufic characters
+  used in Asia Minor rugs of the XV Century.</p>
+
+  <p>Plate <a href="#pj">J</a>, Fig. 20 represents a
+  &ldquo;bracket-chain&rdquo; pattern that probably originated in
+  Asia Minor, but is occasionally found in the rugs of
+  Caucasia.</p>
+
+  <p>In Plate <a href="#pj">J</a>, Fig. 21 is a stripe representing
+  scorpions, that is very rarely seen in Shirvans; and in Fig. 22
+  is a stripe representing birds, sometimes seen in Bakus.</p>
+
+  <p class="tb"><span class="smcap">Secondary and Tertiary
+  Stripes.</span>&mdash;As the pattern shown in Plate <a href=
+  "#pk">K</a>, Fig. 1 (opp. Page 230) shows in profile flowers
+  representing carnations, it has been called the &ldquo;carnation
+  pattern.&rdquo; It is very common in Shirvans, Kabistans, and
+  Daghestans.</p>
+
+  <p>Less frequently seen are the rectangular vine with a design
+  like a three-leaf clover, shown in Plate <a href="#pk">K</a>,
+  Fig. 2, and the very graceful vine with leaf and flower shown in
+  Fig. 3, both of which are indiscriminately used in place of the
+  carnation pattern in rugs with the same primary stripe. The
+  latter is the most dainty and graceful Caucasian floral stripe.
+  It is found in pieces of the Kabistan and Daghestan classes made
+  over a century and a half ago, and is probably of Iranian
+  extraction.</p>
+
+  <p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_230" id=
+  "Page_230">230</a></span>Another floral pattern from the same
+  district is seen in Plate <a href="#pk">K</a>, Fig. 4. It often
+  accompanies the Georgian stripe of Daghestans and Soumaks, with
+  which its stiff drawing harmonises.</p>
+
+  <p>Likewise, the stripe shown in Fig. 5 is found now and then in
+  the same classes of rugs. Similar rosettes are sometimes
+  represented in Persian stripes that show the influence of nomadic
+  weavers.</p>
+
+  <p>Simple forms of the running vine which are seen mostly in the
+  rugs of Southern Caucasia are represented in Plate <a href=
+  "#pk">K</a>, Figs. 6, 7, 8, 9, and 10. All are old patterns. The
+  third appears in an Asia Minor carpet woven about 1250
+  <span class="smcap">a. d.</span> The fourth is found in some of
+  the oldest remaining rugs from Southern Caucasia, that date back
+  two and a half centuries; and a pattern similar to the last is
+  seen in some Persian carpets made about 1650 <span class=
+  "smcap">a. d.</span></p>
+
+  <p>Plate <a href="#pk">K</a>, Figs. 11 and 12 represent stripes
+  sometimes seen in Chichis and a few other Caucasian rugs.</p>
+
+  <p>A very simple pattern, but one that at times is very
+  attractive on account of its delicate colouring, is shown in
+  Plate <a href="#pk">K</a>, Fig. 13, and another is shown in Fig.
+  14. Both are used principally in rugs of Southern Caucasia.</p>
+
+  <p>The stripe represented in Plate <a href="#pk">K</a>, Fig, 15,
+  is found in very old rugs of the Daghestan and Derbend types; and
+  there is a tradition among some of the native weavers that the
+  designs originally represented boat hooks used by the sailors of
+  the Caspian Sea. It is not unreasonable to suppose that the early
+  weavers imitated objects of utility before those of mere
+  ornament; but even if there is any basis for the tradition, it is
+  equally probable that these designs are derived from the lily or
+  other floral forms, and were introduced from Persia.</p>
+
+  <p>Somewhat similar to the last is the reciprocal trefoil, which
+  generally appears with more simple drawing than is shown in Plate
+  <a href="#pf">F</a>, Fig. 17 (opp. Page 158). It is more widely
+  used for a border stripe than any other pattern, as it is found
+  in almost all Caucasian, in a large number of Persian, in Indian,
+  and Beluchistan rugs. It was commonly used in Persian rugs as
+  early as the year 1500.</p>
+
+  <p>The dainty Chain pattern of Plate <a href="#pk">K</a>, Fig. 16
+  has a well authenticated antiquity, as it is found in Asia Minor
+  carpets of the XV Century, from which it was probably derived.
+  Without doubt it was a favourite pattern three centuries ago, as
+  it appears in some of the early paintings in which Oriental
+  carpets are represented.</p>
+
+  <div class="figcenter" style="width: 550px;">
+    <a name="pk" id="pk"></a><img src="images/platek.jpg" width=
+    "550" height="725" alt=
+    "Plate K. Secondary and Tertiary Border-Stripes of Caucasian Rugs"
+    title="" />
+
+    <p class="center"><span class="smcap">Plate K. Secondary and
+    Tertiary Border-Stripes of Caucasian Rugs</span></p>
+  </div>
+
+  <p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_231" id=
+  "Page_231">231</a></span></p>
+
+  <p>Not infrequently the right-angled corners are rounded so as to
+  give it a more graceful form.</p>
+
+  <p>As the purely geometric pattern of Plate <a href="#pk">K</a>,
+  Fig. 17 is entirely lacking in ornamental features, it is used
+  principally to separate more important stripes. Occasionally it
+  is found in such rugs as the Chichis and Shirvans.</p>
+
+  <p>Another very simple pattern that is sometimes used as an
+  inside stripe is seen in Plate <a href="#pk">K</a>, Fig. 18. This
+  is evidently an archaic form and is found principally in pieces
+  of the Shirvan district.</p>
+
+  <p>The reciprocal sawtooth and the running latch-hook patterns
+  (Plate <a href="#pk">K</a>, Figs. 19 and 20) belong to the less
+  important stripes of not only Caucasian but a number of Persian
+  rugs. The former pattern appears constantly on the monuments of
+  ancient Susa, and doubtless had once some symbolic meaning. The
+  latter is seen in the corners of the Dragon and Ph&oelig;nix
+  carpet (Plate <a href="#p20">20</a>, opp. Page 88) which was
+  woven about 1350 <span class="smcap">a. d.</span></p>
+
+  <p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_232" id=
+  "Page_232">232</a></span></p>
+
+  <h4>TECHNICALITIES IN THE WEAVE OF CAUCASIAN RUGS</h4>
+
+  <p>Legend:<br />
+  <br />
+  KNOT&mdash;<br />
+  <span style="margin-left: 1em;">H = Horizontally</span><br />
+  <span style="margin-left: 1em;">P = Perpendicularly</span><br />
+  WARP&mdash;<br />
+  <span style="margin-left: 1em;">g = goat&rsquo;s
+  hair</span><br />
+  <span style="margin-left: 1em;">e = each equally
+  prominent</span><br />
+  <span style="margin-left: 1em;">d = 1 to the knot
+  depressed</span><br />
+  <span style="margin-left: 1em;">h = 1 to the knot doubled
+  under</span><br />
+  WEFT&mdash;<br />
+  <span style="margin-left: 1em;">No. = No. times crossing bet. two
+  round knots</span><br />
+  SIDES&mdash;<br />
+  <span style="margin-left: 1em;">O = overcast</span><br />
+  <span style="margin-left: 1em;">S = selvage</span><br />
+  LOWER END<br />
+  <span style="margin-left: 1em;">W = web</span><br />
+  <span style="margin-left: 1em;">S = Selvage</span><br />
+  <span style="margin-left: 1em;">K = Rows knots</span><br />
+  <span style="margin-left: 1em;">L = warp loops</span><br />
+  <span style="margin-left: 1em;">F = fringe</span><br />
+  UPPER END<br />
+  <span style="margin-left: 1em;">W = web</span><br />
+  <span style="margin-left: 1em;">S = selvage</span><br />
+  <span style="margin-left: 1em;">K = Rows knots</span><br />
+  <span style="margin-left: 1em;">T = turned back and
+  hemmed</span><br />
+  <span style="margin-left: 1em;">F = fringe</span><br /></p>
+
+  <table width="100%" summary="TECHNICALITIES" border="1">
+    <tr>
+      <td class="center20" rowspan="3">CAUCASIAN</td>
+
+      <td class="center12" colspan="4">KNOT</td>
+
+      <td class="center8" colspan="6">WARP</td>
+    </tr>
+
+    <tr>
+      <td class="center12" rowspan="2">G =<br />
+      Ghiordes</td>
+
+      <td class="center8" rowspan="2">S =<br />
+      Sehna</td>
+
+      <td class="center8" colspan="2">Number to<br />
+      Inches</td>
+
+      <td class="center8" rowspan="2">w=<br />
+      wool</td>
+
+      <td class="center12" rowspan="2">c=<br />
+      cotton</td>
+
+      <td class="center6" rowspan="2">s/l</td>
+
+      <td class="center6" colspan="3">At back</td>
+    </tr>
+
+    <tr>
+      <td class="center8">H</td>
+
+      <td class="center8">P</td>
+
+      <td class="center6">e</td>
+
+      <td class="center6">d</td>
+
+      <td class="center6">h</td>
+    </tr>
+
+    <tr>
+      <td class="left20">Baku<br />
+      Chichi<br />
+      Daghestan<br />
+      Derbend<br />
+      Gengha<br />
+      Kabistan<br />
+      Karabagh<br />
+      Kasak<br />
+      Kuba<br />
+      Kutais<br />
+      Lesghian<br />
+      Shemakha<br />
+      Shirvan<br />
+      Shousha<br />
+      Soumak<br />
+      Tcherkess<br />
+      Tiflis</td>
+
+      <td class="center12">G<br />
+      G<br />
+      G<br />
+      G<br />
+      G<br />
+      G<br />
+      G<br />
+      G<br />
+      G<br />
+      G<br />
+      G<br />
+      G<br />
+      G<br />
+      G<br />
+      &nbsp;<br />
+      G<br />
+      G</td>
+
+      <td class="center8">&nbsp;</td>
+
+      <td class="center8">6-9<br />
+      7-10<br />
+      7-10<br />
+      5-9<br />
+      6-8<br />
+      7-12<br />
+      6-10<br />
+      6-9<br />
+      6-9<br />
+      5-9<br />
+      6-9<br />
+      7-11<br />
+      7-12<br />
+      7-12<br />
+      8-14<br />
+      6-9<br />
+      6-10</td>
+
+      <td class="center8">7-11<br />
+      8-12<br />
+      8-15<br />
+      6-12<br />
+      6-9<br />
+      8-16<br />
+      7-10<br />
+      7-10<br />
+      7-13<br />
+      7-12<br />
+      6-11<br />
+      7-13<br />
+      8-12<br />
+      6-11<br />
+      6-16<br />
+      7-10<br />
+      6-10</td>
+
+      <td class="center8">w<br />
+      w<br />
+      w<br />
+      w<br />
+      w<br />
+      w<br />
+      w<br />
+      w<br />
+      w<br />
+      w<br />
+      w<br />
+      w<br />
+      w<br />
+      w<br />
+      w<br />
+      w<br />
+      w</td>
+
+      <td class="center12">&nbsp;<br />
+      &nbsp;<br />
+      &nbsp;<br />
+      [c]<br />
+      &nbsp;<br />
+      &nbsp;<br />
+      &nbsp;<br />
+      &nbsp;<br />
+      &nbsp;<br />
+      [c]<br />
+      &nbsp;<br />
+      &nbsp;<br />
+      &nbsp;<br />
+      &nbsp;<br />
+      &nbsp;<br />
+      &nbsp;<br />
+      [c]</td>
+
+      <td class="center6">&nbsp;<br />
+      &nbsp;<br />
+      &nbsp;<br />
+      &nbsp;<br />
+      [g]<br />
+      &nbsp;<br />
+      &nbsp;<br />
+      &nbsp;<br />
+      &nbsp;<br />
+      &nbsp;<br />
+      &nbsp;<br />
+      &nbsp;<br />
+      &nbsp;<br />
+      &nbsp;<br />
+      &nbsp;<br />
+      &nbsp;<br />
+      &nbsp;</td>
+
+      <td class="center6">e<br />
+      e<br />
+      e<br />
+      e<br />
+      e<br />
+      e<br />
+      &nbsp;<br />
+      e<br />
+      e<br />
+      e<br />
+      [e]<br />
+      &nbsp;<br />
+      e<br />
+      &nbsp;<br />
+      e<br />
+      e<br />
+      e</td>
+
+      <td class="center6">&nbsp;<br />
+      &nbsp;<br />
+      [d]<br />
+      &nbsp;<br />
+      &nbsp;<br />
+      &nbsp;<br />
+      d<br />
+      &nbsp;<br />
+      &nbsp;<br />
+      &nbsp;<br />
+      d<br />
+      d<br />
+      &nbsp;<br />
+      d<br />
+      &nbsp;<br />
+      [d]<br />
+      &nbsp;</td>
+
+      <td class="center6">&nbsp;<br />
+      &nbsp;<br />
+      &nbsp;<br />
+      &nbsp;<br />
+      &nbsp;<br />
+      &nbsp;<br />
+      &nbsp;<br />
+      &nbsp;<br />
+      &nbsp;<br />
+      &nbsp;<br />
+      [h]<br />
+      &nbsp;<br />
+      &nbsp;<br />
+      h<br />
+      &nbsp;<br />
+      &nbsp;<br />
+      &nbsp;</td>
+    </tr>
+  </table>
+
+  <p>&nbsp;</p>
+
+  <table width="100%" summary="TECHNICALITIES" border="1">
+    <tr>
+      <td class="center20" rowspan="2">CAUCASIAN</td>
+
+      <td class="center8" colspan="3">WEFT</td>
+
+      <td class="center6" colspan="2">SIDES</td>
+
+      <td class="center8" colspan="4">LOWER END</td>
+    </tr>
+
+    <tr>
+      <td class="center8">w =<br />
+      wool</td>
+
+      <td class="center12">c =<br />
+      cotton</td>
+
+      <td class="center8">No.</td>
+
+      <td class="center6">O</td>
+
+      <td class="center6">S</td>
+
+      <td class="center6">W/S</td>
+
+      <td class="center6">K</td>
+
+      <td class="center6">L</td>
+
+      <td class="center6">F</td>
+    </tr>
+
+    <tr>
+      <td class="left20">Baku<br />
+      Chichi<br />
+      Daghestan<br />
+      Derbend<br />
+      Gengha<br />
+      Kabistan<br />
+      Karabagh<br />
+      Kasak<br />
+      Kuba<br />
+      Kutals<br />
+      Lesghian<br />
+      Shemakha<br />
+      Shirvan<br />
+      Shousha<br />
+      Soumak<br />
+      Tcherkess<br />
+      Tiflis</td>
+
+      <td class="center8">w<br />
+      w<br />
+      w<br />
+      w<br />
+      w<br />
+      w<br />
+      w<br />
+      w<br />
+      w<br />
+      w<br />
+      w<br />
+      w<br />
+      w<br />
+      w<br />
+      w<br />
+      w<br />
+      w</td>
+
+      <td class="center12">&nbsp;<br />
+      &nbsp;<br />
+      &nbsp;<br />
+      [c]<br />
+      &nbsp;<br />
+      c<br />
+      &nbsp;<br />
+      &nbsp;<br />
+      &nbsp;<br />
+      &nbsp;<br />
+      &nbsp;<br />
+      &nbsp;<br />
+      [c]<br />
+      &nbsp;<br />
+      &nbsp;<br />
+      &nbsp;<br />
+      &nbsp;</td>
+
+      <td class="center8">2<br />
+      2<br />
+      2<br />
+      2/[1]<br />
+      2-4/[6-8]<br />
+      [2]/[3]<br />
+      2<br />
+      2/[3-4]<br />
+      2<br />
+      3/[1-5]<br />
+      2<br />
+      2<br />
+      2<br />
+      2<br />
+      2<br />
+      2/[4-6]<br />
+      3-5</td>
+
+      <td class="center8">O<br />
+      O<br />
+      [O]<br />
+      [O]<br />
+      &nbsp;<br />
+      O<br />
+      [O]<br />
+      O<br />
+      &nbsp;<br />
+      O<br />
+      &nbsp;<br />
+      &nbsp;<br />
+      [O]<br />
+      &nbsp;<br />
+      [O]<br />
+      &nbsp;<br />
+      O</td>
+
+      <td class="center6">S<br />
+      [S]<br />
+      S<br />
+      S<br />
+      S<br />
+      S<br />
+      S<br />
+      S<br />
+      S<br />
+      S<br />
+      S<br />
+      S<br />
+      S<br />
+      S<br />
+      S<br />
+      S<br />
+      S</td>
+
+      <td class="center6">W<br />
+      W<br />
+      W<br />
+      W<br />
+      W<br />
+      W/[S]<br />
+      W/[S]<br />
+      W/[S]<br />
+      W<br />
+      W<br />
+      W<br />
+      W/S<br />
+      W<br />
+      W<br />
+      W/S<br />
+      W/S<br />
+      W</td>
+
+      <td class="center8">K<br />
+      K<br />
+      K<br />
+      [K]<br />
+      &nbsp;<br />
+      &nbsp;<br />
+      [K]<br />
+      &nbsp;<br />
+      [K]<br />
+      &nbsp;<br />
+      K<br />
+      &nbsp;<br />
+      K<br />
+      &nbsp;<br />
+      K<br />
+      K<br />
+      &nbsp;<br /></td>
+
+      <td class="center6">&nbsp;<br />
+      &nbsp;<br />
+      &nbsp;<br />
+      &nbsp;<br />
+      L<br />
+      L<br />
+      L<br />
+      L<br />
+      &nbsp;<br />
+      &nbsp;<br />
+      &nbsp;<br />
+      &nbsp;<br />
+      &nbsp;<br />
+      L<br />
+      &nbsp;<br />
+      &nbsp;<br />
+      &nbsp;<br /></td>
+
+      <td class="center6">F<br />
+      F<br />
+      F<br />
+      F<br />
+      &nbsp;<br />
+      &nbsp;<br />
+      F<br />
+      F<br />
+      F<br />
+      F<br />
+      F<br />
+      F<br />
+      F<br />
+      &nbsp;<br />
+      F<br />
+      F<br />
+      F</td>
+    </tr>
+  </table>
+
+  <p>&nbsp;</p>
+
+  <table width="100%" summary="TECHNICALITIES" border="1">
+    <tr>
+      <td class="center20" rowspan="2">CAUCASIAN</td>
+
+      <td class="center8" colspan="4">UPPER END</td>
+
+      <td class="center18">NAP</td>
+
+      <td class="center18">WEAVE</td>
+
+      <td class="center18">TEXTURE</td>
+    </tr>
+
+    <tr>
+      <td class="center8">W/S</td>
+
+      <td class="center6">K</td>
+
+      <td class="center6">T</td>
+
+      <td class="center6">F</td>
+
+      <td class="left18">l = long<br />
+      m = medium<br />
+      s = short</td>
+
+      <td class="left18">f = fine<br />
+      m = medium<br />
+      c = coarse</td>
+
+      <td class="left18">l = loose<br />
+      m = medium<br />
+      f = firm</td>
+    </tr>
+
+    <tr>
+      <td class="left20">Baku<br />
+      Chichi<br />
+      Daghestan<br />
+      Derbend<br />
+      Gengha<br />
+      Kabistan<br />
+      Karabagh<br />
+      Kasak<br />
+      Kuba<br />
+      Kutals<br />
+      Lesghian<br />
+      Shemakha<br />
+      Shirvan<br />
+      Shousha<br />
+      Soumak<br />
+      Tcherkess<br />
+      Tiflis</td>
+
+      <td class="center8">W<br />
+      W<br />
+      W<br />
+      W<br />
+      W/[S]<br />
+      W/[S]<br />
+      W/[S]<br />
+      W/[S]<br />
+      W/[S]<br />
+      W<br />
+      W<br />
+      W/S<br />
+      W<br />
+      W<br />
+      W/S<br />
+      W/S<br />
+      W</td>
+
+      <td class="center6">K<br />
+      K<br />
+      K<br />
+      [K]<br />
+      &nbsp;<br />
+      &nbsp;<br />
+      [K]<br />
+      [K]<br />
+      [K]<br />
+      &nbsp;<br />
+      K<br />
+      &nbsp;<br />
+      K<br />
+      &nbsp;<br />
+      K<br />
+      K<br />
+      &nbsp;</td>
+
+      <td class="center6">&nbsp;<br />
+      &nbsp;<br />
+      &nbsp;<br />
+      &nbsp;<br />
+      &nbsp;<br />
+      &nbsp;<br />
+      T<br />
+      &nbsp;<br />
+      &nbsp;<br />
+      &nbsp;<br />
+      &nbsp;<br />
+      &nbsp;<br />
+      &nbsp;<br />
+      [T]<br />
+      &nbsp;<br />
+      &nbsp;<br />
+      &nbsp;<br /></td>
+
+      <td class="center6">F<br />
+      F<br />
+      F<br />
+      F<br />
+      F<br />
+      F<br />
+      F<br />
+      F<br />
+      F<br />
+      F<br />
+      F<br />
+      F<br />
+      F<br />
+      F<br />
+      F<br />
+      F<br />
+      F</td>
+
+      <td class="center18">s<br />
+      m/s<br />
+      s<br />
+      m<br />
+      m<br />
+      m<br />
+      m<br />
+      l<br />
+      m<br />
+      m<br />
+      m<br />
+      m<br />
+      m/s<br />
+      m<br />
+      &nbsp;<br />
+      m<br />
+      m</td>
+
+      <td class="center18">m<br />
+      m<br />
+      f<br />
+      m<br />
+      c<br />
+      m<br />
+      c<br />
+      c<br />
+      m<br />
+      m/c<br />
+      c<br />
+      m/f<br />
+      m/c<br />
+      m/c<br />
+      m<br />
+      m<br />
+      m/f</td>
+
+      <td class="center18">m/f<br />
+      m<br />
+      m/f<br />
+      m/l<br />
+      l<br />
+      m/f<br />
+      l<br />
+      f<br />
+      m/l<br />
+      m/f<br />
+      f<br />
+      m/f<br />
+      m/l<br />
+      m/f<br />
+      m<br />
+      f<br />
+      f</td>
+    </tr>
+  </table>
+
+  <p>[] indicates the less frequent condition.</p>
+  <hr />
+
+  <p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_233" id=
+  "Page_233">233</a></span></p>
+
+  <h3>CHAPTER XII</h3>
+
+  <h4>CENTRAL ASIATIC RUGS</h4>
+
+  <p><span class="floatLeft"><img src="images/t.jpg" width="110" height="110" alt="T"
+  title="T" /></span>HE land that extends eastward about fourteen
+  hundred miles from the Caspian Sea to the western boundary of the
+  Chinese Empire, and northward for a similar distance from the
+  Arabian Sea through Beluchistan and Afghanistan to the steppes of
+  Western Siberia, is one of the least civilised parts of the
+  eastern continent. Here until within a few recent years, the
+  people lived the same untrammelled lives that their ancestors
+  pursued for past centuries; and the encroachments of the Russian
+  Empire on the north and the English on the southeast, have as yet
+  made little impression on their uncultured natures. To these
+  circumstances it is largely due that the rugs termed Central
+  Asiatic, which come from this district, still possess to a large
+  degree the originality of design, virility of character, and
+  beauty of colour that are so rapidly disappearing from the woven
+  products of countries more subject to the influence of Western
+  civilisation.</p>
+
+  <p>These rugs may conveniently be divided into three natural
+  sub-groups, which include:</p>
+
+  <p>1. The Turkoman, consisting of what are known in this country
+  as Royal and Princess Bokharas, the Tekkes, Yomuds, Khivas, and
+  Beshires, all of which are made in Turkestan;<a name=
+  "FNanchor_32" id="FNanchor_32"></a><a href="#Footnote_32" class=
+  "fnanchor">32</a> and the Afghan, of which part are made in
+  Turkestan and part in Afghanistan.</p>
+
+  <p>2. The Turko-Chinese, consisting of the Samarkands, which</p>
+
+  <p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_234" id=
+  "Page_234">234</a></span></p>
+
+  <p>are made in Western Turkestan, and the Kasghars and Yarkands
+  made in Eastern Turkestan.</p>
+
+  <p>3. The Beluchistans or Beluches, made principally in
+  Beluchistan.</p>
+
+  <p class="tb">No other rugs adhere more strictly to uniformity of
+  colour and design than the Turkoman. And, when it is considered
+  that their prevailing tones and their simple, geometric designs
+  are such as would readily be adopted by people with primitive
+  ideas of ornamentation, it seems probable that they have been
+  copied with only slight modification for a great many centuries,
+  even though more gorgeous and elaborate carpets were woven during
+  the short period when Samarkand was capital of the East. This is
+  probably true, notwithstanding no other country in the world has
+  been subject to more conquests than Turkestan or overrun by so
+  many different races. For here, as we learn by the aid of
+  philology, dwelt the Aryans even before the light of history had
+  come to dispel the mists of antiquity. Two or three thousand
+  years later it was overrun by Cyrus and added to the dominion of
+  the Medes and Persians. In the V Century <span class="smcap">a.
+  d.</span>, Tartar tribes conquered it; and in the following
+  century Turks and Persians divided it between them. Still later
+  it was again overrun by the Arabs, who, sword in hand, converted
+  the vanquished to the creed of Islam. When a few more centuries
+  had rolled away the Mongol hordes of Genghis Khan swept over it;
+  and once again it suffered desolation under the iron hand of
+  Tamerlane, &ldquo;Scourge of Asia.&rdquo; But in spite of these
+  waves of conquest and the minor struggles with Persians, Greeks,
+  and Romans, that left their impress on the country, each of the
+  several classes of Turkoman rugs, including even those made two
+  centuries ago, show a remarkable conformity to definite types,
+  however much may be their modification in small detail. Their nap
+  is invariably short; in all of them some shade of dark red is the
+  predominating colour; and in most of them some form of an octagon
+  appears. They are, moreover, the best woven and the most
+  beautiful of the Central Asiatic rugs.</p>
+
+  <div class="figcenter" style="width: 550px;">
+    <a name="m4" id="m4"></a><a href="images/map4z.jpg"><img src=
+    "images/map4.jpg" width="550" height="351" alt="MAP OF TURKESTAN" title="" /></a>
+
+    <p class="center">MAP OF TURKESTAN</p>
+  </div>
+
+  <p>Though the Turko-Chinese rugs are made in places subject to
+  the influence of Turkomans and far removed from the culture of
+  Chinese, they are unlike the rugs of the former and resemble
+  those of the latter. Not improbably this is because Tamerlane had
+  gathered at Samarkand noted artists and artisans from China,
+  whose influence continued long after his death. And as
+  traditional patterns have been transmitted for centuries, there
+  is little doubt that some of the <span class='pagenum'><a name=
+  "Page_235" id="Page_235">235</a></span>modern rugs, even though
+  falling far short of the standard of their early prototypes, more
+  closely resemble them than they do any other rugs of Asia. In
+  these pieces Turkoman simplicity of geometric figures is replaced
+  by an elaboration of conventional floral forms and by designs
+  associated with early philosophies; sobriety of colour yields to
+  the bright and even gaudy tones not infrequent in modern textile
+  fabrics.</p>
+
+  <p>The Beluchistans, which are regarded as a sub-group of the
+  Central Asiatic rugs, show a closer relationship to the Turkoman
+  rugs than to any others. A few of them have octagonal patterns
+  suggestive of Bokharas, and all have the long webs at the ends
+  and the heavy goat&rsquo;s hair selvage at the sides peculiar to
+  Afghans and Tekkes. On the other hand, many of the patterns both
+  of field and border resemble Persian workmanship; so that placing
+  these rugs in the same group with the Turkoman and Turko-Chinese
+  rugs, which are not made in an adjoining territory, is slightly
+  arbitrary.</p>
+
+  <p class="tb"><span class="smcap">Royal
+  Bokharas.</span>&mdash;The best known district in Turkestan is
+  the Khanate of Bokhara, which extends from the offshoots of the
+  lofty Pamir mountains in the east to the desolate sandy plains
+  beyond the Amu Daria, or Oxus river, on the west. Situated in its
+  northern half and near the centre of a fertile valley is its
+  capital, Bokhara, &ldquo;The Noble.&rdquo; Though noted for its
+  cruelty, it was once the intellectual centre of Asia, and still
+  possesses nearly a hundred schools and innumerable mosques. These
+  and its bazaars are almost all that remain of the splendour of
+  those days when the great caravans that came from China, India,
+  Persia, and Russia made it one of the great marts of the
+  East.</p>
+
+  <p>On account of its commercial importance, the wild tribes of
+  the Kirghiz steppes, the Turkomans from Kizil Kum,<a name=
+  "FNanchor_33" id="FNanchor_33"></a><a href="#Footnote_33" class=
+  "fnanchor">33</a> the Afghans who dwell north of the Paropamisus
+  range, and the fierce Tekkes and Yomuds from the west, came and
+  bartered their rugs for other necessities. Many of these rugs
+  were taken in caravans, that often numbered several thousand
+  camels, and sold in the Russian market places of Astrakan,
+  Orenburg, or Nijni Novgorod. Since they came from the same place,
+  the term Bokhara was often applied to each of the different
+  classes. Thus we hear of Royal Bokharas, Princess Bokharas, Tekke
+  Bokharas, Yomud Bokharas, and Khiva Bokharas.</p>
+
+  <p>Of these five classes the Royal Bokharas, as a rule, not only
+  are <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_236" id=
+  "Page_236">236</a></span>the best woven, but are made of the
+  finest material; even the warp of many of them is of soft, silky
+  white wool. The old rugs were made in the city and suburbs of
+  Bokhara, where now only a few pieces are made. Both old and new
+  are found only as sedjadehs. They have two well-known patterns,
+  one of which consists of an octagon surrounding a quartered
+  hexagon. Of these quarters, which are either plain or contain a
+  small triangle of contrasting colour, a pair that are opposite
+  are always white or cream coloured, and the other pair are of
+  some shade of red. Small triangular figures are invariably seen
+  above and below the hexagons, as well as small diamond, oval, or
+  spear-shaped figures at each end of the major axis. In the other
+  pattern the contour of the octagon is rounder; and the hexagon is
+  replaced by an eight-pointed star, at the centre of which is a
+  diamond containing a rectangle or occasionally a Greek cross.
+  Projecting into the four corners from the star are small designs,
+  that careful observation of a large number in many different
+  kinds of rugs shows to be leaf forms. Between the diagonally
+  placed octagons of both these types are stars or diamond-shaped
+  figures, that are usually of the same design regardless of the
+  shape of the octagon. In large rugs the centres of the octagons
+  are generally joined by straight lines of dark blue colour.</p>
+
+  <p>It is uncertain why the term Royal has been applied to this
+  class of Bokharas, but it is eminently befitting the old
+  well-woven, velvet-like pieces. A few have small patches of pink
+  or ruby coloured silk; and all have a prevailing tone of red
+  diversified by deep blues and touches of lighter red and ivory,
+  that convey an idea of opulence and dignity worthy of a king.</p>
+
+  <p><i>Type Characteristics.</i> <i>Colours</i>, principally dark
+  red, with minor quantities of blue, pink or orange, and ivory.
+  <i>Knot</i>, Sehna. Knots to inch horizontally eight to twelve;
+  perpendicularly, sixteen to twenty-four. The rows of knots are
+  firmly pressed down, so that the warp is concealed at back and
+  the weft is almost hidden. <i>Warp</i>, fine white wool; each of
+  the two threads encircled by a knot is equally prominent at back.
+  <i>Weft</i>, wool, of fine diameter. A thread of weft crosses
+  twice between every two rows of knots. <i>Pile</i>, fine wool, or
+  occasionally silk, clipped short. <i>Border</i>, three stripes
+  divided by smaller coloured lines. <i>Sides</i>, a blue double
+  overcasting. <i>Both ends</i>, a narrow web and short warp
+  fringe. <i>Texture</i>, firm. <i>Weave</i> at back is of fine
+  grain. <i>Usual length</i>, four to ten feet. <i>Usual width</i>,
+  three fifths to four fifths length.</p>
+
+  <div class="figcenter" style="width: 550px;">
+    <a name="p53" id="p53"></a><img src="images/plate53.jpg"
+    width="550" height="652" alt=
+    "Plate 53. Turkoman Rug with Katchli Pattern" title="" />
+
+    <p class="center"><span class="smcap">Plate 53. Turkoman Rug
+    with Katchli Pattern</span></p>
+  </div>
+
+  <p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_237" id=
+  "Page_237">237</a></span></p>
+
+  <p class="tb"><span class="smcap">Princess
+  Bokharas.</span>&mdash;The rugs known as Princess Bokharas are
+  woven by the Mohammedan tribes who dwell in parts of the Khanate
+  of Bokhara. They are nearly square and the field is divided into
+  four equal sections by perpendicular and horizontal bands.
+  Because of this pattern they are called &ldquo;Katchlis,&rdquo; a
+  word derived from the Armenian language signifying &ldquo;like a
+  cross.&rdquo; The bands generally have designs that are
+  co-ordinate with those in part of the border; but not
+  infrequently the designs of the horizontal band differ from those
+  of the perpendicular one, and in a few rare instances consist of
+  an octagonal figure. It is generally believed that the well-known
+  Y-shaped motive characteristic of the field and the border is
+  intended to represent the tree of life, but some native weavers
+  suggest a different interpretation. To them the whole rug
+  symbolises a mosque; the perpendicular arm of the cross is the
+  entrance; the Y-shaped designs are benches; and the broad
+  diagonal lines with serrated edges in the borders are groves of
+  trees surrounding the mosque. A very large percentage of these
+  pieces are namazliks. One of their peculiarities is the position
+  of their unobtrusive tent-shaped prayer arch, which is in a panel
+  entirely within their upper border.</p>
+
+  <p>Compared with Royal Bokharas their nap is rarely of as fine
+  quality, the warp is usually of brown instead of cream white
+  wool, and the weave is coarser. Also, the tones of colour are
+  more sombre, and of browner shades; but in rare old pieces the
+  rich mahogany and bronze hues of the ground, on which are
+  represented small designs in shades of cream and dark blue, are
+  exceedingly rich and pleasing. Unfortunately, within recent years
+  large numbers of this class have been made solely for commercial
+  purposes, and lack the finer qualities of their prototypes.</p>
+
+  <p><i>Type Characteristics.</i> <i>Colours</i>, principally dark
+  red or brown, with minor quantities of dark blue and ivory.
+  <i>Knot</i>, Sehna. Knots to inch horizontally eight to twelve;
+  perpendicularly, fourteen to eighteen. The rows of knots are
+  firmly pressed down, so that the warp is concealed at back and
+  the weft partly hidden. <i>Warp</i>, brown wool or goat&rsquo;s
+  hair; each of the two threads of warp encircled by a knot is
+  equally prominent at back. <i>Weft</i>, wool, of fine diameter. A
+  thread of weft crosses twice between every two rows of knots.
+  <i>Pile</i>, wool of short or medium length; occasionally some
+  goat&rsquo;s hair is used. <i>Border</i>, three stripes,
+  separated by narrow lines. <i>Sides</i>, a double overcasting or
+  a double goat&rsquo;s hair selvage of three cords. <i>Both
+  ends</i>, a web and warp fringe. <i>Texture</i>,
+  stout.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_238" id=
+  "Page_238">238</a></span> <i>Weave</i> at back is of moderately
+  fine grain. <i>Usual length</i>, four and one half to six feet.
+  <i>Usual width</i>, two thirds to four fifths length.</p>
+
+  <p class="tb"><span class="smcap">Tekkes.</span>&mdash;A little
+  over two centuries ago there lived on the peninsula of
+  Mangishlar, on the eastern shore of the Caspian Sea, an almost
+  unknown tribe called the &ldquo;Tekke,&rdquo; a term which is
+  said to denote a mountain goat, and was applied on account of the
+  headlong pace at which the men rode over rough mountain sides.
+  About the beginning of the XVIII Century they packed their
+  <i>khibitkas</i>,<a name="FNanchor_34" id=
+  "FNanchor_34"></a><a href="#Footnote_34" class="fnanchor">34</a>
+  and after moving southward to escape from the attacks of a more
+  powerful tribe, they met the Yomuds in the southwestern corner of
+  Turkestan and robbed them of their lands. Further eastward they
+  snatched the fertile oasis of Ak-kal from some Kurds, whose
+  ancestors a Shah of Persia had located there in earlier times to
+  protect his kingdom from fierce northern tribes. By irrigating
+  and cultivating the soil, they prospered and increased rapidly in
+  population, until, about 1830, they numbered one hundred
+  thousand. One fourth of them then moved eastward; and after
+  settling on the banks of the Tajand, not far from the Persian
+  town of Saraks, they attacked the inhabitants of Merv and
+  captured the city. Growing thus to be a powerful people, they
+  occupied much of the country between Persia and the Amu
+  Daria.</p>
+
+  <p>Ever restless, they were constantly looking for weaker foes on
+  whom to fall; and when a leader would announce an intended raid,
+  hundreds or even thousands would meet at the appointed rendezvous
+  prepared to blindly follow him. Sometimes it was through the
+  passes that looked down into the fertile valleys of Northern
+  Persia. Stealthily creeping through them they would fall
+  unexpectedly upon an unprotected village and dash away with young
+  women and children. If pursued, they would stab their captives,
+  and if necessary, ride more than one hundred miles a day in
+  flight. At other times, they would attack caravans crossing the
+  deserts and carry away both camels and wares.</p>
+
+  <div class="figcenter" style="width: 550px;">
+    <a name="p54" id="p54"></a><img src="images/plate54.jpg"
+    width="550" height="685" alt=
+    "Plate 54. Turkoman Prayer Rug, which according to A. Bogolubow has the Typical Pinde Pattern"
+    title="" />
+
+    <p class="center"><span class="smcap">Plate 54. Turkoman Prayer
+    Rug, which according to A. Bogolubow has the Typical
+    Pind&eacute; Pattern</span></p>
+  </div>
+
+  <p>Their raids, however, were not viewed with complacence by the
+  Russians, who had been steadily advancing on the land lying
+  between the Caspian and the Amu Daria, and whose armies the
+  Tekkes harassed. At length in January, 1881, came the final death
+  struggle in the memorable attack on the fortress of Geok Teppe,
+  where thirty-three thousand tribesmen and seven thousand women
+  and <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_239" id=
+  "Page_239">239</a></span>children had taken refuge. With the fall
+  of that stronghold and the terrible punishment that followed, the
+  power of the Tekkes was completely crushed; and a people whose
+  ancestors for countless centuries had roamed the desert,
+  recognising no master, yielded finally to the advance of
+  civilisation.</p>
+
+  <p>These were the people whose wives and daughters wove the rugs
+  generally known as Tekke Bokharas, of which large numbers with
+  excellent weave and sterling dyes can still be found. As few of
+  them were designed for mosques or palaces, it is very unusual to
+  find pieces over one hundred years old, and even these are rare.
+  Indeed, any that are now forty years old should possess great
+  interest, as they were woven at a time when the Tekkes were still
+  a fierce race. Very many have the Katchli pattern. The prayer
+  arch, which is similar to that of Princess Bokharas, is in a
+  panel exterior to the field and within the border. Not
+  infrequently there are three arches in the same horizontal panel,
+  which, as a rule, is above the field, but occasionally below it.
+  In a great many of these rugs the three-leaf clover is found in
+  some part of the field; and in the band of pile that extends
+  beyond the border at one end are usually small conventionalised
+  bushes with white and yellow flowers. The pattern shown in Plate
+  <a href="#pl">L</a>, Fig. 4 (opp. Page 250), appears almost
+  invariably in the outer stripe.</p>
+
+  <p>There are other types, into one of which it would seem as if
+  the very spirit of the desert had crept. Their dark ground
+  colours are brightened by lighter tones that give an effect of
+  strange yet not inharmonious beauty. A few would seem to speak of
+  the early Zoroastrian faith, for in their fields are designs like
+  stars with effulgent rays that suggest the burning altars of fire
+  worshippers.</p>
+
+  <p>The shape or some peculiarity of the rug indicates the purpose
+  for which it was intended. For instance, the rugs which were made
+  for doors of the khibitkas have at the upper end a selvage with
+  the web turned back and hemmed, and at each corner a heavy
+  braided cord of about two feet in length, by which they were
+  suspended. Other pieces have webs at both ends. Many beautiful
+  pieces are made for use on horses or camels. Those intended for
+  camels are of oblong shape with a field usually containing large
+  octagons, between which are smaller octagons similar to those in
+  Royal Bokharas.</p>
+
+  <p>Tekkes may be distinguished from the Princess Bokharas, which
+  they resemble, by their goat&rsquo;s hair selvage at the sides,
+  by one thread of warp to each knot being slightly depressed at
+  the back, and by<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_240" id=
+  "Page_240">240</a></span> their coarser character. There is,
+  however, a great similarity in the colours, though in the Tekkes
+  tones of deep plum and rich red are not uncommon.</p>
+
+  <p><i>Type Characteristics.</i> <i>Colours</i>, principally dark
+  red, brown, or plum, with minor quantities of dark blue and
+  ivory. <i>Knot</i>, Sehna. Knots to inch horizontally seven to
+  twelve; perpendicularly, nine to fourteen. The rows of knots are
+  slightly pressed down, but the warp shows at back. <i>Warp</i>,
+  wool or goat&rsquo;s hair; one of the two threads encircled by a
+  knot is depressed below the other at back. <i>Weft</i>, wool of
+  fine or medium diameter. A thread of weft crosses twice between
+  every two rows of knots. <i>Pile</i>, wool, or occasionally
+  goat&rsquo;s hair of short or medium length. <i>Border</i>, three
+  stripes, separated by coloured lines. <i>Sides</i>, a three-cord
+  double goat&rsquo;s hair selvage. <i>Lower end</i>, a wide
+  coloured web and long warp fringe. <i>Upper end</i>, a braided
+  selvage turned back and hemmed, or occasionally a wide coloured
+  web and long warp fringe. <i>Texture</i>, firm. <i>Weave</i> at
+  back of moderately fine grain. <i>Length</i>, five to eight feet.
+  <i>Usual width</i>, three fifths to four fifths length.</p>
+
+  <p class="tb"><span class="smcap">Khivas.</span>&mdash;On the
+  west bank of the Amu Daria, and stretching for two hundred miles
+  above its mouth, is the plain of the Khanate of Khiva. Most of
+  the people live in khibitkas, and either follow a nomad&rsquo;s
+  life or raise from the alluvial soil, that is watered by
+  innumerable canals, crops of cotton, corn, and rice, as well as
+  melons, peaches, and pomegranates. A large population, also,
+  inhabits the city of Khiva, which before the building of the
+  Siberian railway, was on one of the direct highways between east
+  and west. Caravans of nearly two thousand camels regularly passed
+  through it en route to Orenburg in spring and to Astrakan in
+  fall, carrying wares from districts farther to the east as well
+  as its own rugs and manufactured articles.</p>
+
+  <h4><i>COLOUR PLATE IX&mdash;SAMARKAND RUG</i></h4>
+
+  <p><i>Although this rug is an excellent example of that class
+  generally known as Samarkands, it was bought in Yarkand.
+  Undoubtedly it was woven in some part of Turkestan that lies
+  between these two cities; yet with the exception of the
+  eight-pointed stars at the centre of the upper and lower
+  medallions the pattern is characteristic of Chinese
+  ornamentation. Surrounding the central medallion, on a ground of
+  rich deep blue, are six conventionalised butterflies, and near
+  them are four clusters of pomegranates. At each end of the field
+  are designs that suggest the tree of life, which under different
+  forms appears so persistently in the woven fabrics of the East.
+  The delicate drawing of these motives is accentuated by the
+  formal character of the four corners and by the broad border of
+  well-known stripes. It is a piece in which beauty of line and
+  colour is combined with unsolved symbolism.</i></p>
+
+  <p class="name"><i>Loaned by Mr. Hulett C. Merritt</i></p>
+
+  <div class="figcenter" style="width: 550px;">
+    <a name="pix" id="pix"></a><img src="images/plate_ix.jpg"
+    width="550" height="881" alt=
+    "COLOUR PLATE IX--SAMARKAND RUG" title="" />
+  </div>
+
+  <p>On account of the constant intercourse between the Khiva and
+  Bokhara tribes, their woven fabrics show a close relationship in
+  patterns and colours; yet they contain important differences.
+  Those made by the Khiva tribes are cruder, and reflect the effect
+  of constant struggles against the rigours of the desert and the
+  fierce Kirghiz from the steppes to the north. The wool is also
+  coarser and longer, and the knots are much fewer to the inch.
+  Occasionally geometric as well as animal designs suggestive of
+  Caucasian influence occur. Moreover, the brownish threads of weft
+  that separate each row of <span class='pagenum'><a name=
+  "Page_241" id="Page_241">241</a></span>knots, are noticeable at
+  the back, whereas in other Turkoman rugs the weft is hardly
+  perceptible.</p>
+
+  <p>Many of the old pieces were very handsome, as is shown by the
+  following description of an antique goat&rsquo;s hair carpet from
+  Khiva by Dr. Birdwood.<a name="FNanchor_35" id=
+  "FNanchor_35"></a><a href="#Footnote_35" class="fnanchor">35</a>
+  &ldquo;The ground is of madder red, decorated with leaves and
+  scrolls and lozenge-shaped forms in red, white, and orange, each
+  lozenge being defined by a deep line of indigo blue. The ends
+  terminate in a fringe. Professor Vambery says that these rich
+  lustrous carpets are made entirely by the nomad women about
+  Khiva, the head worker tracing out the design in the desert sand
+  and handing out to her companions the dyed materials of different
+  colours as required in the progress of weaving.&rdquo;</p>
+
+  <p><i>Type Characteristics.</i> <i>Colours</i>, principally dark
+  red, with minor quantities of blue and ivory. <i>Knot</i>,
+  Ghiordes or Sehna. Knots to inch horizontally six to ten;
+  perpendicularly, eight to fourteen. The rows of knots are but
+  slightly pressed down, so that the warp shows at back.
+  <i>Warp</i>, wool or goat&rsquo;s hair; each of the two threads
+  encircled by a knot is equally prominent at the back.
+  <i>Weft</i>, wool of medium or coarse diameter. A thread of weft
+  crosses twice between every two rows of knots. <i>Pile</i>, wool
+  of medium length. <i>Border</i>, generally three stripes.
+  <i>Sides</i>, a double selvage of two or three cords, which is
+  generally of goat&rsquo;s hair. <i>Both ends</i>, a web, one or
+  more rows of knots and a warp fringe. <i>Texture</i>, stout.
+  <i>Usual length</i>, four and one half to six feet. <i>Usual
+  width</i>, three fifths to three quarters length.</p>
+
+  <p class="tb"><span class="smcap">Yomuds.</span>&mdash;When, in
+  1718, the Yomuds were driven by the Tekkes from their homes in
+  the well-watered region about Kizil Arvat, they moved to a less
+  fertile country to the north and west. Though now numbering about
+  one hundred thousand, they have few villages; and regardless of
+  the dreary sand storms, the biting cold of winter, or the
+  terrible heat of summer, they wander with their sheep and goats
+  from place to place in search of more favoured spots. Sometimes
+  their khibitkas are seen along the border of the Caspian Sea as
+  far south as Astrabad in Khorassan, or among the sandy trackless
+  wastes of Kara Kum, nearly as far north as the Aral Sea.</p>
+
+  <p>Many of their rugs rival the Royal Bokharas in wealth of
+  colour. The prevailing tone of the field is usually red or
+  maroon, but is sometimes rose, plum, or dark brown; and the
+  remaining shades <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_242" id=
+  "Page_242">242</a></span>correspond with the blue, green, brown,
+  and white of Tekkes. Contrasted with these is the ivory ground of
+  the border, which, as a rule, has a much brighter colour than the
+  field. Furthermore, the pile of the old pieces has a lustre that
+  is due to the excellence of the dyes and the thick soft wool.</p>
+
+  <p>There are several distinct types, of which only one is
+  well-known. Its pattern is clearly Turkoman, though the lesser
+  designs show that there has been frequent intercourse with the
+  weavers of Caucasia. Covering the field of these pieces are
+  regularly placed diamond-shaped figures that suggest those of the
+  Royal Bokharas, from which they may have been developed to the
+  almost entire exclusion of the octagon; though the latter appears
+  much less prominently in the centre of the diamonds. In the
+  border occurs the running latch-hook, the barber-pole stripe, and
+  a geometrically drawn vine. The webs of the ends, which are
+  usually red and striped, are broad and have a fringe of
+  goat&rsquo;s hair, sometimes braided into ropelike tassels, but
+  more often hanging loose.</p>
+
+  <p>The saddle bags are of irregular shape resembling a flat
+  walled tent, and contain in both field and border much brighter
+  colour than the rugs. Their field is checkered with
+  diamond-shaped figures rich in ivory colour and separated from
+  each other by diagonal barber-pole stripes; their border contains
+  the running latch-hook.</p>
+
+  <p><i>Type Characteristics.</i> <i>Colours</i>, principally dark
+  red and mahogany brown, with minor quantities of blue, green, and
+  white. <i>Knot</i>, generally Sehna, occasionally Ghiordes. Knots
+  to inch horizontally five to eight; perpendicularly, seven to
+  ten. The rows of knots are pressed down, so that the warp is
+  largely concealed at back. <i>Warp</i>, coarse wool or
+  goat&rsquo;s hair; each of the two threads encircled by a knot is
+  equally prominent at the back, or one is slightly depressed below
+  the other. <i>Weft</i>, wool, of medium diameter, or occasionally
+  wool mixed with goat&rsquo;s hair. A thread of weft crosses twice
+  between every two rows of knots. <i>Pile</i>, wool, of medium
+  length. <i>Border</i>, three stripes. <i>Sides</i>, either a
+  two-cord selvage of red alternating with blue or brown, or a
+  goat&rsquo;s hair double selvage of three or four cords. <i>Both
+  ends</i>, a broad, reddish brown web through which, as a rule,
+  run coloured lines or several narrow stripes, and a long warp
+  fringe. <i>Texture</i>, stout. <i>Weave</i> at back is moderately
+  coarse. <i>Usual length</i>, five to twelve feet. <i>Usual
+  width</i>, two thirds to three quarters length.</p>
+
+  <p class="tb"><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_243" id=
+  "Page_243">243</a></span><span class=
+  "smcap">Beshires.</span>&mdash;On the Amu Daria and not far from
+  Afghanistan is a small district from which the rugs known as
+  Beshires now and then find their way to this country. As it is
+  not far from several routes of caravans, these rugs show a
+  relationship to the products of other Turkoman tribes. Their
+  colour scheme is principally the dark red and brownish tones
+  found in Bokharas, Yomuds, and Khivas. The ends, too, have the
+  web crossed by several lines, such as blue, green, and yellowish
+  brown, that are usual in Afghans. The patterns sometimes contain
+  a suggestion of the geometric figures of the Yomuds and some
+  Caucasian pieces; and yet they have a striking character of their
+  own. Not infrequently the field is covered with broad, irregular
+  scrolls or foliate forms, unlike anything seen in any other class
+  of rugs. Again the field may be occupied with a trellis pattern,
+  which divides it into diamond-shaped figures. Within these are
+  smaller diamonds surrounded by eight-pointed stars and
+  quasi-floral forms. The borders, as a rule, are narrow and have
+  simple designs that incline to the geometric; but a few are of
+  fair width and are ornamented with rosettes and conventionalised
+  leaves. In namazliks, which are rarely seen, the prayer arch lies
+  within the field. Almost all of this class found in this country
+  are old rugs; and on account of their rich, harmonious colours
+  and unobtrusive yet distinctive patterns, are always pleasing and
+  interesting.</p>
+
+  <p><i>Type Characteristics.</i> <i>Colours</i>, principally dark
+  red and brown, with minor quantities of blue, yellow, and white.
+  <i>Knot</i>, Sehna. Knots to inch horizontally seven to twelve;
+  perpendicularly, seven to twelve. A half knot, as it appears at
+  back, is as long as, or longer than, wide. The rows of knots are
+  pressed down, so that the warp is almost hidden at back.
+  <i>Warp</i>, generally goat&rsquo;s hair. Each of the two threads
+  encircled by a knot is equally prominent at back, or occasionally
+  one is slightly depressed. <i>Weft</i>, wool or goat&rsquo;s hair
+  of medium or coarse diameter. A thread of weft crosses twice
+  between every two rows of knots. <i>Pile</i>, wool, of medium
+  length. <i>Border</i>, generally three stripes, occasionally only
+  one. <i>Sides</i>, a goat&rsquo;s hair selvage of two to four
+  cords. <i>Both ends</i>, a wide web, crossed with several
+  coloured stripes. <i>Texture</i>, stout. <i>Weave</i>, coarse.
+  <i>Length</i>, four to twelve feet. <i>Usual width</i>, two
+  fifths to two thirds length.</p>
+
+  <p class="tb"><span class="smcap">Afghans.</span>&mdash;One of
+  the most distinctive classes of Turkoman rugs is known in this
+  country both as Afghans and Khivas. Both of these<span class=
+  'pagenum'><a name="Page_244" id="Page_244">244</a></span> names
+  are unfortunately applied; for their only title to be called the
+  latter is that many were formerly exported from the bazaars of
+  Khiva, and that they slightly resemble the rugs of that city. Nor
+  are they strictly Afghans, since they come from the territory of
+  mountain ridges and fertile valleys that stretches from the Hindu
+  Koosh Mountains northward across the eastern part of the Khanate
+  Bokhara, and are made by the tribesmen of both countries. In
+  fact, they differ considerably from the rugs of Central and
+  Southern Afghanistan, and bear no resemblance to those of floral
+  pattern woven about Herat.</p>
+
+  <p>Within the territory where these rugs are made the Aryan and
+  Teutonic races have met and blended; and across it have passed
+  the armies of the greatest conquerors of Asia. Here still exist
+  some of the most untamed races of the East, feeding their flocks
+  on lofty table-lands, or cultivating patches of valleys, through
+  which flow icy streams to form the Amu Daria. Here the rights of
+  hospitality are held sacred, but wrongs are revenged without
+  recourse to any tribunal.</p>
+
+  <p>When the antecedents, customs, and surroundings of the people
+  are taken into consideration, it is not strange that their rugs
+  should be strong and firm in texture, bold in design, positive
+  and striking in colour. Most of them are large and almost square
+  in shape, though mats are not uncommon. The traditional pattern
+  consists of perpendicular rows, usually three in number, of large
+  octagons, that are almost in contact. Between these rows are much
+  smaller diamond-shaped designs, which consist in some pieces of a
+  cluster of eight-pointed stars, and in others of a geometric
+  figure that is occasionally fringed with hooks and contains
+  within its centre an eight-pointed star.</p>
+
+  <p>With a few exceptions the octagons, which closely resemble
+  those of Royal Bokharas, are symmetrical, and all their details
+  are drawn as regularly as if the rugs were factory woven. They
+  are invariably divided into quarters which usually are marked
+  with a small figure like a three-leaf clover. The field contains
+  but few adventitious designs and they are rarely animal, as the
+  Afghans are Sunni Mohammedans. One of the most common of these
+  designs, which appears also in the Tekkes and Yomuds, is probably
+  intended to represent part of the headstall of camel trappings.
+  The pattern of the border conforms to that of the field, but
+  frequently has crudely drawn floral forms and a conventionalised
+  vine. The sides have <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_245" id=
+  "Page_245">245</a></span>an added selvage of brown goat&rsquo;s
+  hair; and the ends are finished with reddish brown webs, from
+  which hang loose fringes of dark wool or goat&rsquo;s hair.</p>
+
+  <div class="figcenter" style="width: 550px;">
+    <a name="p55" id="p55"></a><img src="images/plate55.jpg"
+    width="550" height="744" alt=
+    "Plate 55. Turkoman Rug of the Salor Tribes" title="" />
+
+    <p class="center"><span class="smcap">Plate 55. Turkoman Rug of
+    the Salor Tribes</span></p>
+  </div>
+
+  <p>As characteristic as the large bold octagons are the colours,
+  which however subdued are invariably of rich hues. Those of the
+  field consist of dark red, maroon, or reddish brown. The quarters
+  of the octagon are of a deep blue alternating with a red that is
+  lighter than the field. In some pieces this red is blood colour,
+  or nearly crimson, standing out in bold relief against the
+  adjacent blue and a field of maroon. Lines of green, orange,
+  yellow, and white often appear in the body of the rug; lines of
+  dark blue and a checkered pattern in red and blue are frequent in
+  the red webs of the ends.</p>
+
+  <p>Though these rugs are, as a rule, heavier and coarser in
+  texture than most other Turkoman rugs, the old pieces have a soft
+  plushy nap of fine wool and goat&rsquo;s fleece, as well as
+  richness of tone, that is very attractive. They are exceedingly
+  durable and moderate in price.</p>
+
+  <p><i>Type Characteristics.</i> <i>Colours</i>, principally dark
+  red and mahogany brown, with minor quantities of blue, green,
+  yellow, and white. <i>Knot</i>, generally Sehna, occasionally
+  Ghiordes. Knots to inch horizontally five to eight;
+  perpendicularly, seven to ten. The rows of knots are pressed
+  down, so that the warp is largely concealed at back. <i>Warp</i>,
+  coarse wool or goat&rsquo;s hair; each thread encircled by a knot
+  is equally prominent at back, or one is slightly depressed below
+  the other. <i>Weft</i>, wool, of medium diameter, or occasionally
+  wool mixed with goat&rsquo;s hair. A thread of weft crosses twice
+  between every two rows of knots. <i>Pile</i>, wool, of medium
+  length. <i>Border</i>, three stripes. <i>Sides</i>, a
+  goat&rsquo;s hair double selvage of three or four cords. <i>Both
+  ends</i>, a broad web of reddish brown colour through which run
+  several narrow lines or several narrow stripes, and a long
+  fringe. <i>Texture</i>, stout. <i>Weave</i> at back is moderately
+  coarse. <i>Usual length</i>, five to twelve feet. <i>Usual
+  width</i>, two thirds to three quarters length.</p>
+
+  <p class="tb"><span class="smcap">Samarkands.</span>&mdash;A
+  little over one hundred miles east of Bokhara, and on the
+  southern border of the desert of Red Sands, the river Zarafshan,
+  &ldquo;Strewer of Gold,&rdquo; has turned a plain of yellow loam
+  into an oasis. Forty-three large canals bring its waters to
+  fields of cotton; to vineyards; to orchards of apple, pear,
+  peach, and pomegranate; and to gardens of fragrant flowers. Here
+  is Samarkand, &ldquo;The Mirror of the World.&rdquo; Few cities
+  as old remain after passing<span class='pagenum'><a name=
+  "Page_246" id="Page_246">246</a></span> through so many
+  vicissitudes of fortune. Alexander forced his way through its
+  gates, the Chinese Empire annexed it, and finally Tamerlane
+  seized and made it the magnificent capital of one third of the
+  known world. His tomb and other remaining monuments attest the
+  grandeur of that time when there was fostered here the art, the
+  luxury, and the splendour of the East.</p>
+
+  <p>The rugs known as Samarkands are woven in a district somewhat
+  eastward from the city and are often called
+  &ldquo;Malgarans.&rdquo; They are not to be compared with the
+  magnificent carpets that adorned the palaces and mosques of the
+  capital of Tamerlane; yet they possess a special interest, as in
+  them are combined features derived from both Eastern and Western
+  Asia. Either because this city, known as Samo-Kien, was once part
+  of the Chinese Empire, or as is more probable, because it is on
+  one of the great highways of caravan travel between China and
+  Western Asia, the Chinese element is particularly noticeable. It
+  appears in the colours that are in strong contrast; in the
+  general pattern that shows little affinity for those of Persian
+  or West Asian rugs; and even in the weave, in which silk is
+  occasionally mixed with the wool of both warp and pile.</p>
+
+  <p>The ground colour of the field is usually some shade of red or
+  madder, with blue and yellow appearing conspicuously in the
+  principal designs and border stripes. Or again, the field may be
+  blue, soft brown, gray, or tan, with which the colours of the
+  designs and borders, that may contain red, yellow, and blue,
+  invariably appear in strong contrast.</p>
+
+  <p>Few rugs have a more noticeable pattern, which consists
+  principally of rounded medallions. If there be but one, it is in
+  the centre; and if there be many, one is at each corner. They are
+  usually ornamented with Chinese scrolls or some geometric design,
+  as an eight-pointed star; but dragons, birds, or fishes are not
+  uncommon. Occasionally, also, flowers of Persian design, with
+  eight rounded petals, appear in the medallion, and others of
+  larger size cover the field; or they may even exclude the
+  medallion and constitute the principal motive. Some simple design
+  in fretwork gives finish to the corners of the field, which is
+  further covered with Chinese butterflies, scrolls, or archaic
+  flower forms. The borders are equally distinctive, and unlike
+  those of Chinese rugs are relatively wide and consist of several
+  stripes surrounded by an edging of uniform colour. One of the
+  stripes has generally a stiffly undulating vine; another a
+  continuous swastika design; and a third is marked with frets, the
+  bar<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_247" id=
+  "Page_247">247</a></span>ber-pole design, or a design which by
+  some is regarded as the sacred Chinese mountain rising from the
+  waves. In most pieces warp and weft are loosely woven, and the
+  pile is of a medium grade of wool; but in very old pieces the
+  wool is fine and lustrous.</p>
+
+  <p><i>Type Characteristics.</i> <i>Colours</i>, principally red,
+  blue, and yellow. <i>Knot</i>, Sehna. Knots to inch horizontally
+  six to eight; perpendicularly, five to eight. Each half knot, as
+  it appears at back, is as long as, or longer than, wide. The rows
+  of knots are not firmly pressed down, so that the warp shows at
+  back. <i>Warp</i>, generally cotton, occasionally wool; one of
+  the two threads encircled by a knot is doubled under the other.
+  <i>Weft</i>, generally cotton, occasionally wool, of coarse
+  diameter and frequently dyed. A thread of weft crosses twice,
+  between every two rows of knots, and occasionally three times.
+  <i>Pile</i>, wool, of medium length. <i>Border</i>, three stripes
+  with a pink edging. <i>Sides</i>, a red or pink overcasting.
+  <i>Lower end</i>, web and warp loops. <i>Upper end</i>, web and
+  warp fringe. <i>Texture</i>, moderately firm. <i>Weave</i> at
+  back, rather coarse. <i>Length</i>, six to fourteen feet.
+  <i>Usual width</i>, one half to three fifths length.</p>
+
+  <p class="tb"><span class="smcap">Kashgars and
+  Yarkands.</span>&mdash;Among the foothill plains at the western
+  end of the Chinese Empire, are the mud-walled cities of Kashgar
+  and Yarkand, that were ancient even in the days when Marco Polo
+  visited there. Situated in populous and fertile districts, each
+  has been a city of political and industrial importance; but on
+  account of the great divides that separate them from Western
+  Turkestan, Persia, and India, their commerce has been principally
+  with Thibet and China. Thus it has happened that only within
+  recent years have any of their textile fabrics reached Europe and
+  America, where they are still almost unknown. Yet even in the
+  remote past, these cities gained a reputation for the culture of
+  silk and the weaving of carpets. Moreover, at different periods
+  they were centres of luxury, so that it may safely be assumed
+  that many of their woven products were of a high order of
+  excellence.</p>
+
+  <p>These rugs, to be sure, come from a district lying within the
+  Chinese Empire; but it is so remote from the centres where the
+  well-known Chinese rugs have been and are woven, and is so much
+  nearer to West Turkestan and Afghanistan, that it seems best to
+  place them in the Central Asiatic group.</p>
+
+  <p>As a rule, such pieces as reach this country show crude
+  workmanship entirely lacking in graceful floral patterns or
+  artistic draw<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_248" id=
+  "Page_248">248</a></span>ing. Octagonal forms, animals, and even
+  mythical creatures are often distributed over the fields so as to
+  give them a decidedly Chinese character. The narrow border
+  stripes ornamented with the swastika and fret forms are often
+  similar to some of the Samarkand stripes. The colours, which lack
+  the subdued richness of Persian pieces, are often light; but they
+  occasionally consist largely of tones of dark blue and red which
+  show Turkoman influences. Most of these rugs are interesting on
+  account of their quaintness and individuality; but few compare in
+  quality of material, weave, or artistic finish with other classes
+  of this group.</p>
+
+  <p class="tb"><span class="smcap">Beluches or
+  Beluchistans.</span>&mdash;&ldquo;When creating the world, the
+  Almighty made Beluchistan out of the refuse&rdquo; are the words
+  of an old proverb, that refers to a land which formerly produced
+  some of the most interesting rugs of the East. In fact, the
+  thought is not surprising when the desolate character of the
+  country is considered; for a sandy, waterless waste stretches
+  over the greater part, and only in a corner to the northeast and
+  in narrow strips, where streams from mountain sides water small
+  valleys, is any cultivation. Across this sparsely settled land
+  and farther westward into the southeastern part of Persia,
+  untamed tribes of Beluches and Brahoes wander with their sheep,
+  goats, and large numbers of camels. Their rugs, woven on crudely
+  made looms, bear little resemblance to the more artistic floral
+  pieces of the Indian weavers to the east or to those of Kirman to
+  the west. Nor are they closely related to the Turkoman rugs with
+  which they are usually grouped. In fact, they possess an
+  individuality that once recognised is never forgotten; an
+  individuality due to the isolated condition of a country that is
+  protected from its nearest neighbours by barriers of deserts and
+  mountain ridges, and is possessed by a still unconquered people.
+  To these circumstances, also, it is due that the rugs are rarely
+  coloured with aniline dyes, though many modern pieces have been
+  chemically washed by dealers.</p>
+
+  <div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;">
+    <a name="p56" id="p56"></a><img src="images/plate56.jpg"
+    width="500" height="862" alt="Plate 56. Yomud Rug" title="" />
+
+    <p class="center"><span class="smcap">Plate 56. Yomud
+    Rug</span></p>
+  </div>
+
+  <p>One of the most distinguishing features of Beluchistans are
+  their tones of colour, that rarely depart from traditional usage.
+  They are principally a red of the shade of madder, a blue with
+  purple cast, and a dark brown that has sometimes a slight olive
+  tinge, particularly when appearing in the webs. Frequently, too,
+  dull tones of green are seen. Contrasting with these more subdued
+  ground colours is almost invariably some ivory which appears as
+  small detached <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_249" id=
+  "Page_249">249</a></span>figures in part of the border, or as
+  outlines of principal designs. The patterns also show
+  individuality and diversity. Most frequently they are geometric
+  and represent some ill defined octagons suggesting Turkoman rugs.
+  Or they may consist of a field covered with diagonal bands, with
+  large lozenges, or medallions, all of which are decorated
+  profusely with latch-hooks. Still others have some crudely drawn
+  flower design, as the Mina Khani, that tells of Persian
+  influences.</p>
+
+  <p>A fair proportion have the prayer pattern, consisting of a
+  large rectangular shaped mihrab, which is as high as, and
+  frequently higher than, wide. The borders, as a rule, consist of
+  three or four stripes. The main stripe is geometric and in the
+  guard stripes are running latch-hooks or the reciprocal trefoil,
+  though occasionally they are replaced by some conventionalised
+  vine or ribbon pattern.</p>
+
+  <p>Proportionally to their length few other rugs have such long
+  webs at the end, though they are sometimes entirely worn away
+  while the body of the rug is still serviceable. They are usually
+  coloured in harmony with the colours of the field, and are marked
+  with embroidered lines or simple designs. No other rugs have a
+  surface with more lustrous sheen, due to the soft, fine wool of
+  the pile, which in old pieces is short and closely woven, giving
+  a play of colours, and velvety appearance unsurpassed by any
+  other nomadic rugs. Many of the choicest pieces of Beluchistan
+  weave now on the market are the small saddle bags, that are of
+  rich yet subdued colours, and possess the character and sheen of
+  very old rugs.</p>
+
+  <p><i>Type Characteristics.</i> <i>Colours</i>, principally red,
+  blue, and brown, with minor quantities of white. <i>Knot</i>,
+  Sehna. Knots to inch horizontally six to nine; perpendicularly,
+  seven to ten. The rows of knots are usually pressed down, so that
+  the warp does not show at back. <i>Warp</i>, wool; each of the
+  two threads encircled by a knot is equally prominent at back, or
+  one is slightly depressed below the other. <i>Weft</i>, of
+  coarse, wiry wool, of medium diameter. A thread of weft crosses
+  twice between every two rows of knots. <i>Pile</i>, wool, and
+  occasionally camel&rsquo;s hair, of medium length. <i>Border</i>,
+  three stripes. <i>Sides</i>, a heavy goat&rsquo;s hair selvage of
+  three or four cords. <i>Both ends</i>, a broad embroidered web
+  with warp fringe. <i>Texture</i>, slightly loose. <i>Weave</i> at
+  back is moderately coarse. <i>Usual length</i>, four and one half
+  to six feet. <i>Usual width</i>, two thirds to three quarters
+  length.</p>
+
+  <p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_250" id=
+  "Page_250">250</a></span></p>
+
+  <h4>BORDER STRIPES</h4>
+
+  <p>The border stripes of the Central Asiatic group are even more
+  geometric than the Caucasian; for it is rarely that any floral
+  forms are seen in them, though they may appear in the pile that
+  extends beyond the borders of the ends. Even the vines are so
+  angular as almost to lose their identity. Octagonal figures,
+  stars, frets, and latch-hooks are common. In fact, the group as a
+  whole, shows the influence of the Caucasian and Chinese groups
+  more than the Persian.</p>
+
+  <h4>PRIMARY STRIPES</h4>
+
+  <p>The stripe shown in Plate <a href="#pl">L</a>, Fig. 1 (opp.
+  Page 250) is one of many found in the rugs known as Royal
+  Bokharas. The eight-pointed stars, as well as the small tent-like
+  designs, which may have been derived from the headstalls of
+  horses, are almost always found in it.</p>
+
+  <p>A well-known stripe of Princess Bokharas corresponding with
+  the pattern of the field, appears in Plate <a href="#pl">L</a>,
+  Fig. 2. It represents a continuous series of designs shaped like
+  a Y, that were doubtless derived from forms of trees. More
+  frequently the stripe (Fig. 3) of broad, serrated diagonal lines,
+  that originally may have been intended to represent foliage, is
+  seen.</p>
+
+  <p>Another stripe found in Princess Bokharas and also in Tekkes
+  and Khivas is shown in Plate <a href="#pl">L</a>, Fig. 4. It
+  forcibly suggests the Chinese fret. Sometimes it is used as a
+  primary but more frequently as a secondary stripe.</p>
+
+  <p>In Plate <a href="#pl">L</a>, Fig. 5, is a stripe frequently
+  seen in Tekkes, which is interesting on account of the
+  eight-pointed stars and latch-hooks similar to those of Caucasian
+  rugs. Without doubt this is only one of the many instances
+  illustrating the migration of designs.</p>
+
+  <p>Plate <a href="#pl">L</a>, Fig. 6 represents a stripe peculiar
+  to Yomuds. The running vine is most mechanically drawn and
+  fringed with latch-hooks, which are a constant feature of this
+  class.</p>
+
+  <p>Another Yomud stripe with vine in which serrations take the
+  place of latch-hooks is shown in Plate <a href="#pl">L</a>, Fig.
+  7. Pendent from the vine are other hooks shaped like frets.</p>
+
+  <p>Very similar to an old Caucasian stripe is the one represented
+  in Plate <a href="#pl">L</a>, Fig. 8; but in this stripe the
+  small designs are drawn so that the proportion of length to width
+  is greater; and it is probable that they were copied from a
+  wreath of leaves. This stripe is very commonly seen in
+  Beluchistans.</p>
+
+  <div class="figcenter" style="width: 550px;">
+    <a name="pl" id="pl"></a><img src="images/platel.jpg" width=
+    "550" height="726" alt=
+    "Plate L. Primary and Secondary Border-stripes of Central Asiatic Rugs"
+    title="" />
+
+    <p class="center"><span class="smcap">Plate L. Primary and
+    Secondary Border-stripes of Central Asiatic Rugs</span></p>
+  </div>
+
+  <p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_251" id=
+  "Page_251">251</a></span></p>
+
+  <p>Plate <a href="#pl">L</a>, Fig. 9 represents a mechanically
+  drawn vine found in Beshires.</p>
+
+  <p>Well-known Afghan stripes are shown in Plate <a href=
+  "#pl">L</a>, Figs. 10 and 11.</p>
+
+  <p>In Plate <a href="#pl">L</a>, Figs. 12 and 13 are two of the
+  most typical and interesting stripes of Samarkands and Yarkands.
+  The first is supposed to represent the sacred mountain of Chinese
+  lore rising out of the waves. The second is a vine with leaves
+  and flowers, which suggest Persian influences.</p>
+
+  <p>A stripe with simple archaic pattern peculiar to Yarkands is
+  seen in Plate <a href="#pl">L</a>, Fig. 14.</p>
+
+  <h4>SECONDARY STRIPES</h4>
+
+  <p>In Plate <a href="#pl">L</a>, Fig. 15 (opp. Page 250), is a
+  well-known form of a secondary stripe found in Royal
+  Bokharas.</p>
+
+  <p>A stripe seen in both Princess Bokharas and Tekkes is shown in
+  Plate <a href="#pl">L</a>, Fig. 16. It bears a slight resemblance
+  to some conventionalised vines found in other groups.</p>
+
+  <p>Stripes of running latch-hooks (Plate <a href="#pk">K</a>,
+  Fig. 20, opp. Page 230) are frequently found in Yomuds, and
+  occasionally in Beluchistans.</p>
+
+  <p>In Beluchistans the reciprocal trefoils, so well-known in
+  Caucasian and Persian rugs, are very frequently used.</p>
+
+  <p>The pattern of a double vine, illustrated in Plate <a href=
+  "#pl">L</a>, Fig. 17, is a Beshire stripe that suggests a Persian
+  influence.</p>
+
+  <p>In Plate <a href="#pl">L</a>, Fig. 18, is the narrow pear
+  stripe that appears in a very large number of Afghans and in some
+  Khivas.</p>
+
+  <p>Two well-known stripes that belong to Samarkands are shown in
+  Plate <a href="#pl">L</a>, Figs. 19 and 20. The pattern of the
+  conventionalised vine speaks of Persian origin, and the swastikas
+  suggest Chinese origin.</p>
+
+  <p>In Tekkes, Yomuds, Afghans, and Beluchistans the small
+  barber-pole stripes are constantly employed.</p>
+
+  <p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_252" id=
+  "Page_252">252</a></span></p>
+
+  <h4>TECHNICALITIES IN THE WEAVE OF CENTRAL ASIATIC RUGS</h4>
+
+  <p>Legend:<br />
+  <br />
+  KNOT&mdash;<br />
+  <span style="margin-left: 1em;">H = Horizontally</span><br />
+  <span style="margin-left: 1em;">P = Perpendicularly</span><br />
+  WARP&mdash;<br />
+  <span style="margin-left: 1em;">g = goat&rsquo;s
+  hair</span><br />
+  <span style="margin-left: 1em;">e = each equally
+  prominent</span><br />
+  <span style="margin-left: 1em;">d = 1 to the knot
+  depressed</span><br />
+  <span style="margin-left: 1em;">h = 1 to the knot doubled
+  under</span><br />
+  WEFT&mdash;<br />
+  <span style="margin-left: 1em;">g = goat&rsquo;s
+  hair</span><br />
+  <span style="margin-left: 1em;">No. = No. times crossing bet. two
+  round knots</span><br />
+  SIDES&mdash;<br />
+  <span style="margin-left: 1em;">O = overcasting</span><br />
+  <span style="margin-left: 1em;">S = selvage</span><br />
+  LOWER END<br />
+  <span style="margin-left: 1em;">W = web</span><br />
+  <span style="margin-left: 1em;">S = Selvage</span><br />
+  <span style="margin-left: 1em;">K = Rows knots</span><br />
+  <span style="margin-left: 1em;">L = warp loops</span><br />
+  <span style="margin-left: 1em;">F = fringe</span><br />
+  UPPER END<br />
+  <span style="margin-left: 1em;">W = web</span><br />
+  <span style="margin-left: 1em;">S = selvage</span><br />
+  <span style="margin-left: 1em;">K = Rows knots</span><br />
+  <span style="margin-left: 1em;">T = turned back and
+  hemmed</span><br />
+  <span style="margin-left: 1em;">F = fringe</span><br /></p>
+
+  <table width="100%" summary="TECHNICALITIES" border="1">
+    <tr>
+      <td class="center20" rowspan="3">CENTRAL<br />
+      ASIATIC</td>
+
+      <td class="center12" colspan="4">KNOT</td>
+
+      <td class="center8" colspan="6">WARP</td>
+    </tr>
+
+    <tr>
+      <td class="center12" rowspan="2">G =<br />
+      Ghiordes</td>
+
+      <td class="center8" rowspan="2">S =<br />
+      Sehna</td>
+
+      <td class="center8" colspan="2">Number to<br />
+      Inches</td>
+
+      <td class="center8" rowspan="2">w=<br />
+      wool</td>
+
+      <td class="center12" rowspan="2">c=<br />
+      cotton</td>
+
+      <td class="center6" rowspan="2">g</td>
+
+      <td class="center6" colspan="3">At back</td>
+    </tr>
+
+    <tr>
+      <td class="center8">H</td>
+
+      <td class="center8">P</td>
+
+      <td class="center6">e</td>
+
+      <td class="center6">d</td>
+
+      <td class="center6">h</td>
+    </tr>
+
+    <tr>
+      <td class="left20">Afghan<br />
+      Beluchistan<br />
+      Beshire<br />
+      Princess&nbsp;Bokhara<br />
+      Royal&nbsp;Bokhara<br />
+      Tekke&nbsp;Bokhara<br />
+      Khivah<br />
+      Samarkand<br />
+      Yomuk</td>
+
+      <td class="center12">G<br />
+      &nbsp;<br />
+      &nbsp;<br />
+      &nbsp;<br />
+      &nbsp;<br />
+      &nbsp;<br />
+      G<br />
+      &nbsp;<br />
+      [G]</td>
+
+      <td class="center8">S<br />
+      S<br />
+      S<br />
+      S<br />
+      S<br />
+      S<br />
+      S<br />
+      S<br />
+      S</td>
+
+      <td class="center8">5-8<br />
+      6-9<br />
+      6-9<br />
+      8-12<br />
+      8-12<br />
+      7-12<br />
+      6-10<br />
+      6-8<br />
+      7-12</td>
+
+      <td class="center8">7-10<br />
+      7-10<br />
+      8-11<br />
+      16-24<br />
+      14-18<br />
+      9-14<br />
+      8-14<br />
+      5-8<br />
+      9-17</td>
+
+      <td class="center8">w<br />
+      w<br />
+      [w]<br />
+      w<br />
+      w<br />
+      w<br />
+      w<br />
+      [w]<br />
+      w</td>
+
+      <td class="center12">&nbsp;<br />
+      &nbsp;<br />
+      [c]<br />
+      &nbsp;<br />
+      &nbsp;<br />
+      &nbsp;<br />
+      &nbsp;<br />
+      c<br />
+      &nbsp;</td>
+
+      <td class="center6">[g]<br />
+      [g]<br />
+      g<br />
+      &nbsp;<br />
+      [g]<br />
+      [g]<br />
+      [g]<br />
+      &nbsp;<br />
+      g</td>
+
+      <td class="center6">e<br />
+      e<br />
+      e<br />
+      e<br />
+      e<br />
+      &nbsp;<br />
+      e<br />
+      &nbsp;<br />
+      e</td>
+
+      <td class="center6">d<br />
+      d<br />
+      [d]<br />
+      [d]<br />
+      &nbsp;<br />
+      d<br />
+      &nbsp;<br />
+      &nbsp;<br />
+      [d]</td>
+
+      <td class="center6">&nbsp;<br />
+      &nbsp;<br />
+      &nbsp;<br />
+      &nbsp;<br />
+      &nbsp;<br />
+      &nbsp;<br />
+      &nbsp;<br />
+      h<br />
+      &nbsp;</td>
+    </tr>
+  </table>
+
+  <p>&nbsp;</p>
+
+  <table width="100%" summary="TECHNICALITIES" border="1">
+    <tr>
+      <td class="center20" rowspan="2">CENTRAL<br />
+      ASIATIC</td>
+
+      <td class="center8" colspan="4">WEFT</td>
+
+      <td class="center6" colspan="2">SIDES</td>
+
+      <td class="center8" colspan="4">LOWER END</td>
+    </tr>
+
+    <tr>
+      <td class="center8">w =<br />
+      wool</td>
+
+      <td class="center12">c =<br />
+      cotton</td>
+
+      <td class="center8">s/j</td>
+
+      <td class="center8">No.</td>
+
+      <td class="center6">O</td>
+
+      <td class="center6">S</td>
+
+      <td class="center6">W/S</td>
+
+      <td class="center6">K</td>
+
+      <td class="center6">L</td>
+
+      <td class="center6">F</td>
+    </tr>
+
+    <tr>
+      <td class="left20">Afghan<br />
+      Beluchistan<br />
+      Beshire<br />
+      Princess&nbsp;Bokhara<br />
+      Royal&nbsp;Bokhara<br />
+      Tekke&nbsp;Bokhara<br />
+      Khivah<br />
+      Samarkand<br />
+      Yomuk</td>
+
+      <td class="center8">w<br />
+      w<br />
+      [w]<br />
+      w<br />
+      w<br />
+      w<br />
+      w<br />
+      [w]<br />
+      w</td>
+
+      <td class="center12">&nbsp;<br />
+      &nbsp;<br />
+      [c]<br />
+      &nbsp;<br />
+      &nbsp;<br />
+      &nbsp;<br />
+      &nbsp;<br />
+      c<br />
+      &nbsp;</td>
+
+      <td class="center8">&nbsp;<br />
+      &nbsp;<br />
+      g&nbsp;<br />
+      &nbsp;<br />
+      &nbsp;<br />
+      &nbsp;<br />
+      &nbsp;<br />
+      &nbsp;</td>
+
+      <td class="center8">2<br />
+      2<br />
+      2/[1]<br />
+      2<br />
+      2<br />
+      2<br />
+      2<br />
+      2<br />
+      2</td>
+
+      <td class="center6">&nbsp;<br />
+      &nbsp;<br />
+      &nbsp;<br />
+      O<br />
+      O<br />
+      &nbsp;<br />
+      &nbsp;<br />
+      O<br />
+      &nbsp;</td>
+
+      <td class="center6">S<br />
+      S<br />
+      S<br />
+      &nbsp;<br />
+      [S]<br />
+      S<br />
+      S<br />
+      &nbsp;<br />
+      S</td>
+
+      <td class="center8">W<br />
+      W<br />
+      W<br />
+      [W]<br />
+      W<br />
+      W<br />
+      W<br />
+      W<br />
+      W</td>
+
+      <td class="center6">&nbsp;<br />
+      &nbsp;<br />
+      &nbsp;<br />
+      &nbsp;<br />
+      &nbsp;<br />
+      &nbsp;<br />
+      K<br />
+      &nbsp;<br />
+      &nbsp;</td>
+
+      <td class="center6">&nbsp;<br />
+      &nbsp;<br />
+      &nbsp;<br />
+      &nbsp;<br />
+      &nbsp;<br />
+      &nbsp;<br />
+      &nbsp;<br />
+      L<br />
+      &nbsp;</td>
+
+      <td class="center6">F<br />
+      F<br />
+      F<br />
+      F<br />
+      F<br />
+      F<br />
+      F<br />
+      &nbsp;<br />
+      F</td>
+    </tr>
+  </table>
+
+  <p>&nbsp;</p>
+
+  <table width="100%" summary="TECHNICALITIES" border="1">
+    <tr>
+      <td class="center20" rowspan="2">CENTRAL<br />
+      ASIATIC</td>
+
+      <td class="center8" colspan="4">UPPER END</td>
+
+      <td class="center18">NAP</td>
+
+      <td class="center18">WEAVE</td>
+
+      <td class="center18">TEXTURE</td>
+    </tr>
+
+    <tr>
+      <td class="center8">W/S</td>
+
+      <td class="center6">K</td>
+
+      <td class="center6">T</td>
+
+      <td class="center6">F</td>
+
+      <td class="left18">l = long<br />
+      m = medium<br />
+      s = short</td>
+
+      <td class="left18">f = fine<br />
+      m = medium<br />
+      c = coarse</td>
+
+      <td class="left18">l = loose<br />
+      m = medium<br />
+      f = firm</td>
+    </tr>
+
+    <tr>
+      <td class="left20">Afghan<br />
+      Beluchistan<br />
+      Beshire<br />
+      Princess&nbsp;Bokhara<br />
+      Royal&nbsp;Bokhara<br />
+      Tekke&nbsp;Bokhara<br />
+      Khivah<br />
+      Samarkand<br />
+      Yomuk</td>
+
+      <td class="center8">W<br />
+      W<br />
+      W<br />
+      W<br />
+      W<br />
+      W<br />
+      W<br />
+      W<br />
+      W</td>
+
+      <td class="center6">&nbsp;</td>
+
+      <td class="center6">&nbsp;<br />
+      &nbsp;<br />
+      &nbsp;<br />
+      &nbsp;<br />
+      &nbsp;<br />
+      [T]&nbsp;<br />
+      &nbsp;</td>
+
+      <td class="center6">F<br />
+      F<br />
+      F<br />
+      F<br />
+      F<br />
+      F<br />
+      F<br />
+      F<br />
+      F</td>
+
+      <td class="center18">m<br />
+      m<br />
+      m<br />
+      s<br />
+      m/s<br />
+      m/s<br />
+      m<br />
+      m<br />
+      m</td>
+
+      <td class="center18">m/c<br />
+      c<br />
+      c<br />
+      f<br />
+      m/s<br />
+      m/f<br />
+      m<br />
+      c<br />
+      m/c</td>
+
+      <td class="center18">f<br />
+      m/l<br />
+      f<br />
+      f<br />
+      f<br />
+      f<br />
+      f<br />
+      m<br />
+      f</td>
+    </tr>
+  </table>
+
+  <p>[] indicates the less frequent condition.</p>
+  <hr />
+
+  <p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_253" id=
+  "Page_253">253</a></span></p>
+
+  <h3>CHAPTER XIII</h3>
+
+  <h4>INDIAN RUGS</h4>
+
+  <p><span class="floatLeft"><img src="images/t.jpg" width="110" height="110" alt="T"
+  title="T" /></span>HROUGHOUT parts of India are woven rugs known
+  as <i>Dari</i>, which are unlike the rugs of any other country.
+  They are pileless cotton fabrics, that may represent an
+  indigenous craft old as the Aryan migrations. Their designs are
+  of the simplest order; usually no more than plain stripes of
+  blue, red, and black, or only blue and white modified
+  occasionally by simple geometric figures. Furthermore, their
+  workmanship is poor, so that they possess little artistic merit.
+  Some pieces of large size are exported, but they awaken but
+  little interest compared with other kinds of rugs.</p>
+
+  <p>The weaving of pile carpets in India, on the other hand, does
+  not appear to have been the result of spontaneous growth or to
+  have flourished without artificial encouragement. It was probably
+  introduced by the Saracens, but carpets of elaborate design and
+  workmanship were not made till the reign of Shah Akbar, who
+  imported Persian weavers. Under his patronage and the
+  encouragement of his royal successors, the manufacture of pieces
+  that rivalled those of Persia continued for a hundred years, but
+  after the death of Shah Jahan, in 1658, the industry began to
+  decline. Nevertheless, for nearly a hundred years longer
+  excellent fabrics were produced as the result of the system that
+  was maintained in all the provinces by lesser potentates. This
+  system, which was also in vogue in parts of Persia, is described
+  by Dr. George Birdwood as follows: &ldquo;The princes and great
+  nobles and wealthy gentry, who are the chief patrons of these
+  grand fabrics, collect together in their own houses and palaces
+  all who gain a reputation for special skill in their manufacture.
+  These men receive a fixed salary and daily rations and are so
+  little hurried in their work that they have plenty of time to
+  execute private orders also. Their salaries are continued even
+  when through age or accident they are past work; and on their
+  death they<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_254" id=
+  "Page_254">254</a></span> pass to their sons, should they have
+  become skilled in their father&rsquo;s art. Upon the completion
+  of any extraordinary work, it is submitted to the patron; and
+  some honour is at once conferred on the artist and his salary
+  increased. It is under such conditions that the best art work of
+  the East has always been produced.&rdquo;</p>
+
+  <p>After the overthrow of the Mogul dominion by Nadir Shah, in
+  1731, the production of carpets rapidly diminished and the
+  quality deteriorated. This was due to several causes. With the
+  conquests of the East Indian Company, that began in the middle of
+  the XVIII Century, and the extension of trade into every
+  district, large quantities of antique carpets became the property
+  of the Company or of those in its employ. Many of them, including
+  sumptuous pieces that had adorned the palaces of the descendants
+  of Tamerlane, found their way to England. Thus were removed many
+  of the masterpieces that had been an inspiration to the weavers.
+  Moreover, with the overthrow of native princes their patronage
+  ceased; and later, when looms were established in jails for the
+  employment of convicts, undesirable competition reduced the wages
+  of free labour. Still more pernicious was the introduction of
+  aniline dyes, and the elimination of individual taste by
+  supplying patterns, that were often of European origin, to be
+  mechanically copied. Thus it followed that, in spite of the
+  efforts of Mr. Robinson and of others, for nearly half a century,
+  to resuscitate the art and restore it to its former condition,
+  weaving in India, to-day, rests purely on a commercial basis; and
+  the workmanship is almost as mechanical as the manufacture of
+  machine-made carpets in Europe or America.</p>
+
+  <p>Yet to the cloud hanging over the weaving of India is a
+  brighter lining. European companies have established factories
+  where natives are employed making rugs that in quality equal the
+  products of Smyrna and Sultanabad. Some of them, indeed, are even
+  more firmly woven than the Persian products from which they are
+  copied. In many of the towns, also, are looms where the weavers,
+  who are mostly boys, enjoy more independence. Moreover, the
+  companies, realising that the future of their business depends on
+  the quality of the fabrics, are largely discarding aniline dyes.
+  It is now possible, therefore, to obtain Indian rugs of excellent
+  workmanship and colours at very moderate prices; but
+  individuality, representative of native character and
+  temperament, is entirely lacking; and in its place is simply a
+  reproduction of Persian or European patterns.</p>
+
+  <div class="figcenter" style="width: 550px;">
+    <a name="p57" id="p57"></a><img src="images/plate57.jpg"
+    width="550" height="786" alt="Plate 57. Beshire Prayer Rug"
+    title="" />
+
+    <p class="center"><span class="smcap">Plate 57. Beshire Prayer
+    Rug</span></p>
+  </div>
+
+  <p>Any arrangement of these rugs in sub-groups must be arbitrary,
+  <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_255" id=
+  "Page_255">255</a></span>as similar conditions of early foreign
+  influence, royal patronage, and the jail and factory systems,
+  have prevailed throughout India. Yet since the northern part has
+  been more directly under the influence of the courts and more
+  intimately connected with Herat, which seems to have left a
+  strong impress on the weavings of all the surrounding country, it
+  is convenient to make a distinction between the rugs of Northern
+  and Southern India.</p>
+
+  <p>The principal rug-producing centres of Northern India at
+  present are Srinagar, Amritsar, Lahore, Multan, Allahabad, Agra,
+  Mirzapur, Sindh, Jubbulpur, and Jaipur.</p>
+
+  <p class="tb"><span class="smcap">Srinagar</span>.&mdash;From the
+  extreme northern part of India come the rugs of Kashmir, which
+  are often named after the capital of the province, Srinagar, the
+  &ldquo;City of the Sun.&rdquo; To a large extent, they resemble
+  the far more famous shawls that were woven in the central valley,
+  where winds the Jhelum, that some believe first suggested the
+  pear design. The pieces woven before the British occupation of
+  India were of excellent quality and contained delicate colour
+  schemes, that were exceedingly pleasing; but the products of the
+  last half century show deterioration. The colours are harsher,
+  the mechanical drawing of the patterns show European influence,
+  and the borders resemble too closely the central field to have
+  distinct characters. Yet many of them are now dyed with vegetable
+  colours, and are stoutly woven with the soft and silky wool for
+  which this district is renowned.</p>
+
+  <p class="tb"><span class="smcap">Amritsar</span>.&mdash;On
+  account of famine and several other causes, a large number of the
+  people of Kashmir migrated about the year 1840. Some of them
+  settled at Amritsar, where they followed their former craft of
+  making shawls, until a change of fashion, that occurred about the
+  year 1870, deprived many of their occupation. These turned to rug
+  weaving and thus gave an impetus to that industry.</p>
+
+  <p>Amritsar is now the most populous and wealthy city of the
+  Punjab; and as some twenty thousand men and boys are employed at
+  the looms, it is one of the leading rug-producing centres of
+  India. Yet before the exhibition of Indian rugs at the
+  World&rsquo;s Fair in Chicago, in 1893, there had not been any
+  demand in this country for its rugs. For a long period it has
+  been the home of weavers who found in the surrounding mountains
+  and valleys the best of wool, but<span class='pagenum'><a name=
+  "Page_256" id="Page_256">256</a></span> before the revival of the
+  industry their patterns and workmanship were of an inferior
+  character. Under the factory system, conducted by American and
+  English firms, has been a marked improvement. Both dyes and wool
+  are excellent, and the technique of weave equals what is found in
+  the best of Persian products, to the square inch are frequently
+  two hundred Sehna knots; and since when tying a knot one thread
+  of warp is doubled under the other, as in Bijars, and the threads
+  of weft are pressed down very firmly, the texture is unusually
+  close. The nap is short; the sides are overcast; and as a rule,
+  the lower end has a cotton web and the upper end a web and
+  fringe. The moderate prices for rugs of such excellent dyes and
+  workmanship are possible only on account of the wage of the
+  weaver, which does not exceed one eighth what he would receive in
+  this country.</p>
+
+  <p>There is nothing, however, in the pattern to distinguish these
+  rugs from others; for in the drawing the greatest latitude is
+  exercised. It may be a copy of a European carpet, or some Indian
+  or Iranian antique. Of recent years, many well-known modern
+  Persian patterns have been followed, so that not infrequently
+  these pieces are mistaken for the products of Kermanshah or
+  Sultanabad.</p>
+
+  <p class="tb"><span class="smcap">Lahore</span>.&mdash;About the
+  year 1580, the imperial carpet factory of Shah Akbar was
+  established at Lahore, the capital of the Punjab; where during
+  the reign of the Mogul princes were produced many of the best
+  examples of Indian weaving. It was here that, in 1634, was woven
+  the well-known carpet now in the possession of the
+  Girdler&rsquo;s Company of London. Some of the pieces that still
+  remain show wonderful delicacy of drawing and brilliancy of
+  colouring. At a much later period, under the British rule, the
+  jail system of weaving was inaugurated, and rugs were made with
+  both woollen and cotton foundation. Within more recent years the
+  factory system followed; and on account of the nearness of
+  Amritsar to the capital, some foreign firms have weaving
+  establishments in both cities. It is not surprising, then, that
+  there should be a resemblance in their products, which is seen in
+  the finish of sides and ends and in the character of weaving,
+  which usually shows one thread of warp to each knot doubled under
+  the other; but as a rule the rugs of Lahore come in lighter
+  shades and are woven with fewer knots to the square inch. In the
+  guards of the border often appear geometric figures; but the
+  patterns in other respects largely follow well-known<span class=
+  'pagenum'><a name="Page_257" id="Page_257">257</a></span> Persian
+  drawing, though leaf and flower are more artistically portrayed
+  and the designs are less crowded.</p>
+
+  <p class="tb"><span class="smcap">Multans</span>.&mdash;One of
+  the most ancient cities of the Punjab is Multan, which during the
+  vicissitudes of centuries was more than once captured by early
+  Mohammedan conquerors and also by Tamerlane. Its woven fabrics
+  are of three types: the <i>Dari</i>, which are made almost
+  exclusively in the jails; rugs of cotton pile, that have been
+  made only within the last sixty years; and rugs of woollen pile,
+  that have been produced for an unknown period. As the looms on
+  which they are made are unlike those of other districts, and the
+  weavers are but little affected by external influences, it is not
+  surprising that the pile carpets not only display uniqueness of
+  pattern rarely seen in other Indian pieces but also possess
+  peculiarities of weaving as well as of material. Usually they are
+  of moderate size, but some have a breadth of twelve feet. There
+  are seldom more than one hundred knots to the square inch and
+  occasionally only nine, so that the texture is coarse. Not
+  infrequently a single knot encircles four threads of warp, and
+  between two rows of knots is a single thread of weft. Almost all
+  of the weavers are Mohammedans, who have a tradition that they
+  originally came from Persia; yet their products contain few of
+  the Iranian characteristics, since the field is usually occupied
+  by geometric designs or crudely drawn floral patterns. As is
+  seldom the case with weavers who dwell in cities, these dye their
+  own wool, using both vegetable and aniline dyes. The principal
+  colours are bold and strongly contrasting tones of red, yellow,
+  and blue. Some of the cotton rugs, however, have a single colour
+  of bluish shade. On the whole, the Multan rugs possess great
+  individuality but little artistic merit.</p>
+
+  <p class="tb"><span class="smcap">Agra</span>.&mdash;Almost
+  within sight of the minarets of the Taj Mahal are prison walls
+  where convicts of Agra ploddingly weave. In 1891, Dr. John Hurst
+  &ldquo;saw a long row of prisoners for life, who were chained to
+  each other by the feet, engaged in weaving a rug for Queen
+  Victoria, and another for the ex-Empress Eugenie.&rdquo; Most of
+  these pieces are of cotton foundation. Each thread of warp is
+  equally prominent at the back, and the texture is looser than in
+  Amritsars. The nap is short, and the fibres of the knots blend
+  well together. Not infrequently the fields are monotones of
+  delicate shades of blue, green, or fawn colour. As a rule, the
+  rugs are very large and heavy; and<span class='pagenum'><a name=
+  "Page_258" id="Page_258">258</a></span> it would seem that this
+  has always been the case, as Mr. Robinson suggested that the
+  reason for establishing looms at this place was the early demand
+  for carpets too large to be imported on elephants.</p>
+
+  <p class="tb"><span class=
+  "smcap">Allahabad</span>.&mdash;Situated like Benares on the
+  banks of the Ganges, and next to it the most sacred city of India
+  to the faithful Brahman, is Allahabad, capital of the
+  northwestern provinces. Its geographic and political importance,
+  as well as the fact that each year half a million or more
+  devotees visit it, have been important factors in the growth of
+  its industries, one of which is the weaving of rugs. Yet the
+  numbers produced have never been great. As a rule they are of
+  large size, and are loosely woven with each thread of warp
+  equally distinct at the back. Few of them equal the best examples
+  of the Amritsar looms.</p>
+
+  <p class="tb"><span class="smcap">Mirzapur</span>.&mdash;When it
+  is considered that Mirzapur is the centre of a very populous
+  cotton-producing district in the valley of the Ganges, to the
+  west of Benares, and is the seat of important manufactures, it is
+  not surprising that it is noted for its carpets. Those made half
+  a century ago were well woven and dyed with fast colours, but
+  largely on account of the employment of convicts, the texture of
+  those made since then is coarse and loose, the patterns are poor,
+  the colours crude. To a limited extent a higher grade of wool has
+  been imported as a substitute for the harsh local product, but
+  the result has not been satisfactory. These rugs accordingly find
+  small favour among those who appreciate artistic qualities, and
+  give little satisfaction where durability is the chief requisite.
+  It should be noted, however, that within recent years efforts
+  have been made to raise their standard.</p>
+
+  <p class="tb"><span class="smcap">Jubbulpur</span>.&mdash;Two
+  hundred miles to the southwest of Allahabad is Jubbulpur, capital
+  of a district of over half a million people. A century ago many
+  beautiful rugs were woven there; but since the establishment of a
+  School of Industry, in 1850, the character of weaving has
+  retrograded rather than advanced. In 1880, Dr. Birdwood wrote of
+  its rugs as follows: &ldquo;The foundation, as now scamped is
+  quite insufficient to carry the heavy pile which is a feature of
+  this work; and is moreover so short in the staple as to be
+  incapable of bearing the tension even of the process of
+  manufacture. Jubbulpur carpets often reach this country (England)
+  which will not bear <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_259" id=
+  "Page_259">259</a></span>sweeping, or even unpacking. I know of
+  two which were shaken to pieces in the attempt to shake the dust
+  out of them when first unpacked. The designs once had some local
+  character, but have lost it during the last four or five
+  years.&rdquo; Within recent years few have been exported.</p>
+
+  <div class="figcenter" style="width: 550px;">
+    <a name="p58" id="p58"></a><img src="images/plate58.jpg"
+    width="550" height="787" alt="Plate 58. Beshire Rug" title="" />
+
+    <p class="center"><span class="smcap">Plate 58. Beshire
+    Rug</span></p>
+  </div>
+
+  <p class="tb"><span class="smcap">Sindh</span>.&mdash;Formerly
+  good rugs were woven at Sindh, one hundred miles above the mouth
+  of the Indus; but after the introduction of aniline dyes their
+  colours, as well as patterns, deteriorated. In the poorest pieces
+  the foundation was of cotton and hemp, and cow hair was
+  frequently used for pile. Very few of them have been imported
+  into this country.</p>
+
+  <p class="tb"><span class="smcap">Jaipur</span>.&mdash;In the
+  palace of the Maharajah at Jaipur, the great commercial centre of
+  Rajputana, are some of the most beautiful carpets that remain in
+  India. Native appreciation is also apparent in the present
+  workmanship of the district weavers. There is nothing crass or
+  inelegant in the patterns which follow the pleasing drawing of
+  Persian rugs. The vine, leaf, and flower, trees, and animals are
+  faithfully portrayed. The texture of weave is excellent.</p>
+
+  <p>The principal rug-producing centres of Southern India are
+  Madras, Marsulipatam, Ellore, Vellore, and Bangalore. Rugs are
+  also woven in Hyderabad, Warangal, and Ayyampet in the Tanjore
+  district.</p>
+
+  <p class="tb"><span class="smcap">Madras</span>.&mdash;Only
+  within a comparatively recent period have rugs been made at
+  Madras, the early stronghold of the British in South India. Over
+  half a century ago, native products, woven in the interior towns
+  of the Dekkan, were shipped by way of Coconada to that city and
+  were sometimes known as Madras rugs. Two of these pieces, which
+  were sent by Mr. Vincent Robinson to the South Kensington Museum,
+  differ widely in harmony of colours, beauty of design, and
+  delicacy of workmanship from the present products of Madras. Yet
+  the latter have much to commend them. Some are made in the jail,
+  others in the School of Fine Arts, and others in the Anjuman
+  Industrial School. All are made of good wool, coloured with
+  vegetable dyes. Great diversity appears in the patterns, as some
+  are copied from antique carpets represented in the &ldquo;Vienna
+  Carpet Book,&rdquo; others are copied from rugs of Northern
+  India, Persia,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_260" id=
+  "Page_260">260</a></span> and Asia Minor. As a rule, the fields
+  are well covered with repetitive designs, that give them the
+  appearance of factory-made carpets.</p>
+
+  <p class="tb"><span class="smcap">Marsulipatam</span>.&mdash;Two
+  hundred and fifty miles north of Madras on the Coromandel coast
+  is the city of Marsulipatam, one of the earliest of the British
+  settlements in India, from which the East India Company shipped
+  rugs over two centuries ago. At that time they were among the
+  finest produced in that country, but the demands of agents for
+  articles that could be produced as cheaply as possible resulted
+  in the use of inferior materials and in poorer workmanship. Most
+  of the dyes are aniline. The patterns, that once were executed
+  with marvelous beauty of detail, gave way to crude drawing until
+  &ldquo;these glorious carpets of Marsulipatam have sunk to a
+  mockery and travesty of their former selves.&rdquo;<a name=
+  "FNanchor_36" id="FNanchor_36"></a><a href="#Footnote_36" class=
+  "fnanchor">36</a> Few of them are any longer imported into this
+  country.</p>
+
+  <p class="tb"><span class="smcap">Ellore</span>.&mdash;Not far
+  from the delta of the Godavari river is the town of Ellore, where
+  a few centuries ago some Persians settled, and where their
+  descendants, faithful to early tradition, have followed the craft
+  of weaving. Here in former times were produced some of the best
+  rugs in Southern India; and even as late as 1883, Mr. E. B.
+  Havell wrote that he had seen pieces woven to meet special orders
+  which were equal in point of interest and material to the old
+  specimens in the hands of connoisseurs of London or in native
+  palaces. This is one of the few districts in Southern India where
+  the industry exists outside of jails. In the town and surrounding
+  country are about four hundred looms operated by some three
+  thousand people, who are Mohammedans.</p>
+
+  <p>In the better class of rugs, in which vegetable dyes are still
+  used, and the yarn is often a native product of wool obtained
+  from sheep of the uplands and spun by shepherds, something of the
+  old style of craftsmanship remains. On the other hand, a very
+  large percentage of the rugs which are intended solely for export
+  trade are of an inferior order, since many of their colours are
+  obtained from aniline, their weaving is inferior, and their
+  patterns are ordinary. Mr. Henry T. Harris, in his report on the
+  Madras Industrial and Art Exhibition, 1903, said: &ldquo;The
+  exhibits of carpets sent from Ellore were poor in conception,
+  weave, and colour.... The patterns in use were poor and often
+  modifications of cheap Wilton, Kidderminster, <span class=
+  'pagenum'><a name="Page_261" id="Page_261">261</a></span>and
+  German power loom designs. Some of the old patterns are still
+  with the weavers, but unfortunately there is no trade demand for
+  this fine class of goods, the old dyes are being forgotten and
+  have given place to cheap anilines unskilfully
+  applied.&rdquo;</p>
+
+  <div class="figcenter" style="width: 550px;">
+    <a name="p59" id="p59"></a><img src="images/plate59.jpg"
+    width="550" height="824" alt="Plate 59. Afghan Rug" title="" />
+
+    <p class="center"><span class="smcap">Plate 59. Afghan
+    Rug</span></p>
+  </div>
+
+  <p>In length, the rugs are from a few feet to twenty-four feet.
+  The warp is of cotton, and the weft is sometimes of jute or hemp.
+  The pile is of an inferior quality, as it consists largely of the
+  wool taken from a sheep after death, known as &ldquo;dead&rdquo;
+  wool, or as &ldquo;Chunam&rdquo; or &ldquo;limed&rdquo; wool,
+  since it is necessary to treat it with lime. Unfortunately
+  vegetable dyes do not produce in it the same results as in
+  &ldquo;live&rdquo; wool; and since the scarcity of wool in
+  Southern India frequently necessitates its use, aniline dyes are
+  for this reason alone often employed. The number of knots to the
+  square inch is relatively small. The patterns show great
+  diversity, as Persian features predominate in the older rugs; but
+  both geometric and floral designs are employed in the modern.</p>
+
+  <p class="tb"><span class="smcap">Vellore</span>.&mdash;Almost a
+  hundred miles to the west of Madras is the town of Vellore, where
+  native weavers once produced fine woollen carpets on their own
+  looms. A few specimens of these old pieces are preserved in the
+  jail to serve as patterns for the convicts, who now weave the
+  only rugs of the district. There are some fifty looms; and as the
+  largest is about thirty feet wide, almost any size of rug may be
+  obtained. The product rests on a commercial basis and depends on
+  the market demands, restricted by the material available and the
+  limitations of the weavers. According to the order, the rugs may
+  be coloured with vegetable or aniline dyes; they may have warp
+  and weft of cotton, jute or hemp; and they may have from six to
+  sixteen knots to the inch measured horizontally and
+  perpendicularly. In the patterns, which are as promiscuous as
+  those of Ellore and often similar, the Herati design with a
+  corresponding border is not infrequently used. Recently an effort
+  has been made to exclude all but vegetable dyes and improve the
+  craftsmanship.</p>
+
+  <p class="tb"><span class="smcap">Bangalore</span>.&mdash;The
+  principal weaving industry in the Mysore state is centred about
+  Bangalore, a city of about two hundred thousand inhabitants. Its
+  founder, Hyder Ali, is said to have established looms and to have
+  imported the first weavers. In 1908, the nine jail looms, of
+  which the largest had a length of nearly thirty feet, were
+  constantly occupied in making rugs to order. The number
+  of<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_262" id=
+  "Page_262">262</a></span> knots to the square inch varied greatly
+  according to the quality required; and the dyes were almost
+  entirely aniline. In the city are employed a much larger number
+  of weavers, who clean and spin the wool produced in the district,
+  as well as dye it by secret processes, that they guard most
+  carefully. The closeness of texture; the colouring by aniline or
+  vegetable dyes; and the use of cotton, jute, or hemp, for warp
+  and weft, are regulated by the requirements of the trade, which
+  is conducted largely by two or three English firms.</p>
+
+  <p class="tb"><span class=
+  "smcap">Hyderabad</span>.&mdash;Splendid craftsmanship was once
+  displayed in the rugs made in the cities of Hyderabad and
+  Warangal, in the district of Hyderabad. The weave was exceedingly
+  fine, and the colours were brilliant but harmonious. Now few rugs
+  are produced in these cities, and they have poor patterns and
+  wretched colours.</p>
+  <hr />
+
+  <p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_263" id=
+  "Page_263">263</a></span></p>
+
+  <h3>CHAPTER XIV</h3>
+
+  <h4>CHINESE RUGS</h4>
+
+  <p><span class="floatLeft"><img src="images/t.jpg" width="110" height="110" alt="T"
+  title="T" /></span>HE existence of Chinese rugs of age and merit
+  was almost unknown to the Western world until the close of the
+  last century, when a few pieces reached Europe, where they
+  aroused the just admiration of art connoisseurs. About the
+  beginning of this century a larger number, which were obtained
+  during the Boxer revolution by reason of the spoliation of homes,
+  temples, and palaces, that never before had been entered by
+  foreigners, were exported to this country. In New York City,
+  between the years 1908 and 1910, some of them were sold at public
+  auctions for prices that stimulated collectors in China to search
+  for more. But they have proved to be scarce when compared with
+  other Oriental rugs, so that, as yet, the general public are only
+  slightly familiar with them.</p>
+
+  <p>Moreover, little is known about their antecedents, for written
+  records are exceedingly meagre. It has been suggested that many
+  were made in Eastern Turkestan along the highways that extend to
+  Persia and India. But it is more probable that they were woven in
+  Eastern China, where other branches of art reached a remarkable
+  development under the patronage of wealthy mandarins and the
+  imperial court. Even if they are not the product of an indigenous
+  growth, the knowledge of weaving may easily have been acquired
+  from Western Asia; since it was not unusual several centuries ago
+  to import weavers from one country to another to instruct native
+  craftsmen. Furthermore, the features which at a glance
+  differentiate these rugs from all others, proclaim their Chinese
+  character. The diaper patterns that cover the fields of some of
+  them, and the foliate and floral forms that appear in most of
+  them, not only are unlike those of any other groups, but have
+  well-known Chinese elements. A more distinctive feature are the
+  colours, which are relatively few. Many of them, as tan, yellow,
+  and blue, are of shades<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_264"
+  id="Page_264">264</a></span> unlike what are seen in other rugs.
+  Even more distinctive than these are the reds, which never have
+  the primary colours found in other groups but resemble the tints
+  of ripe apricot, peach, pomegranate, and persimmon. Similar tones
+  are seen in old Chinese porcelain. The geometric and floral
+  ornamentation also shows relationship to what is found in the
+  products of other branches of Chinese art. More characteristic
+  still are the small designs which are so related to the
+  philosophic and religious thought of the people and to the
+  industrial and social life that their Chinese origin is
+  unmistakable.</p>
+
+  <p>Though it be granted that nearly all were woven in Eastern
+  China, it is not possible satisfactorily to assign them to
+  different classes based on locality; yet without doubt important
+  distinctions, observable also in the early paintings and
+  porcelains and resulting largely from differences of race and
+  character of country, exist between those woven in Northern
+  China, where the highest appreciation of art existed, and those
+  woven in Southern China. It is probable, however, that such
+  marked local distinctions as are found in other groups never
+  existed in Chinese rugs. Such distinctions as do exist relate
+  more to stages in development of the textile art, so that the
+  natural classification is based on the successive periods when
+  they were woven.</p>
+
+  <p>The absence of written and traditional history regarding the
+  weaving of these periods is by no means an insuperable obstacle
+  to such classification. By a careful examination of large numbers
+  of rugs, it is possible to arrange them with reasonable accuracy
+  in series that represent progressive forms of ornamentation and
+  design from the archaic to the modern. A most important aid to
+  this arrangement is the interdependence so conspicuous in the
+  several arts of China; for designs of innumerable articles with
+  well-established ages, especially of the ceramic art, have been
+  copied by the weavers.</p>
+
+  <p>Technical peculiarities in weaving are also an aid in
+  determining the period to which rugs belong. An important
+  distinction, for instance, often exists in the manner in which
+  the material is spun. If pieces of yarn be taken from old rugs
+  and carefully examined, as they are untwisted, the simpler,
+  cruder methods of spinning practised in former days are often
+  apparent. In some of the oldest fabrics that remain the wool was
+  very loosely spun. Irregularities in the size of yarn are also
+  more noticeable in old than in modern pieces.</p>
+
+  <div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;">
+    <a name="p60" id="p60"></a><img src="images/plate60.jpg"
+    width="500" height="861" alt="Plate 60. Beluchistan Prayer Rug"
+    title="" />
+
+    <p class="center"><span class="smcap">Plate 60. Beluchistan
+    Prayer Rug</span></p>
+  </div>
+
+  <p>More important often in determining the relative age of a rug
+  <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_265" id=
+  "Page_265">265</a></span>than either design or technical
+  peculiarities of weaving, is the shade of colour; for however
+  excellent were the original dyes and whatever care was exercised
+  in their application, they slowly changed under the mellowing
+  influence of time to tones that are obtained by no human process.
+  Furthermore, as is the case with porcelains, certain colours were
+  peculiar to certain periods. For instance, golden browns are seen
+  mostly in pieces woven before the middle of the XVIII Century,
+  and azure blue in pieces woven before the XIX Century. Yellow
+  with a lemon or citron cast is found principally in pieces woven
+  since the beginning of the XVIII Century; and green is rarely
+  found in pieces woven before the middle of the XVIII Century.
+  Aniline dyes were not introduced into China much before the year
+  1870. The time when a rug was woven may safely be regarded as not
+  more remote than the period when the ornamentation and designs it
+  contains were generally adopted; yet it may be much more recent,
+  as the oldest designs were copied even after the adoption of
+  newer ones. It is necessary, then, in determining the age of a
+  rug to consider not only the evidence of the spinning, the
+  weaving and designs, but also the evidence of colour.</p>
+
+  <p>Though Chinese rugs have features that distinguish them from
+  other groups and divide them into separate classes; they also
+  have many features in common. All are woven with the Sehna knot.
+  In all but the earliest rugs the warp and weft are of cotton;
+  each thread of warp is equally prominent at the back; and the
+  weft, which is coarser than the warp, crosses twice between two
+  rows of knots. The nap of both old and modern rugs is almost
+  always wool or silk, and rarely, if ever, jute or cotton. The
+  sides are finished by carrying the weft around the outer threads
+  of warp, but never so as to form a wide selvage. The lower end,
+  as a rule, has a very narrow web and warp loops; and the upper
+  end has a narrow web and fringe. Compared with other groups they
+  are generally more loosely woven. These and other features of
+  resemblance and of distinction will be more fully noticed in
+  considering the rugs of different periods.</p>
+
+  <p>In rugs of this group are constantly seen symbols intimately
+  associated with the religious and philosophic thought of China.
+  One of them is the Sacred Mountain rising out of the waves of
+  eternity, which is an old Chinese emblem, though more frequently
+  found in rugs of Samarkand and Yarkand. Others are the cloud-band
+  and the Joo-e. There are also mythical creatures, as the dragon,
+  emblem of imperial power; the Ky-lin, partly deer, partly
+  unicorn;<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_266" id=
+  "Page_266">266</a></span> the Fung-Kwang or ph&oelig;nix; and the
+  lion-dog. Still other symbolic and decorative designs are the
+  figure Shou and the stork, emblems of longevity; the bat and
+  butterfly, denoting happiness; the conch, wheel of law, and the
+  two fishes, which are Buddhist emblems; and the lyre and chess
+  board, which are symbols of the literati.</p>
+
+  <p>It is not improbable that rugs were woven during the Sung
+  dynasty (960-1280 <span class="smcap">a. d.</span>), when for
+  nearly three centuries prosperity prevailed, literature and art
+  flourished, and the court at Hang Chow was maintained with
+  imperial splendour; but as far as is known, none of them exist.
+  Nor do any remain that may have been woven during the Yuan
+  dynasty (1280-1370) distinguished by the reign of the illustrious
+  Mongol prince, Kublai Khan; though designs appearing in later
+  rugs were used in kindred arts of these and preceding
+  periods.</p>
+
+  <p class="tb"><span class="smcap">Ming Rugs.</span>&mdash;The
+  oldest Chinese rugs that remain were probably woven near the end
+  of the Ming period, or during the first half of the XVII Century.
+  It may reasonably be assumed that they were superior in quality
+  to those of any former period, since during this time Persia and
+  India were producing their greatest woven masterpieces; and other
+  branches of Chinese art were marked by an advance over the work
+  that had preceded. Yet, on the whole, it was a period of ebb in
+  the splendid accomplishments of intellectual and artistic effort
+  that marked the Tang and Sung dynasties.</p>
+
+  <p>Such pieces as exist are distinguished by careful workmanship,
+  archaic designs, and sobriety of colour. Most of the rugs were
+  woven with warp and weft of cotton. Some, intended principally
+  for wealthy mandarins or the imperial court, had pile of silk
+  attached to warp and weft of cotton; and others were made
+  entirely of silk. Fewer in number, but constituting the most
+  sumptuous products of the Chinese weavers&rsquo; art, were the
+  rugs of silk woven on a web of metal threads.</p>
+
+  <p>The field of many of these early rugs contained all-over
+  patterns. Sometimes the repeat designs are of octagonal shape and
+  are arranged in horizontal and perpendicular lines, so as to
+  leave small diamond-shaped spaces between diagonally placed
+  octagons. Within these designs are often the emblems of happiness
+  or longevity, floral motives, and sometimes archaic dragons. In
+  another well-known pattern the field is completely covered with a
+  swastika-fret and marked at regular intervals with diagonal rows
+  of bats, emblematic of happiness.<span class='pagenum'><a name=
+  "Page_267" id="Page_267">267</a></span> Occasionally a field of
+  plain colour contains an irregular arrangement of objects used
+  for sacrificial or sacred purposes. Again, it may be covered with
+  an all-over pattern of small archaically drawn dragons resembling
+  some of the earliest designs in Chinese decorative art, or of
+  most conventionalised floral forms on mechanically drawn
+  stems.</p>
+
+  <p>The essential feature, however, of a large number of these
+  rugs, and one that probably antedates the all-over pattern, is a
+  central medallion surrounded by a field that is either plain,
+  that is marked with a subdued diaper pattern, or contains what is
+  known as the &ldquo;tiger skin&rdquo; pattern, consisting of
+  waving lines repeated throughout the field. The medallions may be
+  either octagonal or, as is more frequently the case, rounded; but
+  the defining lines are angular and generally represent frets.
+  Sometimes they contain archaic dragons, which are so
+  conventionalised in a few pieces that it is apparent that from
+  them originated many of the Chinese scrolls. In other pieces, the
+  shape of the central medallions and the designs which cover them
+  suggest most forcibly that they were copied from old mirror
+  backs. The corners of the fields may contain simple scrolls, but
+  more frequently they correspond closely in drawing with the
+  central medallions.</p>
+
+  <p>The borders are equally typical. They are invariably narrow,
+  and generally consist of a single stripe which is figured and
+  surrounded with a coloured edging. Probably over three quarters
+  of the rugs of this period have a stripe with a pattern of
+  swastika-frets. Two of these stripes, which are very old
+  patterns, are illustrated in Plate <a href="#pn">N</a>, Figs. 1
+  and 2 (opp. Page 274). Occasionally some form of the key pattern
+  appears in the inner stripe, but almost all Chinese rugs that
+  have two border stripes with figures belong to a later period.
+  Many of the oldest borders are without figured stripes, and
+  consist merely of one or more stripes of plain colour.</p>
+
+  <p>The few colours used in the rugs of this period have deep,
+  rich tones. Undyed dark brown or blackish wool was occasionally
+  used in the outer edging that surrounded the field or in the
+  narrow border stripes; but more frequently the same colour effect
+  was obtained by the use of corrosive dyes that in time have often
+  eaten the wool almost to the foundation of warp and weft. Wools
+  dyed with corrosive browns are also used in the fields and
+  enhance the effect of designs of contrasting colours, which stand
+  out in bold relief. Other colours, as soft dull yellow and shades
+  of blue, are also seen<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_268"
+  id="Page_268">268</a></span> in the borders. The field is usually
+  richer. In some pieces it is a deep red; in others it is a soft
+  yellow, golden brown or yellowish tan, that shows the effect of
+  time on what were originally several shades of apricot. Dark and
+  light blues, sky blue, and robin&rsquo;s egg blue, as well as
+  jade green and bottle green, are also found in these old pieces.
+  In the metal and silk rugs the glint of silver even though
+  tarnished, adds lustre to colours that have grown deeper and
+  richer with age.</p>
+
+  <p class="tb"><span class="smcap">Kang-hi.</span>&mdash;During
+  the first years of the Tsing dynasty, that continued from 1644 to
+  its recent overthrow, the country was so occupied by wars waged
+  between the conquering Manchoos and the still resisting followers
+  of the Ming dynasty that art was nearly at a standstill. But
+  during the reign of the illustrious Kang-hi, 1662-1722, art
+  revived and enjoyed one of the most splendid periods of its
+  history. There is, however, a noticeable difference between the
+  rugs that belong to the early and to the late part of this reign;
+  so that it is convenient to divide them into the early Kang-hi
+  pieces, that were woven during the last part of the XVII Century,
+  and the late Kang-hi pieces, almost all of which were woven at
+  the beginning of the XVIII Century. This division is also
+  convenient; as many rugs cannot be definitely assigned to the
+  reign of a particular emperor, and, accordingly, the broader
+  distinction of assigning them to different centuries is
+  frequently adopted.</p>
+
+  <p>In weaving, as in making porcelain, many of the products of
+  the late Ming were still copied during the early Kang-hi period,
+  but there was a freer use of colour and a more decorative
+  ornamentation. Many of the figures are still geometric. Frets are
+  conspicuous in the fields of large numbers of these pieces. The
+  dragon also is a favourite motive; but in the scrolls that
+  represent the legs and bifurcated tail, and in the
+  conventionalised head, the resemblance to the mythical monster is
+  almost lost. Sometimes two or more of these constitute a
+  medallion in the centre of the field, in which others are grouped
+  with regularity; while similar forms occupy the corners. Some of
+  the rugs in which the fields are covered with sundry objects, as
+  scrolls, vases, altar pieces, and sacred plants, also belong to
+  this period. The borders of these and late Kang-hi pieces have
+  frequently an outer edging of brown and a single border stripe
+  with swastika-fret. In a few pieces, the stripe has a
+  well-balanced scroll which has been developed from designs of
+  conventionalised dragons and frets <span class='pagenum'><a name=
+  "Page_269" id="Page_269">269</a></span>that appear in the central
+  medallion and in the corners of the field. Occasionally, however,
+  there is an inner stripe with the key meander. The colour scheme
+  of the late Ming, including the golden browns and deep blues, is
+  largely employed in rugs of this period.</p>
+
+  <div class="figcenter" style="width: 550px;">
+    <a name="p61" id="p61"></a><img src="images/plate61.jpg"
+    width="550" height="744" alt="Plate 61. Turkoman Saddle-bags"
+    title="" />
+
+    <p class="center"><span class="smcap">Plate 61. Turkoman
+    Saddle-bags</span></p>
+  </div>
+
+  <p>The same influences that resulted during the late Kang-hi
+  period in the remarkable development of decorative art as applied
+  to porcelains, produced a corresponding effect in the rugs woven
+  at the same time. Manchurian ideas and taste gave renewed spirit
+  to earlier Chinese style. The fields were not infrequently
+  covered with sub-patterns of fret work, on which medallions
+  appeared more prominently. The geometric figures were largely
+  supplanted by foliate forms. Even when the central medallions and
+  corner figures are of frets or stiffly conventionalised dragons,
+  the fields are often covered with delicate scroll or foliate
+  sub-patterns that support floral forms resembling the lotus or
+  the peony. The drawing of some of these has a Western character,
+  and there is little doubt that at this time the art of Persia had
+  a strong influence on the weaving of China. In other pieces of
+  this class, the foliate and floral forms no longer appear as
+  sub-patterns but become the prominent feature in the decoration
+  of the field; and the conventionalised flowers are arranged with
+  precision in diagonal or perpendicular lines. To this period also
+  belong rugs of a distinct type, in which the field represents a
+  blending of pictorial and symbolic ideas, as, for instance, a
+  homeward flight of swallows; or a grove where butterflies flit
+  among the leaves, and deer with sacred fungus, emblematic of
+  longevity, wander.</p>
+
+  <p>The employment of border stripes of uniform colour was still
+  continued, but there was a tendency to employ more elaborate
+  designs in many of the figured stripes. It is not unusual to see
+  single or double vines with conventionalised flowers; and though
+  the drawing is mechanical, the relationship to Persian art is
+  apparent. Yet in most of these pieces the swastika-fret is used.
+  A noticeable difference also exists in the colour scheme of many
+  of the late Kang-hi rugs, which frequently display brighter
+  colours. Much of the yellow, for instance, contains more red,
+  giving it a golden hue known as the &ldquo;imperial
+  yellow.&rdquo;</p>
+
+  <p class="tb"><span class="smcap">Yung-ching.</span>&mdash;During
+  the short reign of Yung-ching (1722-1736), though many of the old
+  patterns were followed, the tendency to adopt more ornate forms
+  begun during the first part of the XVIII Century continued.
+  Manchurian ideas were now a strong factor<span class=
+  'pagenum'><a name="Page_270" id="Page_270">270</a></span> in
+  Chinese art, so that the use of colours and ornamentation
+  followed broader lines. To this period are assigned most of those
+  rugs in which designs are defined by lines of contrasting colour
+  that has been so treated that the lines are depressed and throw
+  the designs into bold relief. It is very difficult, however, to
+  definitely determine that any particular rug belongs to this
+  period; since the transition in colour scheme and patterns was
+  gradual; and the effect of time on dyes, one of the most reliable
+  factors in determining age, depends somewhat on their exposure to
+  the elements and to use. But broadly speaking, figures of leaf
+  and flower were more frequently adopted than in preceding periods
+  and designs became less conventionalised and more artistic. Lemon
+  and citron shades of yellow, also, became more prominent during
+  this period.</p>
+
+  <p class="tb"><span class="smcap">Keen-lung.</span>&mdash;The
+  long reign of Keen-lung, lasting from 1736 to 1795, was one of
+  the most prolific for Chinese art. To this period may safely be
+  assigned most of the existing rugs made before the XIX Century,
+  as well as many of the finest porcelains. The rugs partake of a
+  more cosmopolitan character than those which had preceded; for
+  not only are many of the designs and colours strictly Chinese,
+  but others are of a Persian character, and others still suggest
+  Mohammedan influences observable in the products of Turkestan and
+  India. Moreover, many of the designs show a delicate shading that
+  is not observable in the rugs made during the early part of the
+  century. As a whole they are the most ornate of Chinese rugs.
+  Woven after the inspiration of Persian masterpieces had left its
+  strongest impress on Chinese weavers, and decoration in kindred
+  arts had assumed a luxurious style, they represent in the drawing
+  of leaf and flower, of birds, butterflies, and emblems of early
+  philosophy and faith, and in the colours that blend with rare
+  harmony, the most elaborate and voluptuous expression of native
+  craftsmanship.</p>
+
+  <p>In the best examples the geometric, and many of the stiff
+  conventional forms which continued through the XVII and the early
+  part of the XVIII Century, disappeared. In their place was a
+  greater refinement of design, a greater accuracy of drawing,
+  which found expression in floral forms that reached their highest
+  development at this time and became characteristic of it.
+  Occasionally they are represented in profile as is usually the
+  practice in Western Asia, but more often are represented as
+  viewed from above. Some of them, <span class='pagenum'><a name=
+  "Page_271" id="Page_271">271</a></span>as chrysanthemums,
+  peonies, sunflowers, and orchids, are most dainty and
+  naturalistic. The fields of many of these pieces are covered with
+  such flowers carefully arranged in harmonious groupings of leaf,
+  bud and flower, but never with the formal and exact balance of
+  old Persian carpets. Not infrequently mingled with them in the
+  same piece are more conventional designs that belong to an
+  earlier period; sometimes there is a single central medallion;
+  and occasionally there are a large number of them. As a rule
+  these medallions are entirely floral, and in rugs made during the
+  latter part of this period they display elaborate ornamentation
+  that distinguishes them from earlier ones; but now and then they
+  contain fabulous creatures, as the lion-dogs, by which in a few
+  instances they are entirely replaced.</p>
+
+  <h4><i>COLOUR PLATE X&mdash;CHINESE RUG</i></h4>
+
+  <p><i>Perfect technique of weaving, accuracy of drawing, and
+  subdued rich colouring are the characteristics of this unusual
+  piece. The knots of the fine woollen yarn are tied with a
+  precision not frequently seen in Chinese rugs, and the shortness
+  of nap discloses the faithfulness with which an artist of no
+  ordinary ability has represented plants and flowers. Their soft
+  tones stand out in relief against a background now darkened and
+  enriched by the mellowing influence of time. Moreover, the
+  motives of the upper and the lower half of the field, even to the
+  minutest detail, show an exact balance. Many old Chinese rugs are
+  of uncertain age, but this piece has been attributed, not without
+  reason, to the Kang-hi period.</i></p>
+
+  <p class="name"><i>Loaned by Mr. Nathan Bentz</i></p>
+
+  <div class="figcenter" style="width: 250px;">
+    <a name="px" id="px"></a><img src="images/plate_x.jpg" width=
+    "250" height="844" alt="COLOUR PLATE X--CHINESE RUG"
+    title="" />
+  </div>
+
+  <p>There are also many other well-known types of Keen-lung rugs.
+  Surrounding the central medallion of some pieces are grouped the
+  Taoist symbols; emblems of the literati, as chess boards,
+  scrolls, and the lyre; as well as tripods, flower vases, fans of
+  state, fruits of abundance, emblems of honours, and symbols of
+  longevity and happiness. To this class also belong many of the
+  pieces which have neither medallions nor corner pieces, but have
+  fields completely covered with a pattern of continuous foliate
+  stems and conventional flowers, repeated with exact precision of
+  drawing. Likewise, in a few pieces the field is completely
+  covered with an all-over pattern of small hexagonal or other
+  geometric figures containing a conventionalised flower, strongly
+  suggesting Turkoman influences. Some of the &ldquo;Grain of
+  Rice&rdquo; rugs, also, were woven during this period.</p>
+
+  <p>The borders are as distinctive as the fields. Only in a few
+  pieces is the swastika meander seen, but in its place is often
+  the T pattern. The key patterns represented in Plate <a href=
+  "#pn">N</a>, Figs. 7 and 8 (opp. Page 274), as well as the dotted
+  line (Fig. 22), are also largely employed. Almost all of these
+  rugs have two ornamented stripes, and occasionally three, to
+  which is added an outer margin of plain colour. In a few pieces
+  both stripes are geometric; but generally one is floral and one
+  geometric, in which case the wider, that, with very few
+  exceptions, is the floral, is the inner one. Very rarely the
+  border contains two floral stripes; and now and then Buddhist
+  emblems and other devices are introduced.</p>
+
+  <p>The breadth of artistic conception expressed in designs is
+  accompanied by a wider scope of colour, in the use of which these
+  rugs may conveniently be grouped in three subclasses. The first
+  is the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_272" id=
+  "Page_272">272</a></span> Blue and White, with ground of ivory or
+  ashy white and designs that have shades of light or dark blue.
+  The second comprises those in which the ground is some shade of
+  yellow. Sometimes it has a tinge of lemon, orange, or apricot.
+  Again it is what is known as dull, golden, mandarin, or imperial
+  yellow. The overlying designs may contain a different shade of
+  yellow from that of the field, an ivory white, a blue, or a red.
+  The third subclass comprises those in which the ground colour is
+  some shade of red; such as persimmon, terra cotta, crushed
+  strawberry, apricot red, or a deep salmon pink, which is rare.
+  The overlying designs may be a shade of blue, ivory white,
+  yellow, gray, and even green. Colours of both field and border
+  are sometimes the same but are more frequently complementary. As
+  a whole, the elaborate designs, delicate shading, and rich
+  colours rank these rugs among the most beautiful products of the
+  Chinese loom.</p>
+
+  <p>The rugs woven during the reigns of Kea-king (1796-1820) and
+  Tao-Kwang (1821-1850), extending to the middle of last century,
+  repeat with slight modification the patterns of the preceding
+  period, though there is a tendency to use larger and coarser
+  designs. The colours, too, are similar, yet they lack the deep
+  richness that is matured only with the lapse of great time. Many
+  of these rugs, as well as some woven still later, before the
+  introduction of aniline dyes and factory processes, are
+  beautiful; but as a rule the modern pieces lack the refinement of
+  technique observable only in those produced before the beginning
+  of the XIX Century.</p>
+
+  <h4>MEDALLIONS</h4>
+
+  <p>The study of medallions which occur in fields of Chinese rugs
+  is not only interesting but is an important aid in determining
+  their age; yet it should be remembered that approved patterns
+  were often repeated even after the introduction of more elaborate
+  styles. Many of the oldest medallions were copied from bronzes or
+  mirror backs, and their drawing is geometric except as
+  embellished by some conventionalised figures of the dragon. By a
+  process of evolution these figures, in turn, were converted into
+  scrolls, which in time were replaced by elaborate leaf and flower
+  patterns.</p>
+
+  <p>In Plate <a href="#pm">M</a>, Fig. 1 (opp. Page 272), is a
+  &ldquo;Shou&rdquo; design of octagonal shape, copied from an old
+  rug which was probably woven during the early part of the XVII
+  Century.</p>
+
+  <div class="figcenter" style="width: 550px;">
+    <a name="pm" id="pm"></a><img src="images/platem.jpg" width=
+    "550" height="835" alt="Plate M. Medallions in Chinese Rugs"
+    title="" />
+
+    <p class="center"><span class="smcap">Plate M. Medallions in
+    Chinese Rugs</span></p>
+  </div>
+
+  <p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_273" id=
+  "Page_273">273</a></span></p>
+
+  <p>Figs. 2, 3 and 4 of Plate <a href="#pm">M</a>, represent
+  fret-covered medallions, which also are found in rugs of the same
+  period. The first is probably the oldest pattern; and the last,
+  to judge by the panel surrounding it, was apparently copied from
+  a bronze mirror back.</p>
+
+  <p>In Plate <a href="#pm">M</a>, Fig. 5, is a copy of a medallion
+  similar to the one shown in Plate <a href="#pm">M</a>, Fig. 2,
+  but with the dragons replaced by frets.</p>
+
+  <p>A medallion of greater interest is illustrated in Plate
+  <a href="#pm">M</a>, Fig. 6. It shows the evolution of scrolls
+  from dragons, of which the heads alone betray their origin. Such
+  medallions are found mostly in the earliest rugs.</p>
+
+  <p>By comparing Fig. 7 of Plate <a href="#pm">M</a> with the
+  preceding, it is apparent that its scrolls had a similar origin,
+  but in this one the dragon heads have entirely disappeared. The
+  design is characteristic of the early Kang-hi rugs.</p>
+
+  <p>In Plate <a href="#pm">M</a>, Fig. 8, is represented a
+  medallion that closely resembles some of the earliest period; but
+  the more accurate drawing and clearer definition of lines shows
+  that it is a later copy. It is found in late Kang-hi pieces.</p>
+
+  <p>To this period, also, belongs the geometric pattern with
+  swastikas represented in Plate <a href="#pm">M</a>, Fig. 9.</p>
+
+  <p>Another medallion with frets and dragon heads is shown in
+  Plate M, Fig. 10. The particular rug from which it was copied was
+  probably woven about the Yung-ching period; but there is little
+  doubt that similar medallions appeared in older rugs.</p>
+
+  <p>In Figs. 11 and 12 of Plate <a href="#pm">M</a>, are
+  represented two medallions with foliate designs that were largely
+  employed in the early Keen-lung period. A comparison of the first
+  with Fig. 13 of Plate <a href="#pm">M</a>, shows an interesting
+  step in the evolution of the Chinese drawing.</p>
+
+  <p>A very different medallion pattern of the same age is shown in
+  Plate <a href="#pm">M</a>, Fig. 14, in which an encircling border
+  consists of cloud-bands.</p>
+
+  <p>Also during the Keen-lung time first appeared medallions with
+  accurately drawn flower designs. One of this period is shown in
+  Plate <a href="#pm">M</a>, Fig. 15. Wreath-like borders, such as
+  are seen in this and the preceding one, are found in XVIII and
+  XIX Century pieces.</p>
+
+  <h4>CHINESE BORDER STRIPES</h4>
+
+  <p>The knowledge that certain border stripes antedate others in
+  definite sequence of time, is another aid in determining the age
+  of<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_274" id=
+  "Page_274">274</a></span> Chinese rugs. As was seen to be the
+  case with medallions, the earliest stripes were purely geometric.
+  In others, still very old, appeared forms of conventionalised
+  dragons, which again were replaced by simple scrolls and these by
+  ornate floral forms. But it should be remembered that earlier
+  designs were often copied in later rugs, so that the evidence of
+  age is merely contributory.</p>
+
+  <p>Stripes containing the swastika meander were used almost
+  exclusively in the oldest rugs. Figs. 1, 2, and 3 of Plate
+  <a href="#pn">N</a> (opp. Page 274), represent three old forms,
+  which rarely appear in any pieces woven since the Kang-hi time.
+  The pattern of Plate <a href="#pn">N</a>, Fig. 4, in which
+  alternate swastikas are reversed, is also very old.</p>
+
+  <p>The usual drawing of the swastika stripe is shown in Plate
+  <a href="#pn">N</a>, Fig. 5. It is found largely in Kang-hi rugs,
+  and if used in more recent fabrics, is often accompanied by a
+  stripe with some other pattern. As illustrated here, the facing
+  of the swastika is reversed in the middle of the stripe.</p>
+
+  <p>The shading of Plate <a href="#pn">N</a>, Fig. 6, which is
+  somewhat similar to Plate <a href="#pn">N</a>, Fig. 4, is
+  characteristic of the Keen-lung and subsequent periods.</p>
+
+  <p>In Figs. 7, 8, 9, and 10, of Plate <a href="#pn">N</a>, are
+  Key and T patterns, which are found in rugs of the Kang-hi and
+  subsequent periods, but rarely in earlier pieces. When employed
+  in rugs woven later than the middle of the XVIII Century they are
+  often shaded. These meander and key-patterns are of great
+  antiquity; and though the drawing is exceedingly simple, it is
+  supposed that the figures from which they were derived once
+  symbolised clouds and thunder.</p>
+
+  <p>A very interesting stripe derived from dragons is illustrated
+  in Plate <a href="#pn">N</a>, Fig. 11. The rectangular frets
+  represent bodies of which conventionalised heads alone betray
+  their origin. The graceful scroll in the middle was also probably
+  derived from dragon forms. This stripe is seen in old Kang-hi
+  rugs.</p>
+
+  <p>The rectangular frets and floral forms are combined in an
+  unusual stripe (Plate <a href="#pn">N</a>, Fig. 12) that appeared
+  in rugs which were probably woven about the Yung-ching period. It
+  shows the influence of older traditions on which are ingrafted
+  the later inspiration.</p>
+
+  <p>Still more interesting is a stripe (Plate <a href="#pn">N</a>,
+  Fig. 13) seen in what are known as Buddhist rugs of the Keen-lung
+  period. In different parts of the border appear the Buddhist
+  emblems, the Joo-e, conch, wheel of law, and knot of destiny,
+  separated by cloud-bands and foliate and floral motives.</p>
+
+  <div class="figcenter" style="width: 550px;">
+    <a name="pn" id="pn"></a><img src="images/platen.jpg" width=
+    "550" height="791" alt=
+    "Plate N. Primary and Secondary Border-Stripes of Chinese Rugs"
+    title="" />
+
+    <p class="center"><span class="smcap">Plate N. Primary and
+    Secondary Border-Stripes of Chinese Rugs</span></p>
+  </div>
+
+  <p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_275" id=
+  "Page_275">275</a></span></p>
+
+  <p>The tendency to use more ornate forms in the Keen-lung and
+  later rugs is shown in Plate <a href="#pn">N</a>, Figs. 14, 15,
+  and 16, which illustrate three stripes that with slight
+  modifications are found in large numbers of Chinese rugs of the
+  last half of the XVIII and the XIX Centuries.</p>
+
+  <p>The stripe illustrated in Plate <a href="#pn">N</a>, Fig. 17,
+  on which are represented halves of octagonal discs containing
+  conventional flower forms, is found in some rugs woven as early
+  as the first part of the XVIII Century, as well as in more
+  subsequent pieces. The central fields of some rugs in which it is
+  found have geometric Ming patterns, and others have floral
+  conceits that suggest Persian influences.</p>
+
+  <p>In Figs. 18, 19, 20, and 21, of Plate <a href="#pn">N</a>, are
+  represented simple stripes found in XVIII Century rugs. The last
+  of these, which is found in Keen-lung porcelain, shows a marked
+  resemblance to the reciprocal trefoil so common in Persian
+  pieces.</p>
+
+  <p>The simple dotted stripe (Plate <a href="#pn">N</a>, Fig. 22)
+  was rarely employed before the middle of the XVIII Century, but
+  has been constantly used since then.</p>
+  <hr />
+
+  <p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_276" id=
+  "Page_276">276</a></span></p>
+
+  <h3>CHAPTER XV</h3>
+
+  <h4>KILIMS</h4>
+
+  <p><span class="floatLeft"><img src="images/k.jpg" width="110" height="110" alt="K"
+  title="K" /></span>ILIMS have a special interest apart from their
+  beauty and utility, as some of them undoubtedly resemble the
+  early fabrics of the Egyptians and Babylonians from which were
+  evolved the more durable pile carpets. The different links in
+  this evolution can only be conjectured. Yet it is not unlikely
+  that such pieces as the nomadic kilims, which occasionally have
+  little tufts of wool attached for ornament or loose threads of
+  weft hanging from one side, first suggested the greater
+  durability and warmth that would be derived from a woven fabric
+  completely covered with tufts of yarn.</p>
+
+  <p>It is also certain that the most delicately woven kilims have
+  likewise been evolved from cruder forms. In fact, the different
+  steps in this evolution correspond to three separate styles of
+  weaving still in vogue. The earliest products which were made
+  subsequent to the primitive weaving of uncoloured warp and weft
+  were doubtless similar to the simple fabrics now used to line the
+  under side of saddle bags, and consisted of a warp and weft of
+  uniformly coloured threads. A much more advanced style, induced
+  by a desire for ornamentation, was the representation of patterns
+  which required the use of different coloured threads of weft. As
+  these threads were never carried beyond the edges of each
+  pattern, their loose ends were at first allowed to hang at the
+  back, giving an appearance somewhat similar to what is seen in
+  Soumaks. The third and most finished style, representing much
+  higher workmanship, was produced by deftly disposing of the ends
+  of threads of weft so that they should be concealed and thus
+  permit each surface of the kilim to be exactly the same.</p>
+
+  <p>Each of these kinds of weaving is constantly seen in the East.
+  The first not only is used as a lining for saddle bags, but is
+  frequently substituted for them. It is also sometimes used as the
+  only floor<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_277" id=
+  "Page_277">277</a></span> covering, or again is laid as a
+  protection beneath valuable carpets. It often replaces the
+  heavier felt for tents, and indeed is utilised for all purposes
+  requiring a strong material like canvas. The second is found
+  among nomadic weavers, especially those of Asia Minor; who
+  naturally waste no unnecessary labour in weaving kilims with a
+  delicate finish, which would be quickly marred by the rough usage
+  that they receive. The third, which is the more elegant product,
+  is invariably not only of excellent finish but of carefully drawn
+  patterns. In this country, the last two are used principally for
+  portieres and couch coverings; but in the Orient they still
+  serve, as they have from the remotest times, for floor coverings;
+  and because of the custom of removing the shoes when entering a
+  house, last for a great many years.</p>
+
+  <p>Though these three styles represent the principal variations
+  in kilim weaving, there are a few pieces with embroidered
+  pattern; and embroidered stitches are sometimes added to
+  represent some simple design, or as is frequently the case in
+  Shirvans, to make more prominent the separate horizontal
+  compartments.</p>
+
+  <p>When weaving a kilim, the threads of warp are strung as in
+  piled rugs, and number from six to eighteen to the inch according
+  to the texture. There are generally about twenty threads of weft
+  to the inch, measured at the front or back; but in pieces of the
+  finest workmanship, there may be as many as fifty, and in the
+  crudest only eight or nine. At the sides of the kilim, the
+  threads of weft encircle the last thread of warp as at the sides
+  of any pattern; but at the ends, the threads of warp are braided
+  about a heavier added cord, or else are tied in knots, from which
+  their loose ends are permitted to hang like tassels.</p>
+
+  <p>The patterns are usually geometric; and even when an attempt
+  is made to copy floral figures, the drawing inclines to the
+  rectilinear. If a straight line representing the side of a figure
+  is horizontal, or in the direction of the weft, it will often be
+  several inches in length; but a straight perpendicular line never
+  exceeds an inch in length. This is because the threads of weft
+  are never carried from one pattern to another or to the adjoining
+  field, but are turned back at its defining edges, so that an
+  opening is left, which would impair the strength of the fabric if
+  it were of much length. Accordingly, if it is desired to
+  represent a pattern with perpendicular sides, it is necessary
+  that the edges be slightly uneven. But here necessity is turned
+  to advantage, as this unevenness or fringing softens
+  lines<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_278" id=
+  "Page_278">278</a></span> that otherwise would be harsh. Defining
+  the outlines of many figures is yarn of different colours, which
+  either may be woven like other threads of weft, or when it serves
+  the purpose of closing the space between adjacent threads of
+  warp, may be attached by stitches. Borders find slight favour
+  with kilim weavers, and in most pieces they are entirely wanting
+  or only present at one end. Even when they completely surround
+  the field, there is generally some difference in design or colour
+  between the stripes of side and end. Prayer arches are found in
+  some of the kilims, but their outlines rarely correspond closely
+  with those of piled rugs.</p>
+
+  <p>The colours, by which alone the patterns are distinguished,
+  are largely responsible for the character of the kilim. Threads
+  of weft of every hue that is seen in piled rugs are employed in
+  these pieces; yet the colouring never appears the same, since
+  there are lacking the lustre and deep wealth of tones due to the
+  length of pile, in which appears an almost imperceptible
+  gradation from the ends that are exposed to the light and have
+  incurred the mellowing influence of the elements to the part
+  which retains more of the original colours and seems darker,
+  because it is more concealed. Indeed, on account of the lack of
+  pile, the colours and patterns would seem harsh were it not for
+  the irregularities of perpendicular and diagonal lines, the
+  devices of latch-hooks, and other peculiarities that convey to
+  the eye an impression of blending. Moreover when the designs are
+  large, the effect of the colour is always severe; but when the
+  field is covered with innumerable small figures, it is greatly
+  softened.</p>
+
+  <p>As kilims are much less durable than rugs that have a pile to
+  protect the warp and weft, it is not surprising that few of great
+  age remain. The oldest piece of which we have any knowledge is a
+  fragment obtained by Dr. M. A. Stein, the arch&aelig;ological
+  explorer, from the ruins near Khotan, in Eastern Turkestan, of an
+  ancient settlement, which was buried by sand drifts about the
+  fourth or fifth century <i>anno domini</i>. The weave is almost
+  identical with that of modern kilims, and has about fourteen
+  threads of warp and sixteen threads of weft to the inch. The
+  pattern consists of narrow stripes of blue, green, brownish
+  yellow, and red, containing very small geometric designs. With
+  this one exception, so peculiarly preserved, there are probably
+  very few over a century old.</p>
+
+  <div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;">
+    <a name="p62" id="p62"></a><img src="images/plate62.jpg"
+    width="500" height="853" alt="Plate 62. Srinagar Rug" title="" />
+
+    <p class="center"><span class="smcap">Plate 62. Srinagar
+    Rug</span></p>
+  </div>
+
+  <p>Though kilims are now made in most of the districts where
+  piled carpets are woven, very few classes are recognised. This
+  <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_279" id=
+  "Page_279">279</a></span>is because it is difficult to
+  distinguish between most of them, and such differences as exist
+  are with few exceptions unimportant. The best known classes are
+  the Sehna, Shirvan, Karaman, Kurdish, Turkish, and Merv.</p>
+
+  <p>The Sehna kilims are usually of small size, and rarely exceed
+  a breadth of four and a half feet and a length of seven. They are
+  far superior to all others in the delicacy of colour, daintiness
+  of design, quality of material, and character of workmanship.
+  Their patterns, including border, are identical with those of the
+  piled rugs; and the colours, to which at a short distance the
+  small figures of the Herati design give the effect of blending,
+  are the same. As is not the case with other kilims, the warp is
+  of cotton or linen and there are generally from fourteen to
+  sixteen threads to the inch. The weft is of wool, and to an inch
+  there are often nearly fifty threads encircling a thread of warp
+  as they cross and recross. The old pieces, like the rugs of which
+  they are true copies, are rapidly becoming scarce. They resemble
+  tapestries and are unfit for hard usage.</p>
+
+  <p>A large percentage of the kilims now sold in this country are
+  Shirvans. Their fields are divided into a number of parallel
+  horizontal compartments or bands a foot or more in width
+  separated by narrower bands. Not infrequently the principal
+  figures of the wide bands are hexagons surrounding smaller
+  geometric figures; and through the more narrow bands runs a
+  waving line or a parti-coloured cord. Another peculiarity,
+  occasionally seen, are the ray-like projections of uniform colour
+  fringing the edges of the sides. As a rule, there are no borders,
+  but at each end are two or more narrow bands that give the effect
+  of a border. In some pieces webs of plain colour extend beyond
+  the bands; and the ends are fringed with loose threads of warp.
+  The colours are always pronounced, because of lack of shading,
+  and consist mostly of red, blue, and ivory. Yellow and green are
+  also used. These kilims are much heavier than the Sehnas, and
+  also larger, as the average size is about five by nine feet; and
+  some are even seven by twelve feet.</p>
+
+  <p>From the district of Karaman in Southern Asia Minor, such a
+  large number of kilims were formerly imported into Europe that
+  the general name of Karamani was applied to all kilims. They are
+  still made there by many of the tribes of Turkish or Turkoman
+  origin, who wander over the Taurus mountains, and like all their
+  fabrics are stoutly woven. Their average size is about four and a
+  half by<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_280" id=
+  "Page_280">280</a></span> eight feet. In colours and patterns,
+  they resemble many of the Kurdish kilims from the districts
+  farther to the east.</p>
+
+  <p>A distinction similar to what exists in the piled rugs of the
+  Kurds, and dependent on the district in which they are made, is
+  observable in their kilims, as those which come from the Persian
+  border have carefully drawn designs, that are generally lacking
+  in others woven in the mountainous watershed of the Tigris and
+  the Euphrates. Many of these are coarsely woven, and from the
+  back hang the loose ends of threads of weft, that in more
+  artistic pieces, are removed. Moreover, in modern pieces the
+  colours are often crude or even garish. Some of the kilims have
+  large diamond-shaped figures containing small designs; others
+  have horizontal bands in which are woven embroidered devices
+  suggestive of the so-called Bagdad portieres; in many are wide
+  spaces without designs; but whatever the pattern, there is
+  usually a parti-coloured cord running through the web at the
+  end.</p>
+
+  <p>In many parts of Asia Minor are made kilims that are usually
+  classed as Turkish. They are of large size, and since they are
+  used mostly for portieres or curtains, are divided
+  perpendicularly into equal halves, that at times are united by
+  stitches. The tribes that make them also make large numbers of
+  smaller prayer kilims with pointed arches suggesting the Ghiordes
+  design. Some of them are beautifully woven, yet the finest
+  workmanship is shown in pieces known as &ldquo;Kis-kilims&rdquo;
+  or girl&rsquo;s kilims. These are made with the utmost care,
+  since they are intended as a bride&rsquo;s gift to her husband;
+  and a sentiment of romance, and the hope that her skill may weigh
+  favourably in the estimation of her accomplishments, contribute
+  to influence the weaver. Sometimes even a lock of hair is added
+  as a charm, or coloured beads as a talisman.</p>
+
+  <p>The Christians who live permanently about Oushak, and are,
+  accordingly, not under the necessity of making such small pieces
+  as can conveniently be carried by wandering tribes, weave some of
+  the largest kilims. Most of them are at least six feet in width
+  and many are much wider.</p>
+
+  <p>The best known kilims from the Central Asiatic group are known
+  as &ldquo;Merv Kilims,&rdquo; since they are woven by Turkoman
+  tribes who inhabit the desert near the old capital of Merv. The
+  brilliant colours found in the products of more Western tribes
+  are entirely wanting, and in their place are the few subdued,
+  rich tones so characteristic of all Turkoman weavings. These
+  pieces are stoutly woven, and<span class='pagenum'><a name=
+  "Page_281" id="Page_281">281</a></span> since the pattern is
+  represented by diagonal lines, there is no open work. The designs
+  are largely of diamond-shape, and are arranged in parallel
+  horizontal lines on a field that is usually surrounded by a
+  border profusely ornamented with carefully drawn latch-hooks. A
+  heavy embroidered selvage, from which hang loose threads of warp,
+  often occurs at the ends. These kilims are noted for their
+  durability, and are usually of large size.</p>
+
+  <p>In the city of Dera Ghazi Khan, four miles from the Indus
+  river, are woven kilims in which warp and weft are of wool, as is
+  not the case with almost all the rugs of India. They are made by
+  the women in their own homes and display an individuality which
+  also is rare in Indian textile fabrics. In a monograph on
+  &ldquo;Carpet Weaving in the Punjab,&rdquo; Mr. C. Latimer says:
+  &ldquo;The Dera Ghazi Khan rug, which belongs really to the kind
+  of fabrics known as kilims, is woven in stripes, with designs
+  between them, and it is interesting to notice that the patterns
+  employed were by local tradition originally copied from the robes
+  of the Pharaohs of Egypt.&rdquo;</p>
+
+  <p>Though all such Oriental weavings lack the precision of
+  drawing and the delicacy of minutely varied colour so frequently
+  found in piled rugs; though they never display high, artistic
+  perception or poetic instinct, nevertheless some of the oldest
+  pieces with designs suggestive of the workings of a primitive
+  imagination untrammelled by the conventions of art, and with a
+  chaste simplicity of colour that lends an atmosphere of dignity,
+  possess a subtle charm that awakens an intense interest.</p>
+  <hr />
+
+  <p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_282" id=
+  "Page_282">282</a></span></p>
+
+  <h3>CHAPTER XVI</h3>
+
+  <h4>HOW TO DISTINGUISH RUGS</h4>
+
+  <p><span class="floatLeft"><img src="images/t.jpg" width="110" height="110" alt="T"
+  title="T" /></span>HE owner of an Oriental rug will find the
+  pleasure to be derived from it will be greater if he knows where
+  and by whom it was made. This is particularly true if it is one
+  of those pieces of which the charm depends more on its
+  individuality than on the masterly handling of line and colour.
+  The study of classification, therefore, will well repay the
+  effort; though unfortunately it is often discouraging, since it
+  involves a consideration of the characteristics of a hundred
+  different classes, almost all of which are found to have
+  exceptions to the best known types. To add to the difficulty, the
+  opinions of dealers in regard to the less known classes are very
+  often erroneous; and detailed descriptions, even at the best, are
+  unsatisfactory. Without a long personal experience in handling
+  rugs, combined with careful study, it is impossible to become
+  expert; but familiarity with one class makes it easier by
+  comparison and a process of elimination to distinguish
+  others.</p>
+
+  <p>The beginner should first learn to identify each of the six
+  groups. Of these the Chinese can readily be distinguished by
+  their well-known patterns, which are found in no other part of
+  the Orient except in the rugs known as Samarkands, Yarkands, and
+  Kashgars; and the Indian may generally be recognised by the
+  realism and formal arrangement of their floral patterns.
+  Relatively few of either group are found in the United States;
+  and as about ninety per cent of the rugs belong to the other four
+  groups, they alone will be considered in detail. Leaving out of
+  consideration, then, the Chinese and Indian rugs, it should be
+  remembered:</p>
+
+  <p class="indent3">(<i>a</i>) That, as a rule, rugs from Persia
+  have floral patterns; and rugs from Asia Minor, Caucasia, and
+  Central Asia have geometric.</p>
+
+  <p class="indent3">(<i>b</i>) That figures with latch-hooks
+  belong principally to rugs of the Caucasian group and, to a
+  limited extent, to the rugs of the Asia Minor group.</p>
+
+  <div class="figcenter" style="width: 550px;">
+    <a name="p63" id="p63"></a><img src="images/plate63.jpg"
+    width="550" height="729" alt=
+    "Plate 63. XVIII Century Chinese Rug" title="" />
+
+    <p class="center"><span class="smcap">Plate 63. XVIII Century
+    Chinese Rug</span></p>
+  </div>
+
+  <p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_283" id=
+  "Page_283">283</a></span></p>
+
+  <p class="indent3">(<i>c</i>) That fields covered with designs of
+  octagonal or diamond shape belong to rugs of the Central Asian
+  group.</p>
+
+  <p class="indent3">(<i>d</i>) That about two thirds of the
+  Persian group have cotton warp; and the remaining third, as well
+  as the Asia Minor and almost all the Caucasian and Central Asian
+  group have woollen warp.</p>
+
+  <p class="indent3">(<i>e</i>) That about one third of the Persian
+  group have one of the two threads of warp encircled by a knot
+  doubled under the other so as to be hidden at the back; and that
+  this is not the case with the remaining two thirds nor with
+  almost all classes of other groups.</p>
+
+  <p class="indent3">(<i>f</i>) That, with few exceptions, the
+  Persian rugs have a side finish of overcasting; and the other
+  groups have both overcasting and selvage.</p>
+
+  <p class="indent3">(<i>g</i>) That the rugs from Persia and
+  Central Asia have both light and dark colours which, though rich,
+  are subdued and harmonious; that the rugs of Asia Minor and
+  Caucasia have colours that are often gaudy and inharmonious; and
+  that the rugs of the Central Asian group have dark tones of red,
+  blue, and brown.</p>
+
+  <p class="indent3">(<i>h</i>) That all of the rugs of Asia Minor
+  and Caucasia have the Ghiordes knot; that the rugs of Central
+  Asia, with rare exceptions, have the Sehna knot; that the rugs of
+  Persia with woollen warp have the Ghiordes knot; and that those
+  with cotton warp have either the Ghiordes or the Sehna knot.</p>
+
+  <p class="indent3">(<i>i</i>) That the few classes of rugs which
+  have very long end-webs belong to the Central Asian group. Of the
+  classes with moderately long end-webs, several belong to the
+  Central Asian and the Asia Minor groups, only two belong to the
+  Persian group, and none belongs to the Caucasian group.</p>
+
+  <p>Excluding the Indian and Chinese rugs, it follows from the
+  above statements that:</p>
+
+<table summary="carpet groups">
+<tr>
+<td class="left"><p class="indent4">(1) A rug is from Persia or Central
+Asia,&mdash;</p></td>
+</tr><tr>
+<td class="left padl3"><p class="indent4">If it has a Sehna knot.</p></td>
+</tr><tr>
+<td class="left"><p class="indent4">(2) A rug is probably Persian,&mdash;</p></td>
+</tr><tr>
+<td class="left padl3"><p class="indent4">If the pattern is distincly floral</p></td>
+</tr><tr>
+<td class="left padl3"><p class="indent4">If the warp is cotton;</p></td>
+</tr><tr>
+<td class="left padl3"><p class="indent4">If one of the two threads of warp encircled by a knot is doubled
+under the other.</p></td>
+</tr><tr>
+<td class="left"><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_284" id=
+"Page_284">284</a></span><p class="indent4">(3) A rug is probably from Asia Minor,
+Caucasia, or Central Asia,&mdash;</p></td>
+</tr><tr>
+<td class="left padl3"><p class="indent4">If the pattern is geometric;</p></td>
+</tr><tr>
+<td class="left padl3"><p class="indent4">If the sides are selvaged.</p></td>
+</tr><tr>
+<td class="left"><p class="indent4">(4) A rug is probably from Asia Minor or
+Caucasia,&mdash;</p></td>
+</tr><tr>
+<td class="left padl3"><p class="indent4">If the colours are gaudy or inharmonious.</p></td>
+</tr><tr>
+<td class="left"><p class="indent4">(5) A rug is probably from
+Caucasia,&mdash;</p></td>
+</tr><tr>
+<td class="left padl3"><p class="indent4">If the designs are largely fringed with latch-hooks.</p></td>
+</tr><tr>
+<td class="left"><p class="indent4">(6) A rug is probably from Central
+Asia,&mdash;</p></td>
+</tr><tr>
+<td class="left padl3"><p class="indent4">If the field is covered with octagons or diamond-shaped designs,
+and has dark tones of red, blue or brown;</p></td>
+</tr><tr>
+<td class="left padl3"><p class="indent4">If it has long webs at the ends.</p></td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+
+  <p>Of these four groups the Persian has the largest number of
+  classes, some of which can only with difficulty be distinguished
+  from one another. They may, however, conveniently be divided into
+  the following sub-groups, depending on the technical
+  peculiarities of the weaving and the material of the warp, so
+  that the task of learning the class of a particular rug will be
+  greatly facilitated by first determining to which of these
+  sub-groups it belongs, and then eliminating the others from
+  consideration.</p>
+
+  <table class="a" width="100%" summary="TECHNICALITIES" border="0">
+    <tr>
+      <td class="left23a padt3" rowspan="24">Cotton Warp</td>
+
+      <td class="left2 padt3" rowspan="24"><div class="figcenter" style="width: 10px;">
+    <img src="images/cb500.png"
+    width="10" height="500" alt="bracket" title="" /></div></td>
+
+      <td class="left23" rowspan="2">One thread of warp to each
+      knot doubled under and hidden at back.</td>
+
+      <td class="left2 padt05" rowspan="2"><div class="figcenter" style="width: 10px;">
+    <img src="images/cb120.png"
+    width="10" height="120" alt="bracket" title="" /></div></td>
+
+      <td class="left23">Sehna&nbsp;Knot&nbsp;(A)</td>
+
+      <td class="left2"><div class="figcenter" style="width: 10px;">
+    <img src="images/cb120.png"
+    width="10" height="120" alt="bracket" title="" /></div></td>
+
+      <td class="left23">
+      Kashan<br />
+      Kermanshah<br />
+      Khorassan<br />
+      Kirman<br />
+      Meshed<br />
+      Mir Sarabend<br />
+      Sarouk.</td>
+    </tr>
+
+    <tr>
+      <td class="left23">Ghiordes&nbsp;Knot&nbsp;(B)</td>
+
+      <td class="left2"><div class="figcenter" style="width: 10px;">
+    <img src="images/cb75.png"
+    width="10" height="75" alt="bracket" title="" /></div></td>
+
+      <td class="left23">
+      Gorevan<br />
+      Herat<br />
+      Herez<br />
+      Serapi<br />
+      Tabriz</td>
+    </tr>
+
+    <tr>
+      <td class="left23" rowspan="2">Each thread of warp equally
+      prominentat back or one slightly depressed.</td>
+
+      <td class="left2 padb05" rowspan="2"><div class="figcenter" style="width: 10px;">
+    <img src="images/cb100.png"
+    width="10" height="100" alt="bracket" title="" /></div></td>
+
+      <td class="left23">Sehna&nbsp;Knot&nbsp;(C)</td>
+
+      <td class="left2"><div class="figcenter" style="width: 10px;">
+    <img src="images/cb75.png"
+    width="10" height="75" alt="bracket" title="" /></div></td>
+
+      <td class="left23">
+      Feraghan<br />
+      Mahal<br />
+      Muskabad<br />
+      Royal Sarabend</td>
+    </tr>
+
+    <tr>
+      <td class="left23">Ghiordes&nbsp;Knot&nbsp;(D)</td>
+
+      <td class="left2"><div class="figcenter" style="width: 10px;">
+    <img src="images/cb75.png"
+    width="10" height="75" alt="bracket" title="" /></div></td>
+
+      <td class="left23">
+      Gulistan<br />
+      Iran<br />
+      Joshaghan<br />
+      Luristan<br />
+      Sultanabad</td>
+    </tr>
+
+    <tr>
+      <td class="left23" rowspan="2">quincunx effect of weft at
+      back.</td>
+
+      <td class="left2 padt05" rowspan="2"><div class="figcenter" style="width: 10px;">
+    <img src="images/cb50.png"
+    width="10" height="50" alt="bracket" title="" /></div></td>
+
+      <td class="left23">Sehna&nbsp;Knot&nbsp;(E)</td>
+
+      <td class="left2">&nbsp;</td>
+
+      <td class="left23">&nbsp;<br />
+      Sehna<br />
+      &nbsp;</td>
+    </tr>
+
+    <tr>
+      <td class="left23">Ghiordes Knot (F)</td>
+
+      <td class="left2"><div class="figcenter" style="width: 10px;">
+    <img src="images/cb30.png"
+    width="10" height="30" alt="bracket" title="" /></div></td>
+
+      <td class="left23">Hamadan<br />
+      Ispahan&nbsp;(modern)</td>
+    </tr>
+  </table>
+
+  <p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_285" id=
+  "Page_285">285</a></span>It should be remembered, when studying
+  the foregoing table, that all classes of rugs are subject to
+  occasional variations in the technicalities of their weave, as
+  for instance, the Herats may have woollen warp and Sehna knots;
+  the Tabriz very often have linen warp; some of the Feraghans,
+  Mahals, Muskabads, and Sehnas have the Ghiordes knot and some of
+  the Sultanabads have the Sehna knot; the Joshaghans may have
+  woollen warp; and in modern Ispahans the weft sometimes crosses
+  twice between two rows of knots.</p>
+
+  <table width="100%" summary="TECHNICALITIES" border="0">
+ <tr>
+      <td class="left23a"></td>
+
+      <td class="left2"></td>
+
+      <td class="left23"></td>
+      <td class="left23"></td>
+      <td class="right5"></td>
+
+      <td class="left2"></td>
+
+      <td class="left23"></td>
+    </tr>
+
+    <tr>
+      <td class="left23a" rowspan="3">Woolen&nbsp;Warp,<br />
+      Ghiordes&nbsp;Knot.</td>
+
+      <td class="left2" rowspan="3"><div class="figcenter" style="width: 10px;">
+    <img src="images/cb200.png"
+    width="10" height="200" alt="bracket" title="" /></div></td>
+
+      <td class="left23" colspan="2">One thread of warp to each
+      knot doubled under at back</td>
+      <td class="right5">(G)</td>
+
+      <td class="left2"><div class="figcenter" style="width: 10px;">
+    <img src="images/cb30.png"
+    width="10" height="30" alt="bracket" title="" /></div></td>
+
+      <td class="left23">Bijar.<br />
+      Niris<a name="FNanchor_37" id="FNanchor_37"></a><a href=
+      "#Footnote_37" class="fnanchor">37</a></td>
+    </tr>
+
+    <tr>
+      <td class="left23" colspan="2">Each of the two threads of
+      warp to a knot equally prominent at back, or one slightly
+      depressed</td>
+
+      <td class="right5">(H)</td>
+
+      <td class="left2"><div class="figcenter" style="width: 10px;">
+    <img src="images/cb100.png"
+    width="10" height="100" alt="bracket" title="" /></div></td>
+
+      <td class="left23">Karadagh.<br />
+      Suj-Bulak.<br />
+      Kurdistan.<br />
+      Afshar.<br />
+      Mosul.<br />
+      Shiraz.<a name="FNanchor_38" id="FNanchor_38"></a><a href=
+      "#Footnote_38" class="fnanchor">38</a></td>
+    </tr>
+
+    <tr>
+      <td class="left23" colspan="2">Quincunx effect of weft at
+      back</td>
+
+      <td class="right5">(I)</td>
+
+      <td class="left2">&nbsp;</td>
+
+      <td class="left23">Karaje.<a name="FNanchor_39" id=
+      "FNanchor_39"></a><a href="#Footnote_39" class=
+      "fnanchor">39</a></td>
+    </tr>
+  </table>
+
+  <p>With reference to size, these rugs may conveniently be divided
+  as follows:</p>
+
+  <table class="a" width="100%" summary="TECHNICALITIES" border="0">
+      <tr>
+      <td class="left23"></td>
+      <td class="left23"></td>
+      <td class="left23"></td>
+      <td class="left2"></td>
+      <td class="left23"></td>
+    </tr>
+    <tr>
+      <td class="left23" colspan="3">Rugs invariably of carpet size</td>
+
+      <td class="left2"><div class="figcenter" style="width: 10px;">
+    <img src="images/cb100.png"
+    width="10" height="100" alt="bracket" title="" /></div></td>
+
+      <td class="left23">Gorevan.<br />
+      Mahal.<br />
+      Muskabad.<br />
+      Serapi.<br />
+      Sultanabad</td>
+    </tr>
+
+    <tr>
+      <td class="left23" colspan="3">Rugs frequently, but not
+      always, of carpet size</td>
+
+      <td class="left2"><div class="figcenter" style="width: 10px;">
+    <img src="images/cb100.png"
+    width="10" height="100" alt="bracket" title="" /></div></td>
+
+      <td class="left23">Bijar.<br />
+      Herat.<br />
+      Kermanshah.<br />
+      Khorassan.<br />
+      Meshed.<br />
+      Sarabend.<br />
+      Tabriz.</td>
+    </tr>
+
+    <tr>
+      <td class="left23" colspan="3">Rugs frequently seen as
+      runners</td>
+
+      <td class="left2"><div class="figcenter" style="width: 10px;">
+    <img src="images/cb50.png"
+    width="10" height="50" alt="bracket" title="" /></div></td>
+
+      <td class="left23">Hamadan.<br />
+      Karaje.<br />
+      Kurdistan.<br />
+      Mosul.</td>
+    </tr>
+  </table>
+
+  <p>Of the sub-groups represented on Page 284, &ldquo;A&rdquo;
+  includes those that have the closest and finest woven texture. In
+  this respect the Kashans, Sarouks, and Kirmans are, in the order
+  named, superior to the others; and the Kermanshahs are the
+  coarsest and the least evenly woven. In sub-group &ldquo;B&rdquo;
+  the Tabriz are the best woven and have the shortest nap. The
+  Gorevans and Serapis have several concentric medallions, in which
+  are designs of archaically drawn <span class='pagenum'><a name=
+  "Page_286" id="Page_286">286</a></span>leaves, and have generally
+  the so-called turtle border. The Herats have the typical Herati
+  border. Of the classes of sub-group &ldquo;C,&rdquo; the Royal
+  Sarabends are the closest woven. The Feraghans are slightly
+  coarser and the Mahals and Muskabads are much coarser and have
+  longer nap. The Luristans, Joshaghans, and Gulistans are the best
+  woven of sub-group &ldquo;D.&rdquo; At the back of Luristans each
+  half knot is distinct from the other like a separate bead; and in
+  a few Joshaghans each half knot is almost as distinct. Both Irans
+  and Sultanabads are coarsely woven. Comparing sub-groups
+  &ldquo;E&rdquo; and &ldquo;F,&rdquo; the weave of Sehnas presents
+  a file-like appearance at the back; and in Hamadans the weft is
+  of much coarser diameter than in the other two classes. The
+  Bijars of sub-group &ldquo;G&rdquo; are much stouter than the
+  Niris and have one of the two threads of weft to each knot more
+  completely doubled under the other. The webs at the ends of the
+  Niris are very much longer than those of Bijars. Sub-group
+  &ldquo;H&rdquo; contains the Kurdistans, Suj-Bulaks and Mosuls,
+  all of which are woven in territory where for generations the
+  Kurds have held sway, and show Kurdish characteristics. The
+  Western Kurdistans may easily be distinguished by their brown
+  colours, nomadic character, and coarse warp and weft. The Persian
+  Kurdistans are very stoutly and firmly woven, and usually have
+  one of the two threads of warp encircled by a knot depressed
+  below the other. The Mosuls have each of the two threads of warp
+  encircled by a knot equally prominent at the back; and a
+  characteristic feature is the coloured, crudely spun yarn of
+  weft, which on account of the size of its diameter stands up as
+  high as the yarn of the knots at the back. In a typical Suj-Bulak
+  the alignment of knots at the back appears uneven or serrated.
+  The Karadaghs have Caucasian characteristics; the Afshars have
+  coarse, wiry wool for the weft, and threads of warp strung so
+  that each half knot is distinct.</p>
+
+  <p>Although the technicalities of weaving are the most reliable
+  evidence for determining the class to which a rug belongs, the
+  patterns are important guides. It will be well, therefore, to
+  remember that:</p>
+
+  <p>A Persian rug is probably a Shiraz, Karadagh, Karaje, Mosul,
+  Kurdistan, or Afshar, if the pattern is partly geometric.</p>
+
+  <p>If the field has concentric medallions, the rug may be a
+  Kermanshah, Sarouk, Kashan, Sehna, Gorevan, Herez, Tabriz, Mahal,
+  Muskabad, or Sultanabad.</p>
+
+  <p>If the field is covered with pear designs, the rug may be a
+  Sarabend, Burujird, Khorassan, Shiraz, Niris, Iran, Joshaghan, or
+  Luristan.</p>
+
+  <div class="figcenter" style="width: 550px;">
+    <a name="p64" id="p64"></a><img src="images/plate64.jpg"
+    width="550" height="835" alt=
+    "Plate 64. Chinese Rug of the Keen-Lung Period" title="" />
+
+    <p class="center"><span class="smcap">Plate 64. Chinese Rug of
+    the Keen-Lung Period</span></p>
+  </div>
+
+  <p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_287" id=
+  "Page_287">287</a></span></p>
+
+  <p>If the field is covered with small Herati designs, the rug may
+  be a Feraghan, Sehna, or an Iran.</p>
+
+  <p>If the field is covered with small designs of the Guli Hinnai
+  plant, the rug may be a Feraghan.</p>
+
+  <p>If the field is covered with the Mina Khani pattern, the rug
+  may be a Persian Kurdistan.</p>
+
+  <p>A Persian rug is usually a Shiraz, Niris, Mosul, or Kurdistan
+  if the nap is long.</p>
+
+  <p>It is almost invariably either a Shiraz or a Niris if the webs
+  of the ends are long, and the overcasting of the sides has a
+  barber-pole design or has short lengths of different colours. The
+  Niris resembles the Shiraz; but one thread of warp to each knot
+  is more depressed, the ends generally have longer webs, and the
+  field is more frequently covered with large pear designs. It is a
+  Shiraz if short tassels or tufts project at regular intervals
+  from the ends; and it is probably a Niris if it has a long
+  end-web of different coloured stripes.</p>
+
+  <p>It is probably a Karadagh, Gorevan, Serapi, Herez, or Tabriz
+  if the sides are finished with a selvage.</p>
+
+  <p>Many of these classes have features by which they can be
+  distinguished at once from all others. For instance:</p>
+
+  <p>The Sarabend has a field completely covered with pear designs
+  of moderate size facing in opposite directions in alternate
+  lines; borders of several stripes, of which one or two are ivory
+  white with an angular vine from which are suspended mechanically
+  drawn pear designs, and one or two narrow stripes with reciprocal
+  trefoils. Only two other classes are similar: the Iran copies,
+  which are always woven more coarsely and have the Ghiordes knot,
+  and the Burujirds, which are rarely seen.</p>
+
+  <p>Most Feraghans have fields that are completely covered with
+  small Herati or Guli Hinnai designs, and have the turtle pattern
+  in the border. The only other rugs that are similar are the Iran
+  copies, which have the Ghiordes knot and are more coarsely
+  woven.</p>
+
+  <p>Almost all Hamadans may be distinguished at once by the broad
+  band of camel&rsquo;s hair surrounding the border, and the coarse
+  weft crossing only once between two rows of knots so as to give a
+  quincunx effect at the back.</p>
+
+  <p>Gorevans are invariably of carpet size. They have fields
+  almost covered with central medallions on which are archaically
+  drawn leaves, and a broad central border stripe with a large
+  conventionalised turtle pattern. They have usually the same
+  colour tones,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_288" id=
+  "Page_288">288</a></span> which once seen are not forgotten. The
+  Serapis are similar to Gorevans but are usually older and of
+  better colours.</p>
+
+  <p>The Kermanshahs have tones of ivory, pink, and light green,
+  that are softer and lighter than those of almost any other rug.
+  The fields have concentric medallions with dainty floral forms
+  that are rarely seen in other classes except the Sarouks and
+  Kashans; and the borders, that correspond in drawing and
+  colouring with the field, have an outer edging that is almost
+  invariably of pink, but sometimes dark blue. The drawing and
+  colours, which are not easily described but quickly learned, at
+  once distinguish these pieces from all others.</p>
+
+  <p>Some Mesheds resemble Kermanshahs, but the nap is more silky,
+  uneven, and lustrous. The texture at the back is finer.</p>
+
+  <p>The rugs of Tabriz, which are usually made in carpet sizes,
+  may be distinguished by their linen nap hanging in a short fringe
+  at the ends. They are not likely to be confused with any classes
+  but the Mesheds, Khorassans, and Kermanshahs; but the nap is
+  shorter, and harsher to the touch; the knot is Ghiordes, and the
+  drawing more formal.</p>
+
+  <p>Almost the only Persian rug that has small, geometric,
+  adventitious designs and latch-hooks is the Shiraz. It is the
+  only one that has small tufts of wool projecting from the sides;
+  and with the exception of the Niris is the only one that, as a
+  rule, has a barber-pole overcasting and a long web at the ends.
+  It is also one of the most loosely woven.</p>
+
+  <p>The Sarouk and Kashan may be distinguished from all others by
+  their short velvety nap; dark rich colours; fields of graceful
+  foliated stalks and floral forms resting on concentric
+  medallions; and the fine, firm, texture of the weave. A carefully
+  drawn design of the running latch-hook appears in the borders;
+  and the weft is usually some shade of blue. The Kashans are
+  almost the same as Sarouks but have closer weave and finer
+  texture. They very rarely come in large sizes.</p>
+
+  <p>Muskabads and Mahals are invariably made in large carpet
+  sizes. Their texture is firm; they are very coarsely woven; and
+  there is great irregularity in the size of the knots as shown at
+  the back. Of the two, the Mahals are the better grade.</p>
+
+  <p>A large rug with woollen warp and with one thread of warp to
+  each knot doubled under the other is almost always a Bijar.</p>
+
+  <p>Sehnas are always very thin rugs and of small or moderate
+  size. With few exceptions the field is covered with Herati or
+  pear designs.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_289" id=
+  "Page_289">289</a></span> They can be identified by the quincunx
+  appearance of the fine cotton weft at the back and the file-like
+  feeling of the weave.</p>
+
+  <p>The only Persian rug that has a side selvage and also shows
+  evidence of Caucasian influence in the geometric drawing of the
+  patterns is the Karadagh.</p>
+
+  <p>The Gozenes may be distinguished from other classes by their
+  dull colours. In many of them each thread of warp is encircled by
+  the right half of some knots and the left half of others.</p>
+
+  <p class="tb">The Asia Minor rugs have so many features in common
+  that they cannot conveniently be divided into sub-groups. For
+  instance: almost all have a coloured weft, a coloured web with
+  fringe at the ends, and a selvage at the sides; all, excepting
+  the Ghiordes and a few modern pieces, have woollen warp and weft;
+  and all have the Ghiordes knot. To be sure, a distinction may be
+  made in the length of the nap, since as a rule the Bergamo,
+  Rhodian, Karaman, Yuruk, and some of the Anatolians have a long
+  nap; and the remainder usually have a short nap; and also in the
+  weaving, as in the Bergamo, Ghiordes, Karaman, Kulah, and Ladik,
+  one thread of warp to each knot is generally depressed, and in
+  the remaining classes all threads of warp are equally prominent;
+  furthermore, Anatolians, Bergamos, Karamans, Rhodians, and
+  Koniehs, have rarely more than three stripes to the border; and
+  Kir-Shehrs, Kulahs, Ladiks, and Ghiordes have seldom less than
+  five; but these features are not always constant and pronounced.
+  The patterns, therefore, and those smaller designs which
+  frequently are peculiar to a single class are of considerable
+  assistance in distinguishing one from the other. The arch of the
+  namazliks is also an invaluable feature for identification since
+  its shape is different in each class as will be seen by reference
+  to Plates C and D (Pages 61 and 63).</p>
+
+  <p>Leaving out of consideration modern pieces, made to meet the
+  demands of exporting companies, the Bergamo and Rhodian have
+  certain points of resemblance. As a rule, they are almost square,
+  and have long nap, long webs with coloured bands at the ends, a
+  side selvage, and coloured weft. The Rhodian may generally be
+  distinguished by their brighter colours and their panels,
+  suggesting windows, placed parallel to the length of the rug. The
+  Bergamos, which are more frequently seen, have rich, deep blue
+  and red colouring, and more devices to avert the evil eye than
+  any other Oriental rug.</p>
+
+  <p>Two panels, one above the arch and the other below the
+  field,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_290" id=
+  "Page_290">290</a></span> are almost invariably seen in the
+  Ghiordes prayer rugs and occasionally in the Kulahs, but rarely
+  in any other classes. The typical pattern of the central border
+  stripe of Ghiordes prayer rugs, consisting of most
+  conventionalised leaf and rosette, is not seen in any other rugs;
+  nor is the pattern of the broad border stripe of the odjaliks and
+  sedjadehs, consisting of an undulating band covered with small
+  flecks and fringed with latch-hooks.</p>
+
+  <p>The most characteristic features in the pattern of Kulahs are
+  the numerous narrow fleck-covered bands that occupy the centre of
+  the border, and the secondary stripe with design like a Chinese
+  device represented in <a href="#ph">Plate H</a>, Fig. 10 (opp.
+  Page 194).</p>
+
+  <p>The pomegranates at the end of the field, and the Rhodian
+  lilies in the main stripe of the border, distinguish Ladik prayer
+  rugs from all others. Figures of vandykes, which are seen in some
+  Anatolians and Mudjars, are also a constant feature of
+  Ladiks.</p>
+
+  <p>A characteristic feature of Koniehs is the row of sprigs with
+  three triangular-shaped petals that project from the border
+  against the field.</p>
+
+  <p>As a rule, the Kir-Shehrs contain in the field a larger amount
+  of grass-green colour than any other rug.</p>
+
+  <p>The narrow border stripe of thumb-like processes that fit one
+  another like cogs and the mauve or heliotrope colour are
+  important aids in distinguishing Melez rugs.</p>
+
+  <p>On account of their long pile and their patterns of
+  latch-hooks and other geometric figures, the Yuruks alone of all
+  this group resemble the Caucasian rugs. They may also be
+  distinguished from other Asia Minor rugs by the facts that the
+  weft is of coarse, wiry wool, and the threads of warp are not
+  strung closely together, so that at the back each half knot
+  appears very distinct from the other.</p>
+
+  <p class="tb">A similarity prevails in the technique of most
+  Caucasian rugs, as all have the Ghiordes knot, and almost all
+  have warp and weft of wool, sides that are selvaged, and ends
+  with a web and loose fringe. Moreover, classes that are in a
+  measure geographically related show resemblances, as for
+  instance: the Chichi, Daghestan, Kabistan, and Shirvan, which
+  have short nap; the Tcherkess, Kazak, and Genghas which have
+  medium to long nap; and the Soumak, Shemakha, and Kuba, which
+  have a similar selvage at sides and ends. The only classes in
+  which one thread of warp to each knot is depressed or doubled
+  under the other are the Karabagh, Shemakha, and Shusha, from the
+  southeastern part of Caucasia, and the Lesghian from the northern
+  part.</p>
+
+  <p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_291" id=
+  "Page_291">291</a></span></p>
+
+  <div class="figcenter" style="width: 550px;">
+    <a name="po" id="po"></a><img src="images/plateo.jpg" width=
+    "550" height="808" alt="Plate O." title="" />
+
+    <p class="center3"><span class="smcap">Plate O.</span> No. 1,
+    Shah Abbas design. No. 2, Mina Khani design. No. 3, Guli Hinnai
+    design. No. 4, Herati design. Nos. 5-a, b, c, d, e, f,
+    Swastikas. Nos. 6-a, b. c, d, e, f, g, h, i, j, k, l, m, Pear
+    designs. No. 7, Cloud-bands. No. 8, Pitcher. No. 9, Motives of
+    Asia Minor and Armenian rugs. No. 10, Octagonal disc. No. 11,
+    Combs. No. 12, Motives of Melez rugs. Nos. 13-a, b, c, d, 14,
+    15, conventionalised leaf-forms in Asia Minor rugs. Nos. 16-a,
+    b, c, The lotus. No. 17, Knot of destiny. Nos. 18-a, b, Motives
+    of Daghestans and Kabistans.</p>
+  </div>
+
+  <p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_292" id=
+  "Page_292">292</a></span>The Soumak with its flat stitch and with
+  ends of yarn hanging loose at the back is unlike all other rugs.
+  At the sides is a carefully woven selvage, and next to the nap at
+  the end is a narrow selvage of fine spun threads. The rugs of
+  Shemakha, woven by some of the same tribes who dwell nearer the
+  mountains, have similar selvages at the sides of blue or bluish
+  green, similar ends of a narrow web of &ldquo;herring-bone&rdquo;
+  weave and one or more rows of knots, and a medium long nap of
+  rich blues, reds, yellows, browns, and greens. The Kuba rugs are
+  almost identical with them, except that each thread of warp is
+  equally prominent at the back, whereas in the Shemakhas one
+  thread to each knot is depressed. When once these selvages, the
+  narrow end-webs of &ldquo;herring-bone&rdquo; weave, and the
+  particular tones of colour characteristic of these rugs have been
+  carefully observed, they are not forgotten. The well-known
+  Georgian stripe (Plate <a href="#pj">J</a>, Fig. 9, opp. Page
+  228) is rarely found in any but these three classes.</p>
+
+  <p>The Baku rug may be distinguished by its geometric-shaped pear
+  designs, and stiffly drawn birds. If modern, the tones are
+  dull.</p>
+
+  <p>Long, shaggy nap, strong colours, of which red and green are
+  almost invariably present, and large designs surrounded by
+  numerous small nomadic figures are the general features of a
+  Kazak. The Tcherkess has a striking resemblance to it, so that
+  they are constantly mistaken for one another; but the Tcherkess
+  is generally better woven and the pattern usually consists of
+  what is known as the &ldquo;Sunburst&rdquo; resting on a field of
+  dull red or a tawny shade. The border is almost invariably of
+  three stripes, of which the central has the tarantula design, and
+  the two guards have a reciprocal sawtooth design.</p>
+
+  <p>The field of the typical Chichi has an all-over pattern of
+  small geometric design; and its main border stripe has rosettes
+  separated by diagonal ribbon-like bars, as shown in Plate
+  <a href="#pi">I</a>, Fig. 6 (opp. Page 226).</p>
+
+  <p>Rugs from the Karabagh district may frequently be recognised
+  by the Persian influence in the drawing of their patterns.</p>
+
+  <p>Genghas may readily be distinguished from other classes of
+  this group by the fact that the weft crosses more than twice and
+  frequently many times, between every two rows of knots, which are
+  not appressed, so that the weft, as it encircles the warp,
+  appears at the back like a narrow beaded surface.</p>
+
+  <p>Daghestans, Kabistans, and Shirvans have so many different
+  patterns that it is not always easy to distinguish the classes;
+  but it will be some assistance to remember that the border design
+  of wine cup and serrated leaf (Plate <a href="#pi">I</a>, Fig. 1,
+  opp. Page 226) is found in about one half of the Shirvans, and
+  that the bracket design (Plate J, Fig. 19, opp. Page 228) is
+  peculiar to Daghestans and Kabistans.</p>
+
+  <div class="figcenter" style="width: 550px;">
+    <a name="p65" id="p65"></a><img src="images/plate65.jpg"
+    width="550" height="835" alt=
+    "Plate 65. Chinese Rug of the Keen-Lung Period" title="" />
+
+    <p class="center"><span class="smcap">Plate</span> 65.
+    <span class="smcap">Chinese Rug of the Keen-Lung
+    Period</span></p>
+  </div>
+
+  <p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_293" id=
+  "Page_293">293</a></span></p>
+
+  <p class="tb">The small Central Asiatic group is not only unlike
+  other groups, but may naturally be divided into three sub-groups,
+  which are also distinct from one another and contain well-defined
+  classes, viz.:</p>
+
+  <p class="indent3">(<i>a</i>) Afghan, Royal Bokhara, Princess
+  Bokhara, Tekke, Khiva, Yomud, and Beshire.</p>
+
+  <p class="indent3">(<i>b</i>) Samarkand, Kashgar, and
+  Yarkand.</p>
+
+  <p class="indent3">(<i>c</i>) Beluchistan.</p>
+
+  <p>In the first sub-group the prevailing colours are dark reds
+  and browns with minor quantities of blue, green, and ivory. The
+  Afghans are almost always of large size, and may be recognised at
+  once by the broad web of the ends and the large octagonal shaped
+  figures placed in contact in perpendicular rows. The Royal
+  Bokharas are smaller, the end webs are not so wide, the octagons
+  are never in contact and are separated diagonally by
+  diamond-shaped figures. The Princess Bokharas and many Tekkes
+  have the Katchli pattern. The Yomuds resemble the other classes
+  of this sub-group in colour; but in the fields, diamond designs
+  have entirely replaced the octagons.</p>
+
+  <p>The rugs of sub-group &ldquo;b&rdquo; almost always have
+  cotton warp; whereas the rugs of sub-groups &ldquo;a&rdquo; and
+  &ldquo;c&rdquo; invariably have woollen or goat&rsquo;s hair
+  warp.</p>
+
+  <p>The Samarkands are somewhat similar in colours and patterns to
+  Chinese rugs, but may be distinguished by the fact that they
+  almost invariably have three border stripes, whereas the Chinese
+  usually have only one or two. The Kashgar and Yarkand also show
+  Chinese influence.</p>
+
+  <p>The Beluchistans with brown, blue, green, and claret colours
+  may be identified at once by their long embroidered webs at each
+  end.</p>
+
+  <p>In the determination of the class to which a rug belongs, the
+  pattern first of all attracts attention; and if it be one
+  peculiar to a single class, it is an important guide. But in the
+  great majority of cases, this will not be sufficient. It is,
+  therefore, desirable to observe if the designs be floral or
+  geometric, if the colours be subdued or obtrusive, if the knot be
+  Sehna or Ghiordes, if the warp be cotton<span class=
+  'pagenum'><a name="Page_294" id="Page_294">294</a></span> or
+  wool. The variations in finish of sides and ends are also an
+  index of the class. The pattern and these few technical details
+  are the only characteristics by which most dealers attempt to
+  determine the different kinds of rugs. But in the case of half of
+  them, such evidence is far from conclusive. The back should be
+  even more carefully examined than the front; because here are
+  shown those subtle, but nevertheless positive distinctions,
+  relating to the manner of tying the knot and the treatment of
+  warp and weft, which are the most permanent tribal
+  characteristics of Oriental weaving. It should be noticed, then,
+  if each thread of warp encircled by the yarn that forms the knot
+  lies in the same plane parallel with the surface and is equally
+  prominent; or if one to each knot be depressed below the other,
+  or if it be doubled under the other so as to be concealed. It
+  should also be noticed if the weft be coloured or uncoloured, of
+  fine or of coarse diameter; and if a thread of weft crosses only
+  once or two or more times from side to side between every two
+  rows of knots. Furthermore, the knots themselves should be
+  carefully scrutinised to see if each row of them is firmly
+  pressed down upon the weft, if each knot has a length equal or
+  exceeding its width, if the yarn of which they are formed is
+  drawn tight against the warp, and if it is loosely or closely
+  spun. Only by consideration of all these different points, and
+  sometimes even more, such as the nature of the colours, the
+  character of wool, and the manner in which it is spun, is it
+  possible to determine doubtful cases of identification.</p>
+  <hr />
+
+  <p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_295" id=
+  "Page_295">295</a></span></p>
+
+  <h3>CHAPTER XVII</h3>
+
+  <h4>PURCHASING RUGS</h4>
+
+  <p><span class="floatLeft"><img src="images/a.jpg" width="110" height="110" alt="A"
+  title="a" /></span>S those who have expert knowledge of the value
+  of Oriental rugs are exceedingly few, compared with those who
+  admire and wish to own them, the object of this chapter is to
+  make suggestions regarding a proper selection, when purchasing,
+  and to point out some of the pitfalls that beset the
+  inexperienced.</p>
+
+  <p>In estimating the value of any rug, three distinct qualities
+  are to be considered: rarity, artistic beauty, and utility.</p>
+
+  <p>Rarity may depend on the age of a rug, the locality where it
+  was woven, or its type. In determining the age, which as a rule
+  is greatly exaggerated, a number of facts should be considered.
+  One is the condition resulting from wear; though at times this is
+  misleading, since of two pieces, one may have been handled with
+  almost religious solicitude and the other exposed to the elements
+  and to hard usage. Moreover, an artificial appearance of natural
+  wear is sometimes counterfeited. Another is the pattern, since,
+  as has been shown in the case of antique carpets, the character
+  of drawing changed with succeeding periods. Even when the
+  patterns of old carpets are copied in modern pieces, a
+  distinction is usually discernible to a careful observer. The
+  colours, too, play an important part in determining age; for not
+  only are some characteristic of different periods, as particular
+  shades of yellow and green of Chinese rugs and the blue of
+  Persian; but the mellowing influences of time, acting through the
+  agencies of exposure and wear, cause effects that cannot be
+  produced by any artificial process.</p>
+
+  <p>Occasionally the time when a rug is made is recorded in Arabic
+  numbers woven above a word denoting &ldquo;year.&rdquo; If they
+  are indistinct on account of the length of the nap, they may be
+  more clearly read in reverse order at the back. In the following
+  lines, each of<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_296" id=
+  "Page_296">296</a></span> them is represented below the one in
+  our own notation, to which it corresponds.</p>
+
+  <div class="figcenter" style="width: 400px;">
+    <a name="symbols" id="symbols"></a><img src=
+    "images/symbols.png" width="400" height="93" alt=
+    "Arabic numerals" title="" />
+  </div>
+
+  <p>These numbers represent not the Christian but the Mohammedan
+  year, which, dating from the time of the Hegira, began about the
+  middle of July 622, or a little before the actual flight from
+  Medina. It should also be remembered that the lunar and not the
+  solar year is considered in Moslem chronology; which, according
+  to our reckoning, gains about one year in every thirty-three and
+  seven tenths years. To calculate, then, the year of our time
+  corresponding with the year expressed in the rug, from the number
+  should be subtracted one thirty-three and seven tenths part of
+  itself, and then should be added six hundred and twenty-two.
+  Thus, if the year 1247 was woven in the rug, our corresponding
+  year would be <span class="smcap">a. d.</span> 1247 less 37 (or
+  1210) plus 622, or 1832. When such dates appear in old rugs, they
+  are generally to be depended on, but in modern ones they are more
+  likely to be antedated to give the effect of greater age.</p>
+
+  <p>With reference to the time when woven, rugs may conveniently
+  be divided into three broad classes; Antique rugs or carpets made
+  over two centuries ago; old rugs made fifty or more years ago;
+  and modern rugs made since the introduction of aniline dyes, or
+  within the last fifty years.</p>
+
+  <p>The number of antique carpets that exist is undetermined, as
+  it is impossible to estimate how many remain in Oriental mosques
+  and palaces. Nor has any complete catalogue been made of those
+  that are owned in Europe and America. They consist principally of
+  the products of Persia, Asia Minor, Armenia, and China. Many
+  belong to the museums and the remainder to sovereigns and wealthy
+  collectors. Like rare porcelains and old paintings, their value
+  increases with each passing year; and the prices received for
+  them range according to the fancy and caprice of the purchaser.
+  They are the most valued and the most costly of all rugs.</p>
+
+  <div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;">
+    <a name="p66" id="p66"></a><img src="images/plate66.jpg"
+    width="500" height="835" alt="Plate 66. Kurdish Prayer Kilim"
+    title="" />
+
+    <p class="center"><span class="smcap">Plate 66. Kurdish Prayer
+    Kilim</span></p>
+  </div>
+
+  <p>The number of rugs over fifty years of age, but not belonging
+  to the previous class, is very large. A few are sufficiently
+  prized to <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_297" id=
+  "Page_297">297</a></span>be placed in art museums, some belong to
+  collectors, large numbers embellish the halls and drawing rooms
+  of people of refinement, and others are yearly brought from the
+  Orient; but dealers and the public already realise that their
+  numbers are limited. Even now they are searched for in the
+  remotest corners of every rug-producing country; and in a few
+  years the last, now cherished as family heirlooms, will have been
+  exchanged for western gold. Almost all are well woven, though
+  some are too much worn to be trodden longer under foot. None are
+  treated with aniline dyes, but the colours mellowed by time are
+  exceptionally good and frequently contain rare tones
+  characteristic of the first class. Moreover, large numbers
+  contain emblems of a symbolism still shrouded in mysteries that
+  increase their fascination. On the whole, this is the choicest
+  stock from which to choose elegant carpetings for luxurious
+  homes. When it is considered that rugs of this class are
+  beginning to disappear from the market, the prices at which they
+  may be purchased are moderate compared with the prices of more
+  modern pieces.</p>
+
+  <p>The great majority of existing Oriental rugs have been woven
+  within the last fifty years. A few of them, including many of the
+  newest, have colours that compare favourably with those of older
+  pieces; but a large number show the effect of aniline dyes. Some
+  woven by nomads or dwellers in remote villages, without thought
+  of sale, have designs and workmanship such as have characterised
+  the fabrics of these people for past generations; but others,
+  which are the products of the work-house system, though well
+  woven as a rule, lack the charm of spontaneous individuality. Age
+  alone has little influence in determining the value of these
+  modern rugs, since they have not yet become rare; yet even in
+  them the wear of time affects their other qualities. Other things
+  being equal, they cost less than the old and the antique
+  rugs.</p>
+
+  <p>The locality where a rug was woven is also to be considered in
+  determining its rarity and therefore its value. Of the countless
+  carpets that once existed in Egypt, of the very early rugs of
+  Caucasia and Turkestan, not a piece remains; but if one were to
+  be found it would be almost priceless. The antique carpets of
+  Syria, or of Kirman, Shiraz, and Tabriz, woven over three
+  centuries ago, are more valuable than others of equally good
+  workmanship, of which relatively large numbers remain. So, too,
+  of the rugs classed as old, but falling short of the venerable
+  age of the real antiques,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_298"
+  id="Page_298">298</a></span> those which are now difficult to be
+  obtained on account of their scarcity, are more valuable than
+  those which are being produced in larger numbers. Rugs such as
+  the Joshaghan, Tiflis, and many others of sixty or more years of
+  age, are no longer woven. Modern products from the same districts
+  may adopt the old names, but they are not the same. Accordingly,
+  it will be only a short time when they too will disappear from
+  the market. Good examples of such pieces should therefore receive
+  more careful consideration on the part of purchasers and
+  collectors, as their value is increasing with each passing
+  year.</p>
+
+  <p>Furthermore, the rarity of an old rug is often independent of
+  its age or the locality where it was made, and is due to its
+  peculiar type. For instance, the Ming Rugs of China with silver
+  threads and the so-called Garden Carpets of Iran represent types
+  rather than localities. Likewise the Hunting Carpets of Persia,
+  the Holbein Carpets of Asia Minor, and the Dragon Carpets of
+  Armenia, represent, as far as we know, the textile craft of no
+  well-defined district of limited area, as is the case of modern
+  rugs, but rather rare types. Such pieces are valuable, not alone
+  on account of their age, but also because they represent these
+  rare types.</p>
+
+  <p>A rug is also valued for its artistic beauty. The innumerable
+  rugs which centuries ago were in daily use soon disappeared, and
+  only those intended for palaces or temples have been preserved.
+  It is but natural, then, that the antique carpets representing
+  the highest art of their time should be not only rare but also
+  beautiful. Yet even in them is often a distinction that affects
+  their value. Fortunately, very many of the larger number of rugs
+  of less age, but classed as old, likewise possess artistic
+  beauty. This chiefly depends on the drawing and the
+  colouring.</p>
+
+  <p>It will be noticed that almost without exception careful
+  drawing accompanies workmanship of a high class. This is partly
+  due to the facts that the more excellent the weave the easier it
+  is to clearly define patterns; and that on shortness of nap,
+  which as a rule is found in closely woven rugs, depends accuracy
+  of delineation. The charm of rugs often depends, also, on the
+  graceful flow of lines, the careful balance of different parts of
+  patterns, and the proper co-ordination between border and field.
+  Careful attention should accordingly be given to the drawing when
+  selecting a rug.</p>
+
+  <p>The artistic beauty of Oriental rugs depends still more on
+  the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_299" id=
+  "Page_299">299</a></span> colouring, since, as has been elsewhere
+  expressed, drawing, which is intellectual, finds its highest
+  development in the Occident, and colouring, which is sensuous,
+  finds its highest development in the Orient. It at once suggests
+  sumptuous luxury. In all of the antique carpets that remain and
+  in very many rugs over fifty years of age, all the colours
+  employed in a single piece are in tones of perfect harmony, and
+  are so placed with reference to one another that the effect is
+  most agreeable. But in some of the modern pieces, such as are
+  produced in parts of Asia Minor and Caucasia, are colours which,
+  like discordant notes of music, grate harshly on the senses. The
+  most pleasing effect is when colours of border and field are
+  complementary, yet so in harmony as to accentuate the qualities
+  of each.</p>
+
+  <p>There are also colours which, independent of their
+  association, are in themselves good or bad. The best are found in
+  the antique carpets woven when the art of the dyer was an
+  honourable profession. The colours are also very good in still
+  later pieces; but for a century now some of the finest have not
+  been used, and even the secret of producing them has been lost.
+  Here and there dyers and weavers cling to early traditions, so
+  that among modern rugs are many examples of good colouring; but
+  the most recent pieces, excepting when softened by artificial
+  processes, often display harsh and garish colours. This
+  distinction is in a measure due to the fact that old colours were
+  largely produced by vegetable dyes and the modern are too often
+  produced by aniline. Not infrequently both vegetable and aniline
+  colours are used in the same piece, and sometimes the quantity of
+  aniline colour is so small that it is scarcely objectionable; but
+  as a rule it is best never to purchase a rug that is so
+  tainted.</p>
+
+  <p>One objection to the use of aniline dyes is that by removing
+  some of the natural oil of the wool they are apt to make it
+  brittle, so that it is less able to stand wear. Another is that
+  in time some of the dyes, which have been applied collectively to
+  produce a single colour, will fade or even disappear, so that the
+  final colour may be a most undesirable shade not in harmony with
+  those that surround it. If the fibres are brittle and become
+  harsher to the touch when wet with water, it is an indication
+  that aniline dyes have been used. Another test is the application
+  of weak vegetable acids, which will make the colour spread if
+  produced by aniline dyes, but are not likely to affect it if
+  produced by vegetable dyes. Many na<span class='pagenum'><a name=
+  "Page_300" id="Page_300">300</a></span>tive weavers can
+  distinguish by placing the wool in their mouths, when they
+  experience a sweet or bitter taste, according as vegetable or
+  aniline dyes have been used. It is a mistake, however, to assume
+  that the dyes are aniline because the wool has a brighter colour
+  at the surface of the nap than at the foundation; or because the
+  colour spreads when wet with water; since in time even some of
+  the vegetable colours will fade; and when fresh they will run
+  during the first washing in water, but afterwards they are little
+  affected either by water or weak acids.</p>
+
+  <p>Even when the same colours and the same kind of dyes were
+  used, there is a marked distinction in the appearance of old and
+  of recently woven rugs, which is due to wear as well as exposure
+  to sun and weather. The effect of time, imperceptible at first,
+  is shown in rich tones of remarkable softness and beauty, that
+  add greatly to the value of a rug. It accordingly happens that
+  artificial processes are adopted to create as far as possible the
+  same results without the lapse of time. Some of these are as
+  novel as were the efforts of the distinguished viceroy of King-te
+  Chin, in the reign of Kang-hi, to produce antique
+  porcelains.<a name="FNanchor_40" id="FNanchor_40"></a><a href=
+  "#Footnote_40" class="fnanchor">40</a> Henry Savage Landor
+  says<a name="FNanchor_41" id="FNanchor_41"></a><a href=
+  "#Footnote_41" class="fnanchor">41</a> that &ldquo;to manufacture
+  &lsquo;Antique Carpets&rsquo; is one of the most lucrative
+  branches of modern Persian carpet making. The new carpets are
+  spread in the bazar in the middle of the street, where it is most
+  crowded, and trampled upon for days or weeks, according to the
+  days required, foot passengers and their donkeys, mules and
+  camels making a point of treading on them in order to &lsquo;add
+  to age&rsquo; in the manufacturer&rsquo;s goods. When
+  sufficiently worn down the carpet is removed, brushed, and
+  ordinarily sold for double or treble the actual price, owing to
+  its antiquity.&rdquo;</p>
+
+  <h4><i>COLOUR PLATE XI&mdash;CHINESE RUG</i></h4>
+
+  <p><i>This large Chinese carpet represents some of the best
+  workmanship of the Keen-lung period. In it are shown the graceful
+  drawing of leaf, fruit, flower, and butterfly, and the dainty
+  colouring of blue, yellow, brown, and apricot on a field of ivory
+  that are so characteristic of this time. The usual balance of
+  designs throughout the field is maintained with precision; but,
+  as is not always the case, different motives occupy corresponding
+  positions. Thus a cluster of leaves and fruit may be balanced
+  with a cluster of leaves and flowers. The conventional drawing of
+  the corners and the somewhat formal panel that surrounds the
+  central medallion give to the pattern strength of character while
+  they detract nothing from its beauty.</i></p>
+
+  <p class="name"><i>Loaned by Mr. Nathan Bentz</i></p>
+
+  <div class="figcenter" style="width: 400px;">
+    <a name="pxi" id="pxi"></a><img src="images/plate_xi.jpg"
+    width="400" height="859" alt=
+    "COLOUR PLATE XI--CHINESE RUG" title="" />
+  </div>
+
+  <p>Whatever may be their character, the methods employed to give
+  softened effects to the colours are known as
+  &ldquo;washing.&rdquo; Most of those in vogue in the Orient, such
+  as washing with lime water, do little real injury. In this
+  country to artificially mellow the colours has become a regular
+  business of firms, who guard the secret of their different
+  methods. Some use ammonia, borax, and soap, <span class=
+  'pagenum'><a name="Page_301" id="Page_301">301</a></span>which
+  also do very little injury to the rug. Others use chloride of
+  lime, boracic acid, vinegar, or oxalic acid, that remove some of
+  the natural oils of the wool and accordingly impair its qualities
+  for wear. In fact, pieces are occasionally injured to the extent
+  that the wool has become brittle and may readily be plucked out.
+  Nevertheless, it does not necessarily follow that all rugs washed
+  with an acid solution have been seriously injured; but the
+  colours never have the same richness as those which have been
+  softened by natural processes operating for a long period of
+  years. To be sure, rugs that have been washed are often more
+  attractive than they were in their raw colours; but the older,
+  more beautiful rugs with genuine tones mellowed by time are
+  always to be preferred. Over ninety per cent of the Kermanshahs,
+  Sarouks, Kashans, Tabriz, Muskabads, Mahals, and Gorevans, and a
+  large percentage of all other modern rugs sold in this country,
+  have been treated by some artificial process to soften their
+  colours or give them the appearance of age. It is generally
+  necessary, when selecting a large rug for a floor covering, to
+  accept a washed piece; but when a smaller rug or a runner will
+  meet the requirements, it is preferable to choose the older
+  unwashed piece, which, as a rule, is more beautiful and costs but
+  little more. In the case of most pieces, the tones of colour are
+  sufficient to enable one who is experienced to distinguish
+  between those that are artificially aged and those that are not.
+  In the case of others, a simple test is to rub them thoroughly
+  with a wet rag; when, if acid or chloride of lime has been used,
+  it can generally be detected by the odour.</p>
+
+  <p>The artistic beauty of a rug also depends somewhat on the
+  fineness of the nap; as the soft, floccy fibres of some wools
+  acquire a velvety appearance, or give to the colours a sheen and
+  a lustre compared with which other rugs look harsh and coarse.
+  For instance, the rugs of Shiraz and Meshed, the Beluchistans,
+  and many Bokharas are noted for the lustre of their colours; but
+  on the other hand many of the rugs of Asia Minor and Caucasia
+  have colours that are without lustre, and the rugs of India which
+  are made of dead or &ldquo;Chunam&rdquo; wool, seem lifeless.</p>
+
+  <p>When selecting any rug, then, the purchaser should carefully
+  observe if the patterns are well drawn and their different parts
+  show a proper balance. He should observe if the colour tones are
+  harmonious with one another, if each colour in itself is good,
+  and if they have been softened by natural processes acting for a
+  long time.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_302" id=
+  "Page_302">302</a></span> And he should notice if the wool is
+  coarse, dead, and lustreless, or if it has a sheen and glint in
+  the light of day; for these are the qualities that make up the
+  artistic beauty of a rug.</p>
+
+  <p>The utility to be derived from rugs that properly belong to
+  museums and collectors receives small consideration, though even
+  with them the more perfect their condition the more valuable they
+  are. But in case of the great majority of rugs, which are
+  intended for use as well as for ornament, their utility is an
+  important consideration to the purchaser. Rugs that have warp and
+  weft of strong yarn and a close firm texture, will wear better
+  than others. Also, such rugs as Bijars, in which one thread of
+  warp to each knot is doubled under the other, will be found to
+  wear better than such rugs as Mosuls which have each thread of
+  warp equally prominent at the back. For durability, long nap is
+  also to be preferred to short, since it protects the foundations
+  of the knots from wearing and becoming loose.</p>
+
+  <p>Before purchasing an old rug, it should be spread on the floor
+  to see if it lies flat and if its shape is regular. It should be
+  examined by daylight and not by electric light, which gives a
+  false impression of colour and sheen. It should be held up with
+  the back turned to the purchaser, and carefully examined for weak
+  spots through which the light may pass; since, when so held, many
+  pieces which seem in good condition when lying on the floor,
+  resemble a sieve. The foundation threads should also be carefully
+  inspected, as sometimes they rot and will tear with slight
+  tension. Moreover, as the selvage or overcasting of the sides and
+  the webs of the ends are intended primarily not for ornament but
+  for protection, it should be noted if they are in good condition.
+  Sometimes the webs of the ends are entirely gone, so that
+  continual fraying of the nap is prevented with difficulty.
+  Sometimes the selvage or overcasting of the sides is broken and
+  some of the threads of warp are injured. Or the sides may be well
+  protected by a stout overcasting; but on examination it will be
+  seen that it is not the original finishing, and that some of the
+  border has disappeared. Again, it may have been overcast too
+  tightly, so that the sides curl and turn under, and thus expose
+  the border to injury when trodden on. Careful examination will
+  often reveal surprises. In many old rugs the field is full of
+  rents, that have been sewn together; in others entire pieces have
+  been removed, so that they are no longer of their original
+  length; or parts of the border are gone, or even the whole of it
+  has been<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_303" id=
+  "Page_303">303</a></span> replaced by the border of another rug;
+  yet all so deftly done that the changes are scarcely
+  noticeable.</p>
+
+  <p>Nevertheless, old pieces, if otherwise meritorious, are not to
+  be discarded on account of a few imperfections, since what can be
+  accomplished in the hands of a careful repairer is remarkable.
+  Broken threads of warp and weft can be mended; missing knots can
+  be replaced with others of similar yarn; crooked pieces can be
+  straightened by loosening here and stretching there; borders that
+  curl can be flattened by removing the yarn and overcasting again
+  more carefully. In fact, if the nap be not so worn that the
+  foundation of warp and weft is exposed, it is far better to
+  choose an old rug with some rents than a new one with garish
+  aniline dyes. Nor should a piece be slighted, because the
+  brownish black areas of wool dyed with iron pyrites are worn low;
+  since often the most beautiful effects are obtained by a surface
+  of brighter colours standing out in relief, on account of the
+  worn blackish nap that surrounds it. Now and then a bargain can
+  be had by buying a rug which, because of some imperfection that
+  is not serious, has been passed by; and now and then a piece
+  reeking with dirt has proved, when properly cleansed, to be a
+  gem.</p>
+
+  <p>The foundation, consisting of the warp and weft, receives but
+  little consideration from purchasers; yet it is one of the most
+  important indices of the quality of a rug, and its strength is
+  one of the most necessary conditions for utility. The warp is
+  best observed at the ends. In most Chinese and Indian rugs and in
+  some of the Persian, it is of cotton; in others it is of wool or
+  goat&rsquo;s hair. In the Chinese rugs the diameter of the
+  threads of warp is much smaller than the diameter of the threads
+  of the weft, and has little strength, but in almost all other
+  rugs it is at least as large and as stout. The weft may readily
+  be observed at the back. In very many of the best rugs, it
+  consists of fine spun wool; but in many modern ones, it is of
+  coarse wool or cotton. The number of knots to the square inch
+  does not of itself demonstrate the quality of texture, since a
+  rug may have only a few knots of coarse diameter and be firmly
+  woven, or it may have many knots of fine diameter and be loosely
+  woven; but in the same class the better rug has generally more
+  knots than a poorer one. When selecting a rug, then, the back
+  should be most carefully observed; for here may be seen if the
+  yarn that forms the knots is well spun, if the knots themselves
+  are drawn tight and well pressed down, and if the
+  threads<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_304" id=
+  "Page_304">304</a></span> of weft are carefully inserted and have
+  a texture that indicates fine workmanship. Almost invariably it
+  will be found that if the back of a rug shows good material, and
+  has an appearance of firmness and skilful, painstaking weaving,
+  the front will correspond with good colours and careful
+  drawing.</p>
+
+  <p>The value of antique carpets, which depends to some extent on
+  their size, and to a much greater extent on their rarity and
+  character, is constantly increasing; for the reason that their
+  number is limited and each year they are more highly appreciated.
+  It is, therefore, impossible to affix even approximate prices;
+  but the sums paid at the Yerkes sale in 1910, when some thirty
+  pieces were sold at auction for an average of about $9,400, will
+  serve as a guide. The following are some of the pieces sold and
+  the prices realised:</p>
+
+  <table width="100%" summary="Carpet prices">
+    <tr>
+      <td class="left90">
+        <p class="indent">Carpet, size 7 feet 4 inches by 5 feet 4
+        inches, attributed to Western Persia, at end of XVI
+        Century, and purchased by the Metropolitan Museum of Art,
+        N. Y.</p>
+      </td>
+
+      <td class="right10s">$5,600</td>
+    </tr>
+
+    <tr>
+      <td class="left90">
+        <p class="indent">Persian carpet, XVI Century, described on
+        page 86</p>
+      </td>
+
+      <td class="right10s">5,600</td>
+    </tr>
+
+    <tr>
+      <td class="left90">
+        <p class="indent">Polish silk carpet, XVI Century, size 6
+        feet 6 inches by 4 feet 7 inches</p>
+      </td>
+
+      <td class="right10s">4,700</td>
+    </tr>
+
+    <tr>
+      <td class="left90">
+        <p class="indent">Polish silk carpet, XVI Century, size 6
+        feet 6 inches by 4 feet 7 inches</p>
+      </td>
+
+      <td class="right10s">3,500</td>
+    </tr>
+
+    <tr>
+      <td class="left90">
+        <p class="indent">Polish silk carpet, XVI Century, size 6
+        feet 11 inches by 4 feet 10 inches</p>
+      </td>
+
+      <td class="right10s">12,300</td>
+    </tr>
+
+    <tr>
+      <td class="left90">
+        <p class="indent">Silk carpet, XVI Century, size 7 feet
+        2&frac12; inches by 6 feet 5 inches, stated to have
+        belonged to the Ardebil Mosque</p>
+      </td>
+
+      <td class="right10s">35,500</td>
+    </tr>
+
+    <tr>
+      <td class="left90">
+        <p class="indent">Moorish carpet, XVI Century, size 10 feet
+        11 inches by 5 feet 10 inches, stated to have belonged to
+        the Ardebil Mosque and purchased by the Metropolitan Museum
+        of Art, N. Y.</p>
+      </td>
+
+      <td class="right10s">15,200</td>
+    </tr>
+
+    <tr>
+      <td class="left90">
+        <p class="indent">Hispano Moresque Mosque carpet, size 34
+        feet 5 inches by 16 feet 8 inches, flat stitch</p>
+      </td>
+
+      <td class="right10s">8,600</td>
+    </tr>
+
+    <tr>
+      <td class="left90">
+        <p class="indent">Carpet attributed to Western Iran, size
+        16 feet 4 inches by 11 feet 2 inches, and purchased by the
+        Metropolitan Museum of Art, N. Y.</p>
+      </td>
+
+      <td class="right10s">19,600</td>
+    </tr>
+
+    <tr>
+      <td class="left90">
+        <p class="indent">Carpet similar to the Mosque carpet of
+        Ardebil, XVI Century, size 23 feet 11 inches by 13 feet 5
+        inches</p>
+      </td>
+
+      <td class="right10s">27,000</td>
+    </tr>
+  </table>
+
+  <p>The value of rugs over fifty years of age but not sufficiently
+  old to belong to the antique class also depends as much on the
+  technique of weave, drawing, colouring, and rarity as on the
+  size; yet even this must be taken into consideration. In
+  proportion to their size the most expensive of these rugs are the
+  Kirmans, Sehnas, and Niris from Persia; the Ghiordes and Ladiks
+  from Asia Minor; the Daghestans and Kabistans from Caucasia; and
+  the Royal Bokharas and Yomuds from Central Asia. Considering both
+  utility and attractiveness the least expensive are probably the
+  Sarabends and Mosuls from the Persian group, the Yuruks from Asia
+  Minor, Kazaks and Tcherkess from Caucasia, and Afghans
+  and<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_305" id=
+  "Page_305">305</a></span> Beluchistans from Central Asia. As is
+  the case with antique carpets, the prices of all old rugs in good
+  condition are steadily advancing.</p>
+
+  <p>There is likewise a tendency for the prices of modern rugs to
+  increase with each year, since on account of the gradual opening
+  of Oriental countries to the markets of the world, and the
+  greater demand for rugs, the wages of weavers are increasing.
+  Some of them, as the Tabriz, Gorevans, Kermanshahs, Muskabads,
+  Mahals, Sarouks, and Kashans, are now made almost exclusively
+  under the direction of the work-house system, and are sold at
+  prices that fluctuate but slightly. But in a short time the
+  prices of all of them will doubtless be higher.</p>
+
+  <p>When a rug of carpet size is required, the Kermanshahs are
+  generally preferred on account of their soft colouring and
+  refined patterns, that harmonise with the furnishings of most
+  reception rooms. Less expensive and more showy are the Gorevans,
+  which are suitable for halls or dining rooms. In the Afghans,
+  which are splendid rugs for a den, are combined durability with a
+  moderate price. Within recent years some of the Indian rugs, as
+  the Amritsars and Lahores, have been growing in favour, as they
+  not only have good colours, artistic patterns, and exceedingly
+  good texture, but are reasonable in price. Of smaller rugs
+  required both for ornament and use, the Shiraz, Feraghan, Mosul,
+  Bergamo, Tcherkess, Bokhara, and Beluchistan are desirable.</p>
+
+  <p>As is the case with other works of art, so much deception can
+  be practised in the sale of rugs that a purchaser cannot use too
+  much circumspection. Sometimes through ignorance or with
+  intention, a dealer will declare that the wool of a rug which has
+  been coloured with aniline dyes has been coloured with vegetable
+  dyes only; that a rug washed with acid has matured naturally;
+  that a new rug which has been artificially worn almost to the
+  knot is an antique; or that a particular rug belongs to the class
+  desired, as where a Shirvan is offered for a Shiraz or a Bijar
+  for a Bergamo, which ordinarily are worth much more. It is,
+  accordingly, discreet to buy only of such firms as have a
+  reputation which is above reproach; and if for any reason it is
+  difficult to learn the standing of a firm, the purchaser would do
+  well to make an effort to test its reliability by inquiring about
+  the qualities of some class of rugs with which he is familiar
+  before purchasing others; and if there appears to be any
+  intention to deceive, he should at once look elsewhere. In any
+  event, he should take a guarantee that the<span class=
+  'pagenum'><a name="Page_306" id="Page_306">306</a></span> rug
+  purchased is as represented. Firms that have gained an honourable
+  reputation by honest dealing deserve the patronage of the public,
+  and will always be found ready to make restitution if any mistake
+  has been made.</p>
+
+  <p>At times, the best rugs may be bought at auctions and at the
+  fairest prices. Auctions such as the Yerkes, where estates are
+  being closed or where firms are dissolved, occasionally occur,
+  when every opportunity is given the purchaser to thoroughly
+  examine in advance pieces which are sold without reservation to
+  the highest bidder. On such occasions, rare pieces are sometimes
+  bought at very moderate prices. But as a rule, unless the
+  purchaser is a good judge and has previously carefully examined a
+  coveted piece in broad daylight, it is better not to buy at
+  auctions. During the sale it is impossible to properly examine a
+  rug. The glare of electric light thrown upon it gives a too
+  favourable impression of its beauty. The competitive bids of
+  other real or fictitious purchasers and the words of the
+  auctioneer too often lead beyond the dictates of good judgment.
+  At such times one would do well to remember the old words
+  <i>caveat emptor</i>.</p>
+
+<h4>FOOTNOTES</h4>
+
+  <div class="footnote">
+    <p><a name="Footnote_1" id="Footnote_1"></a><a href=
+    "#FNanchor_1"><span class="label">1</span></a> The Yerkes
+    sale.</p>
+  </div>
+
+  <div class="footnote">
+    <p><a name="Footnote_2" id="Footnote_2"></a><a href=
+    "#FNanchor_2"><span class="label">2</span></a> Stewart Dix, in
+    &ldquo;Arts of Old Japan.&rdquo;</p>
+  </div>
+
+  <div class="footnote">
+    <p><a name="Footnote_3" id="Footnote_3"></a><a href=
+    "#FNanchor_3"><span class="label">3</span></a> The influence of
+    the physical aspects of a country on its art as expressed in
+    architecture is nowhere more clearly shown than in Egypt, and
+    there is little doubt that, likewise, the character of the
+    native rugs was influenced by the spirit of the sluggish Nile
+    and the boundless desert wastes. But as Egypt long ago ceased
+    to be a rug-producing country, and none of its ancient rugs
+    remain, it will only be briefly referred to in this work,
+    though symbolic designs which had their origin there during the
+    Caliphate or even earlier were adopted by foreign weavers and
+    occasionally appear with modified form in modern rugs.</p>
+  </div>
+
+  <div class="footnote">
+    <p><a name="Footnote_4" id="Footnote_4"></a><a href=
+    "#FNanchor_4"><span class="label">4</span></a> It is said that
+    he carried Persian weavers as captives to Asia Minor and
+    Constantinople.</p>
+  </div>
+
+  <div class="footnote">
+    <p><a name="Footnote_5" id="Footnote_5"></a><a href=
+    "#FNanchor_5"><span class="label">5</span></a> This is a
+    product of flowers of the genus <i>Delphinum</i> that grows in
+    the Himalayas. It is also obtained as a powder from
+    Afghanistan.</p>
+  </div>
+
+  <div class="footnote">
+    <p><a name="Footnote_6" id="Footnote_6"></a><a href=
+    "#FNanchor_6"><span class="label">6</span></a> In a few rare
+    instances a knot is tied to four threads of warp.</p>
+  </div>
+
+  <div class="footnote">
+    <p><a name="Footnote_7" id="Footnote_7"></a><a href=
+    "#FNanchor_7"><span class="label">7</span></a> Most Sehna knots
+    are right-hand knots, but the Sehna knots of a large proportion
+    of Khorassan rugs are left-hand knots.</p>
+  </div>
+
+  <div class="footnote">
+    <p><a name="Footnote_8" id="Footnote_8"></a><a href=
+    "#FNanchor_8"><span class="label">8</span></a> As far as the
+    writer is aware, no one has hitherto called attention to the
+    many precise distinctions there are in weaving, and to the fact
+    that each class of rugs follows a distinct type of its own. For
+    this reason this branch of the subject is treated more fully
+    than would otherwise be necessary.</p>
+  </div>
+
+  <div class="footnote">
+    <p><a name="Footnote_9" id="Footnote_9"></a><a href=
+    "#FNanchor_9"><span class="label">9</span></a> A few of the
+    weavers about Gozene in Asia Minor make rugs with a double
+    foundation, in which a single thread of coarse weft crosses
+    twice between parallel rows of threads of warp. Only rarely is
+    this method followed in other districts.</p>
+  </div>
+
+  <div class="footnote">
+    <p><a name="Footnote_10" id="Footnote_10"></a><a href=
+    "#FNanchor_10"><span class="label">10</span></a> Sir George
+    Birdwood has made the statement that &ldquo;A deep and
+    complicate symbolism, originating in Babylonia and possibly in
+    India, pervades every denomination of Oriental carpet. Thus the
+    carpet itself prefigures space and eternity, and the general
+    pattern or filling, as it is technically termed, the fleeting,
+    finite universe of animated beauty. Every colour has its
+    significance; and the design, whether mythological or natural,
+    human, bestial, or floral, has its hidden meaning. Even the
+    representatives of men hunting wild beasts have their special
+    indications. So have the natural flowers of Persia their
+    symbolism, wherever they are introduced, generally following
+    that of their colours. The very irregularities either in
+    drawing or colouring, to be observed in almost every Oriental
+    carpet, and invariably in Turkoman carpets, are seldom
+    accidental, the usual deliberate intention being to avert the
+    evil eye and insure good luck.&rdquo;</p>
+  </div>
+
+  <div class="footnote">
+    <p><a name="Footnote_11" id="Footnote_11"></a><a href=
+    "#FNanchor_11"><span class="label">11</span></a> The equivalent
+    of 106 feet square.</p>
+  </div>
+
+  <div class="footnote">
+    <p><a name="Footnote_12" id="Footnote_12"></a><a href=
+    "#FNanchor_12"><span class="label">12</span></a> See his work,
+    &ldquo;The Holy Carpet of the Mosque at Ardebil.&rdquo;</p>
+  </div>
+
+  <div class="footnote">
+    <p><a name="Footnote_13" id="Footnote_13"></a><a href=
+    "#FNanchor_13"><span class="label">13</span></a> Ismael
+    reigned, 1502-1524; Tamasp reigned, 1524-1576.</p>
+  </div>
+
+  <div class="footnote">
+    <p><a name="Footnote_14" id="Footnote_14"></a><a href=
+    "#FNanchor_14"><span class="label">14</span></a> 1586-1628.</p>
+  </div>
+
+  <div class="footnote">
+    <p><a name="Footnote_15" id="Footnote_15"></a><a href=
+    "#FNanchor_15"><span class="label">15</span></a> These will be
+    considered in a later chapter.</p>
+  </div>
+
+  <div class="footnote">
+    <p><a name="Footnote_16" id="Footnote_16"></a><a href=
+    "#FNanchor_16"><span class="label">16</span></a> This group
+    includes both antique and modern rugs.</p>
+  </div>
+
+  <div class="footnote">
+    <p><a name="Footnote_17" id="Footnote_17"></a><a href=
+    "#FNanchor_17"><span class="label">17</span></a> Robert Kerr
+    Porter, a well-known traveller, stated that the floor of the
+    audience hall of the governor at Tabriz, whom he visited in
+    1818, &ldquo;was entirely overspread with Herat carpets, those
+    of that manufacture being the richest that can be
+    made.&rdquo;</p>
+  </div>
+
+  <div class="footnote">
+    <p><a name="Footnote_18" id="Footnote_18"></a><a href=
+    "#FNanchor_18"><span class="label">18</span></a> By &ldquo;Type
+    Characteristics&rdquo; is meant the characteristics of such
+    types of the class as are most frequently seen. There are
+    exceptions to these types.</p>
+  </div>
+
+  <div class="footnote">
+    <p><a name="Footnote_19" id="Footnote_19"></a><a href=
+    "#FNanchor_19"><span class="label">19</span></a> As this is the
+    case with most rugs, only the exceptions to this feature will
+    be noticed in the type characteristics of other classes.</p>
+  </div>
+
+  <div class="footnote">
+    <p><a name="Footnote_20" id="Footnote_20"></a><a href=
+    "#FNanchor_20"><span class="label">20</span></a> Ibn
+    Batutah.</p>
+  </div>
+
+  <div class="footnote">
+    <p><a name="Footnote_21" id="Footnote_21"></a><a href=
+    "#FNanchor_21"><span class="label">21</span></a> Of modern
+    Ispahans.</p>
+  </div>
+
+  <div class="footnote">
+    <p><a name="Footnote_22" id="Footnote_22"></a><a href=
+    "#FNanchor_22"><span class="label">22</span></a>
+    &ldquo;Burlington Magazine,&rdquo; December, 1909.</p>
+  </div>
+
+  <div class="footnote">
+    <p><a name="Footnote_23" id="Footnote_23"></a><a href=
+    "#FNanchor_23"><span class="label">23</span></a> In
+    &ldquo;Industrial Arts of India.&rdquo;</p>
+  </div>
+
+  <div class="footnote">
+    <p><a name="Footnote_24" id="Footnote_24"></a><a href=
+    "#FNanchor_24"><span class="label">24</span></a> Sidney
+    Churchill in the Imperial Vienna Book says that &ldquo;the dyes
+    of Sultanabad have perhaps the most extensive colour scheme in
+    Persia.&rdquo;</p>
+  </div>
+
+  <div class="footnote">
+    <p><a name="Footnote_25" id="Footnote_25"></a><a href=
+    "#FNanchor_25"><span class="label">25</span></a>
+    &ldquo;Industrial Arts of India.&rdquo;</p>
+  </div>
+
+  <div class="footnote">
+    <p><a name="Footnote_26" id="Footnote_26"></a><a href=
+    "#FNanchor_26"><span class="label">26</span></a> Mrs. Elizabeth
+    Bishop in &ldquo;Journeys in Persia and Kurdistan.&rdquo;</p>
+  </div>
+
+  <div class="footnote">
+    <p><a name="Footnote_27" id="Footnote_27"></a><a href=
+    "#FNanchor_27"><span class="label">27</span></a> Encyclopedia
+    Britannica.</p>
+  </div>
+
+  <div class="footnote">
+    <p><a name="Footnote_28" id="Footnote_28"></a><a href=
+    "#FNanchor_28"><span class="label">28</span></a> It is also to
+    be noted that within the last few years large numbers of pieces
+    bearing resemblance to old Oriental rugs have been woven about
+    Constantinople.</p>
+  </div>
+
+  <div class="footnote">
+    <p><a name="Footnote_29" id="Footnote_29"></a><a href=
+    "#FNanchor_29"><span class="label">29</span></a> One of the
+    most interesting is at Sivas, where are the remains of a most
+    beautiful Seljuk gateway, with architectural lines that might
+    well have been taken for a weaver&rsquo;s model. As in many
+    prayer rugs, the engaged columns support a high arch over which
+    a panel rests above a figured spandrel. The outlines of each of
+    these parts suggest most forcibly the drawing of the prayer
+    rug, and the resemblance is carried even further; for
+    corresponding with the border stripes is the chiselled masonry
+    that once rested above the panel and still extends to the foot
+    of the entrance at each side of the arch.</p>
+  </div>
+
+  <div class="footnote">
+    <p><a name="Footnote_30" id="Footnote_30"></a><a href=
+    "#FNanchor_30"><span class="label">30</span></a> One of these
+    is represented in Dr. Bode&rsquo;s &ldquo;Knupfteppiche,&rdquo;
+    where it appears as a secondary stripe.</p>
+  </div>
+
+  <div class="footnote">
+    <p><a name="Footnote_31" id="Footnote_31"></a><a href=
+    "#FNanchor_31"><span class="label">31</span></a> An
+    intermediate pattern suggested by each is found in an old Asia
+    Minor piece owned by Dr. Bode.</p>
+  </div>
+
+  <div class="footnote">
+    <p><a name="Footnote_32" id="Footnote_32"></a><a href=
+    "#FNanchor_32"><span class="label">32</span></a> A. Bogolubow,
+    in his excellent work &ldquo;Tapis de l&rsquo;Asie
+    Centrale,&rdquo; divides the Transcaspian Turkomans into two
+    principal groups, the Salors and Yomuds, each of which includes
+    sub-groups. These are again divisible into many tribes, almost
+    all of whom weave. As their rugs, though resembling one
+    another, show different characteristics, they might properly be
+    separated into numerous classes; but since only a few of them
+    are known in this country, they alone will be described.</p>
+  </div>
+
+  <div class="footnote">
+    <p><a name="Footnote_33" id="Footnote_33"></a><a href=
+    "#FNanchor_33"><span class="label">33</span></a> &ldquo;Desert
+    of Red Sands.&rdquo;</p>
+  </div>
+
+  <div class="footnote">
+    <p><a name="Footnote_34" id="Footnote_34"></a><a href=
+    "#FNanchor_34"><span class="label">34</span></a> A tent in
+    which an average of five people live.</p>
+  </div>
+
+  <div class="footnote">
+    <p><a name="Footnote_35" id="Footnote_35"></a><a href=
+    "#FNanchor_35"><span class="label">35</span></a> In
+    &ldquo;Industrial Arts of India.&rdquo;</p>
+  </div>
+
+  <div class="footnote">
+    <p><a name="Footnote_36" id="Footnote_36"></a><a href=
+    "#FNanchor_36"><span class="label">36</span></a> Dr.
+    Birdwood.</p>
+  </div>
+
+  <div class="footnote">
+    <p><a name="Footnote_37" id="Footnote_37"></a><a href=
+    "#FNanchor_37"><span class="label">37</span></a> Sometimes
+    Sehna knot.</p>
+  </div>
+
+  <div class="footnote">
+    <p><a name="Footnote_38" id="Footnote_38"></a><a href=
+    "#FNanchor_38"><span class="label">38</span></a> Sometimes one
+    thread of warp to each knot is doubled under the other.</p>
+  </div>
+
+  <div class="footnote">
+    <p><a name="Footnote_39" id="Footnote_39"></a><a href=
+    "#FNanchor_39"><span class="label">39</span></a> Rarely Iran,
+    Feraghan, Mosul, and Kurdistan.</p>
+  </div>
+
+  <div class="footnote">
+    <p><a name="Footnote_40" id="Footnote_40"></a><a href=
+    "#FNanchor_40"><span class="label">40</span></a> It is stated
+    that in the short space of a few weeks he created valuable
+    antique porcelains to present to his noble friends by placing
+    recent copies of old specimens in a vessel containing very
+    greasy soup, where they were duly boiled for a month, and after
+    that placing them in the &ldquo;foulest drain of the
+    neighbourhood,&rdquo; where they remained until seasoned.</p>
+  </div>
+
+  <div class="footnote">
+    <p><a name="Footnote_41" id="Footnote_41"></a><a href=
+    "#FNanchor_41"><span class="label">41</span></a> In
+    &ldquo;Across Coveted Lands, 1903.&rdquo;</p>
+  </div>
+
+  <div class="footnote">
+    <p><a name="Footnote_42" id="Footnote_42"></a><a href=
+    "#FNanchor_42"><span class="label">42</span></a> All references
+    of an unimportant character are indicated by the page number
+    only.</p>
+  </div>
+
+  <p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_309" id=
+  "Page_309">307<br />
+  308<br />
+  309</a></span></p>
+
+  <h3>INDEX<a name="FNanchor_42" id="FNanchor_42"></a><a href=
+  "#Footnote_42" class="fnanchor">42</a></h3>
+
+  <ul class="IX">
+    <li><span style=
+    "margin-left: 12em; margin-top: 1.25em; margin-bottom: .75em;">A</span></li>
+
+    <li>Abbas, Shah, <a href="#Page_88">88</a>, <a href="#Page_89">
+      89</a>, <a href="#Page_169">169</a>, <a href=
+      "#Page_211">211</a>;
+
+      <ul>
+        <li>pattern named after, <a href="#Page_105">105</a>;</li>
+
+        <li>sent artisans to India, <a href=
+        "#Page_111">111</a>;</li>
+
+        <li>rug industry declined after death of, <a href=
+        "#Page_112">112</a>.</li>
+      </ul>
+    </li>
+
+    <li>Abraham, <a href="#Page_23">23</a>, <a href=
+    "#Page_31">31</a>.</li>
+
+    <li>Acacia used as a dye, <a href="#Page_40">40</a>, <a href=
+    "#Page_41">41</a>.</li>
+
+    <li>Accadians, <a href="#Page_23">23</a>.</li>
+
+    <li>Adighies, <a href="#Page_209">209</a>.</li>
+
+    <li>Afghan rugs, <a href="#Page_293">293</a>, <a href=
+    "#Page_304">304</a>, <a href="#Page_305">305</a>;
+
+      <ul>
+        <li>geometric designs of, <a href="#Page_62">62</a>;</li>
+
+        <li>technicalities in weave of, <a href="#Page_51">51</a>,
+        <a href="#Page_53">53</a>, <a href="#Page_56">56</a>,
+        <a href="#Page_57">57</a>, <a href=
+        "#Page_235">235</a>.</li>
+
+        <li>Rugs described, <a href="#Page_243">243</a>, <a href=
+        "#Page_244">244</a>, <a href="#Page_245">245</a>;</li>
+
+        <li>border stripes, <a href="#Page_251">251</a>.</li>
+      </ul>
+    </li>
+
+    <li>Afghan tribes, <a href="#Page_90">90</a>.</li>
+
+    <li>Afghanistan, <a href="#Page_41">41</a>, <a href=
+    "#Page_103">103</a>, <a href="#Page_233">233</a>, <a href=
+    "#Page_243">243</a>, <a href="#Page_244">244</a>;
+
+      <ul>
+        <li>camel&rsquo;s wool of, <a href="#Page_82">82</a>.</li>
+      </ul>
+    </li>
+
+    <li>Afshar rugs, <a href="#Page_100">100</a>, <a href=
+    "#Page_286">286</a>;
+
+      <ul>
+        <li>technicalities in weave of, <a href=
+        "#Page_51">51</a>.</li>
+
+        <li>Rugs described, <a href="#Page_155">155</a>.</li>
+      </ul>
+    </li>
+
+    <li>Aga Mohammed Khan pillaged Kirman, <a href=
+    "#Page_113">113</a>.</li>
+
+    <li>Agamemnon, <a href="#Page_166">166</a>.</li>
+
+    <li>Agra, <a href="#Page_255">255</a>, <a href=
+    "#Page_257">257</a>.</li>
+
+    <li>Agra rugs described, <a href="#Page_257">257</a>.</li>
+
+    <li>Akbar, Shah, <a href="#Page_28">28</a>;
+
+      <ul>
+        <li>received assistance from Shah Abbas, <a href=
+        "#Page_29">29</a>;</li>
+
+        <li>established rug weaving at Lahore, <a href=
+        "#Page_94">94</a>;</li>
+
+        <li>imported Persian weavers, <a href=
+        "#Page_253">253</a>;</li>
+
+        <li>carpet factory of, <a href="#Page_256">256</a>.</li>
+      </ul>
+    </li>
+
+    <li>Ak-Hissar, <a href="#Page_175">175</a>.</li>
+
+    <li>Ak-Hissar rugs, 101.
+
+      <ul>
+        <li>Rugs described, <a href="#Page_175">175</a>, <a href=
+        "#Page_176">176</a>.</li>
+      </ul>
+    </li>
+
+    <li>Ak-kal, oasis of, <a href="#Page_238">238</a>.</li>
+
+    <li>Albana, <a href="#Page_204">204</a>.</li>
+
+    <li>Alexander the Great, <a href="#Page_169">169</a>,
+      <a href="#Page_181">181</a>, <a href="#Page_246">246</a>;
+
+      <ul>
+        <li>destroyed Shiraz, <a href="#Page_115">115</a>;</li>
+
+        <li>built walls at Derbend, <a href=
+        "#Page_204">204</a>.</li>
+      </ul>
+    </li>
+
+    <li>Alhambra, <a href="#Page_25">25</a>.</li>
+
+    <li>Ali Riza, Imam, <a href="#Page_110">110</a>.</li>
+
+    <li>Allahabad, <a href="#Page_258">258</a>.</li>
+
+    <li>Allahabad rugs described, <a href="#Page_258">258</a>.</li>
+
+    <li>Altai Mts., <a href="#Page_29">29</a>;
+
+      <ul>
+        <li>original home of the Turks, <a href=
+        "#Page_26">26</a>.</li>
+      </ul>
+    </li>
+
+    <li>Altman, Benjamin, <a href="#Page_85">85</a>.</li>
+
+    <li>Alum, used as a mordant, <a href="#Page_40">40</a>,
+    <a href="#Page_41">41</a>.</li>
+
+    <li>Amritsar, <a href="#Page_255">255</a>, <a href=
+    "#Page_258">258</a>.</li>
+
+    <li>Amritsar rugs, <a href="#Page_101">101</a>, <a href=
+    "#Page_257">257</a>, 305.
+
+      <ul>
+        <li>Rugs described, <a href="#Page_255">255</a>.</li>
+      </ul>
+    </li>
+
+    <li>Amu Daria. _See_ Oxus river.</li>
+
+    <li>Anatolia, <a href="#Page_163">163</a>, <a href="#Page_182">
+      182</a>;
+
+      <ul>
+        <li>the &ldquo;Land of the Rising Sun,&rdquo; <a href=
+        "#Page_187">187</a>.</li>
+      </ul>
+    </li>
+
+    <li>Anatolian rugs, <a href="#Page_101">101</a>, <a href=
+    "#Page_176">176</a>, <a href="#Page_190">190</a>, <a href=
+    "#Page_289">289</a>, <a href="#Page_290">290</a>;
+
+      <ul>
+        <li>illustration of prayer arch of, <a href=
+        "#Page_63">63</a>.</li>
+
+        <li>Rugs described, <a href="#Page_187">187</a>, <a href=
+        "#Page_188">188</a>, <a href="#Page_189">189</a>;</li>
+
+        <li>border stripes, <a href="#Page_195">195</a>.</li>
+      </ul>
+    </li>
+
+    <li>Angora, <a href="#Page_27">27</a>, <a href=
+    "#Page_185">185</a>, <a href="#Page_187">187</a>;
+
+      <ul>
+        <li>goat&rsquo;s wool, <a href="#Page_32">32</a>.</li>
+      </ul>
+    </li>
+
+    <li>Anilines. _See_ Dyes.</li>
+
+    <li>Animal carpets, <a href="#Page_86">86</a>, <a href=
+    "#Page_87">87</a>.</li>
+
+    <li>Anjuman Industrial Art School, <a href=
+    "#Page_259">259</a>.</li>
+
+    <li>Anoschar, <a href="#Page_76">76</a>.</li>
+
+    <li>Anti-Taurus Mts., <a href="#Page_140">140</a>, <a href=
+    "#Page_187">187</a>, <a href="#Page_190">190</a>.</li>
+
+    <li>Arabia, <a href="#Page_24">24</a>, <a href=
+    "#Page_29">29</a>, <a href="#Page_32">32</a>.</li>
+
+    <li>Arabic features in rugs, <a href="#Page_85">85</a>;
+
+      <ul>
+        <li>notation, <a href="#Page_296">296</a>;</li>
+
+        <li>symbolism in Western Kurdistan rugs, <a href=
+        "#Page_141">141</a>.</li>
+      </ul>
+    </li>
+
+    <li>Arabs, in Persia, <a href="#Page_103">103</a>;
+
+      <ul>
+        <li>overran Turkestan, <a href="#Page_234">234</a>.</li>
+      </ul>
+    </li>
+
+    <li>Ararat, Mt., <a href="#Page_103">103</a>, <a href=
+    "#Page_219">219</a>.</li>
+
+    <li>Aras river, <a href="#Page_151">151</a>, <a href=
+    "#Page_157">157</a>, <a href="#Page_224">224</a>.</li>
+
+    <li>Ardebil, Persian capital under Ismael, <a href="#Page_28">
+      28</a>;
+
+      <ul>
+        <li>mosque of, <a href="#Page_82">82</a>, <a href=
+        "#Page_127">127</a>.</li>
+      </ul>
+    </li>
+
+    <li>Ardebil carpet, <a href="#Page_15">15</a>;</li>
+
+    <li>described, <a href="#Page_83">83</a>, <a href=
+    "#Page_84">84</a>.</li>
+
+    <li>Ardelan district, <a href="#Page_100">100</a>, <a href=
+    "#Page_129">129</a>, <a href="#Page_133">133</a>, <a href=
+    "#Page_153">153</a>.</li>
+
+    <li>Armenia, <a href="#Page_209">209</a>;
+
+      <ul>
+        <li>origin of some Caucasian border stripes of, <a href=
+        "#Page_226">226</a>, <a href="#Page_228">228</a>, <a href=
+        "#Page_229">229</a>.</li>
+      </ul>
+    </li>
+
+    <li>Armenian rugs, <a href="#Page_91">91</a>, <a href=
+    "#Page_170">170</a>, <a href="#Page_209">209</a>, <a href=
+    "#Page_220">220</a>;
+
+      <ul>
+        <li>designs derived from, <a href="#Page_64">64</a>,
+        <a href="#Page_65">65</a>, <a href="#Page_67">67</a>,
+        <a href="#Page_209">209</a>, <a href="#Page_214">214</a>,
+        <a href="#Page_215">215</a>.</li>
+
+        <li>Rugs described, <a href="#Page_91">91</a>.</li>
+      </ul>
+    </li>
+
+    <li>Armenians in Persia, <a href="#Page_103">103</a>;<ul>
+
+    <li>in Mosul, <a href="#Page_103">103</a>.</li></ul></li>
+
+    <li>Artaxerxes, <a href="#Page_103">103</a>.</li>
+
+    <li>Aryan races, in India, <a href="#Page_28">28</a>;
+
+      <ul>
+        <li>in Persia, <a href="#Page_103">103</a>;</li>
+
+        <li>in Caucasia, <a href="#Page_197">197</a>;</li>
+
+        <li>in Turkestan, <a href="#Page_234">234</a>;</li>
+
+        <li>floral ornamentation employed by, <a href=
+        "#Page_62">62</a>.</li>
+      </ul>
+    </li>
+
+    <li>Asburg used as a dye, <a href="#Page_41">41</a>.</li>
+
+    <li>Astrabad, <a href="#Page_241">241</a>.</li>
+
+    <li>Astrakan, market for Bokharas, <a href="#Page_235">235</a>;
+
+      <ul>
+        <li>for caravans from Khiva, <a href=
+        "#Page_240">240</a>.</li>
+      </ul>
+    </li>
+
+    <li>Auctions, <a href="#Page_306">306</a>.</li>
+
+    <li>Ayyampet, <a href="#Page_259">259</a>.</li>
+
+    <li>Azerbijan province, <a href="#Page_26">26</a>, <a href=
+    "#Page_145">145</a>, <a href="#Page_147">147</a>, <a href=
+    "#Page_148">148</a>, <a href="#Page_149">149</a>, <a href=
+    "#Page_153">153</a>.</li>
+
+    <li>&nbsp;</li>
+
+    <li><span style="margin-left: 12em;">B</span></li>
+
+    <li>Baber, Shah, <a href="#Page_28">28</a>.</li>
+
+    <li>Babylon, <a href="#Page_23">23</a>, <a href=
+    "#Page_24">24</a>, <a href="#Page_74">74</a>, <a href=
+    "#Page_102">102</a>, 103.
+
+      <ul>
+        <li>Bagdad, <a href="#Page_81">81</a>, <a href=
+        "#Page_138">138</a>, <a href="#Page_152">152</a>;</li>
+
+        <li>carpets covering the floors of, <a href=
+        "#Page_25">25</a>;</li>
+
+        <li>captured by Tartars, <a href="#Page_27">27</a>.</li>
+
+        <li>by Solyman the Magnificent, <a href=
+        "#Page_28">28</a>.</li>
+      </ul>
+    </li>
+
+    <li>Bajazet, defeated by Tamerlane, <a href="#Page_27">27</a>;
+
+      <ul>
+        <li>Karaman subject to, <a href="#Page_188">188</a>.</li>
+      </ul>
+    </li>
+
+    <li>Bakshis rugs described, <a href="#Page_148">148</a>.</li>
+
+    <li>Baku, <a href="#Page_210">210</a>, <a href=
+    "#Page_214">214</a>.</li>
+
+    <li>Baku rugs, <a href="#Page_101">101</a>, <a href=
+    "#Page_292">292</a>;
+
+      <ul>
+        <li>pear design in, <a href="#Page_70">70</a>, <a href=
+        "#Page_129">129</a>, <a href="#Page_153">153</a>, <a href=
+        "#Page_198">198</a>, <a href="#Page_202">202</a>.</li>
+
+        <li>Rugs described, <a href="#Page_210">210</a>, <a href=
+        "#Page_211">211</a>, <a href="#Page_212">212</a>;</li>
+
+        <li>border stripes, <a href="#Page_229">229</a>.</li>
+      </ul>
+    </li>
+
+    <li>Bangalore, <a href="#Page_259">259</a>, <a href=
+    "#Page_261">261</a>.</li>
+
+    <li>Bangalore rugs, <a href="#Page_101">101</a>, 259.
+
+      <ul>
+        <li>Rugs described, <a href="#Page_261">261</a>.</li>
+      </ul>
+    </li>
+
+    <li>Barbarossa, Frederic, <a href="#Page_181">181</a>.</li>
+
+    <li>Bardini, Stefano, <a href="#Page_85">85</a>.</li>
+
+    <li>Bastard teak used as a dye, <a href="#Page_39">39</a>.</li>
+
+    <li>Bedouins, <a href="#Page_103">103</a>.</li>
+
+    <li>Belshazzar, <a href="#Page_24">24</a>.</li>
+
+    <li>Beluches, in Kirman, <a href="#Page_113">113</a>;
+
+      <ul>
+        <li>untamed tribes of, <a href="#Page_248">248</a>.</li>
+      </ul>
+    </li>
+
+    <li>Beluchistan, <a href="#Page_233">233</a>.</li>
+
+    <li>Beluchistan rugs, <a href="#Page_205">205</a>, <a href=
+    "#Page_234">234</a>, <a href="#Page_239">239</a>, <a href=
+    "#Page_301">301</a>, <a href="#Page_305">305</a>;
+
+      <ul>
+        <li>technicalities in weave of, <a href="#Page_53">53</a>,
+        <a href="#Page_56">56</a>, <a href="#Page_57">57</a>;</li>
+
+        <li>illustration of prayer arch of, <a href=
+        "#Page_61">61</a>;</li>
+
+        <li>geometric designs in, <a href="#Page_62">62</a>;</li>
+
+        <li>S design in, <a href="#Page_64">64</a>;</li>
+
+        <li>zigzag line in, <a href="#Page_66">66</a>;</li>
+
+        <li>reciprocal trefoil in, <a href="#Page_160">160</a>,
+        <a href="#Page_230">230</a>.</li>
+
+        <li>Rugs described, <a href="#Page_248">248</a>, <a href=
+        "#Page_249">249</a>;</li>
+
+        <li>border stripes, <a href="#Page_251">251</a>.</li>
+      </ul>
+    </li>
+
+    <li>Beni-Hassan, tombs of, <a href="#Page_74">74</a>.</li>
+
+    <li>Bergamo rugs, <a href="#Page_101">101</a>, <a href=
+    "#Page_289">289</a>, <a href="#Page_305">305</a>;
+
+      <ul>
+        <li>technicalities in weave of, <a href="#Page_50">50</a>,
+        <a href="#Page_52">52</a>, <a href="#Page_53">53</a>,
+        <a href="#Page_54">54</a>, <a href="#Page_57">57</a>;</li>
+
+        <li>illustration of prayer arch of, <a href=
+        "#Page_63">63</a>;</li>
+
+        <li>prevailing colour tone of, <a href=
+        "#Page_178">178</a>.</li>
+
+        <li>Rugs described, <a href="#Page_166">166</a>, <a href=
+        "#Page_167">167</a>, <a href="#Page_168">168</a>;</li>
+
+        <li>border stripes, <a href="#Page_193">193</a>.</li>
+      </ul>
+    </li>
+
+    <li>Berlin gallery, <a href="#Page_92">92</a>.</li>
+
+    <li>Beshire rugs, <a href="#Page_101">101</a>, <a href=
+    "#Page_233">233</a>, <a href="#Page_293">293</a>;
+
+      <ul>
+        <li>illustration of prayer arch of, <a href=
+        "#Page_61">61</a>;</li>
+
+        <li>S design in, <a href="#Page_65">65</a>;</li>
+
+        <li>zigzag line in, <a href="#Page_66">66</a>.</li>
+
+        <li>Rugs described, <a href="#Page_243">243</a>;</li>
+
+        <li>border stripes, <a href="#Page_251">251</a>.</li>
+      </ul>
+    </li>
+
+    <li>Bibikabad, town of, <a href="#Page_154">154</a>.</li>
+
+    <li>Bibikabad rugs described, <a href="#Page_155">155</a>.</li>
+
+    <li>Bijar, <a href="#Page_129">129</a>, <a href=
+    "#Page_136">136</a>.</li>
+
+    <li>Bijar rugs, <a href="#Page_100">100</a>, <a href=
+    "#Page_153">153</a>, <a href="#Page_256">256</a>, <a href=
+    "#Page_286">286</a>, <a href="#Page_288">288</a>, <a href=
+    "#Page_302">302</a>, <a href="#Page_305">305</a>;
+
+      <ul>
+        <li>technicalities in weave of, <a href="#Page_51">51</a>,
+        <a href="#Page_52">52</a>;</li>
+
+        <li>compared with Persian-Kurdistans and Mosuls, <a href=
+        "#Page_143">143</a>.</li>
+
+        <li>Rugs described, <a href="#Page_136">136</a>, <a href=
+        "#Page_137">137</a>;</li>
+
+        <li>border stripes, <a href="#Page_157">157</a>, <a href=
+        "#Page_159">159</a>, <a href="#Page_160">160</a>.</li>
+      </ul>
+    </li>
+
+    <li>Birbul&rsquo;s blue used as a dye, <a href=
+    "#Page_40">40</a>.</li>
+
+    <li>Bird figures in rugs. _See_ Designs.</li>
+
+    <li>Birdwood, Sir George, cited, <a href="#Page_62">62</a>,
+    <a href="#Page_70">70</a>, <a href="#Page_94">94</a>, <a href=
+    "#Page_122">122</a>, <a href="#Page_138">138</a>;<ul>
+
+    <li>quoted, <a href="#Page_59">59</a>, <a href=
+    "#Page_241">241</a>, <a href="#Page_253">253</a>, <a href=
+    "#Page_258">258</a>, <a href="#Page_259">259</a>, <a href=
+    "#Page_260">260</a>.</li></ul></li>
+
+    <li>Birjand, <a href="#Page_108">108</a>.</li>
+
+    <li>Bishop, Mrs. I. B., quoted, <a href=
+    "#Page_138">138</a>.</li>
+
+    <li>Bode, Dr. Wm., cited, <a href="#Page_79">79</a>, <a href=
+    "#Page_227">227</a>, <a href="#Page_228">228</a>.</li>
+
+    <li>Bogolubow, A., cited, <a href="#Page_233">233</a>.</li>
+
+    <li>B&ouml;hler, J., cited, <a href="#Page_79">79</a>.</li>
+
+    <li>Bokhara, <a href="#Page_100">100</a>, <a href="#Page_110">
+      110</a>, <a href="#Page_245">245</a>;
+
+      <ul>
+        <li>captured by Genghis Khan, <a href=
+        "#Page_26">26</a>;</li>
+
+        <li>the &ldquo;Noble,&rdquo; <a href=
+        "#Page_236">236</a>.</li>
+      </ul>
+    </li>
+
+    <li>Bokhara rugs, <a href="#Page_100">100</a>, <a href=
+    "#Page_243">243</a>, <a href="#Page_305">305</a>;
+
+      <ul>
+        <li>goat&rsquo;s hair in, <a href="#Page_32">32</a>;</li>
+
+        <li>technicalities in weave of, <a href="#Page_50">50</a>,
+        <a href="#Page_52">52</a>, <a href="#Page_53">53</a>.</li>
+      </ul>
+    </li>
+
+    <li>Bokhara, Princess, rugs, <a href="#Page_101">101</a>,
+    <a href="#Page_233">233</a>, <a href="#Page_235">235</a>,
+    <a href="#Page_293">293</a>;
+
+      <ul>
+        <li>illustration of prayer arch of, <a href=
+        "#Page_61">61</a>.</li>
+
+        <li>Rugs described, <a href="#Page_237">237</a>, <a href=
+        "#Page_238">238</a>;</li>
+
+        <li>border stripes, <a href="#Page_250">250</a>, <a href=
+        "#Page_251">251</a>.</li>
+      </ul>
+    </li>
+
+    <li>Bokhara, Royal, rugs, <a href="#Page_101">101</a>,
+      <a href="#Page_103">103</a>, <a href="#Page_233">233</a>,
+      <a href="#Page_241">241</a>, <a href="#Page_242">242</a>,
+      <a href="#Page_243">243</a>, <a href="#Page_244">244</a>,
+      <a href="#Page_293">293</a>, <a href="#Page_304">304</a>;
+
+      <ul>
+        <li>compared with Princess, <a href=
+        "#Page_237">237</a>;</li>
+
+        <li>the arch compared with that of Tekkes, <a href=
+        "#Page_239">239</a>.</li>
+
+        <li>Rugs described, <a href="#Page_235">235</a>, <a href=
+        "#Page_236">236</a>;</li>
+
+        <li>border stripes, <a href="#Page_250">250</a>, <a href=
+        "#Page_251">251</a>.</li>
+      </ul>
+    </li>
+
+    <li>Border stripes, defined, <a href="#Page_59">59</a>;
+
+      <ul>
+        <li>Persian, described, <a href="#Page_156">156</a>,
+        <a href="#Page_157">157</a>, <a href="#Page_158">158</a>,
+        <a href="#Page_159">159</a>, <a href=
+        "#Page_160">160</a>;</li>
+
+        <li>Asia Minor, described, <a href="#Page_192">192</a>,
+        <a href="#Page_193">193</a>, <a href="#Page_194">194</a>,
+        <a href="#Page_195">195</a>;</li>
+
+        <li>Caucasian, described, <a href="#Page_225">225</a>,
+        <a href="#Page_226">226</a>, <a href="#Page_227">227</a>,
+        <a href="#Page_228">228</a>, <a href="#Page_229">229</a>,
+        <a href="#Page_230">230</a>, <a href=
+        "#Page_231">231</a>;</li>
+
+        <li>Central Asiatic, described, <a href=
+        "#Page_250">250</a>, <a href="#Page_251">251</a>;</li>
+
+        <li>Chinese, described, <a href="#Page_273">273</a>,
+        <a href="#Page_274">274</a>, <a href=
+        "#Page_275">275</a>.</li>
+      </ul>
+    </li>
+
+    <li>Boston Museum of Fine Arts, <a href="#Page_94">94</a>.</li>
+
+    <li>Brahoes, <a href="#Page_248">248</a>.</li>
+
+    <li>British Museum, <a href="#Page_82">82</a>.</li>
+
+    <li>Broussa, 181.
+
+      <ul>
+        <li>Rugs described, <a href="#Page_181">181</a>.</li>
+      </ul>
+    </li>
+
+    <li>Buckthorns used as a dye, <a href="#Page_39">39</a>.</li>
+
+    <li>Buddhism, influence on Asiatic art, <a href=
+    "#Page_16">16</a>;
+
+      <ul>
+        <li>on symbolism, <a href="#Page_58">58</a>;</li>
+
+        <li>the lotus an emblem of, <a href="#Page_69">69</a>.</li>
+      </ul>
+    </li>
+
+    <li>Buddhist emblems, <a href="#Page_271">271</a>, <a href=
+    "#Page_274">274</a>.</li>
+
+    <li>Burujird, <a href="#Page_131">131</a>.</li>
+
+    <li>Burujird rugs described, <a href="#Page_131">131</a>.</li>
+
+    <li>Butea fondosa used as a dye, <a href=
+    "#Page_39">39</a>.</li>
+
+    <li>Butti lac used as a dye, 39.</li>
+
+    <li>&nbsp;</li>
+
+    <li><span style="margin-left: 12em;">C</span></li>
+
+    <li>C&aelig;sarea. _See_ Kaisariyeh.</li>
+
+    <li>Ca&iuml;cus valley, <a href="#Page_166">166</a>.</li>
+
+    <li>Cairo, Caliphs in, <a href="#Page_25">25</a>;
+
+      <ul>
+        <li>Mecca rugs sold in, <a href="#Page_118">118</a>.</li>
+      </ul>
+    </li>
+
+    <li>Caliphate, <a href="#Page_20">20</a>, <a href=
+    "#Page_76">76</a>.</li>
+
+    <li>Caliphs, <a href="#Page_24">24</a>, <a href=
+    "#Page_25">25</a>, <a href="#Page_77">77</a>, <a href=
+    "#Page_90">90</a>, <a href="#Page_91">91</a>, <a href=
+    "#Page_115">115</a>;
+
+      <ul>
+        <li>prayer rugs in time of, <a href="#Page_85">85</a>;</li>
+
+        <li>Ispahan under, <a href="#Page_111">111</a>;</li>
+
+        <li>Kirman rugs in palaces of, <a href=
+        "#Page_113">113</a>;</li>
+
+        <li>Tabriz rugs known in days of, <a href=
+        "#Page_145">145</a>.</li>
+      </ul>
+    </li>
+
+    <li>Caliph Hisham, carpet of, <a href="#Page_76">76</a>.</li>
+
+    <li>Camel&rsquo;s hair. _See_ Wool.</li>
+
+    <li>Carduchis, <a href="#Page_140">140</a>.</li>
+
+    <li>Caria. _See_ Melez.</li>
+
+    <li>Chaldees, <a href="#Page_23">23</a>;
+
+      <ul>
+        <li>symbolism derived from, <a href="#Page_66">66</a>.</li>
+      </ul>
+    </li>
+
+    <li>Chardin cited, <a href="#Page_113">113</a>.</li>
+
+    <li>Charles Martel, <a href="#Page_25">25</a>.</li>
+
+    <li>Chehel Sutoon, enormous carpet of, <a href=
+    "#Page_112">112</a>.</li>
+
+    <li>Che-Hwang-te, <a href="#Page_26">26</a>.</li>
+
+    <li>Chichi rugs, <a href="#Page_100">100</a>, <a href=
+    "#Page_290">290</a>, <a href="#Page_292">292</a>;
+
+      <ul>
+        <li>illustration of prayer arch of, <a href=
+        "#Page_61">61</a>;</li>
+
+        <li>Kazaks contrasted with, <a href=
+        "#Page_220">220</a>.</li>
+
+        <li>Rugs described, <a href="#Page_207">207</a>, <a href=
+        "#Page_208">208</a>;</li>
+
+        <li>border stripes, <a href="#Page_226">226</a>, <a href=
+        "#Page_231">231</a>.</li>
+      </ul>
+    </li>
+
+    <li>Chinese fret, <a href="#Page_67">67</a>, <a href=
+    "#Page_165">165</a>;
+
+      <ul>
+        <li>influence, <a href="#Page_293">293</a>;</li>
+
+        <li>medallions, <a href="#Page_272">272</a>, <a href=
+        "#Page_273">273</a>.</li>
+      </ul>
+    </li>
+
+    <li>Chosroes I, &ldquo;Spring of Chosroes&rdquo; carpet made
+    for, <a href="#Page_76">76</a>.</li>
+
+    <li>Chunam wool, <a href="#Page_261">261</a>, <a href=
+    "#Page_301">301</a>.</li>
+
+    <li>Churchill, Sidney, A. T., quoted, <a href=
+    "#Page_131">131</a>.</li>
+
+    <li>Cinnabar used as a dye, <a href="#Page_40">40</a>, <a href=
+    "#Page_41">41</a>.</li>
+
+    <li>Circassians. _See_ Tcherkess.</li>
+
+    <li>Clark, Sir Purdon, cited, <a href="#Page_112">112</a>.</li>
+
+    <li>Clotilde Clam-Gallas, Countess, cited, <a href=
+    "#Page_80">80</a>.</li>
+
+    <li>Coccus cacti used as a dye, <a href="#Page_38">38</a>.</li>
+
+    <li>Coccus ilicus used as a dye, <a href=
+    "#Page_38">38</a>.</li>
+
+    <li>Coccus lacca used as a dye, <a href="#Page_38">38</a>.</li>
+
+    <li>Cochineal used as a dye, <a href="#Page_38">38</a>.</li>
+
+    <li>Cochran, Wm. Alexander Smith, <a href=
+    "#Page_86">86</a>.</li>
+
+    <li>Coconada, <a href="#Page_259">259</a>.</li>
+
+    <li>Colour, the artistic value of, <a href="#Page_18">18</a>;
+
+      <ul>
+        <li>the symbolism of, <a href="#Page_59">59</a>, <a href=
+        "#Page_72">72</a>.</li>
+      </ul>
+    </li>
+
+    <li>Cone design. _See_ Designs.</li>
+
+    <li>Constantinople, <a href="#Page_27">27</a>, <a href=
+    "#Page_98">98</a>, <a href="#Page_99">99</a>, <a href=
+    "#Page_118">118</a>, <a href="#Page_181">181</a>, <a href=
+    "#Page_197">197</a>, <a href="#Page_209">209</a>;
+
+      <ul>
+        <li>Persian weavers taken to, <a href=
+        "#Page_28">28</a>;</li>
+
+        <li>silk carpets sent to Sultan of, <a href=
+        "#Page_87">87</a>.</li>
+      </ul>
+    </li>
+
+    <li>Conventions in art, <a href="#Page_16">16</a>.</li>
+
+    <li>Cordova, <a href="#Page_25">25</a>.</li>
+
+    <li>Cossacks, <a href="#Page_218">218</a>, <a href=
+    "#Page_219">219</a>.</li>
+
+    <li>Cotton, used in weaving <a href="#Page_30">30</a>;
+
+      <ul>
+        <li>mercerized, <a href="#Page_30">30</a>.</li>
+      </ul>
+    </li>
+
+    <li>Cow&rsquo;s hair used in weaving, <a href=
+    "#Page_30">30</a>, <a href="#Page_33">33</a>.</li>
+
+    <li>Crocus used as a dye, <a href="#Page_39">39</a>.</li>
+
+    <li>Cr&oelig;sus, <a href="#Page_163">163</a>.</li>
+
+    <li>Crown jewel design. _See_ Designs.</li>
+
+    <li>Ctesiphon, <a href="#Page_76">76</a>, <a href=
+    "#Page_102">102</a>, <a href="#Page_103">103</a>.</li>
+
+    <li>Cufic lettering, in Altman carpet, <a href=
+    "#Page_85">85</a>;
+
+      <ul>
+        <li>in borders of Asia Minor and Caucasian rugs, <a href=
+        "#Page_92">92</a>, <a href="#Page_166">166</a>, <a href=
+        "#Page_202">202</a>, <a href="#Page_229">229</a>;</li>
+
+        <li>reputed inventor of, <a href="#Page_183">183</a>.</li>
+      </ul>
+    </li>
+
+    <li>Cupressus sempervirens used as a dye, <a href=
+    "#Page_41">41</a>.</li>
+
+    <li>Curcuma used as a dye, <a href="#Page_38">38</a>.</li>
+
+    <li>Cyrus, <a href="#Page_24">24</a>, <a href=
+    "#Page_115">115</a>, 181;
+
+      <ul>
+        <li>Turkestan overrun by, <a href="#Page_234">234</a>.</li>
+      </ul>
+    </li>
+
+    <li>&nbsp;</li>
+
+    <li><span style="margin-left: 12em;">D</span></li>
+
+    <li>Daghestan, <a href="#Page_198">198</a>, <a href=
+    "#Page_206">206</a>, <a href="#Page_214">214</a>.</li>
+
+    <li>Daghestan rugs, <a href="#Page_205">205</a>, <a href=
+    "#Page_212">212</a>, <a href="#Page_213">213</a>, <a href=
+    "#Page_216">216</a>, <a href="#Page_290">290</a>, <a href=
+    "#Page_292">292</a>, <a href="#Page_293">293</a>, <a href=
+    "#Page_304">304</a>;
+
+      <ul>
+        <li>technicalities in weave of, <a href="#Page_51">51</a>,
+        <a href="#Page_54">54</a>;</li>
+
+        <li>illustration of prayer arch of, <a href=
+        "#Page_61">61</a>;</li>
+
+        <li>effulgent stars in, <a href="#Page_91">91</a>;</li>
+
+        <li>Cufic borders of, <a href="#Page_92">92</a>;</li>
+
+        <li>Bergamo prayer arch compared with that of, <a href=
+        "#Page_167">167</a>;</li>
+
+        <li>weave of Kabistans compared with that of, <a href=
+        "#Page_201">201</a>;</li>
+
+        <li>designs in, <a href="#Page_211">211</a>;</li>
+
+        <li>colour scheme of Shirvans compared with that of,
+        <a href="#Page_214">214</a>;</li>
+
+        <li>mosaic drawing of, <a href="#Page_220">220</a>.</li>
+
+        <li>Rugs described, <a href="#Page_198">198</a>, <a href=
+        "#Page_199">199</a>, <a href="#Page_200">200</a>;</li>
+
+        <li>border stripes, <a href="#Page_226">226</a>, <a href=
+        "#Page_227">227</a>, <a href="#Page_228">228</a>, <a href=
+        "#Page_229">229</a>, <a href="#Page_230">230</a>.</li>
+      </ul>
+    </li>
+
+    <li>Daghestan, Royal, <a href="#Page_216">216</a>.</li>
+
+    <li>Damascus, <a href="#Page_17">17</a>;
+
+      <ul>
+        <li>antique carpets of, <a href="#Page_95">95</a>;</li>
+
+        <li>Mecca rugs sold in, <a href="#Page_118">118</a>.</li>
+      </ul>
+    </li>
+
+    <li>Dari, <a href="#Page_211">211</a>, <a href=
+    "#Page_257">257</a>.</li>
+
+    <li>Darius, <a href="#Page_215">215</a>.</li>
+
+    <li>Dekkan, rugs woven in interior of, <a href=
+    "#Page_259">259</a>.</li>
+
+    <li>Delhi, <a href="#Page_28">28</a>, <a href=
+    "#Page_110">110</a>.</li>
+
+    <li>Demirdji, <a href="#Page_164">164</a>, <a href=
+    "#Page_176">176</a>.</li>
+
+    <li>Demirdji rugs described, <a href="#Page_176">176</a>.</li>
+
+    <li>Deodorus, <a href="#Page_74">74</a>.</li>
+
+    <li>Dera Ghazi Khan, 280; Kilims, <a href=
+    "#Page_281">281</a>.</li>
+
+    <li>Derbend, <a href="#Page_199">199</a>, <a href=
+    "#Page_204">204</a>.</li>
+
+    <li>Derbend rugs described, <a href="#Page_204">204</a>,
+    <a href="#Page_205">205</a>;
+
+      <ul>
+        <li>border stripes, <a href="#Page_230">230</a>.</li>
+      </ul>
+    </li>
+
+    <li>Designs, geometric, <a href="#Page_62">62</a>, <a href=
+    "#Page_64">64</a>, <a href="#Page_185">185</a>;
+
+      <ul>
+        <li>floral, <a href="#Page_62">62</a>, <a href=
+        "#Page_64">64</a>, <a href="#Page_68">68</a>, <a href=
+        "#Page_185">185</a>;</li>
+
+        <li>almond, <a href="#Page_70">70</a>;</li>
+
+        <li>animal, <a href="#Page_89">89</a>, <a href=
+        "#Page_83">83</a>, <a href="#Page_91">91</a>, <a href=
+        "#Page_112">112</a>, <a href="#Page_114">114</a>, <a href=
+        "#Page_126">126</a>, <a href="#Page_137">137</a>, <a href=
+        "#Page_165">165</a>, <a href="#Page_200">200</a>, <a href=
+        "#Page_211">211</a>, <a href="#Page_213">213</a>, <a href=
+        "#Page_225">225</a>, <a href="#Page_248">248</a>;</li>
+
+        <li>antilope, <a href="#Page_72">72</a>;</li>
+
+        <li>arabesques, <a href="#Page_71">71</a>, <a href=
+        "#Page_79">79</a>, <a href="#Page_81">81</a>, <a href=
+        "#Page_83">83</a>, <a href="#Page_94">94</a>, <a href=
+        "#Page_104">104</a>, <a href="#Page_156">156</a>, <a href=
+        "#Page_175">175</a>;</li>
+
+        <li>barber-pole, <a href="#Page_117">117</a>, <a href=
+        "#Page_118">118</a>, <a href="#Page_119">119</a>, <a href=
+        "#Page_153">153</a>, <a href="#Page_182">182</a>, <a href=
+        "#Page_200">200</a>, <a href="#Page_215">215</a>, <a href=
+        "#Page_229">229</a>, <a href="#Page_242">242</a>, <a href=
+        "#Page_246">246</a>, <a href="#Page_251">251</a>;</li>
+
+        <li>bat, <a href="#Page_71">71</a>, <a href=
+        "#Page_266">266</a>;</li>
+
+        <li>birds, <a href="#Page_71">71</a>, <a href=
+        "#Page_87">87</a>, <a href="#Page_91">91</a>, <a href=
+        "#Page_119">119</a>, <a href="#Page_114">114</a>, <a href=
+        "#Page_137">137</a>, <a href="#Page_165">165</a>, <a href=
+        "#Page_229">229</a>, <a href="#Page_246">246</a>, <a href=
+        "#Page_270">270</a>, <a href="#Page_292">292</a>;</li>
+
+        <li>bird of paradise, <a href="#Page_71">71</a>;</li>
+
+        <li>butterfly, <a href="#Page_71">71</a>, <a href=
+        "#Page_246">246</a>, <a href="#Page_266">266</a>, <a href=
+        "#Page_269">269</a>, <a href="#Page_270">270</a>;</li>
+
+        <li>camel, <a href="#Page_72">72</a>;</li>
+
+        <li>chessboard, <a href="#Page_271">271</a>;</li>
+
+        <li>chrysanthemum, <a href="#Page_271">271</a>;</li>
+
+        <li>cloud-band, <a href="#Page_67">67</a>, <a href=
+        "#Page_90">90</a>, <a href="#Page_106">106</a>, <a href=
+        "#Page_265">265</a>, <a href="#Page_274">274</a>;</li>
+
+        <li>cocos, <a href="#Page_114">114</a>;</li>
+
+        <li>comb, <a href="#Page_67">67</a>, <a href=
+        "#Page_208">208</a>, <a href="#Page_213">213</a>, <a href=
+        "#Page_221">221</a>;</li>
+
+        <li>conch, <a href="#Page_274">274</a>;</li>
+
+        <li>cone, <a href="#Page_70">70</a>;</li>
+
+        <li>crab, <a href="#Page_71">71</a>;</li>
+
+        <li>cross, <a href="#Page_67">67</a>, <a href=
+        "#Page_92">92</a>, <a href="#Page_236">236</a>, <a href=
+        "#Page_237">237</a>;</li>
+
+        <li>crown jewel, <a href="#Page_70">70</a>, <a href=
+        "#Page_112">112</a>;</li>
+
+        <li>daisy, <a href="#Page_64">64</a>, <a href=
+        "#Page_69">69</a>;</li>
+
+        <li>diamond, <a href="#Page_91">91</a>, <a href=
+        "#Page_141">141</a>, <a href="#Page_145">145</a>, <a href=
+        "#Page_177">177</a>, <a href="#Page_200">200</a>, <a href=
+        "#Page_203">203</a>, <a href="#Page_212">212</a>, <a href=
+        "#Page_223">223</a>;</li>
+
+        <li>djinni, <a href="#Page_72">72</a>;</li>
+
+        <li>dog, <a href="#Page_72">72</a>, <a href=
+        "#Page_213">213</a>;</li>
+
+        <li>dragon, <a href="#Page_71">71</a>, <a href=
+        "#Page_246">246</a>, <a href="#Page_266">266</a>, <a href=
+        "#Page_268">268</a>, <a href="#Page_273">273</a>, <a href=
+        "#Page_274">274</a>;</li>
+
+        <li>dragon and phoenix, <a href="#Page_92">92</a>;</li>
+
+        <li>duck, <a href="#Page_71">71</a>, <a href=
+        "#Page_81">81</a>, <a href="#Page_87">87</a>;</li>
+
+        <li>eagle, <a href="#Page_71">71</a>;</li>
+
+        <li>Euphrates flower, <a href="#Page_69">69</a>, <a href=
+        "#Page_189">189</a>;</li>
+
+        <li>fish, <a href="#Page_165">165</a>, <a href=
+        "#Page_246">246</a>;</li>
+
+        <li>fung-kwang, <a href="#Page_266">266</a>;</li>
+
+        <li>fungus, <a href="#Page_269">269</a>;</li>
+
+        <li>gazelle, <a href="#Page_95">95</a>;</li>
+
+        <li>goat, <a href="#Page_72">72</a>;</li>
+
+        <li>Joo-e, <a href="#Page_265">265</a>, <a href=
+        "#Page_274">274</a>;</li>
+
+        <li>key-pattern, <a href="#Page_27">27</a>, <a href=
+        "#Page_267">267</a>, <a href="#Page_274">274</a>;</li>
+
+        <li>knot of destiny, <a href="#Page_274">274</a>;</li>
+
+        <li>ky-lin, <a href="#Page_265">265</a>;</li>
+
+        <li>lamp, <a href="#Page_165">165</a>, <a href=
+        "#Page_170">170</a>, <a href="#Page_182">182</a>;</li>
+
+        <li>latch-hook, <a href="#Page_67">67</a>, <a href=
+        "#Page_74">74</a>, <a href="#Page_117">117</a>, <a href=
+        "#Page_145">145</a>, <a href="#Page_155">155</a>, <a href=
+        "#Page_167">167</a>, <a href="#Page_169">169</a>, <a href=
+        "#Page_180">180</a>, <a href="#Page_182">182</a>, <a href=
+        "#Page_183">183</a>, <a href="#Page_184">184</a>, <a href="#Page_186">186</a>, <a href="#Page_187">187</a>,
+        <a href="#Page_189">189</a>, <a href="#Page_200">200</a>,
+        <a href="#Page_202">202</a>, <a href="#Page_203">203</a>,
+        <a href="#Page_212">212</a>, <a href="#Page_215">215</a>,
+        <a href="#Page_220">220</a>, <a href="#Page_223">223</a>,
+        <a href="#Page_225">225</a>, <a href="#Page_227">227</a>,
+        <a href="#Page_228">228</a>, <a href="#Page_231">231</a>,
+        <a href="#Page_242">242</a>, <a href="#Page_249">249</a>,
+        <a href="#Page_250">250</a>, <a href="#Page_251">251</a>,
+        <a href="#Page_278">278</a>, <a href="#Page_282">282</a>,
+        <a href="#Page_288">288</a>;</li>
+
+        <li>lily, <a href="#Page_167">167</a>, <a href=
+        "#Page_170">170</a>, <a href="#Page_172">172</a>, <a href=
+        "#Page_184">184</a>, <a href="#Page_193">193</a>, <a href=
+        "#Page_230">230</a>;</li>
+
+        <li>lion, <a href="#Page_72">72</a>, <a href=
+        "#Page_95">95</a>;</li>
+
+        <li>lion-dog, <a href="#Page_266">266</a>;</li>
+
+        <li>lotus, <a href="#Page_64">64</a>, <a href=
+        "#Page_68">68</a>, <a href="#Page_69">69</a>, <a href=
+        "#Page_89">89</a>, <a href="#Page_199">199</a>;</li>
+
+        <li>lozenge, <a href="#Page_62">62</a>, <a href=
+        "#Page_91">91</a>, <a href="#Page_123">123</a>, <a href=
+        "#Page_141">141</a>, <a href="#Page_206">206</a>, <a href=
+        "#Page_220">220</a>, <a href="#Page_225">225</a>, <a href=
+        "#Page_249">249</a>;</li>
+
+        <li>lyre, <a href="#Page_271">271</a>;</li>
+
+        <li>mango, <a href="#Page_70">70</a>;</li>
+
+        <li>medallion, <a href="#Page_60">60</a>, <a href=
+        "#Page_86">86</a>, <a href="#Page_87">87</a>, <a href=
+        "#Page_104">104</a>, <a href="#Page_106">106</a>, <a href=
+        "#Page_108">108</a>, <a href="#Page_109">109</a>, <a href=
+        "#Page_110">110</a>, <a href="#Page_121">121</a>, <a href=
+        "#Page_123">123</a>, <a href="#Page_126">126</a>, <a href=
+        "#Page_134">134</a>, <a href="#Page_138">138</a>, <a href=
+        "#Page_139">139</a>, <a href="#Page_145">145</a>, <a href=
+        "#Page_149">149</a>, <a href="#Page_169">169</a>, <a href=
+        "#Page_183">183</a>, <a href="#Page_189">189</a>, <a href=
+        "#Page_200">200</a>, <a href="#Page_212">212</a>, <a href=
+        "#Page_214">214</a>, <a href="#Page_215">215</a>, <a href=
+        "#Page_220">220</a>, <a href="#Page_267">267</a>, <a href=
+        "#Page_269">269</a>, <a href="#Page_271">271</a>, <a href=
+        "#Page_272">272</a>, <a href="#Page_273">273</a>;</li>
+
+        <li>moon, <a href="#Page_65">65</a>, <a href=
+        "#Page_69">69</a>;</li>
+
+        <li>octagonal disc, <a href="#Page_66">66</a>, <a href=
+        "#Page_92">92</a>, <a href="#Page_180">180</a>, <a href=
+        "#Page_200">200</a>, <a href="#Page_206">206</a>, <a href=
+        "#Page_213">213</a>, <a href="#Page_220">220</a>, 275;</li>
+
+        <li>palm, <a href="#Page_70">70</a>;</li>
+
+        <li>palmette, <a href="#Page_70">70</a>, <a href=
+        "#Page_71">71</a>, <a href="#Page_89">89</a>, <a href=
+        "#Page_90">90</a>, <a href="#Page_94">94</a>, <a href=
+        "#Page_106">106</a>, <a href="#Page_121">121</a>, <a href=
+        "#Page_177">177</a>;</li>
+
+        <li>peacock, <a href="#Page_71">71</a>;</li>
+
+        <li>pear, <a href="#Page_70">70</a>, <a href=
+        "#Page_106">106</a>, <a href="#Page_109">109</a>, <a href=
+        "#Page_110">110</a>, <a href="#Page_116">116</a>, <a href=
+        "#Page_129">129</a>, <a href="#Page_142">142</a>, <a href=
+        "#Page_145">145</a>, <a href="#Page_153">153</a>, <a href=
+        "#Page_165">165</a>, <a href="#Page_191">191</a>, <a href=
+        "#Page_200">200</a>, <a href="#Page_201">201</a>, <a href=
+        "#Page_207">207</a>, <a href="#Page_218">218</a>, <a href=
+        "#Page_219">219</a>;</li>
+
+        <li>peony, <a href="#Page_104">104</a>, <a href=
+        "#Page_270">270</a>;</li>
+
+        <li>ph&oelig;nix, <a href="#Page_72">72</a>;</li>
+
+        <li>pole-medallion, <a href="#Page_117">117</a>, <a href=
+        "#Page_152">152</a>, <a href="#Page_179">179</a>;</li>
+
+        <li>pomegranate, <a href="#Page_69">69</a>, <a href=
+        "#Page_167">167</a>;</li>
+
+        <li>reciprocal sawtooth, <a href="#Page_78">78</a>,
+        <a href="#Page_121">121</a>, <a href="#Page_130">130</a>,
+        <a href="#Page_209">209</a>, <a href="#Page_221">221</a>,
+        <a href="#Page_231">231</a>;</li>
+
+        <li>reciprocal trefoil, <a href="#Page_121">121</a>,
+        <a href="#Page_130">130</a>, <a href="#Page_160">160</a>,
+        <a href="#Page_165">165</a>, <a href="#Page_208">208</a>,
+        <a href="#Page_215">215</a>, <a href="#Page_221">221</a>,
+        <a href="#Page_249">249</a>;</li>
+
+        <li>river loop, <a href="#Page_70">70</a>;</li>
+
+        <li>rose, <a href="#Page_62">62</a>, <a href=
+        "#Page_69">69</a>, <a href="#Page_139">139</a>, <a href=
+        "#Page_193">193</a>;</li>
+
+        <li>rosette, <a href="#Page_70">70</a>, <a href=
+        "#Page_94">94</a>, <a href="#Page_104">104</a>, <a href=
+        "#Page_121">121</a>, <a href="#Page_188">188</a>, <a href=
+        "#Page_193">193</a>, <a href="#Page_201">201</a>, <a href=
+        "#Page_207">207</a>, <a href="#Page_208">208</a>, <a href=
+        "#Page_221">221</a>, <a href="#Page_226">226</a>, <a href=
+        "#Page_230">230</a>, <a href="#Page_290">290</a>, <a href=
+        "#Page_292">292</a>;</li>
+
+        <li>running latch-hook, <a href="#Page_67">67</a>, <a href=
+        "#Page_242">242</a>;</li>
+
+        <li>sacred mountain, <a href="#Page_265">265</a>;</li>
+
+        <li>scorpion, <a href="#Page_71">71</a>;</li>
+
+        <li>S design, <a href="#Page_64">64</a>, <a href=
+        "#Page_91">91</a>, <a href="#Page_92">92</a>, <a href=
+        "#Page_170">170</a>, <a href="#Page_195">195</a>, <a href=
+        "#Page_206">206</a>, <a href="#Page_208">208</a>, <a href=
+        "#Page_211">211</a>, <a href="#Page_213">213</a>, <a href=
+        "#Page_220">220</a>;</li>
+
+        <li>serpent, <a href="#Page_71">71</a>;</li>
+
+        <li>serrated leaf and wine cup, <a href=
+        "#Page_64">64</a>;</li>
+
+        <li>shield of David, <a href="#Page_66">66</a>;</li>
+
+        <li>Shou, <a href="#Page_266">266</a>, <a href=
+        "#Page_272">272</a>;</li>
+
+        <li>star, <a href="#Page_62">62</a>, <a href=
+        "#Page_65">65</a>, <a href="#Page_71">71</a>, <a href=
+        "#Page_93">93</a>, <a href="#Page_112">112</a>, <a href=
+        "#Page_183">183</a>, <a href="#Page_200">200</a>, <a href=
+        "#Page_203">203</a>;</li>
+
+        <li>effulgent star, <a href="#Page_201">201</a>, <a href=
+        "#Page_211">211</a>;</li>
+
+        <li>eight-pointed star, <a href="#Page_177">177</a>,
+        <a href="#Page_179">179</a>, <a href="#Page_180">180</a>,
+        <a href="#Page_182">182</a>, <a href="#Page_187">187</a>,
+        <a href="#Page_193">193</a>, <a href="#Page_206">206</a>,
+        <a href="#Page_207">207</a>, <a href="#Page_208">208</a>,
+        <a href="#Page_210">210</a>, <a href="#Page_213">213</a>,
+        <a href="#Page_220">220</a>, <a href="#Page_236">236</a>,
+        <a href="#Page_244">244</a>, <a href="#Page_246">246</a>,
+        <a href="#Page_250">250</a>;</li>
+
+        <li>stork, <a href="#Page_71">71</a>, <a href=
+        "#Page_266">266</a>;</li>
+
+        <li>sun, <a href="#Page_65">65</a>, <a href=
+        "#Page_66">66</a>, <a href="#Page_69">69</a>;</li>
+
+        <li>sunburst, <a href="#Page_209">209</a>, <a href=
+        "#Page_220">220</a>, <a href="#Page_292">292</a>;</li>
+
+        <li>sunflower, <a href="#Page_69">69</a>, <a href=
+        "#Page_271">271</a>;</li>
+
+        <li>swastika, <a href="#Page_64">64</a>, <a href=
+        "#Page_65">65</a>, <a href="#Page_194">194</a>, <a href=
+        "#Page_229">229</a>, <a href="#Page_246">246</a>, <a href=
+        "#Page_248">248</a>, <a href="#Page_271">271</a>, <a href=
+        "#Page_273">273</a>;</li>
+
+        <li>tarantula, <a href="#Page_71">71</a>, <a href=
+        "#Page_209">209</a>, <a href="#Page_220">220</a>, <a href=
+        "#Page_221">221</a>;</li>
+
+        <li>tiger, <a href="#Page_95">95</a>;</li>
+
+        <li>tree, <a href="#Page_137">137</a>;</li>
+
+        <li>tree of life, <a href="#Page_60">60</a>, <a href=
+        "#Page_68">68</a>, <a href="#Page_182">182</a>, <a href=
+        "#Page_186">186</a>, <a href="#Page_189">189</a>, <a href=
+        "#Page_219">219</a>, <a href="#Page_237">237</a>;</li>
+
+        <li>tri-cleft leaf, <a href="#Page_78">78</a>, <a href=
+        "#Page_91">91</a>, <a href="#Page_184">184</a>, <a href=
+        "#Page_199">199</a>, <a href="#Page_208">208</a>, <a href=
+        "#Page_211">211</a>, <a href="#Page_215">215</a>, <a href=
+        "#Page_226">226</a>;</li>
+
+        <li>turtle, <a href="#Page_71">71</a>;</li>
+
+        <li>vandyke, <a href="#Page_179">179</a>, <a href=
+        "#Page_183">183</a>, <a href="#Page_184">184</a>, <a href=
+        "#Page_187">187</a>, <a href="#Page_189">189</a>, <a href=
+        "#Page_290">290</a>;</li>
+
+        <li>wheel of law, <a href="#Page_266">266</a>;</li>
+
+        <li>zigzag line, <a href="#Page_66">66</a>, <a href=
+        "#Page_67">67</a>.</li>
+      </ul>
+    </li>
+
+    <li>Diaper pattern, <a href="#Page_102">102</a>, <a href=
+    "#Page_263">263</a>.</li>
+
+    <li>Diarbekr, <a href="#Page_141">141</a>.</li>
+
+    <li>Die Persische NadelmalereiSusandschird, <a href=
+    "#Page_76">76</a>.</li>
+
+    <li>Distaff, <a href="#Page_36">36</a>.</li>
+
+    <li>Dix, Stewart, quoted, <a href="#Page_16">16</a>.</li>
+
+    <li>Djinni. _See_ Designs.</li>
+
+    <li>Djushaghan. _See_ Joshaghan.</li>
+
+    <li>Domenico di Bartolo, painting of, <a href=
+    "#Page_92">92</a>.</li>
+
+    <li>Dragon and Phoenix carpet, <a href="#Page_65">65</a>,
+    <a href="#Page_231">231</a>.</li>
+
+    <li>Dragon carpets, <a href="#Page_91">91</a>, <a href=
+    "#Page_298">298</a>.</li>
+
+    <li>Dravidians, <a href="#Page_28">28</a>.</li>
+
+    <li>Dyeing, 37; process of, <a href="#Page_42">42</a>, <a href=
+    "#Page_43">43</a>.</li>
+
+    <li>Dyes, <a href="#Page_30">30</a>;
+
+      <ul>
+        <li>of Sultanabad, <a href="#Page_131">131</a>;</li>
+
+        <li>of Oushak, <a href="#Page_174">174</a>;</li>
+
+        <li>of Amritsar rugs, <a href="#Page_256">256</a>;</li>
+
+        <li>Aniline dyes introduced into India, <a href=
+        "#Page_254">254</a>;</li>
+
+        <li>into China, <a href="#Page_265">265</a>;</li>
+
+        <li>objection to, <a href="#Page_299">299</a>;</li>
+
+        <li>how to distinguish, <a href="#Page_299">299</a>,
+        <a href="#Page_300">300</a>.</li>
+      </ul>
+    </li>
+
+    <li>&nbsp;</li>
+
+    <li><span style="margin-left: 12em;">E</span></li>
+
+    <li>East India Company, <a href="#Page_254">254</a>.</li>
+
+    <li>Ecbatana, <a href="#Page_103">103</a>, <a href=
+    "#Page_122">122</a>.</li>
+
+    <li>Elburz Mts., <a href="#Page_103">103</a>.</li>
+
+    <li>Eleanor, Queen, Spanish rugs sent to, <a href=
+    "#Page_25">25</a>.</li>
+
+    <li>Elizabeth, Queen, <a href="#Page_29">29</a>.</li>
+
+    <li>Elizabethpol, <a href="#Page_224">224</a>.</li>
+
+    <li>Ellore, <a href="#Page_259">259</a>, <a href=
+    "#Page_260">260</a>.</li>
+
+    <li>Ellore rugs described, <a href="#Page_260">260</a>.</li>
+
+    <li>El Mirz li alla, Caliph, <a href="#Page_77">77</a>.</li>
+
+    <li>Elwund Mt., <a href="#Page_120">120</a>, <a href=
+    "#Page_122">122</a>, <a href="#Page_129">129</a>.</li>
+
+    <li>Encyclopedia Britannica quoted, <a href=
+    "#Page_140">140</a>.</li>
+
+    <li>Ends, finish of, <a href="#Page_57">57</a>.</li>
+
+    <li>Esther, Queen, <a href="#Page_122">122</a>.</li>
+
+    <li>Evil eye, superstition of, <a href="#Page_59">59</a>,
+    168.</li>
+
+    <li>&nbsp;</li>
+
+    <li><span style="margin-left: 12em;">F</span></li>
+
+    <li>Fairs, Oriental, <a href="#Page_99">99</a>.</li>
+
+    <li>Farsistan, wool of, <a href="#Page_31">31</a>;
+
+      <ul>
+        <li>antique carpets from Shiraz, capital of, <a href=
+        "#Page_115">115</a>.</li>
+      </ul>
+    </li>
+
+    <li>Fatimid Caliphs, <a href="#Page_90">90</a>.</li>
+
+    <li>Feraghan district, <a href="#Page_125">125</a>, <a href=
+    "#Page_129">129</a>, <a href="#Page_131">131</a>.</li>
+
+    <li>Feraghan rugs, <a href="#Page_100">100</a>, <a href=
+    "#Page_132">132</a>, <a href="#Page_133">133</a>, <a href=
+    "#Page_142">142</a>, <a href="#Page_147">147</a>, <a href=
+    "#Page_153">153</a>, <a href="#Page_156">156</a>, <a href=
+    "#Page_285">285</a>, <a href="#Page_305">305</a>;
+
+      <ul>
+        <li>technicalities in weave of, <a href="#Page_51">51</a>,
+        <a href="#Page_55">55</a>;</li>
+
+        <li>small designs in, <a href="#Page_60">60</a>;</li>
+
+        <li>illustration of prayer arch of, <a href=
+        "#Page_61">61</a>;</li>
+
+        <li>turtle border of, <a href="#Page_79">79</a>;</li>
+
+        <li>Guli Hinnai pattern of, <a href=
+        "#Page_105">105</a>;</li>
+
+        <li>pattern of Herat rugs compared with that of, <a href=
+        "#Page_106">106</a>.</li>
+
+        <li>Rugs described, <a href="#Page_120">120</a>, <a href=
+        "#Page_121">121</a>, <a href="#Page_122">122</a>;</li>
+
+        <li>border stripes, <a href="#Page_157">157</a>, <a href=
+        "#Page_159">159</a>.</li>
+      </ul>
+    </li>
+
+    <li>Filling, <a href="#Page_52">52</a>.</li>
+
+    <li>Firdousi, <a href="#Page_110">110</a>.</li>
+
+    <li>Fish pattern. _See_ Designs.</li>
+
+    <li>Flame design. _See_ Designs.</li>
+
+    <li>Flax used in weaving, <a href="#Page_30">30</a>, <a href=
+    "#Page_33">33</a>.</li>
+
+    <li>Floral design. _See_ Designs.</li>
+
+    <li>Friedhofteppiche, <a href="#Page_172">172</a>.</li>
+
+    <li>&nbsp;</li>
+
+    <li><span style="margin-left: 12em;">G</span></li>
+
+    <li>Gall nuts used as a dye, <a href="#Page_39">39</a>.</li>
+
+    <li>Ganges river, <a href="#Page_17">17</a>, <a href=
+    "#Page_258">258</a>.</li>
+
+    <li>Ganja. _See_ Gengha.</li>
+
+    <li>Gehrous district, <a href="#Page_136">136</a>.</li>
+
+    <li>Gengha, <a href="#Page_224">224</a>.</li>
+
+    <li>Gengha rugs, <a href="#Page_101">101</a>, <a href=
+    "#Page_290">290</a>, <a href="#Page_292">292</a>;
+
+      <ul>
+        <li>technicalities in weave of, <a href="#Page_52">52</a>,
+        <a href="#Page_53">53</a>, <a href="#Page_54">54</a>.</li>
+
+        <li>Rugs described, <a href="#Page_224">224</a>, <a href=
+        "#Page_225">225</a>;</li>
+
+        <li>border stripes, <a href="#Page_227">227</a>.</li>
+      </ul>
+    </li>
+
+    <li>Genghis Khan, <a href="#Page_26">26</a>, <a href=
+    "#Page_78">78</a>, <a href="#Page_198">198</a>, <a href=
+    "#Page_234">234</a>.</li>
+
+    <li>Geok Teppe, <a href="#Page_238">238</a>.</li>
+
+    <li>Geometric pattern. _See_ Designs.</li>
+
+    <li>Georgian pattern, <a href="#Page_213">213</a>, <a href=
+    "#Page_215">215</a>, <a href="#Page_228">228</a>, <a href=
+    "#Page_230">230</a>, <a href="#Page_292">292</a>.</li>
+
+    <li>Ghiordes, <a href="#Page_164">164</a>, <a href=
+    "#Page_168">168</a>, <a href="#Page_175">175</a>, <a href=
+    "#Page_176">176</a>, <a href="#Page_206">206</a>.</li>
+
+    <li>Ghiordes rugs, <a href="#Page_65">65</a>, <a href=
+    "#Page_101">101</a>, <a href="#Page_183">183</a>, <a href=
+    "#Page_184">184</a>, <a href="#Page_191">191</a>, <a href=
+    "#Page_289">289</a>, <a href="#Page_289">289</a>, <a href=
+    "#Page_290">290</a>, <a href="#Page_304">304</a>;
+
+      <ul>
+        <li>illustration of prayer arch of, <a href=
+        "#Page_63">63</a>;</li>
+
+        <li>Karabaghs compared with, <a href=
+        "#Page_225">225</a>.</li>
+
+        <li>Rugs described, <a href="#Page_168">168</a>, <a href=
+        "#Page_169">169</a>, <a href="#Page_170">170</a>, <a href=
+        "#Page_171">171</a>;</li>
+
+        <li>border stripes, <a href="#Page_192">192</a>, <a href=
+        "#Page_193">193</a>, <a href="#Page_194">194</a>, <a href=
+        "#Page_195">195</a>.</li>
+      </ul>
+    </li>
+
+    <li>Gibbon cited, <a href="#Page_25">25</a>.</li>
+
+    <li>Gilan, cloud-band in antique carpets of, <a href=
+    "#Page_67">67</a>.</li>
+
+    <li>Girdler&rsquo;s Company, India carpet presented to,
+    <a href="#Page_94">94</a>, <a href="#Page_256">256</a>.</li>
+
+    <li>Goat&rsquo;s hair. _See_ Wool.</li>
+
+    <li>Gobi desert, <a href="#Page_21">21</a>, <a href=
+    "#Page_26">26</a>, <a href="#Page_29">29</a>.</li>
+
+    <li>Goodyear, Prof., cited, <a href="#Page_69">69</a>.</li>
+
+    <li>Gorevan rugs, <a href="#Page_100">100</a>, <a href=
+    "#Page_285">285</a>, <a href="#Page_286">286</a>, <a href=
+    "#Page_287">287</a>, <a href="#Page_301">301</a>, <a href=
+    "#Page_305">305</a>;
+
+      <ul>
+        <li>technicalities in weave of, <a href=
+        "#Page_51">51</a>;</li>
+
+        <li>turtle border of, <a href="#Page_79">79</a>;</li>
+
+        <li>patterns of Muskabads resembling those of, <a href=
+        "#Page_131">131</a>;</li>
+
+        <li>relation of Bakshis rugs to, <a href=
+        "#Page_148">148</a>;</li>
+
+        <li>relation of Herez rugs to, <a href=
+        "#Page_149">149</a>.</li>
+
+        <li>Rugs described, <a href="#Page_146">146</a>, <a href=
+        "#Page_147">147</a>, <a href="#Page_148">148</a>;</li>
+
+        <li>border stripes, <a href="#Page_157">157</a>, <a href=
+        "#Page_158">158</a>.</li>
+      </ul>
+    </li>
+
+    <li>Gotcha lake, <a href="#Page_224">224</a>.</li>
+
+    <li>Gozene, <a href="#Page_156">156</a>.</li>
+
+    <li>Gozene rugs, <a href="#Page_100">100</a>, <a href=
+    "#Page_154">154</a>, <a href="#Page_289">289</a>;
+
+      <ul>
+        <li>technicalities in weave of, <a href=
+        "#Page_54">54</a>.</li>
+
+        <li>Rugs described, <a href="#Page_54">54</a>.</li>
+      </ul>
+    </li>
+
+    <li>&ldquo;Grain of rice&rdquo; pattern in Chinese rugs,
+    <a href="#Page_271">271</a>.</li>
+
+    <li>Granada, <a href="#Page_25">25</a>.</li>
+
+    <li>Guebres, in Kirman, <a href="#Page_113">113</a>;
+
+      <ul>
+        <li>temple at Baku of, <a href="#Page_210">210</a>.</li>
+      </ul>
+    </li>
+
+    <li>Guli Hinnai pattern, <a href="#Page_104">104</a>,
+      <a href="#Page_120">120</a>, <a href="#Page_121">121</a>;
+
+      <ul>
+        <li>illustrated, <a href="#Page_291">291</a>.</li>
+      </ul>
+    </li>
+
+    <li>Gulistan rugs, <a href="#Page_100">100</a>, <a href=
+    "#Page_154">154</a>, <a href="#Page_286">286</a>;
+
+      <ul>
+        <li>Rugs described, <a href="#Page_155">155</a>.</li>
+      </ul>
+    </li>
+
+    <li>Gulistan treaty, <a href="#Page_203">203</a>.</li>
+
+    <li>Gyze, Georg, <a href="#Page_92">92</a>.</li>
+
+    <li>&nbsp;</li>
+
+    <li><span style="margin-left: 12em;">H</span></li>
+
+    <li>Hafiz, <a href="#Page_115">115</a>.</li>
+
+    <li>Hair, of cow, <a href="#Page_30">30</a>, <a href="#Page_33">33</a>;<ul>
+    <li>of horse, <a href="#Page_33">33</a>.</li></ul></li>
+
+    <li>Hamadan, <a href="#Page_122">122</a>, <a href=
+    "#Page_129">129</a>, <a href="#Page_136">136</a>, <a href=
+    "#Page_143">143</a>, <a href="#Page_155">155</a>.</li>
+
+    <li>Hamadan rugs, <a href="#Page_100">100</a>, <a href=
+    "#Page_286">286</a>, <a href="#Page_287">287</a>;
+
+      <ul>
+        <li>technicalities in weave of, <a href="#Page_52">52</a>,
+        <a href="#Page_53">53</a>, <a href="#Page_54">54</a>,
+        <a href="#Page_55">55</a>;</li>
+
+        <li>similarity of some Irans to, <a href=
+        "#Page_125">125</a>;</li>
+
+        <li>similarity of Karajes to, <a href=
+        "#Page_144">144</a>;</li>
+
+        <li>similarity of weave of Kara-Geuz rugs to, <a href=
+        "#Page_155">155</a>.</li>
+
+        <li>Rugs described, <a href="#Page_122">122</a>, <a href=
+        "#Page_123">123</a>, <a href="#Page_124">124</a>;</li>
+
+        <li>border stripes, <a href="#Page_157">157</a>, <a href=
+        "#Page_159">159</a>, <a href="#Page_160">160</a>.</li>
+      </ul>
+    </li>
+
+    <li>Hang Chow, <a href="#Page_266">266</a>.</li>
+
+    <li>Harris, Henry T., quoted, <a href="#Page_40">40</a>,
+    <a href="#Page_260">260</a>.</li>
+
+    <li>Havell, E. B., cited, <a href="#Page_260">260</a>.</li>
+
+    <li>Hegira, <a href="#Page_296">296</a>.</li>
+
+    <li>Hemp used in weaving, <a href="#Page_30">30</a>, <a href=
+    "#Page_33">33</a>, <a href="#Page_261">261</a>, <a href=
+    "#Page_263">263</a>.</li>
+
+    <li>Herat, <a href="#Page_105">105</a>, <a href=
+    "#Page_110">110</a>, <a href="#Page_244">244</a>, <a href=
+    "#Page_285">285</a>;
+
+      <ul>
+        <li>captured by Nadir Shah, <a href="#Page_29">29</a>;</li>
+
+        <li>so-called Ispahans probably made at, <a href=
+        "#Page_89">89</a>, <a href="#Page_112">112</a>.</li>
+      </ul>
+    </li>
+
+    <li>Herat rugs, <a href="#Page_69">69</a>, <a href="#Page_89">
+      89</a>, <a href="#Page_100">100</a>;
+
+      <ul>
+        <li>technicalities in weave of, <a href="#Page_54">54</a>,
+        <a href="#Page_55">55</a>;</li>
+
+        <li>cloud-band in antique rugs of, <a href=
+        "#Page_67">67</a>;</li>
+
+        <li>ground colour of, <a href="#Page_95">95</a>;</li>
+
+        <li>influence on Indian weaving of, <a href=
+        "#Page_255">255</a>.</li>
+
+        <li>Rugs described, <a href="#Page_105">105</a>, <a href=
+        "#Page_106">106</a>;</li>
+
+        <li>border stripes, <a href="#Page_156">156</a>.</li>
+      </ul>
+    </li>
+
+    <li>Herati pattern, <a href="#Page_89">89</a>, <a href=
+    "#Page_94">94</a>, <a href="#Page_104">104</a>, <a href=
+    "#Page_106">106</a>, <a href="#Page_108">108</a>, <a href=
+    "#Page_109">109</a>, <a href="#Page_112">112</a>, <a href=
+    "#Page_120">120</a>, <a href="#Page_121">121</a>, <a href=
+    "#Page_129">129</a>, <a href="#Page_132">132</a>, <a href=
+    "#Page_134">134</a>, <a href="#Page_142">142</a>, <a href=
+    "#Page_152">152</a>, <a href="#Page_153">153</a>, <a href="#Page_157">157</a>,
+      <a href="#Page_165">165</a>, <a href="#Page_170">170</a>,
+      <a href="#Page_201">201</a>;
+
+      <ul>
+        <li>illustrated, <a href="#Page_291">291</a>.</li>
+      </ul>
+    </li>
+
+    <li>Hereke, <a href="#Page_181">181</a>.</li>
+
+    <li>Hereke rugs described, <a href="#Page_181">181</a>.</li>
+
+    <li>Herez, <a href="#Page_149">149</a>.</li>
+
+    <li>Herez rugs, <a href="#Page_101">101</a>, <a href=
+    "#Page_286">286</a>, <a href="#Page_287">287</a>;
+
+      <ul>
+        <li>technicalities in weave of, <a href=
+        "#Page_55">55</a>.</li>
+
+        <li>Rugs described, <a href="#Page_149">149</a>, <a href=
+        "#Page_150">150</a>;</li>
+
+        <li>border stripes, <a href="#Page_157">157</a>.</li>
+      </ul>
+    </li>
+
+    <li>Herodotus, <a href="#Page_74">74</a>.</li>
+
+    <li>Herring bone weave, described, <a href="#Page_47">47</a>;
+
+      <ul>
+        <li>in Shemakhas, <a href="#Page_216">216</a>, <a href=
+        "#Page_217">217</a>, <a href="#Page_292">292</a>.</li>
+      </ul>
+    </li>
+
+    <li>Himalayas, <a href="#Page_41">41</a>.</li>
+
+    <li>Hindu Koosh Mts., <a href="#Page_244">244</a>.</li>
+
+    <li>Hoa, <a href="#Page_183">183</a>.</li>
+
+    <li>Holbein, Hans, <a href="#Page_92">92</a>, <a href=
+    "#Page_93">93</a>.</li>
+
+    <li>Holbein rugs, <a href="#Page_298">298</a>;
+
+      <ul>
+        <li>octagonal disc in, <a href="#Page_66">66</a>.</li>
+
+        <li>Rugs described, <a href="#Page_92">92</a>, <a href=
+        "#Page_93">93</a>.</li>
+      </ul>
+    </li>
+
+    <li>Homer, <a href="#Page_69">69</a>, <a href=
+    "#Page_74">74</a>, <a href="#Page_110">110</a>, <a href=
+    "#Page_163">163</a>.</li>
+
+    <li>Hulaku Khan, conquered Persia, <a href="#Page_26">26</a>;
+
+      <ul>
+        <li>Mongolian capital established in Persia by, <a href=
+        "#Page_78">78</a>.</li>
+      </ul>
+    </li>
+
+    <li>Hunting carpets, <a href="#Page_298">298</a>;
+
+      <ul>
+        <li>symbolism in, <a href="#Page_72">72</a>.</li>
+
+        <li>Carpets described, <a href="#Page_82">82</a>.</li>
+      </ul>
+    </li>
+
+    <li>Hurst, Dr. John, quoted, <a href="#Page_257">257</a>.</li>
+
+    <li>Hyderabad, <a href="#Page_259">259</a>, <a href=
+    "#Page_262">262</a>.</li>
+
+    <li>Hyderabad rugs described, <a href="#Page_262">262</a>.</li>
+
+    <li>Hyder Ali, 261.</li>
+
+    <li>&nbsp;</li>
+
+    <li><span style="margin-left: 12em;">I</span></li>
+
+    <li>Ibn Batutah, Meshed visited by, <a href=
+    "#Page_110">110</a>.</li>
+
+    <li>Iconium, <a href="#Page_181">181</a>.</li>
+
+    <li>Imari ware, <a href="#Page_17">17</a>.</li>
+
+    <li>Imeritia, <a href="#Page_218">218</a>.</li>
+
+    <li>India Museum, <a href="#Page_122">122</a>.</li>
+
+    <li>Indigo used as a dye, <a href="#Page_38">38</a>, <a href=
+    "#Page_40">40</a>.</li>
+
+    <li>Indigofera used as a dye, <a href="#Page_38">38</a>.</li>
+
+    <li>Indus river, <a href="#Page_17">17</a>, <a href=
+    "#Page_24">24</a>, <a href="#Page_29">29</a>.</li>
+
+    <li>Irak-Ajemi, <a href="#Page_124">124</a>, <a href=
+    "#Page_127">127</a>, <a href="#Page_129">129</a>.</li>
+
+    <li>Iran rugs, <a href="#Page_100">100</a>;
+
+      <ul>
+        <li>similarity in some rugs of the Kara-Geuz district to,
+        <a href="#Page_155">155</a>.</li>
+
+        <li>Rugs described, <a href="#Page_124">124</a>, <a href=
+        "#Page_125">125</a>;</li>
+
+        <li>border stripes, <a href="#Page_157">157</a>.</li>
+      </ul>
+    </li>
+
+    <li>Irtish river, <a href="#Page_26">26</a>.</li>
+
+    <li>Isbarta, <a href="#Page_178">178</a>.</li>
+
+    <li>Iskenderoon gulf, <a href="#Page_163">163</a>.</li>
+
+    <li>Ismael, Shah, established capital at Ardebil, <a href=
+    "#Page_82">82</a>;
+
+      <ul>
+        <li>Ardebil Mosque carpet made during reign of, <a href=
+        "#Page_84">84</a>;</li>
+
+        <li>carpets made at Herat during reign of, <a href=
+        "#Page_89">89</a>;</li>
+
+        <li>Ardebil Mosque carpet made by order of, <a href=
+        "#Page_127">127</a>.</li>
+      </ul>
+    </li>
+
+    <li>Ispahan, sacked by Tamerlane, <a href="#Page_27">27</a>;
+
+      <ul>
+        <li>Shah Abbas transferred his court to, <a href=
+        "#Page_29">29</a>;</li>
+
+        <li>probability that some of the so-called Ispahans were
+        made at, <a href="#Page_89">89</a>;</li>
+
+        <li>description of city, <a href="#Page_111">111</a>.</li>
+      </ul>
+    </li>
+
+    <li>Ispahan blue, <a href="#Page_42">42</a>.</li>
+
+    <li>Ispahan rugs, lotus design in, <a href="#Page_69">69</a>;
+
+      <ul>
+        <li>made at Ispahan, <a href="#Page_89">89</a>;</li>
+
+        <li>sombre tones of, <a href="#Page_90">90</a>;</li>
+
+        <li>red fields of, <a href="#Page_95">95</a>;</li>
+
+        <li>blues and reds of the antique, <a href=
+        "#Page_127">127</a>;</li>
+
+        <li>palmettes of the antique, <a href=
+        "#Page_145">145</a>.</li>
+
+        <li>Modern rugs described, <a href="#Page_111">111</a>,
+        <a href="#Page_112">112</a>, <a href=
+        "#Page_113">113</a>.</li>
+      </ul>
+    </li>
+
+    <li>&nbsp;</li>
+
+    <li><span style="margin-left: 12em;">J</span></li>
+
+    <li>Jahan, Shah, 28; builder of Taj Mahal, <a href=
+    "#Page_94">94</a>;<ul>
+
+    <li>Indian rug-weaving declined after death of, <a href=
+    "#Page_253">253</a>.</li></ul></li>
+
+    <li>Jail system of India, <a href="#Page_254">254</a>.</li>
+
+    <li>Jaipur, <a href="#Page_255">255</a>, <a href=
+    "#Page_259">259</a>.</li>
+
+    <li>Jaipur rugs described, <a href="#Page_259">259</a>.</li>
+
+    <li>Japan, <a href="#Page_17">17</a>.</li>
+
+    <li>Jhelum river, suggested as origin of pear design,
+      <a href="#Page_70">70</a>;
+
+      <ul>
+        <li>Srinagar on the, <a href="#Page_255">255</a>.</li>
+      </ul>
+    </li>
+
+    <li>Joshaghan district, <a href="#Page_132">132</a>.</li>
+
+    <li>Joshaghan rugs, <a href="#Page_100">100</a>, <a href=
+    "#Page_286">286</a>, <a href="#Page_298">298</a>;
+
+      <ul>
+        <li>technicalities in weave of, <a href=
+        "#Page_50">50</a>.</li>
+
+        <li>Rugs described, <a href="#Page_132">132</a>, <a href=
+        "#Page_133">133</a>;</li>
+
+        <li>border stripes, <a href="#Page_157">157</a>.</li>
+      </ul>
+    </li>
+
+    <li>Jubbulpur, <a href="#Page_255">255</a>, <a href=
+    "#Page_258">258</a>.</li>
+
+    <li>Jubbulpur rugs described, <a href="#Page_258">258</a>,
+    <a href="#Page_259">259</a>.</li>
+
+    <li>Jute, used in weaving, <a href="#Page_30">30</a>,
+      <a href="#Page_33">33</a>;
+
+      <ul>
+        <li>in Kulahs, <a href="#Page_174">174</a>;</li>
+
+        <li>in Vellore rugs, <a href="#Page_261">261</a>;</li>
+
+        <li>in Bangalore rugs, <a href="#Page_262">262</a>.</li>
+      </ul>
+    </li>
+
+    <li>&nbsp;</li>
+
+    <li><span style="margin-left: 12em;">K</span></li>
+
+    <li>Kaaba, <a href="#Page_117">117</a>.</li>
+
+    <li>Kabistan, <a href="#Page_199">199</a>.</li>
+
+    <li>Kabistan rugs, <a href="#Page_101">101</a>, <a href=
+    "#Page_204">204</a>, <a href="#Page_290">290</a>, <a href=
+    "#Page_292">292</a>, <a href="#Page_293">293</a>, <a href=
+    "#Page_304">304</a>;
+
+      <ul>
+        <li>technicalities in weave of, <a href=
+        "#Page_54">54</a>;</li>
+
+        <li>illustration of prayer arch of, <a href=
+        "#Page_61">61</a>;</li>
+
+        <li>effulgent stars of, <a href="#Page_91">91</a>;</li>
+
+        <li>Cufic borders of, <a href="#Page_92">92</a>;</li>
+
+        <li>patterns of some Shirvans similar to those of, <a href=
+        "#Page_213">213</a>.</li>
+
+        <li>Rugs described, <a href="#Page_200">200</a>, <a href=
+        "#Page_201">201</a>, <a href="#Page_202">202</a>;</li>
+
+        <li>border stripes, <a href="#Page_226">226</a>, <a href=
+        "#Page_228">228</a>, <a href="#Page_229">229</a>.</li>
+      </ul>
+    </li>
+
+    <li>Kain, <a href="#Page_108">108</a>.</li>
+
+    <li>Kaisariyeh, <a href="#Page_190">190</a>.</li>
+
+    <li>Kaisariyeh rugs described, <a href="#Page_190">190</a>,
+    <a href="#Page_191">191</a>.</li>
+
+    <li>Kaiser Friedrich Museum, <a href="#Page_79">79</a>,
+    <a href="#Page_92">92</a>.</li>
+
+    <li>Kang-hi rugs, <a href="#Page_78">78</a>, <a href=
+    "#Page_101">101</a>.<ul>
+
+    <li>Rugs described, <a href="#Page_268">268</a>, <a href=
+    "#Page_269">269</a>;</li>
+
+        <li>border stripes, <a href="#Page_274">274</a>;</li>
+
+        <li>medallions, <a href="#Page_273">273</a>.</li>
+      </ul>
+    </li>
+
+    <li>Karabacek, Dr., quoted, <a href="#Page_74">74</a>.</li>
+
+    <li>Karabagh district, <a href="#Page_222">222</a>, <a href=
+    "#Page_224">224</a>.</li>
+
+    <li>Karabagh rugs, <a href="#Page_101">101</a>, <a href=
+    "#Page_290">290</a>, <a href="#Page_292">292</a>;
+
+      <ul>
+        <li>technicalities in weave of, <a href="#Page_51">51</a>,
+        <a href="#Page_53">53</a>;</li>
+
+        <li>illustration of prayer arch of, <a href=
+        "#Page_61">61</a>;</li>
+
+        <li>Karadaghs compared with, <a href=
+        "#Page_151">151</a>;</li>
+
+        <li>Shushas compared with, <a href=
+        "#Page_224">224</a>.</li>
+
+        <li>Rugs described, <a href="#Page_222">222</a>, <a href=
+        "#Page_223">223</a>.</li>
+      </ul>
+    </li>
+
+    <li>Karadagh district, <a href="#Page_151">151</a>.</li>
+
+    <li>Karadagh rugs, <a href="#Page_100">100</a>, <a href=
+    "#Page_286">286</a>, <a href="#Page_289">289</a>.
+
+      <ul>
+        <li>Rugs described; border stripes, <a href=
+        "#Page_157">157</a>, <a href="#Page_158">158</a>.</li>
+      </ul>
+    </li>
+
+    <li>Kara-Geuz district, <a href="#Page_155">155</a>.</li>
+
+    <li>Kara-Geuz rugs, <a href="#Page_100">100</a>, <a href=
+    "#Page_154">154</a>.
+
+      <ul>
+        <li>Rugs described, <a href="#Page_155">155</a>.</li>
+      </ul>
+    </li>
+
+    <li>Karaje rugs, <a href="#Page_100">100</a>, <a href=
+    "#Page_286">286</a>;
+
+      <ul>
+        <li>technicalities in weave of, <a href=
+        "#Page_53">53</a>.</li>
+
+        <li>Rugs described, <a href="#Page_143">143</a>, <a href=
+        "#Page_144">144</a>.</li>
+      </ul>
+    </li>
+
+    <li>Kara Kum desert, <a href="#Page_241">241</a>.</li>
+
+    <li>Karaman, <a href="#Page_188">188</a>.</li>
+
+    <li>Karaman rugs, <a href="#Page_101">101</a>, <a href=
+    "#Page_289">289</a>.
+
+      <ul>
+        <li>Rugs described, <a href="#Page_188">188</a>.</li>
+
+        <li>Kilims, <a href="#Page_278">278</a>, <a href=
+        "#Page_279">279</a>.</li>
+      </ul>
+    </li>
+
+    <li>Kashan, <a href="#Page_115">115</a>, <a href=
+    "#Page_127">127</a>, <a href="#Page_155">155</a>.</li>
+
+    <li>Kashan rugs, <a href="#Page_100">100</a>, <a href=
+    "#Page_285">285</a>, <a href="#Page_286">286</a>, <a href=
+    "#Page_288">288</a>, <a href="#Page_301">301</a>, <a href=
+    "#Page_305">305</a>;
+
+      <ul>
+        <li>technicalities in weave of, <a href="#Page_35">35</a>,
+        <a href="#Page_51">51</a>, <a href="#Page_55">55</a>;</li>
+
+        <li>illustration of prayer arch of, <a href=
+        "#Page_61">61</a>;</li>
+
+        <li>pattern of Sarouks like that of, <a href=
+        "#Page_134">134</a>;</li>
+
+        <li>correspondence of some rugs of Tabriz with, <a href=
+        "#Page_145">145</a>.</li>
+
+        <li>Rugs described, <a href="#Page_127">127</a>, <a href=
+        "#Page_128">128</a>, <a href="#Page_129">129</a>;</li>
+
+        <li>border stripes, <a href="#Page_160">160</a>.</li>
+      </ul>
+    </li>
+
+    <li>Kashgar, <a href="#Page_247">247</a>.</li>
+
+    <li>Kashgar rugs, <a href="#Page_101">101</a>, <a href=
+    "#Page_234">234</a>, <a href="#Page_282">282</a>, <a href=
+    "#Page_292">292</a>.
+
+      <ul>
+        <li>Rugs described, <a href="#Page_247">247</a>, <a href=
+        "#Page_248">248</a>.</li>
+      </ul>
+    </li>
+
+    <li>Kashmir, <a href="#Page_70">70</a>, <a href=
+    "#Page_255">255</a>;
+
+      <ul>
+        <li>goat&rsquo;s wool of, <a href="#Page_32">32</a>,
+        <a href="#Page_114">114</a>.</li>
+      </ul>
+    </li>
+
+    <li>Katchli, derivation of, <a href="#Page_237">237</a>;
+
+      <ul>
+        <li>pattern used in Tekkes, <a href="#Page_239">239</a>,
+        <a href="#Page_293">293</a>.</li>
+      </ul>
+    </li>
+
+    <li>Kazak rugs, <a href="#Page_101">101</a>, <a href=
+    "#Page_290">290</a>, <a href="#Page_292">292</a>, <a href=
+    "#Page_304">304</a>;
+
+      <ul>
+        <li>technicalities in weave of, <a href="#Page_51">51</a>,
+        <a href="#Page_53">53</a>;</li>
+
+        <li>illustration of prayer arch of, <a href=
+        "#Page_61">61</a>;</li>
+
+        <li>Western Kurdistans compared with, <a href=
+        "#Page_141">141</a>;</li>
+
+        <li>Afshars compared with, <a href=
+        "#Page_155">155</a>;</li>
+
+        <li>Yuruks compared with, <a href="#Page_191">191</a>;</li>
+
+        <li>Tcherkess compared with, <a href=
+        "#Page_209">209</a>;</li>
+
+        <li>Kutais compared with, <a href="#Page_222">222</a>;</li>
+
+        <li>Genghas compared with, <a href=
+        "#Page_224">224</a>.</li>
+
+        <li>Rugs described, <a href="#Page_219">219</a>, <a href=
+        "#Page_220">220</a>, <a href="#Page_221">221</a>, <a href=
+        "#Page_222">222</a>;</li>
+
+        <li>border stripes, <a href="#Page_226">226</a>, <a href=
+        "#Page_227">227</a>, <a href="#Page_228">228</a>, <a href=
+        "#Page_229">229</a>.</li>
+      </ul>
+    </li>
+
+    <li>Kazakje, <a href="#Page_220">220</a>.</li>
+
+    <li>Kea-king dynasty, <a href="#Page_272">272</a>.
+
+      <ul>
+        <li>Rugs described, <a href="#Page_272">272</a>.</li>
+      </ul>
+    </li>
+
+    <li>Keen-lung dynasty. Rugs described, <a href=
+    "#Page_270">270</a>, <a href="#Page_271">271</a>, <a href=
+    "#Page_272">272</a>;
+
+      <ul>
+        <li>border stripes, <a href="#Page_274">274</a>, <a href=
+        "#Page_275">275</a>;</li>
+
+        <li>medallions, <a href="#Page_273">273</a>.</li>
+      </ul>
+    </li>
+
+    <li>Kenares defined, <a href="#Page_97">97</a>.</li>
+
+    <li>Kerim, Khan, <a href="#Page_115">115</a>;
+
+      <ul>
+        <li>royal patronage of weaving at Shiraz under, <a href=
+        "#Page_116">116</a>.</li>
+      </ul>
+    </li>
+
+    <li>Kermanshah, <a href="#Page_83">83</a>, <a href=
+    "#Page_129">129</a>, <a href="#Page_138">138</a>.</li>
+
+    <li>Kermanshah rugs, <a href="#Page_134">134</a>, <a href=
+    "#Page_137">137</a>, <a href="#Page_147">147</a>, <a href=
+    "#Page_160">160</a>, <a href="#Page_285">285</a>, <a href=
+    "#Page_288">288</a>, <a href="#Page_301">301</a>, <a href=
+    "#Page_305">305</a>;
+
+      <ul>
+        <li>technicalities in weave of, <a href=
+        "#Page_52">52</a>;</li>
+
+        <li>illustration of prayer arch of, <a href=
+        "#Page_61">61</a>;</li>
+
+        <li>corners of Khorassans compared with those of, <a href=
+        "#Page_109">109</a>;</li>
+
+        <li>Tabriz rugs compared with, <a href="#Page_145">145</a>,
+        <a href="#Page_146">146</a>;</li>
+
+        <li>Amritsars mistaken for, <a href=
+        "#Page_256">256</a>.</li>
+
+        <li>Rugs described, <a href="#Page_138">138</a>, <a href=
+        "#Page_139">139</a>, <a href="#Page_140">140</a>;</li>
+
+        <li>border stripes, <a href="#Page_38">38</a>.</li>
+      </ul>
+    </li>
+
+    <li>Kermes used as a dye, <a href="#Page_38">38</a>.</li>
+
+    <li>Key pattern, <a href="#Page_27">27</a>.</li>
+
+    <li>Khali defined, <a href="#Page_97">97</a>.</li>
+
+    <li>Khibitkas, defined, <a href="#Page_238">238</a>;
+
+      <ul>
+        <li>rugs made for doors of, <a href=
+        "#Page_239">239</a>.</li>
+      </ul>
+    </li>
+
+    <li>Khiva, <a href="#Page_110">110</a>, <a href=
+    "#Page_240">240</a>, <a href="#Page_241">241</a>, <a href=
+    "#Page_244">244</a>.</li>
+
+    <li>Khiva rugs, <a href="#Page_100">100</a>, <a href=
+    "#Page_233">233</a>, <a href="#Page_235">235</a>, <a href=
+    "#Page_242">242</a>, <a href="#Page_293">293</a>;
+
+      <ul>
+        <li>illustration of prayer arch of, <a href=
+        "#Page_61">61</a>.</li>
+
+        <li>Rugs described, <a href="#Page_240">240</a>, <a href=
+        "#Page_241">241</a>;</li>
+
+        <li>border stripes, <a href="#Page_250">250</a>, <a href=
+        "#Page_251">251</a>.</li>
+      </ul>
+    </li>
+
+    <li>Khorassan, <a href="#Page_107">107</a>, <a href=
+    "#Page_115">115</a>, <a href="#Page_127">127</a>;
+
+      <ul>
+        <li>wool of, <a href="#Page_31">31</a>;</li>
+
+        <li>Herats made in, <a href="#Page_106">106</a>;</li>
+
+        <li>Kurdistans in, <a href="#Page_141">141</a>;</li>
+
+        <li>Yomuds in, <a href="#Page_241">241</a>.</li>
+      </ul>
+    </li>
+
+    <li>Khorassan rugs, <a href="#Page_60">60</a>, <a href=
+    "#Page_100">100</a>, <a href="#Page_117">117</a>, <a href=
+    "#Page_288">288</a>;
+
+      <ul>
+        <li>left-hand knots in, <a href="#Page_48">48</a>;</li>
+
+        <li>technicalities in weave of, <a href="#Page_54">54</a>,
+        <a href="#Page_55">55</a>;</li>
+
+        <li>illustration of prayer arch of, <a href=
+        "#Page_61">61</a>;</li>
+
+        <li>resemblance of Mesheds to, <a href=
+        "#Page_110">110</a>.</li>
+
+        <li>Rugs described, <a href="#Page_107">107</a>, <a href=
+        "#Page_108">108</a>, <a href="#Page_109">109</a>, <a href=
+        "#Page_110">110</a>;</li>
+
+        <li>border stripes, <a href="#Page_156">156</a>.</li>
+      </ul>
+    </li>
+
+    <li>Khotan, <a href="#Page_278">278</a>.</li>
+
+    <li>Kidderminster, <a href="#Page_260">260</a>.</li>
+
+    <li>Kilims, earliest rugs similar to, <a href=
+    "#Page_75">75</a>;
+
+      <ul>
+        <li>pattern in Shirvan, <a href="#Page_227">227</a>.</li>
+
+        <li>Kilims described, <a href="#Page_276">276</a>, <a href=
+        "#Page_277">277</a>, <a href="#Page_278">278</a>, <a href=
+        "#Page_279">279</a>, <a href="#Page_280">280</a>, <a href=
+        "#Page_281">281</a>.</li>
+      </ul>
+    </li>
+
+    <li>King-te Chin, <a href="#Page_300">300</a>.</li>
+
+    <li>Kirghiz, steppes, <a href="#Page_235">235</a>;
+
+      <ul>
+        <li>tribes, <a href="#Page_240">240</a>.</li>
+      </ul>
+    </li>
+
+    <li>Kirman, <a href="#Page_113">113</a>, <a href=
+    "#Page_115">115</a>, <a href="#Page_203">203</a>, <a href=
+    "#Page_206">206</a>, <a href="#Page_248">248</a>;
+
+      <ul>
+        <li>wool of, <a href="#Page_31">31</a>;</li>
+
+        <li>carpets made during Caliphate at, <a href=
+        "#Page_90">90</a>;</li>
+
+        <li>early weavers taken to Asia Minor from, <a href=
+        "#Page_181">181</a>.</li>
+      </ul>
+    </li>
+
+    <li>Kirman rugs, <a href="#Page_100">100</a>, <a href=
+    "#Page_285">285</a>, <a href="#Page_297">297</a>, <a href=
+    "#Page_304">304</a>;
+
+      <ul>
+        <li>technicalities in weave of, <a href="#Page_50">50</a>,
+        <a href="#Page_51">51</a>, <a href="#Page_53">53</a>;</li>
+
+        <li>resemblance of Kermanshahs to, <a href=
+        "#Page_138">138</a>;</li>
+
+        <li>flowers in Tabriz rugs compared with those of, <a href=
+        "#Page_145">145</a>;</li>
+
+        <li>some old Bergamos as valuable as, <a href=
+        "#Page_167">167</a>.</li>
+
+        <li>Rugs described, <a href="#Page_113">113</a>, <a href=
+        "#Page_114">114</a>, <a href="#Page_115">115</a>;</li>
+
+        <li>border stripes, <a href="#Page_158">158</a>.</li>
+      </ul>
+    </li>
+
+    <li>Kirmans, Turkish, <a href="#Page_174">174</a>.</li>
+
+    <li>Kir-Shehr, <a href="#Page_185">185</a>.</li>
+
+    <li>Kir-Shehr rugs, <a href="#Page_101">101</a>, <a href=
+    "#Page_289">289</a>, <a href="#Page_290">290</a>;
+
+      <ul>
+        <li>illustration of prayer arch of, <a href=
+        "#Page_63">63</a>;</li>
+
+        <li>prayer arches of Bergamos compared with those of,
+        <a href="#Page_167">167</a>;</li>
+
+        <li>prayer arches of Ladiks compared with those of,
+        <a href="#Page_183">183</a>;</li>
+
+        <li>often called Anatolian, <a href=
+        "#Page_187">187</a>;</li>
+
+        <li>prayer arches of Mudjars compared with those of,
+        <a href="#Page_189">189</a>;</li>
+
+        <li>prayer arches of Tuzlas compared with those of,
+        <a href="#Page_190">190</a>.</li>
+
+        <li>Rugs described, <a href="#Page_185">185</a>, <a href=
+        "#Page_186">186</a>;</li>
+
+        <li>border stripes, <a href="#Page_193">193</a>.</li>
+      </ul>
+    </li>
+
+    <li>Kis-kilims, <a href="#Page_280">280</a>.</li>
+
+    <li>Kizil Arvat, <a href="#Page_241">241</a>.</li>
+
+    <li>Kizil Irmak river, <a href="#Page_185">185</a>, <a href=
+    "#Page_189">189</a>.</li>
+
+    <li>Kizil Kum, &ldquo;desert of red sands,&rdquo; <a href=
+    "#Page_235">235</a>.</li>
+
+    <li>Knights of St. John, <a href="#Page_28">28</a>, <a href=
+    "#Page_179">179</a>.</li>
+
+    <li>Knots, Ghiordes, <a href="#Page_48">48</a>;
+
+      <ul>
+        <li>Sehna, <a href="#Page_48">48</a>;</li>
+
+        <li>right-hand, <a href="#Page_48">48</a>;</li>
+
+        <li>left-hand, <a href="#Page_48">48</a>;</li>
+
+        <li>peculiarities of, <a href="#Page_48">48</a>;</li>
+
+        <li>illustrated, <a href="#Page_49">49</a>.</li>
+      </ul>
+    </li>
+
+    <li>Konieh, <a href="#Page_188">188</a>, <a href=
+    "#Page_190">190</a>.</li>
+
+    <li>Konieh rugs, <a href="#Page_101">101</a>, <a href=
+    "#Page_289">289</a>, <a href="#Page_290">290</a>;
+
+      <ul>
+        <li>technicalities in weave of, <a href=
+        "#Page_55">55</a>;</li>
+
+        <li>illustration of prayer arch of, <a href=
+        "#Page_63">63</a>;</li>
+
+        <li>resemblance in pattern of Kir-Shehrs to that of,
+        <a href="#Page_186">186</a>;</li>
+
+        <li>prayer arches of Anatolians compared with those of,
+        <a href="#Page_187">187</a>.</li>
+
+        <li>Rugs described, <a href="#Page_181">181</a>, <a href=
+        "#Page_182">182</a>, <a href="#Page_183">183</a>;</li>
+
+        <li>border stripes, <a href="#Page_193">193</a>, <a href=
+        "#Page_195">195</a>.</li>
+      </ul>
+    </li>
+
+    <li>Koran, <a href="#Page_72">72</a>.</li>
+
+    <li>Kuba, <a href="#Page_199">199</a>, <a href=
+    "#Page_202">202</a>.</li>
+
+    <li>Kuba rugs, <a href="#Page_101">101</a>, <a href=
+    "#Page_290">290</a>, <a href="#Page_292">292</a>.
+
+      <ul>
+        <li>Rugs described, <a href="#Page_202">202</a>, <a href=
+        "#Page_203">203</a>, <a href="#Page_204">204</a>;</li>
+
+        <li>border stripes, <a href="#Page_228">228</a>.</li>
+      </ul>
+    </li>
+
+    <li>Kublai Khan, <a href="#Page_266">266</a>.</li>
+
+    <li>Kulah, <a href="#Page_164">164</a>, <a href=
+    "#Page_171">171</a>, <a href="#Page_174">174</a>.</li>
+
+    <li>Kulah rugs, <a href="#Page_101">101</a>, <a href=
+    "#Page_289">289</a>, <a href="#Page_290">290</a>;
+
+      <ul>
+        <li>technicalities in weave of, <a href="#Page_51">51</a>,
+        <a href="#Page_52">52</a>, <a href="#Page_53">53</a>,
+        <a href="#Page_54">54</a>;</li>
+
+        <li>illustration of prayer arch of, <a href=
+        "#Page_64">64</a>;</li>
+
+        <li>lily pattern in, <a href="#Page_167">167</a>;</li>
+
+        <li>Ghiordes rugs adopting border of, <a href=
+        "#Page_171">171</a>;</li>
+
+        <li>geometric leaf of, <a href="#Page_180">180</a>;</li>
+
+        <li>prayer arch of Koniehs compared with those of, <a href=
+        "#Page_186">186</a>.</li>
+
+        <li>Rugs described, <a href="#Page_171">171</a>, <a href=
+        "#Page_172">172</a>, <a href="#Page_173">173</a>, <a href=
+        "#Page_174">174</a>;</li>
+
+        <li>border stripes, <a href="#Page_193">193</a>, <a href=
+        "#Page_194">194</a>.</li>
+      </ul>
+    </li>
+
+    <li>Kur valley, <a href="#Page_207">207</a>, <a href=
+    "#Page_214">214</a>.</li>
+
+    <li>Kurdistan, Persian, rugs, <a href="#Page_100">100</a>,
+    <a href="#Page_286">286</a>, <a href="#Page_287">287</a>;
+
+      <ul>
+        <li>technicalities in weave of, <a href=
+        "#Page_51">51</a>;</li>
+
+        <li>Mina Khani pattern characteristic of, <a href=
+        "#Page_105">105</a>;</li>
+
+        <li>Western Kurdistans compared with, <a href=
+        "#Page_141">141</a>.</li>
+
+        <li>Rugs described, <a href="#Page_142">142</a>, <a href=
+        "#Page_143">143</a>;</li>
+
+        <li>border stripes, <a href="#Page_157">157</a>, <a href=
+        "#Page_159">159</a>.</li>
+      </ul>
+    </li>
+
+    <li>Kurdistan rugs, <a href="#Page_286">286</a>;
+
+      <ul>
+        <li>technicalities in weave of, <a href="#Page_51">51</a>,
+        <a href="#Page_53">53</a>, <a href="#Page_57">57</a>;</li>
+
+        <li>Karajes compared with, <a href=
+        "#Page_143">143</a>;</li>
+
+        <li>ground colour of some Mosuls similar to that of,
+        <a href="#Page_154">154</a>;</li>
+
+        <li>some Kara-Geuz rugs similar to, <a href=
+        "#Page_155">155</a>.</li>
+      </ul>
+    </li>
+
+    <li>Kurdistan, Western, rugs, <a href="#Page_100">100</a>,
+    <a href="#Page_286">286</a>;
+
+      <ul>
+        <li>described, <a href="#Page_140">140</a>, <a href=
+        "#Page_141">141</a>, <a href="#Page_142">142</a>.</li>
+
+        <li>Kilims, <a href="#Page_280">280</a>.</li>
+      </ul>
+    </li>
+
+    <li>Kurds, <a href="#Page_134">134</a>, <a href=
+    "#Page_136">136</a>, <a href="#Page_138">138</a>, <a href=
+    "#Page_140">140</a>, <a href="#Page_141">141</a>, <a href=
+    "#Page_145">145</a>, <a href="#Page_187">187</a>, <a href=
+    "#Page_191">191</a>;
+
+      <ul>
+        <li>located at Ak-kal by Shah of Persia, <a href=
+        "#Page_238">238</a>.</li>
+      </ul>
+    </li>
+
+    <li>Kutais, <a href="#Page_218">218</a>.</li>
+
+    <li>Kutais rugs, technicalities in weave of, <a href=
+    "#Page_53">53</a>.
+
+      <ul>
+        <li>Rugs described, <a href="#Page_218">218</a>, <a href=
+        "#Page_219">219</a>;</li>
+
+        <li>border stripes, <a href="#Page_227">227</a>, <a href=
+        "#Page_229">229</a>.</li>
+      </ul>
+    </li>
+
+    <li>Kutayah, <a href="#Page_176">176</a>.</li>
+
+    <li>Kutayah rugs described, <a href="#Page_176">176</a>.</li>
+
+    <li>&nbsp;</li>
+
+    <li><span style="margin-left: 12em;">L</span></li>
+
+    <li>Lacquer, <a href="#Page_17">17</a>.</li>
+
+    <li>Ladik rugs, <a href="#Page_101">101</a>, <a href=
+    "#Page_167">167</a>, <a href="#Page_289">289</a>, <a href=
+    "#Page_290">290</a>, <a href="#Page_304">304</a>;
+
+      <ul>
+        <li>illustration of prayer arch of, <a href=
+        "#Page_63">63</a>;</li>
+
+        <li>pomegranate design in, <a href="#Page_70">70</a>;</li>
+
+        <li>border stripe of Melez rugs similar to that of,
+        <a href="#Page_177">177</a>;</li>
+
+        <li>vandykes of Rhodian rugs resembling those of, <a href=
+        "#Page_179">179</a>;</li>
+
+        <li>nap of, <a href="#Page_186">186</a>;</li>
+
+        <li>Kir-Shehr panels compared with those of, <a href=
+        "#Page_187">187</a>;</li>
+
+        <li>vandykes in Mudjars borrowed from, <a href=
+        "#Page_189">189</a>.</li>
+
+        <li>Rugs described, <a href="#Page_183">183</a>, <a href=
+        "#Page_184">184</a>;</li>
+
+        <li>border stripes, <a href="#Page_193">193</a>, <a href=
+        "#Page_194">194</a>.</li>
+      </ul>
+    </li>
+
+    <li>Lahore, <a href="#Page_255">255</a>, <a href=
+    "#Page_256">256</a>;
+
+      <ul>
+        <li>royal factory at, <a href="#Page_94">94</a>.</li>
+      </ul>
+    </li>
+
+    <li>Lahore rugs, <a href="#Page_101">101</a>, <a href=
+    "#Page_305">305</a>.
+
+      <ul>
+        <li>Rugs described, <a href="#Page_256">256</a>, <a href=
+        "#Page_257">257</a>.</li>
+      </ul>
+    </li>
+
+    <li>Landor, Henry Savage, quoted, <a href=
+    "#Page_300">300</a>.</li>
+
+    <li>Laristan border stripe, <a href="#Page_157">157</a>.</li>
+
+    <li>Latch-hooks. _See_ Designs.</li>
+
+    <li>Latimer, C., quoted, <a href="#Page_281">281</a>.</li>
+
+    <li>Lattice-work pattern, <a href="#Page_119">119</a>, <a href=
+    "#Page_121">121</a>, <a href="#Page_133">133</a>, <a href=
+    "#Page_134">134</a>, <a href="#Page_137">137</a>, <a href=
+    "#Page_204">204</a>.</li>
+
+    <li>Lemons used as a mordant, <a href="#Page_40">40</a>.</li>
+
+    <li>Lesghian rugs, <a href="#Page_101">101</a>, <a href=
+    "#Page_199">199</a>, <a href="#Page_290">290</a>.<ul>
+
+    <li>Rugs described, <a href="#Page_206">206</a>, <a href=
+    "#Page_207">207</a>.</li></ul></li>
+
+    <li>Lesghian tribes, <a href="#Page_206">206</a>, <a href=
+    "#Page_207">207</a>.</li>
+
+    <li>Limes used as a mordant, <a href="#Page_40">40</a>.</li>
+
+    <li>Linen, in Sehnas, <a href="#Page_135">135</a>;
+
+      <ul>
+        <li>in Tabriz, <a href="#Page_146">146</a>;</li>
+
+        <li>in Ghiordes, <a href="#Page_171">171</a>;</li>
+
+        <li>in Sarouks, <a href="#Page_127">127</a>;</li>
+
+        <li>in Kashans, <a href="#Page_128">128</a>.</li>
+      </ul>
+    </li>
+
+    <li>Loom, described, <a href="#Page_44">44</a>;
+
+      <ul>
+        <li>illustrated, <a href="#Page_45">45</a>.</li>
+      </ul>
+    </li>
+
+    <li>Lotus. _See_ Designs.</li>
+
+    <li>Luristan rugs, <a href="#Page_286">286</a>;
+
+      <ul>
+        <li>technicalities in weave of, 55.</li>
+      </ul>
+    </li>
+
+    <li>&nbsp;</li>
+
+    <li><span style="margin-left: 12em;">M</span></li>
+
+    <li>Madder used as a dye, <a href="#Page_38">38</a>.</li>
+
+    <li>Madras, <a href="#Page_259">259</a>.</li>
+
+    <li>Madras rugs described, <a href="#Page_259">259</a>,
+    <a href="#Page_260">260</a>.</li>
+
+    <li>Mahal rugs, <a href="#Page_286">286</a>, <a href=
+    "#Page_288">288</a>, <a href="#Page_301">301</a>, <a href=
+    "#Page_305">305</a>;
+
+      <ul>
+        <li>similar to Muskabads, <a href="#Page_131">131</a>,
+        <a href="#Page_132">132</a>.</li>
+      </ul>
+    </li>
+
+    <li>Maharajah, <a href="#Page_259">259</a>.</li>
+
+    <li>Makimonos, <a href="#Page_180">180</a>.</li>
+
+    <li>Makri rugs, <a href="#Page_180">180</a>.</li>
+
+    <li>Maksoud, <a href="#Page_84">84</a>, <a href=
+    "#Page_127">127</a>, <a href="#Page_128">128</a>.</li>
+
+    <li>Malek Shah made Ispahan the capital of Persia, <a href=
+    "#Page_26">26</a>.</li>
+
+    <li>Malgaran, <a href="#Page_246">246</a>.</li>
+
+    <li>Manchoos, <a href="#Page_268">268</a>.</li>
+
+    <li>Mangishlar peninsula, <a href="#Page_238">238</a>.</li>
+
+    <li>Marco Polo, referred to Armenian carpets, <a href=
+    "#Page_91">91</a>;
+
+      <ul>
+        <li>referred to Kirman weavings, <a href=
+        "#Page_113">113</a>;</li>
+
+        <li>visited Kashgar, <a href="#Page_247">247</a>.</li>
+      </ul>
+    </li>
+
+    <li>Marsulipatam, <a href="#Page_259">259</a>, <a href=
+    "#Page_260">260</a>.</li>
+
+    <li>Marsulipatam rugs described, <a href=
+    "#Page_260">260</a>.</li>
+
+    <li>Martin, Dr. F. R., quoted and cited, <a href=
+    "#Page_74">74</a>, <a href="#Page_77">77</a>, <a href=
+    "#Page_79">79</a>, <a href="#Page_81">81</a>, <a href=
+    "#Page_82">82</a>, <a href="#Page_89">89</a>, <a href=
+    "#Page_90">90</a>, <a href="#Page_116">116</a>, 227.</li>
+
+    <li>Maya ruins, swastika on, <a href="#Page_65">65</a>.</li>
+
+    <li>Mecca, <a href="#Page_77">77</a>, <a href=
+    "#Page_98">98</a>;
+
+      <ul>
+        <li>pilgrimages to, <a href="#Page_99">99</a>;</li>
+
+        <li>bit of earth from, <a href="#Page_221">221</a>,
+        <a href="#Page_223">223</a>.</li>
+      </ul>
+    </li>
+
+    <li>Mecca rugs, <a href="#Page_117">117</a>, <a href=
+    "#Page_118">118</a>.</li>
+
+    <li>Medallions. _See_ Designs.</li>
+
+    <li>Medes, <a href="#Page_23">23</a>, <a href=
+    "#Page_24">24</a>, <a href="#Page_66">66</a>, <a href=
+    "#Page_234">234</a>.</li>
+
+    <li>Medina, <a href="#Page_77">77</a>, <a href=
+    "#Page_296">296</a>.</li>
+
+    <li>Melez rugs, <a href="#Page_101">101</a>, <a href=
+    "#Page_290">290</a>;
+
+      <ul>
+        <li>technicalities in weave of, <a href=
+        "#Page_51">51</a>;</li>
+
+        <li>illustration of prayer arch of, <a href=
+        "#Page_63">63</a>;</li>
+
+        <li>sometimes called Anatolians, <a href=
+        "#Page_187">187</a>.</li>
+
+        <li>Rugs described, <a href="#Page_176">176</a>, <a href=
+        "#Page_177">177</a>, <a href="#Page_178">178</a>;</li>
+
+        <li>border stripes, <a href="#Page_193">193</a>, <a href=
+        "#Page_195">195</a>.</li>
+      </ul>
+    </li>
+
+    <li>Mersherski, <a href="#Page_88">88</a>.</li>
+
+    <li>Merv Kilims, <a href="#Page_280">280</a>, <a href=
+    "#Page_281">281</a>.</li>
+
+    <li>Meshed, pilgrimages to, <a href="#Page_99">99</a>, <a href=
+    "#Page_108">108</a>.</li>
+
+    <li>Meshed rugs, <a href="#Page_100">100</a>, <a href=
+    "#Page_147">147</a>, <a href="#Page_217">217</a>, <a href=
+    "#Page_288">288</a>, <a href="#Page_301">301</a>.
+
+      <ul>
+        <li>Rugs described, <a href="#Page_110">110</a>, <a href=
+        "#Page_111">111</a>;</li>
+
+        <li>border stripes, <a href="#Page_158">158</a>.</li>
+      </ul>
+    </li>
+
+    <li>Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York; rugs exhibited in,
+    <a href="#Page_78">78</a>, <a href="#Page_79">79</a>, <a href=
+    "#Page_80">80</a>, <a href="#Page_82">82</a>, <a href="#Page_85">85</a>, <a href=
+    "#Page_86">86</a>, <a href="#Page_91">91</a>, <a href=
+    "#Page_93">93</a>.</li>
+
+    <li>Michelangelo, <a href="#Page_16">16</a>.</li>
+
+    <li>Mina Khan, <a href="#Page_105">105</a>.</li>
+
+    <li>Mina Khani pattern, <a href="#Page_105">105</a>, <a href=
+    "#Page_142">142</a>, <a href="#Page_152">152</a>, <a href=
+    "#Page_249">249</a>;
+
+      <ul>
+        <li>illustrated, <a href="#Page_291">291</a>.</li>
+      </ul>
+    </li>
+
+    <li>Ming dynasty, <a href="#Page_78">78</a>, <a href=
+    "#Page_81">81</a>, <a href="#Page_266">266</a>, <a href=
+    "#Page_268">268</a>;
+
+      <ul>
+        <li>coat of arms of, <a href="#Page_92">92</a>.</li>
+      </ul>
+    </li>
+
+    <li>Ming rugs, <a href="#Page_101">101</a>, <a href=
+    "#Page_298">298</a>.
+
+      <ul>
+        <li>Rugs described, <a href="#Page_266">266</a>.</li>
+      </ul>
+    </li>
+
+    <li>Mirabad, <a href="#Page_130">130</a>.</li>
+
+    <li>Mirror backs in Chinese rugs, <a href="#Page_267">267</a>,
+    <a href="#Page_272">272</a>, <a href="#Page_273">273</a>.</li>
+
+    <li>Mir-Sarabend. _See_ Sarabend.</li>
+
+    <li>Mirzapur, <a href="#Page_255">255</a>, <a href=
+    "#Page_258">258</a>.</li>
+
+    <li>Mirzapur rugs described, <a href="#Page_258">258</a>.</li>
+
+    <li>Mohair, <a href="#Page_174">174</a>.</li>
+
+    <li>Mohammed, <a href="#Page_24">24</a>;
+
+      <ul>
+        <li>epithet applied to Guli Hinnaiby, <a href=
+        "#Page_104">104</a>.</li>
+      </ul>
+    </li>
+
+    <li>Mohammedans, <a href="#Page_98">98</a>, <a href=
+    "#Page_103">103</a>, <a href="#Page_113">113</a>, <a href=
+    "#Page_237">237</a>, <a href="#Page_257">257</a>;
+
+      <ul>
+        <li>dominant in Southwestern Asia, <a href=
+        "#Page_25">25</a>;</li>
+
+        <li>invaded India, <a href="#Page_28">28</a>;</li>
+
+        <li>Meshed sacred to, <a href="#Page_110">110</a>;</li>
+
+        <li>prejudice against depicting animals by Sunnite,
+        <a href="#Page_165">165</a>;</li>
+
+        <li>Caucasia invaded by, <a href="#Page_198">198</a>;</li>
+
+        <li>influence on weaving by, <a href="#Page_58">58</a>,
+        <a href="#Page_270">270</a>.</li>
+      </ul>
+    </li>
+
+    <li>Mongols, captured Bagdad, <a href="#Page_26">26</a>;
+
+      <ul>
+        <li>gained foothold in India, <a href=
+        "#Page_28">28</a>;</li>
+
+        <li>in Persia, <a href="#Page_62">62</a>;</li>
+
+        <li>in Caucasia, <a href="#Page_198">198</a>;</li>
+
+        <li>overran Turkestan, <a href="#Page_234">234</a>.</li>
+      </ul>
+    </li>
+
+    <li>Mordants, <a href="#Page_40">40</a>.</li>
+
+    <li>Mordecai, <a href="#Page_122">122</a>.</li>
+
+    <li>Moslems, <a href="#Page_70">70</a>;
+
+      <ul>
+        <li>preserved art treasures, <a href=
+        "#Page_76">76</a>;</li>
+
+        <li>green sacred to, <a href="#Page_85">85</a>.</li>
+      </ul>
+    </li>
+
+    <li>Mosul district, <a href="#Page_152">152</a>.</li>
+
+    <li>Mosul rugs, <a href="#Page_101">101</a>, <a href=
+    "#Page_286">286</a>, <a href="#Page_287">287</a>, <a href=
+    "#Page_302">302</a>, <a href="#Page_304">304</a>, <a href=
+    "#Page_305">305</a>;
+
+      <ul>
+        <li>technicalities in weave of, <a href="#Page_51">51</a>,
+        <a href="#Page_52">52</a>;</li>
+
+        <li>Western Kurdistans confused with, <a href=
+        "#Page_141">141</a>;</li>
+
+        <li>Persian Kurdistan and Bijar rugs compared with,
+        <a href="#Page_143">143</a>;</li>
+
+        <li>resemblance of weave of some Gozene rugs with that of,
+        <a href="#Page_156">156</a>.</li>
+
+        <li>Rugs described, <a href="#Page_152">152</a>, <a href=
+        "#Page_153">153</a>, <a href="#Page_154">154</a>;</li>
+
+        <li>border stripes, <a href="#Page_157">157</a>, <a href=
+        "#Page_158">158</a>, <a href="#Page_159">159</a>.</li>
+      </ul>
+    </li>
+
+    <li>Mt. Ararat, <a href="#Page_103">103</a>, <a href=
+    "#Page_219">219</a>.</li>
+
+    <li>Mt. Ida, <a href="#Page_163">163</a>.</li>
+
+    <li>Mt. Kazbek, <a href="#Page_206">206</a>.</li>
+
+    <li>Mt. Olympus, <a href="#Page_181">181</a>, <a href=
+    "#Page_191">191</a>.</li>
+
+    <li>Mudjar, <a href="#Page_189">189</a>.</li>
+
+    <li>Mudjar rugs, <a href="#Page_101">101</a>, <a href=
+    "#Page_290">290</a>;
+
+      <ul>
+        <li>illustration of prayer arch of, <a href=
+        "#Page_63">63</a>;</li>
+
+        <li>frequently classed as Anatolians, <a href=
+        "#Page_187">187</a>.</li>
+
+        <li>Rugs described, <a href="#Page_189">189</a>, <a href=
+        "#Page_190">190</a>;</li>
+
+        <li>border stripes, <a href="#Page_193">193</a>.</li>
+      </ul>
+    </li>
+
+    <li>Multan, <a href="#Page_255">255</a>.</li>
+
+    <li>Multan rugs described, <a href="#Page_257">257</a>.</li>
+
+    <li>Mumford, John Kimberly, cited, v, <a href=
+    "#Page_67">67</a>.</li>
+
+    <li>Mus&eacute;e des Arts Decoratifs, <a href=
+    "#Page_79">79</a>.</li>
+
+    <li>Muskabad district, <a href="#Page_131">131</a>.</li>
+
+    <li>Muskabad rugs, <a href="#Page_100">100</a>, <a href=
+    "#Page_286">286</a>, <a href="#Page_288">288</a>, <a href=
+    "#Page_301">301</a>, <a href="#Page_305">305</a>;
+
+      <ul>
+        <li>turtle border in, <a href="#Page_71">71</a>.</li>
+
+        <li>Rugs described, <a href="#Page_131">131</a>, <a href=
+        "#Page_132">132</a>;</li>
+
+        <li>border stripes, <a href="#Page_157">157</a>, <a href=
+        "#Page_159">159</a>.</li>
+      </ul>
+    </li>
+
+    <li>&nbsp;</li>
+
+    <li><span style="margin-left: 12em;">N</span></li>
+
+    <li>Nadir Shah, Afghans defeated by, <a href="#Page_29">29</a>;
+
+      <ul>
+        <li>influence of, <a href="#Page_103">103</a>;</li>
+
+        <li>art decadence following capture of Herat by, <a href=
+        "#Page_106">106</a>;</li>
+
+        <li>destruction of Herat by, <a href=
+        "#Page_110">110</a>;</li>
+
+        <li>weavers removed to Northern Persia by, <a href=
+        "#Page_113">113</a>, <a href="#Page_132">132</a>;</li>
+
+        <li>Shemakha almost destroyed by, <a href=
+        "#Page_214">214</a>;</li>
+
+        <li>Shusha built by, <a href="#Page_224">224</a>;</li>
+
+        <li>overthrow of Mogul dominion by, <a href=
+        "#Page_254">254</a>.</li>
+      </ul>
+    </li>
+
+    <li>Namads, <a href="#Page_115">115</a>, <a href=
+    "#Page_122">122</a>.</li>
+
+    <li>Namazlik, <a href="#Page_98">98</a>, <a href=
+    "#Page_150">150</a>.</li>
+
+    <li>Netsuk&eacute;s, <a href="#Page_17">17</a>.</li>
+
+    <li>Nigde, <a href="#Page_190">190</a>.</li>
+
+    <li>Nigde rugs, 101; classed as Anatolians, <a href="#Page_187">187</a>187.<ul>
+    <li>Rugs described, <a href="#Page_190">190</a>.</li></ul></li>
+
+    <li>Nijni Novgorod, <a href="#Page_235">235</a>.</li>
+
+    <li>Nimrod, <a href="#Page_23">23</a>.</li>
+
+    <li>Nineveh, <a href="#Page_23">23</a>, <a href=
+    "#Page_102">102</a>;
+
+      <ul>
+        <li>drawings on walls of, <a href="#Page_74">74</a>;</li>
+
+        <li>Mosul near ruins of, <a href="#Page_152">152</a>.</li>
+      </ul>
+    </li>
+
+    <li>Niris lake, wool obtained near, <a href=
+    "#Page_31">31</a>.</li>
+
+    <li>Niris rugs, <a href="#Page_100">100</a>, <a href=
+    "#Page_204">204</a>, <a href="#Page_286">286</a>, <a href=
+    "#Page_287">287</a>, <a href="#Page_304">304</a>.
+
+      <ul>
+        <li>Rugs described, <a href="#Page_119">119</a>, <a href=
+        "#Page_120">120</a>.</li>
+      </ul>
+    </li>
+
+    <li>Nizami manuscript determining age of Hunting Carpets,
+    <a href="#Page_82">82</a>.</li>
+
+    <li>Nomadic influence, <a href="#Page_106">106</a>;
+
+      <ul>
+        <li>characteristics in rugs, 134; rugs, <a href=
+        "#Page_58">58</a>, 153.</li>
+      </ul>
+    </li>
+
+    <li>&nbsp;</li>
+
+    <li><span style="margin-left: 12em;">O</span></li>
+
+    <li>Oak gall, used as a dye, <a href="#Page_40">40</a>.</li>
+
+    <li>Odjalik, <a href="#Page_97">97</a>.</li>
+
+    <li>Omar Khayyam, <a href="#Page_108">108</a>, <a href=
+    "#Page_110">110</a>.</li>
+
+    <li>Onosma echioides used as a dye, <a href=
+    "#Page_41">41</a>.</li>
+
+    <li>Orenburg, <a href="#Page_235">235</a>, <a href=
+    "#Page_240">240</a>.</li>
+
+    <li>Oriental art, <a href="#Page_16">16</a>.</li>
+
+    <li>Ottoman Turks, <a href="#Page_27">27</a>, <a href=
+    "#Page_28">28</a>.</li>
+
+    <li>Oushak, city and district, <a href="#Page_164">164</a>,
+    <a href="#Page_176">176</a>.</li>
+
+    <li>Oushak rugs, type of modern, <a href="#Page_94">94</a>;
+
+      <ul>
+        <li>evidences of Persian treatment in, <a href=
+        "#Page_166">166</a>.</li>
+
+        <li>Rugs described, <a href="#Page_174">174</a>, <a href=
+        "#Page_175">175</a>.</li>
+      </ul>
+    </li>
+
+    <li>Outer edging in Kirmans, <a href="#Page_114">114</a>;
+
+      <ul>
+        <li>in Hamadans, <a href="#Page_123">123</a>;</li>
+
+        <li>in Sarouks, <a href="#Page_126">126</a>;</li>
+
+        <li>in Bijars, <a href="#Page_137">137</a>;</li>
+
+        <li>in Kermanshahs, <a href="#Page_139">139</a>;</li>
+
+        <li>in Mosuls, <a href="#Page_153">153</a>.</li>
+
+        <li>Overcasting of sides; weft overcasting described,
+        <a href="#Page_55">55</a>, <a href="#Page_56">56</a>;</li>
+
+        <li>illustrated, <a href="#Page_49">49</a>;</li>
+
+        <li>double overcasting described, <a href=
+        "#Page_55">55</a>, <a href="#Page_56">56</a>;</li>
+
+        <li>illustrated, <a href="#Page_49">49</a>.</li>
+      </ul>
+    </li>
+
+    <li>Oxus river (Amu Daria), <a href="#Page_23">23</a>, <a href=
+    "#Page_24">24</a>, <a href="#Page_235">235</a>, <a href=
+    "#Page_238">238</a>, <a href="#Page_240">240</a>, <a href=
+    "#Page_243">243</a>, 244.</li>
+
+    <li>&nbsp;</li>
+
+    <li><span style="margin-left: 12em;">P</span></li>
+
+    <li>Palais de Commerce at Lyons, <a href=
+    "#Page_80">80</a>.</li>
+
+    <li>Palm design. _See_ Designs.</li>
+
+    <li>Pamir plateau, sheep of, <a href="#Page_31">31</a>;
+
+      <ul>
+        <li>mountains of, <a href="#Page_235">235</a>.</li>
+      </ul>
+    </li>
+
+    <li>Paropamisus Mts., <a href="#Page_235">235</a>.</li>
+
+    <li>Parsees, <a href="#Page_103">103</a>;
+
+      <ul>
+        <li>symbolism derived from fire worship of, <a href=
+        "#Page_58">58</a>, <a href="#Page_71">71</a>;</li>
+
+        <li>at Baku, <a href="#Page_211">211</a>.</li>
+      </ul>
+    </li>
+
+    <li>Parthians, <a href="#Page_24">24</a>.</li>
+
+    <li>Patna rugs, <a href="#Page_101">101</a>.</li>
+
+    <li>Paul, St., <a href="#Page_166">166</a>, <a href=
+    "#Page_181">181</a>.</li>
+
+    <li>Pear design. _See_ Designs.</li>
+
+    <li>Pergamus, <a href="#Page_166">166</a>, <a href=
+    "#Page_168">168</a>.</li>
+
+    <li>Persepolis, <a href="#Page_103">103</a>.</li>
+
+    <li>Phasis river, <a href="#Page_197">197</a>.</li>
+
+    <li>Pile of rugs, <a href="#Page_47">47</a>.</li>
+
+    <li>Pliny, <a href="#Page_74">74</a>.</li>
+
+    <li>Polish silk carpets, reciprocal trefoils in, <a href=
+    "#Page_65">65</a>;
+
+      <ul>
+        <li>Chinese cloud-bands in, <a href="#Page_67">67</a>;</li>
+
+        <li>lotus in, <a href="#Page_69">69</a>.</li>
+
+        <li>Carpets described, <a href="#Page_88">88</a>;</li>
+
+        <li>bright hues of, <a href="#Page_90">90</a>.</li>
+      </ul>
+    </li>
+
+    <li>Polonaise carpets. _See_ Polish silk.</li>
+
+    <li>Pomegranate. _See_ Designs.</li>
+
+    <li>Pomegranate rind used as a mordant, <a href=
+    "#Page_40">40</a>.</li>
+
+    <li>Porter, Sir Robert Kerr, quoted, <a href=
+    "#Page_106">106</a>, <a href="#Page_138">138</a>.</li>
+
+    <li>Prayer arches, <a href="#Page_60">60</a>, <a href=
+    "#Page_62">62</a>;
+
+      <ul>
+        <li>illustrated, <a href="#Page_61">61</a>, <a href=
+        "#Page_63">63</a>.</li>
+      </ul>
+    </li>
+
+    <li>Prayer rugs. _See_ Namazlik.</li>
+
+    <li>Priam, <a href="#Page_166">166</a>.</li>
+
+    <li>Prometheus, <a href="#Page_197">197</a>.</li>
+
+    <li>Punjab, <a href="#Page_255">255</a>, <a href=
+    "#Page_256">256</a>, 257.</li>
+
+    <li>&nbsp;</li>
+
+    <li><span style="margin-left: 12em;">R</span></li>
+
+    <li>Ratanjot used as a dye, <a href="#Page_16">16</a>.</li>
+
+    <li>Rembrandt, <a href="#Page_16">16</a>.</li>
+
+    <li>Rhodes, Isle of, <a href="#Page_28">28</a>, <a href=
+    "#Page_178">178</a>.</li>
+
+    <li>Rhodian rugs, <a href="#Page_101">101</a>, <a href=
+    "#Page_289">289</a>.
+
+      <ul>
+        <li>Rugs described, <a href="#Page_178">178</a>, <a href=
+        "#Page_179">179</a>, <a href="#Page_180">180</a>;</li>
+
+        <li>border stripes, <a href="#Page_193">193</a>.</li>
+      </ul>
+    </li>
+
+    <li>Rion river, <a href="#Page_218">218</a>.</li>
+
+    <li>River loop. _See_ Designs.</li>
+
+    <li>Robinson, Vincent, cited, <a href="#Page_80">80</a>,
+    <a href="#Page_81">81</a>, <a href="#Page_86">86</a>, <a href=
+    "#Page_88">88</a>, <a href="#Page_254">254</a>, <a href=
+    "#Page_258">258</a>, <a href="#Page_259">259</a>.</li>
+
+    <li>Rubens, <a href="#Page_16">16</a>.</li>
+
+    <li>Rubia cordifolia used as a dye, <a href=
+    "#Page_41">41</a>.</li>
+
+    <li>Rubia tinctorum used as a dye, <a href=
+    "#Page_38">38</a>.</li>
+
+    <li>Runners, <a href="#Page_97">97</a>.</li>
+
+    <li>Ruskin, John, quoted, 18.</li>
+
+    <li>&nbsp;</li>
+
+    <li><span style="margin-left: 12em;">S</span></li>
+
+    <li>Saadi, <a href="#Page_115">115</a>.</li>
+
+    <li>Saddle-bags, <a href="#Page_117">117</a>, <a href=
+    "#Page_135">135</a>, <a href="#Page_249">249</a>.</li>
+
+    <li>Safavid dynasty, <a href="#Page_29">29</a>, <a href=
+    "#Page_81">81</a>, <a href="#Page_83">83</a>, <a href=
+    "#Page_84">84</a>, <a href="#Page_85">85</a>, <a href=
+    "#Page_89">89</a>, <a href="#Page_103">103</a>.</li>
+
+    <li>Saffron used as a dye, <a href="#Page_39">39</a>.</li>
+
+    <li>Salors, <a href="#Page_233">233</a>.</li>
+
+    <li>Samarkand, capital of Tamerlane, <a href="#Page_27">27</a>;
+
+      <ul>
+        <li>the &ldquo;Mirror of the World,&rdquo; <a href=
+        "#Page_245">245</a>.</li>
+      </ul>
+    </li>
+
+    <li>Samarkand rugs, <a href="#Page_101">101</a>, <a href=
+    "#Page_233">233</a>, <a href="#Page_265">265</a>, <a href=
+    "#Page_282">282</a>, <a href="#Page_293">293</a>;
+
+      <ul>
+        <li>technicalities in weave of, <a href=
+        "#Page_50">50</a>;</li>
+
+        <li>swastika in, <a href="#Page_65">65</a>.</li>
+
+        <li>Rugs described, <a href="#Page_245">245</a>, <a href=
+        "#Page_246">246</a>, <a href="#Page_247">247</a>;</li>
+
+        <li>border stripes, <a href="#Page_251">251</a>.</li>
+      </ul>
+    </li>
+
+    <li>Samo-Kien, <a href="#Page_246">246</a>.</li>
+
+    <li>Sarabend rugs, <a href="#Page_285">285</a>, <a href=
+    "#Page_304">304</a>;
+
+      <ul>
+        <li>technicalities in weave of, <a href=
+        "#Page_51">51</a>;</li>
+
+        <li>pear design of, <a href="#Page_70">70</a>, <a href=
+        "#Page_116">116</a>, <a href="#Page_119">119</a>, <a href=
+        "#Page_144">144</a>, <a href="#Page_153">153</a>;</li>
+
+        <li>turtle border in, <a href="#Page_71">71</a>;</li>
+
+        <li>pile of, <a href="#Page_133">133</a>.</li>
+
+        <li>Rugs described, <a href="#Page_129">129</a>, <a href=
+        "#Page_130">130</a>;</li>
+
+        <li>border stripes, <a href="#Page_158">158</a>, <a href=
+        "#Page_160">160</a>.</li>
+
+        <li>Mir-Sarabends, <a href="#Page_130">130</a>.</li>
+
+        <li>Royal Sarabends, <a href="#Page_130">130</a>.</li>
+      </ul>
+    </li>
+
+    <li>Saracenic art, <a href="#Page_21">21</a>;
+
+      <ul>
+        <li>influence, <a href="#Page_58">58</a>, <a href=
+        "#Page_80">80</a>, <a href="#Page_88">88</a>, <a href=
+        "#Page_166">166</a></li>
+      </ul>
+    </li>
+
+    <li>Saracens, carpet weaving introduced into India by,
+      <a href="#Page_94">94</a>;
+
+      <ul>
+        <li>Persia under dominion of, <a href=
+        "#Page_103">103</a>;</li>
+
+        <li>Baku in possession of, <a href=
+        "#Page_210">210</a>.</li>
+      </ul>
+    </li>
+
+    <li>Saraks, town of, <a href="#Page_136">136</a>, <a href=
+    "#Page_238">238</a>.</li>
+
+    <li>Sarawan district, <a href="#Page_129">129</a>, <a href=
+    "#Page_131">131</a>.</li>
+
+    <li>Sarouk, <a href="#Page_125">125</a>.</li>
+
+    <li>Sarouk rugs, <a href="#Page_134">134</a>, <a href=
+    "#Page_285">285</a>, <a href="#Page_286">286</a>, <a href=
+    "#Page_288">288</a>, <a href="#Page_301">301</a>, <a href=
+    "#Page_305">305</a>;
+
+      <ul>
+        <li>technicalities in weave of, <a href="#Page_51">51</a>,
+        <a href="#Page_52">52</a>, <a href="#Page_53">53</a>,
+        <a href="#Page_55">55</a>;</li>
+
+        <li>illustration of prayer arch of, <a href=
+        "#Page_61">61</a>;</li>
+
+        <li>animal carpet with weave similar to that of, <a href=
+        "#Page_86">86</a>;</li>
+
+        <li>corners of Khorassans compared with those of, <a href=
+        "#Page_109">109</a>;</li>
+
+        <li>patterns of Bijars compared with those of, <a href=
+        "#Page_137">137</a>.</li>
+
+        <li>Tabriz rugs compared with, <a href="#Page_145">145</a>,
+        <a href="#Page_146">146</a>.</li>
+
+        <li>Rugs described, <a href="#Page_125">125</a>, <a href=
+        "#Page_126">126</a>, <a href="#Page_127">127</a>;</li>
+
+        <li>border stripes, <a href="#Page_160">160</a>.</li>
+      </ul>
+    </li>
+
+    <li>Sassanides, Kingdom of, <a href="#Page_24">24</a>;
+
+      <ul>
+        <li>elaborate carpets made during rule of, <a href=
+        "#Page_74">74</a>;</li>
+
+        <li>capture of capital of, <a href="#Page_75">75</a>.</li>
+      </ul>
+    </li>
+
+    <li>Savalans, <a href="#Page_131">131</a>.</li>
+
+    <li>Sedjadeh, <a href="#Page_97">97</a>.</li>
+
+    <li>Sehna, <a href="#Page_48">48</a>, <a href=
+    "#Page_129">129</a>, <a href="#Page_133">133</a>.</li>
+
+    <li>Sehna rugs, <a href="#Page_100">100</a>, <a href=
+    "#Page_286">286</a>, <a href="#Page_304">304</a>;
+
+      <ul>
+        <li>technicalities in weave of, <a href="#Page_51">51</a>,
+        <a href="#Page_54">54</a>;</li>
+
+        <li>medallions of, <a href="#Page_60">60</a>;</li>
+
+        <li>turtle border in, <a href="#Page_71">71</a>.</li>
+
+        <li>Herati design in Persian Kurdistans borrowed from,
+        <a href="#Page_142">142</a>.</li>
+
+        <li>Rugs described, <a href="#Page_133">133</a>, <a href=
+        "#Page_134">134</a>, <a href="#Page_135">135</a>;</li>
+      </ul>
+    </li>
+
+    <li>Sehna kilims, <a href="#Page_278">278</a>.</li>
+
+    <li>Seljukian Turks, effect on art, <a href="#Page_26">26</a>;
+
+      <ul>
+        <li>powerful in Asia Minor, <a href="#Page_27">27</a>;</li>
+
+        <li>overthrow by Genghis Khan, <a href=
+        "#Page_78">78</a>;</li>
+
+        <li>invasion of Southern Persia by, <a href=
+        "#Page_90">90</a>;</li>
+
+        <li>monuments in Armenia of, <a href=
+        "#Page_91">91</a>;</li>
+
+        <li>dominion in Persia of, <a href=
+        "#Page_103">103</a>;</li>
+
+        <li>Konieh surrendered to, <a href=
+        "#Page_181">181</a>.</li>
+      </ul>
+    </li>
+
+    <li>Selvage, weft selvage described, <a href="#Page_55">55</a>,
+    <a href="#Page_56">56</a>;
+
+      <ul>
+        <li>illustrated, <a href="#Page_49">49</a>;</li>
+
+        <li>double selvage described, <a href="#Page_55">55</a>,
+        <a href="#Page_56">56</a>;</li>
+
+        <li>illustrated, <a href="#Page_49">49</a>;</li>
+
+        <li>mixed selvage described, <a href=
+        "#Page_56">56</a>.</li>
+      </ul>
+    </li>
+
+    <li>Serapi rugs, <a href="#Page_285">285</a>;
+
+      <ul>
+        <li>turtle border in, <a href="#Page_71">71</a>.</li>
+
+        <li>Rugs described, <a href="#Page_148">148</a>, <a href=
+        "#Page_149">149</a>;</li>
+
+        <li>border stripes, <a href="#Page_157">157</a>.</li>
+      </ul>
+    </li>
+
+    <li>Shah Abbas pattern, <a href="#Page_198">198</a>, <a href=
+    "#Page_206">206</a>.</li>
+
+    <li>Shemakha, city of, <a href="#Page_214">214</a>.</li>
+
+    <li>Shemakha rugs, <a href="#Page_101">101</a>, <a href=
+    "#Page_290">290</a>, <a href="#Page_292">292</a>.<ul>
+      <li>Rugs described, <a href="#Page_216">
+      216</a>, <a href="#Page_217">217</a>;</li>
+
+      <li>border-stripes, <a href="#Page_228">228</a>.</li>
+      </ul>
+    </li>
+
+    <li>Shield of David. _See_ Designs.</li>
+
+    <li>Shiites, <a href="#Page_58">58</a>;
+
+      <ul>
+        <li>animal designs permitted by, <a href=
+        "#Page_72">72</a>;</li>
+
+        <li>Meshed sacred to, <a href="#Page_110">110</a>.</li>
+      </ul>
+    </li>
+
+    <li>Shiraz, wool of, <a href="#Page_31">31</a>;
+
+      <ul>
+        <li>city of, <a href="#Page_115">115</a>.</li>
+      </ul>
+    </li>
+
+    <li>Shiraz rugs, <a href="#Page_100">100</a>, <a href=
+    "#Page_286">286</a>, <a href="#Page_288">288</a>, <a href=
+    "#Page_297">297</a>, <a href="#Page_301">301</a>, <a href=
+    "#Page_305">305</a>;
+
+      <ul>
+        <li>technicalities in weave of, <a href=
+        "#Page_51">51</a>;</li>
+
+        <li>illustration of prayer arch of, <a href=
+        "#Page_61">61</a>;</li>
+
+        <li>latch-hooks in, <a href="#Page_67">67</a>;</li>
+
+        <li>resemblance of Niris rugs to, <a href=
+        "#Page_119">119</a>;</li>
+
+        <li>pear design of Kabistans similar to those of, <a href=
+        "#Page_201">201</a>;</li>
+
+        <li>wool of Tiflis rugs suggests that of, <a href=
+        "#Page_217">217</a>.</li>
+
+        <li>Rugs described, <a href="#Page_115">115</a>, <a href=
+        "#Page_116">116</a>, <a href="#Page_117">117</a>, <a href=
+        "#Page_118">118</a>;</li>
+
+        <li>border stripes, <a href="#Page_158">158</a>;</li>
+
+        <li>saddle-bags, <a href="#Page_117">117</a>.</li>
+      </ul>
+    </li>
+
+    <li>Shirvan district conquered by Solyman the Magnificent,
+    <a href="#Page_28">28</a>.</li>
+
+    <li>Shirvan rugs, <a href="#Page_101">101</a>, <a href=
+    "#Page_290">290</a>, <a href="#Page_292">292</a>, <a href=
+    "#Page_293">293</a>, <a href="#Page_305">305</a>;
+
+      <ul>
+        <li>technicalities in weave of, <a href=
+        "#Page_54">54</a>;</li>
+
+        <li>illustration of prayer arch of, <a href=
+        "#Page_61">61</a>;</li>
+
+        <li>design of Shiraz rugs similar to that of, <a href=
+        "#Page_117">117</a>;</li>
+
+        <li>weave of Kabistans compared with that of, <a href=
+        "#Page_201">201</a>;</li>
+
+        <li>pattern of Chichis resembling that of, <a href=
+        "#Page_207">207</a>;</li>
+
+        <li>geometric design of Bakus seen in, <a href=
+        "#Page_211">211</a>;</li>
+
+        <li>some patterns of Genghas similar to those of, <a href=
+        "#Page_225">225</a>.</li>
+
+        <li>Rugs described, <a href="#Page_212">212</a>, <a href=
+        "#Page_213">213</a>, <a href="#Page_214">214</a>;</li>
+
+        <li>border stripes, <a href="#Page_226">226</a>, <a href=
+        "#Page_227">227</a>, <a href="#Page_228">228</a>, <a href=
+        "#Page_229">229</a>, <a href="#Page_231">231</a>.</li>
+
+        <li>Kilims, <a href="#Page_278">278</a>.</li>
+      </ul>
+    </li>
+
+    <li>Shusha, <a href="#Page_224">224</a>.</li>
+
+    <li>Shusha rugs, <a href="#Page_101">101</a>, <a href=
+    "#Page_290">290</a>.
+
+      <ul>
+        <li>Rugs described, <a href="#Page_224">224</a>.</li>
+
+        <li>Sides, finish of, 55; illustrated, <a href=
+        "#Page_49">49</a>.</li>
+      </ul>
+    </li>
+
+    <li>Silk, used for weaving, <a href="#Page_33">33</a>;
+
+      <ul>
+        <li>indigenous to Asia, <a href="#Page_33">33</a>;</li>
+
+        <li>cultivated at Kashgar and Yarkand, <a href=
+        "#Page_247">247</a>;</li>
+
+        <li>used in Kirmans, <a href="#Page_114">114</a>;</li>
+
+        <li>in Yezd rugs, <a href="#Page_115">115</a>;</li>
+
+        <li>in Hamadans, <a href="#Page_122">122</a>;</li>
+
+        <li>in Kashans, <a href="#Page_128">128</a>;</li>
+
+        <li>in Sehnas, <a href="#Page_134">134</a>, <a href=
+        "#Page_135">135</a>;</li>
+
+        <li>in Ghiordes, <a href="#Page_178">178</a>;</li>
+
+        <li>in Hereke rugs, <a href="#Page_181">181</a>;</li>
+
+        <li>in Kaisariyeh rugs, <a href="#Page_190">190</a>;</li>
+
+        <li>in Royal Bokharas, <a href="#Page_236">236</a>.</li>
+      </ul>
+    </li>
+
+    <li>Silk carpets, sent to Sultan of Constantinople, <a href=
+    "#Page_87">87</a>;
+
+      <ul>
+        <li>made at Kashan, <a href="#Page_128">128</a>.</li>
+      </ul>
+    </li>
+
+    <li>Sindh, <a href="#Page_255">255</a>, <a href=
+    "#Page_259">259</a>.</li>
+
+    <li>Sindh rugs described, <a href="#Page_259">259</a>.</li>
+
+    <li>Sirab, village of, <a href="#Page_148">148</a>.</li>
+
+    <li>Sivas, Seljukian gate at, <a href="#Page_170">170</a>;
+
+      <ul>
+        <li>city of, <a href="#Page_188">188</a>.</li>
+      </ul>
+    </li>
+
+    <li>Sivas rugs described, <a href="#Page_188">188</a>, <a href=
+    "#Page_189">189</a>.</li>
+
+    <li>Smyrna, <a href="#Page_164">164</a>, <a href=
+    "#Page_175">175</a>, <a href="#Page_176">176</a>;
+
+      <ul>
+        <li>Yuruks at, <a href="#Page_191">191</a>.</li>
+      </ul>
+    </li>
+
+    <li>Smyrna rugs, <a href="#Page_101">101</a>;
+
+      <ul>
+        <li>Broussa rugs compared with those of, <a href=
+        "#Page_181">181</a>;</li>
+
+        <li>Indian rugs compared with those of, <a href=
+        "#Page_254">254</a>.</li>
+
+        <li>Rugs described, <a href="#Page_176">176</a>.</li>
+      </ul>
+    </li>
+
+    <li>Solyman, King, the ring of, <a href="#Page_66">66</a>;
+
+      <ul>
+        <li>pomegranates cultivated in days of, <a href=
+        "#Page_69">69</a>;</li>
+
+        <li>his emblem of an eight-pointed star, <a href=
+        "#Page_158">158</a>.</li>
+      </ul>
+    </li>
+
+    <li>Solyman the Magnificent, Iran threatened by, <a href=
+    "#Page_28">28</a>;
+
+      <ul>
+        <li>weavers taken to Asia Minor by, <a href=
+        "#Page_94">94</a>, <a href="#Page_175">175</a>.</li>
+      </ul>
+    </li>
+
+    <li>Soumak rugs, <a href="#Page_290">290</a>, <a href=
+    "#Page_292">292</a>;
+
+      <ul>
+        <li>weave of, <a href="#Page_47">47</a>;</li>
+
+        <li>designs of cross in, <a href="#Page_67">67</a>;</li>
+
+        <li>tri-cleft leaf in, <a href="#Page_91">91</a>, <a href=
+        "#Page_209">209</a>;</li>
+
+        <li>Kubas and Shemakhas compared with, <a href=
+        "#Page_203">203</a>;</li>
+
+        <li>patterns of Shirvans compared with those of, <a href=
+        "#Page_213">213</a>.</li>
+
+        <li>Rugs described, <a href="#Page_214">214</a>, <a href=
+        "#Page_215">215</a>, <a href="#Page_216">216</a>;</li>
+
+        <li>border stripes, <a href="#Page_228">228</a>, <a href=
+        "#Page_230">230</a>.</li>
+      </ul>
+    </li>
+
+    <li>Sousa, reciprocal sawtooth on monuments of, <a href=
+    "#Page_231">231</a>.</li>
+
+    <li>South Kensington Museum, <a href="#Page_15">15</a>,
+    <a href="#Page_83">83</a>, <a href="#Page_259">259</a>.</li>
+
+    <li>Spanish rugs sent to Queen Eleanor, <a href=
+    "#Page_25">25</a>.</li>
+
+    <li>Sparta rugs. _See_ Isbarta.</li>
+
+    <li>Spindle, <a href="#Page_34">34</a>, <a href=
+    "#Page_35">35</a>.</li>
+
+    <li>Spinning, <a href="#Page_34">34</a>, <a href=
+    "#Page_35">35</a>.</li>
+
+    <li>Spring of Chosroes carpet described, <a href=
+    "#Page_76">76</a>.</li>
+
+    <li>Srinagar, <a href="#Page_70">70</a>, <a href=
+    "#Page_255">255</a>.</li>
+
+    <li>Srinagar rugs described, <a href="#Page_255">255</a>.</li>
+
+    <li>Stebbing, Edward, cited, <a href="#Page_82">82</a>;
+
+      <ul>
+        <li>quoted, <a href="#Page_83">83</a>, <a href=
+        "#Page_84">84</a>.</li>
+      </ul>
+    </li>
+
+    <li>St. Sophia, <a href="#Page_19">19</a>, <a href=
+    "#Page_28">28</a>.</li>
+
+    <li>Star design. _See_ Designs.</li>
+
+    <li>Stein, Dr. M. A., cited, <a href="#Page_278">278</a>.</li>
+
+    <li>Strabo, <a href="#Page_74">74</a>.</li>
+
+    <li>Stripes. _See_ Border.</li>
+
+    <li>Suj-Bulak, town of, <a href="#Page_150">150</a>.</li>
+
+    <li>Suj-Bulak rugs, <a href="#Page_286">286</a>.
+
+      <ul>
+        <li>Rugs described, <a href="#Page_150">150</a>, <a href=
+        "#Page_151">151</a>.</li>
+      </ul>
+    </li>
+
+    <li>Sulphate of iron used as a mordant, <a href=
+    "#Page_40">40</a>.</li>
+
+    <li>Sulphate of tin used as a mordant, <a href=
+    "#Page_40">40</a>.</li>
+
+    <li>Sultanabad, <a href="#Page_129">129</a>, <a href=
+    "#Page_131">131</a>, <a href="#Page_132">132</a>.</li>
+
+    <li>Sultanabad rugs, <a href="#Page_286">286</a>;
+
+      <ul>
+        <li>Indian rugs compared with those of, <a href=
+        "#Page_254">254</a>, <a href="#Page_256">256</a>.</li>
+
+        <li>Rugs described, <a href="#Page_131">131</a>.</li>
+      </ul>
+    </li>
+
+    <li>Sumach used as a dye, <a href="#Page_38">38</a>.</li>
+
+    <li>Sumerians, <a href="#Page_23">23</a>.</li>
+
+    <li>Sung dynasty, <a href="#Page_266">266</a>.</li>
+
+    <li>Sunnites opposed to depicting animal figures, <a href=
+    "#Page_58">58</a>, <a href="#Page_72">72</a>, <a href=
+    "#Page_91">91</a>, <a href="#Page_99">99</a>, <a href=
+    "#Page_165">165</a>, <a href="#Page_254">254</a>.</li>
+
+    <li>Swastika. Illustrated, <a href="#Page_291">291</a>. _See_ Designs.</li>
+
+    <li>Symbols in colours and designs, <a href="#Page_18">18</a>,
+    <a href="#Page_19">19</a>, <a href="#Page_20">20</a>, <a href=
+    "#Page_58">58</a>, <a href="#Page_59">59</a>, <a href=
+    "#Page_72">72</a>.</li>
+
+    <li>&nbsp;</li>
+
+    <li><span style="margin-left: 12em;">T</span></li>
+
+    <li>Tabriz, <a href="#Page_136">136</a>, <a href=
+    "#Page_145">145</a>, <a href="#Page_148">148</a>, <a href=
+    "#Page_151">151</a>, <a href="#Page_227">227</a>;
+
+      <ul>
+        <li>captured by Solyman the Magnificent, <a href=
+        "#Page_28">28</a>, <a href="#Page_94">94</a>;</li>
+
+        <li>dyers from, <a href="#Page_40">40</a>;</li>
+
+        <li>an important art centre, <a href=
+        "#Page_89">89</a>;</li>
+
+        <li>a mart for rugs, <a href="#Page_99">99</a>;</li>
+
+        <li>Herat carpets in hall of governor at, <a href=
+        "#Page_106">106</a>.</li>
+      </ul>
+    </li>
+
+    <li>Tabriz rugs, <a href="#Page_286">286</a>, <a href=
+    "#Page_287">287</a>, <a href="#Page_288">288</a>, <a href=
+    "#Page_297">297</a>, <a href="#Page_301">301</a>, <a href=
+    "#Page_305">305</a>;
+
+      <ul>
+        <li>technicalities in weave of, <a href="#Page_53">53</a>,
+        <a href="#Page_55">55</a>;</li>
+
+        <li>Chinese cloud-band in, <a href="#Page_67">67</a>;</li>
+
+        <li>medallions of Herez rugs similar to those of, <a href=
+        "#Page_149">149</a>.</li>
+
+        <li>Rugs described, <a href="#Page_145">145</a>, <a href=
+        "#Page_146">146</a>.</li>
+      </ul>
+    </li>
+
+    <li>Taj Mahal, <a href="#Page_94">94</a>, <a href=
+    "#Page_257">257</a>.</li>
+
+    <li>Tak-i-Bostan, rock-carved sculptures of, <a href=
+    "#Page_83">83</a>.</li>
+
+    <li>Tamara, Queen, <a href="#Page_197">197</a>, <a href=
+    "#Page_198">198</a>.</li>
+
+    <li>Tamarind used as a mordant, <a href="#Page_40">40</a>.</li>
+
+    <li>Tamasp, Shah, <a href="#Page_28">28</a>, <a href=
+    "#Page_82">82</a>, <a href="#Page_169">169</a>;
+
+      <ul>
+        <li>Ardebil carpet finished during reign of, <a href=
+        "#Page_84">84</a>;</li>
+
+        <li>silk rugs made during reign of, <a href=
+        "#Page_87">87</a>;</li>
+
+        <li>Herat an important art centre during time of, <a href=
+        "#Page_89">89</a>;</li>
+
+        <li>Tabriz carpets woven during reign of, <a href=
+        "#Page_145">145</a>.</li>
+      </ul>
+    </li>
+
+    <li>Tamerlane, <a href="#Page_172">172</a>, <a href=
+    "#Page_254">254</a>;
+
+      <ul>
+        <li>Mongols united by, <a href="#Page_27">27</a>;</li>
+
+        <li>Ispahan sacked by, <a href="#Page_111">111</a>;</li>
+
+        <li>artists gathered at Samarkand by, <a href=
+        "#Page_234">234</a>;</li>
+
+        <li>Samarkand made capital by, <a href=
+        "#Page_246">246</a>;</li>
+
+        <li>Multan captured by, <a href="#Page_257">257</a>.</li>
+      </ul>
+    </li>
+
+    <li>Tang dynasty, <a href="#Page_266">266</a>.</li>
+
+    <li>Tanjore district, <a href="#Page_259">259</a>.</li>
+
+    <li>Taoist symbols, <a href="#Page_271">271</a>.</li>
+
+    <li>Tao-Kwang, <a href="#Page_272">272</a>. Rugs described, <a href=
+    "#Page_272">272</a>.</li>
+
+    <li>&ldquo;Tapis de l&rsquo;Asie Centrale&rdquo; quoted,
+    <a href="#Page_233">233</a>.</li>
+
+    <li>Tartars, <a href="#Page_26">26</a>, <a href=
+    "#Page_220">220</a>;</li>
+
+    <li>Turkestan conquered by, <a href="#Page_234">234</a>.</li>
+
+    <li>Tartary, <a href="#Page_31">31</a>, <a href=
+    "#Page_32">32</a>.</li>
+
+    <li>Tchechen. _See_ Chichi.</li>
+
+    <li>Tcherkess (Circassian) rugs, <a href="#Page_290">290</a>,
+    <a href="#Page_292">292</a>, <a href="#Page_304">304</a>,
+    <a href="#Page_305">305</a>;
+
+      <ul>
+        <li>technicalities in weave of, <a href=
+        "#Page_54">54</a>;</li>
+
+        <li>tri-cleft leaf in, <a href="#Page_91">91</a>;</li>
+
+        <li>long nap of Western Kurdistans similar to that of,
+        <a href="#Page_141">141</a>;</li>
+
+        <li>sunburst pattern of Kazaks similar to that of, <a href=
+        "#Page_220">220</a>.</li>
+
+        <li>Rugs described, <a href="#Page_208">208</a>, <a href=
+        "#Page_209">209</a>, <a href="#Page_210">210</a>;</li>
+
+        <li>border stripes, <a href="#Page_227">227</a>.</li>
+      </ul>
+    </li>
+
+    <li>Tcherkess tribes, <a href="#Page_209">209</a>.</li>
+
+    <li>Teheran, <a href="#Page_138">138</a>;
+
+      <ul>
+        <li>caravans to Meshed from, <a href=
+        "#Page_110">110</a>.</li>
+      </ul>
+    </li>
+
+    <li>Teheran rugs described, <a href="#Page_154">154</a>,
+    <a href="#Page_155">155</a>.</li>
+
+    <li>Tekke, derivation of name, <a href=
+    "#Page_238">238</a>.</li>
+
+    <li>Tekke rugs, <a href="#Page_101">101</a>, <a href=
+    "#Page_233">233</a>, <a href="#Page_293">293</a>;
+
+      <ul>
+        <li>illustration of prayer arch of, <a href=
+        "#Page_61">61</a>;</li>
+
+        <li>S design in, <a href="#Page_65">65</a>;</li>
+
+        <li>selvage at sides of Beluchistans similar to that of,
+        <a href="#Page_235">235</a>;</li>
+
+        <li>similarity in colours of Yomuds and those of, <a href=
+        "#Page_242">242</a>;</li>
+
+        <li>designs in Afghans and Yomuds similar to those of,
+        <a href="#Page_244">244</a>.</li>
+
+        <li>Rugs described, <a href="#Page_238">238</a>, <a href=
+        "#Page_239">239</a>, <a href="#Page_240">240</a>;</li>
+
+        <li>border stripes, <a href="#Page_250">250</a>, <a href=
+        "#Page_251">251</a>.</li>
+      </ul>
+    </li>
+
+    <li>Terek valley, <a href="#Page_207">207</a>, <a href=
+    "#Page_208">208</a>.</li>
+
+    <li>Terminalia citrina used as a dye, <a href=
+    "#Page_40">40</a>.</li>
+
+    <li>Tiflis, overrun by Seljukian Turks, <a href=
+    "#Page_26">26</a>;
+
+      <ul>
+        <li>mart for rugs, <a href="#Page_99">99</a>;</li>
+
+        <li>caravans from Tabriz to, <a href=
+        "#Page_145">145</a>;</li>
+
+        <li>capital of Georgia, <a href="#Page_217">217</a>.</li>
+      </ul>
+    </li>
+
+    <li>Tiflis rugs, <a href="#Page_298">298</a>;
+
+      <ul>
+        <li>technicalities in weave of, <a href=
+        "#Page_53">53</a>;</li>
+
+        <li>resemblance between weave of Kutais and that of,
+        <a href="#Page_219">219</a>.</li>
+
+        <li>Rugs described, <a href="#Page_217">217</a>, <a href=
+        "#Page_218">218</a>;</li>
+
+        <li>border stripes, <a href="#Page_227">227</a>.</li>
+      </ul>
+    </li>
+
+    <li>Tiger skin pattern, <a href="#Page_267">267</a>.</li>
+
+    <li>Timurids, invasion of, <a href="#Page_103">103</a>,
+      <a href="#Page_136">136</a>;
+
+      <ul>
+        <li>designs due to, <a href="#Page_80">80</a>, <a href=
+        "#Page_166">166</a>.</li>
+      </ul>
+    </li>
+
+    <li>Titian, <a href="#Page_16">16</a>.</li>
+
+    <li>Toledo, <a href="#Page_17">17</a>.</li>
+
+    <li>Toon, <a href="#Page_108">108</a>.</li>
+
+    <li>Trebizond, <a href="#Page_145">145</a>, <a href=
+    "#Page_163">163</a>.</li>
+
+    <li>Turanian races, geometric designs among, <a href=
+    "#Page_62">62</a>.</li>
+
+    <li>Turkish Kilims, <a href="#Page_280">280</a>.</li>
+
+    <li>Turmeric used as a dye, <a href="#Page_41">41</a>.</li>
+
+    <li>Turtle border, <a href="#Page_121">121</a>, <a href=
+    "#Page_132">132</a>, <a href="#Page_157">157</a>;
+
+      <ul>
+        <li>probable origin of, <a href="#Page_71">71</a>, <a href=
+        "#Page_79">79</a>.</li>
+      </ul>
+    </li>
+
+    <li>Tuz Gul, lake, <a href="#Page_187">187</a>, <a href=
+    "#Page_190">190</a>.</li>
+
+    <li>Tuzla rugs sometimes classed as Anatolians, <a href=
+    "#Page_187">187</a>.
+
+      <ul>
+        <li>Rugs described, <a href="#Page_190">190</a>.</li>
+      </ul>
+    </li>
+
+    <li>Type characteristics, not invariable, <a href=
+    "#Page_v">v</a>;
+
+      <ul>
+        <li>term defined, <a href="#Page_107">107</a>.</li>
+      </ul>
+    </li>
+
+    <li>&nbsp;</li>
+
+    <li><span style="margin-left: 12em;">U</span></li>
+
+    <li>Urumiah lake, <a href="#Page_150">150</a>, <a href=
+    "#Page_155">155</a>, <a href="#Page_224">224</a>.</li>
+
+    <li>Uzbeck Tartars, care of sheep by, <a href=
+    "#Page_31">31.</a></li>
+
+    <li>&nbsp;</li>
+
+    <li><span style="margin-left: 12em;">V</span></li>
+
+    <li>Valonia used as a mordant, <a href="#Page_40">40</a>.</li>
+
+    <li>Value of antique carpets, <a href="#Page_15">15</a>,
+    <a href="#Page_16">16</a>, <a href="#Page_304">304</a>.</li>
+
+    <li>Vambery, Prof., cited, <a href="#Page_241">241</a>.</li>
+
+    <li>Van lake, <a href="#Page_141">141</a>, <a href=
+    "#Page_152">152</a>, <a href="#Page_224">224</a>.</li>
+
+    <li>Vandykes. _See_ Designs.</li>
+
+    <li>Vellore, <a href="#Page_259">259</a>, <a href=
+    "#Page_261">261</a>.</li>
+
+    <li>Vellore rugs described, <a href="#Page_261">261</a>.</li>
+
+    <li>Victoria and Albert Museum, <a href="#Page_93">93</a>.</li>
+
+    <li>Vienna publication of Oriental carpets, <a href=
+    "#Page_80">80</a>, 259.</li>
+
+    <li>&nbsp;</li>
+
+    <li><span style="margin-left: 12em;">W</span></li>
+
+    <li>Warangal, <a href="#Page_259">259</a>, <a href=
+    "#Page_262">262</a>.</li>
+
+    <li>Warangal rugs described, <a href="#Page_262">262</a>.</li>
+
+    <li>Warp, arrangement on loom, <a href="#Page_46">46</a>;
+
+      <ul>
+        <li>characteristics of, <a href="#Page_51">51</a>, <a href=
+        "#Page_52">52</a>;</li>
+
+        <li>illustrated, <a href="#Page_49">49</a>.</li>
+      </ul>
+    </li>
+
+    <li>Washing, materials for weaving, <a href="#Page_33">33</a>,
+    <a href="#Page_34">34</a>, <a href="#Page_36">36</a>;
+
+      <ul>
+        <li>artificial, <a href="#Page_300">300</a>, <a href=
+        "#Page_301">301</a>.</li>
+      </ul>
+    </li>
+
+    <li>Weaving described, <a href="#Page_46">46</a>, <a href=
+    "#Page_47">47</a>;
+
+      <ul>
+        <li>illustrated, <a href="#Page_49">49</a>.</li>
+      </ul>
+    </li>
+
+    <li>&ldquo;Wedding of the Foundling,&rdquo; <a href=
+    "#Page_92">92</a>.</li>
+
+    <li>Weft, arrangement of, <a href="#Page_47">47</a>;
+
+      <ul>
+        <li>technical characteristics of, <a href=
+        "#Page_52">52</a>, <a href="#Page_53">53</a>, <a href=
+        "#Page_54">54</a>, <a href="#Page_55">55</a>.</li>
+      </ul>
+    </li>
+
+    <li>Whirling Dervishes, at Konieh, <a href=
+    "#Page_181">181</a>.</li>
+
+    <li>Williams, C. F., <a href="#Page_78">78</a>, <a href=
+    "#Page_79">79</a>, <a href="#Page_93">93</a>.</li>
+
+    <li>Whistler cited, <a href="#Page_17">17</a>.</li>
+
+    <li>Wise men of the East, <a href="#Page_127">127</a>.</li>
+
+    <li>Wool, of the camel, <a href="#Page_30">30</a>, <a href=
+    "#Page_32">32</a>, <a href="#Page_124">124</a>, <a href=
+    "#Page_153">153</a>, <a href="#Page_249">249</a>;
+
+      <ul>
+        <li>of the goat, <a href="#Page_30">30</a>, <a href=
+        "#Page_31">31</a>, <a href="#Page_142">142</a>, <a href=
+        "#Page_241">241</a>, <a href="#Page_245">245</a>, <a href=
+        "#Page_249">249</a>;</li>
+
+        <li>of sheep, <a href="#Page_30">30</a>, <a href=
+        "#Page_31">31</a>;</li>
+
+        <li>of the yak, <a href="#Page_30">30</a>, <a href=
+        "#Page_33">33</a>;</li>
+
+        <li>spinning, <a href="#Page_33">33</a>;</li>
+
+        <li>washing, <a href="#Page_33">33</a>, 36.</li>
+      </ul>
+    </li>
+
+    <li>&nbsp;</li>
+
+    <li><span style="margin-left: 12em;">X</span></li>
+
+    <li>Xenophon, <a href="#Page_99">99</a>, <a href=
+    "#Page_140">140</a>, <a href="#Page_181">181</a>.</li>
+
+    <li>Xerxes, 115.</li>
+
+    <li>&nbsp;</li>
+
+    <li><span style="margin-left: 12em;">Y</span></li>
+
+    <li>Yak&rsquo;s hair. _See_ Wool.</li>
+
+    <li>Yaprak, <a href="#Page_175">175</a>.</li>
+
+    <li>Yarkand, <a href="#Page_247">247</a>.</li>
+
+    <li>Yarkand rugs, <a href="#Page_234">234</a>, <a href=
+    "#Page_265">265</a>, <a href="#Page_282">282</a>, <a href=
+    "#Page_293">293</a>.
+
+      <ul>
+        <li>Rugs described, <a href="#Page_247">247</a>, <a href=
+        "#Page_248">248</a>;</li>
+
+        <li>border stripes, <a href="#Page_251">251</a>.</li>
+      </ul>
+    </li>
+
+    <li>Yarn, <a href="#Page_35">35</a>.</li>
+
+    <li>Yerkes sale, <a href="#Page_15">15</a>, <a href=
+    "#Page_82">82</a>, <a href="#Page_86">86</a>, <a href=
+    "#Page_304">304</a>, <a href="#Page_306">306</a>.</li>
+
+    <li>Yezd, <a href="#Page_110">110</a>, <a href=
+    "#Page_115">115</a>, <a href="#Page_222">222</a>.</li>
+
+    <li>Yezd rugs described, <a href="#Page_115">115</a>.</li>
+
+    <li>Yomud rugs, <a href="#Page_205">205</a>, <a href=
+    "#Page_233">233</a>, <a href="#Page_235">235</a>, <a href=
+    "#Page_293">293</a>, <a href="#Page_304">304</a>;
+
+      <ul>
+        <li>colour scheme of Beshires similar to that of, <a href=
+        "#Page_243">243</a>.</li>
+
+        <li>Rugs described, <a href="#Page_241">241</a>, <a href=
+        "#Page_242">242</a>;</li>
+
+        <li>border stripes, <a href="#Page_250">250</a>, <a href=
+        "#Page_251">251</a>;</li>
+
+        <li>saddle-bags, <a href="#Page_242">242</a>.</li>
+      </ul>
+    </li>
+
+    <li>Yomud tribes, <a href="#Page_235">235</a>;
+
+      <ul>
+        <li>robbed of their land by Tekkes, <a href=
+        "#Page_231">231</a>, <a href="#Page_241">241</a>.</li>
+      </ul>
+    </li>
+
+    <li>Yuan dynasty, <a href="#Page_266">266</a>.</li>
+
+    <li>Yung-ching, <a href="#Page_269">269</a>.</li>
+
+    <li>Yung-ching rugs described, <a href="#Page_269">269</a>,
+    <a href="#Page_270">270</a>;
+
+      <ul>
+        <li>border stripes, <a href="#Page_274">274</a>;</li>
+
+        <li>medallions, <a href="#Page_273">273</a>.</li>
+      </ul>
+    </li>
+
+    <li>Yuruk rugs, <a href="#Page_289">289</a>, <a href=
+    "#Page_290">290</a>, <a href="#Page_304">304</a>;
+
+      <ul>
+        <li>technicalities in weave of, <a href=
+        "#Page_51">51</a>.</li>
+
+        <li>Rugs described, <a href="#Page_191">191</a>, <a href=
+        "#Page_192">192</a>;</li>
+
+        <li>border stripes, <a href="#Page_194">194</a>.</li>
+      </ul>
+    </li>
+
+    <li>Yuruk tribes, <a href="#Page_155">155</a>, <a href=
+    "#Page_163">163</a>, <a href="#Page_191">191</a>, 220.</li>
+
+    <li>&nbsp;</li>
+
+    <li><span style="margin-left: 12em;">Z</span></li>
+
+    <li>Zabalpur rugs, <a href="#Page_101">101</a>.</li>
+
+    <li>Zagros Mts., <a href="#Page_21">21</a>, <a href=
+    "#Page_103">103</a>, <a href="#Page_140">140</a>.</li>
+
+    <li>Zarafshan river, <a href="#Page_245">245</a>.</li>
+
+    <li>Zoroaster, <a href="#Page_18">18</a>, <a href=
+    "#Page_58">58</a>, <a href="#Page_210">210</a>.</li>
+
+    <li>Zoroastrians, <a href="#Page_69">69</a>.</li>
+  </ul>
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+<pre>
+
+
+
+
+
+End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Oriental Rugs, by Walter A. Hawley
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+</pre>
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+</body>
+</html>
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diff --git a/39740-h/images/plate56.jpg b/39740-h/images/plate56.jpg
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index 0000000..89b4fcb
--- /dev/null
+++ b/39740-h/images/plate56.jpg
diff --git a/39740-h/images/plate57.jpg b/39740-h/images/plate57.jpg
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diff --git a/39740-h/images/plate58.jpg b/39740-h/images/plate58.jpg
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index 0000000..f73bfe5
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diff --git a/39740-h/images/plate59.jpg b/39740-h/images/plate59.jpg
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+++ b/39740-h/images/plate59.jpg
diff --git a/39740-h/images/plate60.jpg b/39740-h/images/plate60.jpg
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index 0000000..8a24811
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+++ b/39740-h/images/plate60.jpg
diff --git a/39740-h/images/plate61.jpg b/39740-h/images/plate61.jpg
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index 0000000..aeec136
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+++ b/39740-h/images/plate61.jpg
diff --git a/39740-h/images/plate62.jpg b/39740-h/images/plate62.jpg
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index 0000000..18da00c
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diff --git a/39740-h/images/plate63.jpg b/39740-h/images/plate63.jpg
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index 0000000..86c9e64
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diff --git a/39740-h/images/plate64.jpg b/39740-h/images/plate64.jpg
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index 0000000..77e4601
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diff --git a/39740-h/images/plate65.jpg b/39740-h/images/plate65.jpg
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index 0000000..d9810a0
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diff --git a/39740-h/images/plate66.jpg b/39740-h/images/plate66.jpg
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index 0000000..c350393
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+++ b/39740-h/images/plate66.jpg
diff --git a/39740-h/images/plate_ii.jpg b/39740-h/images/plate_ii.jpg
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index 0000000..087d54c
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diff --git a/39740-h/images/plate_iii.jpg b/39740-h/images/plate_iii.jpg
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index 0000000..12a7f23
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diff --git a/39740-h/images/plate_iv.jpg b/39740-h/images/plate_iv.jpg
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index 0000000..c00892c
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+++ b/39740-h/images/plate_iv.jpg
diff --git a/39740-h/images/plate_ix.jpg b/39740-h/images/plate_ix.jpg
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index 0000000..334903a
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+++ b/39740-h/images/plate_ix.jpg
diff --git a/39740-h/images/plate_v.jpg b/39740-h/images/plate_v.jpg
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index 0000000..764a7f3
--- /dev/null
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diff --git a/39740-h/images/plate_vi.jpg b/39740-h/images/plate_vi.jpg
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index 0000000..af47930
--- /dev/null
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diff --git a/39740-h/images/plate_vii.jpg b/39740-h/images/plate_vii.jpg
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index 0000000..438c317
--- /dev/null
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diff --git a/39740-h/images/plate_viii.jpg b/39740-h/images/plate_viii.jpg
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index 0000000..0eed1f2
--- /dev/null
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diff --git a/39740-h/images/plate_x.jpg b/39740-h/images/plate_x.jpg
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index 0000000..ccb1216
--- /dev/null
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diff --git a/39740-h/images/plate_xi.jpg b/39740-h/images/plate_xi.jpg
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index 0000000..bffad22
--- /dev/null
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diff --git a/39740-h/images/platea.jpg b/39740-h/images/platea.jpg
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index 0000000..f427541
--- /dev/null
+++ b/39740-h/images/platea.jpg
diff --git a/39740-h/images/plateb.jpg b/39740-h/images/plateb.jpg
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index 0000000..fcd66b0
--- /dev/null
+++ b/39740-h/images/plateb.jpg
diff --git a/39740-h/images/platec.jpg b/39740-h/images/platec.jpg
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index 0000000..f156e7b
--- /dev/null
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diff --git a/39740-h/images/plated.jpg b/39740-h/images/plated.jpg
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index 0000000..5f2282d
--- /dev/null
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diff --git a/39740-h/images/platee.jpg b/39740-h/images/platee.jpg
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index 0000000..55eae79
--- /dev/null
+++ b/39740-h/images/platee.jpg
diff --git a/39740-h/images/platef.jpg b/39740-h/images/platef.jpg
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index 0000000..7392a62
--- /dev/null
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diff --git a/39740-h/images/plateg.jpg b/39740-h/images/plateg.jpg
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index 0000000..36c3f5f
--- /dev/null
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diff --git a/39740-h/images/plateh.jpg b/39740-h/images/plateh.jpg
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index 0000000..85b8d8b
--- /dev/null
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diff --git a/39740-h/images/platei.jpg b/39740-h/images/platei.jpg
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index 0000000..16965d2
--- /dev/null
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diff --git a/39740-h/images/platej.jpg b/39740-h/images/platej.jpg
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index 0000000..3afccac
--- /dev/null
+++ b/39740-h/images/platej.jpg
diff --git a/39740-h/images/platek.jpg b/39740-h/images/platek.jpg
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index 0000000..b5d16dd
--- /dev/null
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diff --git a/39740-h/images/platel.jpg b/39740-h/images/platel.jpg
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index 0000000..ccc5142
--- /dev/null
+++ b/39740-h/images/platel.jpg
diff --git a/39740-h/images/platem.jpg b/39740-h/images/platem.jpg
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index 0000000..8a511b0
--- /dev/null
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diff --git a/39740-h/images/platen.jpg b/39740-h/images/platen.jpg
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index 0000000..d1bed97
--- /dev/null
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diff --git a/39740-h/images/plateo.jpg b/39740-h/images/plateo.jpg
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index 0000000..5fd8eef
--- /dev/null
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diff --git a/39740-h/images/r.jpg b/39740-h/images/r.jpg
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index 0000000..09e0048
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diff --git a/39740-h/images/s.jpg b/39740-h/images/s.jpg
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index 0000000..b0bac79
--- /dev/null
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diff --git a/39740-h/images/ssign.jpg b/39740-h/images/ssign.jpg
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index 0000000..400f4cf
--- /dev/null
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diff --git a/39740-h/images/symbols.png b/39740-h/images/symbols.png
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index 0000000..e64f563
--- /dev/null
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diff --git a/39740-h/images/t.jpg b/39740-h/images/t.jpg
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